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Chapter 9 AUSTRALIA AS A GLOBAL CITIZEN Australia has become increasingly conscious of its role as a global citizen in the half century since World War II and, at the same time, has become committed to making a positive contribution in the international arena. Australia plays an active role in the United Nations (UN) which, since World War II, has been the centre of most international initiatives to promote peace and security and improve the lives of the world’s peoples. Australia has signed, ratified and incorporated into its laws a number of UN conventions and treaties and has also been party to agreements promoting security, economic growth and equality among the nations of the Asia-Pacific region. Since 1999, Australia has led the UN-backed peacekeeping and humanitarian effort in East Timor while that nation has struggled to emerge as a viable independent state.

A student: 5.1 explains social, political and cultural developments and events and evaluates their impact on Australian life 5.2 assesses the impact of international events and relationships on Australia’s history 5.3 explains the changing rights and freedoms of Aboriginal peoples and other groups in Australia 5.7 explains different contexts, perspectives and interpretations of the past 5.8 locates, selects and organises relevant historical information from a number of sources, including ICT, to undertake historical inquiry 5.10 selects and uses appropriate oral, written and other forms, including ICT, to communicate effectively about the past for different audiences.

Photograph taken in East Timor, July 2001, showing Australian peacekeeper Corporal Anthony Griffiths treating a gash on a child’s foot

INQUIRY • What role has Australia played in international affairs in the postwar period? • What have been some important political developments in postwar Australian history? • How have significant individuals and groups exercised their democratic rights in the postwar period?

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annex: to take control and use of territory claimed by another archipelago: a group of islands in a large body of water autonomous: self-governing, independent constituent assembly: a group with the power to make or alter a political constitution or law containment: prevention of the expansion of communism, especially by means of military pacts whose members act to keep communism within existing borders forward defence: the policy of fighting to prevent the expansion of communism into one’s country by containing its expansion elsewhere global citizen: a nation that is actively involved in the world community and that identifies itself as part of that community

globalisation: the processes that make it easier for finance, trade and investment to operate on an international level humanitarian: concerning the interests and needs of human beings mandate: area of responsibility mandatory detention: the policy of imprisoning asylum seekers who don’t have a valid visa until it is decided whether or not to allow them entry into Australia. The term also refers to laws in Western Australia and the Northern Territory in the late 1990s whereby judges had to impose minimum periods of imprisonment for people found guilty of certain crimes. militia: a group of soldiers called out periodically for drill and exercise ratify: to confirm an agreement made by someone representing the government subsistence farming: farming in which the produce is consumed by the farmer and his or her family, leaving little or no surplus for marketing subversion: the act of overthrowing or undermining something sustainable development: development that maintains high economic growth while making careful use of environmental resources in the interests of both current and future generations

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9.1 AUSTRALIA’S POST-WAR ROLE WITHIN THE UN FROM THE BEGINNING . . .

DOC EVATT

The United Nations (UN) came into being in 1945 as an organisation dedicated to the maintenance of world peace and security. Since then, the UN has been the focus of global initiatives for dealing with armed conflict. Australia was one of its founding members, and ‘Doc’ Evatt, the leader of Australia’s first delegation to the UN, made a significant contribution to the UN in its early years.

Dr Herbert Vere Evatt (1894–1965) served in many important roles in Australian law and politics — as a High Court judge, Attorney-General, Minister for External Affairs and as leader of the Labor Party. He led Australia’s delegation to the meetings to establish the UN’s mandate and draw up its charter. The United Nations Charter, signed on 26 June 1945, created the UN’s key organs — the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) and the Secretariat. In 1947, ‘Doc’ Evatt chaired the United Nations Palestine Commission. He served as first President of the General Assembly from 1948 to 1949, was the first chairperson of its Atomic Energy Commission and contributed to the drafting of the UN’s 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

Source 9.1.1

Source 9.1.2

Photograph of ‘Doc’ Evatt signing the UN Charter in 1945

Photograph showing the United Nations flag being raised for the first time in 1947

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CIVICS AND CITIZENSHIP FOCUS AUSTRALIA’S ROLE IN THE UN Australia contributes to the UN primarily through the UN General Assembly in New York and specialist UN bodies such as the World Health Organization (WHO), the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Australia promotes its national concerns through UN discussions on disarmament, international security, refugee issues, environmental protection, aid programs and health. Australia supported the UN’s Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty and contributes generally to encouraging international action on global issues affecting the Australian nation. By becoming a member of the UN, Australia signified a commitment to working to avoid military conflict among and within nations. On three occasions — the Korean War (1950–53), the Suez crisis (1956) and the Gulf War (1991) — the UN has exercised military force to resolve a conflict. Australian military personnel served in the Korean War and the Gulf War.

AUSTRALIA’S UN PEACEKEEPING ROLE Australia’s military forces have contributed to over 20 UN peacekeeping operations. This role began in 1947 when Australia sent four men to act as observers at the UN Commission for Indonesia during Indonesia’s fight for independence from Dutch rule. In the years since, Australia’s forces have provided both peacekeeping and humanitarian aid in Afghanistan, Cambodia, Iran, Iraq, the Middle East, Namibia, Papua New Guinea, Rwanda, the Solomon Islands, Somalia and Zimbabwe. During his time as Foreign Minister, Gareth Evans promoted the expansion of the UN’s peacekeeping role. In 1999, Australia responded to the UN’s request for it to establish and lead INTERFET, a multinational peacekeeping force in East Timor (see section 9.3). Australia sent more than 5000 military personnel, and 21 other countries contributed to the remainder of the 10 000-strong coalition force. This has now given way to the United Nations Mission of Support in East Timor (UNMISET), which is maintaining the UN’s peacekeeping role in East Timor as well as assisting with the establishment of a civil administration system.

1950s and 1960s increased global consciousness of human rights issues. The 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights was a statement of rights. Over the next half century, the UN incorporated these rights into international law through a number of conventions and treaties by which signatories agree to uphold principles protecting people’s human rights. Australia has ratified the two most important of these — the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Australia has also included treaty and convention principles in Australian laws. Australian family law enshrines the principle of ‘the best interest of the child’ — a reflection of Australia’s support for the UN Declaration of the Rights of the Child. A number of UN conventions are attached to the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Act 1986 (Cwlth). These incorporate principles related to civil and political rights, the rights of the child, the rights of the mentally retarded and disabled, and non-discrimination in employment. The International Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination is attached as a schedule to the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cwlth) and the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women is attached as a schedule to the Sex Discrimination Act 1984 (Cwlth). Australia’s states and territories all have additional laws prohibiting discrimination and supporting human rights principles.

Source 9.1.3

AUSTRALIA AND UN CONVENTIONS The genocide of Jews during World War II and the civil rights movement in the United States in the

Image from the website of the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC)

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AUSTRALIA AND UNESCO UNESCO stands for the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Since its inception in November 1945, UNESCO has worked to promote shared international respect, understanding and valuing of different civilisations and cultures. It communicates information about scientific breakthroughs, facilitates discussion of ethical issues, works to end poverty and encourages sustainable development. At the heart of UNESCO’s efforts is a focus on international cooperation on the basis of mutual respect. UNESCO’s headquarters are in Paris and it has 60 offices and 190 members throughout the world. Former Australian Prime Minister Gough Whitlam served as Australia’s Ambassador to UNESCO from 1983 to the end of 1986. During this time he was a member of both the Independent Commission on International Humanitarian Issues and the World Heritage Committee. He was a strong advocate of Australia fulfilling its commitment to supporting UN initiatives in human rights, the environment and the preservation of our heritage. Whitlam also provided support to UNESCO when the United States, Britain and Singapore withdrew from the organisation because, they said, it was badly managed and ‘antiwestern’. Australia’s Prime Minister at that time, Bob Hawke, also supported UNESCO.

The Memory of the World (MOW) program Australia has been involved in a broad range of UNESCO programs over the past 60 years. An

important recent UNESCO initiative is the Memory of the World (MOW) program, which Australia has adopted to ensure the preservation of important documents that might otherwise have been destroyed with the passing of time.

AUSTRALIA AND THE UN TODAY Australian governments vary in the extent of their support for the United Nations. Labor governments have tended to be more supportive than those of the Liberal/National coalition. While Labor governments have tended to embrace the international spirit of the UN, Liberal governments have been more concerned with trying to limit their commitment to it. In 2003, Australia joined the United States–led military action to topple Saddam Hussein’s regime in Iraq. The UN did not support this action. Australia’s involvement reflected the Commonwealth Government’s changing attitude towards the UN. The government seeks reform of the UN and is wary of the obligations imposed by some of the conventions and treaties that Australia has ratified. Australia has also been the subject of criticism in relation to its policies on mandatory detention, indigenous rights and the treatment of asylum seekers, with critics expressing concern that these policies contradict the human rights principles the UN has championed. The Howard government has been reluctant to accept the criticisms that UN committees have

Source 9.1.4 An extract from Ross Harvey’s article ‘UNESCO’s Memory of the World Program and Australia’s lost and missing documentary heritage’ The principal statement about UNESCO’s Memory of the World Programme is found on the UNESCO website: Documentary heritage reflects the diversity of languages, peoples and cultures. It is the mirror of the world and its memory. But this memory is fragile. Every day, irreplaceable parts of this memory disappear for ever. UNESCO has launched the Memory of the World Programme to guard against collective amnesia calling upon the preservation of the valuable archive holdings and library collections all over the world ensuring their wide dissemination. (Memory of the World 2003) The term ‘collective amnesia’ refers to the vulnerability of documentary cultural heritage through losses caused by natural decay, damage through war, natural disasters, deliberate destruction and a host of other causes. The nature and magnitude of such losses are readily demonstrated. UNESCO commissioned a

report, published in 1996, as part of the Memory of the World Programme (van der Hoeven and van Albada 1996) which contains two extensive listings of lost and missing documentary heritage. The first listing, developed from a survey of the literature, lists libraries and collections damaged or destroyed in the twentieth century; and the second, based on a survey of archives, is of lost or damaged archives from 1900 to 1994. These lists indicate that natural disasters and wars are probably the most frequent causes of damage and destruction. The report is not limited to paper-based documentary heritage, noting that ‘the most endangered carriers are not necessarily the oldest’ and bringing to our attention the examples of acetate discs and polymer film (Van der Hoeven and van Albada 1996, p. 3).

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The Australian Library Journal, March 2003.

CIVICS AND CITIZENSHIP FOCUS Source 9.1.5

A 2002 photograph showing children protesting against their mandatory detention on the island of Nauru. This resulted from the government policy of imprisoning asylum seekers who do not have entry visas. Asylum seekers had to remain in detention until the government decided whether or not to allow them entry into Australia.

made of its policies. It has responded with four main complaints about UN committees: 1. The criticisms they have made of Australia lie outside the areas that Australia, through its treaty commitments, has agreed to support. 2. UN committees have placed undue emphasis on non-government organisations’ (NGOs) reports criticising the Australian government. 3. Committee members have been biased against the Australian government. 4. Committees spend too much time criticising countries with good human rights records.

Check your understanding 1. List the main types of involvement Australia has had with the UN. 2. What UN values has Australia shown support for in its legislation?

Using sources 1. Use the image shown in source 9.1.1 as the centrepiece of a mind map on the theme ‘Doc Evatt and the UN’. 2. What is the significance of the photograph in source 9.1.2? 3. Use source 9.1.3 to answer the following questions. (a) What is the origin of the image shown in source 9.1.3? (b) With which international convention is it linked? (c) What does it suggest about Australia’s response to that convention? (d) What message does the figure convey about the issues important to women in and beyond Australia? 4. What problem is identified in source 9.1.4 and what action is being taken to address it? 5. In what ways does the photograph in source 9.1.5 indicate that the Australian government in the early twenty-first century was implementing policies that conflicted with those of the UN?

Researching and communicating To find out more about the work of the United Nations, go to www.jaconline.com.au/retroactive/retroactive2 and click on the United Nations weblink.

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9.2 AUSTRALIA’S POST-WAR REGIONAL AGREEMENTS In the 60 years since World War II, Australia has sought to enhance its security and economic prosperity through a range of agreements in the AsiaPacific region. In recent years this focus has expanded to include consideration of issues related to illegal migration, refugees, transnational crime, environmental and health threats, drug trafficking and counter-terrorism.

ANZUS In 1951 Australia and New Zealand joined with the United States to sign the ANZUS Treaty. Under the terms of the treaty, the nations each viewed an attack on any one of them as a threat to the security of them all. If such a threat eventuated, they would meet to discuss a response. At the same time, each nation had to develop its own defence capabilities. Australia welcomed the ANZUS Treaty as a means of strengthening its alliance with the

Source 9.2.1

United States, even though the treaty did not commit the United States to providing military support to Australia. In 1986 the treaty relationship changed when New Zealand banned the entry of US ships it believed to be nuclear powered and to have nuclear weapons capability. The United States suspended its ANZUS commitment to New Zealand. Since then, Australia has maintained a bilateral agreement with the United States, and armed forces from the two nations regularly hold joint military exercises. Australia and the United States also share joint defence facilities on Australian soil.

SEATO The United States organised the formation of SEATO, the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, in September 1954. SEATO united its members — Australia, Britain, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand and the United States — in an alliance to protect countries in South-East Asia and the Pacific that felt threatened by communism. Membership of SEATO was an expression of Australia’s forward defence strategy and of its desire to ensure the containment of communism. SEATO was dissolved in 1977.

Source 9.2.2

Photograph of US President George W. Bush and Australian Prime Minister John Howard inspecting a naval guard in Washington DC in 2001 at the time of the fiftieth anniversary of the ANZUS alliance

Photograph of Australian Prime Minister Robert Menzies (centre) at the SEATO conference in Canberra in 1957

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THE COLOMBO PLAN The Colombo Plan for Cooperative Economic Development in South and South-East Asia began as a result of an Australian suggestion at the Commonwealth Conference on Foreign Affairs at Colombo, Sri Lanka, in 1950. The idea was to focus international cooperative efforts and attention on identifying and providing what the less developed countries in the region needed to improve their economies and living standards. In 1977 the name changed to the Colombo Plan for Cooperative Economic and Social Development in Asia and the Pacific. The name change occurred after some of the original members left when their governments became communist. Today, there are 25 members and one provisional member. Members come from the Pacific as well as Asia, from inside and outside the Commonwealth and include countries with many differing political systems, including communist. The goal is to promote friendship among nations in the Asia-Pacific region and encourage international economic cooperation. The Colombo Plan provides support for the economic and social development of the least developed areas in the Asia-Pacific region. This involves the more advanced member states providing and sharing their knowledge of technology and industrial and technical expertise with their less advanced neighbours. The Colombo Plan provides programs to develop skills in public administration, private development, drug advice, publications and the use of databank systems. Underpinning all these programs is a focus on the development of human resources. Australia’s involvement demonstrates a commitment to reducing the economic inequality that characterises some of the nations in the region. The original intention was for the plan to concentrate on Commonwealth countries within Asia. This soon changed to address the needs of all countries in the region. To begin with, Commonwealth countries created six-year programs to assist economic development in the area and encouraged other countries to take similar action. The organising committee extended the plan at five-year intervals, and in 1980 it extended it indefinitely. In 1998, the Consultative Committee developed the Manila Colombo Plan Agenda (MACOPA 21) to guide the work of the Colombo Plan into the twenty-first century.

APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, or APEC as it is usually known, came into being in 1989. APEC is an organisation that aims to promote economic development, trade and investment among its member nations. Australia is one of its 21 ‘member economies’

who together make up over one-third of the world’s population and contribute nearly half of the world’s trade. APEC members act on consensus decisions and are not linked by treaty commitments. Members volunteer the nature of the commitment they want to make on specific projects. APEC has worked to reduce tariffs and promote free, open and secure trade and investment throughout the Asia-Pacific region. In addition to these goals, APEC is also focusing on policies to help countries come to terms with globalisation and to improve security within the region.

Source 9.2.3

Photograph of leaders and representatives from the 21-member APEC group at the 2003 conference in Thailand

Check your understanding Copy and complete this table on Australia’s regional agreements.

Name of agreement

Year

Terms of agreement

1950 ANZUS SEATO 1989

Using sources 1. What does source 9.2.1 indicate about the changed nature of the ANZUS alliance at the time of its fiftieth anniversary? 2. What types of information could a historian find out from looking at source 9.2.3?

Researching and communicating Find out more about Australia’s involvement in APEC and write a brief newspaper article on one aspect of this involvement. Choose an appropriate headline and image, and use desktop publishing to present your story.

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9.3 EAST TIMOR — KEEPING THE PEACE Source 9.3.1 East Timor and the United Nations timeline 1913 1960 1974 1975

1976 1977 1979 1991 1992 1996

1998 1999

2001 2002

The island of Timor is divided into East and West. Portugal retains possession of East Timor. ‘Timor and dependencies’ are included on the United Nations list of non-self-governing territories. The Portuguese recognise East Timor’s right to self-government and declare their intention to withdraw after more than 400 years of rule. Conflict between East Timorese groups favouring independence and those supporting integration with Indonesia. Portugal withdraws and Indonesia invades. Indonesia declares East Timor its 27th province. War between Indonesian forces and the pro-independence group Fretilin. Xanana Gusmao emerges as the East Timorese independence leader. Massacre of East Timorese independence supporters at Dili’s Santa Cruz cemetery. Xanana Gusmao captured by Indonesian troops and jailed for life for subversion. Nobel Peace Prize awarded to the leaders of the East Timorese independence movement, Bishop Carlos Belo and Jose Ramos Horta. Indonesia’s President B. J. Habibie proposes a special autonomous status for East Timor. May — UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan and foreign ministers of Portugal and Indonesia agree on a political settlement for East Timor. East Timorese to vote for either complete independence from Indonesia, or autonomy within Indonesia. August — 98.6% of voters in East Timor cast ballots in the referendum. 78.5% choose independence. September — Militia groups supporting Indonesia attack proindependence supporters. October — Indonesian government agrees to recognise the vote for East Timorese independence. The UN Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) is established to help East Timor prepare for self-government. November — Last Indonesian forces leave East Timor. The UN begins efforts to return 200 000 refugees to their homes in East Timor. December — Jose Ramos Horta, Nobel Laureate, returns to East Timor after 24 years in exile. First democratic parliamentary elections are held to elect the members of East Timor’s first Constituent Assembly. Pro-independence party Fretilin is declared the winner. Xanana Gusmao is announced the President-elect of East Timor, the world’s newest nation.

WORLD’S NEWEST NATION After 450 years of continuous occupation, the Democratic Republic of East Timor became the world’s newest nation at midnight on 19 May 2002. World leaders such as the United Nations SecretaryGeneral, Kofi Annan, and the Australian Prime

Minister, John Howard, joined the East Timorese people in celebrating their independence. On 27 September 2002, East Timor officially joined the United Nations (UN). This was a great victory for the East Timorese after their decades-long struggle for selfrule. Armed resistance and international diplomacy had finally given East Timor the chance to choose its own destiny.

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THE CONQUEST OF EAST TIMOR

INVASION

East Timor occupies an area of 24 000 square kilometres on the eastern half of an island located in the Timor Sea, between Indonesia and Australia. It has a population of approximately 800 000 people. The island is a member of the Malay Archipelago and is divided into two parts; most of the west remains a part of Indonesia whereas the east is the independent nation of East Timor. A small area in the west, around the town of Oecussi, and the island of Atauro are also East Timorese territory.

Source 9.3.2

TIMOR SEA

Map showing East Timor and its location between Australia and Indonesia

In the early sixteenth century, the Portuguese arrived on the island of Timor and occupied the eastern half. Timor provided the Europeans with resources such as sandalwood, coffee and rubber. The Dutch occupied the west and included it in the Dutch East Indies. When the Dutch finally withdrew from Indonesia in 1949, the territory of West Timor became a province of the new nation of Indonesia. The Japanese invaded the region during World War II, but with their defeat in 1945 Portugal regained possession of its East Timorese territory. Portugal remained in control of East Timor until 1975 when a new Portuguese government decided to relinquish all colonies. During its years of government, Portugal had done little to assist the East Timorese. Most people lived as subsistence farmers, infant mortality was 50 per cent, only one high school had been built and only one in 50 Timorese children had the opportunity to attend primary school. Following Portugal’s withdrawal, East Timor was left with a literacy rate under ten per cent and no effective system of government.

Civil war broke out when the Revolutionary Front of Independent East Timor (Fretilin) occupied the capital and called for independence, while Indonesia argued that East Timor was too small to exist as an independent nation and should join Indonesia. Indonesia feared a threat to its security from a small independent country on its eastern border and was prepared to use force to take the territory. Indonesia claimed that quick action was necessary to prevent a communist takeover of the region and set out to destabilise and invade East Timor. The East Timorese had experienced only a few days of independence when, in December 1975, Indonesia moved 3000 troops into East Timor. The capital, Dili, fell quickly to Indonesian forces and the country was annexed as Indonesia’s twenty-seventh province. The report of five Australian journalists killed in the Timorese town of Balibo during the Indonesian invasion alarmed the Australian public and strained international relations. The UN did not recognise the Indonesian claim to East Timor. Nevertheless, by 1976 about 40 000 Indonesian troops occupied East Timor, and the Australian government largely accepted the invasion and reality of Indonesian control. Vigorous public protest against the invasion took place in Australia, but maintaining good diplomatic relations with Indonesia remained the Australian government’s main priority. (See page 241 for more on this issue.)

HUMAN RIGHTS The United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution condemning the invasion and calling on the Indonesian forces to withdraw without delay. On 31 May 1976, a Timorese ‘People’s Assembly’, selected by Indonesia, endorsed an ‘Act of Integration’ with the Republic of Indonesia. Fretilin had originally been formed to fight the Portuguese. With Indonesian invasion the conflict was now with a new and more brutal occupying force. By the end of February, an estimated 60 000 Timorese had lost their lives. Military violence combined with food shortages and disease to kill another 120 000 East Timorese by 1979. Attempts by the UN to investigate reports of human rights abuses were obstructed by the Indonesian military.

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Events in the late 1980s put humanitarian issues in East Timor under the international spotlight of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights. The Australian government continued to express regret that the East Timorese had no choice in their destiny. In November 1991 the brutality of the Indonesian control of East Timor was broadcast on television screens around the world. Indonesian troops were filmed shooting unarmed demonstrators in a cemetery in Dili (see source 9.3.3). Between 200 and 300 Timorese were killed, with many more injured. The Indonesian government stated that rioting had provoked the soldiers. After an international outcry, the Indonesian government held an official inquiry into the Dili massacre. The trials that followed resulted in the short imprisonment of several junior Indonesian officers and life sentences for the Timorese found guilty of organising the protest march.

would be held in East Timor. Voters would be offered the choice between autonomy (but remaining part of Indonesia) and complete independence. At a UNsupervised referendum on 30 August 1999, the 450 000 registered voters of East Timor used the power of the polling booth to decide their future, and voted for independence. It was a dangerous and historic moment in East Timorese history. In the weeks following the referendum, thousands of East Timorese lost their homes and their lives, as the Indonesian army and their militias took revenge on a population that had rejected Indonesian rule.

Source 9.3.4

INDEPENDENCE The future of the independence movement appeared bleak with the 1992 capture of Fretilin’s leader, Xanana Gusmao. International criticism and the East Timorese resistance movement continued to keep the dream of independence alive. In 1997 a crisis in the Indonesian economy led to instability within Indonesia and the removal of Indonesian President Suharto from office. Suharto was replaced by President B. J. Habibie. In December 1998, the new leader made the sudden announcement that a referendum

Source 9.3.3

Photograph of pro-independence East Timorese demonstrating in the weeks before the referendum on 30 August 1999, in which they could vote for the future of their country

THE UNITED NATIONS IN EAST TIMOR

The 1991 student demonstration at the Santa Cruz Cemetery in Dili

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Despite the overwhelming vote for independence in the 1999 referendum, an Australian-led UN peacekeeping force was needed to bring an end to the violence and to administer the territory during the period of transition to selfgovernment. The UN also began a large-scale humanitarian relief program to provide emergency assistance. The transitional administration (UNTAET) was established to support East Timor in developing the resources necessary for a democratically elected government to deliver the dream of independence.

Xanana Gusmao described 1999 as a year of extremes for his people. It was a year of great joy on the day of the ballot proclaiming independence, and a time of grief at the loss of life that followed. In 2004 the United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan recommended a one-year extension of the peacekeeping force in East Timor. The United Nations force was scheduled to leave East Timor on 20 May 2004. The fear of a return to the militia-led violence kept Australians in East Timor as members of a UN force protecting the fledgling nation.

Source 9.3.5 In 2002 Jose Ramos Horta unveiled a stone monument, inscribed as follows, in East Timor’s International People’s Park. This site honours the historic contribution, personal commitment and achievements of the thousands of international peacekeepers, UN Police, UN civilian staff, UN volunteers, humanitarian workers, and the international community at large who have assisted the people of East Timor on its journey to Independence. We shall never forget you, our international friends . . . This site inspired and dedicated on May 9th, 2002 by Dr. Jose Ramos-Horta Nobel Peace Prize Laureate. This site was fully sponsored by the United Nations Volunteers on the occasion of East Timor’s Independence and the official visit of the United Nations SecretaryGeneral, Kofi Annan and the UNV Executive Coordinator, Sharon Capeling-Alakija.

Source 9.3.6

Check your understanding 1. Explain where East Timor is located and why war broke out there in 1975. 2. Why and when did events in East Timor draw the attention of the United Nations? 3. Imagine you are East Timorese. Explain why 1999 was such a significant year in the history of your country. 4. When did East Timor officially become an independent nation?

Using sources 1. Use source 9.3.1 as background to write a newspaper article celebrating East Timorese independence. 2. Examine source 9.3.2 to suggest why Indonesia regarded East Timor as a potential threat to its security in 1975. 3. Source 9.3.3 is a photograph of the demonstration that resulted in a massacre. How useful are photographs as historical sources? What evidence does this source provide about the independence movement in East Timor in the 1980s and 1990s? 4. How would you describe the people shown in source 9.3.4? What clues are there about their degree of wealth and their ethnic origin? Using sources 9.3.3 and 9.3.4 as evidence, explain where support for independence came from in East Timor. 5. Design a memorial in which the words from the plaque in source 9.3.5 would appear. Your memorial should reflect the achievements of the East Timorese people and the ideals of the United Nations.

Researching and communicating 1. Imagine you are either Bishop Carlos Belo, Xanana Gusmao or Jose Ramos Horta. Write a letter to the editor of an Australian newspaper explaining what your hopes are for your people’s future and what Australia’s role should be. 2. Write a report on the recent political developments that have taken place in East Timor and in Indonesia. Begin your research on the Internet by going to www.jaconline.com.au/retroactive/retroactive2 and clicking on the East Timor weblinks. 3. Design a pamphlet to inform the Australian public about our role as a member of the United Nations peacekeeping force. Your pamphlet should highlight the history of the force in East Timor and the ongoing Australian commitment. If you require maps to show international locations, go to www.jaconline.com.au/ retroactive/retroactive2 and click on the Maps weblink. Complete your pamphlet with graphics and then desktop publish your work.

Photograph of Xanana Gusmao, the first President of an independent East Timor, 2002

Worksheets 9.1 East Timor — ‘This is your life’ 9.2 Global Citizenship crossword

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Review & exam practice S CHOOL C ERT IFICAT E Australia as a P RAC TI C E global citizen Multiple choice Choose the letter that provides the most correct answer. 1. The UN came into being in: (A) 1945 (B) 1946 (C) 1947 (D) 1948. 2. ‘Doc’ Evatt was the United Nation’s first: (A) Secretary-General (B) President of the General Assembly (C) security adviser (D) arms controller. 3. Australia has contributed to the UN through: (A) membership of the General Assembly (B) peacekeeping (C) support for human rights conventions (D) all of the above. 4. Australia’s relationship with the UN has been strained over: (A) policies on asylum seekers and mandatory detention (B) indigenous rights and support for UNESCO (C) UN conventions (D) the outbreak of war in Iraq. 5. The correct sequence of the regional agreements that Australia joined is: (A) SEATO, ANZUS, APEC, the Colombo Plan (B) the Colombo Plan, SEATO, ANZUS, APEC (C) the Colombo Plan, ANZUS, SEATO, APEC (D) SEATO, the Colombo Plan, ANZUS, APEC. 6. The regional agreement that focuses on improving trade and investment is: (A) APEC (B) SEATO (C) the Colombo Plan (D) ANZUS. 7. The agreement Australia entered into as part of its ‘containment’ concerns was: (A) APEC (B) the Colombo Plan (C) SEATO (D) the United Nations. 8. Consider the following two statements about East Timor. Statement X: East Timor was a colony of Portugal for over 400 years. Statement Y: Xanana Gusmao became the first President of East Timor in 2002. (A) Both statements are true. (B) Both statements are false. (C) Statement X is true and statement Y is false. (D) Statement X is false and statement Y is true.

9. The reason an Australian-led peacekeeping force went to East Timor in 1999 was because: (A) East Timor had been hit by a natural disaster. (B) East Timor required assistance in restoring law, order and government during the period of transition to self-government. (C) East Timor was at war with Indonesia. (D) The United Nations was unable to provide a peacekeeping force. 10. What was Fretilin? (A) A town in East Timor (B) A militia group in East Timor (C) A group of East Timorese freedom fighters (D) A United Nations peacekeeping force

Extended response Explain Australia’s role in post-war international and regional agreements. Your response to this question should be about 25 lines long.

I N VE ST I G ATE F U RT H ER 1. To find out more about Australia’s regional and international role in the post–World War II era, go to www.jaconline.com.au/retroactive/retroactive2 and click on the APEC, Colombo Plan, UNESCO, Memory of the World and United Nations weblinks. 2. Using the timeline from source 9.3.1, create a collage that visually expresses the events and experiences of the East Timorese on their journey from Portuguese colony to independent nation. 3. The beginning of the United Nations charter of 1945 states the aim to ‘practise tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good neighbours, and to unite our strength to maintain international peace’. Present a speech expressing your views on Australia’s role in East Timor and responsibilities to our region.

VI R TU AL TO U R O F TH E U N Using the Internet, you can take a virtual tour of the United Nations main buildings and learn more about its history and operations. (a) Go to www.jaconline.com.au/retroactive/retroactive2 and click on the UN Tour weblink to undertake the tour. (b) When you have viewed the images and read the information provided, do a search on the site for information about Australia, for example on refugees or indigenous issues. (c) Complete the tour by carrying out the ‘United Nations Tour Quiz’ to see how much you have learned.

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Source 9.4.3 An extract from the official Indonesian view of East Timor

Source 9.4.1

Every part of the archipelago that is the Republic of Indonesia has been an integral and self-determining part of this strong and unified nation. It has been and remains a goal of Indonesia to ensure that the benefits of development reach every part of our vast country, proportionate to the needs. Indeed, that is the single reason why East Timor receives the largest amount of development funds on a per capita basis, an investment that has produced hospitals, schools, roads and commerce when little to none had existed under Portuguese rule . . . Since East Timor was integrated into the Republic of Indonesia, the Government has worked carefully to ensure that cultural traditions are maintained, local languages are preserved and religious practices are respected . . . This protection and nurturing in East Timor cannot be denied.

Comment from Richard Woolcott, Australian Ambassador to Indonesia On the Timor issue . . . we face one of those broad foreign-policy decisions which face most countries at one time or another. The government is confronted by a choice between a moral stance, based on condemnation of Indonesia for the invasion of East Timor and on the assertion of the inalienable right of the people of East Timor to the right of self-determination, on the one hand, and a pragmatic and realistic acceptance of the longerterm inevitabilities of the situation on the other hand . . . The former is more proper and principled but the longer-term national interest may well be served by the latter. We do not think we can have it both ways. Quoted in M. Jardine, 1995, East Timor: Genocide in Paradise, Odonian Press, Arizona, pp. 43–4.

1. Use source 9.4.1 to answer the following questions. (a) In your own words, explain what Richard Woolcott saw as the choice Australia had to make regarding East Timor. (b) What points did he put forward in favour of each choice? (c) What point did Woolcott want to make by saying ‘We do not think we can have it both ways’?

Source 9.4.2

Extracts from East Timor: Building for the Future, July 1992, Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of Indonesia, pp. ii, iv and vi.

3. Use source 9.4.3 to answer the following questions. (a) Where does this source come from? (b) What is the subject matter? (c) What message does the writer want to convey to the audience? (d) What has motivated him or her to do this? (e) What would you need to do in order to check the reliability of this source?

A cartoon by Peter Nicholson, 2 November 1979. The man depicted on the right is Australia’s Foreign Minister from 1975 to 1980, Andrew Peacock. The man shown at the rubbish bin is Indonesia’s president from 1967 to 1998, Suharto.

2. Use source 9.4.2 to answer the following questions. (a) What message does the cartoonist want to convey to his audience? (b) What techniques does he use to help get his message across? Consider the words used and all details of the drawing. (c) What is Nicholson’s purpose and how effective do you think this cartoon would have been in achieving that purpose?

241 CHAPTER 9: AUSTRALIA AS A GLOBAL CITIZEN