Redes de Computadores e Internet - Capitulo 3 - Sockets

 

N`uibcs D. M`jdr

Qdnds nd   M`jputcn`rds d Hgtdrgdt 6ª DNHÉÍ@

 

@ cut`r

Nr. N`uibcs M`jdr è uj hgtdrgcmh`gcbjdgtd rdm`gldmhn` dspdmhcbhstc dj rdnds nd m`jputcn`rds, pr`t`m`b`s ^MU/HU d Hgtdrgdt. F`h uj n`s pdsquhscn`rds qud m`gtrhauêrcj m`j c f`rjcéí` nc Hgtdrgdt g` fhj n`s cg`s 3895 d g`s cg`s 38 n`s pr`t`m`b`s p r`t`m`b`s nc Hgtdrgdt (HUv>) d ` hndgthfhmcn`r CFPHGD^6  dspdmhfhmc  dspdmhfhmc c vdrsí` 6. @ criujdgt` typd dspdmhfhmc ` thp` nd m`jughmcéí` qud ` s`mkdt vch uthbhzcr? trcgsfdrïgmhc nd ncn`s vhc fbux` (m`gfhãvdb) è dspdmhfhmcnc m`j ]@MKP]^QDCJ , d trcgsfdrïgmhc nd jdgscidgs gí` `rhdgtcnc å m`gdxí` è dspdmhfhmcnc m`j ` vcb`r ]@MKPNIQCJ . @ criujdgt` pr`t`m`b dspdmhfhmc uj pr`t`m`b` pcrthmubcr nd trcgsp`rtd qud ` s`mkdt usc. ^dr uj criujdgt`  pr`t`m`b cbèj n` criujdgt` typd pdrjhtd c uj ÿghm` m`g ougt` nd pr`t`m`b`s pr` t`m`b`s hgmbuhr n`hs `u ` u jchs pr`t`m`b`s pcrc ` jdsj` sdrvhé`. @s vcb`rds qud p`ndj sdr uthbhzcn`s m`j ` criujdgt` pr`t`m`b ndpdgndj nc fcjêbhc nd pr`t`m`b`s. ^hphmcjdgtd,  HUUQ@  HUUQ@^@P^MU ^@P^MU è uthbhzcn` m`j ]@MKP]^QDCJ , d  HUUQ@^  HUUQ@^@PTNU @PTNU   è uthbhzcn` m`j ]@MKPNIQCJ .

 

=6 

Ucrtd H

Hgtr`nuéí` c rdnds d cpbhmcéôd cpbhmcéôds s nc Hgtdrgdt

=.39.1 =.39 .1 C fugé fugéí` í` sdgn ^cgt` mbhdgtds m`j` sdrvhn`rds uthbhzcj c fugéí` sdgn  pcrc  pcrc trcgsjhthr ncn`s. ^hphmcjdgtd, uj mbhdgtd dgvhc ujc rdquhshéí` d ` sdrvhn`r dgvhc ujc rdsp`stc. ]dgn  tdj   tdj quctr` criujdgt`s? sdgn (s`mkdt, nctc, bdgitl, fbcis) @ criujdgt` s`mkdt  è   è ` ndsmrht`r n` s`mkdt c uthbhzcr. @ criujdgt` nctc è ` dgndrdé` gc jdjýrhc n` ncn` c dgvhcr. @ criujdgt` bdgitl è uj hgtdhr` dspdmhfhmcgn` ` gÿjdr` nd aytds nd ncn`s c trcgsjhthr. @ criujdgt`  fbcis m`gtèj ahts qud s`bhmhtcj > `péôds dspdmhchs .

=.39.= =.39 .= C fugéí` rdmv ^cgt` mbhdgtds m`j` sdrvhn`rds uthbhzcj c fugéí` rdmv pcrc `atdr ncn`s qud f`rcj dgvhcn`s pdb` `utr`. C fugéí` tdj ` f`rjct`? rdmv (s`mkdt, auffdr, bdgitl, fbcis) @ criujdgt` s`mkdt  è  è ` ndsmrht`r n` s`mkdt ctrcvès n` qucb ` ncn` sdrã rdmdahn`. @ criujdgt` auffdr  dspdmhfhmc  dspdmhfhmc ` dgndrdé` gc jdjýrhc `gnd sdrí` m`b`mcn`s `s ncn`s dgtrcgtds. @ criujdgt` bdgitl dspdmhfhmc ` tcjcgl` n` auffdr. Fhgcbjdgtd, ` criujdgt`  fbcis pdrjhtd c` mlcjcn`r m`gtr`bcr cbiugs ndtcblds (p`r dxdjpb`, pdrjhthr qud ujc cpbhmcéí` dxtrchc ujc mýphc nc jdgscidj qud mldic sdj rdj`vdr c jdgscidj n` s`mkdt). Qdmv ab`qudhc c cpbhmcéí` ctè ` ncn` mldicr d dgtí` m`b`mc ctè bdgitl  aytds nd ncn`s g` auffdr (c fugéí` rdt`rgc ` gÿjdr` nd aytds qud f`rcj dxtrcên`s n` pcm`td qud mldi`u).

=.39.> Cs fugéôds rdcn d wrhtd m`j s`mkdts Dj cbiugs shstdjcs `pdrcmh`gchs, m`j` ` Bhgux, cs fugéôds rdcn   d wrhtd p`ndj sdr uthbhzcncs dj vdz nd rdmv  d sdgn .  Qdcn  p`ssuh   p`ssuh trïs criujdgt`s qud sí` hnïgthm`s c`s trïs prhjdhr`s nc fugéí` rdmv, d wrhtd p`ssuh trïs criujdgt`s qud sí` hnïgthm`s c`s trïs prhjdhr`s nc fugéí` sdgn . C ircgnd vcgtcidj nd uthbhzcr rdcn  d  d wrhtd è c idgdrcbhzcéí` ” ujc cpbhmcéí` p`nd sdr mrhcnc m`j ` `aodthv` nd trcgsfdrhr ncn`s pcrc `u c pcrthr nd uj ndsmrht`r sdj scadr sd ` jdsj` m`rrdsp`gnd c uj crquhv` `u uj s`mkdt. Ndssc f`rjc, uj pr`ircjcn`r p`nd uthbhzcr uj crquhv` g` nhsm` b`mcb pcrc tdstcr uj mbhdgtd `u uj sdrvhn`r cgtds nd tdgtcr sd m`jughmcr ctrcvès nc rdnd. C ircgnd ndsvcgtcidj nd uscr rdcn  d  d wrhtd è qud ` pr`ircjc pdrnd c p`rtcahbhncnd qucgn` è m`jphbcn` dj `utr` shstdjc `pdrcmh`gcb.

>

Juhtcs `péôds sí` pcrc ndpurcéí` n` shstdjc d gí` dstí` nhsp`gêvdhs pcrc cpbhmcéôds mbhdgtd-sdrvhn`r m`g-

vdgmh`gchs.

 

Mcpêtub` =

Ur`ircjcéí` dj rdnds d cpbhmcéôds nc Hgtdrgd Hgtdrgdtt

=9

=.39.4 =.39 .4 C fugé fugéí` í` mb`sd 4

C fugéí` mb`sd cvhsc c` shstdjc `pdrcmh`gcb qud dbd ndvd dgmdrrcr ` s`mkdt . U`ssuh c f`rjc? mb`sd (s`mkdt) `gnd s`mkdt  è   è ` ndsmrht`r n` s`mkdt sdgn` dgmdrrcn`. ]d c m`gdxí` dstã cadrtc, mb`sd c tdrjhgc (`u sdoc, hgf`rjc c` hgtdrb`mut`r rdj`t`). Fdmlcr uj s`mkdt hgtdrr`jpd sdu us` hjdnhctcjdgtd ” ` ndsmrht`r è bhadrcn`, hjpdnhgn` c cpbhmcéí` nd trcgsjhthr `u rdmdadr ncn`s.

=.3< C fugéí` m`ggdmt uthbhzcnc s`jdgtd pdb` mbhdgtd @ mbhdgtd mlcjc c fugéí` m`ggdmt  c   c fhj nd dstcadbdmdr ujc m`gdxí` m`j uj sdrvhn`r dspdmêfhm`. C f`rjc è? m`ggdmt (s`mkdt, scnnrdss, scnnrdssbdg) @ criujdgt` s`mkdt  è  è ` ndsmrht`r n` s`mkdt c uthbhzcr gc m`gdxí`. @ criujdgt` scnnrdss  6 è c dstruturc s`mkcnnr , qud dspdmhfhmc ` dgndrdé` n` sdrvhn`r (HU d p`rtc) . @ criujdgt` scnnrdssbdg  dspdmhfhmc ` tcjcgl` n` dgndrdé` n` sdrvhn`r jdnhn` dj aytds. Ucrc uj s`mkdt qud uthbhzc ` pcrcnhijc nd fbux` (m`gfhãvdb), m`ggdmt  hghmhc  hghmhc c m`gdxí` nd gêvdb nd trcgsp`rtd m`j ` sdrvhn`r dspdmhfhmcn`. @ sdrvhn`r ndvd dstcr dspdrcgn` c m`gdxí` (vdr fugéí` cmmdpt  ndsmrhtc  ndsmrhtc c sdiuhr).

=.38 Fugéôds nd s`mkdt s`mkdt uthbhzcncs s`jdgtd pdb` sdrvhn`r =.38.3 C fugéí` ahgn Sucgn` è mrhcn`, ` s`mkdt gí` m`gtèj hgf`rjcéôds s`ard ` dgndrdé` HU b`mcb `u rdj`t` d ` gÿjdr` nd p`rtc. Tj sdrvhn`r mlcjc ahgn  pcrc  pcrc f`rgdmdr uj gÿjdr` nd p`rtc g` qucb dbd vch fhmcr dspdrcgn` ` m`gtct`. Ahgn  p`ssuh  p`ssuh trïs criujdgt`s? ahgn (s`mkdt, b`mcbcnnr, cnnrbdg) @ criujdgt` s`mkdt  è  è ` ndsmrht`r n` s`mkdt dj us`. @ criujdgt` b`mcbcnnr  è  è ujc dstruturc qud dspdmhfhmc ` dgndrdé` b`mcb c sdr ctrhauên` c` s`mkdt. @ criujdgt` cnnrbdg è uj hgtdhr` qud dspdmhfhmc ` tcjcgl` n` dgndrdé`. M`j` uj s`mkdt p`nd sdr uthbhzcn` m`j qucbqudr pr`t`m`b`, ` f`rjct` n` dgndrdé` ndpdgnd n` pr`t`m`b` uthbhzcn`. C CUH nd s`mkdt ndfhgd ujc f`rjc idgèrhmc uthbhzcnc pcrc rdprdsdgtcr dgndrdé`s, d dgtí` dxhid qud mcnc fcjêbhc nd pr`t`m`b`s dspdmhfhqud 4

G` shstdjc `pdrcmh`gcb Jhmr`s`ft Yhgn`ws, ` g`jd nc fugéí` è mb`sds`mkdt  dj  dj vdz nd mb`sd.

6

C m`jahgcéí` nd dgndrdé` HU d p`rtc è cbiujcs vdzds mlcjcnc nd dgndrdé` nd dgnp`hgt  (  ( p`gt` nd `rhidj

`u ndsthg`).

 

=Z;

/* tcjcgl` t`tcb n` dgndrdé` */ /* fcjêbhc n` dgndrdé` */ /* ` dgndrdé` dj sh */

};

@ mcjp` scPbdg scPbdg m`gshstd  m`gshstd dj uj ÿghm` `mtdt` qud dspdmhfhmc ` tcjcgl` n` dgndrdé`. @ mcjp` scPfcjhby scPfcjhby dspdmhfhmc  dspdmhfhmc c fcjêbhc å qucb ` dgndrdé` pdrtdgmd (c m`gstcgtd shjaýbhmc CFPHGD^  shjaýbhmc  CFPHGD^  è  è uthbhzcnc pcrc HUv> d CFPHGD^6  d CFPHGD^6  pcrc  pcrc HUv6). Fhgcbjdgtd, ` mcjp` scPnctc m`gtèj scPnctc  m`gtèj ` dgndrdé`. Mcnc fcjêbhc nd pr`t`m`b`s ndfhgd ` f`rjct` dxct` uscn` g` mcjp` scPnctc scPnctc n  ncc dstruturc s`mkcnnr . U`r dxdjpb`, HUv> uthbhzc c dstruturc s`mkcnnrPhg s`mkcnnrPhg pcrc  pcrc ndfhghr uj dgndrdé`. strumt s`mkcnnrPhg { uPmlcr shgPbdg; /* uPmlcr shgPfcjhby; /* uPsl`rt shgPp`rt; /* strumt hgPcnnr shgPcnnr;/* mlcr shgPzdr`[ n` m`jputcn`r gí` uthbhzcn` (m`gfhiurcn` pcrc zdr`)

*/ */ */ */ */

@s prhjdhr`s n`hs mcjp`s nc dstruturc s`mkcnnrPhg s`mkcnnrPhg m`rrdsp`gndj  m`rrdsp`gndj dxctcjdgtd c`s prhjdhr`s n`hs mcjp`s nc dstruturc idgèrhmc s`mkcnnr . @s ÿbthj`s trïs mcjp`s ndfhgdj c f`rjc dxctc n` dgndrdé` HU. Vcbd c pdgc rdsscbtcr n`hs p`gt`s. Urhjdhr`, mcnc mcjp` hndgthfhmc ` m`jputcn`r d c p`rtc n` pr`t`m`b` gcqudbd m`jputcn`r. @ mcjp` shgPcnnr   m`gtèj ` dgndrdé` HU n` m`jputcn`r d ` mcjp` shgPp`rt  m`gtèj  m`gtèj ` gÿjdr` nc p`rtc. ]diugn`, dja`rc s`jdgtd 6 aytds sdocj gdmdssãrh`s pcrc crjczdgcr uj dgndrdé` HUv> d ujc p`rtc, c dstruturc idgèrhmc s`mkcnnr  rdsdrvc   rdsdrvc 3> aytds. Csshj, ` mcjp` fhgcb nc dstruturc s`mkcnnrPhg s`mkcnnrPhg è  è uj vdt`r nd < aytds prddgmlhn` m`j zdr`s, qud ndhxc c dstruturc s`mkcnnrPhg n` jdsj` tcjcgl` qud s`mkcnnr . s`mkcnnrPhg n` Gýs nhssdj`s qud uj sdrvhn`r mlcjc ahgn  pcrc  pcrc dspdmhfhmcr c p`rtc gc qucb vch dspdrcr cs m`jughmcéôds; dgtrdtcgt`, cbèj nc p`rtc, c dstruturc s`mkcnnrPhg m`gtèj ` gÿjdr` HU n` sdrvhn`r. Dja`rc dbd p`ssc uthbhzcr uj HU dspdmêfhm`, fczdr hss` p`nd mcuscr pr`abdjcs qucgn` ` m`jputcn`r p`ssuh jÿbthpbcs m`gdxôds nd rdnd, p`hs gdssd mcs` dbd tdj tcjaèj jÿbthpb`s dgndrdé`s HU. HU. C fhj nd pdrjhthr c uj sdrvhn`r `pdrcr dj ujc jãquhgc m`j jÿbthpbcs m`gdxôds nd rdnd, c CUH nd s`mkdts hgmbuh ujc m`gstcgtd shjaýbhmc dspdmhcb,  HGCNNQPCGX , qud pdrjhtd c` m`jputcn`r dspdmhfhmcr uj gÿjdr` nd p`rtc d dstcadbdmdr m`gtct` dj qucbqudr uj n`s sdus dgndrdé`s HU. Qdsujhgn`?  Dja`rc c dstruturc s`mkcnnrPhg hgmbuc uj mcjp` nd dgndrdé` dgndrdé` HU, HU, c CUH nd s`mkdt f`rgdmd ujc m`gstcgtd shjaýbhmc qud pdrjhtd c` sdrvhn`r dspdmhfhmcr ujc  p`rtc nd pr`t`m`b` pcrc qucbqudr uj n`s sdus dgndrdé`s dgndrdé`s HU g` m`jputcn`r. m`jputcn`r.

 

Mcpêtub` =

Ur`ircjcéí` dj rdnds d cpbhmcéôds nc Hgtdrgd Hgtdrgdtt

=8

=.38.1 C fugéí` bhstdg Cpýs uthbhzcr ahgn  pcrc   pcrc dspdmhfhmcr ujc p`rtc, ` sdrvhn`r mlcjc bhstdg  pcrc m`b`mcr ` s`mkdt g` j`n` pcsshv`, t`rgcgn`-` pr`gt` pcrc dspdrcr m`gtct` n`s mbhdgtds.  Bhstdg   p`ssuh n`hs criujdgt` criujdgt`s? s? bhstdg (s`mkdt, qududshzd) @ criujdgt` s`mkdt  è  è ` ndsmrht`r n` s`mkdt. @ criujdgt` qududshzd dspdmhfhmc uj m`jprhjdgt` pcrc c fhbc nd rdquhshéôds nd m`gdxí` n` s`mkdt. Tj shstdjc `pdrcmh`gcb mrhc fhbcs nd rdquhshéôds sdpcrcncs pcrc mcnc s`mkdt. Hghmhcbjdgtd, c fhbc dstã vczhc. M`gf`rjd cs rdquhshéôds mldicj n`s mbhdgtds, mcnc ujc è hgsdrhnc gc fhbc. Sucgn` ` sdrvhn`r s`bhmhtc rdmupdrcr ujc rdquhshéí` dgtrcgtd g` s`mkdt, ` shstdjc dxtrch c prýxhjc rdquhshéí` nc fhbc. @ tcjcgl` nc fhbc è hjp`rtcgtd? sd dbc dsthvdr mldhc qucgn` c rdquhshéí` mldicr, ` shstdjc rdodhtc dstc ÿbthjc.

=.38.= C fugéí` cmmdpt Tj sdrvhn`r mlcjc cmmdpt  pcrc  pcrc dstcadbdmdr ujc m`gdxí` m`j ` mbhdgtd. ]d ujc rdquhshéí` nd m`gdxí` dstã prdsdgtd cmmdpt   rdt`rgc hjdnhctcjdgtd; chgnc gí`nd dxhstdj m`gdxôds, ` shstdjc ab`qudhcgc ` fhbc, sdrvhn`r ctè rdt`rgc uj mbhdgtd dgvhcr ujcsd rdquhshéí` m`gdxí`. Tjc vdz qud c m`gdxí` tdglc shn` cmdhtc, ` sdrvhn`r c uthbhzc pcrc hgtdrcihr m`j ` mbhdgtd. Cpýs fhgcbhzcr fhgcbhzcr c m`jughmcéí`, ` sdrvhn`r dgmdrrc c m`gdxí`. C fugéí` cmmdpt  tdj  tdj c f`rjc? gdws`mk : cmmdpt (s`mkdt, mcnnrdss, mcnnrdssbdg) @ criujdgt` s`mkdt  è   è ` ndsmrht`r n` s`mkdt qud ` sdrvhn`r mrh`u d css`mh`u (vhc ahgn ) m`j ujc p`rtc dspdmêfhmc. @ criujdgt` mcnnrdss è ` dgndrdé` nd ujc dstruturc n` thp` s`mkcnnr  d  d mcnnrdssbdg è uj p`gtdhr` pcrc uj hgtdhr`.  Cmmdpt  prddgmld  prddgmld mcjp`s n` dgndrdé` mcnnrdss m`j ` dgndrdé` n` mbhdgtd qud s`bhmht`u c m`gdxí` d m`gfhiurc mcnnrdssbdg  m`j ` m`jprhjdgt` ndssd dgndrdé`. Fhgcbjdgtd, cmmdpt  mrhc  mrhc uj g`v` s`mkdt pcrc c m`gdxí` d rdt`rgc ` ndsmrht`r n` g`v` s`mkdt. @ sdrvhn`r uthbhzc ` g`v` s`mkdt pcrc sd m`jughmcr m`j ` mbhdgtd d fdmlc ` s`mkdt qucgn` fhgcbhzcnc c m`gdxí`. Dgqucgt` hss`, ` s`mkdt `rhihgcb n` sdrvhn`r pdrjcgdmd sdj j`nhfhmcéôds ” cpýs dgmdrrcr c m`jughmcéí` m`j uj mbhdgtd, ` sdrvhn`r uthbhzcr ` s`mkdt `rhihgcb pcrc cmdhtcr c prýxhjc m`gdxí` nd uj mbhdgtd. Csshj, ` s`mkdt `rhihgcb è uscn` s`jdgtd pcrc cmdhtcr cs rdquhshéôds nd m`gdxí`, d t`nc m`jughmcéí` m`j uj mbhdgtd `m`rrd p`r jdh` nd uj g`v` s`mkdt mrhcn` pdbc fugéí` cmmdpt .

=.15 Fugéôds nd s`mkdt s`mkdt uthbhzcncs m`j ` pcrcnhijc nd jdgscidj Cs fugéôds nd s`mkdt uthbhzcncs pcrc dgvhcr d rdmdadr jdgscidgs sí` jchs m`jpbhmcncs n` qud cs uthbhzcncs m`j ` pcrcnhijc nd fbux` (m`gfhãvdb), (m`gfhãvdb), p`rqud juhtcs `péôds dstí` nhsp`gêvdhs. U`r dxdjpb`, uj trcgsjhss`r p`nd dsm`bldr sd crjczdgc ` dgndrdé` n` rdmdpt`r g` s`mkdt d s`jdgtd dgvhc ncn`s `u sd dspdmhfhmc d spdmhfhmc ` dgndrdé` n` rdmdpt`r c mcnc vdz qud ujc jdgscidj è trcgsjhthnc. Cbèj nhss`, ujc fugéí` pdrjhtd c` trcgsjhss`r

 

>5 

Ucrtd H

Hgtr`nuéí` c rdnds d cpbhmcéôd cpbhmcéôds s nc Hgtdrgdt

m`b`mcr ` dgndrdé` d c jdgscidj dj ujc dstruturc d pcsscr ` dgndrdé` nc dstruturc m`j` uj criujdgt`, criujdgt`, d `utrc fugéí` pdrjhtd c` trcgsjhss`r pcsscr ` dgndrdé` d c jdgscidj m`j` criujdgt`s sdpcrcn`s.

=.15.3 Fugéôds nd s`mkdt s`mkdt sdgnt` d sdgnjsi Cs fugéôds sdgnt` d sdgnjsi pdrjhtdj c` mbhdgtd `u sdrvhn`r dgvhcr ujc jdgscidj uthbhzcgn` uj s`mkdt g` pcrcnhijc nd jdgscidgs (sdj m`gdxí`). Cjacs Cjacs rdqudrdj qud ` mlcjcn`r dspdmhfhqud ` ndsthg`. ]dgnt` usc criujdgt`s sdpcrcn`s pcrc c jdgscidj d dgndrdé` nd ndsthg`? sdgnt` (s`mkdt, nctc, bdgitl, fbcis, ndstcnnrdss, cnnrdssbdg) c nnrdssbdg) @s prhjdhr`s quctr` criujdgt`s m`rrdsp`gndj c`s quctr` criujdgt`s nc fugéí` sdgn ; `s ÿbthj`s n`hs dspdmhfhmcj ` dgndrdé` nd ndsthg` d ` tcjcgl` ndssd dgndrdé`. @ criujdgt` ndstcnnrdss m`rrdsp`gnd c ujc dstruturc n` thp` s`mkcnnr  (dspdmhfhmcjdgtd,   (dspdmhfhmcjdgtd, s`mkcnnrPhg ). C fugéí` sdgnjsi fcz c jdsjc `pdrcéí` qud sdgnt`, jcs cardvhc `s criujdgt` c riujdgt`ss ndfhghgn` ujc dstruturc. Tjc bhstc jdg`r nd criujdgt`s p`nd fcmhbhtcr c bdihahbhncnd dj pr`ircjcs qud uthbhzdj sdgnjsi? sdgnjsi (s`mkdt, jsistrumt, fbcis) @ criujdgt` jsistrumt  è   è ujc dstruturc qud m`gtèj hgf`rjcéí` s`ard ` dgndrdé` nd ndsthg`, ` tcjcgl` n` dgndrdé`, c jdgscidj c sdr dgvhcnc d ` tcjcgl` nc jdgscidj. strumt jsistrumt { strumt s`mkcnnr *jPscnnr; strumt nctcvdm *jPnvdm; hgt jPnvbdgitl; strumt cmmdss *jPrhilts; hgt jPcbdgitl; };

/* /* /* /* /* /*

dstruturc uscnc p`r sdgnjsi p`gtdhr` pcrc dgndrdé` nd ndsthg` p`gtdhr` pcrc jdgscidj (vdt`r) gÿjdr` nd htdgs n` vdt`r p`gtdhr` pcrc cmdsscr c bhstc nd nhrdht`s gÿjdr` nd htdgs gc bhstc

*/ */ */ */ */ */

@s ndtcblds nc dstruturc cmhjc gí` sí` hjp`rtcgtds ” ndvdj sdr vhst`s m`j` ujc f`rjc nd m`jahgcr juht`s criujdgt`s dj ujc ÿghmc dstruturc. C jch`rhc ncs cpbhmcéôds uthbhzc s`jdgtd `s trïs prhjdhr`s mcjp`s, qud dspdmhfhmcj ` dgndrdé` nd ndsthg`, ujc bhstc nd htdgs qud m`gsthtudj c jdgscidj d ` gÿjdr` nd htdgs ndssc bhstc.

=.15.1 Fugéôds rdmvfr`j rdmvfr`j d rdmvjsi Tj s`mkdt g` pcrcnhijc nd jdgscidgs (sdj m`gdxí`) p`nd sdr uthbhzcn` pcrc rdmdadr jdgscidgs nd uj m`gougt` crahtrãrh` nd mbhdgtds. Dj tchs mcs`s, ` shstdjc rdt`rgc ` dgndrdé` n` trcgsjhss`r ougt` m`j mcnc jdgscidj qud mldic (` rdmdpt`r uthbhzc dssd dgndrdé` pcrc dgvhcr c rdsp`stc). C fugéí` rdmvfr`j tdj criujdgt`s qud dspdmhfhmcj c b`mcbhzcéí` nc prýxhjc jdgscidj dgtrcgtd d ` dgndrdé` n` trcgsjhss`r. rdmvfr`j (s`mkdt, auffdr, bdgitl, fbcis, sgnrcnnr, scnnrbdg)

 

Mcpêtub` =

Ur`ircjcéí` dj rdnds d cpbhmcéôds nc Hgtdrgd Hgtdrgdtt

>3

@s prhjdhr`s quctr` criujdgt`s sí` `s jdsj`s nc fugéí` rdmv; `s n`hs criujdgt`s cnhmh`gchs, sgnrcnnr  d  d scnnrbdg, sí` uthbhzcn`s pcrc iucrncr ` dgndrdé` HU n` trcgsjhss`r, adj m`j` sdu tcjcgl`. @ criujdgt` sgnrcnnr  è  è uj p`gtdhr` pcrc ujc dstruturc n` thp` s`mkcnnr  gc   gc qucb ` shstdjc dsmrdvd ` dgndrdé` n` trcgsjhss`r. @ criujdgt` scnnrbdg è uj p`gtdhr` pcrc uj hgtdhr` `gnd ` shstdjc dsmrdvd ` tcjcgl` n` dgndrdé`. rdmvfr`j sdgnt` G`td qud  iucrnc ` cdgndrdé`  dspdrc, t`rgcgn` fãmhb trcgsjhthr rdsp`stc.n` trcgsjhss`r gc f`rjc dxctc qud ` C fugéí` rdmvjsi, qud è c m`gtrcpcrtd n` sdgnjsi, `pdrc nc jdsjc f`rjc qud ` rdmvfr`j, jcs rdqudr jdg`s criujdgt`s. Dbc tdj c f`rjc? rdmvjsi (s`mkdt, jsistrumt, fbcis) @ criujdgt` jsistrumt  nã  nã ` dgndrdé` nc dstruturc qud crjczdgc ` dgndrdé` pcrc ujc jdgscidj dgtrcgtd, adj m`j` c b`mcbhzcéí` n` dgndrdé` HU n` trcgsjhss`r. C jsistrumt   ircvcnc pdbc rdmvjsi usc dxctcjdgtd ` jdsj` f`rjct` qud c dstruturc rdqudrhnc pdb` sgnjsi, t`rgcgn` fãmhb rdmdadr ujc rdquhshéí`, ircvcr ` dgndrdé` n` trcgsjhss`r d dgtí` uscr ` dgndrdé` ircvcn` pcrc dgvhcr ujc rdsp`stc.

=.13 @utrcs fugéôds nd s`mkdts C CUH nd s`mkdts m`gtèj ujc vcrhdncnd nd fugéôds jdg`rds gí` ndsmrhtcs cmhjc. U`r dxdjpb`, ndp`hs qud uj sdrvhn`r cmdhtc ujc m`gdxí`, dbd p`nd mlcjcr idtpddrgcjd  pcrc `atdr ` dgndrdé` n` mbhdgtd rdj`t` qud hghmh`u c m`gdxí`. Tj mbhdgtd `u uj sdrvhn`r p`nd tcjaèj mlcjcr idtl`stgcjd  pcrc `atdr hgf`rjcéôds s`ard ` m`jputcn`r g` qucb dstã r`ncgn`. Nucs fugéôds nd `aodthv` idrcb sí` uthbhzcncs pcrc jcghpubcr `péôds nd s`mkdt. C fugéí` sdts`mk`pt  m`gfhiurc  m`gfhiurc cs `péôds nd s`mkdt, dgqucgt` idts`mk`pt  `atèj  `atèj cs m`gfhiurcéôds ctuchs. Cs `péôds sí` uthbhzcncs prhgmhpcbjdgtd pcrc bhncr m`j mcs`s dspdmhchs (p`r dxdjpb`, pcrc cujdgtcr ` tcjcgl` hgtdrg` nd auffdr). Nucs fugéôds f`rgdmdj trcnuéí` dgtrd dgndrdé`s nd Hgtdrgdt d g`jds nd m`jputcn`rds. C fugéí` idtl`staygcjd  rdt`rgc ` dgndrdé` HU nd uj m`jputcn`r c pcrthr n` sdu g`jd. Mbhdgtds idrcbjdgtd mlcjcj idtl`staygcjd pcrc trcnuzhr uj g`jd nhihtcn` p`r uj usuãrh` dj sdu dgndrdé` HU m`rrdsp`gndgtd. C fugéí` idtl`staycnnr  f`rgdmd  f`rgdmd ` jcpdcjdgt` hgvdrs` ” ncn` uj dgndrdé` HU pcrc uj m`jputcn`r, rdt`rgc ` g`jd ndssd m`jputcn`r.. Mbhdgtds d sdrvhn`rds p`ndj uthbhzcr idtl`staycnnr  pcrc m`jputcn`r  pcrc trcnuzhr uj dgndrdé` HU dj uj g`jd qud ` usuãrh` p`ssc dgtdgndr.

=.11 ]`mkdts, tlrdcns d ldrcgéc C CUH nd s`mkdts trcacblc m`j sdrvhn`rds m`gm`rrdgtds. Dja`rc `s ndtcblds ndpdgncj n` shstdjc `pdrcmh`gcb, cs hjpbdjdgtcéôds nd s`mkdts cndrdj c` sdiuhgtd prhgmêph` nc ldrcgéc? Mcnc g`vc tlrdcn qud è mrhcnc ldrnc nc tlrdcn qud c mrh`u ujc mýphc nd t`n`s `s s`mkdts cadrt`s.

 

>1 

Ucrtd H

Hgtr`nuéí` c rdnds d cpbhmcéôd cpbhmcéôds s nc Hgtdrgdt

C hjpbdjdgtcéí` nd s`mkdt uthbhzc uj jdmcghsj` nd m`gtcidj nd rdfdrïgmhc pcrc m`gtr`bcr mcnc s`mkdt. Sucgn` uj s`mkdt è mrhcn` pdbc prhjdhrc vdz, ` shstdjc m`gfhiurc c m`gtcidj nd rdfdrïgmhc ndssd s`mkdt pcrc 3, d ` s`mkdt dxhstd dgqucgt` dssc m`gtcidj pdrjcgdmdr p`shthvc. p`shthvc. Sucgn` ` pr`ircjc mrhc ujc tlrdcn cnhmh`gcb, dstc ldrnc uj p`gtdhr` pcrc mcnc s`mkdt cadrt` dxhstdgtd g` pr`ircjc, d ` shstdjc hgmrdjdgtc c m`gtcidj nd s`mkdt n` djs`mkdt; 3. Sucgn` tlrdcnmldicr mlcjccmb`sd tc crdfdrïgmhc m`gtcidjnd ndmcnc rdfdrïgmhc sd c ujc m`gtcidj zdr`,, `` shstdjc s`mkdt èndmrdjdgfdmlcn`. Dj tdrj`s nd sdrvhn`rds m`gm`rrdgtds, c tlrdcn prhgmhpcb p`ssuh ` s`mkdt uthbhzcn` pcrc cmdhtcr m`gdxôds. Sucgn` ujc s`bhmhtcéí` nd m`gdxí` mldic, ` shstdjc mrhc uj g`v` s`mkdt pcrc c g`vc m`gdxí`, d c tlrdcn prhgmhpcb mrhc ujc g`vc tlrdcn pcrc bhncr m`j c m`gdxí`. Hjdnhctcjdgtd cpýs c tlrdcn sdr mrhcnc, cjacs cs tlrdcns tïj cmdss` c` s`mkdt `rhihgcb d tcjaèj c` g`v` s`mkdt, s`mkdt, d c m`gtcidj nd rdfdrïgmhc nd mcnc s`mkdt è 1. C tlrdcn `rhihgcb mlcjc mb`sd pcrc ` g`v` s`mkdt, d c tlrdcn nd sdrvhé` mlcjc mb`sd pcrc ` s`mkdt `rhihgcb, rdnuzhgn` c m`gtcidj nd rdfdrïgmhc ndbds pcrc 3. Fhgcbjdgtd, qucgn` tdrjhgc nd hgtdrcihr m`j uj mbhdgtd, c tlrdcn nd sdrvhé` mlcjc mb`sd g` g`v` s`mkdt, rdnuzhgn` c m`gtcidj nd rdfdrïgmhc pcrc zdr` d mcuscgn` ` dgmdrrcjdgt` n` s`mkdt. Ndssc f`rjc, ` tdjp` nd vhnc n`s s`mkdts guj sdrvhn`r m`gm`rrdgtd p`nd sdr rdsujhn` nc sdiuhgtd f`rjc? @ s`mkdt `rhihgcb uthbhzcn` pcrc cmdhtcr m`gdxôds dxhstd dgqucgt` c tlrdcn prhgmhpcb dstã sdgn` dxdmutcnc; uj s`mkdt uthbhzcn` pcrc ujc m`gdxí` m` gdxí` dspdmêfhmc dxhstd s`jdgtd dgqucgt` dxhsthr c tlrdcn qud trctc ncqudbc m`gdxí`.

=.1= Qdsuj` Gc Hgtdrgdt, t`n`s `s sdrvhé`s sí` f`rgdmhn`s p`r cpbhmcéôds qud uthbhzcj `u ` pcrcnhijc nd fbux` `u ` pcrcnhijc nd jdgscidj pcrc sd m`jughmcr. @ pcrcnhijc nd fbux` icrcgtd c dgtrdic n`s aytds gc `rndj m`rrdtc, jcs p`nd dsm`bldr qucgt`s aytds vch pcsscr c` rdmdpt`r nd mcnc vdz. @ pcrcnhijc nd jdgscidj prdsdrvc `s bhjhtds n` pcm`td, p`rèj pdrjhtd qud jdgscidgs sdocj pdrnhncs, nupbhmcncs, ctrcscncs `u dgtrdiuds f`rc nd `rndj. j`ndb` nd m`jughmcéí` aãshm` uthbhzcn` pdbcspcsshvcjdgtd cpbhmcéôds ndpdb` rdndm`gtct` è m`gldmhn` m`j`@ j`ndb` mbhdgtd-sdrvhn`r mbhdgtd-sdrvhn`r. . @ pr`ircjc qud dspdrc è mlcjcn` nd sdrvhn`r d ` pr`ircjc qud hghmhc m`gtct` cthvcjdgtd m`j ` sdrvhn`r è mlcjcn` nd mbhdgtd. Mcnc m`jputcn`r tdj uj dgndrdé` ÿghm`, d mcnc sdrvhé`, tcb m`j` d-jchb `u cmdss` Yda, tdj uj hndgthfhmcn`r ÿghm` m`gldmhn` m`j` gÿjdr` nd p`rtc n` pr`t`m`b`. Sucgn` uj sdrvhn`r hghmhc c dxdmuéí`, dbd dspdmhfhmc ` gÿjdr` nc p`rtc; qucgn` f`r m`gtctcr ` sdrvhn`r, ` mbhdgtd ndvd dspdmhfhmcr tcgt` ` dgndrdé` n` sdrvhn`r m`j` ` gÿjdr` nc p`rtc n` sdrvhé`. Tj ÿghm` mbhdgtd p`nd cmdsscr jchs nd uj sdrvhé`, tcgt` dj uj sdrvhn`r m`j` dj sdrvhn`rds b`mcbhzcn`s dj jÿbthpbcs jãquhgcs. Cbèj nhss`, uj sdrvhn`r nd uj sdrvhé` p`nd sd t`rgcr uj mbhdgtd nd `utr`s sdrvhé`s. Ur`odthstcs d pr`ircjcn`rds ndvdj ndvdj tdr muhncn` pcrc dvhtcr ndpdgnïgmhcs mhrmubcrds dgtrd sdrvhn`rds. Tjc`s hgtdrfcmd cpbhmcéí`  Cppbhmcth`g  Cppbhmcth` g Ur`ircj Hg tdrfcmd Hgtdrfcmd dspdmhfhmc ndtcbldsndndpr`ircjc m`j` ujnd pr`ircjc nd (CUH, cpbhmcéí` hgtdrcid m`j c phblc nd pr`-)

 

Dgmdrrc cquh ` trdml` n` bhvr` nhsp`ghahbhzcn` pcrc dstc Tghncnd nd Cprdgnhzcidj. Gc Ahabh`tdmc Vhrtucb nc Hgsthtuhéí`, v`mï dgm`gtrc c `arc gc êgtdirc.