Raagas

Shruthi

All Indian notes except Sa and Pa, can move a microtone or two depending on the raaga. This practice can be traced back to the ancient concept of Shruthi, where an octave is divided into 22 shruthis. Each of the 10 notes (i.e. excluding Sa and Pa) have two variants. For Eg. Komal Rishab (r) can be either the normal r or r+. The pitch difference between these two notes is small, but the use of one instead of the other, guarantees a simple ratio with the other notes used in that Raaga. That is the reason, why r is used in some Raagas and r+ is some others. It has been observed that the shruthis are such that, between two adjacent saptasvara notes there is a ratio of 256/243 and between shudh and komal notes the ratio is 25/24. It is this simple ratio that makes the music pleasing, natural and sweet. The 22 shruthis, their frequencies and equivalents are given in the table 3. An octave can be divided into 1200 cents. Scales are usually defined in cents so that for any base pitch, the scale can be calculated. The difference in cents between two frequencies, f1 and f2, is given as log(f1/f2) * 1200 * log(2) or approximately log(f1/f2) * 3986.3137.

Table 3 - Shruthi Shruthi Names Shadja

Western Eq. Abbreviation C

S

261.63

r

273.38

r+

279.07

R-

290.7

R

294.33

g

310.08

Eb

g+

313.96

E

G

327.03

G+

331.12

m

348.84

m+

353.20

M

367.92

Ekasruti Rishabha Dvisruti Rishabha

Db

Trisruti Rishabha Chatusruti Rishabha

D

Shudha Gandhara Sadharana Gandhara Antara Gandhara Chyuta Madhyama Gandhara Shudha Madhyama

F

Tivra Sudha Madhyama Prati Madhyama

Hz.

F#

Adjucent Ratio Cents

256/243

25/24

256/243

25/24

256/243

25/24

Ratio

0

1

76.03

256/245

111.73

16/15

182.40

10/9

203.91

9/8

294.13

32/27

315.64

6/5

386.31

5/4

407.82

81/64

498.04

4/3

519.55

27/20

590.22

45/32

Chyuta Panchama Madhyama Panchama

G

Ekasruti Dhaivata

M+

372.52

P

392.45

256/243

701.95

3/2

d

413.44

256/243

792.18

128/81

813.68

8/5

884.36

5/3

905.86

27/16

996.09

16/9

1017.60

9/5

1088.29

15/8

Dvisruti Dhaivata

Ab

d+

418.61

Trisruti Dhaivata

A

D-

436.05

Chatusruti Dhaivata

D

441.50

Shudha Nishada

n

465.12

Bb

n+

470.93

B

N

490.56

N+

496.69

S'

523.26

Kaishiki Nishada Kakali Nishada Chyuta Shadja Nishada Tara Shadja

C

611.73 729/512

25/24

25/24

256/243

1109.78 243/128 25/24

1200

Taala

Taala is the rhythmic counterpart to Raaga. Literally Taala in sanskrit means slapping the hands together or against one's arm. In Hindi the word for clapping is Taali. Rhythm is an inborn attribute of humans and thus, it is possible Taala is more ancient in Indian music than Raaga. In sanskrit literature, Taala is mentioned earlier than Raaga starting with Bharatha's NaatyaShastra. Taala is a series of Matras. Depending on the number of Matras, duration of the Matras and Kriyas associated with those matras different Taalas are formed. Jati

Another popular way to describe and classify a Raaga is based on the number of notes it uses in Aarohana and Avarohana. - Sampooran (sampoorna) - 7 notes - Shaudva - 6 notes - Audava - 5 notes There can be many combinations of these, since Raagas use different number of notes in Aarohana and Avarohana. •

Sampooran / Sampooran: Ragas in this classification will have all the seven notes in the ascending as well as descending movements.

•

Sampooran / Shaudava: Ragas in this Jati will have seven notes while ascending and six notes while descending.

2

•

Sampooran / Audava: Ragas in this category will have seven notes while ascending and only five notes while descending.

•

Shaudava / Sampooran: Six note ascending and seven descending. Khamaj

•

Shaudava / Shaudava: Six notes ascending six descending.

•

Shaudava / Audava: Six ascending and five descending.

•

Audava / Sampooran: Five ascending and seven descending. Asavari

•

Audava / Audava: Five ascending and five descending.

•

Audava / Shaudava: Five ascending and six descending.

Definition of "Raag" A phrase or a cycle of musical notes and verna, which gives a pleasing effect to the mind of listeners is known as Raag. A raag must consist of at least five musical notes. Each raag has its own mood, color or 'rasa'. Set rules about raag to be followed are indicated below. In music we use a word 'play', (we play music). So, "Music is a game, we play it by following the set rules for the particular Raga." 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Each raag must be melodious, Pleasing to the ears of listener. Raag is melodious, Pleasing to the ears of listener. Raag can be classified under a thaat or must be produced from a thaat. Each raag should have at least 5 musical notes (swaras). Maximum notes are seven. Each raag must have specific ascending and descending musical notes. Vadi, Samvadi swaras (Musical notes) are well defined. Time of singing is also specific for each raga. It is related to time theory. Raag has the ability to create some rasa (muse). A raag may consist of both the forms of swara i.e. Shuddha and Vikrit (komal/Tivra). Raag has specified cycle of musical notes known as Pakad (Mukhiyag). In aroh (ascending) and avroh (descending), it is not necessary to use swaras in continuity as in thaat.

There are some more facts about the raga to be kept in mind i.e. characteristic quality of the raga, correct intonation of the swaras, how to use kan, meend, ghamak, khatka, murki, krintan, jamjama etc. (technical terms) and where to use, why to use and why not to use them. Some ragas have close similarities and how on each note one should stay longer or avoid, or use less or more, with practice one can distinguish them. Compon ents of the Raag:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Thaat : In the present period Hindustani Raags are classified under ten thaats and each raag is associated to a certain thaat or group. Swara : Each raag is assigned particular musical notes. Normally these swaras are same as of the thaat of the concerned raag but some times it differs because the raag has both the types of swaras or some times it belongs to a raag which has discrepancies. Jati : It indicates the number of swaras used in Aroh, as well as the Avroh of the raag. Indirectly it guides us, which particular swaras are to be used in Aroh- Avroh and which are not to be used. Vadi: Vadi swara is the most prominent note of a raag which is emphasized in the raag and used very often. Samvadi : The second most important note of the raag. It is less important than the vadi swaras but more than the other notes. Samvadi swara is either forth of fifth to the Vadi swaras. Some times it breaks the rules under circumstances as in Raag Marva (vadi is shudha Dhaivata and samvadi is Komal Rishabh). Anuvadi: The remaining swaras of the raag other than Vadi and Samvadi swaras).

7.

Vivadi: The swara which creates dissonance is a ‘Vivadi’ it is rarely practiced. Actually this swara is not a part of the raag but still used by talented musicians in such a way that it enhances the beauty of the raag same as tivra Madhyam in Raag Bihag. In old times Bihag raag used to be sung with Bilawal-ang and the phrase was GmPDGmG--. Tivra Madhyam was not present in the raag and it was used as Vivadi swara. 8. Aroh : Aroh is an ascending order of the musical notes and each swara is of higher frequency than the prior notes as in S R G m P D N S’ 9. Avroh : Avroh is a descending order of the musical notes and each swara is of higher frequency than the prior note as in S’ N D P m G R S 10. Pakad: A group of musical notes practiced in a certain way to give uniqueness to a particular raag.

11. Samay : Each Raag has a specific time of singing. It is scientifically framed and divided into cycle of 24 hours. This system is known as “Time theory of the Raags” or samay-chakra (time cycle). phrase formed with the notes of each Raag has its own mood or emotion which depicts a particular Rasa . However it depends on the mood of an artist, who is an authority to change the mood of the Raag with his capability.

12. Rasa: The aesthetical

The Raga Ragini System of Indian Classical Music

Indian music is very unique in that, it is highly spiritual in nature. The singer/artist tries to reach God through his music. Like all the other Indian classical Performing Arts, classical music too, is a journey of the Jeevatma or the soul towards the Paramatma or the Divine. As they say, ‘Western music moves the heart, while Indian music moves the soul’. “Geetam Vadyam Nrithyam Trayam Sangeetam Uchyatey” This phrase in Sanskrit implies that the word ‘Sangeetam’ or music includes the practice of Geetam (Vocal Music), Vadyam (Instrumental Music) and Nrithyam (Dance). ‘Sangeeta sadhana’, or the practice of such music, is the key to attaining the Divine, according to Indian music. NAADA India’s rich cultural system is made up of the silken fabric of dance and music. Both the pure Classical Indian forms as well as folklore rely heavily on one aspect of Sangeetam – the nada. The nada can be defined as sound or more specifically, as resonance. “Ananda lakshanam anahata namnee deyshey nadatmana parinatam thoo aroopam eeshey prachnan mukheyna manasA paricheeya manam samshanti nethra salilai: pulakaischa dhanyA:” This Sanskrit sloka describes the nada. It says, “The true nature of nada is bliss. The source of this Divine Energy is the anahata chakra, which is situated in the heart region. This chakra or spiritual center is the seat of the Primeval Sound, ‘aum’, the creator of the world. This Divine Energy is formless and can be perceived only through mystical experiences. So state the great seers, in an extremely ecstatic state, shedding ceaseless tears of joy”.

According to Sarangadeva of Sangeeta Ratnakara fame, nada is produced thus: - The Atma or the soul desiring to speak or sing, stirs the mind. - The mind strikes the fire residing in the body. - The fire strikes the wind in the body. - The wind residing in the Brahmagranthi and rising along the upward path, manifests successively on the navel, heart, throat, head and mouth. Thus the nada is produced by the conjuction of prana or life-force (‘nA’) and anala or fire (‘da’).

NADOPASANA

Sangeetam and sangeeta sadhana is an important part of India’s rich cultural heritage. Music is akin to the Divine and the upasana or the practice of music is regarded as a prayer to the Divine Light. Saint Thyagaraja, one of the Trinity of Carnatic (south Indian classical) music, extols the importance of this aspect in several of his compositions. In his Telugu kriti (or composition), ‘Naadatanumanisam’, he states: ‘Nadatanumanisam Sankaram Namamimey Manasa Sirasa’, meaning, “I bow to that Lord Siva who is the very essence of nada or resonance (sound)”. Yet another famous composition of Thyagaraja goes as follows: ‘Sobhillu Saptaswara Sundarulu Bhajimpavey ManasA’, where the composer talks about the Divine Light glowing through the seven swaras or notes. There are several stories relating to each God in Indian mythology. While this can astound and overwhelm any foreign student interested in studying Indian art and culture, it is a normal way of life in India! The Hindu pantheon contains thirty-three crores of Gods, Goddesses and Divine Beings. Idol worship is one of the main types of religious worship in India. While this can be quite confusing to say the very least, the ultimate aim of the Hindu seeker is to go beyond idol worship and realize the true state of the formless Brahman, the Ultimate One. Nadopasana, or the worship of that One Universal Power through music, is the final aim of the musician or singer. Nada gives rise to srutis, which in turn gives rise to swaras or notes. It is these notes that give rise to various ragas of Indian music.

SRUTI “Shrooyatey Iti Sruti” – any sound that is heard is called Sruti. This definition, however, is very general. Sruti goes to mean the smallest interval of a sound that can be perceived by a trained ear. Classical Indian music abounds with semi-tones and quarter-tones to

enhance the quality of music. Some of the quarter-tones used are very subtle and can only be heard by those who are deeply involved in the study of music. Sruti also has various other meanings. It can mean the ear, hearing, even the Vedas. The term sruti also denotes the drone instrument, which constantly gives the singer/musician the required pitch. Indian music relies very heavily on srutis and sruti values. Subtle and gross differences in sruti values is what gives us the swaras or notes in Indian music.

SWARA The swara or the note is derived from the roots of the two words, ‘Swayam’ and ‘Ranjakam’. So the word ‘swara’ means, ‘that which pleases on its own accord’. World music has seven universal notes. The number seven is of great esoteric significance in our lives. We have seven days of the week, seven colors of the rainbow, the seven seas, the Saptarishi or seven sages and so on. The seven notes of Western music are Do, Re, Mi, Fa, So, La and Ti, while its Indian counterpart is Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha and Ni.

The origin of the swara The origin of swara goes back to the Vedic period. Tracing the origin of the swara is an interesting journey.

The saman Chant - The earliest Aryan dwellers chanted the Rig Veda hymns with just one note. This was the first stage, wherein the Gayatri mantra, or the ‘Om Bhur Bhuvaswaha’ was chanted only with one note. - Then came the gatha or the gathika, wherein two notes were used for chanting. This is when cadences came into being, along with the chant. - The third stage was the most important one – when the saman chant was introduced in hymns. This stage included chanting with three swaras or notes. It is believed that Indian music came about after the introduction of the sama veda.

Mythological origin of the swara There is a fascinating mythological tale about the origin of the swaras, as follows: It is believed that Lord Shiva once addressed a celestial congregation, for the welfare of mankind. While the subject of His address became the Vedas, the differences in His tonal quality became the seven swaras. Shiva is known to have five faces or the ‘panchavaktra’, which are, Satyojata, Vamaka, Tathpurusha, Isana and Aghora. He first addressed the audience at the centre, and then the immediate left and right. The centre tone became the basic note or the sadja (sa), while the ones on the immediate left and right became the ‘ni’ of the lower octave and ‘ri’ respectively.

Shiva then addressed the audience to the far left and right. Here, two notes emanated out of each face, to reach to the farthest sides. So there emanated the notes ‘dha’ and ‘pa’ of the lower octave on the left side and ‘ga’ and ‘ma’ on the right. This totaled to seven swaras, Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha and Ni.

Mother Nature’s contribution to the Indian swara system!

One interesting fact that the origin of swaras gives us is that they were derived from Mother Nature Herself! The tonal quality of each note is associated with the call of a specific animal or bird, as listed below: NAME OF SWARA

NOTATION NOTATION WRITTEN

SOURCE

Sadja

Sa

S

Cry of the peacock

Rishabha

Re

R

Lowing of the bull

Gaandhaara

Ga

G

Bleating of a goat

Madhyama

Ma

M

Call of the heron

Panchama

Pa

P

Call of the cuckoo

Dhaivata

Dha

D

Neighing of the horse

Nishaada

Ni

N

Trumpeting of the elephant

The 12 swaras Though the seven note system in music is universally accepted, Indian system adds an extra 5 notes, depending on the variation of the srutis. The manipulation of these swaras is what gives rise to one of the most important concepts of Indian classical music, the raga. The 12 swaras are as follows:

NAME OF THE SWARA

NOTATION

Sadja

S

Komal Rishabha

R1

Teevra Rishabha

R2

Komal Gaandhaara

G1

Teevra Gaandhaara

G2

Komal Madhyama

M1

Teevra Madhyama

M2

Panchama

P

Komal Dhaivata

D1

Teevra Dhaivata

D2

Komal Nishaada

N1

Teevra Nishaada

N2

RAGA – THE SOUL OF INDIAN MUSIC The following is the Sanskrit definition given to the word, ‘raga’: “Ranjayati Iti Raaga:” That which pleases the ear is referred to as a raga. The raga can be defined as a melodic type or melodic mould. It is a collection of notes in a particular order, giving rise to a melody type. The raga is the very soul of Indian music. It is very difficult, almost impossible, to define a raga in just a word or two. Though the abovementioned definition of a raga exists, it is only valid for academic purposes. As Harold.S.Powers states, "A raga is not a tune, nor is it a 'modal' scale, but rather a continuum with scale and tune as its extremes." The Indian raga is far more complex than the simple modal scale and encompasses in itself a variety of ways in which you can treat its notes or swaras. The raga is also much more complicated than just a tune. The raga can also present itself as a method of on-the-spot creative improvisation (like the Alapana or the raga vistara) by the musician/artist. Ragas are ever-changing, dynamic entities. They veritably pulsate with life and help produce an almost unlimited flow of ideas in the artist. The raga, being so vast a subject, goes beyond the most detailed definition and has to be experienced by both the singer and the listener to be properly understood. Raga is the pivotal concept of Indian music. It is uniquely melody-based and is a fine example of ‘absolute music’. Nowhere else in world music can you see the existence of a phenomenon like the raga. Hence the Indian raga system generates much interest among musicians and musicologists of world music. The raga is a compilation of a series of notes in an octave, which bear a definite relationship to one another and occur in varied phrases of permutation and combination, thereby giving a shape and a unique personality to it. The raga must have a minimum of five notes in the order as prescribed by the ancient texts on music. Further, it must have a Sa and either the Ma or the Pa. There are exceptions in Carnatic music, of course, but those ragas have limited scope and do not sound very pleasing when sung for too long. The raga is ornamented with various shakes and graces too, thereby enabling it to emote and breathe life and expression into a song.

Western music places importance on scales. Western classical music deals with various major and minor scales as the basis of its music. These scales are of equal temperament, meaning they are rendered in the same way by each and everyone singing or playing that particular scale. Indian music, on the other hand, stresses on scales of unequal temperament, or what is termed as ‘just intonation’ or ‘correct intonation’. Here, the notes of each raga or melody are rendered in different raga. The notes of a scale are embellished with shakes and oscillations, which enhance the beauty of the raga. These shakes are referred to as ‘gamakas’. It is the usage of these gamakas or ornamentations that makes Indian music what it is today. These gamakas give character and a unique emotional quality to the raga as a whole.

Healing properties of ragas Ragas are said to have healing properties, if sung properly. Emperor Akbar’s great court singer, Tansen, is said to have been able to light oil-lamps, bring rain and even save lives with his music. There is also a historical reference to how he brought a dead man to life by singing a particular raga. Ragas in Indian music are known to have healing properties. While ragas like Sahana heal the body of mild ill-health, Todi relieves severe sinus headaches. Singing the Carnatic ragas Bharavi and Athana restore sagging spirits and bestow a feeling of well-being both on the singer and his audience.

RAGA AND RASA The raga, as discussed earlier, is capable of emoting and expressing feelings and thoughts. This happens through the clever use of the appropriate srutis, swaras and pakads (the most important phrases of a raga). This emotional quality of the raga is known as the rasa, or the quality of that emotion. Raga and rasa go hand-in-hand in Indian classical music. If rendered properly, every raga is capable of giving rise to some emotion, both in the person singing it and among the general audience too. The Natya Shastra, an ancient treatise on Indian Performing Arts (believed to have been written by Bharata Muni, somewhere between 400 BC and 200 AD), talks about the ‘navarasas’ - nine types of rasas or emotions. These are: -

Shringara (Love/Eroticism) Hasya (Mirth) Karuna (Compassion/Pathos) Raudra (Anger) Veera (Valour) Bhayanaka (Fear) Bibhatsa (Disgust) Adbhuta (Wonder/Amazement) Shanta (Peace/Serenity)

Each raga admits of one predominant rasa. One raga might even portray more than one emotion, if treated in different ways. Oscillating one note feebly may give rise to veera rasa, while shaking it more vigorously could give rise to raudra rasa. The exposition of the raga and the resulting rasa(s) all really depends on the caliber of the musician and the extent to which his imagination stretches to define the boundaries of the raga.

The Gaana Rasa Though the Natya Shastra speaks only of nine rasas, one more rasa may be added to the list and that is gana rasa. Gana rasa is the pure aesthetic enjoyment of music, without any other emotion involved. This may also be termed as ‘Sangeetananda’ or joy derived from singing or listening to music. This capacity of the raga to give rise to rasas or emotions is what makes Indian music occupy a unique place in the history of world music. Of course, one experiences a plethora of emotions when one listens to artists like Bach, Beethoven or the famous singer, the late Amalia Rodrigues. But the extent to which the rasa theory of Indian classical music has been systematized makes it a cut above the rest of world music.

RAGAS AND RAGA DEVATAS Each raga in Indian music is assigned a particular form and the singer/musician sings melodies keeping this image in mind. The raga devatA or the presiding deity of the raga is as important as the raga itself. This is yet another point where Indian classical music stands out from the rest of the world music. Each raga or melodic mould is actually personified and given a form and shape. The concept of the raga devatA, in fact, is so important, that it is often said that singing raga phrases wrongly would cause injury or even headaches to the raga devatA!

CLASSIFICATION OF RAGAS Raga, being a very vast subject, it has been classified in several ways, from time immemorial.

Graama/murchana/jaati classification Various methods of raga classifications have been tried out by experts from as early as the 9th Century, considering aspects of music that held its sway in that particular era. One of the earliest attempts of raga classification was the grama/murchana/jati differentiations. But many of these classifications have not helped in the present scenario, as the ancient ragas themselves have evolved. Besides, many hundreds of new ragas have also come into existence today. So they would fit nowhere in the ancient system of raga classification.

Classification into Melakartas and Thats Ramamatya expounded the 72 Melakarta (the full raga or the parent raga) system for Carnatic music in the 16th Century, which was further elaborated and clarified by Venkatamakhi in the 17th Century. This type of raga classification is the very anchor of the Carnatic system of music and has come to stay in this system. Famed scholar and musicologist Pandit Vishnu Narayan Bhatkande, studied the Melakarta system in detail and came out with a monumental contribution to the world of Hindustani music. Out of the 72 Melakartas, he selected 10 sampoorna or full ragas and referred to them as Thaats. The 10 Thaats, which are the basis of Hindustani music today, are Bilaval, Khamaj, Kafi, Asavari, Bhairavi, Kalyan, Todi, Purvi, Marva and Bhairav.

Again, there are controversies regarding this classification too, but Bhatkande’s Thaat system is the widely accepted by most musicians in Hindustani music. Raga classification has also been done on various grounds – on the number of notes they take, on the mood they create, on the bhava or feeling/expression they generate, the time they are sung at, the features they take and so on and so forth.

Classification of Janya Ragas After the sampoorna ragas, there came the janya ragas. These child ragas, which were derived from the Melakartas, had one of few notes missing in them, or would take notes foreign to the parent raga. So ragas were further classified on such basis. Depending on the swaras they took, these Varjya (with notes missing in them) janya ragas were classified as follows: Audava – Taking5 notes in the aroha/avaroha (the ascent or descent) Shaadava – Taking 6 notes Vakra – Taking notes in a zig-zag manner, not following the right order Upaanga – Taking notes in conformity with the parent raga Bhaashaanga – Taking foreign notes or ‘anyaswaras’, not belonging to the parent raga.

RAGA AND THE TIME THEORY It is believed that certain ragas are most beneficial while sung at an appropriate time during the day. Both the Hindustani and Carnatic music systems believe in the time theory, but it is the former that places much emphasis on this theory. The time theory was first constructed and propagated about 500 years ago by the famous Hindustani (north Indian classical music) musician, Pandit Bhatkande. Pandit Bhatkande is hailed as the father of Hindustani music, as he was the one who built a systematized module for Hindustani music. Hindustani singers faithfully follow the time theory by rendering ragas only at their specified timings. The time theory is split into two parts – the Purva ragas and the Uttara ragas. The Purva Ragas are those sung between 12 noon and 12 midnight, while the Uttara Ragas are ideally sung between 12 midnight and 12 noon. The ragas to be sung between twilight and dusk are called Sandhi Prakash ragas. These are supposed to be sung around 4 and 7 o’clock, both in the morning and evening. Besides the time of day, seasonal ragas also exist. It is best to sing certain ragas at certain times of the year. For example, raga Basant Bahar is best sung during spring, raga Amritavarshini during the rainy season or to bring in more rain and so on. The reason for compartmentalizing these ragas is probably because they already have the capability to generate a particular emotion, which can be heightened by that season. Spring is a season for the heart to blossom with love. Singing a raga that exudes the Shringara rasa, brings out the real beauty of the raga.

MUSIC, PAINTING AND POETRY There has been a close inter-relation between music, painting and poetry. Much of Indian music has come into existence through the heartfelt outpourings of brilliant composers like Mirabai, Tulsidas, Purandaradasa Thyagaraja, His Highness Maharaja Swati Tirunal and so on. So, Indian music and poetry have a strong link that binds them together. A clear link has been drawn between music and painting too. Since each raga is capable of emoting and is given a unique personality, it was inferred that these ragas could be actually expressed on canvas. The connection between the raga and painting came into the fore between the 16th and 19th Centuries, when painting of miniatures was encouraged by the Moghul rulers. There have since even been several successful attempts at interpreting music through the use of colors and painting.

THE RAGAMALA PAINTINGS The Bhakti (devotion) and Bhajana (sacred) tradition was petering out by the 13th Century and the new trend was towards secular music – the singing of ragas. A number of new ragas were coming into existence, bringing this field to the forefront. Nevertheless, musicians of the old school still believed in the rasa theory and the time theory. They also believed in the raga devatA concept and carried on with propagating their views on music. The 14th Century saw a change in the music scene. Music literature included a description of ragas in short Sanskrit verses called ‘dhyana’ (meditation/contemplation). These little poetic verses highlighted the characteristics of the ragas, breathing life into them and giving each of them a particular swaroopa (persona) of a deity, nayaka (hero) or a nayika (heroine). This is what led to the raga-ragini systems and the subsequent creation of the ragamala paintings, a series of portrayals of these raga-ragini bhavas (expressions) on canvas. These ragamalas or garland of ragas, is what clearly illustrated the close connection between poetry, painting and music. To quote H.J.Stooke, “Poetry, painting and music were thus brought into a new relationship” with the advent of the ragamalas. The ragamala paintings usually depict the raga as a human, divine or semi-divine figure, with or without other characters around. The theme for such paintings is usually Shringara (romantic) or Bhakti (devotional) oriented. Most of the paintings also have the raga or ragini name inscribed in them, as also the dhyana or the Sanskrit verse, as mentioned above. The ragamala paintings are an obsolete art today, as it has no relevance in today’s music. Ragas have evolved through the decades, so many of these paintings do not seem relevant to the raga they mention. Besides, these paintings do not have any provision to describe newer and later raga additions. So this, though a wonderful system at one time, has faded away into obscurity now.

THE RAGA-RAGINI CLASSIFICATION The raga-ragini system makes for an interesting study. Because the ragas in Indian music have been given a sacred, demi-God status, it is only natural that they were classified into ‘human-like’ groups and assigned familial relationships with each other.

The raga-ragini system of raga classification occurred between the 16th and 19th Centuries and preceded the modern classification of ragas, as it exists today. The raga-ragini system tries to draw a parallel between the dynamic and the static – the Prakruti and the Purusha. Further, the raga-ragini system also illustrates the fluctuation in human behavior and responses to situations. It is related to the various mood changes in a person, with apt ragas to portray these emotions. It is the classification of ragas on the raga-ragini basis, that gave rise to the close link between poetry, art and music, as mentioned before. Various nayaka-nayika (man-woman) relationships and emotions were depicted with poetry, painting and music. Again, Hindustani music relies more heavily on the raga-ragini system. Carnatic music merely acknowledges the existence of this theory. The raga-ragini (male-female raga) classification can be traced right since the time of the treatise, ‘Ragatarangini’, written by Lochana Kavi. This book discusses in detail several songs of the Maithila dialect of the Hindi language. These songs were set to many ragas and raginis prevalent during that time. In his book, Lochana Kavi has dealt with both regional and local ragas and raginis of Mithila during that time. The raga-ragini classification of ragas is created with the following principle: There are 6 principal male ragas, namely Bhairav, Malkauns, Hindol, Deepak, Shri and Megh ragas. These ragas have five wives or raginis each and these raga-ragini ‘couples’ also have 8 children or raga putras each. This gives us a total of 84 ragas. Mentioned below is a detailed list of the ragas, raginis and their children:

raga – Bhairav Raag Bhairav is known to be the first raga, that emanated from Siva himself. A simple and common raga, this is seldom heard in concerts today, as it is deemed as a morning raga. raginis – Bhairavi, Punyaki, Bilawali, Aslekhi, Bangli putra ragas – Harakh, Pancham, Disakh, Bangal, Madhu, Madhava, Lalit, Bilawal

raga – Malkauns Malkauns is one very beautiful raga, derived from the Bhairavi Thaat. This raga is said to have been created from Siva’s Taandav (cosmic dance), so it has a vigour and energy about it. raginis - Gaundkari, Gandhari, Seehute, Devagandhari, Dhanasri putra ragas - Mustang, Maru, Mewara, Khokhat, Parbal, Chand, Bhora, Nad

raga – Hindol This raga depicts love and personifies kaama or love and the beauty that is Krishna. A simple raga to sing, it is also very pleasing to the ears. raginis - Telangi, Devkari, Basanti, Sindhoori, Aheeri putra ragas - Surmanand, Bhasker, Chandra-Bimb, Mangalan, Ban, Binoda, Basant, Kamoda

raga – Deepak Tansen, one of the ‘navaratnas’ in Emperor Akbar’s court, is said to have lighted lamps with this strong, vibrant raga. raginis - Kachheli, Patmanjari, Todi, Kamodi, Gujri putra ragas - Kaalanka, Rama, Kuntal, Kamal, Kusum, Gaura, Champak, Kanra raga – Shri This is a very old raga, taken from the Poorvi Thaat. As the name suggests, it is also a very auspicious raga. raginis - Bhairavi, Gauri, Karnati, Sindhavi Asavari putra ragas - Salu, Sagra, Sarag, Gund, Gaund, Kumbh, Hamir, Gambhir raga – Megh As the name of the raga suggests, it lets us envision monsoon in all its primitive force and lets us conjure up images of thick clouds, thunder and lightning. raginis - Sorath, Asa, Gaundi-Malari, Gunguni, Sooho putra ragas - Biradhar, Kedara, Gajdhar, Jablidhar, Jaldhara, Nut, Sankar, Syama

This system of raga-ragini classification was also accepted and upheld by the Tansen school of thought. The raga-ragini classification had not accepted very easily by scholars at that time. Many musicologists argued that this basis for classification of ragas was merely imaginary and nothing to do with the actual ragas. But the raga-ragini theory started gaining importance when the scientific principle of the male-female raga elements showed up in the Vadi-Samvadi swaras or notes. Vadi-Samvadi notes are notes showing the male and the female character of the swara.

THE ANCIENT RAGA-RAGINI PARIVARA SYSTEM In actuality, the raga-ragini parivara (family) system is believed to have existed many centuries ago, much before the bifurcation of Indian music into Hindustani and Carnatic music. Indain music was one before the 13th Century, that is, till the Moghul invasion. It was after this that there was such a clear line of distinction between north Indian and south Indian music. Though both systems are similar even to date, the difference lies in the way the notes are treated and sung. The ancient raga-ragini system too had six main ragas, each with 5 wives or raginis. Each of these raga-raginis had 8 sons or putras and 8 daughters-in-law or vadhus. So then the ragas totaled to 132. There is no unanimity among the different schools of Hindustani music regarding what the main ragas are and who their respective raginis are either. There is another school of thought that names six other ragas as the main ragas. According to them, the six major ragas are Kanada, Vasanta, Mallara, Vibhashaka, Gandhara and Dipaka. According to this school, Kanada’s raginis are Mayuri, Todi, Gaudi, Varati, Vilolika and Dhanasri.

This school of thought also points out to the existence of dasa and dasi (male and female servant) ragas and dhoota and dhooti ragas too, giving them certain specific characteristics. The raga Kanada’s raginis, Mayuri and Todi have been mentioned to have dasi ragas like Shyama, Vaya, Vagiswari, Saradi and Vrindavani. Paraj, according to them, is also a male dasa raga of these ragas. This raga-ragini ambiguity lasted for a long time, but disappeared as soon as the MelakartA and Thaat (parent raga) systems came into being in Carnatic and Hindustani music respectively.

REASONS FOR THE DECLINE OF THE RAGA-RAGINI SYSTEM The ragamala paintings ceased to be of great importance from the 19th Century onwards. Now, it is an obscure art and has lost all its followers. Further, many of the original ragas and rAginis have evolved and transformed with the passing years, so their ancient iconography held good no more. Yet another reason for the decline of the raga-rAgini system is that contemporary musicians and singers no longer perceive the connection between the ancient poetic descriptions and paintings of the ragas and rAginis.

CONCLUSION The raga-rAgini classification, though not practically viable in today’s music scenario, is very useful from the historical, academic, artistic and philosophical point of view. Knowing more about the ragarAgini classifications and studying them in detail could also enhance our own knowledge of the subject of music and could probably even help us sing and perform better in future.

http://209.85.175.104/search? q=cache:Pzs47bXQnr0J:www.dollsofindia.com/raga_ragini.htm+classificatio n+of+raga+system&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=4&gl=in Meend or Gamaka : Moving from one note to the other in a smooth manner is called Gamaka or Meend. In English it is called slide or glissando. In this process the pitch is gradually changed without stopping on any shruthi, but all in between shruthis are covered. This is a peculiarity of Indian music. In general, Carnatic uses frequent and heavy Gamakas, while in Hindustani the usage is limited. Some Raagas require the use of Gamakas esp. during alaap and taans. For eg. in Darbari Kanada the Aarohana is given as S R g ^^^, m P d ^^n S' , where ^ represents meend. Here while moving between Komal Gandhara (g) and Shudh Madhyama (m), meend or gamaka is employed. Also between Komal Dhaivath (d) and Komal Nishad (n). Sometimes, the meend is done such a way that the artist comes back to the same note he started with after touching the adjacent note. For eg. m^^^g^^^m-R-S is the Pakad of Darbari Kanada. Here the pitch first continuously lowers from Shudh Ma to Koaml Ga and then raises back to Shudh Ma, before falling off to Shudh Ri and Sa.

In Carnatic more elaborate system of gamakas are used. Every raaga has a set of permissible gamakas. Various shakes, graces, ornaments and embellishments are used. Infact, except for Sa and Pa, almost every note has some kind of gamaka associated with it. To a first time listener, the primary difference between Hindustani and Carnatic is the abundance of Gamakas used in carnatic. For example, in Raaga Mohana two Gamakas are allowed in the Aarohana. The default gamaka for "ri" is Sa^^Ga^^Ri i.e. starting from Sa the pitch is increased all the way to Ga and then lowered to Ri. Also, this whole thing needs to be done in the time frame used for one the note Ri. Similarly the gamaka for Dha is Pa^^Sa^^Dha. No gamakas are allowed for Ga (and Sa and Pa as always). Also, for Ri, an artist might fit in Sa^^Ga^^Ri^^Ga^^Ri if the tempo is slow. Mohana - S R2 G3 P D2 S S D2 P G3 R2 S S^^G3^^R2, P^^S^^D2 Sa^^Dha, Pa^^Ga, Ga^^Ri For Avarohana different Gamakas are allowed - Sa^^Dha, Pa^^Ga and Ga^^Ri.

COMPOSITIONAL FORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION Composition in the Indian classical music context refers to lyrics set to a particular Raaga and Taala. Artists are free to improvise i.e. sing the words of the lyric in various ways, provided the Raaga and Taala are adhered to. In Khayal form of Hindustani, improvisation and elaboration are so important that the lyrics of the composition itself are almost trivial. Usually the lyrics consist of just a couple of lines in Brij or other dialects of North India. Other forms of compositions are Thumri, Dadra etc. In Carnatic, the composition and its lyrics are quite important. The most important compositions are in the Krithi format. Other types of compositions like Devaranama of Shri Purandara, Varna, Tillana are also common. Prabandha

The sacred Prabandha music of the twelfth and fourteenth centuries passed on as an oral tradition, and sourced the dhrupad genre. Prabandha was a nibaddha sangeet (i.e. of the closed category of music) neatly divided into four sections - the initial or opening part called udagraha, the exposition part called the melapaka, the fixed portion called the dhruvapada (that gave rise to the term dhrupad), and the concluding part called abhog. Prabandha was the common composition source for both Hindustani and carnatic composition styles which developed after 14th century.

Compositions in Hindustani Music

The oldest type of Hindustani composition is dhrupad, which emerged directly from Prabandha. Other forms like Khayal, Thumri, Dadra etc have either evolved from Dhrupad or are of folk origin. Dhrupad

Dhrupad compositions are the oldest Hindustani compositions still in use. Literally it means words (Pada) set (Dhruva) to music. These compositions are used in the musical form - also called Dhrupad. The earliest compositions were probably in sanskrit but most of the compositions in use now are in Brijbhasha or other old dialects of North India. The compositions are short, two or four lines of lyrics. The first line is the refrain (sthayi) to which the singer keeps coming back after periods of improvisation. The composition is set to one of the several dhrupad Taalas - like Chautal (12 beats 4+4+2+2). The fixed (dhrupad/bandish) section is in four parts of which only the first two are performed regularly: Sthayi (pallavi in Carnatic music) - the first line of the sthayi serves as a cadence, while the section itself serves as a base for the singer returns to the sthayi time and again after each part; Antara (anupallavi in Carnatic music) - the intermediate part sung in a high register focusing on the tar shadja, with a good deal of text manipulation and repeated forays into sthayi; the third section Sanchari (charana in Carnatic music) - created by the division of the abhoga and it remains a freemoving section; the fourth and concluding section abhoga (pallavi in Carnatic music because this section is often replaced by the sthayi) includes notes from all three registers, and in present-day performances, may well be sung with the sanchari, if these two sections are included. In a dhrupad composition, the text, the rhythm and the melody are determined and each aspect receives equal attention. The constant improvisation and manipulation of the text in careful synchronization with the rhythms is an important feature of dhrupad, and is known as Bol-banth (bol means words, banth means divisions). Dhamar

Hori Dhamar is similar to Dhrupad, but it is a lighter form, celebrating the Holi festival. The lyrics of these songs hail the arrival of spring, love and pleasure and describe the amorous play of Krishna. They are set to Dhamar Taala of 14 beats. At some point in history Hori and Dhamar used to be different, but now they are synonymous and they are part of almost all Dhrupad concerts. Dhamar is also sung as light classical songs in the Khayal tradition. Then, they are usually set to DeepChandi Taala, also of 14 beats.

Khyal

is the modern genre of classical singing in North India; its name comes from an Arabic word meaning "imagination". It appeared more recently than dhrupad. Like all Indian classical music, khyal is modal, with a single melodic line and no harmonic parts. The modes are called raga, and each raga is a complicated framework of melodic rules. Khyal bases itself on a repertoire of short songs (two to sixteen lines). The singer uses these as raw material for improvisation, accompanied by a set of two hand drums, the tabla, and usually a harmonium or bowed string instrument such as the sarangi, violin or dilruba playing off the singer's melody line. A typical khyal performance uses two songs, one slow (vilambit) and one fast (drut). The slow song, the bada khyal or great khyal, comprises most of the performance; the fast song (chhota khyal, small khyal) is a used as a finale. The songs may or may not be preceded by improvised alap without drum accompaniment; alap is given much less room in khyal than in other forms of classical music in north India. As the songs are short, and performances long (half an hour or more), the lyrics lose much of their importance. Improvisation is added to the songs in a number of ways: for example improvising new melodies to the words, using the syllables of the songs to improvise material (bol-bant, boltaans), singing the names of the scale degrees — sa, re, ga, ma, pa, da and ni (sargam) — or simply interspersing phrases sung on the vowel A, akar taans. Now and then, the singer returns to the song, especially its first line, as a point of reference. Origin Present day scholars and art-historians are of the opinion that Khyal derives its name from Sanskrit word "Khelati" (Khel - to play). The Dhrupad (Dhruvagati or Dhruvapada) style of music which was in vogue, was bound by a lot of rules. As music is considered a form of play, divine play (leela - divine play), the newer playful Khelati style of music was born. It uses the same music scale, same raagas and raaginis - as used in Dhrupad style of music. Only difference being, the singer "plays with the notes" to bring out different moods. Thus the idea that the word originated from Arabic word "khyal" seems inappropriate. No music style similar to Khayal style is found in Persia or Arabia. Many muslim scholars believe that music is against tenets of Islam and Moghul king Aurangzeb banned music during his reign. Noted kannada novelist and music lover - S. L. Bhyrappa - has talked about this, quoting from a scholarly music magazine named "Sangeet", published from Hathras in North India. History The history of khyal is closely tied to a system of Muslim family styles[citation needed], or gharanas. About a dozen khyal gharanas are well-known, and were traditionally quite different. Each may

have originated in a particular city or at a particular court, and each developed their own techniques and their own style based on what techniques they came to emphasise and their own take on raga. With India united and royal courts abolished, and with modern communications and recording technology, stylistic borders have become blurred and many singers today have studied with teachers from more than one gharana. This used to be uncommon, and a few decades ago teachers used to forbid students to even hear other gharana singers perform, not allowing them to buy records or listen to the radio. Today, as always, a singer is expected to develop an individual style, albeit one that is demonstrably linked to tradition. In recent years, the trend has been towards more extreme tempos in khyal. Instead of slow and fast (vilambit and drut), a performance may include ati-vilambit, vilambit, madhya, drut and ati-drut that is, ultra-slow, medium speed and super-fast songs as well. Other song forms, often with nonsense syllables, such as taranas or tappas, can also be used to round off a khyal performance. Another trend, lamented by many, is the demise of the bowed-string sarangi as an accompanying instrument. Today one more often hears the harmonium organ, which is relatively inflexible in that it cannot follow the singer's glissandi. The sarangi is on the remove because it is extremely difficult to play and because it has become associated with a lower-class prostitution milieu; in the absence of a violin tradition in North India, the harmonium was there to fill the gap. Experiments with simplified, fretted sarangi clones such as the dilruba have not become very popular.

Khayal Bandish

The short compositions used in Khayal form of Hindustani vocal music is called Bandish. Bandish-es are mostly composed by the leading artists of the gharana and artists from a gharana usually use compositions of their own gharana. Bandish has both sthayi and antara sections. The first phrase of the sthayi and the antara sections is termed the mukhda. Khayal performances consist of the bada khayal and the chhota khayal. Bada (literally big) khayal is a slow, sombre rendering of the raga and can well include an elaborate aalap. Chhota (meaning small) khayal usually continues the raga of the bada khayal at a faster pace (i.e. in drut laya). An exception are the raagas that do not lend themselves to the chhota khayal's style of rendering. Therefore, another raga is rendered but it needs to be close to the raga already performed. In khayal, words are seen vis-a-vis the music and rhythm requirements, and are thus not enunciated as clearly as in dhrupad. Nonetheless, they do play a significant part in creating the mood for the performer and the audience.

The presentation of bandish-es depend on the traditions of different gharanas. For example, in Agra gharana elaborate alap free of rhythm and words is used. The bol-banth of the bandish section allows for wide-ranging improvisations and rhythm. An alternate approach is a brief alap that provides no more than an outline of the raga and Raaga development and exposition is at a later stage and accompanied by words and rhythm. Thumri

Thumri is romantic devotional poetry set to music. The Taala used is kaherava of 8 beats, addha taal of 16 beats or dipchandi of 14 beats. Thumri is used both in Khayal tradition and Dhrupad. It is even used by instrumentalists. The language of the text is usually Braj bashaw which is the language spoken in a particular of Uttar Pradesh and associated with the legends of Krishna. The mood is shringara rasa, but the songs deal with romantic love as symbolic of spiritual love. The ragas and taals associated with thumri are closely aligned to folk music but the structure retains the classical form of the sthayi and the antara, and the mukhda here as in other forms is a vital part of the composition. Traditionally, the texts are sung in the female context but male singers too have partaken of this genre. Originally thumri is believed to have originated in the nineteenth century court of Wajid Ali Shah. Two forms of Thumri developed over the years - one under the patronage of the landlords of Lucknow, and the other in Benaras and Gaya. The lively rhythm of the Lucknow thumri soon lost its identity to the chhota khayal; whereas the other, serious thumri steadily developed into an art form. Dadra

Dadra is a light composition similar to Thumri, but with more flexibility. The Taala used in Dadra (6 beats) or kaherava (8 beats). The Raagas used are usually lilting light ones like Pilu, Pahadi, Khamaj, Kafi etc. The pace is medium. Some examples of dadra are Mohe panghat Par Nandlal, Ja Mein Tod Layi Raja, Balam Naiya Mori Dagmag Dole Re, Zara Dhirese Bolo Koi Sun Lega and Hamse Na Bolo Raja. Kajri

Traditionally kajri is a folk form of east UP and Bihar region. The songs are again romantic in nature and are associated with the rainy season (Monsoon rainy season in India). In classical concerts Kajri is sung set to Keherva (8 beats) and in some light raaga like Pilu. Chaiti

Chaiti is similar to Kajri, but is set for the hot Chaitra masa (summer). Like Kajri they are also about separation of the heroin and hero and depict the heroin pining for the hero.

Tarana

The tarana genre of vocal singing is a form of nibadh sangeet and as such observes the structural requirements of the form. Rhythmic accompaniment is important in this fast-paced singing style that uses sargams and vocables lime na, ta, re, da, ni, odani, tanom, yalali, yalalom. Classical ragas form the melodic structure of tarana singing and there is a marked resemblance to the tillana singing of Carnatic music. Tappa

A form of classical singing that began with the camel-drivers of the north-west region of Punjab, tappa has a dual advantage - the songs have a raga basis and some taals are common to both khayal and tappa. The sthayi and antara sections are not present in this form which has a brief text and quick turn of phrase, with short taans unaccompanied by any elaboration. Shringara rasa is the predominant mood of tappa and the compositions may well be in ragas like Kafi, Jhinjhoti, Pilu, Gara, Barva, Manjh Khamaj. Pt Kumara Gandharva is credited with bringing this genre to the forefront, and tappas can be heard in the Gwalior gharana performances. Chaturang

A form of classical music, its text includes poetry, sargam, tarana bols and tabla bols. Chaturang denotes four colours or a composition of a song in four parts: Fast Khayal, Tarana, Sargam and a ``Paran" of Tabla or Pakhwaj. Trivat A rare form of music. Its text includes words like dirdir, tanana, tadare,etc. like a tarana along with the bols of the tabla or mridang. similar to tarana but composed with pakhawaj bols. Vrinda Gaana Choral singing Ghandarva Gana

The most ancient Hindu scriptures are the Vedas. There are four of them - RigVeda, SamaVeda, YajurVeda and AtharvaVeda. The singing or chanting of the hymns was called Sama Gana. The secular music for pleasure was called Gandharva gana. It is said the Gandharva gana grew out of Sama-Gaana. Though it is quite possible that they developed in parallel.

Drone

drone is a harmonic or monophonic effect or accompaniment where a note or chord is continuously sounded throughout much or all of a piece, sustained or repeated, and most often establishing a tonality upon which the rest of the piece is built. The systematic (not occasional) use of drones originated in Ancient Southwest Asia and spread north and west to Europe, east to India, and south to Africa (van der Merwe 1989, p.11). It is used in Indian music and is played by the tambura.

Uthan A cadenza used commonly in dance and tabla solos. This is a type of mukhada used as an introductory piece.

Peshkar A slow speed theme and variation composition for the tabla somewhat akin to the alap in a raga performance. Traditional tabla solo begins with peshkar. Peshkar is performed in slow tempo, but very complex in rhythm. In peshkar, the themes to be developed in a tabla solo are introduced and explored. It is usually followed by kayda and rela. Kayada(Q'aida)

A highly formalized approach to a tabla solo. It is an important improvisational form in tabla solo recitals performed in medium tempo with a phrase structure similar to the peshkar but with a more varied content suitable for variations. In a tabla solo, kayda is usually preceded by peshkar and succeeded by rela. Rela : A type of fast tabla composition along with variations having a structure similar to the kayada and the peshkar but with patterns that can be performed rapidly; used for solo recitals. It is a very fast manipulation of small structures. It

is usually preceded by peshkar and kayda in a solo. Rang : A theme and variations of tabla composition similar to rela which is very peculiar to the Lucknow Gharana. Laggi : It is a fast lively style of playing, similar to rela, used in light styles of

playing, particularly with bhajans, thumris, gazal, etc. The playing sequence is dense and extremely patterns which are usually performed towards the end.

Matra : Matra in Sanskrit is unit of any measurement. In music, it is the basic unit of time measurement. The actual time duration of a matra depends on the speed of the rhythm i.e. Tempo. The term Laya is also used to denote tempo. Usually three tempos are important Vilambitha or Vilambith (slow), Madhyama or Madhya (medium) and Dhrutha or Dhruth (fast). Even faster tempos are used during solo percussion performances or with instruments, though with vocal music, only one the above three are used. The actual time duration of a matra depends on this tempo. Even then, the duration varies considerably depending on the artists. In actual practice it has been found that the range could be as wide as 10 matras per minute (i.e. 6 seconds per matra) is ati vilambit laya (very slow tempo) to more than 720 matras per minute (i.e. less than 0.08 seconds a matra) in ati dhruta laya (Meter and Taal). Kriya

From ancient times, because of the importance of keeping the rhythm, a special position was created during any dramatic, dance or musical performance. A person in that position was required to just keep the rhythm. He would do so by performing a particular action at regular intervals of time. This action was called Kriya. Kriya literally means an action. Kriya was of two types Sashbda Kriya (with sound) or Nishabda Kriya (silent). Sashabda kriya could be a clap or beating a simple percussion instrument like Thala. A nishabda kriya could be a wave of the hand. In Hindustani two kriyas are used. Thali (literally a clap in Hindi) is the sashabda kriya and Khali (meaning empty) is the nishabda kriya. Carnatic uses a more elaborate system of Kriyas. - Falling of the right palm on the thigh or on the left palm called a Ghata or Thattu (literally a tap or beat in Dravidian). This is a sashabda kriya. The word Ghata (or Ghatam) should not be confused with the earthern pot percussion instrument of that name. Here it means "intently occupied or busy with", which is one of its meanings in Sanskrit. - Finger movements starting with the little finger, usually be touching the thumb to it, like in counting.. This is a nishabda kriya. - Falling of the hand with the palm facing upwards called a Visarjita ( meaning dismissed or abandoned) or Viccu (in Tamil). Can also be a wave of hand. This is a nishabda kriya. Taala

Taala is the rhythmic counterpart to Raaga. Literally Taala in sanskrit means slapping the hands together or against one's arm. In Hindi the word for clapping is Taali. Rhythm is an inborn attribute of humans and thus, it is possible Taala is more ancient in Indian music than Raaga. In sanskrit literature, Taala is mentioned earlier than Raaga starting with Bharatha's NaatyaShastra. Taala is a series of Matras. Depending on the number of Matras, duration of the Matras and Kriyas associated with those matras different Taalas are formed.

Vibhag One measure. A vibhag is made up of matras; several vibhags make up an avarta. An avarta is one cycle of a tal.

Avartan or avarta: One complete cycle of tal, made up of vibhags (measures) which in turn are made up of matras (beats).

Theka The stylized arrangement of principal bol-s defining structural form and divisions of the tal. A cycle of the drumming pattern identified with a particular tal used for keeping time in music. Laya (1) Timing in un-metered parts or tempo for metered parts (2)Principle of rhythm. In its broadest sense, tempo pertains to the pace of performance, as measured by time durations of the matra-s and vibhag-s. It also pertains to the rate of speed of the rhythmic patterns measured in relationship to these underlying time units. The term laya has both these meanings and is concerned with the tempo of the tal and the rate of flow of the phrases. http://209.85.175.104/search? q=cache:Lh4F7wNJ4TgJ:www.cybersangeet.com/cybersangeet_glossary.htm +peshkar+system+of+tabala&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=20&gl=in

1) Raga Lakshana: Raga Lakshana is the technical boundary of the raga. There are various factors that determine the Lakshana of a raga — the arohana and the avarohana (the ascending the descending order of the scale), the characteristic phrases of the raga, the special distinguishing prayogas, the gamakas peculiar to a particular raga and so on. In fact different gamakas even when applied to the same swara portray different shades and is one of the factors that helps one differentiate between ragas. 2) Raga Alap: Alaap is the free flow of the Raga, in which there are no words and no fixed rhythm. It is the purest from of melody. The alap is a totally rhythmless style based upon a free elaboration upon the rag. It is usually the introductory section. The alap may vary in length from a few seconds to over an hour. It is in this section that a rag is explored completely.There are several types of alap. Whenever there are no words or bols, it is called anakshar alap. Whenever words or bols are used it is referred to as sakshar alap. It is very common to use words of the subsequent song or in some cases general purpose words such as anantha, hari, om, or narayan.Although alap does not have a wide popular appeal, it is still considered the mark of proper training. Where other forms of the song allow some latitude in the interpretation of the rag, the alap requires strict adherence to the rules. This requires a firm knowledge, therefore the execution of alap is very difficult. The vocal alap will always be accompanied by some instruments. The tanpura is always present. Other instruments Bansuri, Dilruba, Esraj, Sarangi, Saraswathi Veena, Sitar, Violin may also be used.

Alapti

Akshiptika

Sthaya