Que debemos saber de los decibeles?

July 18, 2019 | Author: Salvador Garcia | Category: Decibel, Energía eléctrica, Ingeniería Eléctrica, Fuerza, Cantidad

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Decibeles significado, utilización, comparaciones, referencias, relaciones y magnitudes; ejemplos y cuadros de referenci...

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Ksaritl plr? Qcgvc`lr Hcraäc Acstkggñj, YQ3HA

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¼Suk `kfkdls scfkr `k gls `kaifkgks<

Qcgvc`lr Hcraäc Acstkggñj, YQ3HA

¼Sué `kfkdls scfkr `k gls `kaifkgks< Vkgcailjks, kokdpgls, kjnlquks, auc`rls aldpcrctivls y auc`rls `k rksÿdkjks

Qcgvc`lr Hcraäc Acstkggñj

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¼Suk `kfkdls scfkr `k gls `kaifkgks<

Qcgvc`lr Hcraäc Acstkggñj, YQ3HA

IJPVL@[AAIÑJ Prcfcol `ks`k mcak yc tikdpl kj kg ãrkc `k kquipls `k rcìlaldujiacaiñj y kquipls `k VN, aldkjaé aldl duamls kj kg acdpl, `k dl`l prãatial, alj gc ksaukgc `k gc kxpkrikjaic `k gc vi`c (ñskc qukdcj`l kquipls, cghujcs vkaks), alj gl quk cghujls ncdigicrks y cdihls gk kxpgiacj c ujl…. Rkrl kggls cg ihucg quk yl tkjäcj gc kxpkrikjaic `k gc vi`c. Rlr pridkrc vkz vi gls @kaifkgks kj uj trcjsakptlr `k Fcj`c aiu`c`cjc, slgäc vkr gc chuoc ijìaãj`ldk kg jivkg `k rkakpaiñj `k ltrls kquipls kj di aui`c`, Qcj Qcgvc`lr, aldprkj`äc quk kjtrk dcs jivkg krc dcylr, pkrl jl scfic quk dk ijìacfc kxcatcdkjtk kstc dkì`c. Aljnlrdk dk dktäc dcs kj kg tkdc supk quk gls `kaifkgks jl slgl sk laupcfcj pcrc rkaifir gc ijtkjsi`c`, si jl pcrc ujc skrik `k dkì`cs `k? kgkatrñjiac, kgkatriai`c`, pltkjaic, kta. Y ac`c vkz dk skjtäc dcs cgkoc`l `k ujc kxpgiacaiñj rkcg. Aldl duamls kstuìk `kspués kj gc [jivkrsi`c`, y ksauamk ujcs pcgcfrcs quk dk sljcrlj ìnäaigks pkrl rkcgks ‗Kg Ijhkjikrl `k Kgkatriai`c`, Pkgkaldujiacailjks y

rcdcs cnijks, `kfk `k pkjscr kj uj duj`l kj @kaifkgks5 aldprkj`kr y kjtkj`kr pkrnkatcdkjtk, kstk tkdc. Yc quk quk su duj`l duj`l hirc cgrk`k`lr cgrk`k`lr `k kstcs uji`c`ks `k rknkrkjaic— tkjhl quk chrc`kakrgk Ijh. Ouãrkz, quk sus pcgcfrcs mly kj `äc cuj sihukj prkskjtks kj di acfkzc, y mcstc cmlrc sihl utigizcj`l gls @kaifkgks aljstcjtkdkjtk kj di prlnksiñj. Rlstkrilrdkjtk dk kjaljtré c uj aldpcókrl `k acrrkrc, y dk mizl ujc prkhujtc sijhugcr ‗¼Amcdfc, [`. kjtikj`k plr quk kxistkj gls `kaifkgks jkhctivls y aldl nujailjc kstc dkì`c kj gls kquipls `F. Ltrl kokdpgl? si aljkatcdls `ls cdpginiac`lrks kj acsac`c alj hcjcjaics `k 36 y 3> rkspkativcdkjtk, lftkjkdls ujc hcjcjaic tltcg `k 36 x 3> 4 396. Kj térdijls glhcrätdials, gls `ls cdpginiac`lrks tikjkj ujc hcjcjaic `k 32.= `F y 36 `F, rkspkativcdkjtk, prlùaikj`l ujc hcjcjaic tltcg `k 32.= `F + 36 `F 4 66.= `F, quk ks duaml dãs nãaig `k acgaugcr. Aucj`l trcfcocdls alj `kaifkgils, gls vcglrks slj duaml dãs nãaigks `k dcjipugcr. Ks duaml dãs skjaiggl sudcr y rkstcr `kaifkgils `k acfkzc quk dugtipgiacr y ìviìr vcglrks gijkcgks. Kstc ks gc prijaipcg rczñj plr gc quk prknkridls utigizcr `kaifkgils kj jukstrls aãgaugls.

¼Suk vkjtcoc tikjk utigizcr kg @kaifkg< Kg @kaifkg sk acgaugc kj ujc ksacgc glhcrätdiac `kniji`c, quk pkrditk gcs kspkainiacailjks `kg rkjìdikjtl c trcvés `k uj cdpgil rcjhl `k gc skócg `k rknkrkjaic, skc ^lgtcok l pltkjaic, plr kokdpgl Gls @kaifkgks puk`kj sudcrsk l rkstcrsk (dugtipgiacj`l y ìviìkj`l kj sus alrrkspljìkjtks rkgcailjks), ncaigitcj`l `k ksk dl`l gls aãgaugls l slguailjks hrcniacs. Kg Fkg nuk lrihijcgdkjtk `kniji`l plr Cgkxcj`kr Hrcmcd Fkgg, pcrc dkìr rkgcailjks `k slji`l, kj gcs gäjkcs tkgkhrãniacs, gcs aucgks aljtcfcj alj ujc idpk`cjaic `k >22 lmds.

@knijiaiñj `k `F C pkscr `k quk kg glhcritdl kj fcsk 32 `k gc rkgcaiñj `k `ls jivkgks `k pltkjaic ks cìdkjsiljcg, tikjk uji`c`ks `k fkgils kj mljlr `kg ijvkjtlr `kg tkgénljl (Cgkxcj`kr Hrcmcd Fkgg). Rcrc lftkjkr acjti`c`ks dãs dcjkocfgks, utigizcdls kg `F (`kaifkgil) kj guhcr `kg fkgil. Rcrc kggl mcy quk dugtipgiacr plr 32 gls vcglrks kxprksc`ls kj fkgils (cg ihucg quk dugtipgiacdls plr dig ujc ìstcjaic si qukrkdls trcfcocr alj digädktrls kj guhcr `k alj dktrls).



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¼Suk `kfkdls scfkr `k gls `kaifkgks<

Qcgvc`lr Hcraäc Acstkggñj, YQ3HA

Kokdpgl? R3 ks ihucg c 622 X y R6 ks ihucg c 322 dX. ¼Auãg ks su rkgcaiñj kj `F<

 () 

Rlr supukstl, cjtks `k ìviìr kstls jivkgks `k pltkjaic, mcy quk aljvkrtirgls c gc disdc uji`c`, X l dX. Qi ìviìdls ìrkatcdkjtk 622 kjtrk 322, kg rksugtc`l lftkji`l skrã ijalrrkatl. Mly kj `äc, sk utigizc kg glhcritdl kj fcsk 32 acsi `k nlrdc kxagusivc. Gc cfrkvicturc pcrc kstk glhcritdl ks gh. Kg cghujls gifrls `k tkxtl cjtihuls, sk puk`k kjaljtrcr gc utigizcaiñj `kg glhcritdl jcturcg, quk ks kg glhcritdl kj fcsk k (k 4 6.83= cprlxidc`cdkjtk). Kj kstc jltc `k cpgiacaiñj sñgl sk utigizcrã kg glhcritdl kj fcsk 32, quk cfrkvicrkdls aldl gh `k cquä kj c`kgcjtk. Pcdfiéj ks plsifgk aljvkrtir `kaifkgils c uji`c`ks gijkcgks. Rridkrl mcy quk aljvkrtir gls `F c fkgils ìviìkj`l kg vcglr plr 32. Rlstkrilrdkjtk, mcy quk kgkvcr 32 (`c`l quk kstcdls utigizcj`l kg glhcritdl kj fcsk 32) c ksc pltkjaic?

    Kokdpgl? c4 61`F, ¼aucjtl ks R 3 / R6< @kspuks `k acgaugcr pridkrl 61/3246.1, plstkrilrdkjtk sustituidls gls `ctls y lftkjkdls?

    

     

Mldlhkjki`c` `k ainrcs Qi tldcdls glhcritdls c judkrls duy hrcj`ks y/l duy pkqukóls, sk vkrc quk kg rksugtc`l `k ksc lpkrcaiñj dctkdctiac frij`c acjti`c`ks auyls judkrls `k ainrcs slj sidigcrks. C gl sudl mcfrc ìnkrkjaic kj gls sihjls, gl quk ijìacrc gl sihuikjtk? Qihjl plsitivl? judkrl aljsi`krc`l :3 Qihjl jkhctivl? judkrl aljsi`krc`l 73 Kokdpgls? Glh 3,222,222,222 4 +9 Glh 2.222223 4 -> @k dcjkrc quk alj gc utigizcaiñj `kg `kaifkg ks plsifgk lpkrcr dctkdãtiacdkjtk uj vcglr duy hrcj`k l duy pkqukól l cdfls sidugtcjkcdkjtk, sij tkjkr gc jkaksi`c` `k rkaurrir c judkrls quk plr su acjti`c` `k ainrcs mcricj plal prcatial su dcjkol.

¼Sué sihjiniac `Fd<

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¼Suk `kfkdls scfkr `k gls `kaifkgks<

Qcgvc`lr Hcraäc Acstkggñj, YQ3HA

Qlfrk ;2 lmds. Kstc acjti`c` `k rknkrkjaic sk `ksihjc cócìkj`l ujc d (`k dX) c `F lftkjiéj`lsk `Fd. Gc rkgcaiñj `k pltkjaics kjtrk R3 y R6 sk aljvikrtk kj ujc rkgcaiñj kjtrk R3 y 3 dX, ijìaãj`lsk kj `Fd.

 ) ( Qkhÿj kg kstãj`cr IKA 68, kxistk ltrc nlrdc `k ksarifir kstc nñrdugc. Gls jivkgks sk rkprkskjtcj alj gc gktrc G y kg vcglr `k rknkrkjaic sk `kfk ijìacr `k nlrdc kxpgäaitc. Gc nñrdugc quk`c `k gc sihuikjtk nlrdc?

 )   (

Qk ksarifiräc GR/3dX 4 8 `F, plr kokdpgl. Qkhÿj gc IKA 68 jl kstã pkrditi`l utigizcr gc kxprksiñj 8 `Fd. Aldl ks duaml dãs aldÿj ksarifir `Fd, skrã éstc gc kxprksiñj quk sk utigizcrã kj kstc jltc `k cpgiacaiñj. Rcrc tkjkr ujc i`kc `k gls ñr`kjks `k dchjitu` quk sk dcjkocj, cquä mcy cghujls kokdpgls? kg rcjhl `k gc pltkjaic `k scgi`c `k uj hkjkrc`lr `k skócg vc `ks`k gls ‑302 `Fd c +62 `Fd l `ks`k 2.23 pX c 2.3 X. Gcs kstcailjks fcsk `k tkgknljäc dñvig trcjsditkj c +01 `Fd l 62 X. Gls tkgénljls dñvigks trcjsditkj `k +32 `Fd c +11 `Fd l `ks`k 32 dX c 6 X. Gls trcjsdislrks `k ìnusiñj `k rcìl y tkgkvisiñj lpkrcj alj jivkgks `k scgi`c `k +82 `Fd c +92 `Fd l `ks`k 32 eX c 3 DX.

¼Sué ks uj jivkg< Aldl vidls cjtkrilrdkjtk, kg tkrdijl `Fd aljggkvc gc rknkrkjaic c uj jivkg `k pltkjaic `k 3 dX. Ltrcs acjti`c`ks `k rknkrkjaic utigizc`cs jlrdcgdkjtk slj 3 X, 3 ^, 3 »^ y tcdfiéj 3 C l 3 »C. Qk `ksihjcj aldl `F (X), `F (^), `F (»^), `F (C) y `F (»C), rkspkativcdkjtk, l kj dkì`cs `k ijtkjsi`c` `k acdpl, `F (X/d 6), `F (^/d), `F (»^/d), `F (C/d) y `F (»C/d). Aldl kj kg acsl `k gls `Fd, gc nlrdc aljvkjailjcg `k ksarifir kstcs uji`c`ks `FX, `F^, `F»^, `FC, `F»C, `FX/d 6, `F^/d, `F »^/d, `FC/d y `F »C/d sk `ksväcj `kg kstãj`cr, pkrl skrãj gcs utigizc`cs kj kstc jltc `k cpgiacaiñj. C pcrtir `k gls vcglrks vcglrk s rkgctivls `k gc pltkjaic R3 (tkjsiñj [3) rknkri`ls c gc pltkjaic pl tkjaic R6 (tkjsiñj [6), sk lftikjkj gls vcglrks cfslgutls utigizcj`l gls vcglrks `k rknkrkjaic

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¼Suk `kfkdls scfkr `k gls `kaifkgks<

Qcgvc`lr Hcraäc Acstkggñj, YQ3HA

¼Auãg ks gc ìnkrkjaic kjtrk gls `kaifkgils `k tkjsiñj y gls `kaifkgils `k pltkjaic< Rcrc kdpkzcr, ks jkakscril lgvi`crsk `k tl`l gl quk sk mcyc lä`l cakrac `k gls `kaifkgils `k tkjsiñj y `k pltkjaic. Qñgl kxistk uj tipl `k `kaifkgil, y rkprkskjtc gc rkgcaiñj kjtrk `ls jivkgks `k pltkjaic R3 y R6. Rlr supukstl, sk puk`k kxprkscr aucgquikr jivkg `k pltkjaic aldl ujc tkjsiñj si sk aljlak gc rksistkjaic.

            

Qk puk`k kxprkscr gc rkgcaiñj glhcrätdiac aldl sihuk?

      ()     [tigizcj`l gcs sihuikjtks rkhgcs, ()           Lftkjkdls (utigizcj`l glh pcrc rknkrirjls cg glhcritdl kj fcsk 32)?       ()       ()()  Lfsérvksk kg sihjl dkjls cjtks `kg térdijl `k gc rksistkjaic. Kj gc dcylräc `k gls acsls, gc rksistkjaic `k rknkrkjaic ks gc disdc pcrc cdfls jivkgks `k pltkjaic, V3 4 V6. Rlr gl tcjtl?

   Qk puk`k sidpginiacr kj?   

Aljsi`krcj`l V3 4 V6

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¼Suk `kfkdls scfkr `k gls `kaifkgks<

Qcgvc`lr Hcraäc Acstkggñj, YQ3HA

Dchjitu` `k rkgcaiñj `F Kg `kaifkg kj su nlrdc fãsiac, ks gc kxprksiñj dãs hkjkrcg `k kstuìl aldl dchjitu` `k rkgcaiñj. Gcs kaucailjks dãs kdpgkc`cs pcrc gls pcrãdktrls kgéatrials? pltkjaic, tkjsiñj y alrrikjtk, alrrksplj`kj c gcs kaucailjks fãsiacs, `k gc gky `k lmds. `Fr K   dfé u d  ñ      ufä ‗— 

quk ks uj vcglr `k pltkjaic `k rknkrkjaic l rkgctivl cg lrihkj `kg sistkdc l airauitl cjcgizc`l (c gc kjtrc`c `kg disdl).

   

R ks gc pltkjaic dkì`c kj uj pujtl aucgquikrc `k uj sistkdc l airauitl aucj`l sk kjväc ujc skócg kj kg lrihkj `kg disdl R lrihkj ks g pltkjaic `k skócg kj kg lrihkj `kg airauitl l sistkdc, dkì`l kj gc disdc uji`c` quk R. Qi sk vcräc gc pltkjaic ijykatc`c kj kg lrihkj `kg airauitl, gls `Fr pkrdcjkakrãj aljstcjtks k ij`kpkjìkjtks `kg jivkg `k gc skócg ijykatc`c. Ks `kair quk gls `Fr slj ujc acrcatkrästiac prlpic `kg airauitl l sistkdc y jl vcräcj dikjtrcs jl vcrié gc Hcjcjaic l ctkjucaiñj `k ac`c kgkdkjtl `kg disdl. `Fw Ks ltrl tipl `k `kaifkg `lj`k gc pltkjaic `k rknkrkjaic 3Xctt

   

Qu kquivcgkjaic alj gls `Fd ks? 3`FX 4 12 `Fd `Fe Qk utigizc dcylrdkjtk `lj`k gls jivkgks gls jivkgks `k pltkjaic kj oukhl slj kgkvc`ls, tcgks aldl gcs rk`ks `k ìstrifuaiñj kgéatriac. Kg vcglr `k rknkrkjaic ks 3 Eiglwctt.

  

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¼Suk `kfkdls scfkr `k gls `kaifkgks<

Qcgvc`lr Hcraäc Acstkggñj, YQ3HA

Ks `kair kg `Fdl ks uj jivkg `k pltkjaic `k ujc skócg rknkri`l kj ac`c pujtl cg vcglr jldijcg `k gc skócg `k kjtrc`c. Rlr kokdpgl -62 `F plr `kfcol `kg vcglr kxistkjtk kj kg lrihkj `kg airauitl l sistkdc. `Fdlp Ks kg vcglr `kg rui`l dkìl kj gc nlrdc pslnldétriac (c trcvés `k uj nigtrl alj ä  uñ m ≍ u) y rknkri`l cg jivkg `k gc skócg `k prukfc kj ìaml pujtl. `F» (Qistkdcs `k Aldujiacailjks) Ks ujc uji`c` `k cdpgic cpgiacaiñj kj kg ãrkc `k gcs aldujiacailjks, pcrtiaugcrdkjtk kj kg cjãgisis `k prlpchcaiñj `k skócgks kgkatrldchjétiacs kj kg kspcail gifrk. Kg vcglr `k gc skócg `k rknkrkjaic ks kg `k ujc ijtkjsi`c` `k acdpl kgéatrial `k 3 diarl ^/d (3»^/d).Kj cghujls crtäaugls y/l pufgiacailjks sukgk aljnujìr kg `Fu (quk alrrksplj`k c Pkgknljäc) alj `F» (Qistkdc `k Aldujiacailjks) plr gc ijagusiñj `k gc  ‗u— y    hh ‗du— (»). Q f  ñ  x  

kxprksiñj cjcgizc`c pcrc ìnkrkjaicr alrrkatcdkjtk gc uji`c` `k dkì`c dkjailjc`c. Qk utigizc kg `F» pcrc niocr gls gäditks `k gcs ãrkcs `k alfkrturc `k gls acjcgks `k tkgkvisiñj l `k gcs kdislrcs `k rcìlìnusiñj pÿfgiac `k CD y ND, `ktkrdijcj`l kg jivkg `kg acdpl kgéatrial dkì`l kj »^/d kj ìaml pujtl. Ãrkc `k alfkrturc `k gls acjcgks > cg 31? 88 `F» 4 82=2 »^/d `F^ Kxprksc gc rkspukstc kj `kaifkgks `k uj diarñnljl c ujc nrkaukjaic `ktkrdijc`c. Kg Jivkg `k rknkrkjaic `k 2 `F ks ihucg c 3^ (2 `F^) aucj`l sk slfrk uj diarñnljl ujc prksiñj caÿstiac `k 3 ìjc/ad 6

   

`Fd^ Ks ujc uji`c` `k dkì`c, surhi`c pcrc kstcfgkakr ujc uji`c` `k rknkrkjaic pcrc AAP^ l Pkgkvisiñj plr acfgk. K ^  ñ    3 d^ f u d  8; ℮

        

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¼Suk `kfkdls scfkr `k gls `kaifkgks<

Qcgvc`lr Hcraäc Acstkggñj, YQ3HA

`F` Aldl rcìc`lr Isltrñpial ks ujc cfstrcaaiñj dctkdãtiac `kniji`c pcrc plsifigitcr gls aãgaugls rkspkativls, ks usucg rknkrir gc hucjcaic `k ujc cjtkjc aucgquikrc, rkspkatl `kg cgujc ltrc `k ncatifgk rkcgizcaiñj prcatiac. Rcrc kggl sk kdpgkc uj ìplgl `k dkìc lj`c aldl rknkrkjaic. Rcrc aljvkrtir `Fi c `F` y

   @ñj`k?

viakvkrsc, sk kdpgkc sihuikjtk nlrdugc?

`F` 4 `Fi + 6.3;

RrC ? Rltkjaic rcìc`c plr ujc cjtkjc Rr@C/6? Rltkjaic rcìc`c plr uj rcìc`lr isltrñpial

Lftkjkr `kaifkgks `k ujc pltkjaic `k rknkrkjaic 

  





 



Auc`rl rksudkj `k aljvkrsiñj ^-`F-R`F-`F^- `Fη^



Aljvkrtir `F c Rltkjaic kj Xctts  



 





  

^lgtcok c pcrtir `k rksistkjaic `k Vknkrkjaic (Vksistkjaic skhÿj kg airauitl `k idpk`cjaic) 

 

 



UT

 

@kaifkgks c pcrtir ^lgtcok `k rknkrkjaic 

  





 





Aljvkrtir Xctts c `Fη^ 

  





 



   

Aljvkrtir `Fd c η^lgtils 

 

+

  

 

U∖ T  

 

  UT 

 





gc

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¼Suk `kfkdls scfkr `k gls `kaifkgks<

Qcgvc`lr Hcraäc Acstkggñj, YQ3HA

Gc nujaiñj `k trcjsnkrkjaic jlrdcgdkjtk sk kspkainiac kj `F?

            UT T      Qi gc pltkjaic `k scgi`c R6 `k uj airauitl `k `ls pukrtls ks dcylr quk gc pltkjaic `k kjtrc`c R3, kjtljaks gc rkgcaiñj glhcrätdiac kjtrk R6 y R3 ks plsitivc. Kstl sk aljlak aldl cdpginiacaiñj l hcjcjaic. Qi gc pltkjaic `k scgi`c R6 `k uj airauitl `k `ls pukrtls ks dkjlr quk gc pltkjaic `k kjtrc`c R3, kjtljaks gc rkgcaiñj glhcrätdiac kjtrk R6 y R3 ks jkhctivc. Kstl sk aljlak aldl ctkjucaiñj l pérì`c (sk lditk kg sihjl dkjls).

      UT      

Rcrc gc kvcgucaiñj `k gc rkgcaiñj `k pltkjaics l `k gc rkgcaiñj `k tkjsiljks c pcrtir `k gls vcglrks kj `kaifkgils sk utigizcj gcs sihuikjtks nñrdugcs?

  ⁀ 

L

  ⁀ 

Rcrc Vlut 4 Vij

Gls cdpginiac`lrks aljvkjailjcgks aljsihukj hcjcjaics `k mcstc 02 `F kj ujc slgc ktcpc, gl quk sk alrrksplj`k alj rkgcailjks `k tkjsiñj `k mcstc 322 vkaks y rkgcailjks `k pltkjaic `k mcstc 32222 vkaks. Rcrc vcglrks dcylrks kxistk kg rikshl `k quk kg cdpginiac`lr lsaigk. Qk puk`kj lftkjkr hcjcjaics dãs kgkvc`cs aljkatcj`l vcrics

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¼Suk `kfkdls scfkr `k gls `kaifkgks<

Qcgvc`lr Hcraäc Acstkggñj, YQ3HA

Kokdpgl? Nih. 6 dukstrc gcs ktcpcs `k kjtrc`c `k uj rkakptlr. Gc hcjcjaic tltcg sk acgaugc `k gc sihuikjtk dcjkrc? c 4

-2.8 `F + 36 `F - 8 `F + 61 `F 4 68.1 `F.

Aljvkrsiñj `k `kaifkgils c plrakjtcok y viakvkrsc K éd ‗ — h ‗ —.  3% h  éd   u

vcglr. 3 % `k x 4 2,23 x

⋋

Cg utigizcr plrakjtcoks, ks jkakscril nlrdugcrsk gl sihuikjtk? • ¼Kd u v  ñ   < • ¼Kd   u  %x `k ujc acjti`c` l uj %x dãs l dkjls `k ujc

acjti`c`< Pcg y aldl sk mc dkjailjc`l cjtkrilrdkjtk, gcs dchjitu`ks `k tkjsiñj slj? tkjsiñj, alrrikjtk, ijtkjsi`c` `k acdpl y alkniaikjtk `k rkngkxiñj, plr kokdpgl. Gcs dchjitu`ks `k pltkjaic ijaguykj gc pltkjaic, rksistkjaic, nihurc `k rui`l y `kjsi`c` `k pltkjaic.

Aljvkrsiñj `k % `k tkjsiñj c `kaifkgils y viakvkrsc Kg tcjtl plr aikjtl x% `k ujc dchjitu` `k tkjsiñj sk aljvikrtk c `kaifkgils `k gc sihuikjtk nlrdc?

   

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¼Suk `kfkdls scfkr `k gls `kaifkgks<

Qcgvc`lr Hcraäc Acstkggñj, YQ3HA

(  )  Rcrc lftkjkr kg vcglr x% kj `kaifkgils, sk `kfk aljvkrtir pridkrl kg vcglr x `kg plrakjtcok c uj jÿdkrl rcailjcg ìviìéj`lgl plr 322. Rcrc aljvkrtir c `kaifkgils, sk dugtipgiac kg glhcritdl `kg jÿdkrl rcailjcg plr 32 (dchjitu` `k pltkjaic). Kokdpgl? Csudikj`l quk gc pltkjaic `k scgi`c `k uj airauitl `k `ls pukrtls ks ihucg cg 1% `k gc pltkjaic `k kjtrc`c, ¼auãg ks gc ctkjucaiñj kj `F<

  (  ) Rcrc aljvkrtir kg vcglr kj `F c plrakjtcok?

 ⁀

Kokdpgl? Acgaugcr gc pltkjaic `k scgi`c `k uj ctkjuc`lr `k 1 `F aldl plrakjtcok `k gc tkjsiñj `k kjtrc`c.

 ∖ 

Gc pltkjaic c gc scgi`c `k uj ctkjuc`lr `k 1 `F ks gc ditc` ;2% `k gc pltkjaic `k kjtrc`c. Jltc? Aldl cjtkrilrdkjtk, ctkjucaiñj sihjiniac vcglrks kj `kaifkgils jkhctivls

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¼Suk `kfkdls scfkr `k gls `kaifkgks<

Qcgvc`lr Hcraäc Acstkggñj, YQ3HA

      ( (   ) Rcrc gc aljvkrsiñj c `kaifkgils sk utigizc gc sihuikjtk nñrdugc?        (   ) 

Jltc? [tigizcr kg ncatlr `k 32 pcrc dchjitu`ks `k pltkjaic. Kokdpgl? Gc pltkjaic `k scgi`c `k uj ctkjuc`lr ks 62% dkjlr quk gc pltkjaic `k kjtrc`c. ¼Auãg ks gc ctkjucaiñj kj `kaifkgils<

       (   )

Cg ihucg quk kj kg acsl `kg aãgaugl alj tkjsiljks, kg aãgaugl `kg tcjtl plr aikjtl dãs `k ujc acjti`c` `c aldl rksugtc`l uj vcglr kj `kaifkgils ìnkrkjtk quk kg aãgaugl `kg tcjtl plr aikjtl dkjls.

[tigizcaiñj `k vcglrks kj `F kj gls aãgaugls Kj kstc skaaiñj sk `ksarifk añdl sudcr jivkgks `k pltkjaic y tkjsiñj kj `kaifkgils.

Qudc `k jivkgks `k pltkjaic ¼12 `Fd + 12 `Fd 4 >2 `Fd< ¡Rlr supukstl quk jl! Qi aljvkrtidls kstls jivkgks c vcglrks gijkcgks, rksugtc lfvil quk 3 X + 3 X 4 6 X, quk slj 11 `Fd y jl >2 `Fd. Rkrl kstl ks vkr`c` sñgl si gls jivkgks `k pltkjaic kj gls vcglrks ijstcjtãjkls jl tikjkj ujc

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¼Suk `kfkdls scfkr `k gls `kaifkgks<

Qcgvc`lr Hcraäc Acstkggñj, YQ3HA

Ruk`k quk kj kstk dldkjtl surhk, gc sihuikjtk prkhujtc, ¼si gc uji`c` lrihijcgdkjtk kstc kj `Fd, skric dãs nãaig, sudcrgc kj nlrdc ìrkatc `Fd, kg vcglr rksugtcjtk, sudc`l kj nlrdc gijkcg ks -1`Fd, kstl ìnikrk kjlrdkdkjtk `k gc rkspukstc cjtkrilr, gl aucg ks ijalrrkatl, yc quk aldl aldprkj`krã gcs skócgks `k pltkjaic aucj`l sk sudc su dchjitu` gijkcg, hkjkrc ujc pltkjaic rksugtcjtk, kg aucg kstk rkprkskjtc ujc rknkrkjaic kj uji`c`ks `Fd, ks plr kstc rczñj quk gc lpkrcaiñj sk rkcgizc pridkrl aljvirtiéj`lgcs, pcrc gukhl pcscrgcs c gc rknkrkjaic kj `Fd. Rkrl aldl téajial l ijhkjikrl `kg ãrkc, aldprkj`k quk kstk ks uj acsl mipltétial.

Dkì`c `k skócgks akrac `kg jivkg `k rui`l [jc `k gcs tcrkcs dãs aldujks ks gc `k dkìr skócgks `éfigks akracjcs cg jivkg `k rui`l `k uj ijstrudkjtl `k dkì`c, aldl uj rkakptlr l uj cjcgizc`lr `k kspkatrl. Kg ijstrudkjtl `k dkì`c dukstrc gc sudc tltcg `kg rui`l ijmkrkjtk y gc pltkjaic `k gc skócg, cujquk i`kcgdkjtk sñgl `kfkräc dlstrcr gc pltkjaic VDQ `k gc skócg, quk ks gl quk jlrdcgdkjtk laurrk cg utigizcr uj dkì`lr `k pltkjaic. Kj kg acsl `k uj cjcgizc`lr `k kspkatrl ks jkakscril cativcr kg `ktkatlr VDQ. Rridkrl sk `ktkrdijc kg jivkg `k rui`l ijmkrkjtk Rr `kg ijstrudkjtl `k dkì`c

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¼Suk `kfkdls scfkr `k gls `kaifkgks<

Qcgvc`lr Hcraäc Acstkggñj, YQ3HA

Qk puk`k lfskrvcr quk sij rkcgizcr jijhujc aldpkjscaiñj, kg rui`l `kg ijstrudkjtl `k dkì`c prlvlacrã uj krrlr `k 3.> `F, quk ks uj vcglr rkgctivcdkjtk kgkvc`l pcrc uj ijstrudkjtl `k dkì`c `k prkaisiñj. JLPCQ? Dcjkocr vcglrks kj `kaifkgils ks duaml dãs skjaiggl si sk dkdlrizcj ujls aucjtls vcglrks, c pcrtir `k gls aucgks sk puk`kj lftkjkr ltrls. Qk puk`k sidpginiacr kg prlfgkdc rk`lj`kcj`l mcaic crrifc l mcaic cfcol cghujls `k gls rksugtc`ls pcrc quk skc dãs nãaig rkalr`cr kstcs ainrcs. Pl`l gl quk mcy quk mcakr ks dkdlrizcr gls vcglrks cprlxidc`ls, plr kokdpgl, uj ncatlr `k 6 kj pltkjaic sk alrrksplj`k alj 1 `F (kj guhcr `kg vcglr kxcatl `k 1.26 `F). 1 `F jl sk alrrksplj`k kxcatcdkjtk alj ujc rkgcaiñj `k pltkjaic `k 6 y > `F jl sk alrrksplj`k kxcatcdkjtk alj ujc rkgcaiñj `k pltkjaic `k 0. Qij kdfcrhl,

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¼Suk `kfkdls scfkr `k gls `kaifkgks<

Qcgvc`lr Hcraäc Acstkggñj, YQ3HA

Cghujcs ainrcs ÿtigks Gcs sihuikjtks ainrcs tcdfiéj puk`kj skr ÿtigks c gc mlrc `k rkcgizcr gls aãgaugls? 31 `Fd sk alrrksplj`k alj [VDQ 4 3 ^ slfrk ;2 ℮ 2 `Fd sk alrrksplj`k alj [VDQ 4 2.660 ^ slfrk ;2 ℮ 328 `F (»^) sk alrrksplj`k alj 2 `Fd slfrk ;2 ℮ 362 `F (»^) sk alrrksplj`k alj 3 ^ -380 `Fd ks gc pltkjaic `k rui`l r ui`l térdial alj uj cjaml `k ` k fcj`c `k 3 Mz c ujc tkdpkrcturc cprlxidc`c 62 ²A (>= ²N).

Ltrcs dchjitu`ks `k rknkrkjaic Mcstc cmlrc, mkdls utigizc`l aldl dchjit u   3 dX y ;2 Ω  ij kdfcrhl, mcy sistkdcs quk utigizcj rknkrkjaics ìstijtcs, aldl kj tkgkvisiñj quk sk uscj 8; Ω y  ÿ   d    >22 Ω. G d  VN  >2 Ω d d     d  >22 Ω   K  

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¼Suk `kfkdls scfkr `k gls `kaifkgks<

Qcgvc`lr Hcraäc Acstkggñj, YQ3HA

Pcfgc `k % `k pérì`cs kj `F Rkrì`c Rkrì`c Rkrì`c Rkrì`c Rkrì`c Rkrì`c Rkrì`c Rkrì`c `F plrakjtucg `F plrakjtucg `F plrakjtucg `F plrakjtucg 6.2 18 % 0.2 >2 % >.2 8; % 2.6 0% 6.6 19 % 0.6 >6 % 8.2 =2 % 2.0 =% 6.0 06 % 0.0 >1 % =.2 =0 % 2.> 31 % 6.> 0; % 0.> >; % 9.2 =8 % 2.= 38 % 6.= 08 % 0.= >8 % 32.2 92 % 3.2 63 % 1.2 ;2 % ;.2 >= % 62.2 99 % 3.6 60 % 1.6 ;6 % ;.6 82 % 12.2 322 % 3.0 68 % 1.0 ;0 % ;.0 83 % 02.2 322 % 3.> 12 % 1.> ;> % ;.> 81 % 3.= 11 % 1.= ;= % ;.= 80 %

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¼Suk `kfkdls scfkr `k gls `kaifkgks<

Qcgvc`lr Hcraäc Acstkggñj, YQ3HA

Qlfrk gls vcglrks kj `F kjtrk y gc rkgcaiñj `k pltkjaic / Pkjsiñj Aldl sk puk`k vkr ks duaml dãs nãaig sudcr gcs uji`c`ks kj `kaifkg quk ujc dugtipgiacaiñj aldpgkoc, kokdpgl alj `F kj pltkjaic? 3222

6222

4 6 x ; x 322 4 32 x 32 x 32 4 32 x 322 4 6 x 3222

4: 4: 4: 4:

1 `F + 8 `F + 62 `F 32 `F + 32 `F + 32 `F 32 `F + 62 `F 1 `F + 12 `F

4 12 `F 4 12 `F 4 12 `F 4 11 `F

Ltrc nlrdc `k rkgcailjcr? = `F 4 1 `F + ;`F 4: 6x14> (Gc hcjcjaic rkgcailjc`c pcrc = `F ks dÿgtipgl `k > cprlxidc`cdkjtk) Aucj`l gcs idpk`cjaics `k `k pltkjaic tcjtl `k kjtrc`c aldl scgi`c slj gcs disdcs,

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¼Suk `kfkdls scfkr `k gls `kaifkgks<

Qcgvc`lr Hcraäc Acstkggñj, YQ3HA

Fifgilhrcnäc U3T ¼`F l jl `F< Vlm`k & Qamwcrz, Dcräc Oidéjkz, dcyl `k 622> @P-DO-223-2>. @P-DO-2 23-2>. U6T Xieipkìc www.wieipkìc.lrh www.wieipkìc.lrh.. U1T Dcjucg pcrc kg Vcìlcniailjc`l AVCQ, Kg Qcgvc`lr, cfrig `k 622;. U0T Kg `kaifkg acrcatkrästiacs y cpgiacailjks, Ijh. Kùcr`l O. Dkjsl, Vkvistc tkgkhrãniac kgkatrñjiac, pufgiacaiñj kjkrl `k3991. U;T Gc pãhijc `k Rikrrl, Cjtkjjc Hcij, Q-Dktkr, Vcìl/Qihjcg rkplrt

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