Psychology VCE units 1&2 5th edition

Psychology 5th edition

FOR THE VCE STUDENT UNITS 1 AND 2 JOHN GRIVAS LINDA CARTER

This edition published 2010 by John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 42 McDougall Street, Milton, Qld 4064 First edition published 1992 Second edition 1996 Third edition 2000 Fourth edition 2005 Typeset in 10/12.5 pt ITC New Baskerville LT © J. Grivas and L. Carter 1992, 1996, 2000, 2005, 2010 The moral rights of the authors have been asserted. National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-publication data Title: Edition: ISBN: Notes: Target audience: Subjects:

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Psychology for the VCE student: Units 1 & 2. 5th ed. 978 1 74216 020 7 (pbk.) 978 1 74216 206 5 (web). Includes index. For VCE students. 1. Psychology Textbooks. 2. Interpersonal relations Textbooks. I. Carter, Linda, 1957 . Title. Grivas, John 658

Reproduction and communication for educational purposes The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter or 10% of the pages of this work, whichever is the greater, to be reproduced and/or communicated by any educational institution for its educational purposes provided that the educational institution (or the body that administers it) has given a remuneration notice to Copyright Agency Limited (CAL). Reproduction and communication for other purposes Except as permitted under the Act (for example, a fair dealing for the purposes of study, research, criticism or review), no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, communicated or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written permission. All inquiries should be made to the publisher. Cover and internal design image: Getty Images/Greg Pease Illustrated by Paul Lennon, Craig Jackson, Terry St Ledger, Shane Collinge and the Wiley Art Studio Printed in China by Printplus Limited 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

C O NTE NTS Preface ................................................................................................................... vii About eBookPLUS ........................................................................................ ix About eGuidePLUS ...................................................................................... x Acknowledgements ......................................................................................... xi

Unit 1

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY 1 Nature of psychology............................................... 3 Defining psychology ................................................................... 4 Behaviour and mental processes ...................................... 4 Distinction between psychology and psychiatry ..... 7 Psychology as a profession.................................................... 9 Areas of specialisation within psychology ......... 10 Origins of contemporary psychology ......................... 16 Philosophical roots of psychology .......................... 16 Scientific roots of psychology..................................... 18 Classic perspectives and theories in psychology ...................................................................................... 19 Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt ............................ 19 Functionalism William James .............................. 20 Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud .......................... 21 Behaviourism John B. Watson ................................ 22 Humanism Carl Rogers ........................................... 23 Contemporary perspectives and theories in psychology ...................................................................................... 26 Biological perspective ...................................................... 26 Behavioural perspective ................................................. 29 Cognitive perspective ....................................................... 31 Socio-cultural perspective ............................................. 33 Scientific nature of psychology ....................................... 37 Scientific versus non-scientific explanations ......... 39 Psychics and psi abilities ................................................ 39 Astrology ................................................................................... 42 Chapter test .......................................................................................... 46

2 Research methods 1................................................. 49 Steps in psychological research ...................................... 50 Step 1: identification of the research problem ................................................................................ 50

Step 2: construction of a hypothesis ..................... 51 Step 3: designing the method ................................... 52 Step 4: collecting the data ............................................ 52 Step 5: analysing the data ............................................. 53 Step 6: interpreting the data ...................................... 53 Step 7: reporting the research findings.............. 53 Research methods .................................................................... 55 Experimental research .......................................................... 56 Independent and dependent variables............... 56 Extraneous variables......................................................... 57 Experimental and control groups .......................... 58 Sampling procedures ....................................................... 60 Descriptive research ................................................................ 65 Case studies............................................................................. 65 Observational studies ....................................................... 67 Qualitative and quantitative data................................... 71 Qualitative data .................................................................... 72 Quantitative data................................................................. 72 Qualitative and quantitative descriptive research ................................................................................ 73 Making sense of data.............................................................. 74 Percentages ............................................................................. 74 Tables .......................................................................................... 75 Graphs ........................................................................................ 76 Pie charts .................................................................................. 78 Ethics and professional conduct in psychological research ........................................................... 81 Roles and responsibilities of the experimenter .................................................................... 82 Participants rights ............................................................. 82 Professional conduct ........................................................ 84 Use of animals in psychological research ................ 85 Chapter test .......................................................................................... 90

3 The visual perception system .................. 94 Roles of the eye in visual perception ......................... 96 Characteristics of the visual perception system ................................................................................................ 98 Reception ................................................................................. 98 Transduction .......................................................................... 99 Transmission ....................................................................... 100 Organisation and interpretation .......................... 100 Visual perception principles .......................................... 105 Gestalt principles ............................................................. 105

Depth principles............................................................... 113 Perceptual constancies................................................. 120 Perceptual set and visual perception ....................... 124 Perceptual set ..................................................................... 125 Distortions of visual perception by illusions ...... 133 M ller-Lyer illusion ........................................................ 134 Ames room illusion ........................................................ 138 Chapter test ...................................................................................... 142

4 Lifespan development ........................................145 Defining lifespan development .................................... 146 Stages of lifespan development................................... 147 Areas of lifespan development .................................... 149 How development proceeds .................................... 151 Interaction of hereditary and environmental factors in shaping psychological development .............................................................................. 155 Role of maturation in development................... 160 Sensitive periods in development ........................ 161 Developmental psychology from different perspectives................................................................................ 164 Research methods for studying development .............................................................................. 165 Longitudinal and cross-sectional studies ........ 166 Twin studies ......................................................................... 167 Adoption studies .............................................................. 169 Selective breeding experiments ............................ 169 Ethics associated with studying development .... 173 Chapter test ...................................................................................... 175

5 Theories of psychological development........................................................................177 Gibson’s theory of perceptual development...... 179 Emotional development .................................................... 184 Attachment theory .......................................................... 184 Harlow s experiments on attachment in monkeys ............................................................................. 195 Cognitive development ...................................................... 200 Key principles of Piaget s theory .......................... 201 Piaget s four-stage theory of cognitive development................................................................... 203 Criticisms of Piaget s theory..................................... 213 Moral development .............................................................. 215 Kohlberg s theory of moral development ...... 215 Criticisms of Kohlberg s theory ............................. 222 Psychosocial development ............................................... 224 iv

Erikson s theory of psychosocial development................................................................... 224 Criticisms of Erikson s theory ................................. 234 Psychological changes in the very old ..................... 235 Cognitive changes ........................................................... 236 Psychosocial changes..................................................... 237 Successful ageing ................................................................... 238 Baltes Selection, Optimisation and Compensation theory .............................................. 239 Chapter test ...................................................................................... 243

6 Mental illness across the lifespan..........................................................................................246 What is mental illness? ....................................................... 248 Psychotic illness................................................................. 249 Non-psychotic illness ..................................................... 249 Incidence of mental illness in Australia .......... 251 Classifying mental illnesses ....................................... 254 Labelling someone with a mental illness............... 256 Disruptions to normal development ........................ 258 Autism Spectrum Disorder ....................................... 258 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)............................................................................. 263 Eating disorders ................................................................ 266 Anxiety disorders ............................................................. 271 Schizophrenia .................................................................... 275 Dementia ............................................................................... 281 Chapter test ...................................................................................... 287

Unit 2

SELF AND OTHERS 7 Research methods 2..............................................291 Research methods ................................................................. 292 Qualitative and quantitative research ............... 292 More on experimental research ........................... 295 Correlational studies ..................................................... 301 Descriptive statistics ............................................................. 305 Frequency distribution ................................................ 305 Measures of central tendency ................................. 307 Variability............................................................................... 310 Reliability and validity in research ...................... 315 Reporting conventions ....................................................... 317 Research report ................................................................ 317 Chapter test ...................................................................................... 322

8 Attitude formation and change ........325

Altruism......................................................................................... 430

Attitude formation ................................................................ 326 Tri-component model of attitudes ...................... 327 Attitudes and behaviour ............................................. 329 Factors influencing attitude formation............ 333 Attitudes towards people .................................................. 337 Stereotyping ........................................................................ 337 Prejudice and discrimination.................................. 340 Factors contributing to the development of prejudice ..................................................................... 346 Factors that may reduce prejudice...................... 349 Measurement of attitudes ................................................ 359 Observational studies .................................................... 359 Self-report methods ....................................................... 360 Advantages and limitations of attitude measurement devices ............................................... 365 Ethics in conducting research on attitude measurement ................................................................. 366 Chapter test ...................................................................................... 370

Factors influencing reluctance to help.................... 432 Diffusion of responsibility ......................................... 432 Audience inhibition....................................................... 434 Cost benefit analysis ..................................................... 435

9 Social influences on the individual ..................................................................................373 Social influence........................................................................ 374 What is a group?...................................................................... 374 Status and power within groups................................... 376 Types of power ................................................................... 376 Effects of status and power within groups ..... 378 Zimbardo s Stanford Prison Experiment ....... 378 Ethical issues in Zimbardo s experiment........ 381 Obedience ................................................................................... 384 Milgram s experiments on obedience ............. 384 Factors affecting obedience ..................................... 387 Ethical issues in obedience studies ..................... 390 Conformity ................................................................................. 394 Asch s experiments on conformity...................... 394 Factors affecting conformity .................................... 396 Group influences on behaviour ................................... 404 The peer group................................................................. 404 Peer pressure ...................................................................... 406 Risk-taking behaviour ................................................... 409 Chapter test ...................................................................................... 413

10 Pro-social and anti-social behaviour .................................................................................416 Pro-social behaviour............................................................. 417 Factors influencing pro-social behaviour ....... 419

Ethical considerations in studies on pro-social behaviour ............................................................. 435 Anti-social behaviour ........................................................... 437 Aggression............................................................................. 437 Bullying ................................................................................... 449 Chapter test ...................................................................................... 454

11 Intelligence..............................................................................457 Ways of describing intelligence .................................... 458 Binet intelligence as an age-related set of abilities ................................................................. 459 Wechsler intelligence as verbal and performance abilities ............................................... 460 Gardner s theory of multiple intelligences .................................................................... 461 Sternberg s triarchic theory of intelligence ...................................................................... 466 Cattell-Horn-Carroll model of psychometric abilities .............................................. 468 Salovey and Mayer s ability-based model of emotional intelligence ...................................... 473 Measuring intelligence ....................................................... 476 Binet s test of intelligence ......................................... 476 Stanford Binet test of intelligence ..................... 477 Wechsler s tests of intelligence .............................. 478 IQ and its calculation ................................................... 481 Does IQ = intelligence? ............................................... 482 Variability of intelligence test scores.................. 484 Test validity and test reliability ............................... 486 Test standardisation and test norms .................. 488 Standardised testing procedures .......................... 488 Culture-biased and culture-fair tests .................. 489 Strengths and limitations of intelligence tests and IQ scores ..................................................... 492 Ethical standards for intelligence testing .................................................................................. 493 Factors that influence intelligence ............................. 495 Interaction of genetic and environmental factors .................................................................................. 495 Chapter test ...................................................................................... 504 v

12 Personality ..............................................................................507 Ways of describing personality ..................................... 508 Theories of personality...................................................... 510 Psychodynamic theories of personality ............ 511 Trait theories of personality ..................................... 523 Humanistic theories of personality ..................... 535 Influence of genetic and environmental factors ............................................................................................ 539 Longitudinal studies ...................................................... 539 Twin studies ......................................................................... 540 Adoption studies .............................................................. 542 Neurobiological factors and personality ......... 542 Measuring personality......................................................... 547 Personality tests ................................................................. 547 Use of personality and aptitude inventories in vocational selections ............... 550 Projective tests.................................................................... 559 Validity and reliability of personality tests ........... 562 Test validity ........................................................................... 562 Test reliability ..................................................................... 563 Ethical guidelines for personality testing ............. 565 Chapter test ...................................................................................... 568 Answers ........................................................................................................... 571 Glossary ......................................................................................................... 573 References ....................................................................................................... 584 Index ................................................................................................................. 603

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P R EFA CE The fifth edition of Psychology for the VCE Student Units 1 & 2 has been written to specifically address the VCE Psychology study design accredited for the period 1 January 2010 to December 2014. In preparing the material for this edition, we were mindful of the diverse interests and capabilities of students who undertake Units 1 and 2, most of whom are studying Psychology for the first time. We have endeavoured to develop a text that is accessible to all students, regardless of specific needs, interests, abilities and socio-cultural background. We have also taken the opportunity to address teacher feedback by further developing the Australian content of the book in more direct and explicit ways, enhancing its graphical content and visual appeal, providing answers to all learning activity questions and chapter tests, and providing digital resources that have been specifically developed for use with the text. The digital resources are available through the innovative eBookPLUS (for students) and eGuidePLUS (for teachers) that accompany and interface with the text. The fifth edition also provides Units 1 and 2 students with knowledge and skills that will thoroughly prepare them to successfully undertake Units 3 and 4 Psychology, particularly research methods. Most of the content, learning activities and assessment tasks have been successfully trialled with year 11 students over many years. We hope students enjoy working with this edition of the text as much as we enjoyed developing the material.

Using the book We have attempted to produce an all-inclusive textbook that is suitable for independent student use and from which students can fulfil all requirements of the study design without needing to refer to other resources, apart from the Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority s (2009) VCE Psychology Study Design and the relevant assessment memoranda and notices in the VCAA Bulletin. The text systematically and comprehensively addresses all the areas of study, key knowledge and key skills specified in the study design. We have provided a theoretical framework that addresses each outcome, with a diverse range of everyday examples and applications to elucidate theories and concepts. As students work through the

text, they will find that it mostly follows the study design very explicitly both in the use of terminology and in the sequencing of material. However, in some instances the order in which information is presented varies from the study design in order to maintain a logical learning framework. The two specially prepared grids preceding chapters 1 and 7 provide an overview of the sequencing of the study design s key knowledge and skills in relation to each chapter in the text. Research methods are addressed in two separate chapters and, where more relevant, integrated within the appropriate chapters. We do not, however, advocate that all research methods be studied as a block , in isolation from relevant psychological contexts. Best practice teaching and learning would suggest that research methods be broken up and integrated at appropriate points throughout the course. Each chapter has a similar format. Key knowledge and skills are presented in the central text, which provides a clear pathway to achieving the outcomes specified in the study design. Additional high-interest information or relevant research punctuates each chapter in the forms of boxes, tables, newspaper articles, cartoons, colour photographs, charts and other graphic material. These features are intended to complement the central text by providing a more detailed exploration of aspects of particular topics, and to show the many different and interesting ways in which psychology can affect our lives. In addition, the text is rich in suggestions for learning activities, which are abundantly and strategically located throughout each chapter. The learning activities support a variety of relevant and worthwhile ways of learning about psychology. They also provide suitable opportunities to challenge students to apply their understanding of concepts in a range of real-life contexts. A rich variety of assessment tasks that are consistent with the specifications of the study design is another key feature of the text. Each assessment task is linked explicitly to one or more of the outcomes, and accords fully with VCAA assessment specifications. All the assessment tasks have been designed to serve a dual purpose the assessment of satisfactory completion of the task requirements and of level of performance of the task requirements. The assessment criteria have been modelled on those typically specified by the VCAA for Units 3 and 4 Psychology. This further vii

assists students in their preparation for schoolassessed coursework and exams in Units 3 and 4. In order to provide choice, chapters usually include more assessment tasks than students are required to complete to meet the assessment requirements. An exciting innovation in this edition is the inclusion of the eBookPLUS and eGuidePLUS electronic resources. eBook and eGuide icons throughout the text flag a variety of additional ideas for learning activities, as well as digital resources and worksheets that are accessed online at the Jacplus website. Another new feature is the inclusion of chapter tests, each of which

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is like a mini VCE exam , with multiple-choice and short-answer questions and a user-friendly marking guide, all of which are based on VCAA assessment models. An extended glossary of key terms, which are identified in bold in the central text, is also provided. This can be used to reinforce students understanding of key knowledge and to assist in their preparation for tests. Linda Carter and John Grivas November 2009

Next generation teaching and learning About eBookPLUS This book features eBookPLUS: an electronic version of the entire textbook and supporting multimedia resources. It is available for you online at the JacarandaPLUS website (www.jacplus.com.au).

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LOGIN Once you have created your account, you can use the same email address and password in the future to register any eBookPLUS titles you own.

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Next generation teaching and learning About eGuidePLUS This book features eGuidePLUS: a variety of electronic resources for the teacher. It is available for you online at the JacarandaPLUS website (www.jacplus.com.au).

Using the JacarandaPLUS website To access your eGuidePLUS resources, simply log on to www.jacplus.com.au. There are three easy steps for using the JacarandaPLUS system. Step 1. Create a user account The first time you use the JacarandaPLUS system, you will need to create a user account. Go to the JacarandaPLUS home page (www.jacplus.com.au) and follow the instructions on screen. An activation email will be sent to your nominated email address. Click on the link in this email and your activation will be complete. You can now use your nominated email address and password to log in to the JacarandaPLUS system. Step 2. Enter your registration code Once you have activated your account and logged in, enter your unique registration code for this book, which is printed on the inside front cover of your text. Your title will then appear in your digital bookshelf. Step 3. View or download eGuidePLUS resources Your eGuide includes digital teacher resources, a digital copy of the student book and digital student resources. Simply select the desired chapter from the drop-down list. The student eBook tab contains the entire chapter’s content in easy-to-use HTML. The student resources tab contains supporting multimedia resources for each chapter. The teacher resources tab contains targeted resources to support your teaching.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS John and Linda are indebted to their families and friends for their continued patience and ongoing support throughout the preparation of this book. In particular, Linda would like to thank Graeme for his encouragement and his belief in the worth of this project. John and Linda would also like to thank Dr Max Jory of Monash University. Max has had a long association with VCE Psychology as an examiner, vetter and assessor. His ongoing support as a research consultant and insights on key concepts were invaluable. The authors also sincerely thank the text s editor, Catherine Spedding, for her enthusiasm, diligence, close attention to detail and invaluable contribution to the final look and feel of the text. Likewise, we greatly appreciate Shukla Chakraborty s editorial management of the project, which ensured the book met all its deadlines without compromising quality, as well as the contributions of many other editorial and production staff at John Wiley & Sons for their expertise, guidance, commitment and dedication to the publication of this text. Many of the text s eBook and eGuide digital resources have been devised or reviewed by teachers from various schools and colleges throughout Victoria. We greatly appreciate and value their contributions, and also extend our sincere thanks to Vanessa Rule, who, as the text s digital publisher, competently coordinated the production of all aspects of the exciting and innovative eBook and eGuide. Finally, the authors and publisher wish to thank the following copyright holders, organisations and individuals for their assistance and permission to reproduce images and text in this book.

Images iStockphoto.com: pages 37 (right)/Jacob Wackerhausen, 55/Sean Locke, 108 (wheelchair access logo)/Gabor Izso, 165/btrenkel, 168 (bottom), 182 (top)/Rich Koele, 283 (top)/Silvia Jansen, 451/Catherine Yeulet, 461/ Mark Coffey Photo, 543 (bottom)/Todd Keith • Age Syndications: page 438 (right)/The Age/The Sunday Age • Dr Albert Bandura: page 446/Reproduced with permission • Alexandra Milgram: pages 385 (bottom right)/From the film Obedience, © 1968 by Stanley Milgram, © renewed 1993 by Alexandra Milgram; distributed by Penn State Media Sales; reprinted with permission of Alexandra Milgram, 385 (left)/Portrait of

Stanley Milgram by Eric Kroll, reprinted with permission of Alexandra Milgram, 385 (middle right)/From the film Obedience, © 1968 by Stanley Milgram, copyright renewed 1993 by Alexandra Milgram, distributed by Penn State Media Sales; reprinted with permission of Alexandra Milgram, 385 (top right)/Photo of Stanley Milgram as a young man leaning against his shock generator. Reprinted with permission of Alexandra Milgram • American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.: page 254/Reprinted with permission from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, © 2000, American Psychiatric Association • American Psychological Association: page 237/From The fate of cognition in very old age: six-year longitudinal findings in the Berlin Aging Study (BASE) , by Singer et al., Psychology and Ageing, 18, p. 324, 2003, American Psychological Association, adapted with permission • Archives of the History of American Psychology: pages 20 (left), 23, 351, 394 (right)/The University of Akron, 460/David Wechsler Collection • Auspac Media: pages 40 (top), 308/© Creators Syndicate • Austral International Press: pages 261 (right)/Austral Images, © 2006 by Revolution Films, 18 September 2006, 261 (top left)/Austral Images, © 2008 by Black Balloon Productions, 6 March 2008, 279 (bottom)/Russell Crowe, A Beautiful Mind, Universal, Dreamworks, via Fotos International, 464 (top)/Austral Images, photo by United Artists/ZUMA Press, © 2006 Courtesy of United Artists • Australian Bureau of Statistics: page 251 (left)/Sourced from p. 7 of the National Survey of Health & Wellbeing: Summary of Results , 2007, ABS Cat. 4326.0, 251 (top right)/Sourced from p. 9 of the National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing: Summary of Results , 2007, ABS Cat. 4326.0, 271/Sourced from p. 9 of the National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing: Summary of Results , 2007, ABS Cat. 4326.0 • Australian Made: page 108 (Australia made logo)/© Australian Made, Australian Grown Campaign • Australian Psychological Society: pages 14, 82 (left)/ Reproduced with permission • AAP Image: pages 70/AP via AAP/Jean-Marc Bouju, 249 (right)/PA/Andrew Milligan, 334/Julian Smith, 382 (bottom)/AFP/The Washington Post, 382 (top)/AP Photo, 390/AP, 391/AP Photo, 441 (right)//NBC news handout/EPA, 538/AP Photo • ANTPhoto.com.au: page 180 (right)/G.E. Schmida • Banana Stock: pages 187, 194 (bottom) • Berry Street: page 15/Reproduced with permission • Brand X Pictures: pages 301, 409 (b) • The Bridgeman Art Library: page 94 • British Psychological Society: page 129 (bottom)/From Readiness to perceive violence as a xi

result of police training by Toch & Shulte, British Journal of Psychology, 52 (4), 1961. Reproduced with permission • Cambridge University Press: page 69 (bottom)/From Simple Statistics by Francis Clegg, 1982, Cambridge University Press, New York. Reproduced with permission • Career Key, Inc.: page 554 (left)/The Career Key • Cartoon Bank: pages 398/© The New Yorker Collection 1992, Charles Barsotti, from cartoonbank. com. All rights reserved, 435/© The New Yorker Collection 1972, Barney Tobey, from cartoonbank.com. All rights reserved, 502/© 2003 Leo Cullum, from cartoonbank.com. All rights reserved • Cathy Wilcox: page 285/ Reproduced by permission of Cathy Wilcox, The Age • Cattell Family Trust: page 527 (top) • Cengage Learning: pages 20 (right)/From Bernstein/ Penner/Clarke-Stewart/Roy, Psychology, 7th ed., © 2006 Wadsworth, a part of Cengage Learning, Inc. Reproduced by permission, 68 (bottom)/From Stangor, Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences, 2nd ed., © 2004 Wadsworth. Reproduced by permission, 182 (bottom)/ From Shaffer, Developmental Psychology, © 2002 Nelson Education Ltd. Reproduced by permission, 223/From M.W. Eysenck, Psychology: An International Perspective, p. 588, © 2004, East Sussex: Psychology Press, Ltd, Inc., 386 (left)/From Coon, Introduction to Psychology, 4th ed., © 1986 Wadsworth. Reproduced by permission, 426/ From Brehm, Social Psychology, 3rd ed., © 1996 Wadsworth. Reproduced by permission, 498/From Weiten, Psychology: Themes and Variations, 3rd ed., © Wadsworth. Reproduced by permission, www.cengage. com/permissions • Commonwealth Copyright Administration: page 82 (right)/National Health and Medical Research Council, Australian Research Council and Australian Vice-Chancellors Committee, 2007. Reproduced by permission • Comstock: page 474 • Copyright Clearance Center: page 29/Reprinted with permission from Rainville et al., Science, vol. 277, 15 August 1997, © 1997 AAAS • Corbis Australia: pages 3 (bottom)/Lance Iversen/San Francisco Chronicle, 3 (middle)/Lance Iversen/San Francisco Chronicle, 5 (right)/Ivy/Sam Diephuis, 6/Theo Allofs, 9 (bottom)/ Australian Picture Library/Corbis Sygma, 10 (middle)/ Ed Young, 17 (bottom)/Leonard de Selva, 19/Bettmann, 22/Bettmann, 24 (left)/Roger Ressmeyer, 24 (right)/ Bettmann, 27 (top)/Australian Picture Library/Lester V. Bergman, 39/Louis Quail, 49/Australian Picture Library/James L Amos, 116 (bottom right)/Grafton Marshall Smith/Peter Parler, 136 (left)/Carlos Dominguez, 177/Jim Craigmyle, 184 (left)/Sygma/ Bernard Bisson, 204/Pete Leonard, 225/Australian Picture Library/Ted Streshinsky, 228/Australian Picture Library/Reflections Photolibrary, 239/Hulton-Deutsch Collection, 248 (top right)/Australian Picture Library/ xii

Viviane Moos, 268/Les Stone/Sygma, 279 (top)/Peter Turnley, 311 (right)/Australian Picture Library/Galen Rowell, 339/Australian Photo Library/Bettmann, 342 (middle)/Australian Picture Library, 365/Helen King, 384/Australian Picture Library/Bettmann, 399 (top)/ Rudy Sulgan, 407/Richard Wright, 424/Australian Picture Library/Richard Olivier, 442 (bottom)/zefa/ Judith Wagner, 449 (bottom)/Australian Picture Gallery/Jose Luis Pelaez, Inc., 449 (middle)/Australian Picture Gallery/William Gottlieb, 463/Australian Picture Library/James A. Sugar, 495/Richard T. Nowitz, 509/ DLILLC/Davis Lynn Wildlife, 522/Bettmann, 525 (left)/© Bettmann, 537/© Roger Ressmeyer, 542/John Madere • Corbis Royalty Free: pages 180 (left)/© Digital Stock, 366, 416, 465, 465 (A), 514 • Creators Syndicate: pages 258/The Far Side by Gary Larson, © 1990 FarWorks, Inc. All rights reserved. Used with permission, 397 (right)/The Far Side by Gary Larson, © 1982 FarWorks, Inc. All rights reserved. Used with permission • Cunningham Dax Collection: page 280/Reproduced with permission from the artists and the Cunningham Dax Collection • Daniel Batson: page 425/Reproduced with permission • Digital Vision: page 465 (G), 485, 510, 530 (top right), 534 • Elsevier: page 162/ From S. Curtiss, 1977, Genie: A psycholinguistic study of a modern-day wild child , Academic Press, New York, © Elsevier 2009, 400 (left)/Reprinted from Levinger et al., The Ringelmann effect: Studies of group size and group performance , Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 10 (1), p. 374, © 1974 Academic Press with permission from Elsevier • Emerald City Images: pages 158/Stock Boston/Peter Menzel, 173/Australian Picture Library/ Peter Menzel • EyeWire Images: page 555 (bottom right) • Fairfax Photo Library: page 212/Brendan Esposito, 230/Brendan Esposito, 257/Jason South, 273/ Dallas Kilponen, 326 (Stop racism)/AFR Picture by James Alcock, 341/Rick Stevens, 348/Angela Wylie, 458/ Jessica Shapiro, 551/Paul Rovere • Gene Pool Harding: page 66 • Getty Images: pages 17 (top left)/The Bridgeman Art Library/Greek School, 17 (top middle)/ Hulton Archive/Imagno, 17 (top right)/Hulton Archive/Imagno, 30/Nina Leen, 34 (left)/arabianEye, 35 (right)/The Image Bank/Brooke Slezak, 41 (left)/ AFP/Fabrice Coffrini, 62/Taxi/Donald Miralle, 109 (top)/Clive Rose, 116 (top)/Robert Cianflone, 118/The Image Bank/Jeremy Woodhouse, 125/Pascal Le Segretain, 126 (top)/Pascal Le Segretain, 133 (top right)/Photonica/Silvia Otte, 151 (top left)/Visuals Unlimited/Nigel Cattlin, 153 (top)/Dorling Kindersley, 156 (right)/Francois Xavier Marit/AFP, 164/Stone/Tom Morrison, 192/Time Life Pictures/Nina Leen, 195/Time Life Pictures/Nina Leen, 196 (bottom)/National Institute of Health/Martin Rogers, 216 (top)/Lee

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Riley, 544 (left), 544 (middle)/Peter Ward, 544 (right)/ Peter Ward, 547 • Orygen Youth Health: page 15 (bottom right)/Reproduced with permission • OzOutback: page 149/Ludo Kuipers/OzOutback • Palm Beach Post: page 564/Mark Mirko • Pearson Clinical Assessment: page 494/Bennett Mechanical Comprehension Test (BMCT), © 1994, 1968, 1967, 1942, 1940, copyright renewed 1970, 1967, 1968, NCS Pearson. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. Bennett Mechanical Comprehension Test is a registered trademark, in the US and/or other countries, of Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliate(s). • Professor Philip Zimbardo: pages 379 (all), 380 (top and bottom)/Courtesy of Philip G. Zimbardo, Emeritus Professor, Department of Psychology, Stanford University, California, 381/Adapted from P.G. Zimbardo, Psychology and Life, 13th ed., New York, Harper Collins, reproduced with permission of Philip Zimbardo, 402/© Philip G. Zimbardo, Inc. • Photodisc: pages 31 (bottom), 57 (right), 203 (top), 233 (left), 293, 331/Getty Images, 336 (top and bottom), 356 (right), 409 (a), 416, 449 (top), 465 (B), 475, 516 (top right), 519 (bottom right), 554 (bottom), 555 (top left) • Photolibrary: pages 3 (top left)/Science Photo Library/Colin Cuthbert, 5 (left)/Frank Siteman, 8 (bottom)/Science Photo Library/John Greim, 8 (top)/ Will and Deni McIntyre, 10 (left)/AJ Photo, 27 (middle)/Science Photo Library/Garry Watson, 28 (top)/Hank Morgan/Photo Researchers, 34–5, 37 (left)/Nonstock, 40 (bottom)/Mary Evans Picture Library, 57 (left)/Photo Researchers, 72 (right)/Index Stock, 86/Index Stock, 96 (bottom left)/Science Photo Library, 96 (bottom right)/Coneyl Jay/Science Photo Library, 97/Science Photo Library/Rory McCleanaghan, 99/Science Photo Library, 108 (right)/Science Photo Library/David Nicholls, 115 (bottom)/Claver Carroll, 115 (top)/Charles Bowman, 116 (bottom left)/Wayne Fogden, 117, 120/National Gallery, London, UK/The Bridgeman Art Library, 127 (left)/Science Photo Library, 133 (bottom right)/Johnny Stockshooter, 136 (right)/Animals Animals/Rob Ponte, 139 (top)/Photo Researchers, 145/Science Photo Library/Helen Mcardle, 150 (right)/Stephanie Adams, 151 (bottom left)/ Superstock, 151 (top right)/Anne Montfort, 155/David Phillips, 156 (left)/Photo Researchers, 157 (top right)/ Science Picture Library, 194 (top)/Picture Partners/age footstock, 197 (bottom)/Photo Researchers, 200 (top)/ Photo Researchers, 217/LWA-Dann Tardif, 229/Chris Corrie, 247 (left)/F1 Online/Paul Paul, 247 (right)/ Science Photo Library/Cordelia Molloy, 255/Science Photo Library, 256/Index Stock, 275 (left)/The Bridgeman Art Library, 275 (middle)/The Bridgeman Art Library, 278/Science Photo Library/Pascal Goetgheluck, 299 (top)/Science Photo Library, 311 xiv

(left)/IFA-Bilderteam gmbh, 332/Mauritius/Hubatka Hubatka, 342 (top), 373/age fotostcok/Bruno Morandi, 374 (top)/Roy Morsch, 394 (left)/Eric Wessman, 399 (bottom)/Jacques Loic/Photononstop, 404/Marcos Welsh, 409 (d)/Science Photo Library/Jim Varney, 439/ De Agostini Editore, 444 (top)/Science Photo Library/ JVA, 457/Spencer Grant, 465 (D)/age fotostock/Alvaro Garcia Gamero, 465 (F)/Steve Maslowski, 507/Flirt Collection/Lucidio Studio Inc., 515/Jeff Greenberg, 519 (left)/Marina Raith, 519 (top right)/Science Photo Library/Lea Paterson, 520 (left)/Claude Marchal, 533 (bottom)/Belinda Wright, 533 (middle)/Alex MaresManton, 533 (top left)/Ariadne van Zandbergen, 543 (top)/SPL/Geoff Tompkinson, 558/Esbin-Anderson/ age footstock, 565/Science Photo library/Will and Deni Mcintyre • Photoshot Holdings Ltd: page 378 (top)/ Bruce Coleman Pictures • PhotoAlto: page 409 (c)/ Patrick Sheándell O’Carroll • PhotoEdit: pages 68/Jeff Greenberg, 516 (top left)/Tony Freeman • Picture Media: pages 31 (top), 403/Reuters • PRO-ED, Inc.: page 477 (bottom)/Catalogue image from Stanford Binet Intelligence Scales, Fifth Edition (SB-5) Kit, by Gale H. Roid, 2003, Austin: PRO-ED. Product Number: 13290. Reproduced with permission • Rheta DeVries: page 207 (bottom) • Professor Richard A. Kasschau: page 170/ From Kasschau, Psychology: Exploring Behaviour, Prentice Hall, New Jersey. Reproduced with permission • Dr Richard Haier: page 499 (bottom) • Dr Robert Sternberg: page 467 • Rorschach Museum: pages 559, 560/Rorschach Museum Switzerland • Professor Saul Kassin: page 397 (top left)/From Kassin, Psychology, 4th ed., 2004. Reproduced with permission • Shutterstock: pages 259/Angela Hawkey, 436/AresT, 539/Alex Koloskov, 554 (top)/Lisa F. Young, 555 (bottom left)/ Max Blain. Used under licence from Shutterstock.com • Sidney Harris: page 482/ScienceCartoonsPlus.com • Slattery Media Group: page 129 (top) • Snapper Media: page 430/New York Post/Splash News • Stock Boston: pages 487/Jim Harrison, 540/Aaron Haupt • Stockbyte: page 153 (bottom)/Photolibrary/John Foxx • Taylor & Francis Group (UK): page 54/ Australian Journal of Psychology, 61 (5), September 2009 cover, reprinted by permission of the publisher, www.informaworld.com, 54/Australian Psychologist, 44 (3), September 2009 cover, reprinted by permission of the publisher, www.informaworld.com • Taylor & Francis Inc. (USA): page 353/From E. Smith and D. Mackie, Social Psychology, 2nd ed. Reproduced by permission of Routledge/Taylor & Francis Books, Inc. • Thomas J. Bouchard Jnr: page 497 (top)/From T.J. Bouchard and M. McGrae (1981), Familial Studies of Intelligence: A review , Science, 212, 1981, 1055-9, adapted and reproduced with permission of Thomas J. Bouchard Jnr

• United States Government: page 264/Sourced from A.J. Zametkin, T.E. Nordahl, M. Gross, A.C. King, W. Semple, J. Rumsey, S. Hamburger and R.M. Cohen, Brain Metabolism in Hyperactive Adults with Childhood Onset , The New England Journal of Medicine, 323: 1361 1366, 1990 • Universal Press Syndicate: pages 69 (top)/© 1981 Ziggy & Friends, Inc. Reprinted by permission. All rights reserved, 161/ Close to Home , © 1993 John McPherson. Reprinted by permission. All rights reserved, 516 (bottom)/© 1995 Cathy Guisewite. Reprinted by permission. All rights reserved • University of Minnesota Press: page 548/MMPI -2 (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory -2) Manual for Administration, Scoring, and Interpretation, Revised Edition. © 2001 by the Regents of the University of Minnesota. All rights reserved. Used by permission of the University of Minnesota Press. MMPI-2 and Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 are trademarks owned by the Regents of the University of Minnesota • W.W. Norton: page 541 (middle)/From Michael S. Gazziniga and Todd F. Heatherton, Psychological Science, 2nd ed., © 2006, 2003 by W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. Used by permission • Wesleyan University Press: pages 352/Muzafer Sherif, photos of tug of war and water tank from The Robbers Cave Experiment: Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation, © 1998 Muzafer Sherif and reprinted by permission of Wesleyan University Press • Worth Publishers: pages 277, 283/From Ronald Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 4th ed., © 1996, 1999, 2002, 2005 by Worth Publishers and W.H. Freeman and Company. Used with permission • W.H. Freeman and Company: page 207 (top)/From Michael Cole and Sheila Cole, The Development of Children, 4th ed., © 1989, 1993, 1996, 2001 by Michael and Sheila Cole. Used with permission of Worth Publishers.

Text American Psychological Association: pages 265/From Barkley et al. (1990), A comprehensive evaluation of attention deficit disorder with and without hyperactivity defined by research criteria , Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 58, 775 789. Reproduced with permission, 540/From Tellegen et al. (1988), Personality similarity in twins reared apart and together , Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, p. 1035, adapted with permission • Australian Bureau of Statistics: page 251/Sourced from p. 27 of the National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing; Summary of Results’, 2007, ABS. Cat. 4326.0 • AAP: page 285/ Study shows busy minds good for the what s-its-name by Kate Benson, The Age, 15 July 2008, © 2008. AAP content is owned by or licensed to Australian Associated Press Pty Limited and is copyright protected. AAP content is

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xvi

Unit 1 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY On completion of this unit the student should be able to: OUTCOME 1

OUTCOME 2

• describe how research has informed different psychological perspectives used to explain human behaviour, and explain visual perception through these perspectives;

• describe a range of psychological development theories and conduct an investigation into one stage of the lifespan of an individual.

UNIT 1 CHAPT ER 1:

N AT URE O F P S YCH O LOG Y

KEY KNOW LEDGE • scope of psychology including specialist career fields and fields of application and their contribution to understanding human behaviour • classic and contemporary theories that have contributed to the development of psychology from philosophical beginnings to an empirical science, including the relationship between psychology and psychiatry

• differences between contemporary psychological research methods and non-scientific approaches to investigating and explaining human behaviour

• major perspectives (biological, behavioural, cognitive and socio-cultural), that govern how psychologists approach their research into human behaviour.

CHAPT ER 2:

RES EARC H MET H O DS 1

• • • • •

CHAPT ER 3:

• application of psychological perspectives to explain visual perception:

experimental research: construction of hypotheses; identification of independent, dependent and extraneous variables identification of control and experimental groups sampling procedures in selection of participants: random sampling and stratified sampling techniques of qualitative and quantitative data collection: case studies; observational studies; surveys; questionnaires statistics: calculation of percentages; construction of tables, bar charts, histograms, pie charts, line graphs and frequency polygons; generalisation of findings to other populations (external validity) • ethics and professional conduct: the role of the experimenter; protection and security of participant’s rights; confidentiality; voluntary participation; withdrawal rights; informed consent procedures; use of deception in research; debriefing; use of animals in research; role of ethics committees.

T H E VI S UA L P ERC EPT I O N S YST EM

– characteristics of the visual perceptual system and the visual processes involved in detecting and interpreting visual stimuli – the effect of psychological factors on perceptual set – distortions of visual perceptions by illusions • research methods and ethics associated with the study of psychology.

CHAPT ER 4:

• • • •

LI FESPAN D EVELO P MEN T CHAPT ER 5:

stages of the lifespan: infancy, childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle age and old age the interaction between heredity and environmental factors (‘nature versus nurture’) in influencing psychological development techniques of data collection: longitudinal, cross-sectional, twin and adoption studies research methods and ethics associated with the study of lifespan psychology.

• classic and contemporary theories that contribute to an explanation of psychological development including:

THEORIES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

– perceptual development: Eleanor Gibson’s work on infant perception – emotional development: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth’s work on attachment theory with reference to Harry Harlow’s work on attachment in monkeys – cognitive development: Jean Piaget’s four-stage theory – psycho-social development: Erik Erikson’s eight-stage theory – moral development: Lawrence Kohlberg’s six-stage theory • cognitive and psychosocial changes in the very old: successful ageing, as informed by Paul Baltes’ work.

CHAPT ER 6

• the nature and incidence of mental illness in the population across the lifespan.

MEN TAL I LLNESS AC ROSS T H E LI FESPAN

CHAPTER

1

NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY Defining psychology .......................................... 4 Behaviour and mental processes .............. 4 Distinction between psychology and psychiatry ........................................................ 7 Psychology as a profession ........................... 9 Areas of specialisation within psychology .................................................. 10 Origins of contemporary psychology ............................................................. 16 Philosophical roots of psychology ........................................... 16 Scientific roots of psychology ............ 18 Classic perspectives and theories in psychology ....................................................... 19 Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt ...... 19 Functionalism William James...... 20 Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud .............................................................. 21 Behaviourism John B. Watson...... 22 Humanism Carl Rogers ................ 23 Contemporary perspectives and theories in psychology .................................. 26 Biological perspective ............................. 26 Behavioural perspective ........................ 29 Cognitive perspective .............................. 31 Socio-cultural perspective .................... 33 Scientific nature of psychology .............. 37 Scientific versus non-scientific explanations ......................................................... 39 Psychics and psi abilities ....................... 39 Astrology .......................................................... 42

What factors influence an individual s thoughts, feelings and behaviour? How do we change throughout our entire lifespan? What factors shape our development into the person we are at any given time in our life? How does our understanding of the world develop? When do we learn to distinguish between right and wrong behaviour? How do we see? How do we make sense of what we see? What is normal behaviour? What is abnormal behaviour? What types of thoughts, feelings and behaviours are associated with mental illness? Why do we often behave differently in the presence of others? When are we more likely to help someone in distress? What causes some people to behave very aggressively? Why do we hold the attitudes we do? Why are some people racially prejudiced? How can we prevent prejudice? What is intelligence? How is intelligence measured? What is personality? Why do personalities differ? What do personality tests reveal? Are career selection tests useful? How do psychologists study and explain human thoughts, feelings and behaviour? What ethical standards must psychologists follow when undertaking research with people? Questions such as these will form the basis of your study of psychology this year.

DEFINING PSYCHOLOGY The term psychology originated from two Greek words psyche, meaning mind, and logos, meaning study or knowledge. Psychology was therefore initially defined as the study of the mind. However, over time this definition has broadened to include behaviour. Currently, one widely accepted definition of psychology is that it is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes in humans. This is also the definition used in VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2. The study of psychology involves the investigation of human behaviour and mental processes using scientific research methods. The main goals of psychology are to describe, predict, control and explain thoughts, feelings and behaviour. That is, psychologists seek to understand thoughts, feelings and behaviour and the factors that both underlie their development and influence them. The discipline, or field, of psychology today focuses both on the thoughts, feelings and behaviour that people have in common across different cultures, as well as differences between individuals and within different cultures. People are the main subject matter of psychology. However, animals may also be used in psychological research. This is mainly done when suitable people are not available for a study of research interest or when human research participants are 4

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

unable to be used because of the potential risk of psychological or physical harm. There are also other disciplines that study people and/or animals. For example, biology involves the study of life and living organisms, including people, animals and plants; sociology involves the study of society, particularly the structure of human societies and the behaviour of individuals and groups in society; anthropology involves the study of human origins and cultures, generally taking more of a historical and comparative approach than sociology; sociobiology involves the study of the social behaviour of people and animals and how this is related to biological factors (for example, genetics) and the survival of the species; and philosophy involves the study of concepts such as the meaning of existence, the relationship between our mind and body, and whether we are truly free to control our own destinies.

BEHAVIOUR AND MENTAL PROCESSES Psychologists usually distinguish behaviour from mental processes. The term behaviour refers to any observable action made by a living person. It includes activities such as walking, talking, blinking, trembling, eating, crying, dressing in a particular way, watching television, playing a computer game, interacting with others, collecting money for a charity, helping someone and so on. All these activities involve actions that can be seen as they occur, unlike mental processes that cannot be seen as they take place. The term mental processes refers to an individual s thoughts and feelings that are personal and cannot be directly observed. What you think about, how you go about understanding something, how you visually perceive the world, how you interpret relationships with others, your emotions, your mood, your attitudes towards war and sexual discrimination, your choice of words in a conversation, your interpretation of body language, your dreaming when asleep, your daydreaming when awake and what motivates you to do something are all examples of mental processes. These are private, internal events that cannot be seen by others in the way that we can see actions such as smiling, talking, hugging, helping and bike riding. However, mental processes are often interpreted by observing behaviour; for example, a person who is observed chanting anti-war statements at an anti-war rally may be considered to have a negative attitude towards war and rapid eye movements observed in a sleeping person indicate that they are likely to be dreaming.

Psychology

Behaviour

interrelated

Mental processes

Walking, talking, blinking, trembling, eating, crying, playing

Thinking, feeling, perceiving, remembering, learning, interpreting

Directly observable as it occurs

Indirectly observable; private and internal

Figure 1.1 Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes in humans.

Although psychologists distinguish between behaviour and mental processes, and often study them separately, in reality, behaviour and mental processes are closely interrelated and influence each other continuously. Furthermore, mental processes can also influence each other. For example, feeling angry about

the way someone has treated you may affect what you think about the person and the way you behave towards them when you next meet them. Similarly, thinking you have not adequately prepared for an exam may cause you to feel anxious which may result in behaviour such as sweating, pacing the corridor and talking quickly.

Figure 1.2 Behaviour refers to any observable action made by a living person. C h a p t e r 1 Nature of psychology

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BOX 1.1 Do animals think and feel? All humans undoubtedly think and feel. However, it is unclear whether all types of non-human animals do. Unlike humans, animals cannot tell researchers what they are thinking or feeling if, indeed, they can think and feel. Generally, psychologists believe that the closer an animal is to the human species in terms of its biological complexity, the more likely it is to think and/or feel, and the more diverse and complex those thoughts or feelings are likely to be. For example, a mammal such as a chimpanzee probably does think and feel, even though its thoughts and feelings may not be as diverse or complex as those of a person. However, a worm is a very simple animal in terms of its biological make-up. A worm doesn t have a brain and therefore it probably does not think or experience feelings as we do. Figure 1.3 Do these orang-utans think and feel in ways that humans do?

learning a ctivity 1.1 Distinguishing between behaviour and mental processes 1. Consider each activity listed in the left-hand column in table 1.1. For each activity, tick (✓) the appropriate column to indicate whether you think it is a behaviour or a mental process. Give a reason for each answer. table 1.1

Activity Whistling aloud Deciding whether to shoot for a goal or pass to a team mate Starting to feel excited about going to a party Looking at yourself in a mirror Experiencing a toothache Singing a song in your head Experiencing a nosebleed Worrying about giving a speech Planning an excuse to get out of a date Watching a DVD movie alone at home Writing an email Adding numbers Experiencing butterflies in the stomach Scratching an itch Looking at the time on your watch

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U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

2. Which of the activities were the most difficult to classify as either a behaviour or a mental process? Explain why. 3. Explain the relationship between behaviour and mental processes with reference to one of the activities in table 1.1. Behaviour

Mental process

Reason

learnin g activit y 1. 2 visual presentation behaviour and mental processes Using an A3 sheet of paper, prepare a poster with relevant graphic material in which you clearly show: • the meaning of the term behaviour • the meaning of the term mental process • the relationship between behaviour and mental processes in everyday human activities • relevant examples of both behaviour and mental processes which are not referred to in the text.

Options and variations

DISTINCTION BETWEEN PSYCHOLOGY AND PSYCHIATRY Many people believe that psychology and psychiatry are the same thing. While many aspects of psychology and psychiatry are shared, such as working with people who experience mental health problems, there are also significant differences between these professions. The main differences between psychologists and psychiatrists employed in Australia are their education and qualifications, their views about mental health problems and treatments, and the kinds of services they provide. A psychologist completes the equivalent of four years of full-time study in a recognised psychology course at a university and an additional two years of full-time (or equivalent) post-graduate study in psychology at a university, or two years full-time (or equivalent) training under the supervision of a qualified and registered psychologist. The initial studies may be in a specialist psychology course (for example, a Bachelor of Psychology) or as a part of another course (such as a Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science). Importantly, the psychology course must be recognised to be formally registered as a psychologist. Post-graduate studies are usually undertaken in a specialist Master s degree; for example, a Master of Clinical Psychology or a Master of Forensic Psychology. Master s degrees usually involve course work, research and supervised training in relevant work settings. In all, the equivalent of six years of full-time study and training in psychology is required by law to become registered as a psychologist with a state or territory psychologists registration board. In most states and territories in Australia, it is illegal for a person to start work as a psychologist or call themself

a psychologist unless they are registered. Registration can be obtained in a general category (such as psychologist) or a specialist category (such as clinical psychologist), depending on the qualifications achieved. Individuals who seek to obtain general registration by undertaking two years full-time supervised training may do so in any one of a wide range of areas or workplaces in which they apply their psychological knowledge. For example, they may work at Centrelink providing counselling to unemployed people, in human resource management in a large corporation, or personnel services in a small company or a public service department. The work may be paid, voluntary or a combination of both. Because psychologists are not trained or qualified to perform medical procedures or prescribe medications, they use counselling and various types of psychological therapies to assist their clients. Furthermore, they do not have any legal authority to hospitalise someone who has a serious mental illness and who will not agree to being hospitalised. Some psychiatrists, however, do have the legal authority to hospitalise involuntary patients. A psychiatrist is a qualified medical doctor who has obtained additional qualifications to become a specialist in the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of mental illness and emotional problems (RANZCP, 2009). Psychiatrists first undertake six years of university study and training to gain their basic medical qualifications as a doctor. They then work as an intern in a general hospital for a further 12 months to gain practical experience in medicine and surgery. This enables them to become fully registered as medical practitioners. Following their internship, they must complete at least one further year as a Resident Medical Officer. This year must include experience in psychiatry, during which their suitability to train as a psychiatrist is assessed. Post-graduate training in psychiatry takes a further five years, sometimes more. During this period, the doctor works under the supervision of qualified psychiatrists in hospitals and mental health services, gaining experience in dealing with a broad range of mental health problems. When a psychiatrist is qualified, they have completed at least 13 years of study in medicine, surgery and psychiatry (RANZCP, 2009). Having qualified as a medical doctor, a psychiatrist is able to perform medical procedures and prescribe medications to treat or control symptoms of mental illnesses such as schizophrenia and depression. Treatment methods can be physiological (focused on the body), psychological (focused on the mind), or may be a combination of these approaches (RANZCP, 2009). If a psychiatrist believes that a patient requires hospitalisation, they are able to arrange for admission to a hospital. C h a p t e r 1 Nature of psychology

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Figure 1.4 Psychiatrists can perform medical procedures, such as electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), which is sometimes used to treat severe depression, often with patients who do not respond to antidepressant medication. During ECT, the patient is given a short-acting anaesthetic and muscle relaxant before a series of half-second electric shocks are delivered to the brain to trigger a mild seizure.

In most cases of hospitalisation for a mental illness, admission is voluntary; that is, the person agrees to their hospitalisation for treatment. However, in some cases, a person with a serious mental illness may need to be admitted to a hospital for treatment because their own health and safety is at risk or for the protection of others, but they either refuse or are unable to give consent for their hospitalisation. Under these circumstances, depending on state or territory legislation, a psychiatrist has the legal authority to decide that the person will be hospitalised involuntarily. However, with all patients who are hospitalised involuntarily, a second opinion must usually be obtained from another psychiatrist who has special authority under state or territory legislation to make such decisions. As an alternative to hospitalisation, if an authorised psychiatrist believes that a person who does not consent to be hospitalised is well enough to live in the community while receiving treatment, the psychiatrist can arrange for them to be treated as an involuntary outpatient while they continue to live in the community. As psychiatrists are qualified medical specialists, Medicare reimburses (rebates) part or all of their fee for a consultation, depending on how much is charged for the consultation. Medicare also reimburses the fees of registered psychologists, but only those psychologists who are endorsed by Medicare and if the client has been referred by a GP, psychiatrist or paediatrician. Furthermore, there is a limit to the number of psychologist consultations (sessions) that will be reimbursed to a client in a calendar year (usually 12 consultations). 8

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

Figure 1.5 Unlike psychologists, psychiatrists are medically qualified and can prescribe medications such as Prozac, which is commonly used to treat patients suffering from depression.

learning activity 1.3 visual presentation pathways to becoming a psychologist or psychiatrist Prepare two flow charts next to each other that summarise the educational qualifications and training required to become a registered psychologist and a qualified psychiatrist. A flow chart is a diagram that can be used to summarise a sequence of steps or events in a simple way that is easy to understand and explain. Your eBookPlus includes an example of a flow chart format that may be used to complete this learning activity.

Options and variations

learnin g activit y 1. 4 Media response media portrayals of psychologists and psychiatrists 1. Explain the difference between a psychologist and a psychiatrist, with reference to three distinguishing characteristics. 2. Find an example of how a psychologist or psychiatrist is portrayed in the media, such as in a movie, a television program or a novel. For example, Good Will Hunting is a movie that features a psychologist and Girl Interrupted features a psychiatrist. (a) Name the media item and its source. (b) Describe how the psychologist or psychiatrist is portrayed. (c) Comment on the extent to which the portrayal accurately reflects what psychologists or psychiatrists actually do.

(a) In Good Will Hunting (1997), Matt Damon plays a janitor with a gift in maths. He is discovered by a psychologist who tries to help him with his gift and the rest of his life.

(b) In Girl Interrupted (1999), Angelina Jolie plays a young woman who spends 18 months in a psychiatric hospital after a suicide attempt. Figure 1.6 Options and variations

PSYCHOLOGY AS A PROFESSION The study of psychology can lead to opportunities in a range of careers that involve working with children, adolescents, adults, families and communities in a variety of work settings. For example, opportunities exist in industry, community mental health services, within government departments in the public service, in schools, correctional services, the defence forces, emergency services, with sports teams or in a university as a lecturer and/or researcher. Some psychologists work by themselves; for example, in a private practice. Others choose to work as part of a team in a bigger organisation. A psychologist s clients may be individuals, a couple, a family or a large group. What a psychologist does can be classified in terms of whether they are engaged in basic psychology or in applied psychology. Basic psychology is the study of psychological topics in order to seek knowledge for its own sake rather than for its practical application or use. This typically involves research, which is often referred to as pure research because there is not a focus on applying the research findings in a practical way. For example, basic psychology may involve studying whether a non-human animal such as a chimpanzee can learn sign language or how children, adolescents and adults differ in their understanding of what is right and wrong behaviour. Applied psychology is the study of psychological topics that can be applied in a practical and relevant way; for example, studying whether techniques used to teach a non-human animal to communicate with sign language can be used to help a brain-damaged person to communicate, or studying how our understanding of right and wrong behaviour can be used to prevent crime. Most psychologists engaged in applied psychology work in clinical and counselling settings. In these settings, they interact directly with people in providing assistance. Clinical and counselling settings include an office in a private practice, the office of a school counsellor, a room or ward in a hospital and a treatment centre in a rehabilitation clinic. Importantly, most psychologists engaged in applied psychology are registered psychologists. Registered psychologists tend to work with mentally healthy people who are experiencing a problem with which they need assistance. Psychologists help them to find ways to deal with the problem and to function more effectively in their everyday lives. For example, they may assist people to develop strategies for managing stress or to manage personal, relationship, family or school- or work-related problems. C h a p t e r 1 Nature of psychology

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areas of specialisation within psychology

The Australian Psychological Society (2009) has identified and described the following specialist areas or sub-disciplines of psychology.

What a psychologist does on a daily basis depends on their area of specialisation, as is the case with doctors who specialise in an area such as psychiatry, surgery, paediatrics, gynaecology or dermatology. As in medicine, there are many different areas of specialisation in psychology, such as social psychology, personality psychology, clinical psychology, forensic psychology and sport psychology. Most psychologists choose to specialise in only one area. Some psychologists, however, choose to specialise in more than one area, especially if there is a relationship or overlap between the areas, such as with clinical psychology and counselling psychology, or lecturing in psychology at a university and undertaking research on a topic of interest. In many cases, psychologists who have specialised in a particular area may apply their skills and expertise in a combination of work settings. For example, a clinical psychologist may offer psychological services to clients through a private practice and also work in a psychiatric unit or hospital for a government health authority or department. Similarly, an academic psychologist may teach psychology at a university, undertake research and also work in a private practice in the wider community.

Clinical psychology: concerned with the assessment, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of a wide range of mental health problems, including serious and/or life-threatening problems (see box 1.2). Clinical neuropsychology: specialises in the assessment of changes in behaviour and thinking that may arise from brain damage or irregularities in brain function; for example, through head injury, stroke, epilepsy or drug abuse. A clinical neuropsychologist may also become involved with the rehabilitation and management of people with brain impairment, often working with other health professionals, such as doctors, nurses, physiotherapists, speech therapists and occupational therapists, in developing and implementing specific programs to help the person cope in their everyday life. Clinical neuropsychologists often work in public hospitals and rehabilitation centres. Many also work in private practice. Community psychology: mainly concerned with community issues and helping people to achieve their goals in areas such as community health and welfare. Many community psychologists work with local government (e.g. councils and shires) or other community organisations on specific projects that improve the wellbeing of community members and address social problems such as homelessness and social, mental or physical disadvantage.

Figure 1.7 There are different areas of specialisation within psychology. 10

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

BOX 1.2 Clinical psychologists Clinical psychologists are specialists in the assessment, diagnosis and treatment of mental illness and psychological problems. Located in hospitals, universities, general medical practices, community health centres and private practice, they often work together with general medical practitioners, psychiatrists, school counsellors and other health professionals. Clinical psychologists work with infants, children, adolescents, adults and the elderly designing and implementing a wide range of prevention and mental health promotion programs. Addressing a range of areas Many clinical psychologists develop expertise in specific areas, and specialise in those particular areas of clinical psychology. Specific problems assessed, diagnosed and treated by clinical psychologists include: • adjustment disorders • alcohol and drug misuse • anxiety disorders (for example, obsessive compulsive disorder, phobias, panic attacks) • attention deficit disorders • behaviour disorders • brain injury (resulting in problems with attention, memory, judgement or reasoning) • chronic pain • couple and family difficulties • depression and depressive illness • eating disorders • educational functioning • intellectual disability • loss, grief and bereavement • medical conditions caused or aggravated by stress • parent child relationships • personality problems • post-traumatic stress disorder • relationship difficulties • sexual disorders • sleep disorders • stress and chronic stress disorders • suicidal thoughts and behaviour.

Figure 1.8 Melbourne clinical psychologist Dr Elizabeth Cosgrave specialises in the assessment, diagnosis and treatment of mental illnesses and psychological problems.

2. Treatment Clinical psychologists are trained in the delivery of a range of (non-drug) techniques, strategies and therapies known to be effective in treating mental health problems.

3. Research, teaching and evaluation Research, teaching and evaluation are all part of the role of clinical psychologists. Research is often conducted on the prevention, diagnosis, assessment and treatment of mental health problems. Treatment strategies in various settings (such as primary care, psychiatric and rehabilitation centres) are designed and implemented and the treatment outcomes are evaluated.

Skills and competencies

1. Psychological assessment and diagnosis Clinical psychologists have specialist training in the assessment and diagnosis of mental illnesses and common psychological problems. Through their specialist training, clinical psychologists are qualified to provide expert opinion in clinical, compensation, educational and legal cases. Some clinical psychologists also specialise in particular types of assessment such as neuropsychological, forensic and educational assessments.

Consultation Consultation with a clinical psychologist involves detailed discussion of specific issues of concern to the client. The psychologist then works with the client in a variety of ways, including: • assessing the emotional, intellectual and behavioural functioning of the client • exploring the thoughts, emotions and behaviour of the client and tracing their origins • helping the client develop effective ways of controlling and coping with these difficulties • helping the client to implement changes that enhance wellbeing and awareness, and alleviate the presenting problems. Sessions are usually up to one hour in length, but assessment sessions may be longer. The number of sessions required varies and is usually negotiated between the psychologist and the client. (Adapted from the APS pamphlet The APS College of Clinical Psychologists)

eBook plus

Interview with Dr Cosgrave on her work as a clinical psychologist C h a p t e r 1 Nature of psychology

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Counselling psychology: focuses on assisting individuals and groups to deal effectively with all kinds of personal and relationship issues that impact on their mental health and wellbeing; for example, helping someone to manage stress and conflict at home or work and assisting couples to improve their relationship or parenting skills. Generally, problems dealt with by counselling psychologists are less serious (for example, not life-threatening) than those dealt with by clinical psychologists. A counselling psychologist may work in private practice, educational or vocational settings, or for a health or welfare service. Educational and developmental psychology: this area is a combination of educational psychology, which essentially focuses on learning in an educational setting, and developmental psychology which studies the ways in which behaviour and mental processes change throughout the lifespan; for example, cognitive development ( thinking ), emotional development and social development. Educational and developmental psychologists provide assessment, intervention and counselling services relevant to the management of developmental and educational issues across the lifespan. Their work may involve assessing children with learning difficulties and recommending individual learning programs, advising parents and teachers on specific teaching and behaviour management programs, assisting people with career choices and assisting people in adjusting to life changes. An educational and developmental psychologist often works in a school in a position such as the school psychologist, guidance officer, or child and adolescent counsellor. Forensic psychology: applies psychological knowledge to assessment, intervention and research in the legal system and correctional services. A forensic psychologist may provide expert opinion to the courts on such matters as criminal behaviour, child abuse and custody disputes, or work in forensic settings such as prisons and detention centres developing and implementing treatment programs for offenders or detainees and undertaking risk assessments of prisoners or detainees to determine their eligibility for parole or release. Health psychology: specialises in understanding the effects of psychological factors related to physical health and illness. A health psychologist may work with clients in developing and maintaining behaviour associated with good health, the prevention and treatment of psychologically based illnesses, and analysis and improvement of the healthcare system. They may focus on health promotion, which is concerned 12

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

with illness prevention, or clinical health psychology, which is concerned with diagnosis, treatment and rehabilitation. Organisational psychology: focuses on ways of assisting organisations, such as private companies and government departments, to become more effective and productive while maintaining the wellbeing of individual employees. An organisational psychologist may work with individuals, work teams, management teams, departments, or the organisation as a whole. Areas of expertise include staff recruitment, selection and review, job redesign, career planning, industrial relations, and advising and training staff in workplaces about work practices and issues of concern that can affect work performance, such as communication, teamwork and stress management. Sport psychology: applies psychological theories and ideas in helping elite-level, professional, recreational and other athletes achieve peak performance and develop personal wellbeing and life adjustment skills. A sport psychologist may work with individual athletes, coaches and teams, often as part of a group of sportrelated professionals (see box 1.3). There are also other specialist areas or sub-disciplines of psychology which tend to be more focused on research, rather than working directly with clients. These specialist areas include the following. Biological psychology: focuses on biological, or bodily, structures, systems and activities that are associated with behaviour and mental processes, such as the roles and influences of the brain and the rest of the nervous system, the endocrine (hormone) system, immune system and genetics. Cognitive psychology: focuses on how people acquire, process, remember and use information; for example, how we perceive, learn, remember, think, and use language; how we solve problems and make decisions. Personality psychology: studies people s characteristic and enduring (long-lasting) ways of thinking, feeling and behaving that collectively make up personality; for example, different theories (explanations) of personality, how personality develops, factors that influence its development and ways of assessing personality. Social psychology: studies how people s thoughts, feelings and behaviour can change in different social situations and the influence of others (real or imagined); for example, how being in a group can influence an individual s behaviour, peer pressure, conformity, obedience to authority, attitudes and prejudice.

BOX 1.3 Sport psychologists The Australian Olympic and Commonwealth Games teams, many national sporting organisations as well as professional athletes and teams such as AFL teams and the Australian cricket team use the services of sport psychologists on a regular basis to achieve maximum performance in training and competition. Whatever the goals of the athlete winning, personal success, challenge, social interaction, exercise, relaxation or simply enjoyment sport psychology offers a professional perspective, helping the individual or the team to participate successfully and with enjoyment. The role of sport psychology Success and enjoyment in sport is based on three elements technical skills, physical fitness and mental skills. Sport psychology focuses on the third element the ability of the participant(s) to understand and effectively control the competition that goes on in their mind. The significant contribution of the sport psychologist has been to define, clarify and explain more clearly the mental aspects of sport. This greater understanding means that much more information and assistance is now available to athletes and coaches. The sport psychologist has numerous roles, including performance enhancement, mental skills training, personal development and wellbeing counselling, crisis intervention and personal adjustment services, organisational and management psychology, applied research and teaching. A range of ser vices Sport psychologists provide skill programs that offer a range of services such as: • performance enhancement and mental skills; for example, goal setting, imagery, confidence

• • • • • • • • • • •

anxiety management and relaxation concentration and mental preparation stress and time management team building and leadership communication skills travel skills debriefing and program evaluation recovery and restoration injury rehabilitation psychological assessment video analysis of sporting emotions and performances.

Individuals or teams Ideally, whether working with an individual athlete or with a team, the sport psychologist is part of the coaching group and medical team. Sport psychologists apply their skills in consultation with the coach, other sports science and health professionals, management and athletes. Individual counselling, team organisation and management and program development are all areas where sport psychology plays an important role. Amateur and recreational sports participants, as well as those seeking health and exercise advice, are increasingly using the services of a sport psychologist. Sport psychologists also advise and plan recreational and physical activity programs for adults, children and community groups. (Adapted from the APS pamphlet The APS College of Sport Psychologists and Sport Psychologists, retrieved from http: www.psychology.org.au/community/specialist/sport)

Video — interview with a leading sport psychologist

BOX 1.4 Teaching psychology as a profession In Victoria, psychology is taught in schools in years 9 to 12 (but mainly in years 11 and 12), in TAFE institutes (mainly VCE Psychology), in adult education centres (mainly VCE Units 3 and 4), at the Distance Education Centre Victoria (VCE Units 1 4) and in universities (mainly in science and arts faculties). Currently in Victoria, over 30 000 students are undertaking school-level psychology courses throughout more than 500 schools, TAFEs or learning centres across the state. Hence there are many psychology teaching positions in Victorian schools, with some of these teachers combining classroom teaching with student welfare and counselling roles (for example, student welfare coordinators). School-level psychology courses are also taught in South Australia, Western Australia, Tasmania, the Northern Territory and the ACT. In each of these states or territories, psychology is one of the more popular subjects, but enrolments are not as high as they are in Victoria. Teachers of school-level psychology courses (such as VCE) usually have tertiary qualifications in psychology as

well as in teaching. Almost all of these teachers have successfully completed at least two full-time years of study in psychology at a university. An increasing number of school psychology teachers have successfully completed three or more years of full-time, university-level study in psychology. Most school-level psychology teachers do not have the qualifications necessary to become registered psychologists according to the requirements set down by legislation such as the Health Professions Registration Act, 2008 (Vic). Similarly, few qualify for full membership of the Australian Psychological Society, the professional body to which most registered and practising psychologists belong. Teachers of psychology in universities (that is, lecturers and tutors) typically have post-graduate qualifications in psychology, such as a Doctorate in Psychology (PhD), and usually combine their teaching with research and supervision of post-graduate students who are furthering their qualifications in psychology. Most would qualify for registration as a psychologist, if they choose to apply.

C h a p t e r 1 Nature of psychology

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BOX 1.5 The Australian Psychological Society The Australian Psychological Society Ltd (APS) is a national professional association that represents, advances and promotes the interests of the psychology profession and psychologists. It was formed in 1966 and currently has over 17 500 members. Membership of the APS is not compulsory, but it is highly regarded and is often required by employers. The purpose of the APS is to advance psychology as a science, as a profession and as a means of promoting human wellbeing, by encouraging the practice of psychology in all areas to the highest standards. There are different categories of APS membership. Generally, to become a full member of the APS it is necessary to have completed an approved four-year course of full-time study in psychology at a university, as well as either a twoyear or more approved post-graduate coursework degree, such as a Graduate Diploma in Psychology, or a two-year post-graduate research degree in psychology; for example, a Master of Clinical Psychology. It is possible to join the APS as a student while gaining qualifications. However, full

membership is not granted to individuals who are not fully qualified. Psychologists who are members of the APS can be recognised by the letters MAPS (Member of the APS), FAPS (Fellow of the APS) or Hon FAPS (Honorary Fellow of the APS) after their names. All members of the APS are required to observe the Society s Code of Ethics, which sets guidelines about the professional conduct and responsibilities of psychologists.

learning a ctivity 1.5 Matching exercise

specialist areas of psychology

Match each area of psychology on the left with its correct description on the right. Area

14

Description

1. sport psychologist

(a) helps rehabilitate people with problems arising from brain damage or irregularities in brain function

2. community psychologist

(b) focuses on people s characteristic and enduring ways of thinking, feeling and behaving

3. biological psychologist

(c) helps people deal with all kinds of personal and relationship problems

4. forensic psychologist

(d) works with individuals, community groups and organisations to help improve health and welfare of people in the community

5. organisational psychologist

(e) promotes and maintains health-related behaviour, works on improving the healthcare system

6. educational and developmental psychologist

(f) focuses on how behaviour can change in different social situations

7. counselling psychologist

(g) helps athletes to develop mental skills to achieve peak performance

8. clinical neuropsychologist

(h) helps people with issues that affect learning or with life changes

9. personality psychologist

(i) focuses on bodily structures, systems and activities associated with behaviour and mental processes

10. health psychologist

(j) focuses on the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of mental health problems

11. clinical psychologist

(k) works with people in legal and correctional service settings

12. social psychologist

(l) helps people in workplaces

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

learnin g activit y 1. 6 Media response

analysing a job advertisement for a psychologist

Check the employment section of the Saturday papers over a few weeks and locate at least three job vacancies for a registered psychologist (like the examples below). Then use the internet to obtain the position description for one of the jobs that is most appealing or interesting to you. For example, use a search engine such as Google and key in the name of the organisation advertising the job. When you get to the organisation s website, look for a job or employment advertisement link and use this to search for the position description. Alternatively, you could use the internet to search for job advertisements and descriptions by starting at job search sites such as www.seek.com.au, www.mycareer.com.au and www.careerone.com.au. 1. Using the position description, answer each of the following questions.

• • • • •

Who is advertising the position? What type of duties or work does the position involve? What is the salary (if mentioned)? What qualifications are required? What specialist area of psychology is being advertised? • Why is this psychology position the most appealing or interesting to you compared to others you considered? 2. Present the advertisement and your answers in the form of a written report. Include the position description and at least two other relevant job advertisements in an appendix to your report. Alternatively, you may copy or paste your preferred job advertisement to a blank sheet of A3 or A4 paper and present your answers in a poster format.

Options and variations

C h a p t e r 1 Nature of psychology

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learnin g activit y 1. 7

choosing a psychologist Consider each client problem listed below and name the specialist psychologist who may be best qualified to help with the problem. (a) A primary school student with a reading disability (b) An adult experiencing memory loss after sustaining a head injury in a car accident (c) A manager concerned about high stress levels of many staff in the workplace (d) A university student experiencing symptoms of depression (e) A married couple who argue constantly (f) A police prosecutor who needs a personality assessment of a repeat offender (g) A teenager with an eating disorder (h) A train driver who has been on leave for eight months following a level crossing fatality and needs support in returning to work

Options and variations

learnin g activit y 1. 8

Oral presentation specialist area of psychology Choose a specialist area of psychology of particular interest to you. Conduct some research to provide a detailed description of the area chosen. In your presentation, ensure that you • use two or more data types; for example, still or moving images, written text and sound • outline the type(s) of work performed by psychologists in the specialist area • outline the type(s) of work settings in which a psychologist specialising in this area would be employed • give examples of questions of interest to psychologists working in the specialist area • Identify a typical course of study a student would undertake to successfully complete appropriate qualifications as a psychologist in this specialist area • organise the information in a logical way • express your information in a clear and concise way • accurately cite and reference all material. PowerPoint would be a suitable medium for your presentation. References may be used in obtaining information for your presentation. For example, you may obtain information from texts, the internet (such as the Australian Psychological Society website), your eBook video or through an interview with a psychologist practising in the area.

Options and variations 16

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

ORIGINS OF CONTEMPORARY PSYCHOLOGY When did psychology begin? How did psychology begin? Who founded or started psychology? Who has influenced the development of psychology in a significant way? How has psychology changed over time? What perspectives, or views , influence contemporary psychologists as they approach their research into human behaviour and mental processes? Answers to these questions can help us understand why there is such a diverse range of topics that can be studied in psychology and why psychologists today go about studying them as they do. The desire to understand ourselves and others has probably existed since our early ancestors developed the ability to reflect on human nature, or what makes people tick . It is possible that they were just as curious as we are today about why people think, feel and behave as they do. However, the earliest origins of psychology are usually traced back to the writings of the great philosophers in ancient Greece. This is primarily because many issues relating to human behaviour and mental processes that have been and continue to be important and controversial in psychology, have their roots in questions first debated by philosophers. We consider two key issues prominent in psychology that originated in philosophy.

Philosophical roots of psychology More than 2000 years ago, the Greek philosopher Socrates (470 399 BC) and his followers Plato (428 337 BC) and Aristotle (384 322 BC) wrote extensively about all kinds of human thoughts, feelings and behaviour, and human nature in general. For example, they theorised about memory, sleep, dreams, the senses, pleasure and pain, imagination, desire, whether humans were born good or evil, whether humans were born with or without knowledge, and whether humans were born to be rational or irrational beings, as well as numerous other aspects of the human psyche (mind). These great philosophers also debated many of the questions that psychologists continue to debate today. One important question was whether we are born with our thoughts, feelings and behaviour (via our genes), or whether they are acquired through life experiences. For example, are we born with a set of personality characteristics that remain relatively unchanged throughout our entire lives, or does our personality gradually develop after birth through the experiences we have when we interact with others?

Figure 1.9 The ancient Greek philosophers Socrates, Plato and Aristotle debated many of the questions about behaviour and mental processes that psychologists continue to debate today.

Still not fully resolved, this question on the influence of the genes we inherit from our biological parents compared with that of our various life experiences is referred to by psychologists as the nature versus nurture or heredity versus environment debate. However, the focus of contemporary psychology is not on which of the two is more important, as was the case with the early philosophers and even many psychologists throughout much of the twentieth century. Psychologists now firmly believe that both nature and nurture have very important influences on the development of our behaviour and mental processes. As you will learn later in the unit, psychologists focus on trying to explain how hereditary and environmental factors interact in influencing human behaviour and mental processes. A second important question debated by the Greek philosophers is called the mind body problem. This involves the relationship between the human mind and body. More specifically, the problem involves the question of whether our mind and body are distinct, separate entities or whether they are one and the same thing. For instance, is the mind part of the body, or the body part of the mind? If our mind and body are distinct and separate, do they interact? If they interact, how do they interact? And which of the two is in control? Generally, most of the Greek philosophers believed that the mind and body were separate entities and that the mind could control the body, but the body could not influence the mind. This view was popular for almost 2000 years until it was challenged by French philosopher Ren Descartes (pronounced Day-Cart) in the seventeenth century.

Figure 1.10 French philosopher Ren Descartes (1596 1650) proposed that the human mind and body are separate, but interact through the brain. He is probably best known for his saying, I think, therefore I am .

In his version of a theory called dualism, Descartes agreed that the mind and body are two different things. He reasoned that the mind is a non-physical, spiritual entity, whereas the body is a physical, fleshy structure. However, according to Descartes, the mind and body come into contact through the pineal gland, a tiny structure located deep in the brain. This enabled C h a p t e r 1 Nature of psychology

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the mind and brain to interact to produce sensations, thoughts, emotions and other conscious experiences; that is, whatever we are aware of at any point in time, including our own existence. Descartes also argued that the mind could affect the body and the body could affect the mind. Although his understanding of the brain and the roles of its various structures was limited and, at times, wrong, Descartes brought the mind and body closer together in a way that others had not previously considered possible. The different views on the mind body problem exchanged among philosophers throughout many centuries laid the groundwork for a contemporary version of the problem that has not yet been satisfactorily resolved by psychologists. It is clear that the mind and body are intertwined and that mental processes may be triggered by events in the brain, or that mental processes may, in turn, trigger brain events and therefore influence our behaviour. However, the mind body problem now tends to be more specifically described in psychology as the mind brain problem. The mind brain problem essentially involves questions about the relationship between brain activity and conscious experience; that is, the relationship between what our brain does and our awareness of our own existence and activities, and of objects and events in the external world. For instance, is our mind separate from our brain? Is our mind basically brain activity or is it our inner, personal experience of what our brain does? Is consciousness just one aspect of our mind? Does our mind become aware of what our brain does? If so, is our mind dependent on brain activity in order to become aware? Does our brain trigger conscious experience? Is conscious experience a by-product of brain activity? What comes first, brain activity or conscious experience? Although there is no universally accepted solution to the mind brain problem, it is likely that the rapidly advancing discipline of neuroscience will eventually lead psychologists to a better understanding of the relationship between conscious experience and brain activity.

Scientific roots of psychology Philosophical discussions on nature versus nurture and mind body (mind brain) have contributed significantly to contemporary psychology s understanding and interpretation of these very important issues. However, philosophers could advance understanding of human behaviour and mental processes only to a certain point. Their ideas were mostly limited to personal observations, reflection, intuition, speculation and reasoning. Although philosophers were good at reasoning, arguing and documenting their ideas, they rarely settled their differences of opinion. This is because their approach to understanding behaviour and mental processes did not enable them to properly test their ideas to obtain evidence to support their arguments. By the nineteenth century, scientists were making progress in answering questions about human behaviour and mental processes that philosophers could not. Some philosophers were sceptical (very doubtful) that scientific methods were relevant to the study of mental processes. They believed that the mind was not a physical object and could therefore not be directly observed, measured or manipulated scientifically, for example, in the way that physicists study the nature of light or gravity through systematic observation and experimentation. However, other philosophers began to look more and more to science for guidance in the study of psychological topics. Of particular interest was the work of German scientists who were trained in the discipline of physiology , which is the study of living things. Physiologists tend to specialise in the structure and function of living things, mostly humans. In the nineteenth century, physiologists began studying the brain and other psychologically relevant structures such as the nervous system and sensory organs. For example, Hermann von Helmholtz (1821 94) developed a method for measuring the

learning a ctivity 1.9 review questions 1. Why is it generally believed that contemporary psychology has its roots, or origins, in philosophy? 2. (a) Briefly describe the nature versus nurture debate. (b) Which do you believe has the greater influence on behaviour and mental processes heredity or environment? Give an example that helps explain your belief.

3. (a) Briefly describe the mind body problem. (b) What three key ideas proposed by Descartes changed thinking about the relationship between the mind and body? (c) Briefly describe the mind brain problem. (d) What do you believe is the relationship between the mind and brain? Give an example that helps explain your belief.

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U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

speed of nerve impulses in a frog s leg. Nerve impulses, along with messages from hormones (chemical substances), are the means by which information is communicated throughout our bodies to enable us to think, feel and behave as we do. Following successful testing with frogs, Helmholtz adapted his method to enable the study of humans. Helmholtz trained research participants to respond when he applied a stimulus consisting of a harmless electrical current to different parts of the leg. He recorded his participants reaction time (the amount of time taken to respond to the specific stimulus) after the stimulus had been applied. Helmholtz found that people generally took longer to respond when their toe was stimulated than when their thigh was stimulated. The difference between these reaction times allowed him to estimate how long it took a nerve impulse to travel to the brain. These results astonished nineteenth century scientists because at that time it was widely believed that mental processes occurred instantaneously. For example, when you move your hands in front of your eyes, you don t feel your hands move a fraction of a second before you see them. The real world doesn t appear like a webcast in which the onscreen image and sound are out-of-sync by a fraction of a second or so. Scientists assumed that the neurological (nervous system) processes underlying mental events must be instantaneous for everything to be so closely synchronised. However, Helmholtz provided evidence that this wasn t true. In so doing, he also demonstrated that experimental methods could be a useful way to study the brain and mental processes (Schacter, Gilbert & Wegner, 2009).

Figure 1.11 German physiologist Hermann von Helmholtz conducted scientific research to accurately estimate the speed of nerve impulses in the human body.

CLASSIC PERSPECTIVES AND THEORIES IN PSYCHOLOGY Although Helmholtz s contributions were important, historians generally credit the official emergence of psychology as a separate discipline to his research assistant, Wilhelm Wundt. The starting date of psychology as a science is considered to be 1879, the year in which the first psychology research laboratory was established by Wundt. The early growth of the new discipline of psychology was marked by the emergence of different perspectives. Each perspective had its own theories of behaviour and mental processes. These perspectives were known as schools of psychology or schools of thought. They included structuralism, functionalism, psychoanalysis, behaviourism and humanism. Each school had a leader, often trained in both philosophy and science. Generally, the schools differed in three main ways: 1. their focus of study: whether to focus on studying the unconscious mind or on behaviour that can actually be observed 2. their method of study: whether to undertake research by having research participants report what was in their conscious minds or whether to undertake research by observing and recording behaviour as it occurs 3. their theories: how behaviour or mental processes are best described and explained.

Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt Wilhelm Wundt (1832 1920) was a German physiologist trained in medicine who was specifically interested in the scientific study of human consciousness. This was very radical at the time because consciousness can t be directly observed. For example, if you focus your attention on your thoughts right now, someone observing you can t actually see whatever it is that you may be thinking about. Wundt noted that scientists such as chemists and physicists often tried to understand something of interest by breaking it down into its elements or bits . Then, they intensively studied the individual bits and tried to find out how they are organised and interrelated. Wundt adopted a similar approach that involved trying to understand and explain consciousness by breaking it down into parts such as thoughts, feelings, sights, sounds and other sensations that people may be aware of. His perspective, theories, scientific research findings and articles on the structure of consciousness led to the establishment of the first school of thought in psychology, which was called structuralism. As suggested C h a p t e r 1 Nature of psychology

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by the term, structuralism focused on the structure of consciousness; that is, the basic parts or building blocks that make up consciousness, how the parts are organised and how they are interrelated. Wundt approached the study of conscious experience experimentally. In 1879, Wundt established a laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany where he and his students conducted many experiments on consciousness. For example, Wundt tried to measure precisely how long it took participants to consciously detect both the sight and sound of a bell being struck or to look at a block of twelve letters for a fraction of a second and immediately report as many letters as they could remember. He then published the results of his experiments on the speed of mental processes in a scientific journal, which he also established. Through his experiments, Wundt demonstrated that attention, sensations, perceptions and feelings can all be studied experimentally, which until this point in time had not been recognised.

be established as a separate scientific discipline that used experimental methods to study mental processes. Wundt had a strong influence on the development of psychology as a science. Over the years, some 17 000 students attended Wundt s lectures on various aspects of psychology, which often included demonstrations of devices he had developed to measure mental processes (Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2001). Nearly 200 students from around the world travelled to the University of Leipzig to study experimental psychology and earn doctoral degrees (PhDs) under Wundt s supervision. As a consequence, his ideas spread throughout the world.

Figure 1.13 Look at this object and try to ignore what it is. Instead, try to describe your conscious experience, such as redness, brightness and roundness, and how intense and clear the sensations and images are. If you can do this, you would have been an excellent research assistant in Wundt s laboratory. (Adapted from Bernstein & others. Psychology (7th ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin. p. 14. © 2006 Wadsworth, a part of Cengage Learning, Inc. Reproduced by permission. www. cengage.com/permissions)

Figure 1.12 Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology research laboratory and the approach to psychology called structuralism. The photo above shows Wundt (third from left) in one of his experiments on the speed of mental processes.

Wundt also used a data collection technique called introspection to study consciousness. Introspection requires participants to reflect on their thoughts and other mental experiences and then report these to the researcher who would analyse them. His participants were required to undertake 10 000 practice introspections before they were allowed to participate in an actual research study. Once trained, they might take as long as 20 minutes to report their inner experiences during a 1.5 second experiment (Lieberman, 1979). Wundt defined psychology as the study of consciousness. He also promoted his belief that psychology should 20

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Functionalism William James William James (1842 1910) was influential in establishing psychology in America, which is widely regarded as one of the most important centres of psychological research in the world. James graduated from university as a medical doctor and became interested in the emerging science of psychology after reading one of Wundt s articles in the late 1860s. Although appointed to Harvard University in Massachusetts as a lecturer in medicine, over time his lectures began to focus more on psychology than medicine. For example, one of his courses was called The Relations between Physiology and Psychology . Eventually, he lectured exclusively in psychology.

Figure 1.14 William James in his laboratory at Harvard University. James established the approach to psychology called functionalism and was influential in establishing psychology in America. (Harvard University Archives, call # HUPSF Psychological Laboratories (BP2) )

In 1890, James published a widely acclaimed twovolume textbook called Principles of Psychology. In it, James presented many original ideas on a wide range of topics such as consciousness, the relationship between conscious experience and the body, individual differences in people, sensation, perception, memory and emotion. His writings influenced many psychologists and psychology students, including several students who went on to become famous psychologists in their own right. James s book is still available in a condensed version. His description of consciousness as a never-ending, constantly changing stream of thoughts, feelings and sensations is still accepted as an accurate description of consciousness. Like Wundt, James defined psychology as the study of consciousness. However, he disagreed with Wundt s approach to separating consciousness into its different elements. James believed this approach misrepresented the wholeness of consciousness and its role (functions) in our lives. Instead, he stressed the importance of the adaptability of consciousness and our ability to change our behaviour when necessary to function effectively in a constantly changing environment. This approach was called functionalism. As suggested by the term, functionalism focuses on studying the functions or purpose that mental processes serve in enabling people to adapt to their environment. Essentially, functionalists are interested in how and why our thoughts and feelings lead us to behave as we do. Although James agreed with Wundt s views on the value of introspection and importance of experimentation, he believed that psychological research did not have to be restricted to the laboratory and could include direct observations of people and animals in their natural environments. James also recognised

the potential benefits of psychological research to the community and humankind, and examined how psychology could be applied to areas such as improving teaching and learning in schools and devising programs for children with special learning needs.

Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud Prominent early psychologists such as Wundt and James focused on the scientific study of conscious experience. However, at the turn of the twentieth century, a new perspective in psychology that focused on unconscious experience challenged the theories and methods of both structuralism and functionalism. This approach was very different from the other perspectives. Called psychoanalysis, it was developed by the Austrian doctor Sigmund Freud (1856 1939). Psychoanalysis focuses on the roles of unconscious conflicts and motivations in understanding and explaining behaviour and mental processes. According to Freud, our unconscious is a part of the mind below our level of normal conscious awareness. We are not usually aware of what is going on inside our unconscious because it is hidden from our conscious awareness. Freud believed that the unconscious contained instinctive sexual and aggressive needs. These instincts are accompanied by urges and impulses to behave in a way that enables the needs to be met. In this sense, the instinctive needs are motivators or triggers of behaviour. However, if we acted on the urges and impulses created by the instinctive needs, our behaviour would be socially unacceptable. Consequently, conflicts arise between our attempts to satisfy our impulses and urges, and what is acceptable in the real world. C h a p t e r 1 Nature of psychology

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Figure 1.15 Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis

These conflicts, or mental struggles, occur often and can cause a great deal of anxiety. However, because they occur at the unconscious level of our mind, they are beneath and hidden away from our normal awareness of ourselves. This means that, sometimes, we may do or say things without realising why or the true motives that prompted these behaviours. According to Freud, we get glimpses of our unconscious impulses. For example, they may be revealed in everyday life through dreams, memory blocks, slips of the tongue and even the jokes we tell. However, in order to find the source of our conscious thoughts, feelings and behaviours, a psychoanalyst would need to probe, or dig into , the unconscious mind. Another important aspect of psychoanalysis as described by Freud is that our past experiences, especially early childhood experiences, are very important in the development of our personality and behaviour. This led him to devise the first theory in psychology on how personality develops. Freud s theory describes different types of conflicts or emotional events that arise in each of five different stages of personality development. According to Freud, we need to successfully resolve these conflicts or emotional events if we are to have a healthy personality (see chapter 12). In addition to his explanation of the structure and workings of the mind and his theory of personality development, Freud also devised a psychoanalytic theory of mental illnesses. His theory of mental illnesses included descriptions and explanations of a set of treatment methods that were also based on psychoanalysis. Freud developed his psychoanalytic theories mainly from his work with patients who sought his help with mental health problems they were experiencing. He also drew on observations of his family and reflections on his own personal thoughts, feelings and behaviour. Freud was very thorough in recording his methods and results, and published many books on his theories and techniques. 22

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Many of Freud s theories were controversial. Unlike Wundt and James, he did not conduct scientific research such as laboratory experiments to test his theories because psychoanalytic theories and ideas are extremely difficult to test using scientific methods. The lack of scientific basis has prevented psychoanalysis from achieving widespread credibility at any time since it was first proposed. However, Freud s theories were influential at the time and he attracted followers. Some of his theories continue to influence psychologists, psychiatrists and other mental health professionals. His theory that mental processes can occur below the level of conscious awareness is now widely accepted in psychology. However, Freud s description of the unconscious and how it influences our conscious thoughts, feelings and behaviour has little in common with the views of most contemporary psychologists (Gazzaniga & Heatherton, 2006).

Behaviourism John B. Watson The theories and work of American psychologist John Broadus Watson (1878 1958) are still evident in the study and practice of psychology today. Watson had a huge impact on the development of psychology as a scientific discipline by influencing many psychologists to change from studying conscious experience to studying behaviour. Watson (1913) rejected the emphasis on consciousness promoted by Wundt and James and the emphasis on the unconscious promoted by Freud. Instead, he proposed that psychology should focus on the scientific study of observable behaviour that could be objectively measured and confirmed by other researchers. He also promoted the idea that the goals of psychology should be to describe, predict, understand and control behaviour. Watson did not reject the existence of consciousness or the unconscious; instead, he viewed consciousness and the unconscious as impossible to observe and contributing little to a scientific approach to psychology. Watson s perspective and approach to studying psychology came to be known as behaviourism. Behaviourism involves understanding and explaining how behaviour is learned and moulded by experience. Behaviourists believe that almost everything a person (or animal) does is influenced by rewards and punishments in everyday life. According to behaviourists, we tend to repeat behaviours that we find rewarding in some way and avoid or not repeat behaviours we associate with punishment. In this sense, we are controlled by our environment because this is the source of rewards and punishments.

Figure 1.16 John B. Watson, the founder of behaviourism

Watson and his colleagues conducted research on learning, primarily with animals in carefully controlled laboratory conditions. One reason for using animals rather than humans with was that animals, such as rats and pigeons, were easy to obtain. Furthermore, greater control could be exercised over the learning experiences of animals in laboratory experiments. In his experiments, Watson s research focused on the roles of rewards and punishment on learning. Watson also studied people. At one time he boasted that, if he had enough control over the environment, he could create learning experiences that would turn any infant into whatever he wanted; for example, a doctor, a lawyer or even a criminal. Following the publication of research findings by Watson and other behaviourists in the 1920s, behaviourism became very popular and has been an influential perspective in psychology ever since. By the middle of the twentieth century, it was widely accepted that psychology was about the study of behaviour rather than of conscious experience. Behaviourism dominated psychology until about the 1960s when other approaches attracted attention. Watson s theories and ideas have since been modified and extended by other psychologists. Behaviourism continues to be a major perspective in contemporary psychology, however, the emphasis is now on the thinking that accompanies learning.

Humanism

carl rogers

Humanism emerged in the 1950s as an alternative to psychoanalysis and behaviourism. Humanism, also called humanistic psychology, is an approach to understanding and explaining behaviour and mental

processes that focuses on the uniqueness of each individual person and the positive qualities and potential of all human beings to fulfil their lives. Drawing on the meaning of the term humane , humanism is based on the assumption that all people are born good and that, throughout their life, each individual strives to reach their full potential, whatever that might be. American clinical psychologist Carl Rogers (1902 87) was one of the founders and leaders of humanism. Rogers was a psychologist who had trained in, but later rejected, psychoanalysis. He believed that the psychoanalytical approach was far too negative in its view of human behaviour. This was because its theories were mostly based on case studies of unhappy patients plagued by conflicts who presented with mental health problems to psychoanalysts. Rogers also rejected behaviourism. He believed that behaviourists focused too much on experimental evidence and observable behaviour. In his view, this was far too narrow a focus as it did not enable a full enough understanding of what it means to be human. Furthermore, like psychoanalysis, behaviourism presented a negative view of human behaviour through its belief that our behaviour is controlled by rewards and punishments external to ourselves, rather than by our own choices. Instead, Rogers (1961) emphasised our free will; that is, we are all individuals who freely choose to behave in whatever way we desire and act according to those choices, changing along the way if we choose to. This means that we also control our own destinies. According to Rogers, behaviour is not caused, or determined, by things outside our control. Rogers also believed that we are all born with the potential to become great in our own (however small) way. When one or more life experiences prevent fulfilment of our potential, this can usually be overcome with a little guidance. In his person-centred theory of personality, which became prominent in the 1960s, Rogers proposed that our personality develops as we strive to overcome the various hurdles that we face in our attempts to reach our full potential. Like Freud, Rogers primarily developed his ideas and theories from case studies of his work with people who sought his professional assistance. Unlike Freud, however, Rogers focused on the positive aspects of people who sought his help, preferring to call them clients rather than patients . Rogers agreed with the views of Wundt and James that psychology should focus on the study of conscious experience. However, Rogers emphasised the importance of focusing on the whole person and studying each individual s unique, inner awareness and understanding of themself and the world. C h a p t e r 1 Nature of psychology

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BOX 1.6 Maslow s theory of self-actualisation American psychologist Abraham Maslow (1908 70) is regarded as another founder and leader of humanism. Maslow is best-known for his theory of self-actualisation and his hierarchy of needs motivation theory.

Figure 1.17 Carl Rogers, one of the founders of humanism, which focuses on the positive potential of human beings

For most of his career, Rogers did not support the use of experiments to study people, particularly those conducted by behaviourists. He believed that the experimental methods borrowed from other sciences such as physics and chemistry were inappropriate for studying people. Consequently, Rogers and other humanists did relatively little scientific research to test their theories and ideas. Despite its lack of scientific evidence, many psychologists adopted the humanistic approach and many others were influenced by its theories. In addition to his person-centred theory of personality, Rogers developed an approach to helping people with problems called client-centred therapy. In this therapeutic approach, the clients are viewed as having the power and motivation to help themselves. Consequently, they are given the responsibility to solve their own problems, but with guidance from the therapist. Client-centred therapy became a popular alternative to psychoanalysis and behaviourism and many of its basic ideas have been adopted in the various approaches to therapy used today. Those who rejected humanism tended to regard it as a philosophy of life rather than a particular approach to psychology. Today, the impact of the humanistic approach to understanding behaviour and mental processes is limited. This is mainly because many psychologists find humanistic ideas too vague to be tested scientifically. Towards the end of his career, Rogers regretted that he did not conduct a wider range of scientific research studies, as doing so may have led to humanism having a more widespread and longer lasting impact on psychology. 24

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

Figure 1.18 Abraham Maslow

According to Maslow (1954), all people are motivated to fulfil a hierarchy of needs which is inborn. As shown in figure 1.19, these needs range from survival needs (basic needs) up to those that will enable a person to fulfil their potential (growth needs). The basic needs cause a person to choose to grow, develop and fulfil all their potentials; that is, to become self-actualised. Selfactualisation involves the full use of all our potentials and abilities, therefore achieving its maximum potential in life. Self-actualisation cannot be achieved until all the lowerlevel needs have been at least partly satisfied. According to Maslow, our basic physiological needs must be met before we can move up the hierarchy to meet the need for personal safety. If we achieve a sense of security we are then motivated to love and be loved. When our need for love and belongingness is met, esteem becomes important; that is, the needs to respect yourself, be respected by others and feel good about yourself and how others perceive you. If all these needs are met, then the individual is at the point of fulfilling their true and full potential, or self-actualising. However, research shows that very few people reach self-actualisation.

Sel actualisation needs: fulfilment of all potentials and capabilities

Gro t needs asic needs

learning activity 1.1 1 review questions

steem needs: self-respect, respect by others, high self-esteem, status

Love and belongingness needs: close relationships with other people, group membership Sa et needs: security, protection, no fear in one s life P siological needs: food, water, air and sleep Figure 1.19 Maslow s hierarchy of needs. Needs at the base of the pyramid must at least be partially met before the individual is able to deal with needs at the next level, and so on through to self-actualisation.

According to Maslow, a child must be raised in a supportive, caring and accepting environment or they may develop into an adult who is anxious about having basic physiological needs met. As a result, the individual may not be able to progress to the next levels and deal with issues of a more complex nature such as love and selfesteem. If the individual s basic physiological and safety needs are satisfied in childhood, then they have begun the journey to self-actualisation and will also be more likely to achieve love and esteem needs and therefore develop a healthy personality.

1. Explain the meaning of the phrase perspective in psychology . 2. Identify the perspective and leader associated with each of the following statements. (a) Psychology should study how behaviour and mental processes allow organisms to adapt to their environments. Perspective: Leader: (b) Psychology should emphasise each person s uniqueness as they strive to reach their full potential as a human being. Perspective: Leader: (c) Psychology should experimentally study the elements of consciousness, how they are organised and how they are interrelated. Perspective: Leader: (d) Psychology should scientifically study observable behaviour that can be objectively measured and not focus on consciousness. Perspective: Leader: (e) Psychology should study how unconscious conflicts influence behaviour and mental processes that occur at the conscious level. Perspective: Leader:

learnin g activit y 1. 10 Summarising classic perspectives in psychology Complete the following table to summarise five classic perspectives in psychology that shaped the development of contemporary psychology. Alternatively, you may complete the table online in your eBookPLUS then print a copy and include it in your workbook.

Perspective

Leader

When became prominent

Focus of study

Method(s) of study

Examples of theories

Structuralism Functionalism Psychoanalysis Behaviourism Humanism

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CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES AND THEORIES IN PSYCHOLOGY Each of the classic perspectives or schools of psychology influenced the thinking of psychologists throughout the world at the time they were prominent. Each perspective has also contributed to the development of contemporary psychology in significant ways. We now consider some of the more recent developments in psychology and describe the major perspectives and theories in psychology today. Four perspectives that are prominent in contemporary psychology are called the biological, behavioural, cognitive and socio-cultural perspectives. Though not strictly organised into schools of thought, as were the classic perspectives, each contemporary perspective represents a different point of view about human behaviour and mental processes. Each perspective has its own assumptions, questions and explanations of behaviour and mental processes. These determine the topics chosen for study, how research is conducted and the type of evidence that is considered important.

Biological perspective Physiology played an important role in influencing psychology when Wundt established psychology s first laboratory. That influence is now seen by the many psychologists who take the biological perspective. The biological perspective focuses on the biological (physiological) influences on behaviour and mental processes, including the brain and the rest of the nervous system, the endocrine (hormone) system, the immune system and genetics. A major assumption of the biological perspective is that all our thoughts, feelings and behaviours are associated with underlying bodily activities and processes. For example, when you think, a specific area of your brain is active, and the area differs, depending on what you think about. When you experience fear, electrical impulses shoot along your nervous system and hormones will be released into the bloodstream and travel throughout your body to signal your organs to respond. In order to voluntarily scratch your nose or turn the page of this book, specific areas of your brain are activated to trigger the appropriate muscles and tendons into action and to coordinate all the required movements. Interest in the biological perspective grew in the latter half of the twentieth century along with advances in medicine for treating mental illnesses and the development of sophisticated research equipment for studying the living human brain. In the last 30 years or 26

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so, there has been a dramatic improvement in understanding of how biological processes influence behaviour and mental processes. According to American neuropsychologist Michael Gazzaniga (2006), who assisted in the Nobel Prize winning split-brain surgery (see box 1.7), three significant developments during this recent period have enabled this growth in understanding and the associated growth in interest by psychologists in the biological perspective. The first major development is the enormous progress in understanding brain chemistry. The brain works through the actions of chemicals called neurotransmitters, which communicate messages between nerve cells (called neurons) within the brain and the rest of the nervous system. During the last 30 years, medical scientists and psychologists have identified many of these neurotransmitters and their functions. Although it was long believed that no more than several neurotransmitters were involved in brain activity, it is now known that there are hundreds of different neurotransmitters, each of which plays one or more critical roles in human behaviour and/or mental processes. For example, psychologists conducted experiments that found that the neurotransmitter called dopamine (pronounced dope-uh-mine ) is involved in complex bodily movements and in regulating emotional responses, particularly our experience of pleasure and excitement. Dopamine is also used in medications for people suffering from Parkinson s disease, which is characterised by muscle tremors and difficulty in initiating movement. And the neurotransmitter called seratonin (pronounced sair-ah-toe-nin ) is involved in the onset of sleep and the moods we experience. It is also used in medications to treat people suffering from severe depression. Understanding the chemical processes of the brain has provided many new insights into behaviour and mental activities and has also been useful for developing treatments to help people with brain and nervous system disorders. The second major development is the enormous progress in understanding the influence of genes on human behaviour and mental processes. Since 2003, following the mapping out of the human genome, the basic genetic code or blueprint for the human body, psychologists have been able to develop new techniques to study the link between genes and how we think, feel and behave. For example, to conduct experimental studies on the effects of a gene on memory, psychologists have been able to breed mice that either lack a specific gene or have new genes inserted. These mice subsequently show either impaired memory or improved memory, depending on whether they lack or have the gene. By identifying the genes that are involved in memory, psychologists may soon be able to develop

therapies based on genetic manipulation that will assist people who have memory problems; for example, people suffering from Alzheimer s disease. However, the idea that a single gene causes a specific behaviour is too simplistic. Almost all psychological and biological activity is affected by the actions and combined effects of a number of genes. No one specific gene is solely responsible for memory, or racist attitudes, or shyness. Nonetheless, evidence is accumulating that genes are involved in many behaviours and mental processes;

that is, many of our physical and mental characteristics are, to some degree, inherited. Mapping the human genome has provided psychologists and other scientists with a knowledge base from which to study how specific genes affect thoughts, feelings, actions and various disorders. Although many of the possibilities for correcting genetic defects are probably decades away, the methods now available to psychologists to study the influence of genetic processes have provided new insights into behaviour and mental processes.

BOX 1.7 Split-brain surgery (a)

(b)

Corpus callosum

(c)

American neuropsychologist Roger Sperry (1913 94) was awarded a Nobel Prize for his research on the role of the brain in behaviour and mental processes. Assisted by his student Michael Gazzaniga, Sperry conducted experiments with patients who had undergone split-brain surgery for medical reasons. The split-brain operation involves surgically cutting the strands of nerve tissue which connect the two hemispheres (halves) of the brain. It is often an effective treatment for patients who suffer from severe epileptic seizures. However, the split-brain operation is only performed in very serious cases of epilepsy where drugs and other medical procedures have not been effective. Epilepsy is a condition involving spontaneous bursts of electrical activity from areas of neurons (nerve cells) in the brain. These bursts disrupt the normal electrochemical activity of the brain and result in seizures that occur unexpectedly. The seizures typically involve the sudden contraction of the entire body s muscles, followed by a period of alternating jerks and relaxation of the body. In some cases, people experiencing an epileptic seizure lose consciousness. The split-brain operation has the physiological effect of separating the two hemispheres of the brain, thereby preventing them from interacting and communicating with each other as they normally do. For reasons that still remain unclear, disconnecting the hemispheres usually reduces the incidence and severity of epileptic seizures. In one of his experiments, Sperry gave a split-brain patient a series of tests to measure the effects of having disconnected hemispheres on specific thoughts and behavioural responses. Sperry found, for example, that the patient could recognise a picture of an object but not name it. This indicated that one hemisphere is primarily responsible for visual recognition of objects and the other for verbal language (naming objects). It seemed that cutting the nerve pathways between the two hemispheres prevented the exchange of this information. Consequently, the patient could not link information in the brain about the image of the object received in the right hemisphere with information in the brain about the name of the object because language is primarily a function of the left hemisphere (Sperry, 1974). Figure 1.20 (a) The human brain has two almost symmetrical halves called cerebral hemispheres. (b) The hemispheres are connected by strands of nerve tissue. The largest of these is called the corpus callosum. (c) The split-brain operation involves cutting the strands of nerve tissue to disconnect the two hemispheres.

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Technology for studying the living human brain in action has been the third major development that has led to the prominence of the biological perspective. For more than 100 years psychologists and other scientists have disagreed about whether mental processes such as thinking, memory, perception and emotion are located in specific areas of the brain or distributed throughout the brain. The development of advanced versions of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) scanners in the late 1980s enabled psychologists to answer these questions with considerable accuracy. These brain scanning and imaging devices, called neuroimaging devices, have allowed psychologists to scientifically study the brain at work . For example, a participant in an experiment on the areas of the brain involved in language may be required to perform a task such as listening to someone talking or listening to music while any changes that occur in one or more areas of their brain are observed and recorded using a PET or functional MRI (f MRI) scanner. These scanners also enable the production of computer-generated images, such as those shown in figures 1.21 and 1.23. Although PET and f MRI are different types of scanners, both can produce images that use different colours to indicate different levels of activity in the various areas of the brain. Using images such as these, the researchers can determine those areas of the brain that are active and therefore involved when a specific task is performed (and vice versa). For example, the PET images in figure 1.21 show different areas of the brain that are all involved to some extent when we listen to speech, as compared with when we listen to music and when we are at rest. The areas of the brain that are most active are indicated by red and yellow; the parts of the brain that are least active (or inactive) are indicated by violet and blue.

(a) listening to speech

(b) listening to music

Figure 1.22 A PET (positron emission tomography) scanner detects and produces images of activity in the brain.

The f MRI images shown in figure 1.23 were taken during an experiment on how our expectations of whether or not an experience will be painful can influence the brain. When participants were asked to put a hand into moderately hot water, part of the brain became active, probably because of the discomfort involved. However, when participants were led to believe that the water would be very hot and therefore painful, their brains showed far greater activity than those of participants who were led to believe that their pain would be minimal, even though the water was the same temperature for all participants. In the f MRI images, those areas of the brain that are very active are indicated by orange, red and white, and those areas of the brain that are least active are indicated by violet and blue. The use of neuroimaging techniques has enabled psychologists to address some of the most important questions about human experience, such as how different

(c) resting

Figure 1.21 PET scans of people with normal brain activity participating in different tasks. Red indicates the greatest level of brain activity, whereas blue indicates the brain areas that are least active. 28

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

brain areas interact to produce perceptual experience, how various types of memory (such as short-term and long-term memory) are similar or different, and how conscious experience involves changes in brain activity. Neuroimaging techniques have also enabled psychologists to explore other aspects of normal brain functioning, as well as the effects of medications on the brain and changes in the brain that may be linked to various types of disease, such as Parkinson s disease, Alzheimer s disease and motor neurone disease, or may be linked to mental illnesses such as depression and schizophrenia. (b)

(a)

Figure 1.23 MRI images taken during an experiment on pain expectation. Areas of high activation of the brain are indicated by yellow, red and white.The brain of someone expecting pain is shown in (a); (b) shows the brain of a participant who expected only mild discomfort.

learning activity 1.12 visual presentation technology for studying the brain Undertake library or internet-based research to locate an example of a neuroimaging device that may be available for or used in psychological research on the brain. Find an example of a device other than an MRI or PET scanner. Prepare a brief report in which you outline: 1. the name of the device 2. features of the image(s) that can be produced 3. an example of a psychological research study for which it would be used. Present your report in a poster format and include a copy of an image(s) produced by this device.

Behavioural perspective Are you more likely to study for a test if there is a desirable consequence, such as being praised or getting a good mark? Are you more likely to clean your room when one of your parents is nagging you and you want them to stop? Are you more likely to get home from a party at the agreed time to avoid an undesirable consequence, such as being grounded or having your allowance stopped? Like most people, you probably answered yes to each of these questions. In all of these examples, doing something has a consequence. The consequence, which may or may not be desirable, occurs in your environment and influences whether or not you do something; that is, your behaviour. Contemporary psychologists who take the behavioural perspective emphasise the importance of studying environmental influences on observable behaviour. More specifically, the behavioural perspective focuses on how behaviour is acquired or modified by environmental consequences such as rewards and punishments. A key assumption of the behavioural perspective is that all behaviour can be explained in terms of learning processes. The behavioural perspective has its origins in Watson s behaviourism, which emerged as a major influence in the early twentieth century. Watson suddenly gave up psychology altogether in the 1920s. However, from the 1930s until his death in 1990, American psychologist Burrhus Skinner (1904 90) modified and extended the basic principles of behaviourism. His theories have had a long-lasting influence on psychology in general and many of his ideas are still evident in the contemporary behavioural perspective. Like Watson, Skinner believed that mental processes should not be scientifically studied as they were not directly observable. He also argued that mental processes were of little or no value in understanding and explaining behaviour. Instead, Skinner focused on explaining how rewards and punishments in an individual s environment shape, maintain and change their behaviour through a type of learning that he called operant conditioning. Skinner conducted numerous, carefully controlled laboratory experiments with animals to develop and test his theories. He applied the results of his experiments to humans, arguing that people in real life would probably behave like his experimental animals. Skinner s classic experiments involved the study of bar or lever pressing by rats and pecking by pigeons in an operant conditioning chamber that became widely known as a Skinner box (see figure 1.24). In a typical experiment, Skinner placed a hungry animal in a Skinner box and allowed the animal to explore it. C h a p t e r 1 Nature of psychology

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Sooner or later the animal would accidentally press a bar that would immediately release a food pellet. After that happened a few times, the rate of bar pressing would increase dramatically and remain high until the rat was no longer hungry. Skinner concluded that the food acted as a reward for the bar-pressing behaviour. In Skinner s view, this was evidence of an operant conditioning principle that he called reinforcement. The principle of reinforcement states that the consequences of a behaviour determine whether the behaviour will be more or less likely to be repeated.

Figure 1.24 Burrhus Skinner demonstrates the Skinner box in which rats (and other small animals) were used for experiments on a type of learning that Skinner called operant conditioning.

Through other experiments, Skinner identified different types of reinforcement, which he called positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement increases the likelihood of doing something by providing a desirable consequence, such as pressing a lever to get a food pellet. Negative reinforcement also increases the likelihood of doing something for a desired consequence, but it involves the 30

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

removal or avoidance of something that is unpleasant. For example, a Skinner box has a wire grid on the floor through which a mild electric current can be passed. If a rat is placed in the box it can be given a mild shock to its feet. Though harmless, the shock is unpleasant and therefore an undesirable experience. When the rat presses the bar, the electric current is automatically switched off. The removal of the shock is the negative reinforcement that has a desired consequence. In this way, negative reinforcement can have the effect of increasing the likelihood of doing something; for example, pressing a bar to remove or avoid a shock. Skinner also experimented on the effects of punishment on behaviour. He found that if a rat received a shock after it pressed a bar, it would soon stop its barpressing behaviour altogether, even when it was very hungry. Consequently, Skinner was able to demonstrate and provide scientific evidence of how reinforcement increased the likelihood of behaving in a particular way and how punishment decreased the likelihood of behaving in a particular way. Furthermore, he demonstrated that punishment could be used to stop a particular behaviour altogether. Skinner did not restrict the application of these principles to animal behaviour in a Skinner box. He explained numerous examples of everyday human behaviour in terms of reinforcement and punishment, such as turning on a light switch, riding a bike, or getting dressed. Skinner also explained how operant conditioning principles could intentionally be used to change a person s or animal s behaviour in some desired way through a procedure called shaping. Shaping involves giving positive reinforcement (a reward) for a specific behaviour that ultimately leads to the final pattern of a target (or desired) behaviour. The use of shaping is evident in many of the tricks that have been taught to performing animals in captivity. For example, a chicken could be taught to play a tune on a toy piano through the shaping procedure. The chicken is first placed near a toy xylophone. As soon as the chicken looks towards the xylophone it is rewarded with a food pellet. Whenever it looks that way again, it is always rewarded. Eventually, the chicken learns that looking in a certain direction results in food and that part of the final pattern of target behaviour has become established. Next, the chicken is not rewarded until it takes a step towards the toy xylophone. As soon as it does so, it is rewarded again, but there is no reward for looking in the direction of the xylophone. Eventually, taking a step towards the toy piano becomes established through the use of reinforcement. The procedure is repeated for successive behaviours until the chicken pecks one of the keys, then another key and so on.

The emphasis is now on both environmental and cognitive factors. This broader, learning-based, behavioural perspective also recognises the important role of mental processes and is commonly called the social-learning or social-cognitive perspective.

cognitive perspective

Figure 1.25 Operant conditioning was used to teach this chicken to play a tune on the xylophone.

The behavioural perspective led to the development of a particular style of therapy called behaviour therapy. Behaviour therapy involves using learning principles to eliminate unwanted behaviour and bring about the desired changes. Behaviour therapy techniques have been used successfully to help people overcome extreme fears, quit smoking, lose weight, toilet train infants and acquire better study habits. Today, however, many clinical and counselling psychologists use an extension of behaviour therapy called cognitive behavioural therapy. Cognitive behavioural therapy focuses on changing unreasonable thoughts that underlie unwanted behaviour, rather than changing the behaviour itself. This reflects the recognition given to extensive research findings that our thoughts about the environment and consequences are just as important in influencing behaviour as the environment itself. For example, it is now widely accepted that behaviour is shaped not only by environmental factors, such as rewards and punishments, but also by thoughts such as our expectations about the consequences of behaving in a particular way (e.g. If I do X, then Y will follow ) and the value we place on different consequences (such as the importance of getting good grades). In sum, the contemporary behavioural perspective focuses on observable behaviour and the role of learning in influencing that behaviour. However, most psychologists have come to believe that Watson s and Skinner s traditional behaviourism is too simplistic or limited to explain complex human behaviour. Few psychologists today describe themselves as behaviourists.

Can you take in information from your environment if you don t pay attention? How does your brain process incoming visual information so that you know what it is that you are looking at? How does your memory work? Could you learn if you couldn t remember? Why do you forget? How do you understand a sentence? What is the relationship between language and thought? How do you comprehend, solve problems, form opinions and make decisions? These questions about mental processes are just some of the topics of interest among psychologists who adopt the cognitive perspective. The term cognition comes from the Latin word cognoscere which means to know or to recognise . Psychologists use cognition to refer to mental processes, primarily mental processes that involve thinking. The first cognitive theories appeared around the middle of the twentieth century. One of the best-known cognitive theories was developed by Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. Piaget s theory describes and explains how our thinking develops from birth. His theory is still influential today.

Figure 1.26 How do people recognise this abstract object as a dog, given that it does not look anything like a real dog? According to cognitive psychologists, people categorise an object that resembles a dog by comparing it to examples of dogs, drawing on their general knowledge of dogs, or on specific defining features of dogs that are stored in their long-term memory. C h a p t e r 1 Nature of psychology

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Generally, the main subject matter of cognitive psychology has not changed greatly since the first cognitive theories were proposed. Cognitive psychologists still focus on mental processes that take place inside our brain. In contemporary psychology, the cognitive perspective focuses on how we acquire, process, remember and use information about ourselves and the world around us. Basically, the emphasis is on understanding how we take in information and how we treat the information in order to think, feel and behave as we do. A major assumption of the cognitive perspective is that internal mental processes are important in their own right, as well as important influences on observable behaviour. That is, in order to understand what makes people tick and do what they do, it is essential to know what is actually going on inside their brains. Psychologists who have adopted the cognitive perspective emphasise the need to study mental processes using scientific methods, particularly well-controlled experiments. There is little reliance on self-reflection and verbal reports from research participants. Many cognitive psychologists have explained mental processes by making comparisons between the human brain and a computer. This is because both our brain and the computer can receive, process, store and retrieve information. Theories that use a computer analogy are said to take the information processing approach. For example, thinking has been likened to the way in which the computer deals with information. As with the computer, we receive information as data inputs from the environment. When it is being received, the information is converted into a form that can be handled by our brain. The information is then stored in the brain in a way that enables it to be easily retrieved when needed. This is like the way in which we save information in the computer s hard drive. When we need information for thinking purposes, such as to solve a maths problem, we locate and retrieve it from where it is stored in the brain. When the information is retrieved, we then select and use the appropriate mental operations or programs to get the required solution or output . This is like our choice of a software program to complete a specific task. For example, we may choose Microsoft Word to write an essay and PowerPoint for a multimedia presentation. Although the human mind is much more sophisticated than a computer and differs in many ways, psychologists who adopt the cognitive perspective have found the information processing approach useful. The information processing approach has been used to develop theories to explain a wide range of mental processes, such as how we form perceptions or view the world as we do, how we learn, how memory works, how we acquire 32

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

language, how we go about solving intellectual problems, how we react to social situations and how we make decisions. Incoming sensor in ormation

ncoding

Storage

Retrieval

Converted or storage

eld in memor

Recovered

en needed

Figure 1.27 Memory as an information process system. The information processing approach explains mental processes by making comparisons between the human brain and a computer.

The information processing approach has also been used to explain mental processes accompanying observable behaviour. For example, the following describes the various mental processes that may occur during an aggressive incident outside a movie theatre. The aggressive person (1) perceives that someone has pushed their way into the ticket line, (2) retrieves information stored in memory about appropriate social behaviour, (3) decides that the other person s action was inappropriate, (4) uses language to label the person as rude and selfish, (5) considers possible responses and their likely consequences, (6) decides that shoving the person is the best response, (7) initiates that response, (8) shoves the person (Bernstein & others, 2006). More recently, psychologists taking the cognitive perspective have moved away from using the information processing approach to explain mental processes. There is now an increasing tendency to use the connectionist approach. This approach considers how the brain actually works when performing different mental processes. For example, as shown in figure 1.27, the information processing approach describes memory in a sequential, step-by-step way. However, the connectionist approach recognises that different parts of the brain are interconnected by networks of neurons and are more or less active at the same time when processing information. The connectionist approach also describes information as being distributed throughout entire networks within the brain rather than being located in one specific area of the brain.

The semantic network theory is an example of one of the earlier connectionist theories. This theory describes and explains how the vast amount of information stored in our long-term memory is organised so that we can efficiently retrieve it when needed. According to the theory, bits of related information are clustered together and these are spread throughout an interconnected network. The closer the relationship between different bits of information, the closer they will be in the network (and vice versa). When we need to retrieve some information, a search commences in the part of the network where the required information is likely to be. That area of the network is then activated, along with other areas with bits of information that are closely related to the specific bit we are retrieving.

learnin g activit y 1. 13 visual presentation information processing approach Consider the text example on how the information processing approach explains mental processes underlying an aggressive person outside a movie theatre (see page 32). Also consider figure 1.27, showing a flow chart of memory as an information processing system. Draw a flow chart or another type of diagram to illustrate a sequence of underlying mental processes that may occur in either of the following incidents: 1. being put down by a member of your friendship group 2. not having enough money to go on a schoolies trip planned for the end of year 12. Ensure your flow chart or diagram provides an example of the information processing approach.

Socio-cultural perspective Are there sex differences in some of our cognitive abilities? For example, are males better than females in maths and females better than males in reading and writing? If so, does this apply to people throughout the world? Are there racial differences in intelligence? For example, do Anglo-Saxon Australians perform better on intelligence tests than Aboriginal people? If so, how can this be explained? Are younger people more likely to be influenced by peer pressure than older people? Does the amount of money a person earns affect their view of themself or their expectations of what their children will achieve in life? Does a person s cultural background influence whether or not they will obey someone in authority, how they perceive visual illusions or how their personality develops? Does a person s view of what is normal or abnormal behaviour differ

according to their cultural background? Do people in all cultures experience depression in the same way? These are some of the questions of particular interest to psychologists who have adopted the socio-cultural perspective. The socio-cultural perspective focuses on the roles of social and cultural influences on human behaviour and mental processes. It is assumed that socio-cultural factors such as sex, race, age, income level and the culture in which people grow up are important influences. The socio part of the term refers to the study of influences within a society or culture; for example, how sex, race, age or income level can affect how we think, feel or behave. The cultural part refers to the study of similarities and differences in how people think, feel and behave across different cultures. Culture is the way of life of a particular group of people; for example, the beliefs, values, attitudes, customs, ways of behaving, forms of expression and so on, which are shared by most members of a group of people. It is passed from one generation to the next by tradition, example and stories rather than by genes. A culture is often associated with a particular country. Most countries, however, are actually multicultural; that is, there are different subgroups within a country, each with their own culture. These subgroups are usually formed by people of various racial or ethnic origins. For example, the population of Australia includes Aboriginals whose ancestors first settled Australia; Anglo-Saxon Australians whose families came from English speaking countries such as Great Britain, Ireland and New Zealand; Greek Australians, Sudanese Australians, Lebanese Australians, Vietnamese Australians and Australians whose families came from numerous other countries throughout the world. In each of these subgroups, the individuals who identify with the culture they inherited through birth tend to share beliefs, values, attitudes and the like based on their cultural heritage or background. Cultures can differ in many ways. For example, they may have strict rules for social behaviour, such as requiring every adult woman to cover her face and hair in public, or loose rules. They might place great value on achievement or on self-understanding. Some cultures seek dominance over those with different religions; others seek a peaceful co-existence. Punctuality and respect for elders are of great importance in some cultures, but not in others. Culture can also determine, for example, whether children s education will focus on hunting or reading, how close people stand during a conversation, whether they make eye contact during a conversation and whether or not they form queues or lines in public places (Bernstein & others, 2006). C h a p t e r 1 Nature of psychology

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Figure 1.28 Culture is the way of life of a particular group of people and helps shape almost every aspect of our behaviour and mental processes. Although the families shown here live next door to each other and have much in common, it is likely that each family has their own set of beliefs, values, attitudes and the like based on their cultural heritage or background.

As psychologists started studying people of different cultures in different countries, they discovered that some well-established findings from experiments may not have been able to be applied as widely as first thought. For example, one well-established research finding was that people tend to exert less effort on a task when working as part of a group than when working alone. This is called social loafing. First described in the 1970s, social loafing has been a common finding in many experiments conducted with American and European research participants. But when similar studies were conducted with Chinese participants during the 1980s, the opposite was found to apply. Chinese participants worked harder on a task when they were part of a group than when they were working alone (Moghaddam, Taylor & Wright, 1993). Many other socio-cultural studies have also obtained different results when they repeated studies with people from different cultures. The socio-cultural perspective highlights the diversity of human beings. Much of the past research in psychology has used groups of white, middle class, male university students as participants. It was too often assumed that findings of research studies based on these groups could be applied to other groups who have extremely different life experiences (Nevid, 34

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2006). Many psychologists are now wondering whether research studies on topics such as cognitive development, visual perception, peer pressure, obedience, personality development and mental illnesses have produced results about all people or a particular group of people (Westen, Burton & Kowalski, 2006). People around the world are alike in many ways. They tend to live in groups, have families, educate their children, have religious beliefs, use language, eat, sleep, seek happiness and worry. Males and females throughout the world are also alike in many ways. Nerve cell activity and reactions to a sour taste are the same in men and women everywhere, as is their recognition of a smile (Bernstein & others, 2006). However, many aspects of human behaviour and mental processes are affected by sociocultural factors. What is true of people in one culture is not necessarily true of people in another. For example, although depression is observed in nearly every culture, the symptoms associated with it can vary significantly from one place to another. In Western cultures such as Australia and North America, depressed people tend to think less of themselves, whereas depressed people in Eastern cultures such as Japan and Iran are less likely to do so. There are aspects of human behaviour and mental processes that may be entirely determined by culture and others that seem to be entirely unaffected by culture. For example, child-rearing practices and the age of a person s earliest memory differ dramatically across cultures, whereas facial expression of basic human emotions and the ability to recognise these facial expressions do not (Schacter, Gilbert & Wegner, 2009).

The socio-cultural perspective has helped ensure verlook that psychologists do not underestimate or overlook nces on the importance of social and cultural influences human behaviour and mental processes. Thiss means ch, the that when undertaking psychological research, research samples need to be broadly representative of the populations to which the researchers want to apply their findings. When considering all the perspectives, it should be noted that no single contemporary perspective is necessarily right and the others wrong . Nor are there neat boundary lines between each perspective. The different contemporary perspectives do not represent psychologists who are in opposing or competing teams . Rather, each perspective has informed the others with its theories and ideas, leading to a broadening of the outlook of each perspective and of psychology in general. For example, the cognitive perspective broadened the outlook of the behavioural perspective by demonstrating the roles of cognitive processes in learning. Each perspective enables almost any topic in psychology to be looked at in a number of different ways. This is primarily because each perspective raises its own specific questions about behaviour and mental processes, which determines the topics chosen for study, how research is conducted and the type of evidence that is considered important. For example, consider the mental illness called schizophrenia, which has symptoms such as disorganised thinking, bizarre or disturbed thoughts and disorganised behaviour. A psychologist with a biological perspective may ask specific questions

on how genetics or brain function and chemistry could explain the illness. A psychologist with a behavioural perspective may ask questions on how environmental factors can reinforce symptoms of schizophrenia. A psychologist with a cognitive perspective may ask questions on the thought patterns of people with schizophrenia and how they mentally process information and subsequently act on the information. A psychologist with a socio-cultural perspective may ask questions on specific life experiences that are more likely to trigger or aggravate the illness. Many psychologists today do not adopt a single perspective. Instead, they take an eclectic perspective. The eclectic perspective draws on theories, ideas and research methods from different perspectives. It s like a mix of perspectives made up of what the psychologists believe to be the best of from each perspective and which suits their specific professional interests and work as a psychologist. Collectively, the different perspectives have contributed to the diversity of contemporary psychology. Although each contemporary perspective offers a different approach to understanding and explaining the ways in which we think, feel and behave, all emphasise the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. C h a p t e r 1 Nature of psychology

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learning a ctivity 1.14 review questions Identify the contemporary perspective in psychology associated with each of the following statements about the focus of research. 1. Psychological research should focus on how reinforcers and punishers lead people to behave as they do. 2. Psychological research should focus on social and cultural influences that lead people to think, feel and behave as they do.

3. Psychological research should focus on reinforcers, punishers and mental processes that lead people to think, feel and behave as they do. 4. Psychological research should focus on how people, acquire, process and use information. 5. Psychological research should focus on underlying bodily processes associated with thoughts, feelings and behaviour. eBook plus Matching exercise on perspectives

learnin g activit y 1. 15

Summarising contemporary perspectives in psychology Complete the following table to summarise four contemporary perspectives in psychology. Alternatively, you may complete the table online in your eBookPLUS, then print a copy and include it in your workbook. Perspective

Focus of story

Major assumption(s)

Method of study

Examples of theories

Biological Behavioural Cognitive Socio-cultural

learning a ctivity 1.16 visual presentation explaining aggression through different perspectives The text describes questions that may be asked about schizophrenia by psychologists from each of four contemporary perspectives (p. 35). Give an example of two or more questions from each perspective that may be asked to explain the aggressive behaviour shown in the photo at right. Present your answer in point form on a chart or diagram. A copy of the photo can be printed from your eBook.

Options and variations 36

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

SCIENTIFIC NATURE URE OF PSYCHOLOGY Is the popular belief that opposites attract a fact or a myth? To answer this question, many people rely on commonsense, often based ased on what they have heard from others or their personal experience with people who look or act very differently from themselves. Many students are surprised at the results of scientific research that has found both males and females males are more likely to be drawn to individuals who have similar ar looks and attitudes to their own. Furthermore, research findings suggest that males and females are more likely to choose long-term partners who are similar to themselves and that marriages between similar people are more likely to last. In everyday life we often use commonsense judgements in trying ying to understand behaviour and mental processes. We use our life experiences, particularly our observations of the way in which we and others do things, to develop our own opinions on such issues as how children think, why people use illegal drugs, the causes of phobias, the effects of stress on exam performance, why people join cults, how to improve memory and the capabilities of people with intellectual disabilities. However, commonsense psychology , whereby people collect information about behaviour and mental processes informally or non-scientifically, often leads to inaccurate conclusions. There may be a number of reasons for the inaccuracy of these conclusions. The source of the information may not be dependable. Similarly, many people do not critically evaluate their beliefs and change them if conflicting information is presented. In fact, research studies have found evidence to suggest that people tend to collect information that supports their beliefs and ignore evidence that suggests that their beliefs may not be true. Psychologists approach the study of behaviour and mental processes in a scientific way. This involves the use of scientific method to study questions such as why people engage in behaviour that they otherwise would not have performed (such as helping or aggression) in some situations, and why in other situations, people do not engage in behaviour that they otherwise would have performed (such as helping or aggression). Essentially, the scientific method used by psychologists is the

Figure 1.29 Do opposites attract? If these two people formed a relationship, would the relationship be long-lasting?

same method used in other sciences, such as biology, chemistry and physics. The term scientific method refers to the systematic approach for planning, conducting and reporting research which involves collecting empirical evidence. Empirical evidence is data (information) collected directly by observation, or, more frequently in psychology, through experimentation. Collecting data through empirically based research allows psychologists to draw accurate conclusions, which are more likely to be free from personal biases. If, for example, a psychologist wanted to find out whether or not it is true that you can t judge a book by its cover (that is, you can t judge someone s personality by their looks ), they would plan and conduct scientific research to collect empirical evidence in order to test the accuracy of this saying. They might call for volunteers to be participants in their research, then ask a number of observers to look at photographs of different males and females, then describe the personality of each person in the photographs. They may then give a valid and reliable personality test to each person from whom a photograph was obtained to generate personality profiles (results of the personality test) which could then be compared with the descriptions provided by the research participants. If the descriptions closely matched the profiles and stood C h a p t e r 1 Nature of psychology

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up to statistical tests for checking the results, then the psychologist may conclude that the saying is incorrect based on the results obtained from the research study. Alternatively, if the descriptions differed considerably from the profiles, the psychologist may conclude that the saying is correct based on the results obtained. Thus, the use of scientific method helps ensure that the data collected are accurate and reliable, and that the conclusions drawn from the data are valid and can therefore be trusted. In conducting research, psychologists strictly follow scientific procedures to help ensure their personal biases do not influence their interpretation of the research findings and to help minimise human error. However, scientific research is not completely free from error. Like all people, psychologists who conduct research can make mistakes. It is important therefore that the research is repeated to ensure the results are accurate or find out if they can be applied in other similar situations. Replication involves conducting a study again to establish whether the results obtained can be duplicated, and are therefore reliable and able to be generalised to apply to other people across a range of situations and settings. For example, replication of the study on judging someone s personality from their looks using participants and observers from a different age group, cultural background, sex and

Researc question.

Plan scienti ic researc .

Conduct t e researc to collect empirical evidence.

Anal se t e results.

Dra a conclusion rom t e results.

so on may provide similar results to the original study, thus reinforcing the finding. Alternatively, if replication of the study using participants with different backgrounds produces different results from those obtained in the original study, the conclusion made about looks and personality may need to be refined so that it is applied only to the actual participants in the study and the larger group from which they were selected.

learning activity 1.17 review questions 1. Briefly explain why psychology is regarded as a science. 2. (a) Define the meaning of the term scientific method. (b) What are two main benefits of using scientific method? 3. (a) What is empirical evidence? (b) How is empirical evidence obtained? (c) Why do psychologists prefer to use descriptions of behaviour and mental processes that are based on empirical evidence rather than descriptions based on commonsense? 4. Explain the importance of replication in science.

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sæ #OMPAREæJUDGEMENTSæBYæTHEæRESEARCHæPARTICIPANTSæWITHæPERSONALITYæPROFILESæOBTAINEDæ æ FROMæTHEæPERSONALITYæTEST sææ5SEæSTATISTICALæTESTSæTOæDETERMINEæTHEæSIGNIFICANCEæOFæTHEæRESULTSæFORæEXAMPLE æ WHETHERæTHEæRESULTSæAREæMEANINGFUL

$OæTHEæRESULTSæOBTAINEDæFROMæTHEæRESEARCHæINDICATEæTHATæRESEARCHæPARTICIPANTSæCOULDæ ACCURATELYæJUDGEæPEOPLESæPERSONALITYæTRAITSæFROMæTHEIRæPHOTOGRAPHS

Figure 1.30 Application of the scientific method to study a research question of interest 38

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

learning activity 1.18 is commonsense good psychology? 1. Psychologists using scientific research have studied the accuracy of each of the statements below. On the basis of commonsense , decide whether each statement is true or false. (a) A fully qualified hypnotist can hypnotise anybody. (b) Most people use only about 10% of their brain. (c) Out of the billions of people on Earth, there is probably someone else who is exactly like you. (d) People suffering from schizophrenia have two or more distinct personalities. (e) Having someone read study material to you while you are asleep results in better recall of the material when you awaken. (f) You can tell quite accurately what emotion a person is experiencing by observing the expression on their face. (g) Many people have one psychic ability. (h) You can t fool a lie detector. (i) Intelligence is entirely inherited from your biological parents. (j) Absence makes the heart grow fonder. Go to page 571 and compare your answers with those that have been obtained through scientific research.

2. Write a conclusion about the accuracy of commonsense psychology , as compared to the findings obtained from scientific psychological research.

Options and variations

SCIENTIFIC VERSUS NONSCIENTIFIC EXPLANATIONS Psychology uses a scientific approach when conducting research. This enables psychologists to draw valid and reliable conclusions about the behaviour and mental processes they study. There are many other ways of explaining human thoughts, feelings and behaviour that are not based on science. Some of these approaches claim to be scientific but are not. Some have scientific-sounding names and use very elaborate systems to explain how we think, feel or behave. Consequently, they seem to be based on science. Among these non-scientific explanations are astrology, numerology, graphology and palmistry. Astrology describes the belief that the movement of the stars and planets influences our personality, moods, behaviour, events in our lives and so on. Numerology involves examining significant numbers in an individual s life (for example, birth date, house address or phone number) to predict future events or describe influences on an individual s life. Graphology involves interpreting handwriting to judge an individual s personality and identify significant issues in their lives. Palmistry involves examining the lines on the palm of a person s hand and using these to describe aspects of the person s thoughts, feelings and behaviour, as well as to predict future events in their lives. These kinds of alternative approaches are often called pseudosciences. Pseudo is a prefix used to indicate that something is fake or falsely imitates something else. Consequently, pseudoscience means fake or false science. Psychologists and other scientists generally believe that the methods and results, and, therefore, the claims, of pseudoscientists are often inaccurate as they are not based on true science. The non-scientist is likely to draw inaccurate conclusions about human thoughts, feelings and behaviours (and other events) because the conclusions are based on faulty or insufficient evidence resulting from unsystematic study (if any). Similarly, psychologists and other scientists also hold a view that commonsense, faith or personal beliefs cannot be used as the sole basis of explaining thoughts, feelings and behaviour, or determining whether or not something is true.

Psychics and psi abilities A psychic is someone who claims to have supernatural powers associated with the mind. These alleged powers are called psi abilities. Psi abilities are abilities that are said to enable the mind to act in a way that is C h a p t e r 1 Nature of psychology

39

beyond its known capabilities. The laws of nature cannot explain these abilities, hence the term supernatural is used in relation to them. There is a group of three psi abilities known as extrasensory perception. Extrasensory perception (ESP) is the alleged ability to perceive events through means other than the known human sensory systems, such as seeing and hearing (hence the term extrasensory, which refers to an additional sense ). The three types of ESP are said to be: • telepathy the alleged ability to mentally communicate with another person ( mind to mind ) without using any standard means of communication; that is, mentally transferring thoughts or reading someone s mind . • clairvoyance the alleged ability to perceive physical objects or events occurring in the past, present or future, at a distance or through physical barriers and without the use of known senses; for

example, a girl holidaying in Lorne sees that her boyfriend in Melbourne is going out with another girl. • precognition the alleged ability to know about events that will occur in the future. This is the ability presumed to be possessed by fortune tellers and prophets such as Nostradamus, who is said to have predicted events occurring centuries after his death, such as various natural disasters and the Holocaust (the extermination of Jewish people during WWII) (see box 1.8). Psychokinesis is another commonly described psi ability, but it is not a form of ESP. Psychokinesis, or telekinesis as it is also called, is the alleged ability to influence or control an external, physical event or object through thought processes alone; for example, bending a spoon, stopping a watch or moving an object across a room through concentration alone, without touching the object.

Figure 1.31

BOX 1.8 Nostradamus the psychic? Michel de Nostradame, commonly known as Nostradamus, was born on 14 December 1503 in France. He is said to have been educated by his grandfather who taught him Latin, Greek, Hebrew, mathematics and astrology. Much of his adult life was spent as a medical doctor at a time when there were deadly plagues throughout Europe. However, it is uncertain as to whether he was actually medically qualified. He is reported to have married twice and had several children. He is also said to have been a friend and consultant of the French nobility of his time. Nostradamus made more than 1000 predictions in a book he called The Centuries. Some people believe that about half of his predictions

40

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

have already come true. Many people who support Nostradamus believe that, of the remaining 500 or so predictions, most will happen within the next 20 years. Psychologists and other scientists are not convinced that Nostradamus had psychic abilities, abilities as a prophet or any other kind of supernatural abilities. It is said that Nostradamus made numerous predictions, but it is highly doubtful that many predictions other than the general, vague ones have come true . If he had made 1000 predictions, it would be likely that a few would come true as a result of chance factors alone. Figure 1.32 Engraving of Nostradamus

There are many examples of psychics throughout history. Some appear on television and perform in front of live audiences. For example, Uri Geller is a self-proclaimed psychic who tours the world performing psi abilities involving phenomena such as spoon-bending, starting broken watches, moving pencils on a table without touching them, detecting hidden objects and mind-reading. One of his more popular presentations involves a volunteer from the audience drawing a picture, then sealing it in an envelope. Geller is then observed to correctly describe the drawing without opening (or even touching) the envelope. Despite convincing many people that he has true psychic powers, Geller has been exposed by both psychologists and magicians as using deception or illusion throughout his performances. For example, magicians explain the secret to bending spoons very simply you do it when nobody is looking. The magician distracts the audience through a movement such as standing up or sitting down. While the audience is distracted, the magician bends the spoon while it is held with two hands. The bend is then covered with one hand and the other hand is released. A volunteer member of the audience is then asked to hold the other end of the spoon. The magician then gradually transfers all the weight of the spoon to the volunteer, waves their free hand above the centre of the spoon and slowly uncovers the bend made previously.

Figure 1.33 Self-proclaimed psychic Uri Geller

John Edward is another self-proclaimed psychic who regularly appears on television in his internationally syndicated shows called Crossing Over and Cross Country. Edward claims to have the paranormal ability of a medium who can connect individuals with spirits of dead people, usually relatives. At the start of each show, he stands before a small studio audience and picks up vibes from the spirit of someone on the other side . Then he asks the audience a series of questions. I m getting an S or an SA? Does anyone have a Sara who

recently crossed over? Someone from the audience inevitably responds and Edward proceeds to pin down facts from vague hints.

Figure 1.34 Self-proclaimed psychic and medium, John Edward

Psychologists have found no evidence to confirm Edward s paranormal ability. They agree with the view of many sceptics that Edward is basically an expert trickster and manipulator, posing questions in a way that manipulates someone into giving him information. More specifically, they refer to the technique used by Edward as cold reading. Cold reading is a term used to describe the tactic of reading a person s body language, offering them sweeping, general statements, then extracting information, dressing it up with details and offering it back to the person, convincing them that they have been told things they couldn t possibly have known (Hyman, 1996). Some critics also claim that Edward has organised electronic eavesdropping on his audience before he meets them. It is claimed that Edward has accomplices who sit in the studio with cameras and microphones turned on to record people naturally discussing what they hope to discover and which dead people they hope to contact. Many empirical research studies have been undertaken on ESP and other psychic abilities. In virtually all cases, psychologists have raised concerns about the research methods used and/or the validity of results. When results that were interpreted by researchers as being due to psychic abilities have been examined closely, likely alternative explanations have been found. Many of the studies of ESP and other psychic abilities cannot be replicated, often because the research method used has so many errors that replication is not worthwhile. When studies with results showing remarkable psychic abilities have been replicated, the results have typically been far from remarkable, even with the same research participants. Most psychologists and other scientists remain unconvinced that any type of psychic ability is possible. C h a p t e r 1 Nature of psychology

41

astrology Astrology is a system for explaining and predicting how we think, feel and behave on the basis of the positions of the planets and the stars at the time of a person s birth. It uses scientific-looking astronomical charts and technical terms and is often confused with the real science of astronomy. Astrology has been practised in different cultures for many centuries, with astrological beliefs going back at least 2500 years. In more recent times, particularly given the regular inclusion of horoscopes in the media, the public s exposure to astrology and astrological predictions has increased and there also appears to be an increase in the number of believers. Astrology and its horoscopes currently enjoy wide appeal and many people read their horoscopes, even if they don t believe them or take them seriously. Psychologists have conducted numerous empirical research studies to test astrology. These scientific studies have repeatedly found that astrology is nonscientific and lacking in valid evidence to support its claims. Statements in horoscopes are usually vague (such as mistakes could cost you time and money , you can only discuss plans or argue points so much and if you re patient you should be able to achieve a great deal ) and highly applicable to most people, irrespective of their

STARS

birth sign, as evident in the statements in figure 1.35. Furthermore, systematic procedures used by psychologists to check astrological predictions have repeatedly found that the predictions are usually wrong. The small percentage found to be correct tend to be very general; for example, statements such as you will meet someone new in the next 12 months and there will be a political crisis in Australia during this year . These statements describe events that are more likely to happen than not happen under the ordinary circumstances of everyday life. Studies have also found that many astrological descriptions of personality and behaviour tend to be made up of desirable, flattering statements. This increases the tendency to accept the description because people are less likely to accept negative and undesirable statements about themselves, such as you are insensitive, uncaring, unfriendly and hard to get along with . Our willingness to accept the descriptions of ourselves made by astrologers, palm readers, tarot card readers and the like has been called the Barnum effect, named after the American circus showman Phineas T. Barnum (1810 91), whose success and fame was reportedly built around the principle Always have a little something for everybody . The Barnum effect is the tendency to believe that a personality description or a prediction about the future is accurate if it is stated in a vague or very general way.

Aquarius (Jan. 20 Feb. 18) Plans with a colleague, friend or family member may become more involved as complications arise. Extra commitments may prove more expensive than you initially thought.

Taurus (Apr. 20 May 20) Beware your bullheadedness, Taurus! Flexibility and openness are needed when problems arise, especially when they involve work colleagues or friends. A trip later in the month may see you in contact with family members or friends you haven t seen for some time.

Pisces (Feb. 19 Mar. 20) A relationship may change significantly, causing you to relate differently to that person. A friend may need extra attention, so spend quality time with them. Make sure to leave the communication channels open.

Gemini (May 21 June 20) Unexpected complications on the home or work front require ingenuity and discretion. Be prepared for challenges. There may be an unexpected boost in your income, but take care, as extra funds will be needed towards the end of the year.

Virgo (Aug. 23 Sept. 22) A short trip or visit from a friend or family member will happen in the near future. You may pursue a course of study in a subject you ve always been interested in. A new direction at work will bring fresh challenges and excitement.

Aries (Mar. 21 Apr. 19) Mars is yet to transect your sector, so be prepared obstructions may come your way. The determination of the ram will push you through any problems you encounter, but take care not to tread on other people s toes, particularly your partner s!

Cancer (June 21 July 22) Something important is about to happen to you or to a family member. Be open with your partner to encourage good communication. Working with your mate to achieve a common goal will strengthen your bond.

Libra (Sept. 23 Oct. 22) Your mate will add sparkle to your relationship with a romantic interlude or surprise, injecting passion into your relationship. Planning for the future will see your hearts and souls aligned.

with Katinka de Strunker

Figure 1.35 An example of a horoscope 42

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

Leo (July 23 Aug. 22) Someone close to you may be going through a rough patch. This will require all of your diplomatic skills, Leo! Beware of impulsive spending, as unexpected outlays may dent your savings.

Scorpio (Oct. 23 Nov. 21) The budget may be strained by recent large outlays, so the opportunity to make extra money will be welcome. A statement of confidence that will come through a work colleague or reference will thrill you. Sagittarius (Nov. 22 Dec. 21) Your creativeness will be put to good use when you redecorate your home or work space, creating a pleasant and happy place to be. Music may also feature this month. This will be a passionate time for Sagittarians! Capricorn (Dec. 22 Jan. 19) Passion is in the air for you, Capricorn! A romantic interlude with your mate will inject sizzle into your relationship. Singles, a sudden call or invitation to a fun social outing may have happy results when a charming new person enters your life.

BOX 1.9 Scientists versus non-scientists: some key differences Scientist

Nonscientist

develops hypotheses ( predictions ) that can be tested through empirical research

✓

✗

uses research procedures to minimise the influence of personal biases

✓

✗

relies on systematic data collection

✓

✗

assesses claims on the basis of supporting evidence or reasons

✓

✗

openly considers other interpretations of results obtained

✓

✗

reports to others how ideas were obtained, how they were tested and what the results were

✓

✗

replicates studies to test results or apply results to different situations

✓

✗

identifies and defines what is being studied in clear, precise, concrete, testable, measurable terms

✓

✗

challenges existing beliefs

✓

✗

does not fully accept a conclusion unless there is supportive empirical evidence

✓

✗

looks for and considers evidence that contradicts own findings or beliefs

✓

✗

does not withhold information that does not support the claims made

✓

✗

seeks criticism from others with expertise in the area

✓

✗

avoids emotional reasoning and relies on logic

✓

✗

Approach and method

learnin g activit y 1. 19 Practical activity evaluating astrological descriptions of personality This practical activity enables you to explore people s belief in personality descriptions based on astrological star signs. You will be required to present a personality description to someone who is led to believe that the description provided to them is based on their star sign. The description provided is actually a general description that is not related to any particular star sign. The person (or participant) will be required to rate (score) how accurately the astrological description matches their view of their own personality. The activity involves deception because the participant needs to be misinformed about the information they receive so that they believe that the information is specifically relevant to them. The use of deception is an ethical issue that needs to be considered prior to undertaking the activity (see page 84). You should also construct a research hypothesis for the activity. When doing so, you should consider the procedures used for the experiment and the results that may be obtained. To complete the activity, you will need the list of astrological birth sign personality trait descriptors (table 1.2),

the star signs chart (table 1.3) and the rating scales for zodiac descriptors (table 1.4). Customisable versions of the research materials can be download from your eBook. table 1.2 Astrological birth sign personality trait descriptors

Star sign . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Dates . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1. You have a tendency to be critical of yourself. 2. You have a great deal of unused ability that you have not used to your advantage. 3. Although you have some personality weaknesses, you are generally able to compensate for them. 4. At times you have serious doubts as to whether you have made the right decision or done the right thing. 5. You prefer a certain amount of change and variety in your life and become dissatisfied when hemmed in by restrictions and limitations. 6. You pride yourself on being an independent thinker. 7. You have found it unwise to be too frank in revealing yourself to others. 8. Some of your goals in life tend to be quite unrealistic. (continued)

C h a p t e r 1 Nature of psychology

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table 1.3 Star signs chart

Dates 20 Jan. 18 Feb. 19 Feb. 20 Mar. 21 Mar. 19 Apr. 20 Apr. 20 May 21 May 20 June 21 June 22 July 23 July 22 Aug. 23 Aug. 22 Sept. 23 Sept. 22 Oct. 23 Oct. 21 Nov. 22 Nov. 21 Dec. 22 Dec. 19 Jan.

Sign

participant is unsure, ask for their birth date, identify their star sign (table 1.3), then find the birth sign descriptors (table 1.2) which correspond to this date. Do not let the participant see that all the birth sign descriptors are identical. 3. Give the participant a copy of table 1.4 and a copy of the personality descriptors that correspond to their astrological star sign. (a) Ask the participant to read the eight items in the list and then to rate the accuracy of the descriptors overall. This is done by circling a description ranging from very inaccurate to very accurate, as stated in the top half of table 1.4. (b) Next, ask the participant to rate each descriptor individually. (c) Record the ratings of individual descriptors in the appropriate section of table 1.4. 4. Combine your data with those collected by other students. Calculate the mean (average) ratings for the overall description as well as for each individual descriptor.

Symbol The water bearer Fish The ram The bull The twins The crab The lion The virgin The scales The scorpion The archer The goat

Aquarius Pisces Aries Taurus Gemini Cancer Leo Virgo Libra Scorpio Sagittarius Capricorn

table 1.4 Rating scales for zodiac descriptors

Overall rating (circle the most appropriate description) The description given was 1. Very inaccurate 2. Mildly inaccurate 3. Neither accurate nor inaccurate 4. Fairly accurate 5. Very accurate Descriptors Rating for each descriptor

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

1. Very inaccurate 2. Mildly inaccurate 3. Neither accurate nor inaccurate 4. Fairly accurate 5. Very accurate Instructions 1. Prepare 12 copies of the astrological birth sign personality trait descriptors (table 1.2). Although all copies of the descriptors are identical, you should fill in separate zodiac star signs and corresponding dates for each one in the space provided at the top. (It is important that the person believes that the descriptors relate only to their particular star sign.) 2. Obtain the consent of a volunteer willing to participate in this research activity. Tell the participant that your class is investigating how accurately astrology can describe an individual s personality. Explain that astrologers believe that every person is influenced by a particular star sign, depending on the person s birth date. Ask the participant for their star sign. If the

Report Prepare a brief report on the research activity to include in your folio of practical activities. Your report should include the following. 1. A statement of the aim of this experiment 2. The research hypothesis 3. A summary of the class results using appropriate descriptive statistics 4. Answers to the following questions: (a) Which specific descriptors were judged by most participants as most accurate? (b) What percentage of participants identified that the overall rating was either very accurate or fairly accurate? (c) Did most participants believe the specific descriptors were accurate? Explain with reference to the data collected. (d) What explanation can you give for the results for this investigation? (e) What conclusion(s) can you draw about the accuracy of astrological signs as indicators of personality characteristics? (f) Describe one major limitation of the procedures used for this investigation; for example, an extraneous variable that may have affected results in an unwanted way. 5. A potential extraneous variable(s) that may be relevant 6. Other relevant information that may be requested by your teacher. (Adapted from Grivas, J. and Lawrie. P. A. (1991). Psychology: Experiments and Activities. Marrickville, NSW: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.)

Options and variations 44

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

trU e/FalS e Q UiZ Indicate whether each item is true or false by writing T or F in the blank space next to each item. 1. _____

Psychology involves the study of behaviour as well as mental processes.

2. _____

In all, the equivalent of five years of full-time study and training is required to become registered as a psychologist in Victoria.

3. _____

Clinical psychologists are permitted to prescribe medications.

4. _____

The term perspective is used in psychology to refer to philosophy.

5. _____

William Wundt established the first psychology laboratory in 1879.

6. _____

John B. Watson became prominent in psychology through his research on the function of consciousness.

7. _____

Humanistic psychologists emphasise the uniqueness of individuals.

8. _____

Skinner developed his theories primarily through experiments with animals.

9. _____

The contemporary behavioural perspective has a broader view of observable behaviour that includes consideration of the mental processes in learning.

10. _____

Psychoanalysis focuses on the role of conscious experiences in understanding and explaining behaviour and mental processes.

The answers to the true/false questions are in the answer section at the back of this book and in eBookPLUS.

C h a p t e r 1 Nature of psychology

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C H A PT E R TES T SectiOn a

Multiple-choice questions

Choose the response that is correct or that best answers the question. A correct answer scores 1, an incorrect answer scores 0. Marks will not be deducted for incorrect answers. No marks will be given if more than one answer is completed for any question. 1. A psychologist explains thinking in terms of information processing. The psychologist is most psychology. likely to be specialising in A. biological B. behavioural C. clinical D. cognitive 2. Who led a move in psychology away from the study of consciousness to the study of observable behaviour? A. William James B. Carl Rogers C. John B. Watson D. Sigmund Freud 3. Empirical evidence is A. data collected through the commonsense approach. B. data collected directly by observation or through experimentation. C. relied upon in non-scientific explanations of behaviour. D. evidence with which all psychologists will agree. 4. Which of the following psychologists would specialise in the treatment of problems arising from brain damage? A. Clinical neuropsychologist B. Health psychologist C. Clinical psychologist D. Cognitive psychologist 5. A major difference between a psychologist and a psychiatrist is that A. there are fewer areas of specialisation in psychology than there are in psychiatry. B. a psychologist is allowed to perform medical procedures; whereas a psychiatrist is not. C. a psychologist is allowed to prescribe certain types of drugs only; whereas a psychiatrist can prescribe all types of drugs. D. a psychiatrist is allowed to perform medical procedures; whereas a psychologist is not. 46

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

6. Anxiety may be described as a condition in which a person feels worried or uneasy that something is wrong or something bad is about to happen. Which of the following questions about anxiety is most likely to be asked by a socio-cultural psychologist? A. Does Australia s emphasis on achievement and success promote anxiety? B. Do anxious people often think about the future in distorted ways? C. Do anxiety symptoms result in hidden rewards, such as being excused from tests? D. What unconscious conflicts and motives produce anxiety? 7. Which contemporary perspective in psychology focuses on the role of learning processes? A. Biological perspective B. Behavioural perspective C. Socio-cultural perspective D. Cognitive perspective 8. Mental processes are best described as A. pseudoscientific. B. human or animal experiences. C. personal mental experiences that can be directly observed by someone else. D. personal mental experiences that cannot be directly observed by someone else. 9. Which psychologist established the first psychological research laboratory? A. William James B. Burrhus Skinner C. John B. Watson D. Wilhelm Wundt 10. Replication helps ensure that A. the results of research are free from errors. B. the results of research can be tested for accuracy or relevance to other, similar situations. C. the data to be collected can be directly observed. D. the data to be collected can be both directly and indirectly observed.

11. A major difference between scientific and nonscientific explanations of behaviour and mental processes is that A. scientific explanations of behaviour and mental processes are always accurate; whereas non-scientific explanations are always inaccurate. B. scientific explanations of behaviour and mental processes are based on the results of systematic research studies that can be replicated; whereas non-scientific explanations are not. C. scientific explanations of behaviour and mental processes do not involve the use of any commonsense. D. non-scientific explanations of behaviour and mental processes always take longer to gain acceptance among the general public. 12. Which of the following statements best describes behaviour? A. Behaviour is everything a living organism does or thinks about doing. B. Behaviour involves actions, thoughts and feelings. C. Behaviour is any action made by a living organism. D. Behaviour involves thoughts and feelings but not actions.

13. Which of the following statements best describes Descartes philosophical explanation of the mind body problem? A. The mind and body are in constant harmony unless they interact through the brain. B. The mind and body are different and constantly battle for dominance. C. The mind and body are different but interact through the brain. D. The mind causes problems with the body and the body causes problems with the mind. 14. Which specialist area in psychology explains behaviour and mental processes in terms of underlying physiological systems and activities? A. Biological psychology B. Organisational psychology C. Clinical psychology D. Health psychology 15. An AFL footballer realises that he could get seriously injured and no longer be able to play or earn an income from football. The player decides to plan for the future. He wants to ensure he has a well-balanced life and makes the right kind of personal adjustments in his life after football. The AFL footballer is best advised to consult a A. social psychologist. B. community psychologist. C. health psychologist. D. sport psychologist.

C h a p t e r 1 Nature of psychology

47

SectiOn B

Short-answer questions

Answer all questions in the spaces provided. Question 1

Briefly explain the meaning of the phrase perspective in psychology .

1 mark

Question 2

In order to be registered as a psychologist, a minimum of years of approved full-time (or equivalent) years of study in psychology is required. A qualified psychiatrist must complete a minimum of approved full-time (or equivalent) study in medical and psychiatric training. 1 mark

Question 3

Describe two major developments in psychology that have contributed to our understanding of how biological processes influence behaviour and mental processes.

2 marks

Question 4

Describe three characteristics that distinguish psychology as a science.

3 marks

Question 5

Explain with reference to an example how behaviour and mental processes can influence each other.

3 marks

eBook plus The answers to the multiple-choice questions are in the answer section at the back of this book and in eBookPLUS. The answers to the short-answer questions are in eBookPLUS. Note that you can complete Section A of the chapter test online through eBookPLUS and get automatic feedback.

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U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

CHAPTER

2

RESEARCH METHODS 1 Steps in psychological research ............. 50 Step 1: identification of the research problem ................................. 50 Step 2: construction of a hypothesis .................................................. 51 Step 3: designing the method .......... 52 Step 4: collecting the data .................. 52 Step 5: analysing the data ................... 53 Step 6: interpreting the data ............ 53 Step 7: reporting the research findings ....................................................... 53 Research methods ........................................... 55 Experimental research ................................. 56 Independent and dependent variables ...................................................... 56 Extraneous variables ............................... 57 Experimental and control groups .... 58 Sampling procedures ............................. 60 Descriptive research ...................................... 65 Case studies ................................................... 65 Observational studies ............................. 67 Qualitative and quantitative data ......... 71 Qualitative data .......................................... 72 Quantitative data ....................................... 72 Qualitative and quantitative descriptive research ............................ 73 Making sense of data .................................... 74 Percentages ................................................... 74 Tables ................................................................. 75 Graphs .............................................................. 76 Pie charts ........................................................ 78 Ethics and professional conduct in psychological research ................................. 81 Roles and responsibilities of the experimenter .......................................... 82 Participants rights ................................... 82 Professional conduct .............................. 84 Use of animals in psychological research .................................................................. 85

STEPS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Much of what psychologists know about behaviour and mental processes comes from psychological research that has been conducted using a scientific method. Scientific method is a series of systematic and orderly steps which researchers use to plan, conduct and report research. Using a scientific method helps ensure that data (information) are collected and analysed in an appropriate way. It also helps ensure that the conclusions drawn from the data are valid (that is, justified by the data) and reliable (that is, similar data are likely to be obtained if the research study is repeated). As shown in figure 2.1, American psychologist Robert Kraut and his research colleagues (1998) used a scientific method to study the effects of using the internet on psychological wellbeing. Kraut was aware that internet technology has allowed people to keep in closer touch with distant family members and friends, find information quickly and to develop friendships with others from all over the world. He wanted to know whether use of the internet was beneficial to people by improving their psychological wellbeing. To investigate this topic, Kraut s research team studied 169 people from 93 households over a two-year period. They measured the time spent by each person on the internet, using an electronic recording device. They also asked each participant to rate their level of social activity and emotional wellbeing on a rating scale, both at the beginning of the research, then again after one or two years. The results of this research indicated that, as internet use increased, the participants reported a decrease in both the number of social activities in which they were involved and in the amount of social support they felt. They also reported feeling more depressed and lonely. Why would spending time on the internet affect people s emotional wellbeing? According to Kraut, one possible reason is that time spent on the internet replaces important day-to-day human con tact; for example, a computer can t give you a hug or laugh at your jokes .

Step 1: identification of the research problem The first step in conducting psychological research using the scientific method is to identify the problem or topic of interest to be researched. For example, a researcher might be interested in ways of reducing the number of accidents caused by red P-plate drivers. 50

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

Step 1: identification of the research problem Does use of the internet benefit people by improving their psychological wellbeing?

Step 2: construction of a hypothesis Increase in internet use (as measured by a recording device) decreases social activity and emotional wellbeing (as measured by self-report rating scales).

Step 3: designing the method Decide who the research participants will be, the number to be used and how they will be selected. Develop a way of accurately measuring time spent on the internet and obtain or construct valid and reliable rating scales to measure each participants estimation of their social activity and emotional wellbeing.

Step 4: collecting the data Data on internet use and each participant s ratings of their social activity and emotional wellbeing were collected from 169 people in 93 households in Pittsburgh, USA, over a two-year period.

Step 5: analysing the data As internet use increased, there was a decrease in the amount of social support felt by participants and the number of social activities they were involved in. Participants also reported feeling more depressed and lonely.

Step 6: interpreting the data The results support the hypothesis. Time spent on the internet may replace important day-to-day human contact, resulting in feelings of isolation, loneliness and depression.

Step 7: reporting the research findings Research published in American Psychologist (September 1998), Vol. 53(9), 53 9

Figure 2.1 Flow chart of steps in psychological research using a scientific method

To do this, they may conduct what is known as a literature search to look for published research reports that have already been conducted on this topic. For example, they may consider research that has been conducted on defensive driving programs such as the Smith System. The Smith System involves five rules to train the eyes to identify what is important when driving. • Aim your vision high (to steer accurately and anticipate problems) • Keep your eyes moving (avoid staring and stay alert) • Look at the total driving picture (don t focus your eyes on one area of the road) • Look for and leave yourself a way out • Look for a position on the road that ensures other drivers can see you. Conducting a literature search enables the researcher to become more familiar with their topic of research interest. It also enables them to refine their ideas and propose a relevant research question that can be tested, such as Does training red P-plate drivers with the Smith System help to reduce the number of accidents they cause?

Step 2: construction of a hypothesis The second step in psychological research is to construct a hypothesis for the research. A research arch hypothesis is a testable prediction of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics; for example, a prediction about the relationship between red P-plate driver training with the Smith System (one event) and the number of accidents when driving (another event). The hypothesis is essentially an educated or thoughtful guess about what the results of the research will be. It is usually based on knowledge of other research findings or theories on the topic being studied. This is why it is referred to as an educated guess. The hypothesis is constructed prior to actually conducting the research study and provides a focus for the research. A research hypothesis usually has the following characteristics: • it is prepared as a carefully worded written statement (rather than a question) • it is expressed clearly and precisely (rather than vaguely and generally) • it is written as a single sentence • it is stated in a way that can be tested (it matches and reflects the procedure used to conduct the research study for which it has been prepared).

1. Aim your vision high (to steer accurately and anticipate problems).

2. Keep your eyes moving (avoid staring and stay alert).

3. Look at the total driving picture (don t focus your eyes on one area of the road).

4. Look for and leave yourself a way out .

5. Look for a position on the road that ensures other drivers can see you.

Figure 2.2 The Smith System involves five rules to identify what is important when driving. C h a p t e r 2 Research methods 1

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For example, a hypothesis for the research problem on driving could be red P-plate drivers who receive defensive driving training will make fewer driving errors (as measured by a practical driving test in a driving simulator) than red P-plate drivers who have not received defensive driving training (as measured by the same driving test) . This hypothesis is a specific prediction based on theory and previous research findings. It also has all of the other characteristics described. It is written as a clear and precise statement, in a single sentence, and is stated in a way that can be tested. Furthermore, it refers to the research procedure or specific method that will be used to collect data.

Victoria as participants in the study. Half the participants would receive a defensive driving training session(s) using the Smith System method and the other half would not. Alternatively, the researchers may decide to conduct a survey whereby they give a questionnaire to a number of driving instructors who have taught young people, with and without using the Smith System, to obtain information based on their experience as to which of the two methods resulted in better driving skills. Another option would be to conduct an experiment and interview the research participants.

Step 3: designing the method The third step in psychological research is to determine how the hypothesis is best tested, although this is also considered when the hypothesis is being constructed. There are a number of different research methods available from which researchers can choose. The research method used will depend on the specific topic and hypothesis of research interest. When designing the research method, the researcher must decide which participants will be studied, how many participants there will be, how they will be selected and how they will be allocated, or assigned, to different groups that may be used in the study. Participants are the people who take part in the research. The responses of the participants form the data (results) for the research. When designing the research method, psychologists also need to determine the procedures that will be used to collect the data. There are a number of different procedures to collect data. These include experiments, observational studies, case studies, surveys, interviews, rating scales, longitudinal studies, cross-sectional studies and correlational studies. Generally, all psychological research methods involve observation of responses. For example, experimenters observe the responses of their participants, interviewers observe the spoken responses of their participants, and researchers conducting surveys observe the written or verbal responses of their participants. There are advantages and disadvantages of each type of research method and some methods are more suited to particular research questions or hypotheses than others. In some studies it is appropriate to use a combination of research methods. In the driving study, the psychologist may decide to conduct an experiment using a number of male and female red P-plate drivers with a similar amount of driving experience and from a range of areas across 52

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

Fig 2.3 Research hypothesis: red P-plate drivers who receive defensive driving training willl make fewer driving errors than red P-plate drivers who have not received defensive driving training.

Step 4: collecting the data The fourth step in psychological research is to collect the required data. Based on their plans, researchers organise the participants to be involved in the research and conduct their study. Psychologists use a variety of data collection techniques, including participant and non-participant observation, questionnaires, one-toone or group interviews, standardised tests, physiological ( bodily ) recordings and examination of archival files ( records ) to obtain their information. These are summarised in table 2.1. The data collection technique(s) used depends on the research question under investigation. In the driving study, if an experiment was conducted, the data collection technique would be direct observation, whereas if a survey were used, the data collection technique would be through a questionnaire and/or an interview with the instructor. At this stage of the research, the data are referred to as raw data because they have not been processed; that is, coded or summarised in a meaningful way.

Table 2.1 Data collection techniques commonly used in psychological research

Technique

Behaviour

Direct observation

Watching and recording behaviour as it happens; a checklist may be used to record and count the number of times specific behaviours occur or recording devices such as videos and cassette tapes may be used

Questionnaire

Using a set of written questions to obtain information from participants about thoughts, feelings, attitudes, opinions, beliefs and aspects of behaviour

Interview

Usually a face-to-face meeting to obtain information about a participant s thoughts, feelings or behaviour; may sometimes be conducted over the telephone or via the internet

Psychological test

Using a scientifically developed test to assess characteristics such as personality, intelligence and other mental abilities

Recording physiological responses

Using an instrument to detect, monitor and record a specific physiological (bodily) response of a participant; for example, a PET scanner or electrodes for brain activity, ECG for heart rate

Examining archival files

Examining files kept by an organisation (archives) such as medical, educational and census records

Step 5: analysing the data Once the data have been collected, the next step in psychological research is to summarise, organise and represent the raw data in a logical way to help determine whether the hypothesis is supported or not supported. Raw data are rarely included in psychological research reports. Instead, the data are analysed and summarised in an appropriate way. This usually involves breaking down a large set of numbers into smaller sets (for example, presenting raw data summarised into a table or graph) or even a single number or two (e.g., a mean (average) or a percentage). The researcher is then able to determine whether the hypothesis is supported or rejected on the basis of the results obtained.

Step 6: interpreting the data Once the data have been analysed, the data need to be interpreted and explained. This includes drawing a conclusion from the results obtained in the research

study. A conclusion is a judgement about what the results of a research study mean. One type of conclusion that is drawn relates directly to the hypothesis used in the research. The focus of this conclusion is on whether or not the results support the hypothesis (rather than prove or disprove it). Statistical testing involving mathematical procedures is used by the researcher to help them decide what the results collected from their research mean. They allow the researcher to know what conclusion(s) can legitimately be drawn from the results and what generalisations can legitimately be made about the results obtained (research findings). A generalisation is another type of conclusion. A generalisation is a judgement about how widely the findings of a research study can be applied. A researcher usually studies a relatively small number of participants who are selected from the bigger group of interest; for example, 10 male and 10 female red P-plate drivers aged between 18 21 years, rather than all red P-plate drivers. Of particular interest to the researcher when considering a generalisation is whether the findings obtained from a limited number of cases (that is, the red P-plate drivers in the study) can be extended to apply to the entire group of red P-plate drivers, to green P-plate drivers or even all drivers. If the findings can in fact be generalised more widely, then the research study is said to have external validity. External validity means that the conclusion(s) made from the research can be generalised to the population from which the sample in the study was drawn. External validity is discussed in more detail in Unit 2 (see chapter 7, p. 315). With reference to the driving study, if, following statistical testing, the results for the experiment indicated that the red P-plate drivers who were trained with the Smith System made significantly fewer errors than the drivers who did not receive the training, then the researcher would interpret the results as providing support for the hypothesis. They would conclude that using the Smith System to teach defensive driving techniques to drivers reduces the likelihood of red P-plate drivers having an accident. On the basis of this conclusion, the researcher may also tentatively (cautiously) conclude that the finding may be generalisable to all red P-plate drivers.

Step 7: reporting the research findings The final step of psychological research involves reporting the research findings to others who may be interested in the research. Typically, researchers prepare a report that is presented to other psychologists at C h a p t e r 2 Research methods 1

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a conference and/or submitted to a professional journal for publication. A journal is a publication that contains reports of research. The reports prepared by psychologists for publication in a journal follow a strict format. The report describes, in detail, the background information of the research, the way in which the research study was conducted, the findings (results and conclusions) of the study, how the findings can be interpreted and applied, any relevant problems encountered in conducting the study which may have affected the findings, and a list of references used in preparing for the study and writing the report. Reporting the research and its findings is a very important part of the research process. It is the way other researchers find out about research which has been conducted and the way scientific progress is achieved. It also enables the general public to benefit from the findings of research. Reporting on research places the specific study and its research procedures under the critical eye of other psychologists, researchers and even the general public; for example, to check the accuracy of the findings and to consider alternative conclusions that may be valid. Importantly, reporting research in an appropriate way enables replication by other researchers.

learning a cTiviTy 2.1 review questions 1. (a) Define the meaning of the term hypothesis when used in a research study. (b) When is the research hypothesis constructed? (c) List six characteristics of a well-constructed research hypothesis. (d) Explain two possible limitations of the following question if it were to be used as a research hypothesis: Does excessive use of a mobile phone by teenagers cause sleep loss? (e) Rewrite the question above as a testable hypothesis. 2. What does design the method mean? 3. What are raw data in research? 4. What does data analysis involve? 5. (a) Explain the meaning of the term conclusion in relation to an empirical research study. (b) What is the first type of conclusion the researcher will seek to make? 6. (a) Explain the meaning of the phrase generalising from the research findings . (b) What does external validity mean in relation to a research study? 7. What are two potential benefits of publishing a research report in a psychology journal?

Figure 2.4 Two of the journals in which psychologists publish their research reports

learning acTiviTy 2.2 constructing research hypotheses Consider the following list of research topics. 1. Does use of good study techniques bring about an improvement in grades? 2. How does the amount of sleep before an exam affect exam performance? 3. Does the number of passengers in a car driven by a red or green P-plate driver affect the way in which the P-plater drives? 4. Does exercise reduce stress? Choose two topics and construct a research hypothesis for each one. Ensure your hypotheses have all the characteristics referred to in the text.

Options and variations 54

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

learnin g acTiviT y 2. 3 visual presentation steps in psychological research Select one of the following research questions and outline the steps that could be used to conduct psychological research on the topic in a scientific way. Present your research proposal as a flow chart, such as that in figure 2.1. You may create fictitious results to assist your explanation. Research questions 1. Are physically attractive people more popular? 2. Does hairstyle affect success in a job interview? 3. Are males more likely to help a female or a male in need of assistance? 4. Does level of stress affect performance on an exam? 5. Does the presence of other people affect how well someone performs a task for the first time? 6. How influential is a friendship group in the behaviour of adolescents? 7. How well do newborn infants see?

Options and variations

RESEARCH METHODS Psychologists can choose from a range of different research methods to scientifically collect data on a topic of research interest. A research method is a particular way of conducting a research study or investigation to collect data. For example, an experiment and a survey are different research methods. In an experiment, the researcher manipulates and controls a research participant s experiences in some way to measure whether this causes a particular predetermined response from the participant. For example, a researcher may conduct an experiment to find out whether learning a list of previously unseen words by repeating the words and their definitions aloud three times improves performance on a test of those words, compared with learning the words and their definitions by writing them down three times. Undertaking experimental research enables the researcher to test for a cause effect relationship; for example, whether repeating previously unseen words and their definitions aloud three times (rote learning) or learning the words and their definitions by writing them down three times (meaningful learning) causes the most improvement on a test of these words. For some research topics, the most appropriate way of collecting data may be to ask participants about their thoughts, feelings or behaviour. This is when a survey may be used. For example, a survey would be used to ask a large number of participants questions about

their attitudes towards school and the reasons for their attendance and absences. The questions may be asked using a questionnaire for which participants respond to a written set of questions, or by interviewing participants and recording their verbal answers in writing or electronically. In some cases it may be appropriate to use a combination of research methods to investigate and collect data. For example, a researcher conducting an experiment on different learning techniques used by students when studying for an exam may also conduct a survey to find out what motivates students to study. These are just some of the many research methods available to psychologists. The choice of research methods made by the researcher depends on which method is most appropriate for the specific topic of research interest. This is not unlike the choice made by a motor mechanic when selecting tools to repair a car engine. Their selection of tools will depend on the specific engine problem in need of repair. Each tool will have a specific use and way of being used. Similarly, each research method has a particular logic underlying its use and how it is used. However, despite their different approaches, the various research methods have many features in common. One common feature is they all use scientific principles ( rules ) and procedures. Another feature is their use of a sample of participants who provide data for the research.

Figure 2.5 A motor mechanic selects the best tools to solve a mechanical problem, just as the researcher chooses the best research method(s) to solve a research problem. C h a p t e r 2 Research methods 1

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The different research methods that may be used by psychologists are often classified into different categories based on whether or not they involve experimentation and/or the type of data that are collected. Two categories of research methods are experimental research and descriptive research. A third category called correlational research is considered in Unit 2. Experimental research includes all the different types of experimental research designs. Each type of experimental design involves the manipulation and control of research participants experiences. However, the specific designs differ in terms of their complexity and how they are actually conducted. Descriptive research includes all the research methods that focus on studying aspects of behaviour and mental processes as they occur in a given time and place, rather than by manipulating and controlling participants experiences in one or more ways.

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH One of the most scientifically demanding and controlled research methods in psychology is the experiment. An experiment is used to test whether one variable (or thing ), influences or causes a change in another variable (or thing ); for example, whether talking on a hand-held mobile phone while driving (one variable) influences or causes a change in driver reaction time (another variable). Essentially, an experiment enables the researcher to investigate and find out the causes of things; for example, if talking on a hand-held mobile phone while driving actually causes drivers to react more slowly (and therefore increases the likelihood of an accident). There are different ways of designing an experiment and some experiments have a simpler or more complex design than others. All experiments, however, have a number of common features. We consider the basic characteristics of the psychological experiment

and why the experiment can be used to investigate causes of behaviour and links between behaviour and mental processes.

independent and dependent variables In a research study, a variable is something that can vary (change) in amount or kind over time. Although characteristics of a person such as biological sex, blood type and ethnic background do not change, in psychological research they are still considered to be variables. If the research study involved testing whether a particular anger management technique reduced the incidence of road rage in people who had previously been convicted of road rage, the two variables being tested would be the anger management technique and the incidence of road rage. However, the anger management technique and the incidence of road rage are two different types of variables called independent variables and dependent variables.

independent variable In an experiment, one variable is manipulated or changed by the experimenter to observe whether it affects another variable and what those effects are. The variable that is manipulated or changed is called the independent variable (IV). It is called an independent variable because the experimenter can independently vary it in some way. In terms of cause and effect, the IV is said to be the cause of any changes that may result in the other variable of research interest. For example, in the road rage experiment, the IV would be the anger management technique. The experimenter would have control over which participants would learn the anger management technique and which participants would not, in order to test the effect(s) of the technique on the incidence or extent of road rage-related behaviour; that is, the dependent variable.

Does anger management technique reduce the incidence of road rage in people previously convicted of road rage?

IV (what is manipulated)

Group 2 Do not learn anger management technique

Group 1 Learn anger management technique

DV (what is measured)

Incidence of road rage

Figure 2.6 Distinguishing between the IV and DV in experimental research investigating a way to reduce the incidence of road rage 56

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

eLesson

Experimental research

Dependent variable

extraneous variables

The variable that is used to observe and measure the effects of the IV is called the dependent variable (DV). The dependent variable is often the response(s) made by a participant(s) in an experiment and it usually has a numerical value. It is called the dependent variable because whether or not it changes and the way in which it changes depends on the effects of the independent variable. In terms of a cause effect relationship, the DV is the effect(s) caused by manipulation of or exposure to the IV. In the road rage example, the DV is the measured change in the amount of road rage behaviour displayed by participants as a result of using or not using the anger management technique, the IV.

In an experiment to test whether sleep deprivation causes headaches, the IV is the amount of sleep obtained and the DV is the frequency of headaches reported. The results of this research are described in table 2.2. Table 2.2 Frequency of headaches reported and amount of sleep

Frequency of headaches reported Hours of sleep

Never

Sometimes

Often

≥8

40

18

2

7

38

20

6

≤6

15

35

7

BOX 2.1 Experimental settings Experiments can be conducted under strictly controlled laboratory conditions in a laboratory setting (called a laboratory experiment ) or outside the laboratory in a field setting (called a field experiment ). In a field setting, the conditions of the

experiment are usually less strictly controlled, but it has the advantage of being able to make observations of participants behaviour in a real-world environment where their behaviour occurs more naturally.

(a) A laboratory setting where behaviour is observed in a controlled situation established by the researcher Figure 2.7

(b) A field setting where behaviour is observed in the realworld situation of a singles bar, but where less control of conditions is possible

learnin g acTiviT y 2. 4 identifying independent and dependent variables Identify the independent variable (IV) and dependent variables (DV) in each of the following examples. 1. Listening to a radio broadcast of a sports event while studying for a test decreases performance on the test. 2. Thiinking positively when goal shooting improves accuracy in a match. 3. Smoking cigarettes while driving a car increases driver alertness.

4 People will behave differently in a crowd from the way they behave when alone. 5. Reaction time to a visual stimulus is quicker than reaction time to a sound stimulus. 6. Daydreaming occurs more often when a person is engaged in a simple task than when they are performing a complex task. 7. Marijuana use impairs performance on a memory task. 8. Drinking red cordial increases hyperactivity in children. 9. Too much stress causes stomach ulcers. 10. Brain wave activity changes during sleep.

C h a p t e r 2 Research methods 1

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The results seem to suggest that the frequency of headaches is likely to increase if people experience six or less hours of sleep. However, what would happen if participants who had eight or more hours of sleep also took sleeping pills which reduced the likelihood of headaches occurring, or participants had different definitions of what a headache is, or participants who had six or less hours of sleep were also experiencing considerable stress in their lives? There are many variables other than the IV that might influence the DV in an experiment. Experimenters try to predict what these might be prior to conducting their experiment, then design the experiment to control, or minimise the influence of, as many of these unwanted or extraneous variables as possible. In an experiment, an extraneous variable is a variable other than the IV that can cause a change in the DV. When one or more extraneous variables are present in an experiment, they can make it difficult to conclude with confidence that changes which have occurred in the DV have resulted because of the IV and not because of some other variable. In the sleep study described previously, the extraneous variables that may have resulted in headaches developing or not developing could include the amount of stress in the person s life, ill ness (for example, a virus), eye strain, or the use of particular medication. Thus, in the group who had six or less hours of sleep, the greater likelihood of experiencing a headache may not have been a result of insufficient sleep if one or more extraneous variables were present. In order to conclude that the frequency of headaches will increase as a result of a reduction in the amount of sleep obtained, extraneous variables must be controlled or eliminated. Often, potential extraneous variables can be identified prior to the research. At other times, they become apparent as the experiment progresses and, in some instances, the experimenter may be totally unaware of their influence. Extraneous variables may include participant variables (that is, individual differences in personal characteristics among research participants such as age, sex, religion, cultural background, intelligence, motivation, mood and so on) and experimenter variables, such as personal characteristics of the experimenter. The experimenter s age, sex, cultural background, expectations, intelligence, mood, social skills, previous contact with participants and experience in conducting an experiment are all examples of experimenter variables that may unintentionally affect the results. Extraneous variables are considered in more detail in Unit 2, chapter 7. 58

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

learning acTiviTy 2.5 review questions 1. (a) What is an extraneous variable? (b) Why do researchers minimise or control the potential effects of extraneous variables? (c) When is it best to identify potential extraneous variables? Explain your answer. 2. For each of the following research topics, identify the (a) IV, (b) DV and (c) three potential extraneous variables that could affect the results. (a) The effect of shyness on the ability to make new friends at school (b) Whether meditation can improve performance on a VCE English exam (c) Whether males are more aggressive than females in the schoolgrounds (d) Whether students who have breakfast concentrate better in class (e) Whether having a pet in an aged-care nursing home improves happiness for elderly people who live there

experimental and control groups In a simple experiment, the participants are often divided into two groups. One group of participants, called the experimental group, is exposed to the experi­ mental condition; that is, the IV is present. A second group of participants, called the control group, is exposed to the control condition; that is, the IV is absent. For example, consider an experiment to investigate whether alcohol consumption affects driving precision. In this experiment, the IV which the experimenter will manipulate is the amount of alcohol consumed by research participants and the DV which will be measured is driving precision. The experimental group would be tested on their driving skills in a driving simulator after having consumed alcoholic drinks (the experimental condition) and the control group would be tested on their driving ability in the driving simulator after having consumed non-alcoholic drinks (the control condition). The control group provides a standard of comparison against which the experimenter can compare the performance of the experimental group in order to determine whether the independent variable has affected the dependent variable. If the driving performance of the experimental group is significantly worse than the driving performance of the control group, the experimenter may conclude

that the IV (consumption of alcohol) affected the DV (driving precision). A flow chart summary of this experiment is shown in figure 2.8. In some experiments, all participants are required to be in both the control condition and the experimental condition. For example, consider an experiment to test the effectiveness of a new study technique called Supastudy on exam performance. In this experiment, the IV which the experimenter will manipulate is the use of Supastudy and the DV which will be measured is performance on an exam. In the control condition, all participants would learn material that they have not previously seen ( novel material) using the study technique they normally use. The participants would then complete an exam (for instance, a set of multiple-choice questions) on the material. All participants would then be taught to use Supastudy . Then, in the experimental condition, all participants would be given additional previously unseen material to learn using Supastudy , but material that is similar in type and difficulty to that of the control condition. The participants would complete an exam on the material, which is also similar in type and difficulty to that of the control condition (that is, a set of multiplechoice questions). The results of the two exams would then be compared. If the exam performance of the participants when in the experimental condition is significantly better than their exam performance when in the control condition, the experimenter may conclude that the IV (use of the study technique) affected the DV (exam performance of participants).

The experimental group and the control group need to be as similar as possible in the spread of personal characteristics of participants that can cause a change in the DV. It is also important that both groups are treated the same, except for the time when the experimental group is exposed to the IV. Both of these conditions are necessary so that if a change occurs in the experimental group and does not occur in the control group, the researcher can be more confident in concluding that the IV probably caused the change.

advantages and limitations of experimental research A key feature of an experiment is the researcher s attempts to control the conditions in which a behaviour of interest or other event occurs, whether the experiment occurs in a laboratory setting or in a reallife, field setting. As well as controlling the IV, the researcher also attempts to minimise or eliminate the influence of unwanted extraneous variables to concentrate entirely on the effect the IV has on the DV. Elimination of all extraneous variables is not always possible, but control is usually greater than in other research methods, especially if the experiment is conducted in a laboratory setting. Consequently, the experiment has several advantages when compared to other research methods. One advantage of the experiment is that the IV can be manipulated in order to observe the effect on the DV, therefore making it possible to test if there is a

Hypothesis: Alcohol consumption impairs the driving ability of university students Participants: 100 third-year university students who responded to an advertisement for research participants. Equal numbers of male and female participants. Ages range from 20 40 years.

Experimental group: 50 students (25 male, 25 female) who consumed alcoholic drin s

IV: alcohol consumption

Control group: 50 students (25 male, 25 female) who consumed non alcoholic drin s

Use of driving simulator to test precision of driving skills

Results: Participants who consumed alcohol made many more driving errors than participants who did not consume alcohol.

DV: number of driving errors made

Conclusion: Alcohol consumption causes more driving errors, resulting in impaired driving ability in third-year university students. Generalisation: Alcohol consumption causes impaired driving ability in all drivers. Figure 2.8 A flow chart of the experiment testing the effect of alcohol consumption on driving skills C h a p t e r 2 Research methods 1

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cause and effect relationship between the IV and DV. Furthermore, because controlled conditions are known conditions, the experimenter can set up the experiment a second time and repeat it to test (or check ) the results. Alternatively, the experimenter can report the conditions of an experiment in such a precise way that others can replicate the experiment and test the results. Replication is very important because when a study is repeated and similar results are obtained, there can be greater confidence in the reliability and validity of the results obtained. Despite its precision, there are several limitations of the experiment. Although a field experiment occurs in a real-life setting and therefore has a relationship to the real world, it is often difficult to strictly control all variables because of the unpredictability of real-life settings. The ability to more strictly control variables is an advantage of the laboratory setting; however, it is often artificial and too dissimilar to real life. For example, bringing someone into the unfamiliar environment of a psychology laboratory can change their behaviour to the point where it is not appropriate to generalise or apply the observed behaviour to situations outside the laboratory. Furthermore, some things cannot be measured in a laboratory. The researcher cannot break up families, for example, to measure the effects of family separation. Nor would the laboratory be the best setting for testing variables such as grief, hate or love. It may be difficult for participants to express these emotions naturally or very realistically in a laboratory setting.

learning a cTiviTy 2.6 review questions 1. What is an experiment? Explain with reference to three key characteristics that distinguish an experiment from other research methods. 2. Explain the main difference between the independent variable and the dependent variable in an experiment. 3. (a) Distinguish between an experimental group and a control group. (b) Why is it important for the experimental and control groups to be similar in personal characteristics that may affect DV? (c) What is the purpose of using a control group in an experiment? (d) Suggest a reason to explain why the experimental group is sometimes called the treatment group . 4. Briefly describe two advantages and two limitations of experimental research.

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U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

Sampling procedures Psychologists conduct experiments with people and, in some cases, animals. The participants being studied in an experiment, or in any type of research, are called the sample. A sample is a subsection, or smaller group, of research participants selected from a larger group (called a population) of research interest. For example, if a researcher is interested in conducting an experiment to find out whether children who attended a childcare centre during their preschool years are better at basic English and maths skills than preschool children who didn t attend a childcare centre, it would be impractical to test every preschool child who attended a childcare centre and every preschool child who did not. Researchers therefore select a sample with whom they conduct their research. If the sample is selected in a scientific way, the results obtained for the sample can then be generalised to the larger group of research interest, called the population. In experimental and any other scientific research, the population does not necessarily refer to all people (or animals) in the world, in a country, or even in a particular city or area. The term population refers to the entire group of research interest from which a sample is drawn. A population of interest may be all preschool children, all blonde-haired females, all VCE Psychology students, all female VCE Psychology students, all Catholic school educated boys, or all male chimpanzees born in captivity. A population in a study doesn t always refer to living things. A population being studied could also be measurable things such as all community health centres in the Goulburn Valley region, all admissions at the Royal Melbourne Hospital, all VCE exam results in English in 2009, all days of school missed by year 9 students, all brands of runners, all calls to the Kids Help Line telephone number, or any other specific source of data.

learning acTiviTy 2.7 review questions 1. (a) Define the terms sample and population as they are used in research. (b) Draw a diagram to show the relationship between a sample and a population. 2. For the following research samples, identify two different populations from which each sample may have been drawn. (a) 20 year 10 girls and 20 year 10 boys (b) 40 teachers who have been teaching for more than 10 years (continued)

(c) 100 employees on leave from work because of stress-related reasons (d) 30 adults diagnosed as having a type of schizophrenia 3. For the following research topics, identify a sample that might be used to conduct the research and a population from which the sample could be drawn. (a) Are people who wear uniforms at school or work more likely to be obedient to an authority figure? (b) Are children who regularly play violent computer games more likely to behave aggressively? (c) How can people with a fear of flying be assisted to overcome their fear? (d) Are children born to mothers aged over 40 years at greater risk of developing a mental illness? (e) Is it easier for men or women to give up smoking?

family background and cultural background could be assumed to be important. When a researcher selects a sample that represents its population, the sample is called a representative sample. A representative sample is a sample that is approximately the same as the population from which it is drawn in every important participant characteristic. There are several different ways of obtaining a sample that is considered to be representative. Two ways are called random sampling and stratified sampling.

Selecting a sample A sample has to be selected in a scientific way so that the results obtained for the sample can be legitimately applied or generalised to the population from which it was selected. The process of selecting participants for a sample is called sampling. A key goal of sampling is to ensure that the sample closely represents its population. It must reflect its population in all the personal characteristics of participants that are important in the research study. Personal characteristics that are considered to be important are those that can influence the results of the study. For example, in a study on how friendships form among adolescents, personal characteristics of participants such as their sex, age, type of school attended, religion,

learning acTiviTy 2.8 Media response a driver study

sampling for

Read the newspaper advertisement shown below and answer the following questions. 1. What is the specific topic of research interest? 2. Identify the population from which the sample will be selected. 3. Identify an important personal characteristic of the sample required by the researcher. 4. Is it possible that people who respond to the advertisement and are selected to be in the sample may behave or respond differently in the study, as compared with participants randomly selected from a relevant group targeted for the research study? Explain your answer. 5. (a) What is a representative sample? (b) How representative is the sample obtained using the advertisement likely to be? (c) Will the researcher be able to generalise her results from the study described in the advertisement? Explain your answer.

Study seeks older drivers onded Hundreds of older drivers have resp study r majo a in part take to to a call ing driv on ng into the influence of agei . performance g The study is part of a doctoral thesis bein d loye emp ogist chol opsy written by a neur th. Heal hern Sout by es The researcher stressed that recent studi safe were rs drive r olde most that n had show avoid and ‘self-regulated’ their driving to city. capa their nd going beyo But for a small proportion there were prob said. she ht, insig and t emen lems with judg

rs The original appeal — for drive rThe research project is being unde more cted attra has — over has aged 50 or r is taken through La Trobe University and than 500 responses but the researche hern Sout both from ort supp funding and . looking for more of Health and the RACV. In addition to clarifying a number rs drive r olde g takin lves that The project invo d hope is it s, issue ng. ‘ageing and driving’ on the road and observing their drivi e to maintaining d the research will contribut spen will r rche resea Before doing this, the r drivers. olde y t their the confidence of man time talking with each volunteer abou concern at the essed expr r rche resea The es and driving history and current experienc themselves taken number of them who have will explain the research in detail. rily. cessa unne at off the road Participants can decide to pull out Source: The Age, 2004, 24 January, ble forta com feel er long no any time if they Southern Health. being part of the research.

C h a p t e r 2 Research methods 1

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Population

The lottery procedure could involve drawing names out of a box . For example, if a sheet of paper had all the names of the people in the population on it, the sheet would be cut up into slips of paper equal in size, with one name on each slip of paper. The names would then be thoroughly mixed in the box to help ensure their distribution throughout the box. Then, names of sample members (or research participants) could be drawn out blindly , one at a time. As a result of this procedure, the likelihood that the sample is representative of the population is increased, and so is the ability of the researcher to generalise the results to the population.

Sample

Figure 2.9 This sample is a subset of the population of people working for a particular company.

random sampling The dictionary definition of the term random is something which is haphazard, unpredictable or hitor-miss . However, when the term random is used by researchers in relation to a sample, it has the opposite meaning. Random actually means using a planned, systematic procedure to obtain a sample. Random sampling is a sampling procedure that ensures that every member of the population of research interest has a genuinely equal chance of being selected as a participant for the research study. This can be achieved in a number of different ways. One way is to obtain a complete list of all the people in the population. This list is commonly called a sampling frame. For example, an electoral roll may be used as a sampling frame, or the telephone numbers of all the people in a particular location may be used. If you were conducting a research study in your school, class rolls could be used, but only those with the names of students in the population of interest. After the sampling frame is obtained, the researcher could obtain a random sample using a simple lottery procedure to select the required number of names. 62

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

Figure 2.10 The lottery procedure of drawing names of research participants from a box is an appropriate random sampling procedure because each member of the population being sampled has a genuinely equal chance of being selected.

When a large number of participants is required, researchers often use a computer-generated list of random numbers. Each participant in the sampling frame is given a number from 1 through to however many are in the population of interest. If the first number in the computer-generated list of random numbers is 22, then the twenty-second person in the sampling frame is included in the sample; if the second number in the computer-generated list is 93, then the ninety-third person in the sampling frame is selected, and so on until the required number of participants have been selected.

Stratified sampling In some research studies it is important to ensure that particular groups in a population of interest are represented in their known proportions in that population.

For example, if a researcher wanted to study the attitudes of adult Australians to arsonists who deliberately light bushfires, they could reasonably expect that attitudes may differ depending on whether someone lives in the city or in a rural community. Consequently, the researcher would want to ensure that each of these groups was represented in the sample in about the same proportions that they were known to exist in the adult population. This can be achieved by using the sampling procedure called stratified sampling. Stratified sampling involves dividing the population to be sampled into different subgroups, or strata, then selecting a separate sample from each subgroup (called stratum) in the same proportions as they occur in the population of interest. Socio-cultural factors such as residential area, age, sex, income level, educational qualifications and ethnic or cultural background are examples of personal characteristics that may be used as the basis of dividing a population into strata. The stratified sampling procedure is commonly used to study behaviour and mental processes that tend to vary greatly among different subgroups of a population.

Random-stratified sampling When random sampling is used to select a sample from each stratum, this is called random-stratified sampling and the resulting sample is called a random­ stratified sample. In order to obtain a random-stratified sample, the researcher must first obtain accurate lists of all the people within each stratum. The researcher will then draw a random sample of proportionate size from each of the strata. For example, suppose you were going to undertake a research study on attitudes of students in your school towards teachers use of rewards and punishments. You expect that attitudes may differ among students in different year levels so you want to ensure each year level (stratum) is proportionally represented in your sample of 20 students. You could first obtain separate lists of the students in each year level and then randomly sample from each list. If, for example, about 10% of all students in your school are enrolled in year 12 and about 15% in year 11, then your sample would consist of about 10% year 12 students and about 15% year 11 students. This would ensure students from each year level are represented in about the same proportions in the sample as they are in the population (the school). Using the random-stratified sampling procedure would ensure that the sample is representative of the population and therefore not biased in a way you consider to be important. Figure 2.11 shows an example of a stratified sample that could be obtained for the attitudes study.

All students in a school 100%

Y7 20%

Population

Y12 10% Y11 15%

Y8 20% Y9 20%

Y10 15%

Strata (% in each year level)

2

4

3 4

3

Stratified sample (number of participants from each year level)

4

Figure 2.11 An example of stratified sampling for an attitude study

learning acTiviTy 2.9 visual presentation comparing random sampling and stratified sampling Draw two simple flow charts or diagrams that show the difference between random sampling and stratified sampling.

Random allocation The method of selecting the sample is important in ensuring it is unbiased and representative of the population being studied. Equally important is the way in which research participants are allocated or assigned to either the experimental or control group in an experiment. In an ideal research world, everything about the experimental and control groups would be identical except for the IV. In reality, however, it is to be expected that the participants in an experiment will have differences in personal characteristics, abilities and backgrounds that may affect the results in an experiment. For example, some participants will be more or less C h a p t e r 2 Research methods 1

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easygoing, anxious or motivated than others. They will also differ in a wide range of mental abilities such as intelligence, learning, memory, reading comprehension and problem-solving skills, as well as physical abilities such as strength, athleticism, eye hand coordination and finger dexterity. Furthermore, they will differ in such factors as sex, age, ethnicity, cultural experiences and religious beliefs. Consequently, it is important to ensure that personal characteristics or abilities of participants that might affect the results of the experiment are evenly spread in the experimental and control groups. One way of minimising differences in the composition or make-up of the experimental and control groups is to randomly allocate participants to the groups. In random allocation, also called random assign­ ment, participants selected for the experiment are just as likely to be in the experimental group as the control group. This means that every person who will be a participant in the experiment has an equal chance of being selected in any of the groups used. This can be achieved by using some kind of lottery method in which chance alone will determine the group to which each participant will be allocated. For example, drawing names out of a box or flipping a coin are both appropriate ways of randomly allocating participants to groups. With a sufficiently large number of participants, it is reasonable to assume that each group will end up with the same kind of spread of participant characteristics, abilities and backgrounds that may affect the results. For example, in an experiment on alcohol consumption and driving ability, if the experimental group has a larger proportion of bad drivers than the control group and the experimental group makes significantly more driving errors in the driving simulator, it will be difficult for the researcher to isolate the effect of alcohol (the IV) on driving ability (the DV). The problem is that the participants in the experimental group may make more driving errors than the control group even when not under the influence of alcohol. Through random allocation of participants to the experimental and control groups, each group would be expected to end up with relatively even numbers of participants who are good and bad drivers. The purpose of random allocation of participants is to obtain groups that are as alike as possible in terms of participant characteristics before introducing the IV. With random allocation of participants to the experimental and control groups, researchers can more confidently conclude that if two groups responded differently in the experiment in terms of the number of driving errors, then it most likely had something to do with the effect of the IV. Consequently, random allocation is an important means of experimental control. 64

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

Random allocation is different from random sampling. Random allocation is used to place participants in groups whereas random sampling is one of the methods which can be used to select participants for an experiment. Random sampling, however, is based on the same principle as random allocation and helps ensure that every member of the population of research interest has an equal chance of being selected as a participant. If everyone does not have an equal chance of being selected, the sample is said to be a biased sample. Population Random sampling Sample (participants) Random allocation Experimental group (IV present)

Control group (IV not present)

Measure effect on DV

Measure effect on DV

Is there a difference? Figure 2.12 A simple experimental design using random sampling and random allocation

learning acTiviTy 2.1 0 review questions 1. Define the meaning of the term sampling when used in a research study. 2. Name and describe a procedure for obtaining a representative sample for a within-class research investigation. 3. Suggest another way of obtaining a representative sample. 4. (a) What is a stratified sample? (b) Give four examples of participant characteristics that may lead a researcher investigating parental attitudes toward using a childcare centre to consider using a stratified sampling procedure. 5. (a) What is random allocation? Why is it used in an experiment? (b) Explain the difference between random sampling and random allocation. eBook plus Interactivity on random and stratified sampling

learning acTiviTy 2.11 Practical activity testing random allocation This practical activity enables you to test whether random allocation actually produces groups that are alike in participant characteristics. You will need to determine easily observed and measurable characteristics of class members; for example, sex, hair colour, eye colour and left-handed versus righthanded. Each class member should describe themself in relation to each characteristic, recording their answers on a card or sheet of paper. The descriptions are then collected and distributed into two groups using a random allocation procedure. The means of the different characteristics for each group should then be calculated and a profile produced for each group in terms of the characteristics, so that the equivalence of the groups can be compared. If your class is small in number, complete another version of the activity using coloured lollies, such as Smarties. Start with a sample of equal numbers of each colour, place all the Smarties in a bowl, then, while blindfolded, draw Smarties out of the bowl one at a time, distributing them into two different groups. Report Prepare a brief report of this activity to include in your folio of practical activities. Your report should contain answers to the following questions. 1. How close were the means for each characteristic (or colour)? 2. How equivalent were the groups? 3. Would equivalence increase if the size of the group increased? Explain your answer.

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH Sometimes the aim of psychological research is to describe the thoughts, feelings or behaviour of an individual or group without manipulating or investigating relationships between specific variables. This type of research is called descriptive research. Descriptive research refers to a research method that focuses on studying and describing one or more aspects of thoughts, feelings or behaviour as they occur at a given time and place. The time may be a specific moment, a day, a month, a year or many years. The place may be a laboratory, clinic or a real life everyday setting. This type of research provides a snapshot of how people may be thinking, feeling, behaving at some particular time in a certain situation, without necessarily explaining why they may be thinking, feeling or behaving as they are.

A descriptive research study does not necessarily use a large number of participants; for example, a researcher might be interested in describing the behaviour of one particular individual. Alternatively, the researcher may be interested in describing the behaviour of a small group, large group or a crowd. In some cases the researcher may study an individual and one or more groups to make comparisons. Unlike experimental research, descriptive research does not explain cause effect. However, as with experimental research, descriptive research may be used to study animal behaviour. For example, a researcher may observe, record then describe specific ways in which a particular animal species behaves in its natural environment without interfering with the environment in any way. Descriptive research methods include case studies, observational studies, self­reports, surveys, questionnaires, interviews, rating scales, longitudinal studies, cross­sectional studies, twin studies and adoption studies. Each of these methods can be used on its own or in combination with one another. For example, a case study may involve interviews and observations and a survey may involve a questionnaire made up of questions and rating scales. In this section, we examine case studies and observational studies.

case studies Sometimes a researcher will collect detailed information on only a small number of people, perhaps an individual or a small group of two or three. When this is done, the research method used is likely to be a case study. A case study is an intensive, in-depth investigation of some behaviour or event of interest in an individual, small group or situation. For example, many of the early language researchers started out by keeping detailed diaries on the language development of only a few children. Social psychologists have also learnt about behaviour in small friendship groups by conducting case studies in which they observe and record social interactions within the same group of people in different situations over a period of time. An assumption is that patterns of behaviour observed within the group may apply to other friendship groups made up of people of similar ages and backgrounds. Such case studies can also suggest hypotheses that could be tested using other research methods. Sigmund Freud often used the case study method. Freud studied his patients in great depth. Some were treated for many years during which Freud met with them several times a week. The detailed written records Freud kept on his patients were used to develop his psychoanalytic theories of personality and everyday behaviour. Similarly, Swiss psychologist Jean C h a p t e r 2 Research methods 1

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Piaget developed a comprehensive theory of children s thinking which was mainly based on case studies. His case studies often involved observing, questioning and testing his own children. These case studies became a rich source of information from which hypotheses were developed, then tested using other research methods. Many other researchers have also constructed hypotheses from Piaget s descriptive reports. The hypotheses were subsequently tested using controlled experiments to find out if Piaget s conclusions were accurate and if they could be applied more widely to other children with different backgrounds. Clinical psychologists and other mental health professionals routinely use case studies to develop a detailed profile of a client. The case study may involve a combination of data collection methods. For example, the client may be interviewed at length. Information may also be collected through interviews of family members, friends, and teachers or co-workers. The client s medical records and school reports may also be considered. Other sources of information can include extensive psychological testing and observations of the person s behaviour. When used in a clinical setting for therapeutic (or treatment ) purposes, a case study is often referred to as a case history or a clinical observation. Case studies are often used when large numbers of participants are not available for study; for example, to study individuals with a rare or unusual disorder or ability. Much of what was first known about the role of the brain in behaviour and mental processes has come from case studies. For example, one early case study reported by a neuropsychologist involved a rare disorder called face agnosia (Bodamer, 1947). Face agnosia is the inability to recognise faces. People with this disorder have difficulty in recognising the faces of family and friends or famous personalities. The case study involved a young female who was also unable to recognise her own face. She was referred to as S.T. in the case study report to protect her identity. Whenever S.T. looked in the mirror, she saw a reflection of a stranger. However, S.T. knew that she was the strange looking person because she was the only person in front of the mirror. In one series of tests, S.T. was asked to speak in front of the mirror and make gestures such as a nod or a shrug. S.T. often recognised her own voice and occasionally recognised gestures, but her face was always completely new to her. S.T. also had difficulty recognising animal faces. For example, she described a dog s face as a human face with funny hair . Although unable to recognise faces, S.T. knew what a face was and could recognise and name everyday objects such as furnishings, articles of clothing, trees, cars and so on without difficulty. This suggested that the area of the brain involved in facial recognition was different from 66

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

that involved in recognising objects. Furthermore, the different brain areas probably interacted with language and memory in different ways. When neuroimaging devices such as PET and f MRI scans became available, neuropsychologists were able to conduct experiments with individuals suffering from face agnosia. Such experiments over the past 30 years confirmed the conclusions of early case studies. They have also enabled researchers to pinpoint brain areas and structures that interact in facial recognition, object recognition, memory and language.

Figure 2.13 Case studies are commonly used when large numbers of participants are not available. For example, eccentric behaviour has been studied using the case study method. Eccentric behaviour refers to a pattern of human behaviour that is viewed as very odd or unusual within the particular society or culture in which it occurs. Two American psychologists completed 1000 case studies on eccentrics over a 10-year period and identified characteristics common to them. They concluded that despite the deviant behaviour, most eccentrics are happy, well-adjusted people who are strange but sane . The person in this photo, Gene Pool, is one of the eccentrics they studied.

advantages and limitations of case studies Case studies provide a useful way of obtaining detailed and valuable descriptive information on behaviour and mental processes. There is usually no manipulation or

control of variables. Consequently, case studies can provide a snapshot of the actual experience of one or more individuals at a particular time in a particular situation. Case studies can also provide insights into how others may think, feel or behave under similar circumstances. Another advantage of case studies is that they can be a valuable source of hypotheses for further research. However, case studies cannot be used to test hypotheses unless combined with the results of other case studies of similar participants or another research method that is suitable for testing hypotheses. A major limitation of case studies is their sample size. They are commonly based on the experiences of only one individual or a very limited number of individuals. This means that they can usually provide only weak support for drawing scientific conclusions. Furthermore, generalising or applying the results to others in the population cannot be done with any certainty. Generalising is a bigger problem when the case study involves someone with a rare or unusual disorder or ability. Case studies also have the limitation of being susceptible to biased information from the participant or the researcher. This can influence the accuracy of the information that is obtained and conclusions that may be drawn. For example, case studies usually rely on the individuals under investigation to provide a great deal of the required information. Some participants may not remember clearly what they actually experienced, or they may intentionally change or omit information that they do not wish to reveal for personal reasons. Similarly, case studies are usually conducted by one researcher. It is possible that the researcher sees or hears what they expect or hope to see or hear. Furthermore, the researcher is also responsible for deciding what to include in their descriptions and what to leave out. In writing up the case, the researcher may select information that supports key points or conclusions they wish to make, and omit other points that may be just as relevant and could have been included by another researcher interpreting the same information.

learning a cTiviTy 2.12 review questions 1. What is descriptive research? 2. In what way does descriptive research differ from experimental research? 3. (a) What is a case study? (b) Give three examples of research findings or theories that have been derived from case studies in psychology. 4. Describe three advantages and three limitations of case studies when used for research purposes.

Observational studies In our everyday lives we observe the behaviour of other people and draw conclusions about them from their actions. For example, if we notice that someone is always quiet in class, prefers to sit by themself and blushes when asked a question, we might conclude that the person is shy, lacking in confidence or withdrawn. Psychologists, however, use observation in a more precise and planned way. For example, they precisely describe the behaviour to be observed, and do not jump to conclusions about attitudes, personality characteristics, motives or other factors that may underlie the observed behaviour. Furthermore, psychologists distinguish between observation and an observational study. In psychology, all research studies involve observation. For example, in an experiment the researcher observes the behaviour of their participants, in a case study the researcher observes the behaviour or verbal responses of their participants, and in an analysis of medical or school records the researcher observes the written information with which they are working (Banyard & Grayson, 2001). Consequently, the term observation refers to any means by which a phenomenon (an observable event) is studied, including the data that represent a phenomenon, such as scores and spoken or written responses. In all research studies, observation occurs in a systematic way and is undertaken according to predetermined procedures. In contrast to the term observation, the term observational study is used to refer to the specific approach to or way of collecting data. An observational study involves collection of data by carefully watching and recording behaviour as it occurs. Psychologists use observational studies to collect data in research when the behaviour under investigation is clearly visible and can be easily recorded. For example, when investigating roles and hierarchies ( pecking orders ) in groups, a researcher might ask the members of a friendship group to discuss a controversial issue, then observe and record who starts the discussion, who changes the topic, who speaks, how often and for how long these occur, and so on. This study could occur in a controlled laboratory setting or in a field setting, such as a place where the group normally meets and interacts (for example, the school canteen or an area of the school grounds). One type of observational study is called naturalistic observation. In naturalistic observation, a naturally occurring behaviour of interest is viewed by a researcher in an inconspicuous manner so that their presence has no influence on the behaviour being observed. For example, in a study on the development of social C h a p t e r 2 Research methods 1

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behaviour, a researcher might observe children at play in a playgroup situation from behind a one-way mirror so the children are not aware that they are being observed. From the observations of each child s interactions, the researcher might make assumptions or inferences about children s social behaviour. For example, the researcher may observe that younger children tend to play alongside other children but not actually interact with them, whereas older children tend to interact more in their play with other children. On the basis of these observations, the researcher may assume that there are different types of play in which children may engage and that these types of play are age-related or age-dependent. When researchers try to conceal their presence while making observations, it is called non­participant observation. When observations of behaviour are made in a field setting; that is, the usual or real-world surroundings in which the behaviour occurs, psychologists will often conceal their presence by watching from the sidelines . For example, a researcher might sit on a nearby bench Coder name

pretending to be absorbed in a book in order to observe people s reactions to a group of street kids . In other situations, psychologists might use a hidden video camera or cassette recorder to record events.

Figure 2.15 A one-way mirror allows a researcher to observe children in a playgroup situation, without the children being aware that they are being observed.

Olive Coding categories

Episode

Proximity

Contact

Resistance

Avoidance

Mother and baby play alone

1

1

1

1

Mother puts baby down

4

1

1

1

Stranger enters room

1

2

3

1

Mother leaves room, stranger plays with baby

1

3

1

1

Mother re-enters, greets and may comfort baby, then leaves again

4

2

1

2

Stranger tries to play with baby

1

3

1

1

Mother re-enters and picks up baby

6

6

1

2

The coding categories are: Proximity Maintaining contact Resistance Avoidance

The baby moves toward, grasps or climbs on the adult. The baby resists being put down by the adult by crying or trying to climb back up. The baby pushes, hits or squirms to be put down from the adult s arms. The baby turns away or moves away from the adult.

Figure 2.14 This checklist was used to observe and record the behaviour of 12-month-old infants in an observational study of attachment behaviour (as indicated by responses to strangers). The infants were observed playing in a room with two adults the infant s mother and a stranger. The infants behaviour in different situations ( episodes ) was rated ( coded ) on a 7-point scale according to fear categories. A rating of 1 meant The infant makes no effort to engage in the behaviour and a rating of 7 meant The infant makes an extreme effort to engage in the behaviour (Ainsworth & others). 68

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

Figure 2.16

Sometimes, psychologists engage in participant observ­ ation. They actually participate in the activity being observed and may deliberately try to be mistaken by the participants as being part of the group or situation being observed. In one study that used participant observation, the researchers had themselves admitted to several different psychiatric hospitals by imitating the symptoms of a severe mental illness. After they had been admitted, they kept records of their observations while in the hospital. Their record-keeping behaviour was regarded by the hospital staff as being a symptom of their mental illness (Rosenhan, 1973).

In another obervational study, researcher Dian Fossey used both non-participant and participant observation. Fossey, whose work is featured in the movie Gorillas in the Mist, lived among gorillas in their remote African highlands habitat. After first using non-participant observation to learn about key aspects of gorilla behaviour, Fossey changed her method to use participant observation and started to behave like a gorilla. The more she learnt about the behaviour of gorillas, the more she was able to act like them. She imitated their feeding and grooming behaviours and even attempted to copy their vocalisations. By waiting for the gorillas to approach her, by avoiding actions that might threaten them, and by imitating their actions, Fossey gradually became accepted by them and was able to collect valuable data about their behaviour. While observational studies usually focus on the process of behaviour, some researchers focus on the prod­ ucts of behaviour. For example, in an experiment on learning, a researcher might observe how many times a participant rehearsed a list of words (process) and then how many words the participant remembered on a final test (product). Or the researcher might observe products of behaviour from the past, for example, personal documents, such as autobiographies, letters, diaries, drawings and speeches. Observations have become more accurate as new technology permits more precise measurement. For example, digital video cameras can be used to record then analyse rapidly changing behaviour. Even a single frame within a long, action sequence can be analysed. This technology can be used, for example, in studies of the way subtle changes in facial expressions of mothers and their babies become synchronised and similar over time.

Figure 2.17 C h a p t e r 2 Research methods 1

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advantages and limitations of observational studies When studying behaviour in a laboratory setting, a researcher is unable to observe the long-term effects that an organism s natural environment has in shaping complex behaviour patterns. For example, Jane Goodall spent over 25 years studying patterns of behaviour among chimpanzees in Africa. She believed that if she ended her research after 10 years, as originally scheduled, she would not have drawn correct conclusions. We would have been left with the impression that chim­ panzees were far more peaceable than humans. Because we were able to continue beyond the first decade, we could document the division of a social group and observe the violent aggression that broke out between newly separated factions. We discovered that in certain circumstances the chimpanzees may kill and even cannibalise individuals of their own kind (Goodall, 1986). Thus, naturalistic observation often enables researchers to gain more accurate information about the typical behaviours of organisms than do other methods of gathering data.

Figure 2.18 Researcher Jane Goodall used naturalistic observation in her studies of chimpanzees. In time, she shifted from using participant observation to nonparticipant observation.

Some kinds of human behaviour can only be studied as they naturally occur using observation in a field setting because it would be unethical (inappropriate) or impractical to study them in a laboratory situation. For example, it would be unethical to severely deprive children in their 70

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

early life in order to observe the effect of deprivation on behaviour in the future (Zimbardo, 1992). Naturalistic observation in a field setting does not require the cooperation of participants being observed. Furthermore, the participants usually do not know that they are being observed in any special way. This means that the observed behaviour is likely to be more true to life. There is, however, a related disadvantage of this. Since the observer doesn t directly influence the behaviour being observed, it sometimes requires a lot of patience to wait for the behaviour of interest to occur. In such circumstances, a psychologist might prefer to observe in a laboratory setting. However, some behaviours cannot be realistically reproduced in a laboratory. You can t, for example, expect to obtain valid information about how people usually behave when they are in love by bringing a pair of participants into a laboratory situation and asking them to be in love so that observations can be made. Another problem with naturalistic observation in a field setting is that it can be difficult to determine the causes of observed behaviour, because there are many factors which may influence the observed behaviour in a natural environment. For example, a researcher could not determine why chimpanzees become aggressive towards one another when their social group breaks into factions, or subgroups. The aggressive behaviour may be influenced by factors which the researcher has no control over such as habitat, food supply, climate, availability of partners, or a combination of these. A major problem relevant to any observation procedure is observer bias. It is possible, for example, that researchers sometimes unconsciously distort what they see so that it resembles what they hope to see. For example, after observing an animal which has been deprived of food for a long time, the observer may assume that the animal was looking for food when the behaviour actually observed was simply increased activity. Researchers must be trained to observe and record accurately in order to minimise the influence of their personal biases. Finally, in making detailed notes as part of the observation process, psychologists may neglect to record certain behaviours which they either judge to be irrelevant or do not actually see. To overcome this limitation, when using observation, researchers may use a team of trained observers who collate their notes. This often results in a more complete and accurate set of data than one observer could obtain alone.

learnin g acTiviT y 2. 13 review questions 1. How is observation defined in psychology? Explain with reference to examples. 2. What is an observational study? 3. What is the main difference between participant and non-participant observation? Give an example of each method. 4. (a) Describe two advantages and two limitations of the different types of observational studies when used for research purposes. (b) What is observer bias? Describe two ways in which it may be controlled.

QuALITATIVE AND QuANTITATIVE DATA All psychological research involves collection of information. In research, the information which is collected is called data. The data may be considered as evidence that will form the results of the study and be the basis of the conclusions that will be made. Data can take different forms. The type of data collected is determined by the specific kind of research method used. For example, interviews often provide data in the form of words, while experiments usually provide data in the form of numbers. Generally, psychologists distinguish between two types of data qualitative and quantitative data.

learnin g acTiviT y 2. 14 evaluation of research

media report

Part A Consider the newspaper article on bullying, then answer the following questions.

Gender bias in bullying By Emily Power cs in GIRLS and boys have different tacti . lying r-bul cybe of the world class Observation of a primary school ing, bully e onlin gated insti found both sexes girls and e essiv aggr more were boys but were subtle and indirect. n As thousands of Victorian students retur nts are to school today or on Monday, pare about being urged to talk with their children ing. bully le hand how to s ‘Flooding’ and ‘masquerade’ technique 6 and 5 e grad the ng amo were observed students, according to the research. h Boys were seen using flooding, whic her anot ding exclu and on idati intim involves chat. person from interacting in an online rise a terro to de uera Girls used masq tity. iden rent diffe a using mate class

SydResearcher Dr Damian Maher, from d boys ney’s University of Technology, foun in girls bullied each other over their interest or music tastes. e in ‘The boys were much more aggressiv that their use of the language and the way in right were They r. othe they heckled each said. he ’, faces r’s othe each are ‘When boys have a problem or they , it male a alph the be will who out working pick they then was often very quick, and use themselves up and they are mates, beca is that whoever has become top dog, there acceptance’. ‘Whereas with the girls, they don’t know and it’s who it is, so it is unsettling for them ess’. proc ing ongo an more Alannah and Madeine Foundation CEO cially Dr Judith Slocombe said parents, espe ing. bully t abou talk of prep students, should

1. Identify the type of research method used. If not stated, suggest what the research method is likely to be. 2. Briefly describe what the study is about. 3. Describe the sample and sample selection procedure (if stated). 4. What are the more important findings of the study? 5. What is a potential limitation of the research?

and She said internet bullies felt brave their se reali not t migh and anonymous actions have caused harm. rting Children should be told that repo ombe bullying is not ‘dobbing’ Dr Sloc said. s ‘It’s worthwhile to say that sometime sdiscu a have and nice, not all children are them,’ sion about what to do if it happens to Ms Slocombe said. fault ‘The main thing is it is not their hurt g bein with up — nobody has to put d.’ or tease be Dr Maher said teachers needed to y. olog techn e activ inter d rstan unde to trained ally ethic and law ‘It is very unclear in would where the responsibility lies, and I nse’, say it should be a community respo he said. ry, p. Source: Herald Sun, 2009, 30 Janua

28.

Part B Locate a newspaper, magazine or internet article that reports a psychological experiment, case study or observational study. Make a copy of the article and then answer the questions in part A about the article.

C h a p t e r 2 Research methods 1

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Qualitative data Qualitative data are information about the qualities or characteristics of what is being studied. They may be descriptions, words, meanings, pictures, texts and so on. These data can describe any aspect of a person s mental experiences or behaviour; more specifically, what something is like, or how something is experienced. They may be collected as written or verbal statements made by participants, or as descriptions of behaviour observed and recorded by the researcher. Sometimes psychologists use audio or video tapes to record data in research. For example, psychologists studying selfesteem in young children may collect qualitative data by asking children open-ended questions related to their self-esteem. Likewise, a researcher interested in learning about the factors that enable some people to cope better than others with personal trauma may collect qualitative data through a survey involving participants responses about how they felt in a specific traumatic situation and how they dealt with their feelings.

Figure 2.20 In this experiment involving animal learning, an electronic recording device is used to collect quantitative data on the frequency of responses made by the rat.

Figure 2.19 In this survey, the researcher is collecting qualitative data through open-ended questions on how the participant feels about closure of the local primary school.

Quantitative data The majority of studies referred to in this text use quantitative data, rather than qualitative data. This reflects the preference for quantitative data in most psychological research. Quantitative data are numerical information on the quantity or amount of what is being studied; that is, how much of some thing there is. They may be raw data that have not been analysed in any way, such as lengths or weights of prematurely born infants, or percentages of participants who respond with Yes or No to survey questions, or the mean reaction time of participants when a light is flashed onto a screen in an experiment, and so on. 72

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

All types of mental experiences and behaviours can be described in quantitative terms; that is, as quantities or numbers. For example, in a survey, a question might ask participants to use a five-point scale to rate their feelings on issues such as compulsory school uniform or the persuasiveness of a particular advertisement. Information about individuals scores on a range of psychological tests such as intelligence tests, personality tests, career inventories and various ability and interest tests are also provided as quantitative data. In addition, data collected during experiments are typically collected in a numerical form and are therefore usually quantitative. The use of numerical data makes it easier to summarise and interpret information collected through research. This is why quantitative data are often preferred to qualitative data, although this does not mean that qualitative data are less important or less useful than quantitative data.

Although qualitative data are typically expressed in the form of words, they can be converted into a quantitative form. For example, participants responses to open-ended interview questions about their thoughts and feelings when they are anxious could be summarised as numbers based on the frequency ( how often ) or intensity ( how strong ) with which certain feelings are reported.

Qualitative and quantitative descriptive research One distinction that is commonly made with descriptive research relates to whether it has a qualitative or quantitative focus. Qualitative descriptive research is descriptive research that is focused on capturing and describing the details of what is actually taking place or being thought, felt or experienced at the time and place of interest. Its goal is to capture and describe the richness of what is observed, without missing the kinds of detail that may be overlooked by more formal studies concerned with describing and interpreting data using numbers. The data collected in a qualitative descriptive research study are in their original, rich form; for example, the researcher s notes or video recordings of events as they actually unfold during an observational study, audio recordings of what a participant says about how they think, feel or behave during a case study, and extracts from a participant s diary records on how they felt at some point in time. The main advantage of qualitative descriptive research is that it enables behaviour and other experiences to be described vividly in their original form. However, it does not use statistical analysis and is more vulnerable to biased data and conclusion than is quantitative descriptive research. Quantitative descriptive research is descriptive research that is focused on using more formal and structured methods which enable the data collected on a topic of interest to be statistically analysed. An example of quantitative descriptive research is an observational study in which the researcher uses a checklist of specific behaviours to be observed and a questionnaire in which participants answer specific questions on how they think, feel or behave. The questionnaire guides how the participants may answer in ways that are predetermined by the researcher. In many cases, researchers report quantitative data along with qualitative data to provide a fuller and more informative description of what has been studied (Strangor, 2004). Both qualitative and quantitative research methods are considered in greater detail in Unit 2.

learning acTiviTy 2.1 5 review questions 1. Define the terms qualitative data and quantitative data with reference to an example that is not used in the text. 2. Indicate whether the data collected in each of the following research studies are qualitative data or quantitative data. Explain your answers. (a) Tape recordings of a student s description of the effect of background noise on their ability to learn previously unseen material (b) A student s ratings on a seven-point rating scale used to assess how much background noise affected their ability to learn previously unseen material (c) In a videotaped recording of a group discussion by married couples, the number of marriages identified as being successful as a result of marrying at an older age compared with those who married at a younger age (d) Records of whether people who wear glasses can read more quickly than people who do not wear glasses (e) A prisoner s description of the psychological effects of time in solitary confinement (f) Age at which infants are reported by their mothers as saying a recognisable word for the first time (g) Mothers descriptions of changes in their children s behaviour after their children began attending child care

learning acTiviTy 2.1 6 Selecting an appropriate research method For each of the following topics, decide which research method experiment, case study or observational study would be the most appropriate for undertaking a research study and briefly explain why. 1. Determining why someone with great potential gave up their career for a job they don t really like so that they can spend more time with their family 2. Determining how teenagers behave on their first date 3. Determining if watching violent cartoons on television will cause aggressive behaviour in children 4. Determining if people would obey a person in authority who ordered them to hurt another person 5. Determining whether boys and girls in preschool have different preferences for play activities

C h a p t e r 2 Research methods 1

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MAKING SENSE Of DATA When their research study has been conducted and results obtained, researchers generally do three things with the results. First, the results are summarised and described so they can be interpreted. The results are then interpreted so they can be understood. Finally, the results are explained; that is, reasons are suggested about why the particular results were obtained and what they mean. Researchers use statistics to summarise and interpret the results obtained from research. Statistics are essentially mathematical procedures. Two main kinds of statistics are used in psychology descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics are used for summarising and describing results. They include calculations such as percentages and means ( averages ), and preparation of tables and graphs. Inferential statistics are used for interpreting and giving meaning to results, such as calculating the probability of results being due to the IV. Units 1 and 2 Psychology focus on descriptive statistics. These will assist you to read and understand the descriptions of psychological research referred to throughout this textbook. They will also assist you in writing reports on investigations you conduct as part of your study of VCE Psychology. We start with a basic descriptive statistic with which you are already familiar.

Percentages Suppose you conduct an observational study to find out whether boys are more aggressive than girls during lunch time in the prep area of the school grounds at a local primary school. You want to obtain quantitative data, so you work out a list of observable behaviours that

you consider to be aggressive, such as pretend fighting and intentional pushing or shoving. Whenever you see a boy or girl demonstrating one of the aggressive behaviours on your list, you record your observation with a tick and shift your attention to another child. Of the 25 boys you observe, six use an aggressive act and are therefore judged as aggressive, and four of 16 girls observed are judged as aggressive. On the basis of these results, more boys than girls were aggressive. However, more boys than girls were also observed. In order to reach a 6 is more conclusion, you need to work out whether 25 4 . This can be achieved by calculating than or less than 16 the percentages of boys and girls who were aggressive, then making a comparison. A percentage is a statistic that expresses a number as a proportion (or fraction) of 100. The term per cent means per hundred , or for every hundred . It is shown using the per cent sign (%). For example, 65% is equal to 65 and means 65 parts out of 100; 100% of 100 something means all of it. A percentage is calculated using the formula subtotal 100 %= × total 1 It is easy to calculate a percentage when the original amount is 100. For example, if you complete a 100 item speed and accuracy test and correctly answer 90 items within the time limit, then your percentage score is: 90(subtotal) 100 90 × 100 900 × = = = 90% 100(total) 1 100 100 For the data obtained in the observation study described above: 6(subtotal) 100 6 × 100 600 boys: × = = = 24% 25(total) 1 25 25 girls:

4 (subtotal) 100 4 × 100 400 × = = = 25% 16(total) 1 16 16

BOX 2.2 Finding percentages using a calculator A scientific, graphics or CAS calculator can be used to calculate percentages. Two examples using a CAS calculator are: 1. Changing a fraction to a percentage Ensure the calculator is set in Exact or Auto mode. Type the fraction on a Calculator page by using the fraction template. Multiply this by 100 to change it to a percentage and press ENTER . If an approximate answer is required, press CTRL ENTER . Use brackets with mixed numbers so that the correct order of operations is followed. The 1 screen at right shows 83 and 1 4 expressed as percentages. 2. Finding a percentage of an amount Enter the percentage as a fraction with a denominator of 100 and multiply by the amount. If a fraction rather than a decimal is required, then ensure your calculator is set in either Exact or Auto mode. The screen at right shows 8% of 280 and 12.5% of 8.65.

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U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

This means that the proportion of boys (calculated out of 100 ) who were aggressive in the school grounds is slightly less than the proportion of girls. The main problem in making a comparison of the boys and girls based on the raw data is that the two groups were of unequal size. Calculating a percentage for each group overcame this problem and enabled comparison of the scores for boys and girls. Percentages are commonly used in psychology to describe data; for example, scores on a test, categories of scores, changes or trends in scores, the percentage of people who respond in a particular way (such as correct or incorrect, agree or disagree, do something or do not do something) and the percentage of people in a socio-cultural group (such as gender, age, income level, educational qualifications and ethnicity).

learnin g acTiviT y 2. 17 calculating percentages 1. Calculate percentages for the following raw data. Round your answer to the nearest whole number. (a) Sixteen out of 62 participants observed in the library broke a rule at least once during a 10 minute observation period. What percentage of participants broke a rule at least once? (b) Survey data show that 52 out of 75 students watch TV before school. What percentage of students watch TV before school? What percentage do not watch TV before school? (c) There are 498 500 Australians aged between 20 and 24 years of age. Of these, 199 400 live at home with their parent(s). What percentage live at home with their parent(s)? 2. A researcher gave parents a 50 item questionnaire on child-rearing practices. There were 28 fathers and 44 mothers in the sample. The raw data were first organised in a table (shown below) to enable comparison of scores achieved by fathers and mothers. Complete the table by calculating each percentage to the nearest whole number. Fathers Scores

Raw score

Per cent (%)

Mothers Raw score

0 9

4

4

10 20

9

7

21 30

10

10

31 40

3

12

41 50

2

11

Total

28

100%

44

Per cent (%)

100%

Tables Suppose that a researcher is interested in studying whether body image (a person s view of their body) changes during puberty and adolescence. The researcher might give a body image rating scale to ten 10-year-olds, ten 12-year-olds, ten 14-year-olds, ten 16-year-olds, ten 18-year-olds, ten 20-year-olds and ten 22-year-olds. Each research participant would be required to make a judgement about their physical appearance using a rating scale ranging from 1 to 10, with 1 being equivalent to very unattractive, 5 to neither attractive nor unattractive and 10 to very attractive. In all, there would be 70 bits of data (that is, ratings) about the body image of participants in different age groups. How can the researcher make sense of all these different bits of information so that meaningful conclusions about body image and age can be drawn? The first step would be to use descriptive statistics to organise, summarise and describe the data so that they can be interpreted. It is difficult to draw conclusions about whether (and if so, how) body image changes with age by looking at 70 individual ratings. Thus, in order to compare the body image ratings of the seven different age groups to determine whether there is a change with age, the data for each group could be summarised and presented in a table. This is shown in table 2.3. Table 2.3 Raw data

participant ratings

Age group (years)

Participant ratings

10

5

2

8

7

5

6

10

3

6

7

12

7

3

6

7

5

4

2

8

4

1

14

9

7

5

5

3

1

1

4

2

9

16

6

7

4

3

8

2

1

9

4

2

18

4

1

7

2

3

8

6

1

9

4

20

6

8

7

8

2

9

7

8

7

7

22

8

7

4

7

7

7

8

6

8

8

A table is an orderly arrangement and display of data in columns and rows. The columns and rows are usually identified by names (or headers ) that assist in making comparisons. Some conventions, or standards, for tables used in psychology are: • all tables should be numbered (e.g., Table 1, Table 2) • each table should have an individual title (in journal articles the title is in italics and each word is italicised). The title should be a clear statement which explains what the table is about without being too long. C h a p t e r 2 Research methods 1

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• each column should be identified using a

descriptive header. The first letter of each header should be capitalised. • where appropriate, each row should be identified using a descriptive header. The first letter of each header should be capitalised. • the reader should be able to quickly work out what the table is about and comparisons of data should be easy to make. Table 2.3 provides some order to the data on body image ratings by organising the ratings into different age groups. However, comparison of ratings across the age groups is still difficult because the data have been inadequately summarised. To enable the ratings of different age groups to be compared, a single number that summarises all the data for each age group would be calculated. For this study, the researcher could calculate the mean rating for each age group. The mean scores could be used to describe the average body image rating for each age group and would enable the researcher to compare the different age groups. This is shown in table 2.4. The mean is another type of descriptive statistic. This is discussed in more detail in Unit 2, chapter 7. Table 2.4 Mean body image ratings of each age group

Age group (years)

Mean scores

10

5.9

12

4.7

14

4.6

16

4.6

18

4.5

20

6.9

22

7.0

graphs The saying A picture is worth a thousand words has also been applied to numbers a graph is said by some researchers to be worth a thousand numbers . Pictures that present numerical data are called graphics. The most commonly used picture or graphic is a graph. A graph is a pictorial representation of data. Graphing or plotting data typically involves the use of two lines (axes) drawn at right angles to one another. The horizontal line is the X axis and the vertical line is the Y axis. The point where the axes intersect is called the origin (0). Generally, the frequency (for example, the number of cases or amount of something) is plotted on the Y axis. The unit of measurement (for example, time, weight) is plotted along the X axis. Graphs show 76

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

patterns or trends in the data collected; for example, how often a response is made, how aspects of behaviour change over time or as a research participant s experience changes. There are various types of graphs that express data in different ways. The kind of graph used depends mainly on the type of data collected. Among the more commonly used kinds of graphs in psychology are bar charts, histograms, pie charts, line graphs and frequency polygons. As with tables, there are conventions for presenting graphs in psychology. These include: • all graphs should be numbered (e.g. Figure 1, Figure 2) • each graph should have an individual title. (In journal articles the title is italicised and each word is italicised) The title should be a clear statement that explains what the graph is about without being too long. • both the horizontal and vertical axes must be labelled clearly and indicate what is plotted • the reader should be able to quickly work out what the graph is about.

Bar charts One type of graph is called a bar chart (or bar graph). A bar chart is a graph which uses a series of discrete (separate) bars or rectangles adjacent (next) to, but not touching one another, to enable comparisons of different categories of data. The bars can be positioned horizontally or vertically. One axis is used to show the types of categories (e.g. age, sex, type of response) and the other category is used to show the frequency with which each category occurs (e.g. how often, how much). One important feature of a bar chart is that each of the categories shown in the graph is separate or distinct and there is no continuation between one category and the next; for example, there would be separate bars for data about female participants responses and male participants responses. Each bar is the same width and has a small space between it and the next bar. Figure 2.21 shows an example of a bar chart. Researchers who studied the type of play in which four- to five-year-old children engaged recorded the type and amount of time children spent participating in each type of play at a kindergarten over a one-week period. The type of play in which children engaged was categorised according to American psychologist Mildred Parten s (1932) system for classifying play behaviour. Parten described four main types of play: solitary play, when the child plays alone and independently; parallel play, when the child plays alone and independently alongside, but not with, other children;

associative play, when the child plays with other children in a similar activity, but in their own way; and cooperative play, when the child plays with other children at the same activity. The researchers who were testing the relevance of Parten s theory among children today added a further category called unoccupied play, when the child did not engage in any play at all for a period of time. Results of the research are shown in the bar chart in figure 2.21. 20

learning acTiviTy 2.1 8 representing data using a bar chart A researcher obtained data from a group of university students on the relaxation techniques they found to be most effective for minimising anxiety experienced prior to exams. The raw data are described in table 2.5 below. Present these data (a) in a table that summarises the raw data; and (b) in a bar chart. Table 2.5 Types of relaxation techniques used

Participant

Amount of time hours

15

10

5

unoccupied behaviour

cooperative play

associative play

parallel play

solitary play

0

Types of play

1

Meditation

2

Drinking coffee

3

Drinking coffee

4

Listening to music

5

Exercise

6

Meditation

7

Sleeping

8

Listening to music

9

Exercise

10

Listening to music

11

Exercise

12

Sleeping

13

Meditation

14

Drinking coffee

15

Exercise

16

Exercise

17

Meditation

14

18

Sleeping

12

19

Sleeping

10

20

Listening to music

Figure 2.21 Example of a bar chart

Sometimes a bar chart is used to present values or scores for two different categories within each bar. For example, figure 2.22 shows mean scores on a test of memory (recall) obtained by males and females of different ages. 20 Male

18

Female

16 Score on test of recall

Relaxation technique

8 6

Histograms

4 2 0

10 14

15 19 70 74 Age group

75

Figure 2.22 Scores on a test of recall obtained by males and females of different ages

Histograms look like bar charts, except the bars touch. A histogram is a graph which shows the frequency with which a particular score (or range of scores) occurs in a set of data. A histogram usually has the types of categories (for example, sex, age groups) plotted on the horizontal (X) axis and the frequency (how often each score occurs) plotted on the vertical (Y) axis. C h a p t e r 2 Research methods 1

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Fre uency num er of participants

Rectangular bars are used to indicate the frequency of a particular score and each rectangular bar is the same width, as shown in figure 2.23. Histograms differ from bar graphs in two main ways first, in histograms the bars touch; second, the type of information or variables described on the X axis is continuous and usually numerical, such as age, time or the amount of something. Thus, the X axis of a histogram can be plotted as individual numbers or as intervals. A histogram could be used to describe data obtained in the following research. A researcher interested in finding out sex differences in how quickly information passes from the eye to the brain then on to the hand conducted an experiment to test reaction time; that is, how quickly male and female participants responded to a red light appearing among written text on a computer screen. Participants were asked to press the space bar on the keyboard as soon as they saw the red light. The time taken from the appearance of the red light to pressing the space bar was electronically recorded.

Data for two groups of participants can be described on the same histogram using a different colour or pattern to identify the responses of different groups, as shown in figure 2.23.

Pie charts A pie chart, or pie graph, is a circular diagram that shows the proportions of values or scores for different categories of data. Each category is shown as a slice of the pie . The different-sized slices represent the differences between categories. As shown in figure 2.24, a pie chart doesn t use a set of axes to plot data and the data are usually shown as percentages. A pie chart is best used to compare different parts of the same whole. The circle of a pie chart represents the whole, or 100%. Each portion ( slice of the pie ) within the circle represents a part of that 100%. In this way, it is possible to see how something is divided up according to categories.

100

Female Male

80 60 40 20 0 0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5 3 Reaction time seconds

3.5

4

4.5

5

Figure 2.23 Example of a histogram

learning a cTiviTy 2.19 representing data using a histogram The following scores were obtained by research participants on a test of problem-solving ability. Graph the data using a histogram.

78

Score on test of problem-solving

Frequency

Score on test of problem-solving

Frequency

Score on test of problem-solving

Frequency

0

0

7

5

14

12

1

2

8

10

15

17

2

4

9

12

16

11

3

0

10

12

17

10

4

3

11

13

18

15

5

6

12

11

19

4

6

3

13

15

20

3

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

learning acTiviTy 2.2 0 representing data using a pie chart

.

2 .

The following data were obtained from a research study on the content of dreams. The data show activities most frequently reported in dreams. Graph the data using a pie chart.

1 Age (years)

2 .

20 24 25 34 35 44 55 64 65 and over

1 .2

Figure 2.24 An example of a pie chart showing the age of people employed as psychologists in Australia

A pie chart can be drawn by hand using a compass to construct the circle and a protractor for each portion of the circle. The circle is equivalent to 360 and each portion of the pie chart is calculated as a percentage of 360 , with 1% being equivalent to 3.6 . For example, if 20% needs to be represented in the pie chart, then 20% of 360 is 72 (or 20 3.6 = 72 ). Within the pie chart, 72 would be a slice equivalent to 20% of the whole area of the pie. In figure 2.24, a key is used to indicate each category ( slice ) of the graph and the percentage for each category is clearly shown. A pie chart such as the one in figure 2.25 can be constructed with Microsoft Excel , or similar software, to clearly show each category and its respective percentage.

2 .

. 1

2 . 1 .2

Age (years) 20 24 25 34 35 44 55 64 65 and over

Figure 2.25 An example of a pie chart constructed with Microsoft Excel software

A pie chart is effectively used to show proportions of data, particularly when there is a relatively small number of categories. However, it is important to be aware that if one or more parts of the whole are left out, the omission of data will artificially increase the percentage values of the other parts that are included.

Percentage (approx.)

Activity Movement (walking, running, jumping)

34

Talking

11

Sitting

7

Watching

7

Socialising

6

Playing

5

Manual work

4

Striving

4

Thinking

4

Relationship

3

Quarrelling

3

Acquiring

12

Total

100

line graphs A line graph is another way of describing data. A line graph is a pictorial representation that indicates the relationship between two factors, or two variables in an experiment; for example, reaction time and a person s age, or group size and time taken to complete a task. The horizontal, or X, axis usually has the independent variable plotted on it, with the numerical value of the data increasing from left to right along the axis. A line graph that describes the relationship between group size and time taken to complete a task would list the group size in terms of the number of members of the group on the X axis, in intervals; for example, beginning at two, then three, four people and so on. One important feature of a line graph is that the variable plotted on the X axis is continuous; that is, there is a series of progressively increasing values that can be listed. The vertical, or Y, axis usually has the dependent variable (the measure of performance) plotted along it. A line graph that described the data from the experiment on group size and time taken to complete C h a p t e r 2 Research methods 1

79

a task would record the amount of time taken along the Y axis, in intervals; for example, beginning at zero (which is a convention or rule for graphs), then one, two, three, four and five minutes where five minutes is slightly higher than the maximum time ever taken by any group to complete the task (figure 2.26). Various points on a line graph represent the score on one axis that corresponds with a value on the other axis. The intersecting point can represent a corresponding IV/DV score on the two variables by one research participant, or the mean score of a group of participants.

A frequency polygon is a graph showing the frequency ( how often ) of data using a line graph. Construction of a frequency polygon involves plotting the scores on a task (or groups of scores) on the horizontal (X) axis against the frequency of the scores (or groups of scores) on the vertical (Y) axis of a graph. Dots are plotted at the intersection of the X and Y axes to indicate individual scores and a line is drawn to connect the dots and is brought down to 0 on the X axis at either side of the polygon (figure 2.27). 15 Fre uency of eye contact

axis 5 Amount of time minutes

Frequency polygons

4 3 2 1 axis

0 2

3

5 4 roup si e

6

7

8

12 9 6 3 0

less than 5

5 9

10 14

15 19

20

istance et een t o people metres

Figure 2.26 Example of a line graph

Figure 2.27 Example of a frequency polygon

learnin g acTiviT y 2. 21 representing data using a line graph Construct a line graph by plotting the data shown below. Ensure you give the line graph an appropriate title. You may consider using Microsoft Excel software to assist accuracy and save time. Age (in years)

80

Number of words spoken

1.0

3

1.5

22

2.0

272

2.5

446

3.0

896

3.5

1222

4.0

1540

4.5

1870

5.0

2072

6.0

2562

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

In a frequency polygon, if groups of scores are plotted on the X axis, the scores are represented on the graph by the value of the mid-point of the range of scores. For example, if the interval of scores ranges from 0 4, the mid-point is two. The dot to indicate the score of that range would be placed in line with the score of two. Frequency polygons graph only the frequency of particular responses (or scores). Line graphs can be used to demonstrate a relationship between any two variables being studied. One advantage of the frequency polygon over the histogram is that more than one set of data can be plotted on the same graph, which makes comparison easier. For example, suppose a researcher collected data on the effects of sleep deprivation on problemsolving ability across three different age groups (15 20 years, 35 40 years, 55 60 years). These data can be presented on one graph, as shown in figure 2.28. To identify the results of the different groups on one graph, researchers could use different kinds of lines for each set of data (such as a solid line, a broken line and a dotted line), or different coloured lines (such as blue, purple and orange) or different shapes to identify the point of intersection between the X and Y axes (such as triangles, circles and squares).

15 20 years old 35 40 years old

100

Mean percentage of correct responses on a pro lem solving tas

55 60 years old

80

60

40

20

0 1

3

5

7

9

11

13

15

17

Sleep deprivation hours Figure 2.28 Frequency polygon showing several sets of data

learnin g acTiviT y 2. 22 representing data using a frequency polygon A researcher collected data on maze learning by rats. The rats were required to run through a maze to reach a goal box which contained cheese. The researchers measured the animals learning by counting the number of trials each rat took before it could run through the maze from start to finish without making an error (that is, running down a passageway that led to a deadend). The results for 20 rats were: 6, 12, 5, 7, 10, 12, 6, 5, 7, 10, 12, 15, 14, 20, 18, 18, 20, 14, 15 and 12 trials. The first 10 scores were from the offspring of a pair of rats that had superior maze-running abilities. The second 10 scores were offspring from a pair of rats that had inferior maze-running abilities. 1. Summarise these data as a table. 2. Represent these data as a frequency polygon so that comparisons can be made between the scores for the two groups. 3. What conclusions could be drawn from the frequency polygon?

ETHICS AND PROfESSIONAL CONDuCT IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Is it appropriate for a researcher to inflict pain on a person in order to study mental experiences associated with pain? Does your answer depend on the amount of pain, or is any amount of pain unacceptable? Does it matter if the pain is psychological rather than physical? Should a participant know exactly what an experiment will involve before they participate? Should a participant be allowed to withdraw from an experiment whenever they want to, regardless of the reason? What if the researcher has gone to great expense to conduct the research? What if the research has important benefits for humankind? Such questions raise important ethical issues that need to be considered by researchers whenever they undertake research. The term ethics refers to standards that guide individuals to identify good, desirable or acceptable conduct. Essentially, ethical standards help us to make judgements about which behaviours are appropriate ( right ) and inappropriate ( wrong ) (NHMRC, 2007). All societies and cultures have ethical standards that guide the behaviour of members of that society or culture. In addition to the ethical standards of a society or culture, most professions have their own standards C h a p t e r 2 Research methods 1

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of ethical conduct that must be followed. For example, just as it would be considered unethical for a medical doctor to discuss a patient s condition with anyone apart from the patient or people responsible for the patient, so too would it be unethical for a psychologist to reveal information discussed in a counselling session or the results of a psychological test to anyone apart from the client, or the guardians of the client if the client is a child or someone else under a guardian s care. Ethical standards and considerations also apply to experimental and other research situations. The way human participants in experiments are to be treated is determined by ethical guidelines. These guidelines help ensure that the wellbeing and rights of research participants are protected during their involvement in psychological research and following the research. In addition, the guidelines help prevent unnecessary research and promote research that is or will be of benefit to the community or humankind. The Australian Psychological Society (APS) has a Code of Ethics (2007) that provides guidelines which must be followed when working with people (and animals) in research situations (and all other areas of professional practice). The Code of Ethics has been devised with reference to a national set of ethical guidelines that are intended to cover all research involving human participants, not just psychological research. These guidelines are called the National State­ ment on Ethical Conduct in Human Research (2007). The National Statement has been co-issued by the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), the Australian Research Council and the Australian Vice-Chancellors Committee. Importantly, the National Statement has been prepared to help ensure researchers meet the requirements of all Australian Government Acts of Parliament related to research involving people. This means that all researchers are legally required to follow all ethical guidelines specified by the National Statement. However, the purpose of the National Statement is to promote appropriate research values ( what is important ) and procedures for ethical rather than legal reasons. This ensures that participants are provided with the respect and protection that is due to them. It also encourages researchers to undertake research studies that will be of benefit to the community (NHMRC, 2007). 82

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Figure 2.29 The APS Code of Ethics and NHMRC National Statement

The ethical guidelines for psychological research cover all aspects of the research, particularly the roles and responsibilities of the experimenter and the wellbeing and rights of research participants.

roles and responsibilities of the experimenter When planning research, the experimenter (or researcher) must take into consideration the ethical issues involved. The experimenter is responsible for ensuring that the research is conducted in such a manner that the wellbeing of research participants is the main concern and that participants are not placed at risk of injury or harm in any way. Under no circumstances is the experimenter allowed to conduct research which causes participants severe distress. The experimenter must be aware that in all scientific research with human participants, there is a need to balance the benefits to society from the findings of the investigation against any discomfort or risks to the research participants.

Participants rights As well as ensuring that no psychological or physical harm is caused to participants, an experimenter must also respect participants rights as individuals.

confidentiality Participants have a right to privacy, so any information that may identify details of their involvement in a study

(for example, test results or personal data) cannot be revealed unless their written consent is obtained. The confidentiality requirement applies to the access of research data by others, and to the storage and disposal of research data. Wherever possible, the procedures for establishing confidentiality must be explained to participants before the experiment is actually conducted.

voluntary participation The experimenter must try to ensure that participants voluntarily consent to be involved in the study. Participants must not be pressured to take part in a study. The experimenter must also ensure that prospective participants do not experience negative consequences if they choose not to be involved in the study. Balance benefits of the research and risks to participants.

Benefits

Withdrawal rights The experimenter must inform participants of the nature of the study and that they are free to participate, decline to participate, or to withdraw from a study at any time should they choose to do so. In addition, the experimenter must ensure that participants suffer no negative consequences as a result of withdrawing from the study.

informed consent procedures Wherever possible, participants must be appropriately informed of what the study is about and the reason(s) it is being conducted. Such informed consent must be appropriately documented; for example, through completion of a consent form. Take responsibility for your research.

Risks

Ensure participants consent is based on knowledge and understanding.

Be honest with your participants.

Use willing participants.

Do not exploit your participants.

Protect participants from psychological and physical harm.

Debrief your participants thoroughly.

Remove negative after-effects.

Maintain and retain confidentiality.

Figure 2.30 Some important ethical guidelines that must be followed when undertaking research in psychology C h a p t e r 2 Research methods 1

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When the study necessarily involves participants in activities that produce physical or mental stress, the experimenter must inform participants about the nature of the experimental procedures to be used and the physical and psychological effects that could be expected. If unexpected, potentially harmful stress occurs, the experimenter must immediately end the participants involvement in the study and ensure the participants reactions are treated. If experimental procedures involve stressful conditions, the experimenter must ensure that no psychologically vulnerable person participates. For participants who are legally unable to give informed consent (for example, children and intellectually disabled people), the experimenter must provide an appropriate explanation, obtain the participants consent and/or obtain appropriate consent from the persons who are legally responsible for participants wellbeing (i.e. parent or guardian). To help decide whether or not an experiment requires informed written consent of research participants, the experimenter must consult with colleagues and ethics committees as appropriate. In universities, where most psychological research is planned and conducted, there are ethics committees or review panels which examine research proposals to ensure ethical guidelines will be followed.

Deception Sometimes, giving participants information about a study may influence their behaviour during the research and affect the accuracy of the results. In these instances, when it is necessary for scientific reasons to conduct a study without fully informing participants of the true purpose of the study prior to its commencement, the experimenter must ensure that participants do not suffer distress from the research procedures. In all cases involving deception, participants must be debriefed at the conclusion of the study.

Debriefing Debriefing involves clarifying participants understanding of the study after it has been conducted. This includes correcting any mistaken attitudes or beliefs that participants may have about the study. The experimenter must anticipate the possible effects on participants of being involved in the study, and provide information about services available to treat any unnecessary distress that results from their participation. Once the entire study has been completed, the experimenter must provide an opportunity for participants to obtain appropriate information about the study, including its procedures, results and conclusions. 84

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Professional conduct At all times throughout the research, researchers are expected to conduct themselves in a professional manner. They must not behave in a manner that brings disrepute to the psychology profession, or to scientific research. For example, they must not use a position of authority to put pressure on people to agree to participate in research. In addition, if psychologists are involved in conducting research with colleagues who are not psychologists, such as biologists or medical practitioners, they have a responsibility to ensure their research colleagues agree to follow the ethical code of conduct and guidelines prior to conducting the research.

BOX 2.3 Ethical practices and conduct in VCE Psychology Advice and ethical practices and conduct that must be followed by VCE Psychology students and teachers is contained in the VCE Psychology Study Design. This advice includes the following: ETHICAL CONDUCT OF EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS As part of this study teachers and students will be involved in teaching and learning activities which include experimental investigations using human subjects. Teachers and schools have a legal and moral responsibility to ensure that students follow ethical principles at all times when undertaking such investigations. Teachers should refer to the following documents for detailed advice: • the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research (2007), issued by the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) in accordance with the NHMRC Act 1992 (Cwlth), http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/publications/synopses/ e72syn.htm • the National Privacy Principles in the Privacy Amendment (Private Sector) Act 2000 (Cwlth), http://www.privacy.gov.au/ • the Code of Ethics of the Australian Psychological Society (APS), http://www.psychology.org.au. SAFETY AND WELLBEING This study may include potentially sensitive topics. Teachers should ensure that students have opportunities to consider topics systematically and objectively, and to become aware of the diversity of views held on such matters. Students should not be asked to disclose personal information about their own or others health status and behaviours nor should they feel compelled to volunteer this information.

When dealing with sensitive mental health matters, students should be specifically advised that they: (a) should not necessarily interpret their own experiences as signs of pathology (b) are not in a position to diagnose problems or offer any counselling or therapy. In addition, students should be given information about sourcing available treatment services within and outside school. As part of this study teachers and students will consider different assessments of intelligence, including standardised psychological tests which are designed to be administered only by trained psychologists. Teachers limit access to such tests and ensure students understand that such tests are valid only if administered by a qualified psychologist. SENSITIVE ISSUES The study of VCE Psychology requires teachers to develop courses that include appropriate learning activities that enable students to develop knowledge and skills identified in the outcome statements in each unit. In doing so teachers should adhere to the highest standards of professional practice. It is important to note that this course of study provides an academic overview of psychology and does not have any clinical or diagnostic intent. As with any aspect of teaching, pastoral care and health issues should be pursued in accordance with the school s pastoral care policy (for example, referring to the school s counsellor). It is expected that the choice of learning activities undertaken will vary across schools, depending on the individual needs of the students as determined by the teacher. When developing courses, some issues to consider include: duty of care in relation to health and safety of students in learning activities, practical work and excursions; legislative compliance (for example, information privacy, student health records, and copyright); sensitivity to cultural differences and personal beliefs; adherence to community standards and ethical guidelines (for example, maintaining confidentiality of personal details); debriefing students after completing learning activities (for example, if learning activities require a component of deception); respect for persons and sensitivity to issues arising (for example, when discussing topics such as intelligence, personality, mental health, prejudice and bullying); sensitivity to student views on the use of animals in research (for example, in the provision of alternatives to dissection). LEGISLATIVE COMPLIANCE When collecting and using information, the provisions of privacy and copyright legislation, such as the Victorian Information Privacy Act 2000 and Health Records Act 2001, and the Federal Privacy Act 1988 and Copyright Act 1968, must be met.

uSE Of ANIMALS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Although psychology is primarily interested in human behaviour and mental processes, about 10% of research involves non-human participants. Within this group, most are mice, rats, hamsters and pigeons. About 5% of the animals used are monkeys and other primates. The main reasons animals have been used in research are: • some psychologists are genuinely interested in studying animal behaviour. This field of study is commonly referred to as ethology. • some studies cannot be conducted with humans due to the risk of psychological and/or physical harm that may be caused, or because suitable human participants are unavailable (see page 197). • bodily systems and/or behaviours of some animals are similar to humans; therefore, using animals can be a starting point for learning more about human behaviour. • animals have practical advantages over people for use as research participants. For example, studying the effects of ageing from birth through to old age is not generally practical in humans because most people live until 75-plus years, compared with rats which have a life expectancy of two years. Another advantage is that some animal species breed a lot faster than humans. For example, rats produce a new generation every three months and can be used to study the development of certain behaviours over successive generations within a relatively short period of time. Animals can also be kept for long periods of time in captivity in laboratories and it is easier to observe their behaviour under these conditions. • the behaviour of animals can usually be controlled to an extent not possible with human participants. For example, a rat can be raised from birth in a cage. The rat can then be used in a learning experiment and the psychologist will have a good idea of what it has already learned before the experiment is conducted. • when certain experiments require large numbers of participants who have, for example, the same genetic background, animals are more easily obtained than humans. • participant expectations can influence the results of an experiment. Animals don t usually have expectations and they are not able to guess the purpose of an experiment. Many arguments have been presented against the use of animals in psychological research. One argument is that it is not possible to apply (generalise) the C h a p t e r 2 Research methods 1

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results of animal studies to humans because the species are not the same even though there may appear to be similarities. An issue for researchers is how far they can generalise about human mental experiences and behaviour from the results of animal studies. If laboratory animals die after prolonged sleep loss, would humans? If a drug causes a brain disorder in animals, should it be banned for human use? Another argument is that humans should respect animals and protect them from harm rather than use them in research. It is also suggested that humans do not have the right to dominate other species.

and care of laboratory animals must be directly supervised by a person competent to ensure their comfort, health and humane treatment. The care and use of animals in research must follow the NHMRC Australian code of practice for the care and use of animals for scientific purposes (2004). According to the NHMRC guidelines, any research with animals, including research activities in schools, can be performed only if the research can be justified. Justification involves weighing the predicted scientific or educational value of the research against the potential effects on the wellbeing of the animals. If an animal is to be subjected to pain, stress or deprivation (e.g. food, social interaction, sensory stimuli), research may only occur if no other alternative is available. If surgery is to occur, the animals must be given the appropriate anaesthesia so they do not experience pain. When an animal s life is to be terminated, it must be done quickly and painlessly.

learning acTiviTy 2.2 3 review questions 1. Define the meaning of ethics in relation to research. 2. Why are ethical considerations and guidelines necessary for psychological research? 3. What is the ethical responsibility of a researcher who conducts research with human participants, but does not fully inform them of the true purpose of the research before the study begins because it may influence the participants behaviour? 4. According to the Australian Psychological Society ethical guidelines, if a research participant became distressed during the research, what should occur? 5. What is meant by the statement participants must be appropriately informed about the type of study and the reasons for the research ? 6. Briefly summarise three ethical guidelines that must be followed when planning to use animals in psychological research.

learning acTiviTy 2.2 4 Figure 2.31 Psychologists must ensure that research animals are well cared for, humanely treated and experience minimal pain and suffering.

In order to ensure that all reasonable steps are taken to minimise the discomfort, illness and pain to animals used in research, ethical guidelines have also been established for the use of animals in research. The use 86

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visual presentation in research

ethics

Prepare a poster that clearly illustrates one (or more) of the ethical guidelines for psychological research. The emphasis of the poster should be on a visual representation of the ethical guideline(s) as well as key points (rather than detailed descriptions).

learnin g acTiviT y 2. 25 applying ethical standards to research Suppose you have been asked to sit on an ethics committee. The task of the committee is to approve or reject proposals for research. The following proposals have been presented to your committee for approval. Your task is to evaluate the proposals in terms of whether they meet the standards, then write your recommendations, commenting on: (a) whether the committee approves or rejects the proposal as it is presented (b) if the proposal is rejected, on the basis of which ethical standard(s) it is rejected. Proposal 1 Danielle Foster is a clinical psychologist who is interested in how parents cope with the death of a young child. She proposes to obtain qualitative data through research on grieving parents use of sources of support available through the internet. Foster is particularly interested in chat rooms dedicated to parents who have lost a young child. In order to obtain realistic qualitative data, she intends to pose as a parent who has recently lost a child and participate in discussions in several chat rooms. In the course of her chat

room participation, she will raise issues for discussion and make judgements about the quality and usefulness of chat room support. Proposal 2 Dr Jones is interested in the effect of stress on performance on the McCord IQ Test. He feels that the test, which is very widely used in schools, gives misleadingly low scores to students under stress. He wants to divide his participants (VCE students) into two groups, with 20 participants in each group. All participants will take a fake pretest and will be given their results . The experimental group will be told that they failed the test and that it is surprising that they were able to do well enough at secondary school to make it through to VCE. The control group will be told that they passed the test with flying colours. All of the students will then be given the real McCord IQ test. Dr Jones hypothesises that the experimental group will not do as well on the IQ test as the control group. At the end of the experiment, all students will be debriefed and told that the pretest was not real, nor was the feedback following pre-testing. In addition, the true purpose of the study will be explained. (Proposal 2 adapted from Herzog, H. (1996). Discussing Ethical Issues in Psychological Research . Psychology Teacher Network, Nov Dec, p. 12.)

Options and variations

learnin g acTiviT y 2. 26

learning acTiviTy 2.2 7

essay

Practical activity determining consistency in hand preference

ethics in research

Write a 300 400 word essay on one of the following topics. 1. Why are ethics important in psychological research? Explain with reference to relevant ethical standards and examples not referred to in the text. or 2. Should it be permissible to use animals in psychological research? Discuss with reference to advantages and limitations of using animals in psychological research and to relevant ethical standards. In your essay, ensure that you: • accurately define all key terms; for example, ethics, ethical standards and psychological research • use appropriate examples • cover a range of relevant issues • structure the information in a logical sequence • express your information clearly and concisely • accurately cite and reference all source material. References may be used in obtaining information for your essay.

Conduct an experiment to determine whether the dominant writing hand is consistently used for a variety of other tasks. Pairs of experimenters should collect data using three volunteer participants who each give informed consent. Each participant should attempt or imitate a series of tasks like those listed below. Experimenters should record hand preference for each task on a pre-prepared data sheet; that is, right (R), left (L) or either (E). Tasks could include: • writing your name • using scissors • shuffling a deck of cards • threading a needle • throwing a ball • brushing teeth • using a fork • unscrewing a lid. (continued)

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You should construct a hypothesis before you conduct the research. Data for each participant should be tallied and each participant should be categorised into one of the following four groups, depending on their responses to the tasks. 1. consistent right all tasks were conducted using either right (R) or right and either hand 2. right mixed R for writing and L for other tasks 3. consistent left all tasks were conducted using either left (L) or left and either hand 4. left mixed L for writing and R for other tasks Data from pairs of experimenters could be combined with those from other class members. Report Prepare a brief report on the experiment which you include in your folio of practical activities. Your report should include: 1. A statement of the hypothesis tested by this research

2. The independent and dependent variables in the experiment 3. A statement about whether the raw data were qualitative or quantitative data 4. A description of the sample used to obtain the results and how the sample was selected 5. A description of the key characteristics of the population from which the sample was taken 6. A table and graph describing the results 7. A conclusion in which you state whether or not the hypothesis seems to be supported on the basis of the results obtained 8. A description of any extraneous variables that may have substantially affected the results obtained from the experiment 9. A statement about whether the results of the experiment be generalised (applied) to the population? Explain your answer.

learnin g acTiviT y 2. 28 research investigation

what people dream about

Almost everyone dreams several times each night, although some people are more able to recall their dreams than others. Generally, a dream is a story-like sequence of visual images or thoughts that usually occurs during sleep. Dreams are sometimes a vague or disjointed collection of seemingly unrelated events or thoughts. At other times they are vivid, complex, logically structured and very realistic. When we recall a dream, we usually are able to remember only a portion of the total dream. This helps explain why sometimes when a dream is in progress it makes perfect sense; however, when we awaken, the dream seems illogical and strange. Unless we wake up during the dream, or shortly after, we are likely to forget important aspects of the dream, or even be unaware that we have dreamt at all. A number of psychologists have conducted research studies on what people dream about. Some of the common findings of dream content studies are: • most dreams are about routine, everyday personal matters usually involving familiar people in familiar places • the dreamer has company in most of their dreams, more frequently with friends, acquaintances and family members rather than with strangers • monsters and the boogie man rarely appear • about half our dreams occur in colour and about half in black and white • while most dreams are filled with visual sensations, very few involve the sensations of taste, smell or pain • males and females tend to dream about different things males dreams are more active and more friendly, but

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are also more likely to involve fighting; females are more often pursued or endangered in their dreams • physical activities most frequently reported in dreams involve movement, such as walking, running and jumping. This research activity requires you to collect data on dream content and compare the results with those of previous research. Working as a member of a small group, construct a short questionnaire of about four to six items to collect data on one or more of the research findings described here. Prior to conducting the research, construct a hypothesis about the content of dreams. Each group member should collect data from three or four participants who can recall a recent dream. The data collected should be combined and summarised using an appropriate graph. Report Prepare a brief report to include in your folio of practical activities that includes the following: 1. a descriptive title 2. an Introduction section with a brief outline of previous research findings, an aim for your research and a hypothesis 3. a Results section with the data collected summarised in a table and a graph 4. a Conclusion section in which you briefly describe your group s results, as compared with the findings of previous research.

TrU e/FalS e Q UiZ Indicate whether each item is true or false by writing T or F in the blank space next to each item. 1. _____

In research, the population refers to the people who take part in a research study.

2. _____

A testable research hypothesis is usually based on theory and/or previous research findings.

3. _____

In research, a generalisation is a judgement about how widely the findings of a study can be applied.

4. _____

In an experiment, the independent variable is the responses made by the participants under investigation.

5. _____

In an experiment, the extraneous variable is manipulated by the experimenter to observe its effect(s).

6. _____

Random sampling involves the assignment, or placement , of people (or animals) into one of the groups under investigation.

7. _____

A control group is used for comparison purposes.

8. _____

A case study is a type of descriptive research.

9. _____

In psychological research, observation refers to any means by which a phenomenon is studied.

10. _____

Qualitative data are numerical.

The answers to the true/false questions are in the answer section at the back of this book and in eBookPLUS.

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C H A PT E R TES T SecTiOn a

Multiple-choice questions

Choose the response that is correct or that best answers the question. A correct answer scores 1, an incorrect answer scores 0. Marks will not be deducted for incorrect answers. No marks will be given if more than one answer is completed for any question. 1. In psychological research, the main purpose of ethical standards is to A. ensure that the results will not be disputed. B. ensure that the research proceeds smoothly. C. protect the welfare and rights of the participants. D. keep problems with the research participants to a minimum level. 2. A psychologist studied differences in the behaviour of newborn babies who are breastfed and newborn babies who are bottle-fed. The psychologist conducted the research with 20 mothers and their newborn infants at the Royal Women s Hospital (RWH). The 20 mothers (and infants) were selected from a group of 45 mothers at the RWH who had all volunteered to participate in the experiment. There were another 50 mothers with newborn infants at the hospital, but these mothers did not volunteer to be in the experiment. In this experiment, there were mothers (and their infants) in the sample, mothers (and their infants) in the population. A. 20; 45 B. 45; 50 C. 20; 95 D. 45; 95 3. A psychologist interested in the effects of anxiety on exam performance asked research participants to describe how they feel during an exam when they come across a question they know they will get wrong. The participants responses were taperecorded so that they could be analysed at a later time. The type of data obtained by the researcher is best described as A. descriptive data. B. quantitative data. C. qualitative data. D. statistical data. 90

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4. When the researcher replayed the tape of participants responses to the questions asked in the experiment described in question 3, it was decided to summarise the data using a table which showed the number of times certain anxiety-related words, such as worried and scared , and non anxiety-related words such as nothing and didn t care , were used. These types of data are best described as A. descriptive data. B. quantitative data. C. qualitative data. D. quantitative and qualitative data. 5. An extraneous variable is best described as a/an variable. A. participant B. experimenter C. dependent D. unwanted 6. Which of the following procedures would be considered to be unethical when conducting research? A. Choosing only volunteers as participants in an experiment B. Disclosing a participant s extraordinary test results to the media without obtaining written consent to do so from the research participant C. Testing a child s ability to do algebra even though the child s ability to do algebra is already known D. Allowing a participant to discontinue being in the experiment, even though the experiment has started 7. A hypothesis is A. a testable prediction about the results of a research study. B. a statement about whether the results apply to the population of research interest. C. a statement about the accuracy of the results of a research study. D. formulated after the results have been obtained.

8. Researchers collected data for a study on the amount of vacation time employees had and their happiness at work. The data were described in the following graph. 100

12. A research study is said to have external validity when A. the results can reasonably be generalised. B. an experimental design has been used. C. a conclusion is drawn on the basis of the results obtained. D. all ethical requirements approved by an ethics committee have been followed.

or

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appiness at

11. To generalise from the results of research means A. overstating the results. B. stating whether the results can be replicated. C. restricting the conclusion(s) to the results. D. applying the results to the population.

60 40 20

2

4 6 8 10 12 um er of ee s vacation per year

The type of graph they used to show the results is called a A. line graph. B. frequency distribution. C. frequency polygon. D. histogram. 9. The most important feature of a table is that A. percentages have been calculated. B. the data are displayed in an orderly arrangement of rows and columns. C. means have been calculated. D. all raw data are included and accurately reflect participants responses. 10. Which of the following series of steps is the most appropriate sequence for conducting psychological research using scientific method? A. Design research method, collect data, construct a hypothesis, analyse data, interpret data, report findings B. Construct a hypothesis, design research method, collect data, analyse data, interpret data, report findings C. Design research method, collect data, analyse data, interpret data, construct a hypothesis, report findings D. Construct a hypothesis, collect data, design research method, interpret data, analyse data, report findings

14. In a histogram, the bars bar chart, the bars . A. do not touch; do not touch B. are vertical; are not vertical C. touch; do not touch D. are not vertical; are vertical

; whereas in a

15. Consider the following graph. 100 Fre uency num er of participants

0

13. A pie chart would be appropriate to show A. how responses changed over time. B. the distribution, or spread , of responses. C. how responses changed in relation to the IV. D. the percentages of responses by different groups.

Female Male

80 60 40 20 0

0.5

1

1.5

2

Reaction time seconds

This type of graph is called a A. line graph. B. frequency distribution. C. frequency polygon. D. histogram.

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SecTiOn B

Short-answer questions

Answer all questions in the spaces provided. Question 1 What is a scientific benefit of reporting psychological research in a journal or other professional publication?

1 mark

Question 2 Explain what a psychological experiment is with reference to two key features that distinguish the experiment from other research methods.

2 marks

Question 3 A researcher wanted to find out whether the presence of nicotine in the bloodstream is linked to sleep loss, specifically sleep loss resulting from spending more time trying to fall asleep. In order to test this belief, one group of 15 volunteer students who were smokers and enrolled in the first year of the Psychology course at a Victorian regional university (Group 1) were required to attend the university s gym at 9.00 pm on Tuesday evening, smoke ten, 8 mg cigarettes during a 90-minute period while listening to classical music, and then go to sleep as quickly as they could in one of the standard single beds at the other end of the gymnasium. On Friday evening later that week, the procedure was repeated with another group of 12 volunteer smokers who were also enrolled in the first year Psychology course (Group 2). However, participants in this group were not permitted to smoke any cigarettes in the one-hour period before being asked to go to sleep in one of the beds. Both groups were carefully observed from outside the gym by two research assistants through a monitor hooked up to infra-red cameras. The research assistants recorded the precise time when each participant was observed to fall asleep. The results showed that Group 1 took a mean (average) time of 43 minutes to fall asleep; whereas Group 2 took a mean time of 41 minutes to fall asleep. The researcher concluded that neither smoking nor the presence of nicotine in the bloodstream cause sleep loss. (a) Identify the population for the experiment.

1 mark

(b) Is the researcher collecting qualitative or quantitative data?

1 mark

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(c) Identify the IV and DV. IV: DV: 2 marks

(d) Identify the experimental and control groups. experimental group: control group: 2 marks

(e) Explain whether the conclusion made by the researcher is justified.

1 mark

eBook plus The answers to the multiple-choice questions are in the answer section at the back of this book and in eBookPLUS. The answers to the short-answer questions are in eBookPLUS. Note that you can complete Section A of the chapter test online through eBookPLUS and get automatic feedback.

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CHAPTER

3

THE VISUAL PERCEPTION SYSTEM Roles of the eye in visual perception ............................................................ 96 Characteristics of the visual perception system ............................................ 98 Reception ....................................................... 98 Transduction ................................................ 99 Transmission .............................................. 100 Organisation and interpretation ....................................... 100 Visual perception principles ................. 105 Gestalt principles .................................... 105 Depth principles ...................................... 113 Perceptual constancies ........................ 120 Perceptual set and visual perception ........................................................... 124 Perceptual set ............................................ 125 Distortions of visual perception by illusions ............................................................... 133 M ller­Lyer illusion ............................... 134 Ames room illusion ............................... 138

Imagine what it would be like to have no senses. Your life would be in complete darkness and silence. You would not be able to smell the fragrance of a flower or taste Vegemite. You would not be able to feel the warmth of heat or the coolness of ice. Never feeling pain means that you would always be vulnerable to physical harm. And standing or moving around would be a problem as you would never know whether you were upright, laying down, moving a leg or the direc­ tion in which you were facing. We have a number of different senses, including vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch, pain and kinaes­ thesia (which provides information about our body s position and movements). Each of these senses pro­ vides information in the form of a different kind of energy. When we sense something, we are actually physiologically responding to information which is in the form of a specific kind of energy and has stimu­ lated a sense organ or sensory receptor. Sensation is the process by which our sense organs and receptors detect and respond to sensory information that stimulates them. Most of the sensory information ( stimuli ) comes from our external environment; for example, light (for vision), air vibrations (for hearing) and chemicals (for smell). Other sensory information comes from sensory receptor sites which are within our body, such as from muscle tendons and joints (for kinaesthesia). The sensory information is meaningless until it is sent to the brain for processing. Most of the processing in the brain involves organising and inter­ preting the information in a meaningful and useful way. Perception refers to the process by which we give meaning to sensory information, resulting in our personal interpretation of that information. Most of

the time we process the information automatically, without realising that we are doing it. However, per­ ception is not a passive process. It does not work like a camera or digital recorder, mechanically capturing information. Perception is an active process. What we see, hear, smell and so on, is the result of brain pro­ cesses that actively construct interpretations of reality from sensory information. This allows us to adapt to the environment and function in everyday life as we do. Although perception is accurate most of the time, it is not perfect. For example, our experience with many visual illusions indicates that we can sometimes become confused by what we see and struggle to make a meaningful interpretation, regardless of how long we look at the illusion (see figure 3.1). Psychologists often distinguish between sensation and perception. This is mainly done for the purposes of study. There is actually no clear boundary that identifies where sensation ends and where percep­ tion begins. Perception includes sensory processes and involves the entire sequence of events that begins with the detection of a stimulus (sensation) through to interpretation of the stimulus. All human perceptual systems have many character­ istics in common. They also involve a similar sequence of processes in detecting and responding to stimuli. In VCE Psychology, the visual perception system is pre­ scribed for study as an example of a perceptual system and of processes involved in perception. The visual perception system consists of the complete network of physiological structures involved in vision. This includes all the parts of the eyes, the nervous system pathways that connect the eyes and the brain, and the areas of the brain that process visual information.

Figure 3.1 Visual illusions such as the impossible triangle and three-pronged widget illustrate that we can sometimes become confused by what we see and struggle to make a meaningful interpretation, regardless of how long we look at the illusion. C h a p t e r 3 The visual perception system

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roles oF THe eYe In VIsual percepTIon The eye is the sense organ for vision. An important function of the eye is to collect light that has been reflected or given out by objects in the environment. Light enables sight to occur. Light initially enters the eye through the cornea, a transparent, convex­shaped (curved outwards) covering which protects the eye and helps to focus light rays onto the retina at the back of the eye. After passing through the cornea, light then passes through the aqueous humour which fills the space between the cornea and the lens. The aqueous humour is a watery Vitreous humour Cornea Pupil

Lens

Ciliary muscle Iris Aqueous humour Figure 3.2 The structure of the eye

fluid which helps to maintain the shape of the eyeball and provides nutrients and oxygen to the eye, as well as carrying away waste products. The passage of light continues through the pupil which looks like a black disc in the centre of the eye. The pupil is not a structure in itself, but an opening in the iris that helps to control the amount of light entering the eye. In a place where there is dim light, such as a darkened movie theatre, the pupil dilates (expands) to allow more light into the eye. Conversely, in a place where there is bright light, such as at the beach on a clear summer day, the pupil contracts and becomes smaller to restrict the amount of light entering the eye. In a place where it is extremely bright, the pupil may be no larger than a pinhead. When it is extremely dark, the pupil may bec become as big as the diameter of a pencil. The iris, which surrounds the pupil, is the col­ oured part of the eye. The iris is a ring of muscles which expand or contract to change the size of the pupil and control the amount of light entering the eye. Having passed through the pupil, light then lens, which is a transparent, flex­ enters the len ible, convex structure located immediately behind the pupil. The lens plays a major focusing light onto the retina. In role in focu focus light onto the retina, the order to fo lens adjusts its shape according to the dis­ tance of the object being viewed. Its shape is changed by the ciliary muscles attached to each end of the lens. These muscles expand and contract, enabling the lens to automatically bulge to focus nearby objects onto the retina and flatten to focus distant Optic objects onto the retina. Blind spot

nerve

Retina

Figure 3.3 The pupil is the opening in the centre of the iris which has the appearance of a black spot. It contracts in bright light (left) and expands in poorly lit conditions. 96

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

After incoming light passes through the lens, it continues through vitreous humour. Vitreous humour is a jelly­like like sub­ stance which helps to maintain the shape of the eyeball yeball and also helps focus light. Finally, the light reaches the retina at back of the eye, which consists of several layers of nerve tissue and light­sensitive visual receptorr cells called photoreceptors. The retina receives and absorbs light, and also processes images. The retina is connected to the brain by the optic nerve. After the visual information is processed in the retina, it is sent along the optic nerve to an area at the back of the brain called the visual cortex for further processing. The image focused onto the retina is an n inverted (upside­down) and reversed (back­to­front) nt) image of the object being viewed (see figure 3.4). The brain rearranges this information, enabling us to perceive erceive the object as it is in reality.

Figure 3.4 The retina is located at the back of the eye. It contains several layers of nerve tissues and the light-sensitive photoreceptors. The retina receives and absorbs light and processes images.

BOX 3.1 Visual problems Some visual problems develop because of structural abnormalities of the eye. In particular, either the eye itself is misshapen (e.g. too short or too long), a structural part is misshappen (e.g. the cornea or the lens), or a structural part lacks flexibility. These are quite common visual problems that can be corrected by spectacles and contact lenses. Farsightedness, or hyperopia, may be present from birth and often occurs because the actual shape of the eye does not allow the lens to bulge enough to focus close images onto the retina. This happens when the distance between the lens and the retina is unusually short. As a result, the lens focuses the image at a point beyond the retina, leaving an unfocused, blurry image on the retina. Corrective convex lenses are usually required to bring the focus of the image forward to the retina. Another visual problem, called presbyopia, occurs when the lens is unable to bend enough to focus at close (a) Farsighted eye (hyperopia) Near point

range. This type of farsightedness is commonly associated with ageing. Nearsightedness, or myopia, occurs if the distance between the lens and the retina is unusually long. This causes the focal point for distant objects to fall short of the retina, regardless of the lens elongating (or flattening ) to its maximum length. Again, the image on the retina is not focused and is therefore blurry. For this condition, concave lenses are prescribed for long distance viewing in order to extend the distance between the lens and the retina (focal length). Astigmatism occurs if either the lens or cornea is not symmetrical. This results in the retinal image being only partially focused because the light rays do not meet at a single focal point. Correction for astigmatism is more difficult, but can usually be achieved by spectacles with special lenses which are designed to correct the asymmetry of the lens or cornea.

(b) Nearsighted eye (myopia)

(c) Astigmatic eye

Distant point

Misshapen cornea

Misshapen lens Part of image is focused, part is not

Convex lens

Concave lens

Non-symmetrical lens

Figure 3.5 (a) Farsightedness due to hyperopia. Convex lenses increase refraction of light, returning the focal point fo the retina. (b) Nearsightedness due to myopia. Concave lenses extend the focal point to the retina. (c) Partially blurred vision due to astigmatism. The lack of symmetry of the lens or cornea is corrected by lenses in spectacles which allow all parts of the object to be focused on the retina.

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learning a cTiviTy 3.1

learning acTiviTy 3.3

review matching eye structures and functions

visual presentation of light

Match each of the structures identified in the left-hand column with the correct function in the right-hand column.

Draw a flow chart or another type of diagram which shows the pathway of light as it travels from the cornea to the retina. Identify the various anatomical structures through which light passes and briefly describe the role of each structure. Present your diagram as a poster on an A3 sheet of paper. eBook plus

Structure

Function

1. cornea

a. a round band of muscles which expand and contract to control the amount of incoming light

2. pupil

b. focuses light onto the retina

3. iris

c. receives, absorbs and processes light

4. lens

d. protective cover on the eye and helps focus incoming light

5. photoreceptors

e. opening which helps regulate the amount of incoming light

6. retina

f. light sensitive visual receptor cells

pathway

cHaracTerIsTIcs oF THe VIsual percepTIon sYsTeM

learning a cTiviTy 3.2 review identifying the structures of the eye Without looking at the diagram of the eye on page 96, identify the following structures on the diagram below: cornea, pupil, iris, lens, optic nerve, retina.

D

Interactivity on eye structure

Psychologists have identified a number of charac­ teristics, or features, of the visual perception system which also tend to be common in other perceptual systems. These characteristics can be considered as a sequence of processes, or activities , which take place within the visual perception information pro­ cessing system . As shown in figure 3.7, the sequence starts when visible light is detected and received, by the eyes (reception). Photoreceptors in the retina cap­ ture this incoming light and convert it into another form of energy (transduction) to enable it to be sent to the brain (transmission) for further processing. Additional processing in the brain mostly involves arranging specific features of the visual image into a arrangin recognisable or meaningful form (organisation) and making sense of this visual information (interpretation) so that we can understand what we are looking at. Although these processes can be distinguished from Althoug another in terms of the specific roles they have one ano in visual perception, they do not all occur independ­ ently of one another. For example, transduc­ A tion cannot occur without reception having occurred. Similarly, transduction must occur o B before visual sensory information captured on b C tthe retina can be transmitted to the brain for ffurther processing. However, for the purpose of studying visual perception, we will consider each process separately.

F

reception E Figure 3.6

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U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

Reception is the process by which the eye receives incoming light from the external environment and incomin focuses it onto the retina where an image of the visual stimulus is captured. The retina contains millions of specialised neurons (nerve cells) that detect and

Enters eye Stimulus energy (electromagnetic energy/visible light)

Reception Photoreceptors in the retina detect and receive Transduction Converted from electromagnetic to electrochemical energy

Transmission Sent to the brain via the optic nerve

Brain (visual cortex) (Organisation and Interpretation)

Figure 3.7 Visual perception as a visual information processing system

respond to light. These specialised neurons are called photoreceptors. There are two types of photoreceptors, called rods and cones. Rods and cones respond to light in different ways. Rods respond to very low levels of light and are primarily responsible for night vision. They are very poor at detecting the fine details in an image and are not involved in colour vision. This is why everything on a dark, moonless night appears as shades of grey. In contrast to rods, cones respond to high levels of light (and do not respond well to dim light). They are primarily responsible for our vision in well­lit conditions, and for detecting fine detail and colour vision. When rods and cones detect light, they respond by changing the light energy into a form of energy that can be sent to the brain for further processing.

learning acTiviTy 3.4 internet activity on the retina Use the following weblinks in your eBookPLUS to complete the activities. For a relatively simple description of the retina and some activities concerning vision, use the retina weblink. Click on the link at the bottom of the page that says; try some experiments to test your sense of sight . You will find a number of interesting learning activities to do. For a detailed anatomy of the retina, a range of photographs and an animation on the pathway of light, use the anatomy of the retina weblink.

Figure 3.8 This image, taken through an electron microscope, shows rods and cones in the retina, identifiable by the shapes after which they are named.

Transduction When light reaches the photoreceptors, it arrives in a form of energy which cannot be sent to or processed by the brain. Therefore, it is necessary to convert this energy into a form that can be sent along the optic nerve to the brain. This energy conversion process C h a p t e r 3 The visual perception system

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is called transduction. Transduction is the process by which the photoreceptors change electromagnetic energy ( light ) into electrical impulses ( signals ) which can travel along the optic nerve to the brain. Once there, the brain can receive and process the information. If transduction did not occur, light would travel no further than the retina and visual perception would not be possible.

Transmission In visual perception, transmission involves sending information in the form of electrical impulses along the optic nerve to the brain. The optic nerve carries the visual information from the retina to the visual cortex which is located at the back of the brain. The visual cortex is an area of the brain that specialises in receiving and processing visual information. However, the processing of incoming visual information does not occur only in the visual cortex. The visual cortex is connected to other areas of the brain, enabling it to send information elsewhere for additional processing.

Organisation and interpretation When visual information reaches the brain, it is organ­ ised and interpreted so that it is meaningful and can be understood. In visual perception, organisation involves assembling or arranging the features of a visual image in a meaningful way. How we actually go about organising visual information partly involves the use of visual perception principles, or rules , which we tend to apply automatically without consciously thinking about it. For example, we tend to organise the individual elements or parts of a visual image by assembling them into a meaningful whole object or shape because they belong or go together . This is why we perceive a house rather than doors, windows, walls, roof, chimney . Interpretation is the process of assigning (or giving ) meaning to visual information so that we can understand what we are looking at. Organisation assists our interpretation of objects and events, but it does not always explain how we actually make sense of visual information. Researchers have identi­ fied a number of psychological processes involved in interpretation. For example, if we are uncertain about what an object is, we may construct and test a per­ ceptual hypothesis about what the object could be. This partly involves drawing on existing knowledge, such as our past experience with objects, to work 100

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

out what the object could be. We may also draw on other perceptual principles, such as knowing that an object doesn t actually change its physical size when it moves away from us. For example, we know that an aeroplane doesn t get physically smaller as it takes off from the runway and flies into the sky even though it appears to shrink. Researchers have also identified physiological pro­ cesses involved in interpretation. For example, neuro­ psychologists have investigated the roles of specific parts of the brain by conducting experiments using brain imaging technology such as PET scanners. These types of studies have found that the visual cortex sends information to another area of the brain to enable us to interpret where an object we are looking at is located in space. Similarly, visual information is sent to a dif­ ferent area of the brain so that we can determine what an object is; that is, to put a name to it. These find­ ings have been supported by case studies of patients with damage to these areas of the brain who have difficulties with spatial abilities or object recognition (see box 3.2).

learning acTiviTy 3.5 review questions 1. Define the meaning of visual perception. 2. In what way can visual sensation and visual perception be distinguished? 3. (a) What does the process of reception involve in visual perception? (b) Why is reception considered to be the first process in visual perception? (c) What are photoreceptors? (d) Prepare two lists that summarise the different functions of rods and cones in responding to light. 4. (a) What does the process of transduction involve in visual perception? (b) Briefly describe the main role of photoreceptors in transduction. (c) Suggest why electrical impulses are also referred to as neural impulses . 5. Where does visual information go after transduction and how does it get there? 6. (a) What do the processes of organisation and interpretation involve in visual perception? (b) What role does organisation play in interpretation? (c) What role might interpretation play in organisation? (d) Give an example of a psychological and a physiological process involved in organisation and/or interpretation.

BOX 3.2 Case study of a brain-damaged patient who cannot recognise objects Case studies of patients with brain damage provide evidence that visual information received by the visual cortex at the back of the brain is sent to a different area of the brain so that we can determine what an object is. For example, a patient referred to as D.F. suffered carbon monoxide poisoning at the age of 34 years. The poisoning damaged a nerve pathway that connected the visual cortex to an area of the brain near the temple. This pathway is sometimes called the what pathway as it links two areas of the brain involved in recognising objects. As a consequence of this damage, D.F. is no longer able to recognise the faces of her friends and family, common objects, or even a drawing of a square or circle. Her condition was diagnosed as object agnosia, which is the inability to recognise objects. D.F. can recognise people by their voices and if you place objects in her hands, she can usually say what they are. She does this from memory of voices and her past experience with objects using touch and other senses. Similarly, when presented with a drawing of an apple, D.F. cannot identify or re-draw it. But if asked to draw an apple, she can do so from memory. Despite major problems with the visual perception of objects, D.F. can use visual information about the size, shape and orientation ( position ) of objects to control visually guided movements. This means that there is also a where pathway in the visual cortex and that this has not been damaged in D.F. s brain. For instance, D.F. can walk across a room and step around things without any difficulty. She can also reach out and shake hands as efficiently as we all do. Other tests and experiments conducted by neuropsychologists found that D.F. can reach out and grasp a block, with the exact correct distance between her fingers. However, she cannot tell you what she is going to pick up, or how big it is. Thus, her conscious perception of objects

is impaired; that is, D.F. has no awareness that she is taking in any visual information about objects she sees. However, other aspects of her visual processing are unaffected. The non-damaged parts of D.F s visual cortex allow her to use information about the size and location of objects despite her lack of awareness (Goodale & Milner, 1992, cited in Gazzaniga & Heatherton, 2006).

where pathway

what pathway

Primary visual cortex

Figure 3.9 The visual cortex is connected with other areas of the brain to enable visual perception. These connections occur through nerve pathways. Two pathways to upper and lower areas of the brain are commonly called the what and where pathways. The what pathway enables us to identify what we see. The where pathway enables us to locate the position of objects in space, to track their movements and to move in relation to them.

Options and variations

learnin g acTiviT y 3. 6 visual presentation perception processes

visual

The following terms all relate to the visual perception system and processes: transmission photoreceptors organisation light optic nerve visual sensation brain reception

visual perception interpretation neural activity electrical impulses retina transduction eye visual cortex

On a large sheet of paper (e.g. A3 size) 1. draw a flow chart which shows the terms in an appropriate sequence for the visual perception process. OR 2. draw a diagram which shows the relationship between the structures and processes in the visual perception system. Briefly explain the role of each of these structures and processes in visual perception by ruling lines between each term and using link words to identify the relationship(s). Link words may include determines , leads to , causes , depends upon influences , affects , contributes to , assists with and becomes (see page 160).

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learnin g acTiviT y 3. 7 Practical activity

the Stroop effect

Our brain constantly receives and responds to many different inputs of sensory information. Generally, our brain manages this either by responding to more than one input (stimulus) at a time (such as reading this introduction and listening to someone talking), or by ignoring some inputs (such as the pressure of the floor against your feet) and listening to others. Sometimes, however, our brain has difficulty efficiently processing competing inputs of sensory information. This was demonstrated in research conducted by American psychologist John Ridley Stroop. In a well-known word colour experiment, Stroop (1935) asked participants to read words and identify colours where the information was sometimes contradictory or mismatched . This enabled him to observe the effects of competing information on visual perception. Stroop found that participants took longer and made more errors when the meaning of a word (e.g. the word red ) was different from the actual colour of the printed word (e.g. the word red printed in purple ink). Table 3.1, condition 2, shows examples of the words. The findings of this research have become known as the Stroop effect. The Stroop effect is the observation that individuals are more likely to make errors and will take a longer time to name the colour of the ink in which a word is printed when the meaning of a word is different from the actual colour in which it is printed. The effect has been observed in numerous experiments that have replicated Stroop s original research study. Psychologists believe that the Stroop effect occurs because, when we are presented with a word, our automatic response is to read the word. When we are confronted with competing information requiring our attention; such as when we have to read a word that names a colour and identify the colour in which it is printed, our automatic response is to first read the information. This initial response interferes with our attempt to name the colour of the ink. Consequently, completing the latter task of colour identification requires greater attention and mental effort, which also takes more time (Macleod, 1997; Lindsay & Jacoby, 1994). This practical activity is based on Stroop s experiment. Working with a partner, you will conduct the experiment with four participants (i.e. two participants each). This will enable you to collect data on the time taken and the number of errors made when participants are required to identify different types of visual input or stimuli. Your data will be combined with the data collected by other pairs of experimenters in your class. You should construct a research hypothesis related to the Stroop effect before conducting the experiment. When

doing so, you should ensure that you clearly understand the Stroop effect and the experiment s procedures. All participants should be volunteers, give their informed consent and be tested individually. In preparation for the experiment, you will need to develop the stimulus materials shown in table 3.1. In addition, a data sheet will be required to record each participant s responses, such as that in table 3.2. All materials can be downloaded from your eBook. A stopwatch should be used to record precisely the response time of each participant. The stimulus material for the first condition of the experiment containing lists of words (see table 3.1) should be placed face down on a table in front of the participant in the order of presentation required. At the conclusion of each condition, the stimulus material for the next condition should be placed face down on the table in front of the participant. Participants should be provided with separate instructions for each condition as follows. Condition 1 (black print) When I say start , you are required to turn the sheet of paper/card. It will contain a list of words. Read aloud the words on the sheet as quickly as possible, beginning at the top of the list. When you have read the last word, say stop to indicate that you have completed the task. Condition 2 (mismatched words) When I say start , you are required to turn the sheet of paper/card. It will contain a list of words written in different coloured ink. State the ink colour of each word as quickly as possible, beginning at the top of the list. When you have stated the ink colour of the last word, say stop to indicate that you have completed the task. Condition 3 (colour blocks) When I say start , you are required to turn the sheet of paper/card. It will contain a series of coloured blocks. State the colour of each block as quickly as possible, beginning at the top of the series. When you have identified the last block, say stop to indicate that you have completed the task. Condition 4 (familiar words) When I say start , you are required to turn the sheet of paper/card. It will contain a list of words written in different coloured ink. State the colour of each word as quickly as possible, beginning at the top of the list. When you have stated the colour in which the last word is printed, say stop to indicate that you have completed the task. (continued)

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Table 3.1 The four conditions of the Stroop effect task

Condition 1: Colour words in black print Task: Read the word

Condition 2: Mismatched colour words Task: State the colour of the ink

Condition 3: Blocks of colour Task: State the colour of the block

Condition 4: Familiar words in colour print Task: State the colour of the ink

red

red

truck

green

purple

store

blue

green

couch

purple

brown

table

brown

blue

shirt

green

green

store

brown

red

couch

red

brown

truck

purple

blue

shirt

blue

purple

table

Table 3.2 Data sheet for participants responses

Condition 1 Participant

Time

Errors

Condition 2 Time

Condition 3

Errors

Time

Errors

Condition 4 Time

Errors

1 2 3 4 For each condition, record both the time taken (in seconds) and the number of errors made by each participant. Finally, each participant should be thanked for their involvement in the experiment and debriefed. When all class members have conducted the experiment, combine your data with data obtained by others in the class. Then, • calculate means for the class results • graph the class data to show the mean time taken for each condition and the mean number of errors for each condition. Report Prepare a brief report on the research activity to include in your folio of practical activities.

Your report should include: 1. a statement of the aim of this experiment 2. the research hypothesis 3. a summary of the class results using appropriate descriptive statistics 4. a conclusion(s) based on the results and referring to the hypothesis 5. a potential extraneous variable(s) that may be relevant, including an explanation of why it may be relevant 6. other information that may be requested by your teacher. (Adapted from Grivas, J. and Lawrie, P. (1991). Psychology Experiments and aActivities. Marrickville, NSW: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, pp. 134 7.)

eBook plus Weblink

Stroop effect

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BOX 3.3 Visual perception from different perspectives As with many of the topics studied by psychologists, visual perception can be described and explained from a range of different perspectives. From the biological perspective, visual perception is primarily a physiological process which starts at the eye and mostly occurs through a complex series of neural events involving extensive interactions between billions of brain cells (neurons). The eye, nervous system and brain are seen as an integrated and interdependent system. For instance, the eye is considered to be an extension of and therefore a part of the brain. If you shine a light in someone s eye so that you can see their retina at the back of their eye, you are actually looking at the only part of the brain that we can see from outside the skull (Gazzaniga & Heatherton, 2006). From the biological perspective, any failure in visual perception is likely to be the result of damage or a defect in one or more anatomical (physiological) structures somewhere in the visual system. The behavioural perspective focuses on the role of learning in visual perception, emphasising the importance of past experience, and how rewards and punishments may influence our interpretation of events. For example, the way in which we interpret visual information is often based on our past experience, which can also influence our expectations when identifying incoming sensory information. Thus, as you turn to the next pages of this book, you will not see cake recipes or long lists of Chinese characters, because you know from past experience that this is a psychology book written in English. The socio-cultural perspective focuses on the roles of social and cultural influences in visual perception. There is an emphasis on how our personal circumstances or our experience within a culture can influence the way in which we process and interpret visual information. For example, consider figure 3.10, which was used in an experiment to study the experience of visual illusions in different cultures. The illusion is based on an almost rectangular shape which looks like a window with horizontal and vertical bars. When this window is revolved in a circular pathway, it can look like a rectangular window moving backwards and forwards. Research studies have found that people living in cultures without rectangular windows were less likely to experience the illusion. For instance, Zulus living in remote, rural communities in Africa were less likely than African Zulus living in towns, or Europeans living in towns, to see a rectangle moving backwards and forwards (Allport & Pettigrew, 1957). The cognitive perspective focuses on how we acquire and process the visual information that reaches our brain from our eyes. Cognitive psychologists often describe the visual perception system as an information processing system that specialises in dealing with visual information. It is one of a number of specialised and relatively independent

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perceptual systems, along with the specialised systems for our other senses. Since we continually receive information from all our senses, each of which respond to different forms of energy, the various perceptual systems function alongside or parallel to one another. However, the brain coordinates all their activities, exchanging perceptual information when required. For example, you can probably recall an occasion when you needed to think about what you heard in order to make sense of what you saw, and vice versa.

Figure 3.10 There are cultural differences in the perception of the illusion created by this rectangular shape, which was designed to look like a window.

The different perspectives consider visual perception from different viewpoints paying more or less attention to different aspects of visual perception, but not necessarily ignoring expectations of perceptual processes from other perspectives. The perspective taken influences the topics of research interest and the focus of the research studies that are undertaken. Although approaching an understanding of visual perception in different ways, the perspectives have much in common and have all made valuable contributions to the body of knowledge psychology has built about visual perception. One thing the perspectives have in common is their recognition of the importance of undertaking research on visual perception in a scientific way. Cognitive perspective

Socio-cultural perspective

isual perspective

Biological perspective

Behavioural perspective Figure 3.11 Visual perception can be explained from different perspectives.

VIsual percepTIon prIncIples Visual perception principles are rules that we apply to visual information to assist our organisation and interpretation of the information in consistent and meaningful ways. These principles help us to organise and make sense of visual information that is some­ times inconsistent or incomplete. We tend to auto­ matically use these principles, without any conscious effort or being aware that we are doing so. Visual perception principles can also be intentionally used. This can be seen in the work of artists, designers of road traffic signs and advertisers. For example, many artists make use of visual perception principles to give the impression of three­dimensional depth and/or dis­ tance on a canvas or piece of paper, which is a two­ dimensional medium. Designers of road signs may also use visual perception principles to help ensure that the signs stand out in an often cluttered environment so that they can be interpreted and understood quickly. Symbols are also used by advertisers to attract atten­ tion to their products and services or to try to influ­ ence our interpretation in a certain way. For example, a symbol such as an abstract eye might be used as a company logo for a vision restoration clinic in order to draw our attention to it (through its novel or unusual form) and to consider the clinic whenever we see the symbol. Visual perception principles can be classified into three broad categories: Gestalt principles, depth principles and perceptual constancies.

gestalt principles Gestalt is a German word for which the closest English trans­ lation is form or shape . When used in psychology, Gestalt means organised whole . Gestalt principles of visual perception refer to the ways in which we organise the features of a visual scene by grouping them to perceive a whole, complete form. This is usually done in the simplest possible way. For example, if part of what we are looking at is hidden or covered, then, in order to make sense of what is being observed, we simply construct a whole or complete form by mentally filling in the parts that we cannot see. In this way, Gestalt principles help us construct a meaningful whole object from an assortment of parts that, when considered as individual bits, lack any real meaning.

Psychologists have identified numerous Gestalt principles that are used in visual perception. These include figure ground organisation, closure, similarity and proximity.

Figure ground organisation Figure ground is used when you read this sentence the words printed in black (figure) stand out against the white paper (ground) on which they are printed. Similarly, your teacher is perceived as the figure against the background of the rest of the classroom. When we use figure ground, we organise visual infor­ mation by perceptually dividing a visual scene into a figure , which stands out from the ground , which is its surroundings. By making an object the centre of our focus it becomes the figure, while all other visual information becomes the (back)ground. Artists experimented with the concept of parts which make up the whole long before Gestalt psychol­ ogists considered the principle scientifically. Viewed as a whole, the painting on the chapter opening page by Giuseppe Arcimboldo (1527 93) is a face. However, the individual features consist of fruit and vegetables. Figure ground organisation is generally achieved when we separate the figure from the ground using a line or boundary between the figure and ground, which may or may not exist in the scene. This line of separation between the figure and ground is known as a contour. The contour is always perceived as belonging to the figure. In figure 3.12, the con­ tour can belong to either the faces or the vase. This means that we can perceive either faces or a vase, depending on whether we view the faces or the vase as the figure. Figure 3.12 In 1915, the Danish psychologist Edgar Rubin produced an image like the one shown at left. This image is commonly referred to as an ambiguous figure or a reversible figure. It is called an ambiguous figure because it can be perceived as either two silhouetted faces in front of a white background or as a white vase against a black background. It is also called a reversible figure because it can produce alternative perceptions based on whether we identify the faces or vase as the figure or ground. The differing interpretations of the image occur with shifts in attention and how we perceive the contour. When we focus our attention on the vase, the contour belongs to the vase and this separates it from the ground. When we focus on the two faces, they own the contour and the vase becomes the ground. C h a p t e r 3 The visual perception system

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Signs are frequently designed so that the figure stands out clearly from the back­ ground. Road traffic signs in par­ ticular, are designed so that the figure stands out from the back­ ground. For example, the letters on the STOP sign in figure 3.14 are written in white to stand out as the figure against a contrasting red background. Similarly, signs indicating speed limits that need to be seen quickly and clearly, make use of black numbers against a contrasting white background. The contours are attributed to the numbers, making them the figure against the white background. Some artists make clever use of figure ground in their works by presenting artworks that have an ambiguous contour. Normally, we can quickly perceive the contour as belonging to the figure, and the rest of the scene is perceived as the ground. Artists such as M.C. Escher (see figure 3.13) have produced many artworks that deliberately confuse the observer into making alternating interpretations of the same scene.

Figure 3.14 These two road signs use the figure ground organisation principle to support quick perception of their messages.

The confusion occurs because the artworks make it possible for us to perceive the contour as belonging to either the figure or the ground, depending on our focus of attention. Visual stimuli that enable figure and ground to be perceived as legitimate alternatives are commonly called reversible figures.

Figure 3.13 In this artwork, Dutch artist M.C. Escher (1898 1972) used figure ground reversal to create an ambiguous figure from which two interpretations are possible. M.C. Escher s Winged Lion  2004 The M.C. Escher Company

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Holland. All rights reserved.

The importance of being able to attribute a contour to part of the stimulus (the figure) in order to separate it from ground is highlighted when we have difficulty in doing this. When this happens, either by design or unintentionally, it creates camouflage. Camouflage occurs when the figure and ground are not easily sep­ arated, but blend together. Camouflage restricts our ability to separate the figure from the background because the colour(s) and pattern (or design) of the figure are similar to the background. For example, military uniforms are designed to use the colours of the surrounding environment so that the figure (sol­ dier) is difficult to separate from the ground (environ­ ment) in which the soldier is located.

learnin g acTiviT y 3. 8 applying figure ground Consider the artwork The Forest Has Eyes, which is shown in figure 3.15. There are 13 faces hidden in the painting. Explain how the artist has achieved this, with reference to figure ground and contours.

Options and variations

A series of research studies conducted by American social psychologist Richard Nisbett and his colleagues (1991) found that there are cultural differences in the use of figure ground. Using participants in the United States, Japan, China and Korea, the researchers com­ pared how white Americans (Westerners) and East Asians (Easterners) perceive and think about the world. The researchers found many differences between Westerners and Easterners, including a differ­ ence in the use of figure ground. When shown various visual images, Westerners tended to focus on single objects or elements in the foreground (the figure), whereas people from Eastern cultures tended to focus on the entire scene rather than specific features. This suggests that Westerners are more likely to isolate a figure from the (back)ground, whereas Easterners are more likely to be influenced by both the figure and the ground. In a more recent research study, Nisbett and Japanese­born American socio­cultural psychol­ ogist Takahiko Masuda (2006) showed students from Japan and the United States an animated under­ water scene. The scene featured one big fish in the foreground swimming among smaller fish and other aquatic life. Asked to describe what they saw, the Japa­ nese participants were much more likely to begin by describing the details of the whole scene (the ground).

Figure 3.15 Can you find 13 faces hidden in this artwork? Can you explain why they are hidden ? The Forest Has Eyes  1984 by Bev Doolittle, reproduced by permission of The Greenwich Workshop, Inc.

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In contrast, the American participants tended to begin their descriptions with the big fish (the figure). Over all, Japanese participants in the study made 70% more statements about aspects of the background environ­ ment than Americans.

closure Closure refers to the perceptual tendency to mentally close up , fill in or ignore gaps in a visual image and to perceive objects as complete ( whole ). For example, figure 3.16 illustrates how we mentally include lines where there are none. For example, with the IBM logo, we fill in the gaps between each of the horizontal lines to mentally form solid letters and/or ignore the gaps that prevent solid letters.

as belonging together in a unit, group or whole . For example, the principle of similarity is used when we group people wearing the same uniform and identify them as belonging to the same team, school or workplace. Similarity is applied by the designers of uniforms for school, sports teams, emergency services and defence forces personnel, as well as to those worn by employees of commercial organisations such as fast food chains, supermarkets and petrol stations so as to identify people as belonging to a particular group. Whether it is students from different schools at a bus stop, players in opposing sports teams, or even teenagers dressed in particular clothes that are typical of their subculture (such as Goths ), we visually group those who are dressed similarly and perceive them as belonging to the whole group. The Ishihara tests for colour blindness examine whether we have normal colour vision by requiring us to use the principle of similarity to group sections of the images in the test items to visually perceive numbers. These numbers will remain hidden if we are unable to group the dots accurately on the basis of colour. An example of an image used in the Ishihara tests is shown below.

Figure 3.16 Company logos and signs often require the use of closure to mentally complete an incomplete figure.

Closure is also applied to non­verbal infor­ mation (written). For example, the standard sign for disabled people s facilities requires the use of closure to reach the interpretation of a person in a wheelchair. Similarly, we use closure to organise then interpret the shape in the Australian alian Made, Australian Grown logo as a kangaroo, and the shapes in the Liquorland logo as bottles.

Similarity The principle of similarity involves the tendency ncy to perceive parts of a visual image that have similar features such as size, shape, texture or colour 108

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Figure 3.17 This image is similar to one used in the Ishihara test for colour blindness.

Figure 3.18 Individuals in this photo can be perceived as belonging to different groups when you apply the principle of similarity based on similar-coloured uniforms.

Proximity The principle of proximity (or nearness) is the ten­ dency to perceive parts of a visual image which are positioned close together as belonging together in a group. That is, we group the separate bits into a whole based on how close they are to each other. For example, a series of letters located physically close (a)

together might be grouped to be perceived as a word, or a series of musical notes grouped together on a score may become a melody. Figure 3.19 shows two examples of the principle of proximity. In figure 3.19(a) we perceive four hori­ zontal rows of blocks, whereas in figure 3.19(b) we perceive four vertical columns of blocks.

(b)

Figure 3.19 The proximity of the elements (parts) which comprise these two diagrams determines whether we perceive rows or columns. C h a p t e r 3 The visual perception system

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BOX 3.4 Socio-cultural research findings on the use of Gestalt principles Luria was concerned that an experiment in a laboratory setting would be entirely inappropriate. He believed that such a formal situation would be too far removed from the real life experiences of many participants and may therefore influence the results in unwanted ways. Instead, he conducted a field experiment during which he tested participants in what he described as their habitual (or normal) environments. In his research report, he described a part of his procedure as follows: As a rule our experimental sessions began with long conversations (sometimes repeated) with the subjects in the relaxed atmosphere of a tea house where the villagers spent most of their free time or in camps in the fields and mountain pastures around the evening campfire. Luria and his research assistants tested participants with the visual stimuli shown in figure 3.20. When asked to name the shape in each stimulus, the formally educated female students (group 5) were the only ones who identified each items using the correct term. For example, items 1 3 were all identified as a circle, regardless of whether it was made of a solid line (item 1), an incomplete line (item 2) or a solid colour (item 3). However, most of the participants in groups 1 4 named the shapes according to the objects they resembled. For example, a circle was called a watch, plate, or moon, and the square was called a mirror, house, or even an apricot-drying board . When asked if items 12 and 13 were alike, one group 1 participant answered, No, they re not alike. This one s not like a watch, but that one s a watch because there are dots . Based on his research findings, Luria suggested that Gestalt principles may only be relevant to people who have studied geometrical concepts in a formal education system, such as in a school or university. Contemporary sociocultural psychologists have suggested that experience with two-dimensional drawings on a sheet of paper may also be a factor that explains the results (Matsumoto, 2000; Price & Crapo, 1999).

Prominent Russian neuropsychologist and developmental psychologist Alexander Luria (1902 77) was a pioneer of socio-cultural psychology. From this perspective, he queried Gestalt principles of perceptual organisation such as closure, proximity and similarity. Many of the Gestalt principles had been developed from experimental research by German psychologists using participants who were university educated and lived in big cities such as Berlin and Munich. Luria was interested in finding out whether the Gestalt principles were also relevant to people from other socio-cultural backgrounds. He was particularly interested in studying people who lived in rural areas and did not have any formal education. In what is regarded by many psychologists as a classic study, Luria (1976) conducted experimental research using five groups of participants which he described as follows: 1. Ichkari women living in remote villages who were illiterate and not involved in any modern social activities. 2. Peasants in remote villages who were illiterate (and self-supporting). 3. Women who attended short-term courses in the teaching of kindergarten children. As a rule, they still had no formal education and almost no literacy training. 4. Active kolkhoz (collective farm) workers and young people who had taken short courses. They actively involved themselves in running the farms; had acquired a much broader outlook than had the isolated peasants; had attended school only briefly; and many were still barely literate. 5. Women students admitted to a teachers school after two or three years of study. Their educational qualifications, however, were still fairly low. In sum, groups 1 and 2 had no formal education and were illiterate, groups 3 and 4 were semi-literate, and group 5 had been formally educated and were literate.

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Figure 3.20 Luria s visual stimuli

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learnin g acTiviT y 3. 9 review questions 1. Explain the meaning of the phrase Gestalt principle of organisation . 2. Complete the table below (also available in your eBook) to summarise four Gestalt principles of visual perception described in the text. Write a definition of each principle and give two examples of artworks, signs and/or symbols that illustrate the principle. For each principle, one of the examples should be your own. Principle

Definition

Artworks

Signs

Symbols

Figure ground Closure Similarity Proximity 3. Name and briefly describe a research study, including its findings, that provides evidence of socio-cultural influences on the use of Gestalt principles.

learnin g acTiviT y 3. 10 application of gestalt principles 1. Consider the image in figure 3.17 on page 108, which is like those used in the Ishihara tests. The Ishihara tests are used to diagnose colour blindness. When tested for colour blindness, people are required to visually perceive a number located within the stimulus figure. Explain, with reference to two Gestalt principles, how someone who is not colour blind (or colour weak) would visually perceive the number within the visual stimulus. 2. Identify two Gestalt principles used to organise and interpret the figure shown in figure 3.21 below.

Figure 3.21

For each of these principles: • describe the area of the figure to which you are referring • name the relevant principle • explain how it contributed (or could have contributed) towards your interpretation of the whole figure. 3. Consider figure 3.22 shown below. Do you perceive a young woman with her head turned away, or an old woman with a large nose, in semi-profile? Explain the alternate perceptions of the image with reference to figure ground.

Figure 3.22

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BOX 3.5 Research on the Gestalt approach to visual perception Israeli psychologist David Navon was intrigued by the Gestalt approach to visual perception. In particular, Navon was interested in whether we first perceive the elements (parts) of a visual scene and build them up to a whole, complete image, or whether we perceive the whole first and then perceive the elements through further visual processing. In order to conduct an experiment on this topic of research interest, Navon (1977) distinguished between local and global features of a visual stimulus. The 14 participants were required to briefly observe a large letter (global feature) that was made up of many small letters (local features) such as those shown in figure 3.23. Each participant was required to make responses under two different experimental conditions. The conditions required their attention to be focused either globally ( the whole ) or locally ( the parts ). In the globally focused condition, the participant had to indicate whether the global letter was the letter H or the letter S. In the locally focused condition, the participant had to indicate whether the local letter was the letter H or the letter S. On half the trials the global and local letters were the same letter of the alphabet, and on the other half they were different, as shown in figure 3.23. The participants were asked to identify the letters as quickly and accurately as possible. They were paid a monetary bonus for their responses. The amount paid depended

slightly on speed, but more on accuracy. Navon recorded the speed and accuracy with which participants could recognise the same or different global/local letters. The results indicated that the type of local letters used (whether the same or different from the global letter) had no effect on the speed with which the global letter was recognised. However, identification of the small, local letters (that is, accuracy) was less accurate when the global and local letters did not match. From these results, Navon concluded that we mentally process the whole before we analyse the parts (or detail); that is, we perceive the entire global letter before we start to analyse its composition of local letters. Drawing on the results of Navon s experiment, some psychologists have argued that it may be virtually impossible to avoid perceiving the whole (Eysenck & Keane, 1990). H H H H H H HHHHHHH H H H H H H (a)

HHH H

H H HHH

H H

H HHH (b)

Figure 3.23 (a) Global and local letters that are the same (b) Global and local letters that are different

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learning acTiviTy 3.1 2

evaluation of research navon (1977)

Oral presentation principles

Summarise and evaluate the experiment by Navon (1977) in box 3.5 on how research participants mentally processed local and global features of a visual stimulus. 1. What is the aim of this experiment? 2. Identify the independent and dependent variables in the experiment. 3. Identify the two conditions of the experiment. 4. Briefly state the results obtained by Navon. 5. Briefly state the conclusion(s) that was drawn from these results. 6. Identify any extraneous variables that may not have been adequately controlled and suggest why they may have affected the results. 7. To what extent can the results be generalised to visual perception by people in everyday life?

Prepare a PowerPoint presentation on Gestalt principles of organisation. Use two or more data types; for example, still or moving images, written text and sound. Your presentation should: 1. describe and give examples of three Gestalt principles 2. include an introductory slide which briefly outlines the meaning of Gestalt principles of organisation 3. include at least one image which illustrates each principle in your presentation 4. include at least one image which illustrates an application of each principle in your presentation 5. include one slide that outlines socio-cultural factors that may influence use of Gestalt principles, with reference to research evidence 6. include one slide which shows an ambiguous or reversible figure and a brief explanation of alternative visual perceptions. If possible, you should use a figure that has not been included in this text.

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gestalt

Depth principles One of the most important tasks of our visual per­ ception system is to locate objects in space. Without this ability, we would find it difficult to navigate and interact with our world. In order to locate objects in space, we need to judge whether one object is above, below, or to the left or right of another. We also need to judge how far away objects are from each other and ourselves. We need to make these judgements automatically and rapidly or our interaction with the world would be something like being in continual slow motion. Judgements about where objects are in space enable you to efficiently reach for a pen on your desk. They are also vital for your survival. For example, when crossing a street you need to judge where approaching vehicles are in relation to yourself and judge the dis­ tances between you and the vehicles so that you safely reach the other side. Locating objects in space involves depth perception. Depth perception is the ability to accurately esti­ mate the distance of objects and therefore perceive the world in three dimensions. Many psychologists describe our depth perception as a remarkable ability because objects in our world are arranged in three dimensions length, width and depth but our retinae hold only two­dimensional images of the world around us. Depth cues provide the information that enables us to translate the two­dimensional images on the retinae into three­dimensional reality. Depth cues are sources of information from the environment (external cues) or from within our body (internal cues) that help us to perceive how far away objects are and therefore to perceive depth. Depth cues can be categorised into two groups binocular (requiring the use of both eyes) or monocular (requiring the use of only one eye).

Binocular depth cues Binocular depth cues require the use of both eyes working together in order to provide information to the brain about depth and distance. Binocular depth cues are especially important in determining the dis­ tance of objects that are relatively close. Consequently, if for some reason our vision is limited to the use of only one eye, tasks requiring us to focus on detail over short distances can be difficult to accomplish.

Convergence Imagine you are watching someone approach a small, round, shiny object on the footpath. If you could watch their eyes as they picked it up and brought it in close to their eyes to work out what it is, you would see their

eyeballs turning in slightly towards their nose. If they held the object right up near the tip of their nose, their eyeballs would turn inwards ( converge ) like the girl s eyeballs in figure 3.24.

Figure 3.24 Convergence involves the two eyes turning inwards to focus on objects that are very close.

Convergence involves the brain detecting and interpreting depth or distance from changes in ten­ sion in the eye muscles that occur when the two eyes turn inwards to focus on objects that are close. The brain interprets greater tension in the eye muscles as an object gets closer and less tension as an object gets further away. Convergence is particularly useful when the object we are looking at is within about six metres. Beyond this distance, the lines of sight from our eyes to the object are virtually parallel and there is no need for our eyes to converge to keep the object in focus. For example, fully extend one of your arms in front of you and point a finger upwards. Slowly move the finger towards your nose. You should be able to feel the muscle tension associated with the convergence of your eyes, particularly as your finger gets very close to your nose. Your eye muscles relay this information to your brain, enabling you to make judgements about how far away your finger is as you focus on it. C h a p t e r 3 The visual perception system

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Retinal disparity Because our eyes are about six or seven centimetres apart, each retina receives a slightly different visual image due to the different angle of view from each eye. The difference in the visual image cast on each retina decreases as the object we are viewing moves further away from us. Beyond about 10 metres or so, there is hardly any difference in the image cast on each retina.

Retinal disparity refers to the very slight difference ( disparity ) in the location of the visual images on the retinae (due to their slightly different angles of view), which enables us to make judgements about the depth or distance of an object. When the two different retinal images are fused (combined) in the brain, the images received from each eye are compared. Any disparity or difference between the two images provides infor­ mation about the depth of the object or its distance from the viewer.

Figure 3.25 Magic Eye images take advantage of retinal disparity. Hold the centre of the image right up to your nose. It should be blurry. Stare as though you are looking through the image. Very slowly move the image away from your face until you begin to see depth. Now hold the image still and try not to blink. Most people eventually see the three-dimensional image. © 2009 Magic Eye Inc. http://www.magiceye.com/

learning a cTiviTy 3.13 Demonstration of retinal disparity To see how retinal disparity changes with distance, hold a pencil vertically about 10 centimetres in front of you, then close one eye and notice where the pencil is in relation to the background. Next, open that eye, close the other one and notice how much the pencil shifts .

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These are the two different views of the pencil received by each eye. If you repeat this procedure while holding the pencil at arm s length, you will notice less disparity or shift because there is less difference in the angles at which the two eyes view the pencil.

Monocular depth cues

Pictorial cues

Monocular depth cues require the use of only one eye to provide information to the brain about depth and distance, but they also operate with both eyes. Most depth cues are monocular, so we can still perform many of our daily activities without difficulty if we lose vision in one eye. Monocular depth cues include accommodation, and pictorial cues such as linear perspective, interposition, texture gradient, relative size, and height in the visual field. Pictorial cues are commonly used to create depth and distance in artworks.

Many monocular depth cues are referred to as pictorial cues. Pictorial cues are so named because artists use them to create depth and distance on two­dimensional surfaces such as paper and canvas. Pictorial cues include linear perspective, interposition, texture gradient, rela­ tive size, and height in the visual field.

Accommodation

Linear perspective When you are travelling in a car on a long, straight highway through the countryside and you look ahead, the view through the front windscreen is one of a road that appears to be narrowing. In fact, if you look all the way to the horizon, it will look as if the two parallel edges of the road have come together to a single point. This illustrates the depth cue called linear perspective. Linear perspective is the apparent convergence of parallel lines as they recede ( go back ) into the distance.

The size of the visual image of a large object viewed at close range would normally be too large to fit onto the retina. The lens in each eye plays a key role in enabling images of close, large objects to fit onto each retina. The flexibility of the lens enables it to bulge to fit ( accommodate ) close objects on the retina and to elongate (flatten) when looking at objects that are further away. The closer (and therefore larger) the object, the more the lens needs to bulge to fit the object s image on the retina. Accommodation involves the automatic adjustment of the shape of the lens to focus an object in response to changes in how far away the object is. The brain monitors the movement of the ciliary muscles that con­ trol the shape of the lens. The ciliary muscles contract to enable the bulging of the lens, and expand to allow it to elongate (flatten), as shown in figure 3.26. Information about how much the lens bulges or elongates is used by the brain to determine the depth and distance of the object in focus. For example, as you watch a golf ball leave the club head and travel 200 metres down the fairway, the lens quickly elongates. Alternatively, as you watch a basketball come towards you, the Figure 3.27 lens quickly bulges. (a)

(b)

Figure 3.26 (a) The lens bulges to focus the light rays reflected from a nearby object such as the flowers. (b) The lens elongates (flattens) to focus the light rays when the object is further away. C h a p t e r 3 The visual perception system

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Interposition

Texture gradient

When we see two footballers racing for the ball from a front­on perspective, it s sometimes difficult to tell which player is going to get there first. However, when one player starts to block our view of the other, we know that the partially covered player is behind the other player and therefore further away. The image received on the retina of one footballer overlapping the other provides the brain with infor­ mation about which player is closer and which player is fur­ ther away. Interposition, or overlap as it is also called, occurs when one object par­ tially blocks or covers another, and the partially blocked object is perceived as further away than the object that obscures it (and vice versa).

When we look down a long pathway made of pavers, the amount of detail that we can perceive in the pavers reduces more and more the further we look. For example, at our feet we can see individual pavers that make up the pathway, whereas if we look 30 or 40 metres further along the pathway, it looks like a single sur­ face, with little detail. Texture gradient refers to the gradual reduction of detail that occurs in a surface as it recedes into the distance, compared with a surface that is close and perceived in fine detail. Thus, our judgement about depth and distance is influenced by the extent to which we can detect fine detail. We per­ ceive objects for which fine detail is clear as being closer and those that lack detail, as being further away.

Figure 3.28 Interposition is clearly evident in this photograph where the red umbrella blocks the blue umbrella and where the motorbike blocks the legs of the pedestrian. What other instances of interposition are evident? 116

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Figure 3.29 Texture gradient is apparent in this photo where the pavers closest to us can be seen in detail. As the pavers recede into the distance they become a blur and less detail is apparent.

Relative size Imagine sitting at home watching a cartoon about outer space. The cartoon shows a huge explosion of a planet and pieces flying through space in all directions. Some of the pieces appear to be hurtling towards you. How does the artist who draws each separate image that makes up this scene lead you to perceive how far away the pieces are? The pieces that appear to be coming towards us are drawn as larger in each image than those going away or sideways from the exploding planet. The size of the pieces in relation to each other provides us with information about distance from us. As we move around in the real world, we use this information about the size of

objects in relation to each other to judge depth and distance. Relative size refers to the tendency to visually per­ ceive the object that produces the largest image on the retina as being closer, and the object that pro­ duces the smallest image on the retina as being fur­ ther away. However, the objects being perceived must be expected to be about the same size in real life. For example, we do not necessarily perceive that a car is further away than a truck because the car is smaller. We take into account what we know about their size, which is learnt through past experience, and enables us to become familiar with the size of different objects in our environment.

Figure 3.30 The photo on the left shows a young woman in the foreground and her work colleagues in the background. Our familiarity with the relative size of objects enables us to perceive the largest image on the retina (the young woman) as closer than the smaller images on the retina (her colleagues). The photo on the right has been manipulated. The retinal-sized image of one of the young woman s colleagues has been placed next to her so that both the young woman and this colleague are the same distance from the observer. If you measure the height of the image of the colleague you will see that she is exactly the same size in both photos. C h a p t e r 3 The visual perception system

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Sky

Height in the visual field When we draw a picture, objects that are in the sky, such as clouds, birds and planes, will be perceived as further away when they are drawn near the horizon. When we draw objects on the land, such as trees, ani­ mals and cars, they will also be perceived as further away when they are drawn near the horizon. Height in the visual field refers to the location of objects in our field of vision, whereby objects that are located closer to the horizon are perceived as being more distant than objects located further from the horizon. Interposition

Horizon

Height in the visual field

Ground Figure 3.32 The hot-air balloon that is higher in the visual field is perceived as closer than the other balloon as it is further away from the horizon. The car lower in the visual field (but also below the horizon) is also perceived as closer, as it is further away from the horizon.

Relative size

Texture gradient

Linear perspective

Figure 3.31 This photo illustrates the use of all five pictorial depth cues. 118

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BOX 3.6 Socio-cultural differences in pictorial depth cues Look at the picture of the hunting scene in figure 3.33. This picture was used to test the ability to respond to pictorial depth cues. Which animal is closer to the hunter, the elephant or the antelope? Using pictorial depth cues (monocular), you probably chose the antelope. The picture was shown to tribal Bantu indigenous people in Africa, who had little or no formal education and lived in isolated areas. Many of these participants selected the elephant, which is physically closer to the tip of the spear in the picture. The researcher classified this answer as a two-dimensional response. The Bantu

people had not used the interposition depth cue, nor had they taken into account what they know about the relative size of the animals; that is, that an elephant is bigger than an antelope (Hudson, 1962). This socio-cultural evidence indicates the importance of past experience in visual perception. It is possible that the Bantu who made incorrect perceptual judgements did so because they had limited opportunities to see threedimensional representations in two-dimensional forms. Therefore, they have difficulty judging distance from pictures (Deregowski, 1989).

Figure 3.33 Which animal is closer to the hunter?

learnin g acTiviT y 3. 14 Summarising depth cues Complete the table below (also available in your eBook) to describe and classify each depth cue listed, and give an example of when each cue is used. Depth cue

Description

Monocular (M) or Binocular (B)

Example

Retinal disparity Convergence Accommodation Linear perspective Interposition Texture gradient Relative size Height in the visual field

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learning acTiviTy 3.15 review questions 1. (a) Briefly describe a task that would be difficult for a person with sight in only one eye. (b) Which depth cues would this person be unable to use? (c) How would the inability to use both eyes affect the person s performance on this task? 2. The lens can alter its shape for near or distant objects. (a) Name the depth cue that uses information associated with change in lens shape. (b) Explain how and why the lens would change shape as a jeweller looks on a shelf for a tiny part to repair a watch, then closely inspects the part. 3. The retina receives a two-dimensional image, yet we visually perceive a threedimensional environment. Explain how this occurs, with reference to depth cues. 4. Examine the Renaissance painting shown in figure 3.34 at right. Identify three depth cues that are evident in this artwork.

Figure 3.34 The Annunciation by Crivelli, c.1430 95. © The National Gallery London

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Perceptual constancies

visual presentation using depth cues to perceive depth and distance

As we move around, the images that are cast on our retinae are constantly changing. Despite this, we usu­ ally perceive the world as a fairly stable place. Objects such as trees, houses and people are not perceived as changing in size, shape or brightness from one minute to the next. Despite the stable nature of the real world, visual information received at the retinae is constantly changing. For example, as you move away from an object, such as a tree, the size of the image it casts on the retina becomes smaller. But you do not perceive the tree to be shrinking. Similarly, a car is not perceived as changing in shape as we walk around it and view it from different angles, despite the fact that different shapes are produced on the retina. These are examples of what is known as perceptual constancy. In vision, perceptual constancy refers to the tendency to perceive an object as remaining stable and unchanging ( constant ) despite any changes that may occur to the image cast on the retina. Three perceptual constancies involve size, shape and brightness.

Prepare a poster that identifies, describes and explains the use of pictorial depth cues in an artwork. The poster should be suitable for display in a classroom and should include a copy of the artwork. You could use an artwork in this chapter or an artwork of your own choice, including one you may have created yourself (such as a painting or photograph). When selecting the artwork, ensure that at least three of the following pictorial cues can be identified: linear perspective, interposition, texture gradient, relative size and height in the visual field. Figure 3.31 shows a way of organising your poster.

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Size constancy Size constancy involves recognising that an object s actual size remains the same, even though the size of the image it casts on each retina changes. For example, when you are on a railway station platform watching a train coming towards you, the image it casts on each retina gets progressively bigger. However, you do not perceive the train as actually increasing in size. Simi­ larly, when you watch a train depart into the distance, the size of the retinal images become progressively smaller. Despite this, you still perceive the train s size as remaining constant. You know it hasn t shrunk. This indicates the role of learning in size constancy. Past experience with objects has enabled you to become familiar with objects of different sizes and you now know that they don t necessarily change size if they appear smaller.

Shape constancy As you move around a room which has a round clock on the wall, the angle from which you view the clock changes. Consequently, the image of the clock cast on the retina also changes. It might change from a circle when viewed face­on to an ellipse (oval shape) when viewed from side­on. Despite these changes to the ret­ inal image, your perception is still of a clock that is circular in shape (see figure 3.35). Shape constancy is the tendency to perceive an object as maintaining its shape despite any change in shape of the image of the object on the retina. As we

move around in our daily lives, the angles at which we view objects change. Consequently, the image of the object that is cast on the retina also changes. If we interpreted the image in terms of how it actually occurs on the retina, the object would be perceived as constantly changing shape. However, by automatically using the principle of shape constancy we know that the object hasn t changed shape and we perceive it as remaining stable (constant).

learning acTiviTy 3.1 7 Demonstration of size and shape constancy Look at the figure below. Try to imagine whether you could fit a five cent, 10 cent, or 20 cent coin on the top surface of this figure. Which coin(s) do you think would fit? Now use real coins to see which (if any) fit on the top surface. What did you find? Explain your answer in terms of the concepts of size and shape constancy.

Figure 3.35 We tend to perceive this clock as maintaining its shape despite the changes in the image it produces in the retina when we view it from different angles. C h a p t e r 3 The visual perception system

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BOX 3.7 Strategic deception involving size constancy Deception of distance by changing the real size of a familiar object was a strategy employed by the Allied Army against the German Army in World War II. To deceive the Germans, the Allies dropped life-like dummies with self-releasing parachutes from aircraft. When the dummies hit the ground, they set off explosions to simulate ground fire. These dummies were actually about one-third the size of an average man, but German observers would have perceived them as life-sized from a distance. Being familiar with the form of a human figure, the Germans would have used size constancy to estimate the distance of the dummy paratroopers. This was the key to the deception. Assuming that the Germans maintained size constancy, the Allies predicted that the Germans would incorrectly estimate the distance between themselves and the paratroopers.

learning acTiviTy 3.1 8 Practical activity

size constancy

This experiment enables you to test for the effect of size constancy. You should construct a hypothesis before collecting your data. You will need two sets of 10 square pieces of white paper (or cards) increasing in size from about 2.5 centimetres square to 10 centimetres square. Label each square using a different letter of the alphabet. Make sure that each square of the same size on both sets of squares has the same letter on one side of it. You will need a record sheet for each participant with trial numbers 1 10 down the left column and space to insert a letter (that is, the letter on the back of the card) next to each trial number. An example of a record sheet is shown below. Record sheet for participants responses

Trial number

Participant s response (letter)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

The real Allied troops were situated between the Germans and where the dummies landed. The Germans, believing they had plenty of time to plan their assault, were taken by surprise when they were soon attacked by the Allies at close range. Given that the dummies were only one-third life-size, the Germans probably overestimated the Allied paratroopers distance by a factor of three.

Ten volunteer participants should be tested, one at a time, each using the same set of materials. 1. Seat the participant at a distance of about six metres from you. There must be a clear line of vision between you and the participant. Give your participant one set of squares. 2. Instruct the participant as follows: I am going to hold up a card (or sheet of paper) and announce a trial number, such as Trial 1 . You are to look through your set of cards and select the card you believe is exactly the same size as the one I am holding up. Write the number of the trial and the letter that appears on that card on the record sheet (for example, Trial 1: G). There will be 10 trials altogether. Show the cards one at a time, ensuring the letter on the set of cards used by the experimenter is not revealed to the participant. Note that there should be no pattern to the size of the cards as they are presented mix the cards up so that the sizes are randomly presented. (continued)

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As you hold up each card, say Trial 1 , Trial 2 and so on. When the participant has selected the card they believe to be the same size as the one you are holding, say to the participant: Record the letter on the card you have chosen next to this trial number on the record sheet. Repeat this process for each of the 10 cards held up. Be sure you record the correct trial number and corresponding letter on the card you hold up each time, so you can check the accuracy of the participant s responses. 3. After each participant has completed the 10 trials and left the room, compare the trial numbers and letters on their record sheet with those on your record sheet. Record the number of correct responses for each participant in a table like the one below. 4. Calculate the percentage of correct responses for each participant, and then total the data for all participants. Calculate the mean percentage of correct responses.

Brightness constancy Suppose you are seated in a room at dusk with over­ head lighting on. Suddenly, the electricity supply is cut off. Despite the changed lighting conditions, you still perceive the objects around you as remaining the same colour. You know, for example, that the cover on the lounge chair hasn t suddenly become dull even though there is a reduction in brightness ( light intensity ) on the image produced on the retina and it looks duller. Because everything in your immediate environ­ ment has been reduced in light intensity by the same amount, the colours of all objects are perceived with the same brightness as they were before the lights went off. In this situation, your visual perception system has maintained brightness constancy. Brightness constancy is the tendency to perceive an object as maintaining its level of brightness in relation to its surroundings, despite changes in the amount of light being reflected from the object to the retina. (a)

Data sheet for responses of participants to 10 trials.

Responses Participants

Number of correct responses

Percentage of correct reponses

(b)

Participant 1 Participant 2 Participant 3 ... Participant 10 Mean Report Prepare a brief report on the research activity to include in your folio of practical activities. Your report should include: (a) a statement of the aim of this experiment (b) the research hypothesis (c) a summary of your results using appropriate descriptive statistics (d) a conclusion(s) based on the results and referring to the hypothesis (e) a potential extraneous variable(s) that may be relevant, including an explanation of why it may be relevant (f) other information that may be requested by your teacher. Adapted from Grivas, J. and Lawrie, P. (1991). Psychology: Experiments and Activities. Marrickville, NSW: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, pp. 141 3.

Figure 3.36 Look at the two inner rectangles. Most people perceive the inner rectangle in (a) to be lighter than the one in (b). If you cover the outer surroundings of each rectangle, you will see that they are of equal brightness. The brighter surrounds of (b) lead you to perceive the inner rectangle as relatively darker.

learning acTiviTy 3.1 9 review questions 1. (a) What is size constancy? (b) Give an example of the role of learning or past experience in the use of size constancy. 2. (a) What is shape constancy? (b) Suggest how we might perceive objects or events if we did not use shape constancy. 3. (a) What is brightness constancy? (b) Explain how you use brightness constancy when you look at the colour of your bedroom wall under different lighting conditions in the middle of a sunny day and at night. 4. Provide an example to show how one or more sociocultural factors may influence use of perceptual constancies.

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learnin g acTiviT y 3. 20 Practical activity constancy

brightness

Obtain about five sheets of art paper ranging from black, through several shades of grey, to white. Cut out two squares of the same size from one of the grey sheets. These will be used as standard squares. Then cut one square from each of the other sheets, ensuring that they are of the same size as the standard squares. Arrange the five squares in a sequence of shading from black to white. The second standard grey square should be placed about a metre to one side. Using 10 volunteer and/or randomly selected participants, have them select from the sequence of squares the one which correctly matches the isolated standard grey square. You may wish to study a socio-cultural variable by using, for example, participants of different genders, ages or ethnic backgrounds. A relevant research hypothesis should be constructed prior to collecting data. Next, alter the light intensity on the isolated standard grey square (and its immediate surrounds), but maintain the same light conditions for the sequence of squares. Light intensity can be altered by using a lamp which is easily moved closer to or further away from the standard square. If participants can still match the standard shade of grey from the sequence, despite the difference in light intensity, then they have demonstrated an ability to maintain brightness constancy. Report Prepare a brief report to include in your folio of practical activities. Your report should include: 1. a statement of the aim of your investigation 2. the research hypothesis 3. a summary of the results using appropriate descriptive statistics 4. a conclusion(s) based on the results and referring to the hypothesis 5. a potential extraneous variable that may be relevant, including an explanation of why it may be relevant. 6. other information that may be requested by your teacher.

percepTual seT anD VIsual percepTIon Look closely at the illustration of a seal act for a circus in figure 3.37. What do you see?

Figure 3.37

You may have identified a seal balancing a ball on its nose with its trainer on the right holding a fish in one hand and a stick in the other. However, if you had been told that this picture was of a costume party, how would you then have described it? Would your percep­ tion of the same illustration have been different? Look again at figure 3.37 until you can identify the woman on the left handing the man on the right a hat. He has a sword in his right hand.

learning a cTiviTy 3.21 visual presentation depth principles and perceptual constancies Prepare a poster or PowerPoint presentation on depth principles and perceptual constancies. Your presentation should 1. briefly outline the meaning of the concepts of depth principle and perceptual constancy

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2. name, describe and give two or three examples of depth principles 3. name, describe and give two or three examples of perceptual constancies 4. include examples of the application of depth principles and perceptual constancies in everyday life 5. include an example of how socio-cultural factors may influence our use of principles and/or constancies.

The ambiguous illustration demonstrates that an individual can arrive at entirely different perceptions from the same visual information. Why is it that our perceptions of the same visual scene can sometimes be different? Why is it that you could be led to perceive the same visual scene in two different ways? Many factors influence visual perception. Generally, these can be categorised into two groups called physio­ logical and psychological factors. Physiological factors involve the ways in which our eyes, nervous system and brain process visual information. Psychological factors involve mental processes such as our past experiences, socio­cultural background, memory, thinking, language, motivations, emotions and so on. Although the diverse range of influences on visual perception can be classified in this way, this does not mean that a neat line or boun­ dary can be drawn between physiological and psycho­ logical factors. To do so would be like trying to draw a line between sensation and perception. In the same way that sensation and perception are closely interrelated, so too are physiological and psychological factors inter­ related. The interaction of physiological and psycho­ logical factors is responsible for the unique personal realities we each construct of the world around us. In this section, we focus on an example of one of the most widely researched psychological factors that influences visual perception perceptual set. It was perceptual set that led you to perceive the illustration in figure 3.37 in the way that you did each time you were asked to look at it.

that is consistent with our expectations and ignore or overlook information that may be relevant. This can lead to a misinterpretation of an object or event. Consider the situation of waiting for a friend on a busy corner in the Melbourne CBD. The two of you have arranged to meet there and go to a movie. Your past experience with this person tells you that she walks faster than most people. You also know from past experience that she is always late, and today is no exception. Given the busy setting (context), you may be predisposed to look for the person walking fastest in the approaching crowd. A perceptual set, such as one based on these factors, often enables you to visually perceive information quickly. You would eliminate all the people in your field of vision who are not walking quickly, because you expect your friend to be in a hurry. However, what if she has sprained her ankle, and is now hobbling slowly to meet you? Or, what if you rush to greet a fast­moving young woman who resembles your friend to find that you are totally mistaken? There are several factors that can influence or bring about perceptual set. Most of these involve personal characteristics of the perceiver, such as their motivation, emotional state, past experience and cultural back­ ground. Other factors that affect perceptual set involve what is being perceived or the conditions under which it is being perceived, such as the context.

Perceptual set Perceptual set is the predisposition, or readiness , to perceive something in accordance with what we expect it to be. Our expectations of what an object or event will be make us more likely to interpret the object or event in the predetermined way. Perceptual set is often referred to as expectancy, because various psychological factors such as prior experience, motives and context create an expectation to perceive information in a particular way. Visual perception can be assisted by perceptual set when we correctly anticipate what something is and therefore interpret it more quickly. For example, as your teacher writes on the board, a perceptual set may enable you to interpret a misspelt word such as rember as a meaningful word (remember) in order to make sense of what is being written. Thus, you per­ ceive the total message more quickly than if you had to try to work out what the word rember meant before interpreting the whole message. Sometimes, however, perceptual set can lead to mis­ takes in perception. Our expectations of what something might be may cause us to notice only the information

Figure 3.38 Consider this photo of Angelina Jolie, then turn to page 126 and complete the simple activity. C h a p t e r 3 The visual perception system

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Figure 3.39 Consider the photos above and answer the following questions. Who is in the photo? Other than being of the same person, can you identify anything that clearly distinguishes the two photos? Now turn the book upside down. Most people name Angelina Jolie as the person in the photo when previously shown the photo in figure 3.38. Most people also expect the photos to be of Angelina Jolie smiling. Perceptual set has predisposed them to answer in these ways. Most people expect the photos to be normal because of perceptual set.

BOX 3.8 Expectations can be disastrous Our expectations of what something will didn t see what they never expected to Figure 3.40 The Mt Erebus be can lead us to perceive the object see. The pilots believed they were flying plane disaster or event in accordance with what we over a vast, flat ice shelf hundreds of kiloexpect it to be. However, if expectations metres away from the mountains. Conseare mistaken, then it can lead to misquently, they had no expectation that there takes in perception. In some cases, this would be mountains anywhere near their can be disastrous. For example, consider flight path. Day argued that the flat, barren, the findings of a Royal Commission that white landscape provided few visual cues investigated an aeroplane disaster that to the pilots, but there was enough percepresulted in the deaths of 257 passengers tual information to assure them that they and crew. were seeing what they expected to see. In November 1979, an Air New Zealand The pilots couldn t see the mountain in flight slammed into Mount Erebus in Antfront of them because of a polar weather arctica, killing everybody on board. The condition called white out . White out cockpit voice recorder recovered from occurs when white, snow-covered terthe crash site revealed that just minutes rain and white, thick clouds merge. The before impact, the pilots were identihorizon disappears and the white out area fying and talking about visual landmarks. is visually perceived as an endless white Yet they failed to notice the 3794-metre space with unlimited visibility. Against this mountain directly in front of them. How background, snow-covered mountains did this happen? become invisible. It is also impossible to Australian psychologist Ross Day appeared before the accurately judge distance, height and the size of objects. Commission as an expert witness and gave an explanation Not expecting to see any mountains, the pilots weren t that was accepted. Referring to research findings, Day looking for mountains. This led to the pilots failing to see the proposed that the pilots saw what they expected to see and mountain that actually was there.

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context In visual perception, context refers to the setting or environment in which a perception is made. When organising and interpreting visual information, we take account of the setting and pay more attention to those aspects of the setting that are immediately relevant. In this way, context has a focusing role in visual percep­ tion and usually assists us to make a quick and accu­ rate interpretation of what we are looking at. For example, consider the different interpretations that could be made of a fast­moving bright light in the sky that has a tail streaking behind it. How would you interpret this visual stimulus if you observed it in the sky over: 1. outback central Australia? 2. a war zone? 3. Cape Canaveral, Florida? 4. Melbourne s Yarra River on New Year s Eve 5. a ship at sea? As the context of the visual stimulus changed, your interpretation may also have changed from: (1) a meteorite, (2) a missile, (3) a rocket headed for outer space, (4) a skyrocket, (5) a distress flare.

The importance of context in visual perception was first demonstrated in an experiment by American cog­ nitive psychologists Jerome Bruner and Leigh Minturn (1955). In this experiment, one group of participants who were assigned the role of observers (Group A) was shown a visual stimulus (figure 3.43) for 80 thousandths of a second using a tachistoscope after viewing the series of letters L, M, Y, A. Another group of observers (Group B) was shown the same visual stimulus for the same exposure time after viewing the series of numbers 16, 17, 10, 12. The task given to each group of observers was to identify what they saw and to draw it. Results from Group A (who saw the letters first) indicated that 92% of the participants perceived the visual stimulus as a B . For Group B (who saw the numbers first), 83% of the participants perceived the visual stimulus as a 13 . Bruner and Minturn concluded that the context of either letters or numbers set , or predisposed the observers to interpret the ambiguous symbol in accord­ ance with the type of symbols that had preceded it. A perceptual set, or expectancy, had been established by the time the ambiguous figure was shown. Observers expected the next symbol to be one that was consis­ tent with the established context.

Figure 3.42 The ambiguous B/13 stimulus figure used by Bruner and Minturn (1955)

learning acTiviTy 3.22 evaluation of research Bruner and Minturn (1955) Figure 3.41 Our perception of a bright light with a tail streaking across the night sky is likely to be influenced by the context in which it is observed.

Context can also lead us to make slower or inac­ curate interpretations. For example, have you ever bumped into someone who seems familiar but found you can t recall their name or where you know them from? The person may have been one of your primary school teachers, but because they were out of context (that is, in a different situation from that in which you have known them) you were unable to readily identify them.

Consider the experiment on context conducted by Bruner and Minturn (1955). Evaluate the research by answering the following questions. 1. Construct a possible hypothesis for the experiment. 2. Identify the independent and dependent variables in the experiment. 3. Briefly state the results that were obtained. 4. Briefly state a conclusion for the experiment based on the results obtained. 5. Would a perceptual set have been established by showing one number/letter prior to showing the ambiguous figure? Explain your answer.

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learning a cTiviTy 3.23 Practical activity of visual stimuli

the effect of context on the interpretation

This experiment enables you to investigate the effect of context on the interpretation of various words. You should construct a hypothesis before conducting the experiment. The hypothesis should be based on your reading of possible effects of context on visual perception. You should test four participants; two for each of the conditions described below. Participants should be individually tested. You must follow all ethical standards and practices for psychological research when planning and conducting the experiment. Prepare five cards, each containing one stimulus word (see table 1). Each card will be shown to each participant. Prepare a data sheet for recording each participant s responses, such as the data sheet shown below. Identify the participant (e.g. by first name or a number) in the space provided at the top of the data sheet and circle the condition to which they have been assigned. The data sheet and all other materials can be downloaded from your eBook and customised. Data sheet for participants responses

Participant

Condition 1 or 2

Stimulus words

Response

Condition 2 Participants should be: • informed that a series of five cards containing a word related to sports will be flashed in front of them for a very brief period of time • shown each card containing the stimulus word for the shortest amount of time possible • asked to identify the word on the card. Participants responses should be recorded on the data sheet beside the relevant stimulus word. They should be thanked for their involvement in the experiment and its purpose explained to them. Table 1 below includes the interpretations relevant to each context. Combine your data with the data collected by others in the class, then calculate the percentage of participants whose interpretation of the visual stimulus was affected by the context in which it was presented. Table 1: Stimulus words and interpretations based on context.

Stimulus words

Animal interpretation

Sporting interpretation

boll

bull

ball

rar

ram

ran

loin

lion

line

squed

squid

squad

swin

swan

swim

boll rar loin squed swin Report Condition 1 Participants should be: • informed that a series of five cards containing a word related to animals will be flashed in front of them for a very brief period of time • shown each card containing the stimulus word for the shortest amount of time possible • asked to identify the word written on the card. Participants responses should be recorded on the data sheet beside the relevant stimulus word. They should be thanked for their involvement in the experiment and its purpose explained to them.

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Prepare a brief report to include in your folio of practical activities. Your report should include: 1. a statement of the aim of this experiment 2. the research hypothesis 3. a summary of the class results using appropriate descriptive statistics 4. a conclusion(s) based on the results and referring to the hypothesis 5. a potential extraneous variable(s) that may be relevant, including an explanation of why it may be relevant 6. other information that may be requested by your teacher.

Motivation

emotional state

Motivation can also influence perceptual set. Motivation refers to processes within us which activate behaviour that is directed towards achieving a par­ ticular goal. Motives can be influenced by psychological factors (such as interests, ambitions and desires) or physiological factors (such as bodily responses associ­ ated with hunger or thirst). Visual perception can be influenced by our motives when, for example, we see what we want to see, rather than what is actually there. When supporters of opposing teams are sitting side by side at a football match, the difference in their per­ ceptions of the same event may be considerable. Physi­ cally, the images cast upon their respective retinae are almost identical, but the influence of their respective motivational states to see their team win brings about perceptual differences which can be so great that they may appear (to the impartial observer) to be watching two different games.

Our emotional state how we are feeling can also influence the way in which we perceive visual infor­ mation. Different emotions can set us to perceive information in a particular way which is consistent with the emotion being experienced. For example, a child who is afraid of being in their darkened bedroom may interpret the shadow of their dressing gown hanging on the back of the bedroom door as a ghost, or the teddy bear sitting on the end of the bed as a monster.

Figure 3.43 Opposing football fans will arrive at a game with perceptual sets established by the motivation to see their respective teams win.

Past experience Past experience refers to our personal experiences throughout our lives. This includes everything we learn through experience, both intentionally and uninten­ tionally. Our unique combination of past experiences can lead to many individual differences in perception. Such experiences also predispose, or set us to per­ ceive information in a particular way. A well­known experiment on the effect of past experience on perceptual set was conducted by Hans Toch and Richard Schulte (1961). The researchers hypothesised that past experience (defined as type and stage of training ) influenced which illustration would be perceived more readily when two illustrations were briefly presented to participants. The Toch and Schulte experiment involved the use of binocular rivalry. Binocular rivalry occurs when a dif­ ferent visual image is briefly and simultaneously pre­ sented to each eye. Usually one image or the other is seen, but participants rarely see both. In the Toch and Schulte experiment, all participants were presented with nine pairs of illustrations. In each pair, one illus­ tration was of a violent scene and the other was of a neutral (neither violent nor non­violent) scene. One of the pairs of illustrations used in this experiment is shown in figure 3.44. The illustrations were delib­ erately drawn to be somewhat ambiguous in order to maximise the potential influence of the participants training on their perceptions. The participants were

Figure 3.44 Figures such as this pair were presented to participants in the experiment conducted by Toch and Schulte (1961).

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drawn from three different backgrounds: Group 1 had completed police­style training at the School of Police Administration and Public Safety at an American university, Group 2 had just begun their police­style training at the same school, and Group 3 were univer­ sity students with no police­style training of any kind. The results indicated that Group 1 participants per­ ceived the violent pictures on 52% of the trials, com­ pared with Group 2 on 26% and Group 3 on 22%. Toch and Schulte concluded that the past experience of police training (which had involved considerable time discussing, recognising and managing potentially violent and dangerous situations) increased the prob­ ability of perceiving the violent pictures.

cultural factors Culture refers to the way of life of a particular com­ munity or group that sets it apart from other com­ munities and groups. Culture includes such things as the customs, traditions, beliefs, values, attitudes, rules about what is right and wrong, music and food, as well as any other features of that community or group which distinguish it from other communities, or groups. Experience with or in a particular culture can influ­ ence the way we process and interpret visual infor­ mation. This was demonstrated in a study with Malawi people, a remote village community in Tanzania, Africa. Before the Malawi people had access to photo­ graphs, a group of them were shown a black and white photograph of a dog. Despite the fact that many of the observers owned dogs or had experience with dogs, they were unable to identify the subject of the photo­ graph as a dog. Even when the various features of the dog such as the head, ears and tail were pointed out to them, many of the Malawi people still had difficulty interpreting the photograph as a dog and, in some cases, the specific features of the dog, such as the paws and tail (Deregowski, 1980). This could be explained by the possibility that, being a remote tribal community, the Malawi people had little, if any, exposure to picture books. Consequently, they had little or no experience with photographs or two­ dimensional drawings of dogs on paper. When they were shown a two­dimensional photograph, they may not have been able to use relevant visual perception principles to identify the features and the overall image of the dog.

learning acTiviTy 3.2 5 review questions 1. (a) Explain the meaning of perceptual set. (b) Suggest why perceptual set is sometimes referred to as expectancy . 2. Give an example of how physiological and psychological factors may interact in influencing perceptual set. 3. (a) What does context mean in relation to visual perception? (b) Give an example of how context may lead to a perceptual interpretation of having seen a UFO, the Loch Ness monster or a similarly rarely sighted phenomenon. (c) In what way is context an explanation of the results obtained by Bruner and Minturn (1955) in their experiment? 4. Briefly explain, with reference to relevant examples, how each of the following can influence perceptual set. (a) motivation (b) emotional state (c) past experience (d) culture 5. Explain how past experience can lead to errors in visual perception.

learning acTiviTy 3.2 6 evaluation of research and Schulte (1961)

Toch

Evaluate the experiment on the influence of past experience on visual perception conducted by Toch and Schulte (1961). Your summary and evaluation should include responses to the following. 1. Construct a possible hypothesis for the experiment. 2. Identify the independent and dependent variables in the experiment. 3. Identify the experimental and control conditions of the experiment. 4. Briefly state the results that were obtained. 5. Briefly state the conclusion drawn by Toch and Schulte from their results. 6. Identify three ethical guidelines relevant to the experiment.

learning a cTiviTy 3.24 visual presentation

factors influencing perceptual set

Using pen and paper or software, draw a diagram such as a flow chart, which shows three key factors that can influence perceptual set and therefore interpretations of a visual image. Ensure each factor is named and briefly described using words or images.

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learnin g acTiviT y 3. 27 Practical activity the effect of past experience on the interpretation of an ambiguous stimulus This experiment enables you to investigate whether the interpretation of an ambiguous stimulus is influenced by immediate past experience, and, in particular, by the establishment of a perceptual set. It is based on a well-known experiment conducted by Bugelski and Alampay (1961). You should construct a hypothesis before conducting the experiment. Your hypothesis should be based on your reading of perceptual set and possible effects of past experience on perception. You should test three participants, one for each of the three conditions. Participants should be tested individually, out of the sight and hearing of other participants and away from distractions. You must follow all ethical standards and practices when planning and conducting the research. As the experimenter, you will need a complete set of the pictures in figure 3.45 with each illustration reproduced on separate cards, divided into two sets animals and faces. You should also prepare a data sheet on which to record participants responses. All materials can be downloaded from your eBook and customised. Condition 1 perceptual set for animals The participants are shown each of the cards (a) to (d) in set 1, in order, for one second each. Then participants are asked to briefly describe what they see in each of the pictures, but their responses are not recorded. The purpose of this is to develop a perceptual set for animals based on the participant s immediate past experience with four pictures of animals. Participants are then presented with the ambiguous stimulus card (e) which can be interpreted as either a man or a rat (or mouse). Participants are again asked to describe what they see and their response is recorded. Participants should be thanked for their involvement in the experiment and its purpose should be explained to them. Condition 2 perceptual set for faces Participants are shown each of the cards (a) to (d) in set 2, in order, for three seconds each. Participants are asked to briefly describe what they see in each of the pictures, but their responses are not recorded. The purpose of this is to

develop a perceptual set for faces based on the participant s immediate past experience with the four pictures of faces. Participants are then presented with the ambiguous stimulus card (e) which can be interpreted as either a man or a rat. Participants are again asked to describe what they see and their response is recorded. Participants should be thanked for their involvement in the experiment and its purpose should be explained to them. Condition 3 control Participants are presented with only the ambiguous stimulus card (e) which can be interpreted as either a man or a rat (or mouse). Participants are asked to describe what they see and their response is recorded. Participants should be thanked for their involvement in the experiment and its purpose should be explained to them. Combine your data with the data from the rest of the class. Calculate the number and percentage of participants in conditions 1 and 2 whose interpretation of the ambiguous stimulus was probably influenced by their immediate past experience for each condition, compared with the total number of participants for each group. Note that a participant response of mouse is to be recorded as a rat interpretation in either of the conditions. Calculate the number and percentage of participants in condition 3 whose interpretation of the ambiguous figure was either a rat (including mouse) or a man compared with the total number of participants in this condition. Report Prepare a brief report on the research activity to include in your folio of practical activities. Your report should include: 1. a statement of the aim of this experiment 2. the research hypothesis 3. a summary of the class results using appropriate descriptive statistics 4. a conclusion(s) based on the results and referring to the hypothesis 5. a potential extraneous variable(s) that may be relevant, including an explanation of why it may be relevant 6. other information that may be requested by your teacher.

Data sheet

Participant

Experimental condition 1 or 2 Set 1: animals + card (e) Set 2: faces + card (e)

Control condition 3 Ambiguous stimulus only card (e)

Response to card (e) M = Man R = Rat (or mouse) O = Other

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Set 1

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Figure 3.45 Stimulus cards for the experiment

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DIsTorTIons oF VIsual percepTIon BY IllusIons

One of the most widely studied illusions is called the M ller­Lyer illusion.

Most of the time, our perception of the world closely matches the physical environment around us. How­ ever, this does not mean that visual perception is error free. Distortions or mistakes in visual perception sometimes occur. Visual illusions demonstrate cases in which reality is misperceived. For example, the horizontal lines in figure 3.46 below are parallel. You can confirm this with a ruler yet, whenever you look at the pattern, it is impossible to perceive the horizontal lines as parallel.

Figure 3.46 Are the horizontal lines parallel or do they slope?

Similarly, consider the real life moon illusion, whereby the moon appears larger when it is low in the sky near the horizon than when it is high in the sky. The moon does not actually change in size. Yet when the moon illusion is apparent, we cannot avoid per­ ceiving the moon as bigger. A visual illusion is a misinterpretation (distortion or mistake) of real sensory information. It is an experience in which there is a mismatch between our perception and what we understand as physical reality. Every time we view the same sensory information (such as figure 3.47), we have the same illusory experience. Psychologists have identified over 200 visual illu­ sions, some of which are shown in figure 3.48. Gener­ ally, the illusory effects are unavoidable. Even when we know that we are looking at an illusion and have an understanding of why the illusion occurs, we continue to see the illusion as powerfully as when we first saw it. Psychologists have enhanced their understanding of visual perception by examining the conditions under which it fails. For instance, visual illusions demonstrate the important role our brain plays in constructing our view of the world. They also demonstrate the effect of perceptual principles and factors such as learning (past experience) and context on the formation of our perceptions.

Figure 3.47 The moon illusion is a naturally occurring illusion. Why does the moon look so much larger when on the horizon than when it is high in the sky? (See box 3.9 on p. 140.) C h a p t e r 3 The visual perception system

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Fraser spiral: Although we perceive a spiral, this is actually a picture of a series of concentric rings.

Z llner illusion: The vertical lines are all parallel but do not look parallel because of the changing direction of the small diagonal lines crossing them.

Orbison illusion: The smaller inner circle appears misshapen when placed in the spokes of the larger circle.

Horizontal vertical illusion: Although the two lines are equal in length, the vertical line appears to be longer.

Hering illusion: All four horizontal lines are parallel although the middle two appear to bow around the central point where all the diagonal lines meet.

Poggendorf illusion: The diagonal line running from bottom left to top right appears to exit the vertical bar too high. A ruler placed on the line can confirm that the line is perfectly straight.

Figure 3.48 Visual illusions

eBook plus

M ller-lyer illusion Are the vertical lines in figure 3.49 the same length? Since illusions are being examined in this section, you probably realise that they are the same length and therefore answered Yes . But do they appear to be the same length? The answer is No . Measure the two vertical lines to confirm that they are identical in length. Look again at the two lines. Despite the fact that you know they are of equal length, they still don t look equal. Your distorted perception has been caused by the configuration of lines that make up the M ller­ Lyer illusion an illusion that has attracted a great deal of research by psychologists. Named after Franz M ller­Lyer (1857­­1916) who originally described it in 1889, the M ller-Lyer illusion is a visual illusion in which one of two lines of equal length, each of which has opposite shaped ends, is incorrectly perceived as being longer than the other. As shown in figure 3.49, the line with the feather tail at each end (b) is perceived as being longer than the line with the arrowhead at each end (a). 134

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Weblinks

illusion sites

Psychologists have proposed a variety of explanations for the M ller­Lyer illusion. We consider explanations from four contemporary perspectives. Explanations from the biological perspective empha­ sise the role played by our eyes, nervous system and/ or brain when we view the illusion. For example, one of the earliest biological theories proposed that the M ller­Lyer illusion was caused by the eye itself and explained the illusion in terms of eye movements and a failure of the visual perception system to properly process differing information about eye movements. Eye movement theory proposes that the arrowheaded and feather­tailed lines require different types and/or amounts of eye movements. Because the entire feather­ tailed line in the illusion is longer, it lengthens the eye movements required to view the line. Therefore we perceive this line as longer. Another version of the eye movement theory is that we perceive the feather­tailed line as longer because it takes more eye movements to view a line with inward pointing arrows than it does a

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 3.49 The standard M ller-Lyer illusion

line with outward pointing arrows. Despite these dif­ ferent interpretations of eye movements, eye movement theory was rejected by psychologists when researchers found that the M ller­Lyer illusion continues to be seen even when there is no eye movement at all. More recent biological theories have been based on studies using brain imaging technologies; for example, scanning the brain while participants with or without brain damage are looking at the illusion. These studies have identified specific brain areas that are active and inactive when we view the illusion but they have not been able to satisfactorily explain why we perceive the illusory effects. It may be the case that we have an inborn tendency to misperceive simple geometric pat­ terns when they are viewed in a two­dimensional form. We may experience the illusion because we inherit the tendency to experience it, or that we have a particular inborn, genetic tendency to do so. A second approach to explaining the M ller­Lyer illusion is from a behavioural perspective. Explanations from this perspective emphasise the role of learning and past experience. For example, it has been pro­ posed that we experience the illusion because it con­ tradicts what we have learned throughout life about physical reality. Therefore, we can t make sense of the illusion whenever we view it, even after the illusion is explained to us. One learning­based explanation of the M ller­Lyer illusion that created a lot of interest is known as the carpentered world hypothesis . This explanation pro­ poses that the M ller­Lyer illusion occurs because of its similarity to familiar architectural features in the real three­dimensional world we experience as part of everyday life (see figures 3.49(c) and (d)). In our three­dimensional world, we have grown accustomed to seeing corners everywhere and often use these and other angles and lines to judge depth and distance. As a consequence of this experience, the arrowheaded line looks like the nearer, outside, vertical corner and roof­ line of a room or building, whereas the feather­tailed

line looks like the farthest, inside corner (including ceiling and floor) of a room. Consequently, the two vertical lines appear to be at different distances from the observer the feather­tailed line appears further away. Our brain overrides information from the retinal images showing the two vertical lines as equal in length. Therefore, the line that appears further away (feather­tailed line) is perceived as longer. Research studies conducted from a third approach, the socio-cultural perspective, have focused on the role of social and cultural factors in the perception of the M ller­Lyer illusion. These studies have also provided evidence for the role of learning and past experi­ ence in perceiving the illusion. For example, in some societies or cultures, people have spent most of their lives in non­carpentered worlds (see figure 3.50(b)). One such group are Zulus who live in tribal commu­ nities within remote areas of Africa. These Zulus live in circular houses with roundish doors and domed rooves without all the familiar angles, corners and edges of our Western three­dimensional world. When shown the M ller­Lyer illusion, these Zulus are more likely to view the lines in their actual two­dimensional forms and therefore perceive the lines as equal in length. They have only limited, if any, experience of angles and corners in their three­dimensional worlds and are consequently less likely to perceive the illusion. A socio­cultural study has also been conducted to compare responses to the M ller­Lyer illusion by white American children and Zambian children in Africa. The study included a comparison of Zambian children living in tribal communities in rural areas and Zambian children living in urban areas such as towns or cities. The results showed that the white American children were more likely to perceive the illusion than were the Zambian children living in urban areas. Furthermore, the Zambian children living in urban areas were more likely to perceive the illusion than the rural Zambian children. Since the rural Zambian children were much less exposed to rectangular structures, it seems C h a p t e r 3 The visual perception system

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that experience associated with the environment in which we grow up is a relevant factor in perceiving the M ller­Lyer illusion (Segall, Campbell & Herskovits, 1966; Segall & others, 1990). Other researchers have found little difference in perception of the illusion between groups living in different environments. For example, one study com­ pared two groups of Aboriginal people. One group lived in a carpentered environment and the other group lived in a non­carpentered environment, in very basic housing in a remote outback region. The two Aboriginal groups did not differ in perception of the M ller­Lyer illusion. Both groups were also com­ pared with a group of European Australians. Again, there was little difference. On the basis of these find­ ings, the researchers suggested that race or education and training, rather than an individual s specific environment, may be relevant factors in experiencing the illusion (Gregor & McPherson,1965). Although the findings of socio­cultural studies have not provided specific explanations of the M ller­Lyer illusion, they have been very important in demon­ strating the relevance of socio­cultural factors and per­ sonal experience in the perception of visual illusions. A fourth approach to explaining the M ller­Lyer illusion is from a cognitive perspective. Explanations from this perspective emphasise how we take in and process visual information in order to perceive the illusion. For example, one explanation from the cognitive per­ spective suggests that the perceptual error we make with the M ller­Lyer illusion may be due to using inappropriate mental strategies when interpreting the incoming visual information; for example, assuming that a smaller line is further away than it actually is.

(a)

Our incorrect interpretation of the length of the two lines is said to occur because we incorrectly use the principle of size constancy. This leads us to make an interpretation that when two lines appear to be at dif­ ferent distances, and cast retinal images of equal size, then the line which appears further away (the feather­ tailed line) must be longer. The incorrect interpret­ ation leads to the illusion. In this way, the M ller­Lyer illusion can be said to result from inappropriate use of perceptual processes involved in maintaining size constancy, when we know from depth cues (same­ sized retinal images) and past experience, that objects appearing to be at different distances can be of iden­ tical size or length. Furthermore, our perception of the M ller­Lyer illusion suggests that we sometimes don t interpret a retinal image as being what it really is, but rather what it represents. Critics of this misapplication of size constancy theory for explaining the M ller­Lyer illusion have questioned why the illusion works equally well when the two lines are horizontal rather than vertical, as shown in figure 3.51. Furthermore, psychologists have produced other variations on the M ller­Lyer illusion which use different shapes on the ends, which are also shown in figure 3.51. These variations of the M ller­ Lyer illusion are equally effective in producing the illusion as the original figures. In sum, each of the different perspectives offers useful insights into factors that may influence whether or not we perceive the M ller­Lyer illusion. Psychol­ ogists from each of these perspectives have constructed and tested many hypotheses through experimental research. Many psychologists have also developed theories by drawing on the theories and research find­ ings of other perspectives. However, psychologists from all perspectives mostly agree that there is not yet any single explanation of the M ller­Lyer illusion that is entirely satisfactory.

(b)

Figure 3.50 (a) Carpentered and (b) non-carpentered worlds 136

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

Figure 3.51 Variations of the M ller-Lyer illusion. These figures work just as well to produce the M ller-Lyer illusion without the depth cues said to cause the illusion in the original vertical figure.

learnin g acTiviT y 3. 28 Practical activity measuring the M ller-lyer illusion This practical activity enables you to produce and measure the magnitude of the M ller-Lyer illusion. You will need to construct a M ller-Lyer apparatus, as shown in figure 3.52 below. Participants should be volunteers who are chosen randomly from the target population the whole class (or possibly all VCE Unit 1 Psychology classes if there are more than one). The size of the sample should be about 50% of the target population so that there are about as many experimenters as there are participants. Participants should be tested, one at a time, using the M ller-Lyer apparatus. You should construct a relevant hypothesis before conducting the experiment. Present the M ller-Lyer apparatus to the participant. Ask the participant to move the slide (b) by pushing it to the right until the horizontal part of the line marked on it appears to be equal in length to the horizontal line on the square (a). Figure 3.52 How to make a M ller-Lyer apparatus. Make two cardboard squares (a) and one long and narrow rectangle (b). On one of the large squares, draw a horizontal line with arrowheads on both ends. On the (b) rectangle draw a long horizontal line with a reversed arrowhead placed as shown. Fasten the two (a) squares together so that the (b) rectangle can slide back and forth between them. (A more durable apparatus could be constructed using timber.)

(b)

Using a ruler, measure the horizontal part of the line shown on the slide (b). Record the measurement. Do not allow the participant to know the measurement. Push the slide (b) through the square (a) until the arrow on it touches or nearly touches the left-pointing arrow on the square (a). Ask the participant to move the slide (b) by pushing it to the left until the horizontal line on it appears to be equal in length to the horizontal line on the square (a). Measure and record the horizontal line on the slide (b), again making sure that the participant does not know the measurement. The participant should make these judgements, alternately, 10 times to the right and 10 times to the left. Note that variables relating to either the participant or the stimulus can be tested. Participant variables include age (younger and older participants) and gender (male or female). Stimulus variables include the length of the horizontal line in the M ller-Lyer illusion and the angle made with the horizontal by the arrowhead or feather-tail. Another variation is presenting the figure to participants in either a vertical or a horizontal position.

(a)

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The data collected for each participant should be combined with data from other class members and summarised in a table, using appropriate descriptive statistics. The mean length of the line on the slide (b) should be calculated and compared with the actual length of the line on the square (b). Report Prepare a brief report on the research activity to include in your folio of practical activities. Your report should include: 1. a statement of the aim of this experiment 2. the research hypothesis 3. a summary of the class results using appropriate descriptive statistics 4. a conclusion(s) based on the results and referring to the hypothesis 5. a potential extraneous variable(s) that may be relevant including an explanation of why it may be relevant. 6. other information that may be requested by your teacher. Adapted from Grivas, J. and Lawrie, P. (1991). Psychology: Experiments and Activities. Marrickville, NSW: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, pp. 145 6.

learning a cTiviTy 3.29 review questions 1. Why are visual illusions often referred to as distortions of visual perception ? 2. In what way can the study of visual illusions enhance understanding of visual perception? 3. Give an example of how socio-cultural factors may influence perception of an illusion. 4. In point form, outline the explanation of the M llerLyer illusion in terms of a misapplication of size constancy .

learning a cTiviTy 3.30 visual presentation M ller-lyer illusion Prepare a diagram which graphically shows and summarises approaches to explaining the M ller-Lyer illusion from four different perspectives. Present your diagram on an A3 sheet of paper or a PowerPoint slide. Information may be written in point form. Ensure you include a copy(s) of the M ller-Lyer illusion and any other relevant graphics.

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ames room illusion Examine the photograph in figure 3.53. In each photograph, the person on the right appears to be much bigger than the person on the left. However, both people are actually of normal size. This illusion involves people appearing smaller or larger, depending on where they are standing. It is based on the unusual construction of the room, particularly the shape of the back wall. The Ames room illusion involves a trapezium­shaped room that is longer and higher on one side than the other. When viewed through a peep­ hole at the front of the room using only one eye, the room appears rectangular. The room s unusual shape and being restricted to the use of monocular vision to view it provides the basis for the illusion. Although other items in the room such as windows, clocks and furniture may add to the illusory effect, these items are not essen­ tial for the illusion to occur. The illusion is named after American psychologist Adelbert Ames (1880 1955) who intentionally designed the room to distort visual percep­ tion, particularly the size of objects in the room. The Ames room appears to be a normal rectangular room when viewed through a peephole located in a cen­ tral position on the front wall. The back wall looks parallel to the front wall and the two back corners there­ fore appear to be exactly the same distance from the observer. A crucial aspect of the illusion is that the back wall is actually slanted away from the observer (from right to left). This results in the far left corner being double the distance of the right corner from the peep­ hole. When observing a person standing in the right corner at the back the room, the image of that person which is cast on the retina is larger because the person is twice as close to the observer (compared to a person standing in the back left corner). In addition, the ceiling slopes upwards from the right upper corner to the left upper corner of the room. This increases the height of the ceiling from right to left, which also helps ensure the illusion occurs. As a result of these deliberately constructed decep­ tions , Ames was able to make people appear small or large, depending on where they stood in the room. When we view the inside of the room through the peep­ hole, our past experience with rectangular rooms leads us to expect that the people in the room are all the same distance away from us. However, in this situation, one person casts a smaller or larger retinal image than the other, so their sizes are perceived as different. The cognitive perspective provides a widely accepted explanation of the Ames room. This explanation is commonly called apparent distance theory. The apparent distance theory states that when two retinal images are the same size, but one image appears to be at a greater distance, then the one that appears fur­ ther away will be interpreted as bigger or larger.

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Figure 3.53 There is a distortion of the size of objects within the Ames room. A crucial feature of the room that creates the illusory effect is the back wall, which is actually slanting away from the observer, but appears to be a normal rear wall of a rectangular room.

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In the Ames room, the perceived rectangular shape of the room is consistent with the retinal image, but not consistent with the room s real shape. The back cor­ ners on either side of the room actually produce equal­ sized retinal images because the vertical length of the further left corner is double the length (but twice the distance from the observer) of the nearer right corner. Therefore the visual angle is the same for both cor­ ners from the observer s view. Because the observer does not have the depth cues available to work out the real difference in distance between the two cor­ ners, the equal­sized retinal images of the corners are

interpreted as equal in size. This produces an illusion of a rectangular room. The Ames room illusion also illustrates our inability to maintain size constancy when our use of depth cues is restricted or the depth cues are misleading. Size constancy fails because the retinal information (that is, the changing sizes of the people as they cross the floor) cannot be corrected due to the lack of accu­ rate depth information. The illusion is so strong that a person observed walking from the right corner to the left corner is perceived as shrinking , even though the observer knows that this is not possible in the real world.

BOX 3.9 The moon illusion Unlike the M ller-Lyer and Ames room illusions, which are artificially created, the moon illusion is a naturally occurring illusion. The moon illusion occurs when the moon appears considerably larger on the horizon than when it is high up in the sky, even though the retinal image is equal in both situations, and the moon does not actually change its size as it moves across the sky (figure 3.47). The illusion is more obvious with a full moon. This phenomenon has intrigued people for many centuries and various theories have been proposed to explain it. The most widely accepted explanation is called apparent distance theory. This theory is based on the results of research conducted by American psychologists Lloyd Kaufman and Irvin Rock. Kaufman and Rock (1962) proposed that viewing the moon over a visible stretch of terrain such as a landscape makes it appear further away. They found that when research participants viewed the moon at the horizon over a visible surface (for example, trees and buildings), it appeared on average 1.3 times larger than the moon seen at its highest point in the sky (its zenith). However, when the terrain was kept out of vision by observing the

moon through a hole in a sheet of cardboard, no difference in size between the horizon and zenith moons was reported. Kaufman and Rock concluded that the terrain offers many depth and distance cues that provide evidence to allow us to perceive the moon as more distant, whereas the sky offers no depth and distance cues, so we misperceive distance and underestimate the moon s size. The main criticisms of this explanation of the moon illusion are based on the results of other empirical research studies. For example, Coren and Aks (1990) have found that people sometimes perceive the horizon moon as closer, not more distant; Reed and Krupinski (1992) have found that the illusory effect cannot be created when the visual stimulus is a star rather than the moon; and Suzuki (1991) found that the illusion can still occur even when the moon is projected at different points in the sky without the presence of depth and distance cues, as in the total darkness of an indoor planetarium. Socio-cultural factors can also influence perception of the illusion (see p. 136). In sum, a completely satisfactory explanation of the moon illusion has yet to be proposed (Kassin, 1995).

learning a cTiviTy 3.31

learning acTiviTy 3.3 2

review questions

visual presentation illusions

1. Briefly describe the Ames room illusion. 2. If you watch a person walk from the back righthand corner of the Ames room to the back left-hand corner of the Ames room, they are likely to appear to shrink. Explain why you would perceive the person to be shrinking. 3. Why is the observer s view restricted to using monocular cues? 4. Explain the Ames room illusion with reference to apparent distance theory.

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visual

Prepare an A3 size annotated poster or PowerPoint presentation on the M ller-Lyer or the Ames room illusion, briefly describing and explaining the illusion. Ensure your presentation includes an example of the illusion and a brief description of its illusory effects on the observer. Explain the illusory effects in point form, with reference to a relevant theory, ensuring that you refer to specific features of each illusion.

learning a cTiviTy 3.33

TrUe/Fa lSe Q UiZ

essay visual perception from different perspectives

Indicate whether each item is true or false by writing T or F in the blank space next to each item.

Write an essay of about 400 500 words in which you explain visual perception with reference to different perspectives. In your essay, ensure that you • define visual perception • describe key concepts and processes in visual perception • describe approaches to explaining one or more aspects of visual perception from at least two different perspectives • accurately define and explain all key terms, concepts and processes • use appropriate examples to demonstrate your understanding of key concepts and processes • structure your information in a logical manner • express your information in a clear and concise way. References may be used in obtaining information for your essay.

1. _____

Visual perception involves detecting and assigning meaning to visual information.

2. _____

Visual perception is an active process, rather than a passive process.

3. _____

Organisation and interpretation occur during reception.

4. _____

Interposition involves sending visual information along the optic nerve from the retina to the visual cortex.

5. _____

Gestalt principles of visual perception enable us to automatically organise whole, complete forms into parts.

6. _____

Rods and cones change shape to focus an image onto the retina.

7. _____

The use of perceptual constancies helps ensure the environment is perceived as relatively stable and unchanging.

8. _____

Perceptual set is the tendency to perceive something in accordance with our expectations.

9. _____

The use of camouflage is an application of the figure ground principle.

10. _____

Misapplication of size constancy is an explanation of the M ller­ Lyer illusion from the cognitive perspective.

Assessment task and criteria

learning a cTiviTy 3.34 Oral presentation visual perception from different perspectives Prepare an oral presentation in which you explain visual perception with reference to different perspectives. In your presentation, ensure that you: • use two or more data types; for example, still or moving images, written text and sound • define visual perception • describe key concepts and processes in visual perception • describe approaches to explaining one or more aspects of visual perception from two or more different perspectives • accurately define and explain all key terms, concepts and processes • use appropriate examples to demonstrate your understanding of key concepts and processes • organise the information in a logical way • express your information in a clear and concise way. References may be used in obtaining information for your presentation.

The answers to the true/false questions are in the answer section at the back of this book and in eBookPLUS.

Assessment task and criteria

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C H A PT E R TES T SecTiOn a

Multiple-choice questions

Choose the response that is correct or that best answers the question. A correct answer scores 1, an incorrect answer scores 0. Marks will not be deducted for incorrect answers. No marks will be given if more than one answer is completed for any question. 1. Which of the following sequences has visual perception processes in the correct order? A. reception; interpretation; transmission B. transmission; interpretation; transduction C. reception; transduction; transmission D. organisation; transmission; reception 2. In visual perception, transduction involves A. interpretation of sensory information when it reaches the brain. B. sending information from the eye to the brain. C. conversion of electromagnetic energy into electrical impulses. D. conversion of light into electromagnetic energy. 3. In the visual perception system, information travels from the retina via the optic nerve to the brain in a process called A. transduction. B. reception. C. feature detection. D. transmission. 4. Which of the following is a depth cue for visual perception? A. proximity B. similarity C. accommodation D. closure 5. When we have difficulty separating a figure from the background in a picture or in an everyday setting, it is most likely due to an inability to A. use linear perspective. B. use monocular cues. C. perceive the contour lines which belong to the figure. D. use retinal disparity. 6. When our brain monitors the muscles used to change the shape of the lens, we are using A. shape constancy. B. retinal disparity. C. accommodation. D. convergence. 142

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7. A white shirt looks just as white when you are ironing in conditions of artificial light as it does when you hang it on the clothes line in the sunlight. This is an example of the effect of A. brightness constancy. B. binocular cues. C. figure­­ground perception. D. accommodation. 8. The difference in the images on the retina of each eye when an observer is viewing something is called A. relative size. B. retinal disparity. C. texture gradient. D. height in the visual field. 9. When one object in a visual stimulus partially blocks another, the object at the back which is blocked from full view is perceived as being further away than the object in front of it. This is an example of A. closure. B. interposition. C. constancy. D. figure­­ground organisation. 10. When we mentally complete a visual stimulus which has missing information, thereby resulting in a meaningful perception, we are using the perception principle called A. figure­­ground organisation. B. retinal disparity. C. convergence. D. closure. 11. The M ller­Lyer illusion demonstrates that when the retinal images of two lines are identical, people who grew up in carpentered worlds A. cannot be fooled. B. can make perceptual errors unless a ruler is available. C. will usually interpret the two lines as being of the same length. D. can find themselves making errors of judgement by ignoring carpentered world cues.

12. A visual illusion is best described as A. consistent misinterpretation of real sensory stimuli. B. a trick involving the visual perception system. C. a false belief despite obvious proof that what is being looked at is incorrect. D. a perception that occurs without external stimulation of the eye. 13. The correct sequence of the pathway of light through the eye and eventually to the brain in another form is A. cornea, iris, pupil, retina, lens, visual cortex. B. pupil, iris, lens, retina, optic nerve, visual cortex. C. pupil, lens, retina, fovea, optic nerve, visual cortex. D. cornea, pupil, lens, retina, optic nerve, visual cortex. 14. Which of the following is a binocular cue for depth perception? A. linear perspective B. texture gradient C. convergence D. accommodation 15. The assist us to see in conditions of dim light; whereas the assist us to see fine detail, in colour and in bright light. A. cones; rods B. lens; cones C. rods; cones D. rods; lens 16. An explanation of an illusion in terms of misfiring neural impulses is likely to be based on the perspective. A. behavioural B. biological C. cognitive D. socio­cultural

18. Milan skips an English class because he hasn t completed an essay. He is anxious about seeing his English teacher. On his way to another class he sees his English teacher walking towards him scowling. Milan disappears into the closest classroom to avoid him. When his teacher walks in behind him and asks if he needs any assistance, Milan breathes a sigh of relief. Milan s misinterpretation of his teacher s facial expression is probably due to his A. perceptual set. B. visual problems C. accommodation. D. physiological condition. 19. Driving through central NSW on your way to Queensland you notice the red light on your fuel gauge that indicates you are low on fuel. As you drive a little further, you notice a sign that says fuel ahead . When you get closer to the sign you discover that you had misperceived the sign which actually reads food ahead . Which of the following best explains your perceptual error? A. motivation B. context C. past experience D. cultural background 20. The Ames room illusion demonstrates that A. viewing objects over a stretch of visible terrain can distort perception. B. perception is more accurate when we use monocular cues as well as binocular cues. C. we always maintain size constancy over shape constancy. D. if two people (or objects) appear to be the same distance away from an observer but cast retinal images indicating that they are different sizes, then perceived size is determined by retinal image size.

17. In the study of perception, objects and events encountered throughout our lifetime are referred to as A. past experience. B. motivation. C. perceptual set. D. cognitions.

C h a p t e r 3 The visual perception system

143

SecTiOn B

Short-answer questions

Answer all questions in the spaces provided. Question 1 At sports matches, we tend to use the visual perceptual principle of to distinguish between supporters of opposing teams. 1 mark

Question 2 Explain the difference between visual sensation and visual perception.

2 marks

Question 3 Describe three roles played by the eye in visual perception.

3 marks

Question 4 Give an explanation of visual perception in terms of the cognitive perspective.

2 marks

Question 5 Explain the role of perceptual set in visual perception.

2 marks

eBook plus The answers to the multiple-choice questions are in the answer section at the back of this book and in eBookPLUS. The answers to the short-answer questions are in eBookPLUS. Note that you can complete Section A of the chapter test online through eBookPLUS and get automatic feedback.

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CHAPTER

4

LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT Defining lifespan development .......... 146 Stages of lifespan development ......... 147 Areas of lifespan development ........... 149 How development proceeds .......... 151 Interaction of hereditary and environmental factors in shaping psychological development ................... 155 Role of maturation in development ......................................... 160 Sensitive periods in development ......................................... 161 Developmental psychology from different perspectives ............................... 164 Research methods for studying development .................................................... 165 Longitudinal and cross­sectional studies ........................................................ 166 Twin studies ............................................... 167 Adoption studies .................................... 169 Selective breeding experiments .......................................... 169 Ethics associated with studying development .................................................... 173

Consider some of the things you do almost daily. You tell the time, make plans, send a text message, buy something, use your imagination, interact with friends, acquaintances and others and wonder about whether something is right or wrong . When you were born, you were unable to do any of these. So how did you acquire the knowledge and skills to engage in these activities and the many others of which you are capable? What role do biological processes such as your genetic make­up play in being able to engage in these activities? What role do environmental factors play; for example, the influence of your family, friends, the cultural group to which you belong, and society in general? There are things about each of us that are like all other human beings, there are things about each of us that are like some others, and there are also things about us that are unique to each one of us, and like no others. What psychological characteristics do we share with others and what characteristics are unique to each one of us? What aspects of who we are remain the same for all of our lives and what aspects change? These are some of the many questions considered by psychologists who study lifespan development.

Lifespan development covers both relatively perma­ nent changes which are common to all individuals, as well as changes which differ between individuals. Knowing the kinds of changes that might be expected at different times helps us understand what is normal , what is not normal and consequently when pro­ fessional assistance may be helpful. For example, through studying language development in many chil­ dren, psychologists have learnt that at about 18 months of age most infants have a vocabulary of between five to 20 words. By two years of age their vocabulary has increased to about 270 words and by age six, many chil­ dren can understand and correctly use about 2600 dif­ ferent words (Child Development Institute, 2008). Consequently, a three­year­old who has a vocabulary of about 100 words may need professional assistance. Psychologists also use the results from their research on human development to suggest how desirable changes can be best achieved and how undesirable changes can be avoided or overcome. For example, research evidence with older people has shown that by keeping mentally active through regular reading, doing crossword puzzles, Sudoku puzzles and the like, may assist them to maintain their mental alertness as they age (Schaie, 1994).

defInIng LIfespan deveLopment Psychologists use the term lifespan development to refer to age­related changes that occur from birth, throughout a person s life, into and during old age. Many changes also occur during the nine months the fetus is developing in the uterus (in utero). However, psychologists focus mainly on the develop­ ment of psychological characteristics after birth. That doesn t mean that in utero experiences do not affect the development of psychological characteristics. For example, a pregnant female who regularly consumes alcohol or is highly stressed for a considerable part of her pregnancy can adversely affect the development of her fetus, both in utero and subsequently after birth. Psychologists who study lifespan development aim to understand, describe, explain and predict the many ways in which our thoughts, feelings and behaviour change throughout our lives. A change must be rela­ tively permanent or lasting to be considered a developmental change. For example, a short­term loss of memory as a result of a sporting injury, or an improve­ ment in mood after receiving good news are not con­ sidered to be developmental changes. Both of these are changes, but they are only temporary and are therefore not developmental changes. 146

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

Figure 4.1 Research findings in lifespan development assist our understanding of what psychological characteristics should be expected in various stages of the lifespan and how undesirable changes may be avoided or overcome.

learnin g acTiviT y 4. 1 identifying a developmental change 1. For each of the following individuals, state whether the thought, feeling or behaviour would be considered a developmental change (D) or would not be considered a developmental change (ND). Give a reason for each answer. • An eight month old infant who cries whenever her mother leaves the room • A six-year-old boy who has learned to play chess • A 50-year-old person who cannot remember anything while anaesthetised during surgery • A 10-year-old girl who now feels confident about sleeping away from home without becoming homesick • A 70-year-old woman who learns how to send an email • A 28-year-old male who believes he is ready to move out of his family home and live independently away from his parents. 2. Give an example of a change you have experienced which would be considered a developmental change and a change that you have experienced which would not be considered a developmental change.

eLesson on key

development concepts stages of LIfespan deveLopment

Developmental psychologists often divide the lifespan into age­based stages. This is mostly for the purposes of study, research or to describe age­related changes. The stages and their approximate ages are: infancy birth to two years childhood two years to 10 years adolescence 10 years to 20 years early adulthood 20 years to 40 years middle age 40 years to 65 years older age 65 years and beyond. The age range for each stage provides a general idea of when each stage begins and when it ends. However, this does not mean that each stage starts and ends pre­ cisely at the ages shown. For example, a person doesn t suddenly move into the older age stage on their sixty­ fifth birthday. Individuals differ in terms of the age at which they move from one stage of development into the next. In terms of psychological development, some individuals may be considered to be in the stage of adolescence at 10, while others may psychologically still be in the stage of childhood at 12. Infancy is the stage that extends from birth to approximately two years of age. While the infant

is dependent on adults for most things during this stage, many psychological characteristics are rapidly developing; for example, perceptual abilities, ways of thinking, use of language and social skills. During this stage, the bond that develops between the infant and their primary caregiver(s) is important in terms of the infant s later emotional development. Childhood extends from approximately two to 10 years of age. During this stage, children become increasingly independent from their parents as they learn to do things for themselves and gain more self­control. Apart from acquiring the basic skills of reading, writing and maths, particularly after starting formal education, much time is spent in play and social learning. During this stage, children s cognitive skills develop and they also begin to develop an understanding of what is right and wrong. During adolescence the individual moves from child­ hood to adulthood. Adolescence begins at around 10 to 12 years of age and continues until the age of approxi­ mately 20 to 24 years. The onset of puberty marks the start of adolescence. Puberty is associated with many physical and psychological changes. Adolescence is dominated by seeking independence from parents and developing one s own identity. Friends and peer groups exert considerable influence on the developing ado­ lescent and social contact outside the family becomes very important. Compared to the child, the adolescent s thought processes are more logical, complex and idea­ listic. Adolescents also have a greater capacity to reason, problem solve and understand abstract concepts. Early adulthood extends from about 20 to 40 years of age. In most Western cultures, it is a stage of estab­ lishing personal and financial independence and establishing and consolidating a career. For many adults, it is also the stage in which individuals select a partner, develop an ongoing intimate relationship, start a family and take on the role of parenting. Middle age encompasses the period from about 40 to 65 years. It is a period of expanding social and per­ sonal involvements and responsibilities, advancing a career, and supporting offspring in their development to independent, psychologically mature individuals. Older age begins in the mid to late sixties and extends until the end of one s life. It is a period of considerable adjustment to changes in one s life and self­perceptions, such as retirement from paid work, decreasing strength and stamina, declining health, death of relatives and friends, and an acceptance that you can t do all that you used to . For many older people, this can also be a very liberating time when they no longer have the day­to­day responsibility of looking after their offspring or paid work. Many older people enjoy the freedom of planning each day to suit themselves without the C h a p t e r 4 Lifespan development

147

pressure of meeting the demands of others. Often, their lives are busier than in earlier stages of development; for example, through travel, social activities, voluntary work and participation in hobbies and sports. It is also a time when people take on new social roles, such as grandparenting, although changes in Australian society indicate that this may also occur at an earlier stage. While describing human lifespan stages in terms of labels and age ranges can assist understanding of when in the lifespan particular changes tend to occur, some psychologists consider the age­related stages of limited relevance. They believe that individuals differ too much in their psychological development and that categorising psychological development into age­related stages does not reflect this. In learning about the various changes that occur in each stage of the lifespan, it is important to keep in mind that the changes identified for each stage apply to many individuals, but not all. In addition, the kinds of changes that occur in each stage may also vary considerably in different cultures and sub­cultures.

learning acTiviTy 4.2 review questions 1. Define lifespan development as it is used in psychology. 2. In your view, should the human lifespan be defined in psychology as starting at conception or at birth? Explain your answer. 3. Explain the meaning of developmental change compared to other types of change. 4. Outline a potential benefit and a potential limitation of organising and describing the development of human psychological characteristics in terms of age-related changes. 5. For each stage of development, give an example of a developmental change in a psychological characteristic that is likely to be common among individuals in that stage.

BOX 4.1 Stages in lifespan development Psychologists often divide the human lifespan into developmental stages based on age. Ages for the beginning and end of each stage are only approximate. Because development is a continuous process, individuals lives cannot be so neatly and precisely divided up.

Infancy: birth to two years

Childhood: two to 10 years

Adolescence: 10 to 20 years

Adulthood: 20 to 40 years

Middle age: 40 to 65 years

Older age: 65+ years

Figure 4.2 Stages in development

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BOX 4.2 Adolescence as a developmental stage The concept of childhood as a separate stage in the lifespan dates back to the 1700s. However, it was not until the early 1900s that adolescence was identified as a separate lifespan stage (Hall, 1904). Until this time, it was not uncommon in many Western societies, including Australia, for children to go to work when they reached the age of 10 or so. Once at work, they assumed many of the roles and responsibilities expected of an adult in the workplace, and they were generally considered to be adults outside the workplace, despite their age. With the emergence of new technologies, a more educated workforce was needed and greater importance was placed on children staying at school longer. Laws were passed at the start of the twentieth century restricting children from working and making schooling compulsory (Kett, 1977). This provided them with more opportunity to spend time with peers of their own age, separated from the exclusive influence of adults. In time, adolescents developed their own peer culture which set them apart from both children and adults. Eventually adolescents came to be viewed as a distinct subgroup of society who were more developed in many ways than children, but were not yet ready to take on adult responsibilities. Since the end of World War II in the late 1940s, more adolescents have stayed at school longer. In 2008, 74.2% of eligible Australian students completed their year 12 studies (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2009). Many have also gone on to do further study at a TAFE or university. In contemporary Australian society, as a result of continuing in education longer, it is not uncommon for a person to enter the workforce for the first time in their mid to late twenties. When adolescence was first identified as a separate stage, it was considered to begin at age 12 at around the onset of

areas of LIfespan deveLopment There are many different kinds of developmental change that occur throughout the human lifespan. Generally, psychologists classify changes which take place in terms of four main areas: physical, social, cog­ nitive and emotional. Physical (or biological) development involves changes in the body and its various systems, such as development of the brain and nervous system, bones and muscles, motor skills (movement), and the hor­ monal changes of puberty and menopause. Social development involves changes in an indi­ vidual s relationships with other people and their skills in interacting with others, such as the ability to form close relationships and interact with others in a group situation. Cognitive development involves changes in an indi­ vidual s mental abilities, such as perception, thinking,

puberty, and extend until about age 18. By this time, the young person had begun working and was considering leaving home to live independently. However, in recent times, with the earlier onset of puberty for many children, the delayed entry to fulltime work and an increase in the age of leaving home, the age range for adolescence has been redefined. The Australian Medical Association now defines adolescence as extending between the ages of 10 and 24 years (Carr-Gregg, 2005). Adolescence is not viewed as a distinct lifespan stage in all cultures. For example, in some Aboriginal cultures, a child is considered to become an adult as soon as puberty is reached and a series of initiation rituals has been performed. Thus, it is important to consider the historical and cultural context of an individual when thinking about developmental stages.

Figure 4.3 In some Aboriginal cultures, a child becomes an adult following the onset of puberty and participation in traditional rituals.

learning, memory, language, moral reasoning, problem solving and decision making. Emotional development involves changes in how an individual experiences different feelings and how these feelings are expressed, interpreted and dealt with; for example, the way in which anger is expressed by a two­year­old, compared with a 16­year­old and a 50­year­old person. Many of the changes associated with physical devel­ opment, such as growth (height and weight), move­ ment (crawling and walking) and changes in physical appearance (such as pimples and body hair), can be directly observed. In contrast, behaviours associated with social, cognitive and emotional development are mental processes that occur within the individual and are therefore not directly observable or measurable. For example, cognitive and emotional development involve thoughts and feelings that cannot actually be seen . Instead, researchers make observations of behaviour believed to be associated with thoughts or C h a p t e r 4 Lifespan development

149

feelings, and make inferences (assumptions) about inner , underlying cognitions and emotions. Social development is also inferred from observing social behaviours assumed to be associated with underlying psychological processes. Consequently social, cognitive and emotional development are referred to collectively as psychological development. Emotional development

Cognitive development

Social development

development are interdependent and many changes occur simultaneously, psychologists often focus on specific areas and/or stages of development for research purposes. Similarly, textbooks such as this one usually present different areas and stages of development separ­ ately. This is intended to help simplify the study of how and why individuals change. However, you need to keep in mind that, in reality, divisions between different areas and stages of development are not so clear cut and that you are studying aspects of a whole person. Development is a life­long process, which begins at birth and continues through childhood, adolescence and adulthood into old age until death. People don t stop developing in any area just because they reach a certain age or are old . While developmental changes and processes peak in childhood and again during puberty, this does not mean that changes in one area or stage of development are more or less important than those in any other area or stage.

Physical development

Figure 4.4 Human development is influenced by simultaneously occurring changes in physical, cognitive, social and emotional characteristics.

When referring to development, psychologists often distinguish between psychological and physical develop­ ment. In VCE Psychology, the focus is on psychological development. Physical development and psychological development do not occur independently of each other. However, how you think and/or feel can influence your physiological state in both subtle and more obvious ways. For example, consider people with the eating dis­ order anorexia nervosa, who may control their diet in dangerous ways because of their thoughts and feelings about their body image. The consequences of behav­ iours resulting from their thoughts and feelings about their body image can potentially have a harmful impact on their physical wellbeing, both in the short term and long term. There are also times when your physical con­ dition influences your thoughts and feelings, including how you think and feel about other people. For example, when you are feeling tired or stressed you may snap at a friend or at a teacher in response to criticism, which you wouldn t do at a time when you weren t feeling tired or stressed. Consider also cases involving people with physical disabilities and how having a disability may affect one s thoughts, feelings and social behaviour. These examples highlight the complexity of human development. Although the different areas of 150

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

Figure 4.5 Psychologists make inferences about underlying psychological processes from observable behaviour. What can be inferred about the cognitions or emotions being experienced by each child in this photo?

learning acTiviTy 4.3 visual presentation timeline

personal

Construct a timeline that shows the total number of years of your life. On the timeline, identify six key developmental changes in your life two relating to each area of psychological development; for example: • developed a friendship with . (social ) • able to count to 10 (cognitive ) • slept away from home for the first time without feeling homesick (emotional ). You may need to interview relatives or friends about the timing of these milestones . Consider using colour codes to distinguish between the different areas of development.

How development proceeds There are a number of different theories about the way in which development proceeds throughout the lifespan. Developmental psychologists generally agree that development occurs in an orderly way and in dif­ ferent areas simultaneously. There remain, however, differing views on whether development is continuous or discontinuous.

continuous versus discontinuous development Think about your own development for a moment. Did you gradually become the person you are, like the slow, continuous growth of a seedling into an enor­ mous gum tree? Or did you experience sudden, dis­ tinct changes in developing into the person you are today, in the same way a caterpillar changes into a but­ terfly (Santrock, 1992)?

Psychologists who support the view of continuous development believe that development involves gradual and ongoing changes throughout the lifespan without sudden shifts, with abilities in the earlier stages of development providing the basis of skills and abilities required for the next stages. On a graph, continuous development might be represented as a single, smooth line, as shown in figure 4.7(a). However, not all psychologists agree that develop­ ment is a continuous process. Some view development as a discontinuous process. Psychologists who support the view of discontinuous development believe that development involves distinct and separate stages, with different kinds of abilities occurring in each stage. According to this view, the development of certain abilities in each stage, such as specific ways of thinking, feeling or socially interacting have identifiable start and end points. However, although some types of thinking, feeling or behaving may seem to appear suddenly, it is likely that these have been developing gradually for some time. (a)

Adulthood

Infancy (b)

Adulthood

Infancy Figure 4.6 Is development a slow, continuous process or are there sudden and distinct changes?

Figure 4.7 Some psychologists describe development as continuous (a), whereas others describe development as discontinuous, involving distinct and separate stages (b). C h a p t e r 4 Lifespan development

151

Sequential nature of development

Quantitative and qualitative changes

The development of many thoughts, feelings and behaviours occurs in an orderly sequence. Sequences of development usually begin with simple thoughts, feelings or behaviours and progress to more complex ones. An orderly sequence of change is observable in many areas of psychological development, such as in the use of language (from gurgling and squealing through uttering individual words to using sentences) and in the development of social play (from playing alone to playing alongside other children to playing cooperatively in a group). Although it is possible (but unusual) to skip a step in the development of a par­ ticular ability, development generally follows a par­ ticular order. For example, a person will usually be able to count before they can add numbers.

Psychologists often describe developmental changes in both quantitative and qualitative terms. Quantitative changes are variations in the quantity, or amount of a thought, feeling or behaviour. These changes are usually expressed as numbers. For example, the number of words spoken in relation to age is a quantitative change, as is the increase in the amount of knowledge children acquire about the world around them as they develop. Qualitative changes are those that vary in quality , kind or type . They are changes that make the indi­ vidual different from the way they were before. For example, at four years of age you probably had very little understanding about concepts such as justice and honesty , whereas you now understand and can probably accurately describe these concepts. Unlike quantitative changes, qualitative changes are more dif­ ficult to describe precisely and are usually described in words rather than in numbers.

BOX 4.3 Developmental norms Based on extensive research findings, psychologists have described the usual development of various human characteristics and abilities such as physical development, mobility, language, emotional expression and social abilities at specific ages or stages in the lifespan. The general types of descriptions are called developmental norms. Developmental norms typically show the patterns of development and the approximate ages at which a characteristic or ability appears in the average child. Table 4.1 Language development norms

Age / Years

Average number of words

1

2 6

2

150 300

3

900 1000

4

1200 6000

5

1500 8000

6

2500 10 000

Source: Child Development Institute (2009).

Developmental norms are compiled by measuring a characteristic or ability in a large representative sample of the population with which the study is concerned. Quantitative norms, such as average vocabularies, are then determined, based on a simple, mathematical calculation of the average, or mean. For example, to establish the norms for intelligence of Australians aged two to 16 years old (the target population), the IQ of large samples of two- to 16-year-olds would be measured and the average IQ calculated for each age group. Care must be taken to ensure the composition

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of the sample is representative of all Australian two- to 16-year-olds. For instance, the sample for each age group would include people of different sexes, ethnic backgrounds, socio-economic backgrounds, geographical areas, schooling experiences and other relevant characteristics in proportions similar to the target population from which the sample is drawn. As well as describing patterns of development which reflect average developmental trends, norms provide a way of comparing an individual s development with that of others in the same age group. Comparison can give information on the progress of development in relation to what is the average for people in an age group. This is useful to professionals such as psychologists, paediatricians and teachers who monitor the physical and psychological progress of individuals. If the normative sample is not representative, comparisons may not be valid. For example, it would be inappropriate to compare the language development of children of non-English speaking backgrounds with norms based only on a sample of children with English speaking backgrounds. Norms do not tell us what is ideal development , nor do they explain development. They merely describe development, indicating what is the average developmental tendency for a large number of people. Norms are averages, but there is no average child. Though a useful guide for comparison purposes, their usefulness for assessing the developmental progress of an individual is limited because of variations which occur due to the uniqueness of each individual. When you look at normative charts with ages for when children crawl, walk, speak in sentences and so on, you must remember that deviations from the average are not unusual. Only large variations should be discussed with a doctor or psychologist. Small variations should not be a cause for concern.

learnin g acTiviT y 4. 4 review questions 1. (a) Describe the four main areas of development and give an example of a developmental change that occurs within each area. (b) Which areas of development are considered to make up psychological development? (c) In what main way is psychological development distinguished from physical development? 2. What is meant by the view that developmental changes occur simultaneously in different areas ? Explain with reference to an example different from that used in the text. 3. In what way do continuous and discontinuous views of development differ? 4. Give an example, other than one used in the text, which illustrates the sequential nature of development . 5. Construct a table such as that below. In the left column write a list of developmental changes you have experienced that could be described as quantitative. In the right column write a list of developmental changes you have experienced that could be described as qualitative. Your first entries in each column could be the examples given in the text. Quantitative changes

Qualitative changes

individual differences in development Although there are similarities among people in pat­ terns of changes experienced in different areas of devel­ opment, no two individuals develop at exactly the same rate or in exactly the same way. There are many differ­ ences between individuals in their development. Some individuals develop more slowly or more quickly than others in some, most, or all areas of development. There are also many differences within individuals in their development. For example, an individual may be very shy as a child and adolescent, then suddenly become confident and out­ going during early adulthood or middle age. Or an individual may have relatively well­developed cognitive abilities, but experi­ ence difficulties in expressing emotions verbally and in inter­ acting socially with others. Change in different areas occurs at its own pace within an individual. Each person has a unique genetic make­up and set of life experiences which interact continuously, shaping their par­ ticular course of development throughout their lifespan. Figure 4.8 No two individuals develop at exactly the same rate or in exactly the same way, even if they are identical twins.

BOX 4.4 Case study: comparing chimps to humans A husband and wife team of researchers (Kellogg & Kellogg, 1933) compared the development of their newborn son and a seven-month-old female chimpanzee they adopted called Gua. They wanted to find out to what extent the two infants varied in their development. However, they expected the human infant would develop more quickly. The researchers treated the two infants as identically as they could (as far as physical restrictions would allow). At first, the investigation produced results different from those expected. The chimp progressed faster than the human infant. She developed the abilities to feed herself, drink from a cup and obey her adopted parents commands earlier than their son could. However, by the time both infants were two years old, the situation was reversed and the boy was more advanced in his development across a wider range of abilities than the chimp, except in physical strength. This case study indicated that the process of development is systematic and unique for each individual species. The researchers suggested that the rate of development may be determined by how mature the specific organism will eventually be.

Figure 4.9

C h a p t e r 4 Lifespan development

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learnin g acTiviT y 4. 5

learning acTiviTy 4.7

Data analysis individual differences in development

Practical activity variations in development within individuals

The following table contains data on the development of two individuals. These data show ages at which various developmental milestones were identified by the parents of each child.

This practical activity involves collecting, recording and interpreting qualitative data on development. It enables you to test the theory that development varies within individuals. You should construct a hypothesis relevant to this theoretical view. • Reflect on your lifetime, from as early as you can remember until now. Make a list of some early and some more recent experiences which you consider may have influenced your psychological development in some way; for example, a childhood illness, your first day at kindergarten, primary or secondary school, the arrival of a younger brother or sister, moving house, being a member of a club, playing in a sports team, going out for the first time without adult supervision, an argument with a close friend, or choosing your VCE subjects. • Select about five of these events. Try to include in your selection events which occurred in different stages of development (see page 147), but not events which you do not wish others to know about. • Write a brief description of how each of these events may have influenced your psychological development. For example, learning to play a keyboard may have improved your self-confidence; an illness which kept you in hospital for a period of time may have led you to identify people, objects and events important in your life; playing tennis may have improved your social skills and built friendships. • Arrange the events and the explanations of the influence of each event in chronological order from earliest to most recent. • Form a small group with others in the class and compare the data you each recorded. Discuss similarities and differences in the data and how development varies within individuals.

Milestone

Annabelle

Habib

First social smile

4 months

2 months

First word

8 months

10 months

First cried in response to mother being out of sight

9 months

11 months

First counted

18 months

22 months

First sang a song

2 yrs

2 yrs 2 months

Played interactively with another child

3 yrs 10 months

3 yrs 4 months

Read independently

4 yrs 6 months

5 yrs 6 months

Answer the following questions with reference to the data. 1. (a) Which developmental milestones did Annabelle reach first? (b) Which developmental milestones did Habib reach first? 2. What do the data indicate about the variations in psychological development between individuals? 3. (a) Categorise the data into the three areas of psychological development cognitive, social and emotional. (b) Compare the data of the two children. What conclusions might be drawn when comparing each child in terms of cognitive, social and emotional development? 4. What are some possible explanations of differences in terms of socio-cultural factors? 5. Would it be accurate to explain the differences in terms of gender? Give a reason to explain your answer.

learnin g acTiviT y 4. 6 visual presentation development

nature of

Use an original example presented as a diagram, photographic sequence or model to illustrate one of the following theoretical views of development: • continuous vs discontinuous development • sequential nature of development • qualitative and quantitative changes • individual differences in development

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U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

Report Write a brief report on the activity to include in your folio of practical activities. In your report, ensure you include: • an aim for the activity • a statement of your hypothesis • an outline of the research method used and a statement about the type(s) of data collected • a summary of the results; for example, a timeline showing key events in chronological order • a summary of the differences between your results and those of other students • a conclusion that refers to your hypothesis • a brief discussion on what the results suggest about how development can vary within individuals • a brief comment on the usefulness and limitations of qualitative data, as compared with quantitative data.

InteractIon of heredItary and envIronmentaL factors In shapIng psychoLogIcaL deveLopment Human psychological development is a complex process that is subject to many different influences throughout the entire lifespan. Generally, the various factors influencing the development of our psycho­ logical characteristics can be classified into one of two broad areas heredity (nature) and environment (nurture). Heredity involves the transmission of characteristics from biological parents to their offspring via genes at the time of conception. At conception, the male s sperm cell fertilises the female s egg cell (ovum). Both the sperm and ovum contain structures called chromo­ somes which carry the genes from each parent. During fertilisation, the sperm and ovum combine to form a new cell (zygote) with a unique combination of genes (see box 4.5). It is well established that the genes we inherit from our parents influence many aspects of our physical development; for example, our blood type, eye and hair colour, body shape and the likelihood of developing certain physical illnesses or disorders. Our genes also influence less obvious aspects of our physical development, such as the rate at which our brain and nervous system will mature ( physically develop ), our brain s chemistry and functioning, and when certain hormones will be produced, such as those that trigger the onset of puberty.

Figure 4.10 When one of the many sperm that surround the ovum penetrate it, conception has occurred.

Given the important roles our brain, nervous system and hormones play in our thoughts, feelings and behaviour, it is evident that our genes also influence our psychological development. For example, there is considerable research evidence that psychological characteristics such as intelligence and personality have a genetic component and are therefore influenced to some extent by heredity. As with physical illnesses and disorders, genes are also thought to influence the onset of some psychological illnesses and disorders. For example, schizophrenia, drug and alcohol depen­ dence, and depression have all been linked to changes in brain chemistry and brain functioning. And, brain chemistry and brain functioning are, at least partially, genetically determined. This suggests that these ill­ nesses may have a genetic component. However, this does not mean that a child born to a parent with schizo­ phrenia will inherit schizophrenia. Rather, research evidence suggests that having a biological parent with schizophrenia will increase the likelihood of developing this illness, compared with someone who does not have a biological parent with schizophrenia (Taylor & others, 2008; Plomin & others 1997). Environmental factors also play an important role in shaping psychological development. In psychology, the term environment is used to refer to all the experi­ ences, objects and events to which we are exposed throughout our entire lifetime. Some environmental factors that influence psychological development include whether you have brothers and sisters, how you are brought up, your friendship groups, schooling, occupation, income level, whether you have a partner, your religion, ethnic origins, what you are exposed to in the media, whether you experience a major stressful life event, serious illnesses, and other personal and socio­cultural factors. The influence of some of these factors is less obvious or significant than others, but all can impact both individually and collectively on the kind of person we become and the psychological changes we experience during our lifetime. Many of the early psychologists believed in either the biological (hereditary) or the environmental view of development. Those who adopted the biological perspective believed that heredity primarily deter­ mined our psychological development. Some even believed that, like physical development, every aspect of our psychological development was determined by our genes. They believed individuals, for example, inherited their social skills, musical ability, personality and intelligence. Although some acknowledged that environmental factors could influence development of psychological characteristics, essentially who we become was considered to be locked in by our genes at the time of conception. C h a p t e r 4 Lifespan development

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Another group of psychologists believed that heredity had little to do with the development of psychological characteristics. They believed that the environment in which an individual is raised and lives, which includes all their experiences, was primarily responsible for determining what they would become. The behav­ iourist John B. Watson supported this view. Watson and others who adopted the behavioural perspective almost totally ignored the influence of genes in devel­ opment. Their basic assumption was that the mind of a newborn is totally empty and the development of all thoughts, feelings and behaviour could be explained in terms of a person s learning throughout their life. Any differences between people were seen to be the result of differing environmental experiences. Most behaviourists believed that, given the right environ­ ment, anything was possible; for example, someone with the abilities of Mozart or Leisel Jones could be produced, irrespective of their genetic make­up. For many years psychologists debated whether it was heredity or environment that determined how we devel­ oped. This became known as the nature (heredity) versus nurture (environment) debate. Over time, research evi­ dence has consistently shown it is neither one nor the other that is solely responsible for shaping development both hereditary and environmental factors interact to shape human development. Psychologists now con­ sider the nature versus nurture debate to be resolved. They focus on trying to understand how hereditary and environmental factors combine or interact in influ­ encing our thoughts, feelings and behaviour. Through their research, psychologists and other scientists are also trying to establish how much heredity and environ­ ment each contribute to the development of particular psychological characteristics (see box 4.6). Psychologists are in general agreement that our indi­ vidual development begins with the genetic instruc­ tions that we inherit at conception and that these instructions provide the building blocks or blueprint for the development of our psychological (and physical) characteristics. The environment interacts with our inherited potential to determine how the genetic plan unfolds. Almost every experience a person has in their life has the potential to impact in some way on their psychological development. However, some environ­ mental factors exert a greater influence at some stages of the lifespan than in others. The experiences that may influence one person s development may also have little or no impact on another person s development. For example, a person who has the genes that may contribute to the onset of depression (called a genetic predisposition for depression) may not actually develop depression until they experience a stressful life event, such as the loss of a loved one (Kendler & others, 1995). 156

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Figure 4.11 Most behaviourists believed that, irrespective of genes and given the right environment, anyone could develop the creative ability of Mozart or the athletic ability of Leisel Jones.

Similarly, a person who loses a loved one and does not have a genetic predisposition for depression, is less likely to develop depression. Some psychologists have also suggested that a person s genes can influence the kind of environmental experiences they have. For example, a genetic predis­ position towards antisocial behaviour may lead an ado­ lescent to seek the company of others who engage in antisocial behaviour, in turn, encouraging further anti­ social behaviour (Westen, Burton & Kowalski, 2006). As yet, the technology available to researchers is not able to detect exactly how much of a particular psycho­ logical characteristic or behaviour may be attributable to either heredity or environment. Nor do psychol­ ogists know the specific environmental factors required to interact with genes to produce a particular psycho­ logical characteristic or behaviour. However, they do know that what was the nature versus nurture debate is now the nature and nurture debate which considers the extent of the contribution of both nature and nur­ ture to development (Plomin & others, 1998).

learning acTiviTy 4.8 identifying the influence of heredity and environment on psychological development Construct a table with two columns, one with the heading Heredity and the other with the heading Environment . In each column, list several psychological characteristics which you think are more likely to be influenced by either heredity or environment. Discuss your list with other class members. What amendments did you make to your answers on the basis of your discussion?

BOX 4.5 Genetic inheritance The inheritance of genetic information begins at conception. When conception takes place, the ovum (egg cell) from the mother and the sperm from the father unite to form a zygote. Each ovum and sperm cell contains structures called chromosomes (figure 4.12). The zygote receives chromosomes from both the mother and the father. Chromosomes come in 23 pairs (i.e., 46 chromosomes). One of each pair of chromosomes comes from the mother via the ovum and one of each pair comes from the father via the sperm cell. A chromosome is a threadlike structure found in the nucleus of almost every cell in the body. Each chromosome consists of a string of smaller structures called genes. The genes contain the instructions for the development of characteristics. Genes are the basic unit of heredity. Genes also normally come in pairs one gene of each pair comes from the ovum chromosome and the other from the sperm chromosome. Thus, an individual receives only half of each parent s total genes and which genes an individual receives from each parent is a matter of chance. Genes provide the blueprint or plan for our development. For some characteristics, only one pair of genes determines the characteristics, as in the ability to roll your tongue. However, for most characteristics, a number of pairs of genes work together. Psychological characteristics such as temperament, personality, intelligence and musical ability are believed to be influenced by the interaction of many gene pairs. ucleus (the inner area of a cell where chromosomes and genes are located)

Cell (the basic structural unit of a living thing)

Figure 4.12 Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Males and females differ only on the 23rd chromosome pair, with males having an X and Y chromosome (shown) and females having two matching X chromosomes.

Chromosome (threadlike structure made largely of DNA molecules)

ene (segment of DNA containing the code for a particular protein; determines our individual biological development)

(a spiralling, complex molecule containing genes)

Figure 4.13 The nucleus of each of the trillions of cells in your body contains 46 chromosomes. Each chromosome contains a coiled chain of the molecule called DNA. Genes are segments of DNA which contain a code that directs the production of proteins the building blocks of development.

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BOX 4.6 Human Genome Project The Human Genome Project (HGP) began in 1990. The aim of the project was to identify and develop a complete map and understanding of all the human genes. Our combination of genes is known as our genome. Researchers from various countries throughout the world collected blood and sperm samples from large numbers of donors. Female donors contributed only blood samples, whereas male donors contributed either sperm or both sperm and blood samples. Every cell in the body (including blood and sperm cells) contains a complete set of our genetic information. By collating data from these samples, researchers have been able to determine that humans have about 20 500 genes, the same number as mice! They have also identified which chromosome and specifically where on the chromosome particular genes are located, creating a genetic map . The function of many, but not all, genes has also been identified. For example, much more is now known about which genes are involved in the memory loss associated with Alzheimer s disease, for developing a predisposition to schizophrenia, and for various kinds of cancers and other diseases. The information obtained from the HGP can be thought of as the basic set of inheritable instructions for the development and function of a human being (National Human Genome Research Institute, 2008). Although each human being has a unique combination of genes, the data published from the findings of the HGP does not represent an exact map of each individual s genetic make-up. Rather, it provides an overall picture of the genetic map of the human species. One of the benefits of the HGP is that it has enabled researchers to develop more than 1000 genetic tests that enable us to find out whether we are at risk of developing

a particular illness or disease that is influenced by one or more specific genes. Knowing in advance that there is a risk of developing an illness or disease enables health care professionals to provide specific strategies that may delay their onset; for example, by managing diet or providing early medical intervention (National Institute of Health, 2008). The publication of the complete genome in 2003 has stimulated considerable further research, particularly in trying to understand the specific function of each gene and which combinations of genes may interact in the development of certain characteristics and illnesses. Understanding how genes express themselves will provide clues as to how diseases are caused and perhaps how they can be prevented and/or cured. While we are much more advanced in our understanding of how genes work, there is still much more to be learned.

Figure 4.14 Part of the map of the human genome

learning a cTiviTy 4.9

learning acTiviTy 4.1 0

review questions

Media response

1. Define heredity and environment as used in psychology. 2. Briefly explain, with reference to an example, how hereditary and environmental factors can influence psychological development. 3. What is the main focus of contemporary psychologists interested in the role that heredity and environment play in shaping psychological development? 4. Which do you believe has the greater influence on psychological development heredity or environment? Give a reason for your answer. To what extent is your answer dependent on the type of psychological characteristic?

Read the article Wired to be anorexic . Using the information contained in the article, answer the following questions. 1. What evidence is presented for the influence of hereditary factors on anorexia? 2. What argument does Dr Frampton present against environmental influences on anorexia? 3. What case does Dr Frampton make for the interaction of both hereditary and environmental factors on anorexia? 4. (a) Describe the sample used by Dr Frampton in his research. (b) Could this sample be described as representative ? Explain your answer.

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Wired to be anorexic sed to MOST anorexic girls are predispo brains the condition because of how their nary developed in the womb, a revolutio study claims. by It denies anorexia is primarily caused els. mod zero size late emu pressure to s Charities say the findings mean drug and exia anor treat to d lope could be deve r-old that doctors could screen eight-yea girls to assess risk. , The study, led by Dr Ian Frampton t Grea on’s Lond at paediatric psychologist be will , dren Chil for ital Hosp St Ormond unveiled this week. kids’ ‘Our research shows that certain makes brains develop in such a way that known them more vulnerable to commonly as risk factors for eating disorders such tions senta repre ia med te, the size zero deba nts,’ of very skinny women and bad pare Dr Frampton said. 200 His team tested more than and US the in, Brita anorexia sufferers from

een Norway. Most were females aged betw 12–25. They found about 70 per cent had dam help h whic — ters smit aged neurotran subtle brain cells communicate — or other s. brain their of ture struc changes in the be One in every few hunderd girls may said. pton Fram Dr way, affected in this by He said the condition was caused diet rnal mate poor not s, random condition or environmental factors.

Eating disorder blamed on genetics is The ‘imperfect wiring’ of the brain xia, dysle with le peop in seen that similar to depression or hyperactivity. as ‘Arguments that social factors, such weight girls feeling under pressure to lose in the to look like high-profile women almost media, contain logical flaws because only a everyone is exposed to them, yet

anorsmall percentage of young people get said. pton Fram Dr ’ exia, ‘Those things are important but there tics must be other factors, involving gene le peop g youn some and science, that make rs.’ othe than le erab vuln much more girls One in 100 adolescent Australian the to rding acco exia, anor lop will deve ria. It Eating Disorder Foundation of Victo illness is the third most common chronic obesity for adolescent Australian girls, after and asthma. ity The chief of eating disorders char rch resea the said d, woo Beat, Susan Ring themwould help parents to stop blaming exia. anor selves for their child’s were She said it showed that some people genetic vulnerable to anorexia because of ‘trying factors and brain chemistry not them ring a to look like celebrity models or suffe t’. even atic major traum – DAILY MAIL p. 26. Source: Herald Sun, 2009, 31 March,

learnin g acTiviT y 4. 11 visual presentation interaction of heredity and environment In this learning activity, you are required to select a particular psychological characteristic and construct a concept map to indicate the way in which different inherited and environmental factors interact to affect development of the characteristic. A concept map is a diagram consisting of different ideas which are linked in particular ways (see figure 4.15). The characteristic you select as the topic for your concept map could relate to the development of any thought, feeling or behaviour that reflects psychological development; for example, learning to solve a maths problem, developing trustworthiness or honesty, being shy or outgoing, developing a skill in art. You may find it helpful to follow these steps in constructing your concept map. 1. Select a specific psychological characteristic of particular interest to you. 2. Make a list of as many potential factors as possible which you think may influence the development of this characteristic. 3. Beside each factor, write H if you think it is mainly influenced by heredity, E if you think it is mainly

4.

5.

6.

7.

influenced by environment, or H & E if you think the factor is both hereditary and environmental. Write each factor (including its H, E or H & E label) on a separate small piece of paper or Post It note (This will allow you to move around the factors as you think about the ways in which they have interacted in shaping development of the characteristic.) Construct a concept map of the factors by arranging the pieces of paper in a layout which you believe best shows their relationship. (a) Write the specific characteristic in the middle of an A3 size sheet of paper. (b) Place linked factors close to each other and nonlinked ones apart. (c) Rearrange the influences until you are satisfied with their placement. (There is no one, correct answer .) Stick the pieces of paper onto the A3 sheet, write the arrangement on the paper or construct the concept map on your computer. Draw lines between linked (related) factors and write on each line what the relationship is. You can use words such as shapes , determines , influences , can lead to , contributes , affects and assists .

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Social skils H&E

Happy parents (H&E)

makes

influence Friends

influences

E allow

Good school results (H&E)

produces

Being organised (H&E)

result in

create

Brain

Opportunities to party result in

influences

Feeling happy

may influence

produces

result in

Feel good brain chemicals (Endorphins) (H) produces

influences Personal appearance (H&E) enables

affects

Physical exercise (H&E) enables

influences enables

Clothes

(H)

Money (E)

(E) produces

Casual job (E) enables Figure 4.15 A concept map which illustrates the way in which some of the environmental and inherited factors can interact to influence an individual s feeling of happiness

role of maturation in development Genes also play an important role in shaping the course of development through a process known as maturation. Maturation is a developmental process which is automatic and internally programmed. Maturation refers to the orderly and sequential develop­ mental changes which occur in the nervous system and other bodily structures controlled by our genes. This suggests that the development of all individuals follows the same process or pattern, barring signifi­ 160

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cant interference from environmental factors. That is, we all go through predetermined, maturationally dependent stages. For example, in language develop­ ment, the ability to talk starts with sounds that are unrecognisable as meaningful words. We then develop the ability to say individual words, then the ability to string two or three words together into a phrase such as I want biscuit . By about two years of age we are usually able to construct short sentences and by three years of age we can construct and use gram­ matically correct sentences. In order to speak using sentences, our brain must be maturationally ready, or

developed sufficiently to process sounds and enable us to understand words. In addition, the muscles in our mouth, particularly the tongue and lips must also be sufficiently developed so that we can move and coordinate them in the manner required to form and speak words. Many developmental changes are affected by mat­ uration. For example, most children sit before they stand, draw shapes before recognisable objects and count before they can apply a mathematical formula. Similarly, puberty occurs for most people at around 10 12 years of age and most people peak in their physical strength in late adolescence or early adult­ hood, then this begins to decline in middle age.

only when an individual is maturationally ready that development of these behaviours will occur. The principle of readiness is used by the Victorian Department of Education and Early Childhood Devel­ opment in determining the age at which it is appro­ priate for children to start formal schooling. In the past, parents could enrol their child at school after they had turned four years of age the age at which they were believed to be maturationally ready to learn in a formal teaching situation. However, on the basis of psychological research evidence on the maturational readiness of children to learn in a school environment, children must now be five years of age or older by 30 April of the year they start school; that is, a child must be at least four years and nine months of age or older when they begin Prep. In sum, while there are undoubtedly individual variations as to when each developmental milestone occurs, the order in which these milestones occur seems connected to the process of maturation.

Sensitive periods in development

Figure 4.16

An individual s physical development lays the foundation for the onset of many aspects of psychological development. This reflects the principle of readiness, that maturation creates the readiness which determines the onset of particular behaviours and abilities. The principle of readiness states that unless the necessary bodily structures, be they muscles, bones or nerves, are sufficiently mature, then no amount of practice will produce the particular behaviour. It is

Many developmental psychologists believe that there are sensitive, or critical, periods in development. These periods are particular times when environmental factors are more likely to have a greater impact on development, either negatively or positively. Sensitive periods are periods of rapid change when individuals seem to be more vulnerable to influences from their environment. Outside this period of time, the same environmental influences need to be stronger to pro­ duce the same positive or negative effects. Sensitive periods occur frequently during pre­natal development when the individual is going through rapidly occurring changes in growth and develop­ ment. Some psychologists have also identified sen­ sitive periods in the post­natal period (after birth) when developmental changes are not as rapid. For example there seems to be a sensitive period in the development of psychological characteristics, such as in emotional development (e.g. attachment), in cog­ nitive development (e.g. language), as well as in many aspects of physical development. Generally, sensitive periods tend to last for relatively short periods of time. However, any positive or nega­ tive environmental influence which occurs during this time can have long­lasting effects on the individual s development. This does not mean, however, that if disruption to development occurs during a sensitive period, any damage will necessarily be permanent and can never be made up (see box 4.7). C h a p t e r 4 Lifespan development

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BOX 4.7 Case studies provide insights into language learning For many years, psychologists have debated the existence of a sensitive period for learning language whether our brain is especially sensitive to learning language during a specific period in time. Generally, psychologists who believe that a sensitive period for learning language exists, propose that the sensitive period is between late infancy and puberty. They argue that a child who fails to learn a language during this sensitive period will be unable to catch up completely at a later stage, no matter how much help they get. How can psychologists test whether a sensitive period exists? One way would be to place children in solitary confinement until adolescence and then expose them to language for the first time. Of course, it would be unethical (and illegal) to do this. A way around this is to study the cases of children who have been abandoned or isolated by their parents and have therefore been deprived of opportunities to learn language until they were rescued, sometimes after many years of solitude. One of the best-known case studies involved a child known as Genie . In 1970, authorities discovered 13-year-old Genie whose parents had locked her in a tiny room from the age of 20 months. During each day she was usually tied to a chair. At night she was confined to a sleeping bag that was like a straitjacket. Her abusive father rarely spoke to her except for occasional screaming or to bark at her because he considered her to be no more than a dog . Her mother, a battered wife who lived in terror of her husband, barely cared for Genie. She had as little interaction with her as possible, sometimes uttering only a word or two. There was no television or radio in the home. If Genie made the slightest sound, her father hit her with a large piece of wood. Psychologists reported that Genie hardly seemed human when she was found. She did not know how to chew or stand up straight and she was not toilet trained. She drooled uncontrollably and often spat on anything that was nearby, including herself and other people. When she was first tested by psychologists, the only sounds she could make were high-pitched whimpers. She understood only a few words, probably learned shortly after she was discovered. Genie was initially placed in a hospital rehabilitation clinic and then a foster home. Throughout this period, psychologists worked intensively with Genie and she made rapid progress. Genie developed physically and learned some basic rules of social behaviour. Gradually, she began to understand words and use short sentences such as Genie go , No more eat soup and Another house have dog . However, Genie s use of language continues to remain abnormal after many years. She can say many words and put them together into sentences, but she still has problems with pronunciation and can t form sophisticated sentences as most adults her age can (Westen, Burton & Kowalski, 2006; Wade & Tavris, 1990).

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Evidence from case studies of children such as Genie indicates that there may be a sensitive period in language learning. If the child misses the opportunity to learn language during that time, it seems that language learning is much more difficult. Comparison with a case study of another isolated child provides additional evidence. Isabelle was hidden away by her mother and given only enough care to stay alive. Her mother, who was deaf, did not speak to her. At the age of six, Isabelle was discovered by other adults and brought into a normal environment. When Isabelle was found, she had no language. Assessments by a psychologist indicated that her cognitive development was below that of a normal two-year-old. But within a year Isabelle had learned to speak, her tested intelligence was normal for her age and she started attending a normal school. Thus, Isabelle at seven years, with one year of intensive language practice, spoke about as well as other children in her grade at school, all of whom had about seven years of practice (Gleitman, Fridlund & Reisberg, 2000). Compared with Genie, Isabelle had been given the opportunity to learn language during the sensitive period. Psychologists believe that after age 12, developing fluency in speaking one s native language is difficult to achieve, and if language is learned, it appears to be processed in different parts of the brain than it is when language is learned during early childhood.

Figure 4.17 This picture was drawn by Genie, who lived in isolation and was mistreated for many years. It shows one of Genie s favourite pastimes listening to psychologist Susan Curtis play classical music on the piano. Genie s drawings were used with other case study material to describe and explain her psychological and social development.

learnin g acTiviT y 4. 12 review questions 1. (a) What is maturation? (b) Give examples of two different psychological abilities which are influenced by maturation in their development. Describe why maturation is necessary in each of your examples. 2. What is meant by the term principle of readiness in relation to maturation?

3. Explain with reference to the principle of readiness why some students may have difficulty understanding an algebra formula in year 7 but may understand the same formula in year 10. 4. What advice about maturation would you give to Stan who is shown in figure 4.16? Will experience help the child to walk earlier? Why? 5. Explain what is meant by the term sensitive period in development with reference to an example.

learnin g acTiviT y 4. 13 Debate heredity and environment Topic: The environment is much more important in influencing psychological development than heredity . The class should be divided into two teams the affirmative and the negative. The affirmative team argues in

learnin g acTiviT y 4. 14 Practical activity environmental influences on psychological development The purpose of this activity is to investigate the perceived influence of environmental factors on one area of psychological development social, emotional or cognitive. For this activity student experimenters should work in pairs. Collection of the data is done individually from two participants each. Data from both experimenters (four participants) is then combined. Participants should be selected from different lifespan stages, from adolescence to older age. Prior to conducting the activity, with your partner, identify four environmental factors that you believe may be most influential in the area of psychological development you have chosen to investigate. Construct a response sheet for each participant that enables them to rank (rate) each of the four environmental factors in order from most influential (1) to least influential (4) based on their experiences. Before collecting any data, construct a hypothesis to predict which environmental factor will be identified as being most influential in the area of psychological development you have chosen to investigate. Each participant should be interviewed separately. Explain to each participant the definition of the area of psychological development you are investigating; for example, social development. Ask each participant to rank each of the four environmental factor(s) from most influential (1) to least influential (4) in terms of their own development. You may ask the participants to give reasons for their answers

favour of the statement. The negative team argues against the statement. Each team should: • collect evidence (including research findings) in support of the view they are debating • develop arguments in line with the view to which they have been assigned • elect three speakers. Options and variations

(qualitative data). To ensure you have selected participants from different lifespan stages, ask each person to identify their lifespan stage. To enable this, ensure you provide the age ranges for each lifespan stage on their response sheet. Thank the participants for their participation in your research and explain to them the purpose of the investigation. Combine your data with your partner s data to calculate a mean score for the ranking of each environmental factor. The lower the score, the more important the factor is considered to be in shaping development. Report Write a brief report on the activity to include in your folio of practical activities. Ensure your report includes the following. 1. A statement of your hypothesis 2. A table showing the mean rankings of each factor and enabling comparison of the different lifespan stages 3. A conclusion on whether the results support your hypothesis, ensuring you refer to the results 4. A conclusion on whether environmental factors influence the area of psychological development you investigated 5. Comment on whether data from four individuals is sufficient to generalise to the wider population about environmental influences on psychological development. Give a reason for your answer. 6. A description of one major limitation in conducting your research. Comment on how this limitation may have impacted on your results in an unwanted way.

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deveLopmentaL psychoLogy from dIfferent perspectIves Psychologists study development from different per­ spectives. The perspective adopted influences the specific topics or areas of development the psychol­ ogist studies. It also influences how they conduct their research and the type of evidence they consider impor­ tant and therefore seek to collect. Developmental psychologists who adopt the biological perspective focus on the biological or physiological bases of development. They focus on how heredity and other biological factors influence the development of psycho­ logical characteristics. For example, they may conduct research to find out the extent to which genes influ­ ence the development of intelligence, personality or a particular mental illness. Alternatively, they may study the role of the brain, brain chemicals or other systems within the body which may influence development. They may focus on a particular stage in development, such as adolescence. For example, they may investigate how hormones influence psychological changes during and after puberty. Alternatively, they may focus their study on a specific area of development, such as cog­ nitive, social or emotional development. For example, they may investigate the changes in the brain on the ability to problem solve or think logically. The behavioural perspective focuses on how behaviour is acquired or changes as a result of environmental influ­ ences, particularly learning. Psychologists who adopt this view study the influence of specific environmental factors on psychological development. For example, they may consider the role of parenting styles on the psychological development of children, and whether the kinds of behaviours parents reward or punish influence observable behaviour or thoughts and feelings under­ lying the behaviour of the children. The behavioural perspective is illustrated in research studies which have found that children whose parents are encouraging but firm, develop into more self­controlled individuals who are open to trying new experiences, are curious learners and are happier within themselves. In contrast, children whose parents are controlling, and show little interest in their children s activities and lives, tend to be shy, socially withdrawn, reluctant to show initiative and have more difficulty with social relationships. Psychologists who adopt the behavioural perspective may also focus on one particular stage of the lifespan. They may investigate the way in which learning occurs during this stage and how learning may affect sub­ sequent development. They may also choose to study a particular kind of learning, such as observational 164

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learning; that is, whether behaviour changes as a result of watching someone else s actions, such as whether watching agressive or violent videos or TV programs may influence a child s thoughts and behaviour.

Figure 4.18 Behavioural psychologists may investigate how observational learning can influence development.

Psychologists who adopt the cognitive perspective focus on changes in how we acquire, process, remember and use information throughout the lifespan. They are particularly interested in how cognitive development proceeds and the factors that influence cognitive devel­ opment. In developmental psychology, the cognitive perspective focuses on two main areas of research early cognitive development and cognitive decline in older age. Early cognitive development includes the lifespan stages from birth to the end of adolescence, the stages in which cognitive abilities essentially develop. It is believed that during adulthood, there are relatively few developmental changes in cognitive ability, so it is a stage in which there is limited research interest for developmental psychologists. As the population ages and the number of older people increases, there is more interest among psychologists influenced by the cog­ nitive perspective in the changes in cognitive abilities in this later stage of life. They are primarily interested in whether there are cognitive changes (either posi­ tive or negative), what those changes are and why the changes occur. Importantly, much attention is currently being directed towards how to minimise the age­related deterioration of cognitive abilities.

The socio-cultural perspective emphasises the roles of social and cultural influences on human behaviour and mental processes. Developmental psychologists who adopt this view focus on the effects of specific environmental factors on development, such as gender, age, race, income and culture. Of particular interest are cross­cultural differences in development, such as the ways in which cultural background and experi­ ences can shape an individual s development. They have found that differences in many aspects of psycho­ logical development are linked to cultural experiences. A developmental psychologist taking the socio­cultural perspective may also study differences within societies and cultures. For example, a researcher may compare the effect on adolescent confidence of living in the city compared with living in an isolated community. They may also research the impact of living in a retirement vil­ lage compared with living alone in a house on an older person s happiness.

Figure 4.19 Does living in a retirement village impact on an older person s happiness? Questions like this interest developmental psychologists who adopt the socio-cultural perspective.

Each of these perspectives offers one view or one approach to studying development. While adopting a specific perspective is a useful way to study develop­ ment, more and more contemporary psychologists are adopting a broader eclectic perspective. The eclectic view draws on different perspectives in understanding, describing and explaining development. Using the eclectic approach to studying development is like looking at a Rubik s cube. Each face of the cube has a different colour and presents the object in a different way. Likewise, there are a number of different ways of examining the development of a person.

research methods for stUdyIng deveLopment Investigating the relative influences of heredity and environment on the development of a psychological characteristic is often difficult. It is impossible to iso­ late an individual from all environmental influences to investigate the influence of genes on a character­ istic. Even keeping a person locked in a bare room without any outside human contact, despite being unethical and illegal, still provides an environment of kinds. For example, if a newborn infant were placed in isolation for an extended period of time and seemed to be withdrawn when they were later assessed, would this indicate that being withdrawn is genetically deter­ mined or could it be the result of the unstimulating environment? In an attempt to understand the relative influences of heredity and enivronment, psychologists have used a number of different research methods to assist in their investigations. These include longitudinal studies, cross­sectional studies, studying similarities and differences between twins and between adopted children and their parents, and selective breeding experiments.

learnin g acTiviT y 4. 15 Summarising different perspectives in developmental psychology Use the table in your eBook to summarise the four different perspectives in developmental psychology. In the third column, give an example of a topic of research interest that may arise from each perspective and which is different from those described in the text. Perspective

Description

Topic of research interest in developmental psychology

Biological Behavioural Cognitive Socio-cultural

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longitudinal and crosssectional studies A longitudinal study is a long­term investigation that follows the same group (or groups) of people over an extended period of time, observing any changes in their thoughts, feelings and/or behaviour that occur at different ages. Some longitudinal studies are rela­ tively brief, lasting for one to two years; others can last a lifetime. Usually, the same group(s) of participants is studied and restudied at regular intervals. For example, researchers from the Department of Psychology at La Trobe University began studying 2000 children (twins, their siblings and cousins) in 1978 to find out about the development of twins and how twins may be dif­ ferent from single­born children. The children in the study were assessed periodically at different ages on aspects of their development such as language acquisi­ tion, speech and reading ability (La Trobe Twin Study, 1991). The longitudinal research method is particularly useful in developmental psychology. Longitudinal studies provide information to help psychologists understand long­term changes in thoughts, feelings and behaviour. For example, the Seattle Longitudinal Study conducted in America has provided useful infor­ mation about changes in cognitive functioning over time. The researchers followed a large sample of par­ ticipants ranging in age from 25 to 81 over a 28 year period. Every seven years the researchers administered the same five cognitive tests to identify changes in the cognitive abilities of participants. The results indicated that most people show no decline in their cognitive abilities until after age 60 (Schaie, 1990, 1994, 1996). Even after age 60, about 70% of the participants tested continued to show little or no cognitive decline by age 81. Longitudinal studies such as this one have provided psychologists with evidence to challenge long­held beliefs; for example, that older people lose their ability to think and to make sound decisions. Research findings such as these can also change atti­ tudes towards older people held by medical and mental health professionals, as well as by people in the wider community.

The cross-sectional study selects and compares groups of participants of different ages over a short period of time. For example, to study the use of rules in games played by children, groups of children rep­ resenting each age group from three to seven years inclusive can be selected and observed at about the same time. Or, to study age differences in how much information can be held in short­term memory, groups of people selected at ten­year intervals from 10 to 80 year olds could be tested and the results compared. There are advantages and limitations of both longi­ tudinal and cross­sectional studies. For example, the cross­sectional method is relatively inexpensive, easy to undertake, and not too time­consuming. How­ ever, differences found between age groups may be due to factors other than age such as the particular backgrounds of participants in each age group; for example, number of siblings, age of parents, and schools attended. One factor that cannot be controlled is called the generational influence. This factor shows up when psychologists measure behaviours in people who were born at different times. For example, people who are currently in their eighties experienced childhood during the 1930s Depression. They may behave differ­ ently from 50 year olds not because of chronological age differences, but because of that particular life experience. The longitudinal study also has disadvantages. For example, it can be expensive and take a long time to get results. Keeping in touch with the same group over a period of time can also be difficult participants may lose interest in the study, move to another location where they are unable to be contacted, or even die. However, the longitudinal study is a relatively useful way of examining consistencies and inconsistencies in behaviour over time; for example, discovering if intelli­ gence test scores change with age or remain stable, or whether memory declines with age. Because longi­ tudinal studies use the same group(s) of participants, they also allow psychologists to study ways in which early development may affect later development. Cross-sectional study Participant s age 5 years

Figure 4.20 In the longitudinal study, the same participants are tested at different points in time over a number of years (e.g. 1990, 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010). In the crosssectional study, different participants in different age groups are tested at the same time (e.g. 2010).

10 years 15 years 20 years

Participant s age

5 years

10 years

15 years

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25 years

Year of testing

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1995

2000

2005

2010

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Another research method called the cohort sequential method combines the cross­sectional and longitudinal study. It has some of the advantages of each method and eliminates some of the disadvantages of both. This method involves two or more groups of participants, called cohorts, who overlap in age. For example, a study might begin with three groups, or cohorts , of ado­ lescents aged 14, 16 and 18. Every two years, this group is tested on risk­taking behaviour, the characteristic of research interest, until the 14­year­olds have turned 18. In addition, every two years a new group of 14­year­olds is added to the research study (see figure 4.21). In this sense the study is longitudinal in that it spans a four­ year period. But the study is also cross­sectional in that it provides data from three different groups that can be compared directly. It also provides a comparison of ado­ lescents who were the same age (14, 16 and 18 years) at three different times. This third comparison enables psychologists to identify social and historical factors that may influence age­related differences. Furthermore, even though the study spans only a four­year period, it provides longitudinal data over an eight­year period. Age cohort comparisons Time 1 14 (2008)

16

18

Time 2 14 (2010)

16

18

20

Time 3 14 (2012)

16

18

20

Crosssectional comparisons

22

Longitudinal comparisons Figure 4.21 Key features of a cohort sequential method

Twin studies Twin studies, as suggested by the name, involve research using identical and non­identical twins as par­ ticipants. The two different types of twins are formed in different ways. Identical or monozygotic twins are formed when a single fertilised egg (zygote) splits into two in the first couple of days after conception. Provided the conditions in the uterus are right, two zygotes will develop. These children will have identical genes since they developed from the same sperm and egg combination. Studies of monozygotic twins can provide valuable information to psychologists because any differences which later develop between them can be attributed to differences in their upbringing and experiences that is, their environment. Fraternal or dizygotic twins develop when the female produces two separate ova (eggs) which are indepen­ dently fertilised by two different sperm cells. They can be the same or opposite sex and are not genetically identical. Their genetic similarities are comparable to other brothers and sisters. If a characteristic is mainly influenced by heredity, monozygotic twins are likely to be similar in that char­ acteristic. However, if a characteristic is influenced more by the environment, then monozygotic twins could show significant differences in that character­ istic. Twin studies have been used to conduct research on the development of personality and intelligence as these characteristics can be easily measured using per­ sonality or intelligence tests. In five research studies across different countries, 24 000 pairs of identical twins were compared on two personality traits extroversion (outgoingness) and neuroticism (psychological stability). The combined data showed that identical twins living in the same

learnin g acTiviT y 4. 16 review questions 1. Explain the difference between the longitudinal and cross-sectional methods for studying development with reference to an example. 2. Which method longitudinal or cross-sectional should be used for each of the following research topics? Explain your answer. (a) The effects of preschool children viewing Roadrunner cartoons on their level of aggressive behaviour in middle childhood, adolescence and early adulthood. (b) The effects of using a pacifier (for example, a dummy) throughout infancy and early childhood on emotional stability during adolescence.

(c) The reading habits of 5-, 10- and 15-year-olds. (d) The effects of retirement from full-time work on the happiness of 65-year-olds. (e) The effects of being married at age 20, 25, 30 and 35 on how long the marriage lasts. 3. Should a cross-sectional or longitudinal study be used to collect data for developmental norms, for example the language development norms shown in box 4.3? Explain your answer. 4. Describe one advantage and one limitation of both the longitudinal and cross-sectional methods of studying development.

eBook plus Video on Australian longitudinal study C h a p t e r 4 Lifespan development

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environment were more alike on these characteristics than were fraternal twins living in the same environ­ ment. This led researchers to conclude that heredity played a significant role in the development of these characteristics (Loehlin, 1992).

Figure 4.22 Monozygotic twins have an identical genetic make-up.

Through studying twins, psychologists have been able to gain a better understanding of which charac­ teristics are more likely to be influenced by environ­ mental factors. In a longitudinal study of 400 pairs of twins (both monozygotic and dizygotic) in America researchers followed the intellectual development of twins from birth to the early school years. From the start, the monozygotic twins were very similar to one another and, by the time they began school, each of the monozygotic twins exhibited almost identical strengths and weaknesses in their intellectual abilities. Fraternal twins were also similar to one another, but significantly less than identical twins (McGue & others, 1993). This study, and others with similiar findings, suggest that intelligence is, at least, partly determined by heredity. It also seems that monozygotic twins who share similar environments as well as their identical genetic structure achieve similar scores on intelligence tests. While twin studies seem to provide a sound basis for judging the differences between the influences of heredity and environment on development, there are a number of issues to consider before accepting these findings without question. Identical twins are often viewed by parents, and sometimes by themselves, as being a unit and they are often treated in a similiar manner. Identical twins may also be more inclined to do things together than fraternal twins. Thus, to say that any differences between identical twins are defi­ nitely the result of hereditary factors is risky, as identical twins may often be exposed to the same environmental factors. Some of their similarities, therefore, could also be attributed to environmental factors.

Figure 4.23 In terms of both their appearance and genetic make-up, fraternal twins are no more alike than siblings. 168

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learnin g acTiviT y 4. 17 estimating genetic similarities Rank the pairs of people listed below from one to five, with one being the pair you would consider to have the most similar genetic make-up and five the pair with the least similar genetic make-up: • a parent who lives with his or her child • two unrelated children who were raised together • two unrelated children who were raised separately • identical twins raised together • identical twins raised separately. Compare your rankings with those of other class members and give reasons for your rankings.

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adoption studies Psychologists also use information from research with children who have been adopted, and therefore have no genetic similarity to their adopted parents, to learn about the influence of heredity and environment on development. By examining the similarities and differ­ ences of adopted children and their adopted and bio­ logical parents, psychologists can gain an insight into the relative influences of heredity and environment on a range of behaviours and psychological character­ istics. Similarities between children and their adop­ tive parents would suggest environmental influence is greater, whereas similarities between adopted children and their biological parents would indicate inherited influence is greater. Studies of adopted children have provided considerable support for the view that inheritance plays a significant role in an individual s intelligence. They show that the scores on intelligence tests (called IQ scores) achieved by adopted children are much more similar to the IQs scores of their biological par­ ents than with those of their adopted parents even though their adoptive parents had raised them since birth. Because the children did not spend time living with their biological parents, the most likely expla­ nation for the similarity in IQ scores involves heredity (Santrock, 1992).

Selective breeding experiments Animal breeders selectively mate horses, birds, dogs, cats and all kinds of other animals. Using a process called selective breeding, they mate males and females from family lines with desired characteristics to increase

the likelihood that the offspring will have these same characteristics. Through selective breeding, animal breeders have achieved a great deal of success in pro­ ducing certain physical and psychological character­ istics. For example, some horses have been bred to be sprinters, some birds to be yellow feathered, some dogs to be aggressive and particular breeds of cats to have a certain temperament. Psychologists have also conducted selective breeding experiments in laboratory settings. For example, mice have been bred to be aggressive, timid, sociable, or even intelligent (as measured by their ability to run through a maze). These results have led some psychol­ ogists to believe that almost any characteristic can be genetically transmitted. Yet, this does not necessarily mean that heredity is more important than environ­ ment in shaping the development of psychological characteristics. Although desirable characteristics may be transmitted genetically, the environment can alter the course of development. For example, a dog may be bred with genes for being passive, but the way in which it is treated by its owners can influence its actual temperament, and can result in it displaying aggres­ sive behaviour.

Figure 4.24 Burmese cats have been selectively bred for their affectionate and sociable nature and their intelligence.

Selective breeding experiments with humans would be unethical. So, in order to establish the inheritance of particular characteristics in humans, psychologists often study family trees; for example, by looking for patterns of the inheritance of particular character­ istics through different generations of a family (see figure 4.25). Investigations using family trees suggest that some characteristics or illnesses such as shyness, creativity and schizophrenia have a genetic basis. C h a p t e r 4 Lifespan development

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ohann amuel

ohann Christian ohann

ohann ohann

ohann acob

ohann Christian

ohann Christoph

ohann

ohann ernhard

ohann rnst

ohann Christoph

ohann riedrich

ohann

ohann

nther

e idius icolaus

icolaus

e idius

ilhelm Hieronymus ohann oren

eor Christoph

ohann Valentin

ohann lias

ohann Christian

ohann Heinrich

ohann eor obias riedrich ohann Christoph

ohann ernhard

ohann acob

ohann Christoph ohann Heinrich

Veit ach

Hans

Christoph

ohann

ohann

mbrosius

ips

ndreas

ilhelm riedman

ohann ebastian

ohann Christoph

eopold

ohann

icolaus

ottfried Heinrich

ohann Christoph

Christian ottlieb

ohann

ohann

Carl Philipp mmanuel

ohann Christoph

ohann riedrich

ohann

Christoph s t in sister

ottfried ernhard

ichael

ichael

ohann ud i

nther

aria arbara first ife of ebastian

ife

Heinrich

ohann rnst

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ohann Christoph

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ife

ohann Christoph

rnst

ndreas

Christoph riedrich ohann

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u ust

braham

ohann Christian and ei ht dau hters

Figure 4.25 This family tree shows the unusually high number of musically talented people in the Bach family. All those listed in black type are known to have been musicians. Which do you think was more responsible for their ability heredity or environment? (Source: Kasschau, R.A. (1980). Psychology: Exploring Behaviour. New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall.)

u ust

BOX 4.8 Experiments as a research method in developmental psychology Experiments are commonly used to study the development of psychological characteristics. For example, the following experiment was designed to investigate the relationship between the ability of infants to recognise themselves and their ability to experience certain emotions (Lewis & others, 1989). Hypothesis Infants who recognise themselves as having blush on their nose when looking in a mirror will show the emotions of embarrassment or fear by looking away (embarrassment) or through certain facial expressions and vocalisations (indicating fear), whereas infants who are unable to recognise themselves as having blush on their nose when looking in the mirror will not show these emotions. Participants Twenty-seven infants in three age groups: 9 12 months (average 10.5 months) 15 18 months (average 17 months) 21 24 months (average 22.5 months) Conditions of the experiment All infants were in a laboratory setting with their mothers. They all experienced three conditions. Condition 1. The infant, seated in a high chair, was approached by a female stranger who walked slowly toward the infant, touched the baby s hand, turned, and left the room. Condition 2. The infant s mother placed the child in front of a one-way mirror.

Condition 3. The infant s mother applied a dab of nonscented blush on the infant s nose while pretending to wipe the infant s face. The infant was again placed in front of the mirror. Variables The infant s facial expressions were videotaped through the one-way mirror and coded. Observers measured the following behaviors: • self-recognition defined as nose touching • fear/wariness/crying defined by certain predetermined facial expressions and vocalisations • embarrassment defined as smiling followed by the infant looking away and moving their hands to touch their hair, clothing, face, or other body parts. Results Tweny-three out of 27 infants showed a wary face when approached by the stranger. No infants showed a wary face when placed in front of the mirror. Ten infants touched their noses when they saw the dab of red blush. Older infants were significantly more likely to touch their noses than younger infants. Eight of the 10 who showed self-recognition also showed signs of embarrassment. Infants who did not show self-recognition did not show embarrassment. Conclusions Wariness was the typical response to a stranger, not fear. However, wariness did not require self-recognition. On the other hand, embarrassment did require self-recognition.

learnin g acTiviT y 4. 18

learning acTiviTy 4.1 9

evaluation of research & Stiers (1989)

essay

lewis

Read the summary of the experiment on self-recognition and emotional responses in box 4.8. Evaluate the research by answering the following questions. 1. Write a possible aim for the experiment. 2. Identify the IV(s) and DV(s) of the experiment. 3. Suggest a reason to explain why infants of different ages were used as participants. 4. Which infants were in the experimental group and which infants were in the control group? 5. What do the research findings suggest about selfrecognition and emotions? 6. Could these research findings be generalised to all infants? Explain your answer. 7. One of the emotions the infants were expected to show was fear. What ethical considerations might this raise?

heredity and environment

Write an essay of about 400 500 words in which you discuss the influences of heredity and environment on psychological development. In your essay, ensure that you: • define psychological development • describe how heredity influences psychological development • give one or more examples of how heredity influences psychological development • describe how environmental factors influence psychological development • give one or more examples of how environmental factors influence psychological development • discuss the interaction between hereditary and environmental influences on psychological development, with reference to an example and research findings • accurately define and explain all key terms • express your ideas in a clear and concise way • accurately cite and reference all material. References may be used in obtaining information for your essay.

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learning a cTiviTy 4.20 Practical activity investigating the influence of heredity and environment on musical ability Is musical ability an inherited ability or is it mainly influenced by environmental factors? To investigate this question, you will need to collect data from as many members of your extended biological family as possible. In collecting your family data, complete the family tree for musical ability by writing the number of each person s musical ability in the circle representing each family member (see rating scale). Prior to conducting the research, construct a relevant hypothesis to be tested. Rating scale 1. Almost no ability can neither play an instrument nor carry a tune vocally 2. Below average ability can perform only in a very limited way on an instrument or vocally 3. Average ability can play an instrument with some ability or join group singing without being off-key 4. Above average ability can play a musical instrument with skill, or sing solos, duets or karaoke with skill 5. Superior ability outstanding instrumentalist or vocalist Report Write a brief report on the activity to include in your folio of practical activities. Ensure your report includes answers to the following questions.

1. What is your hypothesis? 2. Do your individual findings support your hypothesis? Explain your answer. 3. Compare your data with three other class members. What conclusion(s) can you draw about the heritability of musical ability and whether it is inherited or mainly influenced by environmental factors? Describe the evidence that leads you to this conclusion. 4. Are data from four individuals sufficient to generalise to the wider population about whether musical ability is influenced more by heredity or the environment? Explain why or why not. 5. Describe one major limitation in conducting this research. How might this limitation impact on your conclusion(s)? 6. (a) Should you have obtained informed consent from your family members before conducting this practical activity? Explain with reference to ethical standards for human research. (b) Based on ethical considerations, is there a need to debrief your family members at the completion of this practical activity? Explain your answer with reference to ethical standards.

randparents

Parents aunts and uncles Father

Mother

ou and your siblin s Figure 4.26

You

learning a cTiviTy 4.21 Summary of research methods Construct a table to summarise research methods that can be used by psychologists to study development. The table should have four columns: name of the research method, brief description, limitation(s) and an example. Research method

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Brief description

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Limitation(s)

Example

ethIcs assocIated WIth stUdyIng deveLopment In order to improve their understanding of lifespan development, psychologists need to be able to conduct research with human participants. Research studies in developmental psychology often involve infants and children. However, the ethical standards and practices described in chapter 2 apply to all human participants, regardless of their age or lifespan stage. Developmental psychologists face the same kind of ethical decisions as psychologists who specialise in other areas of psychology when undertaking research. For example, would it be ethical to deceive children by telling them they performed poorly on a test in order to create a sense of failure? Is it an invasion of a fam­ ily s privacy to ask adolescents questions about con­ versations they have had with their parents about sex? Would there be a need to debrief an older person with dementia about the outcomes of research in which they were a participant? The ethical standards and practices must be followed when any psychological research is undertaken. Par­ ticipants rights must be respected at all times. When determining the research method, the psychologist must ensure that any participant, regardless of age or mental capacity, will not be exposed to any physical or psychological harm, either in the short or long term.

Confidentiality must be maintained and participation in the research must be voluntary. In developmental psychology, research often involves participants who are too young to understand what it means to be a voluntary participant. In this situation, parents or guardians of infants and children must give their informed consent for their child to participate. Throughout the research procedure, parents or guard­ ians may be present if they wish and they have the right to withdraw their child from the research at any time. The parents are debriefed if deception is necessary for the research. Often, the parents will receive a copy of the findings after the study has been completed. These standards and practices also apply with older aged research participants who are not capable of making their own decisions about their involvement in the research study, such as an individual with dementia. In this situation, permission for participation in the research would be obtained from the person who is the legal guardian. This person would also have the right to terminate the participation of the older person in the research should they wish to do so. While these requirements may seem restrictive, they exist to protect participants of all ages from potential harm. Furthermore, regardless of age, whether the par­ ticipant is an infant or an older aged person, they are still a person, and therefore have the same rights as an adult with respect to research. These rights must be respected.

Figure 4.27 A parent may choose to be present during research in which their child is a participant. C h a p t e r 4 Lifespan development

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Tr Ue/Fa lS e QUiZ Indicate whether each item is true or false by writing T or F in the blank space next to each item. 1.

A developmental change is a relatively permanent change.

2.

Lifespan development includes both changes which are common to all individuals and changes which differ between individuals.

3.

The age range of each lifespan stage is fixed.

4.

Psychological development is directly observable.

5.

Cross­sectional research studies follow the same participants over an extended period of time.

6.

Development can be discontinuous.

7.

Most individuals develop at the same rate.

8.

Genes provide the instructions for the development of psychological characteristics.

9.

Having a genetic predisposition for aggression means that the individual will always behave aggressively.

10.

If a psychological characteristic is mainly influenced by heredity, monozygotic twins are likely to differ in that characteristic.

The answers to the true/false questions are in the answer section at the back of this book and in eBookPLUS.

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C H A PT E R TEST SecTiOn a

Multiple-choice questions

Choose the response that is correct or that best answers the question. A correct answer scores 1, an incorrect answer scores 0. Marks will not be deducted for incorrect answers. No marks will be given if more than one answer is completed for any question. 1. The research method used by psychologists to study the same group of participants over an extended period of time is called a study. A. sequential B. cross­sectional C. longitudinal D. time delay 2. The three areas of development referred to collectively as psychological development are A. cognitive, physical and social. B. cognitive, emotional and physical. C. emotional, social and cognitive. D. emotional, physical and social. 3. Which of the following is most likely to be considered a developmental change? A. being in a good mood after getting back a maths test result B. trying bungee jumping for the first time C. having a good night s sleep after not having slept well for three nights D. regularly speaking in public without getting anxious after having learnt a strategy to manage anxiety 4. Cognitive development refers to the development of A. mental abilities. B. life skills. C. mental health. D. social skills. 5. A person s genetic make­up is determined A. at conception. B. at birth. C. during childhood. D. when they reproduce. 6. A sensitive period in development refers to a time A. when the newborn cries a lot. B. when the mother is very responsive to her newborn. C. when psychological development is delayed. D. when the individual is more vulnerable to influences from the environment.

7. Which of the following statements about the effects of heredity and environment on psychological development is most correct? A. Heredity is more important than the environment in shaping psychological development. B. The environment is more important than heredity in shaping psychological development. C. Environmental influences are stronger than the influence of heredity in psychological development. D. Genes provide the plan for how development will proceed and environmental influences determine how that plan unfolds in determining psychological development. 8. Maturation means that A if a child practises any skill they will become competent at that skill. B. a child s brain and nervous system need to be sufficiently developed before they can perform certain skills. C. development does not occur in a sequential way. D. physical development and psychological development occur independently of one another. 9. In psychology, nature refers to A. the natural tendency to control one s own development. B. the influence of genetic inheritance on development. C. the influence of an individual s experiences throughout infancy. D. the influence of an individual s experiences throughout their lifetime. 10. Quantitative change in development refers to ; whereas qualitative change in development refers to . A. amount; kind B. kind; amount C. statistics; description D. description; statistics C h a p t e r 4 Lifespan development

175

SecTiOn B

Short-answer questions

Answer all questions in the spaces provided. Question 1

A psychologist is interested in finding out the age at which infants first recognise their father s voice. Describe one ethical standard or practice the psychologist must follow in order to obtain permission to conduct their research.

1 mark

Question 2

Name the six lifespan development stages and the approximate age ranges associated with each stage.

2 marks

Question 3

Give an example relevant to each of the three areas of psychological development.

3 marks

Question 4

Briefly explain how heredity and environmental factors may interact in shaping the development of a specific psychological characteristic or ability.

1 mark

Question 5

A psychologist is interested in studying the role of heredity in aggression in males. Briefly describe an ethically acceptable research method the psychologist could use. Explain why your choice of research method is appropriate.

3 marks

eBook plus The answers to the multiple-choice questions are in the answer section at the back of this book and in eBookPLUS. The answers to the short-answer questions are in eBookPLUS. Note that you can complete Section A of the chapter test online through eBookPLUS and get automatic feedback.

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CHAPTER

5

THEORIES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT Gibson s theory of perceptual development ..................................................... 179 Emotional development ........................... 184 Attachment theory ................................. 184 Harlow s experiments on attachment in monkeys ................. 195 Cognitive development ............................. 200 Key principles of Piaget s theory ........................................................ 201 Piaget s four-stage theory of cognitive development ................... 203 Criticisms of Piaget s theory ............ 213 Moral development ...................................... 215 Kohlberg s theory of moral development .......................................... 215 Criticisms of Kohlberg s theory ..... 222 Psychosocial development ...................... 224 Erikson s theory of psychosocial development .......................................... 224 Criticisms of Erikson s theory ........ 234 Psychological changes in the very old ................................................................. 235 Cognitive changes .................................. 236 Psychosocial changes ............................ 237 Successful ageing .......................................... 238 Baltes Selection, Optimisation and Compensation theory ........... 239

5.2, theories lead to further thinking about the topic of interest and other hypotheses which may be tested through further scientific research. In turn, this leads to new observations, and perhaps modification of existing theories or the construction of new theories, which can lead to other new hypotheses, and so on. Observations or research questions

Define research problem for testing

Figure 5.1 A newborn infant, although helpless, is far more capable than its appearance suggests.

When you were born, like all newborns, you were helpless, uncoordinated and dependent on others for your survival. The person you are today is vastly different. You have developed in many ways psychologically. You are now able to perceive the world in more sophisticated ways. You have the capacity to understand a broader range of emotional experiences such as empathy and grief. In terms of your cognitive abilities, you can think about abstract concepts such as justice and equality of opportunity, and can logically evaluate an argument. You better understand the difference between right and wrong and can use this understanding to make decisions in your everyday life. You no doubt have a better developed range of social skills and can interact more effectively in a wider range of social situations. You probably have a better sense of who you are and the kind of person you want to be. But what about the future? In what ways will you continue to change? How will your social, emotional and cognitive abilities develop as you get older? Answers to these questions can be found in the many theories developmental psychologists have constructed from their observations and research findings. A theory is a set of ideas which are proposed to organise, describe and explain a set of observations and the relationships between them. A psychological theory explains how and why certain things occur, usually on the basis of scientific evidence. For example, a psychologist whose child cries when left at a childcare centre may wonder whether being at the childcare centre is having negative effects on their child s emotional development. Rather than draw conclusions based on one experience or a hunch , psychologists use scientific methods to test their observations and ideas in order to develop a theory. As shown in figure 178

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

Construct hypothesis

Conduct research make observations and collect data (evidence)

Analyse and interpret data

Hypothesis rejected

Hypothesis supported

Theory construction or modification Figure 5.2 Stages in the construction of a theory. A theory can lead to research, modification of the theory and even new theories.

There is no single theory of development that is so comprehensive or broad that it can explain all areas of development across the entire lifespan. Most theories of psychological development focus on one specific aspect or area of development. For example, there are theories on the development of language, thinking, problem solving, self-esteem, emotions, social skills and so on. Often, there is more than one theory to explain a particular area of development. For example, two theoretical approaches to cognitive development are based on the socio-cultural and cognitive perspectives.

system. As the perceptual systems develop, the infant s Socio-cultural approaches tend to emphasise the ability to take in and use sensory information expands. role of social and/or cultural factors such as sex, family One of the best-known theories on the perceptual background and race or ethnic background in cognidevelopment was proposed by American psychologist, tive development. In contrast, cognitive theories tend Eleanor Gibson. to emphasise the importance of mental abilities such Gibson conducted many experiments on different as attention, perception, problem-solving, thinking styles and memory on the ways in which we process aspects of perception, particularly the visual percepand interpret information about the world. The fact tion of infants. On the basis of her research findings, that there are different theories to describe and Gibson constructed theories to describe and explain explain the same area of development doesn t necesperceptual development. sarily mean that one theory is right and the other(s) Gibson did not describe perceptual development is wrong . in terms of age-related changes, abilities or stages, In VCE Psychology, we consider five key areas of as do many theories in other areas of development. psychological development and examine one or more Instead, Gibson emphasised key processes involved theories associated with each area. The areas covered in perceptual development. These included the role are perceptual, emotional, cognitive, moral and psychoof the infant as an active explorer in their world, the social development. In studying perceptual developaffordance (perceived qualities) of objects or events ment we consider Eleanor Gibson s theory. Gibson was that are experienced, and the way in which perceptual one of the pioneers of experimental research on perexploration becomes more and more specific and ceptual development. For emotional development, we differentiated (selective) with age (Gibson, 1983; 1991). consider John Bowlby s and Mary Ainsworth s theories According to Gibson (1983), the infant is an active on attachment, that is, the special bond people (and explorer in the constantly changing environment into animals) develop with their main caregiver(s) during which it is born. When the infant is awake, it continuinfancy. We also consider Harlow s research on attachously monitors what is happening in its environment ment with infant monkeys. For cognitive development, and actively searches for and obtains information we consider Jean Piaget s theory, which about the environment and itself in the is one of the best-known theories of environment. The infant then uses this development, and Lawrence Kohlberg s information to guide its actions. Gibson theory on moral development is also proposed that these activities are essenconsidered. Moral development refers to tially what perception is. the development of our understanding Despite limitations in perceptual abiliof what is right and wrong . We then ties at birth, the infant makes maximum consider Erik Erikson s theory on psyuse of its abilities in actively seeking and chosocial development, which describes obtaining information. These abilities how psychological factors combine gradually develop and are refined, or with social experiences to influence, finely tuned , through experience over for example, our view of who we are. time. According to Gibson, this is percepFinally, we consider some of the cognitual development a process that involves tive and psychosocial changes that occur continuous modification and refinement Figure 5.3 American in very old people and the research of perceptual abilities through experiexperimental psychologist findings of Paul Baltes on successful ence with incoming sensory informaEleanor Gibson (1910 2002) ageing. tion. A great deal of this experience is self-initiated by the infant as it actively explores its environment. As the infant s perceptual systems develop, and it explores its environment more, it learns more and more about people, events and objects in its world (Gibson, 1988). Human perceptual systems such as sight, sound, taste, According to Gibson, an important feature of pertouch and smell are all functioning at birth and play ceptual development is exploration and search for important roles in the infant s survival. While percepaffordances of the environment what the environtual development continues throughout the lifespan, ment offers an animal (human or non-human) and the greatest changes occur in the early years of life what it provides, either good or bad. Affordances are together with the physical maturation and developthe perceived and actual properties of something in ment of the sense organs, the brain and nervous the environment that suggest how it should be used.

GIBSon S THeorY oF perCepTUal developMenT

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Both humans and animals use affordances in much the same way because they are closely related through evolution. Gibson (1983) illustrates the concept of affordance with an example of the perception of a surface by an approaching animal. If a surface of land is perceived by the animal as nearly horizontal (instead of slanted), nearly flat (instead of convex or concave), having sufficient length and width (in relation to the size of the animal), and is rigid (can hold the weight of the animal), then the surface affords support. Since it is perceived as a surface of support, it can be considered stand-on-able , and therefore walk-on-able and runoverable . It is not sink-into-able like a surface of water or a swamp would be for a heavy land-dwelling animal. For a different animal, such as a water bug, the affordance of support would be different if the surface is water. Gibson believed that affordance is a two-way relationship between something in the environment and a particular animal (or person). According to Gibson, affordances tell the animal the specific properties of something that is relevant to them. In turn, the animal has been specifically designed (through evolution) to detect those properties that are specifically relevant to them. So, the affordance of something can vary from one animal to another, or from one person to another. For example, the back door at your home affords a passage for you to go through. Your cat or dog,

however, may be afforded passage by a smaller door (a doggy door) than the one which affords you passage. Similarly, you are afforded passage by a smaller door than would afford passage for an elephant or a giraffe. In each of these cases, your back door s affordance is unique to the animal that may approach the door. Similarly, a tree may afford food, a resting place, a hiding place, shelter, fuel or an obstacle to different animals. In the examples of the door and tree, both the animal s behaviour and perception are involved. The animal behaves in a way that is consistent with the affordances of the back door or the tree and this depends on the animal perceiving them. Furthermore, the example of a tree also shows that a single object can have more than one affordance. Like the tree, an apple has its own affordances. It is edible, graspable, pickable, rollable, catchable and so on. To what extent must the infant learn to perceive affordances? And if they must learn, how is it done? According to Gibson (1991), affordances are not created by the perceiver. They exist within the object and are there to be perceived. For example, a spoon affords a means of scooping, even in the case of an infant who may not know what spoons are used for. An infant simply does not perceive the affordance of scooping (but may perceive affordance of graspability or bangability). Through experience, the infant will eventually learn to perceive the scooping affordance of a spoon.

Figure 5.4 This horizontal, flat land surface affords support for large land animals, such as giraffes, whereas water affords support for this water bug and dragonfly. 180

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As affordances are discovered through ongoing interaction with the environment, differentiation occurs. Differentiation is the ability to selectively perceive differences between things in the environment. This is done through learning the distinctive features of things; that is, those characteristics of the object that make them different from others. According to Gibson (1969, 1987, 1992), perceptual development or perceptual learning occurs when we actively explore objects in the environment and detect their distinctive features. For example, a two-year-old child may initially confuse rabbits and cats because they are both furry animals about the same size. However, the child will eventually discover that rabbits have long ears a distinctive feature that differentiates them from cats, guinea pigs, possums and other small, furry animals.

Figure 5.5 Like other objects, a book has many affordances which can vary from one person to another. For example, this book is chewable, tearable, readable and lean-on-able.

Figure 5.6 Through differentiation, children learn to perceive differences; for example, that rabbits are different from cats and possums because of their long ears. C h a p t e r 5 Theories of psychological development

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According to Gibson (1992), we become more efficient at differentiation through experience and ongoing interaction with things in the environment. The older we get, the more experience and therefore familiarity we have with objects, places and events in the environment. With greater experience, we become

more efficient, or better at differentiation. Essentially, we learn what to look for (the distinctive features of things) and what to ignore (the non-essential features of things). In this sense, our ability to differentiate and therefore our perceptual development is agerelated.

BOX 5.1 Affordance and design The concept of affordance is often intentionally applied by designers of goods and objects we use on a daily basis. For example, suppose you receive a television set for your birthday. You set up the television and look at the remote control in readiness to operate the television. There is no writing on the device other than the brand name and a sequence of numbers from 0 to 10. However, you know that the button with a green marking on it affords an action of pushing to switch on the television. You know that a button with a number on or adjacent to it affords an action of pushing to tune into the station corresponding with the number. You know that the button with a red marking on it affords an action of pushing to switch off your television. When affordances are applied in the design of goods and other objects we use in daily life, you will inevitably know what to do with an object just by looking. You won t need a picture, a label or instructions.

BOX 5.2 An experiment by Gibson on differentiation Gibson demonstrated the developmental differences in children s ability to differentiate features in objects through research. In one experiment, children between the ages of four and eight years were shown a visual stimulus that looked like a Chinese character, as shown in card 1 below. They were also shown several variations in which the stimulus was either rotated or slightly changed, like those in cards 2 7 below. The four- and five-year-olds had difficulty differentiating all variations of the stimulus, often judging them to be identical to the original stimulus. However, the six- to eight-year-olds were generally able to identify the distinctive features that differentiated the variations from the original stimulus (Gibson & others, 1962). These research findings have been particularly relevant in helping psychologists understand why preschool children can have difficulties when learning how to read. The ability Card 1

Card 2

Card 3

Standard

Line-to-curve transformation

Line-to-curve transformation

to differentiate between the specific features of each letter of the alphabet is an important skill that children must have before they can learn to read. Parents who continually expose their preschool children to letters and words may help them recognise some letters and words such as their name. However, most preschool children younger than about five years of age continue to confuse letters such as b, h and d, and m and w; that is, letters that have similar features (Chall, 1983). Gibson has sometimes been described as a differentiation theorist. She believes that young infants and children are constantly extracting new and more subtle information from the environment, which enables them to differentiate objects and events. As this differentiation continues, a child develops perceptually and increasingly improves their ability to interpret the broad range of sensory information that they encounter.

Card 4

Card 5

45n rotation

90n rotation

Card 6

Card 7

Left-to-right reversal

Same as standard

Figure 5.7 Cards with characters like those used by Gibson to test children s ability to differentiate between features of a stimulus

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learnIn g actIVIt y 5. 1 review questions 1. How does Gibson define perception and perceptual development? 2. According to Gibson, (a) what is the role of the individual in perception? (b) what is the role of the environment in the process of perception? (c) what is the role of the perceiving animal (human or non-human) in relation to the environment? 3. (a) What are affordances? Explain with reference to an example. (b) What affordances of a textbook might be perceived by a teenager who uses the book at

(c) 4. (a) (b) (c)

(d)

school? A teenager who doesn t use the book at school? A crawling infant? A walking infant? A cat? Briefly describe the part played by affordances in the process of perception. What is perceptual differentiation? Explain with reference to an example. Briefly describe the relationship between affordances and differentiation. How does differentiation change as an individual gets older? Why does differentiation change in this way? Briefly describe the part played by differentiation in perceptual development.

learnIn g actIVIt y 5. 2 research investigation testing perceptual development in children This investigation involves comparing perceptual abilities of two children of different ages. It is based on the research study conducted by Eleanor Gibson and her colleagues (1962). One child participant should be aged four or five, and the other child participant aged seven or eight; that is, both are in the same lifespan stage. This will enable you to study whether an older and more experienced child has more finely tuned perceptual abilities than a younger, less perceptually experienced child. Alternatively, you could compare the perceptual abilities of males and females in the same age group. You should construct a hypothesis for the research prior to conducting the study. It is also essential that you obtain informed consent from the parents of the child participants prior to conducting the study and that you follow all other ethical standards and practices described in chapter 2. You will need to prepare the materials required for the investigation. These are the same as those shown in figure 5.7. Make a copy of each character on separate sheets of white paper or cardboard. Note that you can print copies from your eBook. Card 1 is the standard against which participants compare any variations or transformations in the other six cards. Note that card 7 is intentionally the same as card 1. Test each participant separately. Show the standard character by placing card 1 in a position where the

participant can continue to look at it. Then, place all of the test cards in front of the participant. Ask the participant to select any card that is identical to the standard card . You should record whether the participant correctly (✓) or incorrectly (✘) identifies the characters on each test card (cards 2 7), as either the same or different from the character on the standard card. To be certain a participant correctly perceives the features of the characters on the card, you may ask them to explain why they think a particular card is similar or different to the standard card. Individual data should be combined with data from other members of your class. Report Prepare a formal report on the research investigation based on the reporting conventions described in chapter 7. Your report should include the following: 1. a statement of the aim of this research investigation 2. the research hypothesis 3. a summary of the class results using appropriate descriptive statistics 4. a conclusion based on the results, referring to the hypothesis 5. a statement about whether the results can be generalised, including an explanation of why or why not 6. a description of a potential extraneous variable that may be relevant, including an explanation of how the results may have been affected. 7. other information requested by your teacher.

Assessment task and criteria C h a p t e r 5 Theories of psychological development

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eMoTIonal developMenT Around the middle of the twentieth century, some psychologists observed that children who had spent their early years in orphanages where they received minimal care and attention often experienced emotional difficulties in their later years and into adulthood. These observations stimulated research with children (and animals) on the types of early experience that can influence emotional development. For example, some of the children in the orphanages had very limited physical contact with a permanent or even a temporary caregiver. Their contact was seldom with the same person. If they did have physical contact, it was for very short periods of time and only for practical purposes, such as to be bathed, fed or have their clothes changed. Observations such as these led psychologists to hypothesise about the importance of the psychological bond, or attachment, between infants and their caregivers in emotional development.

The term attachment was first described as a psychological concept by British psychiatrist John Bowlby. Bowlby (1969) described attachment as lasting psychological connectedness between human beings . Since Bowlby s first description of attachment, the definition has been refined to focus on the connections made early in a person s life. Psychologists now define attach­ ment as the tendency of infants to form an emotional bond to another person, usually their main caregiver. Psychologists believe that the attachment(s) formed during infancy, particularly in the first 12 months of life, has a considerable influence on a person s emotional development throughout the lifespan.

Figure 5.9 British psychiatrist John Bowlby (1907 90)

Figure 5.8 This photo is of a boy who was left in a Romanian orphanage where he received very little personal care and attention. This boy is now a young adult and may still be experiencing the effects of his early emotional deprivation.

attachment theory From the moment of birth, infants depend on the people around them for their survival. Their caregiver, who is usually a parent(s), responds whenever the infant indicates, often by crying, that it is hungry, cold, tired, uncomfortable or has other needs. Over time, the infant develops an emotional connection with the people who respond to its needs. This is a process called attachment. 184

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Bowlby used information from his clients and the findings from various research studies to construct his theory. According to Bowlby, there are four key characteristics that all need to be present if a strong attachment is to form between an infant and caregiver. These characteristics are: • proximity maintenance the infant s desire to be near the person(s) to whom it is attached • safe haven the ability to return to the attachment figure for comfort and safety when scared or feeling unsafe or threatened • secure base the ability to perceive the attachment figure as a base of security from which the infant can explore the surrounding environment • separation distress anxiety experienced when the attachment figure leaves or is absent. According to Bowlby, when an attachment has formed, the infant displays predictable behaviour in the presence and absence of the attachment target(s). An attachment target is the person(s) to whom an infant forms an attachment. The infant will seek attention from and contact with the attachment target more than they do with any other person. When the infant is

distressed, they will seek comfort and security from the attachment target first. When the attachment target is close by, the infant will confidently explore its environment; for example, the infant will more confidently crawl away from the attachment target and play with toys. Furthermore, the infant will show visible distress when the attachment target is out of sight. Proximity maintenance

Safe haven

Attachment

Secure base

Separation distress

Figure 5.10 Bowlby described four key characteristics of attachment, all of which need to be present eBook plus for attachment formation. Video on Bowlby explaining the importance of attachment

Bowlby considered the infant caregiver bond to be important in two ways. First, the bond forms the foundation for healthy emotional development later in life. Second, the bond has an evolutionary function, which, according to Bowlby, improves the infant s chances of survival. A close emotional connection with a caregiver keeps the infant and caregiver physically close, thereby increasing the helpless and dependent infant s chances of survival. For example, when the infant is physically close, the caregiver can keep a watchful eye on the infant s safety and intervene if danger threatens (Bowlby, 1988).

Bowlby s theory stimulated a lot of research interest amongst psychologists who were keen to further understand how an attachment formed and how it impacted on emotional development. American psychologist Mary Ainsworth, who was one of Bowlby s students, was particularly motivated by Bowlby s work. She worked with Bowlby for a number of years and further developed his theory. Their combined views on the role of attachment in emotional development have come to be known as attachment theory. The main idea of attachment theory is that human infants need a secure relationship with an adult caregiver in order for healthy emotional (and social) development to occur. Both the caregiver and the infant play a role in developing an attachment. Adult caregivers provide security when they are responsive to an infant s needs. Over time, caregivers get better at both understanding the infant s needs and in responding to them appropriately. Similarly, over time, the infant gradually comes to trust that its caregiver can be depended on to meet its needs. Knowing it has a person who it can trust to care for it, the infant can then confidently explore its world with the knowledge that it can return to its secure base at any time should it feel unsafe.

attachment targets Bowlby proposed that infants form attachments with those people most closely involved with them. This is usually the main caregiver, most commonly the mother. Many infants develop strong attachments to both parents. However, it is not uncommon for an infant to have a stronger attachment to the mother than the father, or vice versa. Infants are also capable of developing different and separate attachments with other people who have significant involvement in their lives; for example, an older sibling, a grandparent or childcare worker. Generally, infants under six months of age do not fully recognise their caregivers on an individual basis. In the same way that some infants may smile indiscriminately

Figure 5.11 Infants are capable of developing different and separate attachments with a range of people who have significant involvement in their lives; for example, an older sibling or grandparent. C h a p t e r 5 Theories of psychological development

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at anyone who smiles at them, they tend to happily accept comfort from anyone who provides it to their satisfaction. From about two months of age, infants may show some signs of identifying individual caregivers. For example, an infant may start to show negative reactions when their main caregiver leaves or turns their attention elsewhere. However, at this age, nearly anyone who provides the desired comfort or attention will quickly be accepted as a substitute. Between about six and eight months of age there is usually a change from the earlier pattern of accepting comfort from just about anyone. This period marks the development of a special attachment to the main caregiver, usually the mother. Infants are likely to cry and cling when their main caregiver moves away from them and to react negatively to anyone else who tries to comfort them. At this stage infants are in the process of developing their first meaningful attachment to another person. The attachment will be specific for this person, and stronger for that person than for others. One of Bowlby s views on attachment which caused a great deal of controversy is that mothers are the best caregivers for infants. He believed nature intended the mother to be the primary or main caregiver. In other words, Bowlby believed females are genetically programmed to be the best and therefore the main caregiver. Most psychologists also believe that infants may have a preference to form an attachment to the mother, but this is not necessarily a natural, biologically programmed

tendency. Infants tend to develop an attachment to the mother because the mother is usually the person who takes on the role of main caregiver. However, research findings indicate that even when the mother is the person who performs the routine tasks of looking after the infant and spends more time with it than anyone else, she will not automatically be the infant s attachment target. In one research study, British psychologists Schaffer and Emerson (1964) studied the formation of attachment among a group of 60 Scottish infants. The infant participants were aged between five and 23 weeks and were observed periodically until they were about 18 months of age. Schaffer and Emerson found that even in homes where the mother was the main caregiver, some infants attached to the father and others to a grandparent or an older sibling. About a third of the infants formed multiple attachments; that is, they formed emotional connections to several people at about the same time. By 18 months of age, 87% of the children had attached to more than one person. Each attachment was much the same in quality but the infants seemed to use different people for different purposes. For example, if they were frightened they generally preferred to be with their mother and if they wanted to play they tended to prefer their father. In Schaffer s view, however, this did not mean that the infants had a stronger attachment to one person than another. He suggested that an infant s capacity for attachment is not limited, like a cake that has to be shared out. Love, even in babies, has no limits (Schaffer, 1977).

BOX 5.3 Attachment objects For many children, their blankie , bibba , num num , or teddy are as important in their daily lives as their main caregiver. In fact, there are many parents who dread the thought of going anywhere with their child without the loved security blanket . The term security blanket usually refers in a general way to inanimate ( non-living ) objects like a blanket, a special bib, a dummy, a teddy bear or another soft toy for which the child has a special affection. For most children, however, the security blanket does not usually replace the attachment to the main caregiver. It provides an additional attachment, which, unlike the caregiver, can be taken with the child wherever they go. Most attachments to security blankets develop between about 10 and 12 months of age and they serve an important function of comforting a child when separated from the main caregiver; for example, when a child goes to bed or is left in the care of a person who is not the main caregiver. A security blanket is also often the first thing children ask for when they are upset or afraid. It seems to provide reassurance and comfort in mildly stressful situations.

Figure 5.12 The security blanket, such as a bibba, provides an additional, portable attachment.

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learnIng actIVIty 5.4 evaluation of research Schaffer and emerson (1964) Summarise and evaluate the research by Schaffer and Emerson (1964) on the formation of attachment in infants. 1. Suggest a hypothesis that could have been used for this study. 2. What kind of research method was used in the study? Explain your answer. 3. Briefly state the results of the research. 4. Briefly state the conclusion(s) drawn from these results. 5. To what extent could the results be generalised to: (a) all infants? (b) infants in a different cultural group? (c) infants born this year? Explain your answers with reference to the research.

learnIng actIVIty 5.5 V Visual presentation attachment targets

Figure 5.13 Infants attach to different people for different purposes. Many fathers become the preferred play mate.

learnIn g actIVIt y 5. 3 review questions 1. Explain the meaning of attachment. 2. What observations first led psychologists to investigate the effects of early attachment on emotional development? 3. Describe the main idea of attachment theory. 4. According to Bowlby (1988), why is attachment important? 5. Describe the four characteristics of attachment proposed by Bowlby. For each characteristic, give an example of infant behaviour that illustrates the characteristic. 6. Draw a timeline to show the first 12 months of an infant s life. On the timeline, indicate when and what changes occur in the infant s behaviour to suggest an attachment(s) is formed. 7. Briefly outline two main arguments or evidence for, and two main arguments or evidence against, Bowlby s view that an infant s mother is the best person to be its primary caregiver.

Prepare a poster to show the meaningful attachments you formed in infancy infancy, during childhood and into adolescence. YYou may include photos to identify your attachment targets. Use graphics to identify the strength of these attachments. For example, you could put a photo of yourself as an infant in the centre of a circle. Then draw a series of circles increasing in size around your photo. In the circle closest to you place photos or name the people with whom you have the closest attachments. Include other attachment targets in the outer circles based on how strong your attachment is to them. Those in the outermost circles are the people to whom you have the weakest attachments. You could also use a code, with a key to indicate the different kinds of attachment you have.

learnIng actIVIty 5.6 Debate mothers make the best caregivers The class should be divided into two teams the affirmative and the negative. The affirmative team argues in favour of the statement. The negative team argues against the statement. Each team should: • collect evidence (including research findings) in support of the view they are debating • develop arguments to support the view to which they have been assigned • elect three speakers to present their team s arguments. Options and variations C h a p t e r 5 Theories of psychological development

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Indicators of attachment It is possible to observe clues to the developing attachment behaviours in early infancy. Bowlby s colleague, psychologist Mary Ainsworth, who conducted many research studies on attachment, suggested that infants show attachment through behaviour that promotes closeness or contact with the person to whom they are attached. According to Ainsworth (1978), behaviours that indicate attachment include: • crying to attract the caregiver s attention • crying when held by someone other than the caregiver and stopping when taken by the caregiver • clinging physically to the caregiver, particularly in the presence of a stranger • smiling at the caregiver more readily and more frequently than at other people

• vocalising (making sounds) more readily and more

• • • • • • • • •

frequently in the caregiver s presence than when with strangers looking at the caregiver when separated but in sight crying when the caregiver can no longer be seen climbing over the caregiver, exploring and playing with the caregiver s face, hair and clothes greeting the caregiver after an absence by raising arms, smiling and making sounds lifting arms to be picked up by the caregiver embracing, hugging, kissing the caregiver burying their face in the caregiver s lap when able to crawl, following the caregiver when they leave and approaching them on their return exploring the environment using the caregiver as a secure home base, returning from time to time for brief periods.

learnIng a ctIVIty 5.7 Visual presentation

role play on indicators of attachment

Working in a small group, prepare a role play of about two to three minutes involving an infant and one or more caregivers. The role play should demonstrate five behaviours that indicate the infant is attached to one or more of the caregivers, as described by Ainsworth (1978). When each group performs their role-play, the rest of the class ( the audience ) should use the checklist below to indicate which five attachment behaviours were demonstrated. Attachment behaviours Crying to attract caregiver s attention Crying when held by someone other than the caregiver Clinging physically to the caregiver when a stranger is present Smiling at the caregiver more than at others Vocalising more in the caregiver s presence Looking at the caregiver when separated but in sight Crying when the caregiver is out of sight Climbing on the caregiver, playing with their face, hair, clothes Raising arms, smiling and making sounds to greet the caregiver when they return after an absence Lifting arms to be picked up by the caregiver Embracing, hugging or kissing the caregiver Burying their face in the caregiver s lap Following the caregiver when they leave the room Using the caregiver as a secure base to which to return periodically while exploring the environment

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Role play 1 Role play 2 Role play 3

Etc.

Some of these behaviours occur more frequently than others and some may not occur at all. Like any other behaviours, individual differences occur. Furthermore, not all of these behaviours are associated only with attachment. For example, infants often cry for reasons other than a caregiver s departure, such as when they are tired, hungry, uncomfortable or unwell. Consequently, the behaviours on their own are not totally reliable indicators of attachment. They are more reliable indicators when considered in combination with one another (Sroufe & Waters, 1977).

types of attachment According to Ainsworth, infants can form different types of attachment with their caregivers. These can vary in terms of how strong the connection is and the kind of connection. The strength of each of these attachments also depends to a large extent on how sensitive and responsive the caregiver(s) is to the infant s needs. The infant s responsiveness is also a factor in the type of attachment that is formed. Following extensive research on attachment types, Ainsworth and her colleagues (1978) proposed that there are two main categories of attachment secure and insecure attachment. Ainsworth further separated insecure attachment into two types resistant attachment and avoidant attachment. Consequently, when Ainsworth described attachment types, she generally described them in terms of three types secure attachment, resistant attachment and avoidant attachment.

Secure attachment

Figure 5.14 American psychologist Mary Ainsworth (1913 99) Weblink

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video on Ainsworth and the attachment concept

An infant who has formed a secure attachment shows a balance between dependence and exploration. The infant uses the caregiver as a home , or safe base from which to venture out and explore an unfamiliar environment, but shows some distress and decreases exploration when the caregiver departs. When the caregiver returns, the infant is enthusiastic and seeks physical contact with them. Securely attached infants feel safe and are able to depend on their caregivers. The infant s moderate distress at their caregiver s departure suggests that they feel confident that the caregiver will return. About 65% of one-year-olds are securely attached.

Is attachment target nearby, attentive, responsive and approving?

No

Yes

Infant feels secure, loved and confident.

Infant is uncertain and anxious.

Infant is distant and protective of itself.

Secure attachment Infant is playful, curious, sociable and explores.

Resistant attachment Infant constantly checks caregiver s whereabouts, calling, pleading, tries to re-establish contact, clings, then resists contact.

Avoidant attachment Infant maintains distance and avoids close contact with others.

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Avoidant attachment The infant does not seek closeness or contact with the caregiver and treats them much like a stranger. The infant rarely cries when the caregiver leaves the room and ignores the caregiver upon their return. Research findings suggest that this attachment style may be the result of neglectful or abusive caregivers. About 20% of one-year-olds are in this category.

Resistant attachment The infant appears anxious even when their caregiver is near. They become very upset when separated from the caregiver. When the caregiver returns, the infant approaches them, cries to be picked up, then squirms or fights to get free, as though it is not sure about what it really wants. This attachment style is thought to result from caregivers who are not very responsive to their infant s needs. It is assumed the infant feels they cannot depend on their caregiver to be available to them if needed. About 12% of one-year-olds are in this category. Ainsworth(1982) found that the patterns of behaviour associated with each type of attachment tend not to change over time unless there are significant changes in life circumstances for either the caregiver or the infant. However, she believed the nature of the attachment may change if the caregiver substantially changes the way in which they interact with the infant, particularly the way in which they respond to the infant s expressed needs.

Strange Situation test Ainsworth s descriptions of the different types of attachment were developed from her findings of research studies with 12 18-month-old infants. Ainsworth s

research involved establishing the infant s level of security in their relationship with their caregiver. To do this, Ainsworth and her colleagues (1978) devised a system for assessing an infant s reactions to a series of separations and reunions with their caregiver called the Strange Situation Test. The Strange Situation Test involves an experimenter taking a caregiver and their infant into an unfamiliar room containing toys. Then the infant is exposed to a series of separations and reunions involving the caregiver, the infant and a stranger. An example of the sequence of separations and reunions is shown in table 5.1. The infant s behaviour in each episode is observed and recorded; for example, the infant s willingness to play with the stranger, their behaviour when left alone in the room and their reactions to the caregiver leaving and returning. The Strange Situation Test continues to be used in contemporary child development research and has highlighted more than just attachment types. For example, its use has identified other consistent patterns of attachment, such as stranger anxiety and separation anxiety. Stranger anxiety refers to an infant s wariness or cautiousness when a stranger such as an unfamiliar adult is present. Separation anxiety is indicated by an infant s distress when they are separated from their main caregiver (see box 5.4). Psychologists believe that early attachment experiences are an important influence in an individual s later emotional wellbeing, both in the short term and into adulthood. For example, research findings suggest that adults who had secure attachments as infants tend to have good self-esteem, seek social support when

table 5.1 The stages of the Strange Situation Test

Stage

Time frame Episode

People in the room

Attachment behaviour observed

1

30 seconds Experimenter leaves caregiver and infant to play

caregiver, infant, experimenter

2

3 minutes

Caregiver sits while infant plays

caregiver, infant

Use of caregiver as secure base

3

3 minutes

Stranger enters and talks to caregiver

stranger, caregiver, infant

Stranger anxiety

4

3 minutes

Caregiver leaves; stranger lets infant play, offers comfort if needed

stranger, infant

Separation anxiety

5

3 minutes

Caregiver returns, greets infant, offers comfort if needed; stranger leaves

caregiver, infant

Reactions to caregiver s return

6

3 minutes

Caregiver leaves

infant

Separation anxiety

7

3 minutes

Stranger enters and offers comfort

stranger, infant

Stranger anxiety; ability to be comforted by stranger

8

3 minutes

Caregiver returns, greets infant, offers comfort, lets infant return to play

caregiver, infant, experimenter

Reactions to caregiver s return

Source: Adapted from Ainsworth, M.D.S., Blehar, M.C. & Waters, E. (1978). Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the Strange Situation. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.

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they need it, have trusting, lasting relationships and are comfortable sharing feelings with their friends and partners. Those who have had insecure early attachment may experience anxiety, inner turmoil, lack trust in others and are reluctant to form close relationships with others (Bachman & Zakahi, 2000).

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BOX 5.4 Stranger anxiety and separation anxiety Two useful clues which assist in recognising if an infant is attached to someone are called stranger anxiety and separation anxiety. Stranger anxiety refers to an infant s wariness when a stranger such as an unfamiliar adult is present. The infant may frown, show withdrawal behaviour, fear or even become distressed. Stranger anxiety is first evident in infants at around seven or eight months of age. It gradually declines in the second year of life. Whether or not an infant shows stranger anxiety usually depends on factors such as the situation, whether the main caregiver is nearby and how the stranger behaves. Interestingly, if the stranger is a child, rather than an adult, an infant is less likely to become anxious and more likely to react positively by smiling and showing interest in the other child. One explanation for stranger anxiety is that the infant is afraid that either it, or its caregiver, is going to be taken away by the stranger (Davenport, 1988). Most psychologists believe that stranger anxiety is a normal part of development and a sign that attachment has actually occurred. For example, securely attached infants tend to show more stranger anxiety than infants who are less securely attached. Around six to eight months of age, a securely attached infant begins to show signs of distress when separated from the main caregiver. This is referred to as separation anxiety. Separation anxiety peaks at around 14 18 months in most cultures around the world (van ljzendoorn & Sagi, 1999). It becomes less frequent and less intense around age four to five. However, some older children and adolescents continue to experience anxiety and depression when separated for long periods from their loved ones. (Thurber, 1995). Quite often, the infant experiencing separation anxiety will resist anyone else who tries to provide comfort. The degree to which the infant is distressed usually depends on the situation in which the infant is left. For example, if the infant is familiar with the environment and/or possesses a favourite object, the level of distress tends to be reduced (Turner & Helms, 1987).

Options and variations

learnIng actIVIty 5.8 review questions 1. List five infant behaviours that indicate an infant may have formed an attachment to a caregiver. 2. Eleven-month-old Madeline cried when picked up by her aunt. She stopped crying when handed back to her father and he cuddled her. Suggest two possible explanations for why Madeline stopped crying. 3. Construct a table to summarise the three types of attachment described by Ainsworth (1978) and the patterns of infant behaviour associated with each attachment type. 4. What are the possible effects on emotional development in adulthood for each attachment type? 5. Distinguish between stranger anxiety and separation anxiety with reference to behaviours associated with each type of anxiety.

learnIng actIVIty 5.9 ethical considerations in ainsworth s research 1. Consider Ainsworth s research studies using the Strange Situation Test. Given her research had the potential to cause psychological distress to infants, what ethical standards would she have been required to address in order to be given permission by an ethics committee to conduct her study? Explain your selection of each standard. 2. Do you think Ainsworth s research should have been allowed to proceed? Explain your answer with reference to relevant ethical standards.

How human attachments form Bowlby (1969) believed that humans have a biological, or inherited need to form an attachment. He suggested that infants use genetically inherited abilities such as crying, smiling, gazing, vocalising and clinging to get near to their main caregiver, or to get their caregiver s attention. These behaviours, according to Bowlby, bring about attachment responses from the main caregiver who has a biological need to be near to and to protect their infant. For example, the main caregiver responds to the infant s attachment signals by caring for it with nurturing behaviours such as feeding, touching and cuddling. Bowlby emphasised that attachment is a two-way relationship and both the infant and main caregiver play important roles in its formation. He believed infant caregiver interaction promotes close contact and, over C h a p t e r 5 Theories of psychological development

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time, strengthens the bond between them. He also suggested that the first year of life was a sensitive or critical period for attachment formation. During this time, according to Bowlby, the infant is especially receptive to the main caregiver. If a close emotional connection is not developed during this time, or is broken, emotional and social development will be disrupted and there will be significant consequences for the infant s emotional wellbeing in later life. Bowlby reached these conclusions from his work as a psychiatrist. He had observed, for example, that many people in psychiatric hospitals and prisons had not formed an attachment during infancy. This provided further support for his view that a warm, intimate relationship between an infant and its caregiver is essential for overall healthy emotional development. More recent evidence on the importance of the infant caregiver relationship on the developing child has been observed in the maladjustment of many children whose early lives were spent in Romanian orphanages in the 1980s and 1990s. These children spent most of their day in their cots rocking back and forth, with little human contact. They were not cuddled, had no opportunities to play and had no daily routine (Fisher & others, 1997).

Follow-up observations at various times after they had been adopted showed that infants who spent eight or more months in the orphanage had many eating, medical and emotional problems. Emotionally, they were withdrawn and seemed overwhelmed by interactions with children in their adopted family or other children (Fisher & others, 1997). In addition, they would often cling to strangers. They had no concept of stranger danger which has the potential to make them vulnerable to being taken advantage of by others (Marcovitch & others, 1997). Although there is evidence for a sensitive period in attachment formation for some species of animals such as ducks, geese, dogs and sheep (see box 5.5), most contemporary psychologists are not convinced that there is a sensitive period for human infant caregiver attachment. Neither is there widespread agreement among psychologists that humans have a biological, pre-programmed need to form an attachment. A more widely held view is that humans inherit a capacity to form an attachment but its development is influenced by a complex interaction of many different factors; for example, the respective characteristics of the infant and caregiver and the quality of the interaction which takes place between them.

BOX 5.5 Imprinting and attachment A newly hatched mallard duckling will approach and follow almost any moving, noisy object that it sees after birth. For example, it will follow a talking person, a quacking wooden or mechanical model duck, or a ball pulled by squeaking pulleys. Once the duckling begins following the moving, noisy object, it generally will not follow anything else but that object. After about 10 minutes of following this object, the duckling will have formed an attachment to the object. This kind of behaviour was first identified by Austrian biologist Konrad Lorenz (1937) who first used the term imprinting to describe it. Lorenz described imprinting as a form of learning rather than an inborn tendency (instinct) to follow a moving object. Under natural conditions, it is the mother duck that is the first noisy, moving object the young bird encounters. The young bird might learn through observation by watching the mother walking past and eventually doing the same. There appears to be a sensitive or critical period during which imprinting can occur. For example, Hess (1972) found that if a mallard duckling is too young or too old, imprinting will not take place. But if a duckling between 13 and 16 hours old follows a moving object, then imprinting will occur. Moreover, the duckling cannot be imprinted to just anything inborn preferences play a role. These findings indicate that imprinting, although being an apparently learned behaviour, is influenced by biological factors.

The term imprinting is currently used more generally to describe a form of early learning that occurs in some animals during a sensitive period. Many psychologists also hold the view that imprinting in animals differs from the attachment formed between an infant and caregiver. They believe that the infant caregiver relationship involves a deep emotional connection that influences the infant s later emotional wellbeing.

Figure 5.16 Ducklings form an attachment to and follow the first noisy, moving object they encounter after birth. Weblink

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Factors influencing attachment An attachment relationship is reciprocal; that is, it is two-way. Both individuals involved in the relationship play an active role in establishing the bond. Important in the formation and development of the attachment between an infant and caregiver is that their interaction is ongoing. However, infants do not necessarily attach to the person who spends the most time with them. The quality of care rather than its quantity determines the development of attachment (Ainsworth, 1983).

Characteristics of the caregiver It is not until about 12 months of age that infants start to use recognisable words. Up until that time, they rely on other ways to communicate their moods, feelings and needs. For example, they use body language such as smiling, gazing, reaching, squirming and clinging; and vocalisations such as crying and babbling. An attachment is most likely to be formed with the person(s) who is most sensitive to these signals and responds appropriately. Ainsworth (1983) referred to this factor as the sensitive responsiveness of the caregiver and believes that it is crucial in the type of attachment formed between an infant and caregiver. In one study, Ainsworth (1983) compared how mothers with securely attached infants and mothers with insecurely attached infants responded to signals of discomfort from their infants. She found that mothers with securely attached infants were more sensitive to their infants and responded more appropriately throughout the first year of their infant s life. They were quickest to respond when their infants cried, and were able to more accurately identify the cause of the crying and the remedy required. Not only were they more responsive in detecting when the infants cried because of hunger, but they were also very responsive to the infants signals in terms of when to stop feeding and how quickly or slowly the feeding should proceed. By contrast, mothers with insecurely attached infants tended to lack awareness of what their infants were feeling or needing. They had less physical contact with their infants and their caregiving activities appeared to revolve more around their own interests and moods than those of their infants. The mothers of insecurely attached infants also tended to be less interested in mothering in general. It is likely that this influenced their responsiveness and their overall style of parenting. The caregiver plays an important role in the type and strength of attachment which occurs with an infant. Attachment appears to thrive when the caregiver is sensitive and appropriately responsive to the baby s signals. However, not all main caregivers act in

this way. One factor which may account for this is their general attitude towards parenting. This is influenced by a complex interaction of many other factors, some of which can be traced to the early experiences of the parents. Situational factors can also influence the infant caregiver relationship; for example, the type of relationship between the parents, involvement of others in the parenting, the number of other children, being in paid employment, and adequacy of the family income and housing. One factor which influences the characteristics of the caregiver is the caregiver s views of their own early parenting experiences. Bretherton and Waters (1985) interviewed parents of insecurely attached infants and compared their recollections of childhood with those of parents of securely attached infants. They found that many of the parents of insecurely attached infants had failed to form a secure attachment during their own infancy or had experienced a traumatic loss of an early attachment figure. Many also reported being rejected or feeling unloved by their parent(s) and severe loneliness during childhood.

Figure 5.17 A responsive caregiver plays an important role in the type and strength of the attachment formed with their infant.

Characteristics of the infant Although the caregiver plays an important part in attachment formation, the type of attachment formed also depends to a large extent on an infant s personal characteristics. These can influence a caregiver s responsiveness and the appropriateness of the response made. For example, the main caregiver of an infant who is usually cheerful, relaxed, adaptable and has a regular pattern of eating, eliminating and sleeping will find it easier to identify the infant s needs and respond appropriately than would the caregiver for an infant who is moody, tense, fussy and has irregular habits. It is also possible that a caregiver s attitudes to an infant will be influenced by the infant s characteristics. For C h a p t e r 5 Theories of psychological development

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example, a caregiver may develop and show less affection for an infant with a difficult temperament than they would for an infant with an easy temperament. Peterson (1989) examined studies on the links between the characteristics and attachment displayed by an infant. From these studies, she concluded that: beginning life with a favourable disposition undoubtedly boosts the baby s odds of achieving a secure attachment in part because easy, alert infants are so ready and willing to interact, and reward the mother s caregiving efforts so effectively, that a good relationship is easily established even if it starts off by being relatively insensitive. On the other hand, a favourable temperament could also dispose towards secure attachment without any modification of the sensitive mother s behaviour simply because alert, cheerfully responsive and adaptable infants are able to be more tolerant than their temperamentally difficult counterpart of less than optimal (perfect) mothering.

Figure 5.18 Alert infants who are ready to interact develop attachments more easily than infants who are less engaging.

BOX 5.6 Childcare: positive or negative effects on attachment? Some parents who contemplate childcare for their child worry that their child will prefer the childcare provider to them and that the childcare centre will be harmful to the infant parent attachment relationship. However, most psychologists believe that these early separations do not weaken the attachment relationship between the parent and the infant. A longitudinal study was conducted in 10 different cities in America to investigate the attachment relationship between mothers and their infants at one, six and 15 months of age, some of whom had been attending childcare and others who had not attended childcare. The results supported the view that childcare had no negative effects on mother infant attachment and children cared for out of the home actually appeared less insecure when their mothers were not in sight than did children cared for only in the home. (NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 1997). The attachment relationship between a caregiver and child seems to be affected more by the quality of the time rather than the quantity of time they spend together. What seems to be most important is that the infants have a consistent and warm relationship with their caregiver(s) (Crockenberg & Litman, 1991). However, if a child is placed in childcare because of family breakdown or the mental or physical health of one or both parents, then a disrupted or insecure attachment may develop (Vaughan & others, 1980). As long as the main caregiver works by choice, provides good quality childcare arrangements and develops a warm and caring relationship during the times they spend with their infant, the fear or anxiety that the infant caregiver attachment relationship will be adversely affected appears to be unnecessary. Some psychologists suggest that good quality childcare can actually enhance the relationship between the infant and caregiver(s).

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Figure 5.19 Placing an infant in childcare does not necessarily weaken the infant caregiver attachment relationship.

learnIn g actIVIt y 5. 10 review questions 1. According to Bowlby, what is the role played by each of the following in the formation of an attachment: (a) biological factors? (b) infant caregiver interaction? 2. What evidence might Bowlby give for a sensitive period in the development of an infant caregiver attachment? 3. What view do contemporary psychologists have about: (a) the genetic basis for the need to form an attachment? (b) whether there is a sensitive period for the formation of an infant caregiver attachment? 4. Describe two characteristics of a caregiver that promote attachment. 5. Describe two characteristics of an infant that promote attachment.

Harlow s experiments on attachment in monkeys At around the same time Bowlby was developing his theory on attachment in human infants in the 1950s and 1960s, American psychologist Harry Harlow was conducting research on attachment in rhesus monkeys. Harlow conducted a number of experiments to investigate the factors influencing the development of attachment by infant monkeys to their mothers. In one of his best-known experiments, Harlow (1958) studied the role of breastfeeding in infant mother attachment. He used eight infant rhesus monkeys which had been separated from their mothers at birth.

learnIn g actIVIt y 5. 11 Visual presentation factors influencing infant caregiver attachment Construct a concept map to show the ways in which different factors interact to influence attachment. You may find it helpful to follow the steps outlined below in constructing your concept map. 1. Make a list of all of the factors that may influence infant caregiver attachment. 2. Write each factor on a separate small piece of paper or post-it note (this will allow you to move around the factors as you think about the ways in which they influence the development of an infant caregiver attachment). 3. Construct a diagram showing how the various factors influence attachment by arranging the pieces of paper in a layout which you believe best shows their relationship. (a) Write the word attachment in the middle of an A3 size sheet of paper. (b) Place linked factors close to each other and non-linked ones apart. (c) Rearrange the influences until you are satisfied with their placement. (Note: There is no right way of arranging the concept map.) 4. Stick the pieces of paper down or write the arrangement on the paper or construct it on your computer. 5. Rule lines between linked (related) factors and write on each line what the relationship is. You can use words such as shapes , determines , can lead to , contributes to , influences and assists . An example of a concept map is shown on page 160.

Figure 5.20 American psychologist Harry Harlow (1905 81)

The monkeys were individually reared in cages, each of which contained two surrogate mothers. A surrogate is anyone or anything which substitutes for or plays the part of something else. The surrogate mothers were made of wire mesh and were roughly the same size and shape as real monkey mothers. One of the surrogates was covered in terry-towelling cloth and the other was left uncovered (see figure 5.21(a) and (b)). A feeding bottle was attached to one of the surrogates in the same area where a breast would be on a real C h a p t e r 5 Theories of psychological development

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mother. Half of the animals were in cages with the feeding bottle on the cloth surrogate and the other half were in cages with the feeding bottle on the wire surrogate. Harlow proposed that if an infant s attachment to its mother was based primarily on feeding, the infant monkeys should have preferred and become attached to whichever surrogate mother had the bottle. Harlow found that regardless of which surrogate provided the nourishment, the infant monkeys spent more time with the cloth surrogate than the wire surrogate. Although the infants in the two groups drank the same amount of milk and gained weight at the same rate, all eight monkeys spent far more time climbing and clinging to the cloth surrogate than they did the wire surrogate. By the age of about three weeks, all of the monkeys were spending around 15 hours a day in contact with the cloth surrogate. No animal spent more than an hour or two in any 24 hour period on the wire surrogate. The monkeys preference for the cloth surrogate was particularly evident when they were emotionally distressed. In order to create a stressful condition, Harlow put various frightening objects in the monkeys cages; for example, a mechanical forward-moving spider (see figure 5.22), or a teddy bear which beat a drum. The frightening object was placed repeatedly in each monkey s cage and set in motion. Harlow found that the majority of infant monkeys sought first contact with the cloth surrogate, regardless of whether or not it had the feed bottle. The terrified monkeys were observed to cling to the cloth mothers, rubbing their bodies against the cloth surrogate. Those monkeys who first sought contact with the wire surrogate through blind terror soon left it for the contact comfort of the cloth surrogate, even if the wire surrogate had the feed bottle. On the basis of these results, Harlow concluded that contact comfort , which was provided by the softness of the cloth covering, was more important than feeding in the formation of an infant rhesus monkey s attachment to its mother. He generalised his findings to suggest that contact comfort was also likely to be a crucial factor in human infant parent attachment. Although these findings were based on monkeys, they considerably influenced the views of psychologists in relation to human infant parent attachment. Formerly, many psychologists believed that infants became attached to their mothers through a simple kind of learning called classical conditioning whereby the mother became associated with food. In Harlow s experiment, attachment of the monkeys was not based on food rewards. Instead, contact comfort emerged as a more important factor in attachment. 196

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(a)

(b)

Figure 5.21 (a) Monkey feeding from wire surrogate mother (b) Monkey clinging to cloth surrogate mother

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Other animal experiments by Harlow

Figure 5.22 When a frightening toy spider was placed in their cage, infant monkeys tended to seek comfort from the cloth surrogate, even if the surrogate didn t have the feed bottle. im To find out whether provision of food or contact comfort is more important in the formation of infant mother attachment

Participants Eight newborn rhesus monkeys separated from their mothers immediately after birth Procedure roup 1 Four monkeys isolated in cages where a cloth surrogate mother provided food and a wire surrogate mother did not

roup 2 Four monkeys isolated in cages where a wire surrogate mother provided food and a cloth surrogate mother did not

ndependent variable Provision of food by either a cloth or wire surrogate mother

In further experiments, Harlow found that contact comfort was not the only important variable in attachment. For example, Harlow, Dodsworth and Harlow (1965) privated a group of rhesus monkeys to prevent them from having any social contact. Privation involves removing the opportunity to satisfy a need, in this case, the need for social contact. The monkeys were taken from their mothers just after birth and totally isolated in cages. One group of infant monkeys was isolated for three months, another group for six months and a third group for 12 months. There was also a fourth group, a control group of infant monkeys who were normally reared (in cages with their mothers and other monkeys). The use of a control group enabled the three groups who experienced different periods of isolation to be compared with one another and with a group that had not experienced any social isolation. Otherwise the effects of isolation could not be measured accurately. Harlow and his colleagues found that after three months privation, the infant monkeys were emotionally disturbed and their social behaviour was impaired. When released individually into the company of normally reared same-age monkeys daily for 30-minute periods, they crouched in the corner of the cage with their heads buried under their arms, avoiding any contact and social interaction. Gradually, however, their individual and social behaviours improved. After about 12 months, their behaviour was almost the same as that of the monkeys in the control group.

ependent variable Amount of contact time spent with cloth and wire surrogate mothers

esults All monkeys in both groups 1 and 2 spent far more time with their cloth surrogate than they did with their wire surrogate, regardless of which provided food.

Conclusion Contact comfort is more important than feeding in the formation of infant mother attachment in rhesus monkeys.

eneralisation Contact comfort is likely to be a crucial factor in human infant parent attachment. Figure 5.23 A flow chart of Harlow s (1958) experiment

Figure 5.24 Infant monkeys isolated for three months showed disturbed social and emotional responses when reunited with other monkeys. C h a p t e r 5 Theories of psychological development

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The monkeys privated for six months were much more severely impaired in terms of their social behaviour. They isolated themselves even more than the three-month group, spending more time crouched in the corner avoiding social interaction. They had also developed self-destructive behaviour such as biting themselves and pulling out clumps of their own hair. Compared to the control group monkeys, they were severely withdrawn and socially incompetent. When released into the company of normally reared monkeys they preferred to be alone and would not join in the playful activities of the other monkeys. Over time, their behaviour improved until it resembled that of monkeys in the control group. But improvement occurred more slowly than that of the group privated for three months. The infant monkeys isolated from all social contact for the first 12 months of life were extremely socially impaired. They were totally withdrawn, unable to relate socially to other monkeys, self-destructive and completely disinterested in anything going on around them. In the company of the normally reared monkeys they were fearful, rarely moved about and avoided all contact and interaction. When they were housed with normally reared monkeys, their behaviour improved very slowly, but not in all areas. Harlow has also used rhesus monkeys to investigate factors influencing maternal behaviour in attachment. In a series of experiments, he discovered that female rhesus

(a)

monkeys reared in total isolation for the first 12 months of life and then artificially impregnated (called motherless mothers ) became completely inadequate mothers. Each of these monkey mothers consistently avoided her baby and did not appear to care at all when separated from it. The mother would also violently abuse her baby when it approached her for contact or feeding. For example, one mother sometimes bit her infant and occasionally crushed the infant s face and body to the floor . However, not all of Harlow s motherless mothers behaved in this way. Some reared their infants in an adequate manner. These mothers had experienced some limited contact with other baby monkeys when growing up, whereas the others had not. It appeared that positive social experience with same age mates had limited the potential harmful effects of growing up motherless (Seay, Alexander & Harlow, 1975; Harlow, Harlow & Hansen, 1963). Harlow s experiments with rhesus monkeys have enabled psychologists to better understand factors which influence attachment, and the effects of different attachment experiences on emotional and social development. Harlow s work also illustrates the advantages of an experimental design in studying behaviour and the advantages of investigating human behaviour through research with animals. However, rhesus monkeys and humans are different in many ways. Care must be taken in generalising about human experience based on animal experiments.

(b)

Figure 5.25 (a) Motherless mother monkey pushing her infant s face against the floor; (b) Motherless mother showing disinterest in her infant. 198

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BOX 5.7 Harlow s views on using rhesus monkeys in experiments Harlow elected to use monkeys in his research to overcome the limitations of using human participants. He believed they were a suitable alternative to people because, in his view, they have much in common with the human species and, therefore, results of his experiments could be generalised to people. Harlow specifically chose rhesus monkeys for what he believed were important practical advantages: We use rhesus monkeys because they were the first monkeys over which one could have disease control. And they were the first monkeys that one could breed at will our will, not theirs. Finally, the rhesus monkey is a standardised Old World monkey. New World monkeys are far different creatures and show more variability. And apes pose other problems. The chimpanzee is too big, too expensive, and too dangerous. In defence against criticisms that inducing stress in laboratory monkeys was sadistic , Harlow referred to his experiments on mental illness and use of play therapy to treat these: You will never learn the factors that produce depression and other pathological syndromes in the wild. You will never find the biochemical variables underlying such syndromes in the wild . . . You will never get definitive data by observing (in the wild). Take play. You could study play in the field for millennia and no one would have found its meaning. But our laboratory work gave the basic answer . . . (We found) that play is probably the best therapy (for depression). We know this is true for monkeys and it would probably be true for human beings (if psychologists were prepared to use it) . . . After one study in which monkeys had been totally socially isolated from birth to six months, the monkeys were completely rehabilitated through play therapy. Harlow also attempted to deflect criticism that the caged monkeys used in his studies tended to produce behaviours that do not occur in the wild. In his view, there was little which was so damn good about the wild anyway . . . The feral environment is pretty bad . (Based on an interview with Harlow in Psychology Today, Tavris, C. (1973). A Conversation by Way of Collision, with Harry F. Harlow, pp. 65 74.)

learnIng actIVIty 5.1 2 evaluation of research Harlow, Dodsworth & Harlow (1965) Part A Construct a flow chart which identifies the key features and stages in the Harlow, Dodsworth & Harlow (1965) experiment involving infant rhesus monkeys. An example of a flow chart is figure 5.23 (page 197). Part B Answer the following questions. 1. What are the IV and the DV in this experiment? 2. What do the findings of the experiment suggest about the development and importance of infant caregiver attachment among humans? 3. Outline one advantage of the research design. For example, why did Harlow choose to use the experimental method for this study rather than some other method? 4. What is one advantage and one disadvantage of using animals in psychological research? 5. Would Harlow s experiments be permitted by ethics committees today? Explain with reference to relevant ethical standards and practices. 6. Can the findings of research studies with animals be applied to humans? Give reasons for your answer.

learnIng actIVIty 5.1 3 Oral presentation an interview with Harry Harlow Working in a small group, prepare a five- to 10-minute interview between a scientific journalist and psychologist Harry Harlow. The interview should cover information on: • what attachment is • why Harlow chose to experiment with monkeys rather than humans • a description of one of Harlow s experiments and the results • what Harlow s findings showed about the influence of infant attachments on emotional development • whether Harlow s findings can be generalised to humans • the ethics of using animals for this kind of research • other points of relevance or of interest. Present your interview using two or more data types; for example, still or moving images, written text or sound.

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learnIn g actIVIt y 5. 14 Oral presentation committee meeting

ethics

first translated into English in the 1920s. Since then, researchers have tested and refined Piaget s theories, and many current views in cognitive and developmental psychology about how thinking develops are based on Piaget s theories.

Working in a small group, prepare a role play to re-enact a Psychology ethics committee meeting. Harry Harlow has requested a committee meeting to seek permission to conduct one of his experiments on attachment in rhesus monkeys. During the meeting, the committee members should ask Harlow questions about: • the purpose of his research • the procedure he plans to use • potential harm to the animals • alternative research designs • the usefulness of potential findings in understanding human infant attachments • other relevant points. At the conclusion of the meeting, one member of the ethics committee should explain the ruling of the committee on whether the research can be conducted. Reasons for the decision should be given, with reference to relevant ethical standards and practices. Present the committee meeting using two or more data types; for example, still or moving images, written text or sound.

CoGnITIve developMenT Young children view the world very differently from adolescents and adults. For example, it is not unusual for a young child to believe that the sun follows them from place to place when they walk outside, or that dreams come through the window at night. As with other areas of psychological development, cognitive development cannot be directly observed. Infants and young children who have not yet developed language skills are unable to report what they are thinking or explain their actions. Therefore, much of what psychologists know about cognitive development, particularly in early infancy, must be inferred from the overt behaviour the individual demonstrates. Many early psychologists believed that infants were not capable of much thinking. Infant behaviours were seen as random and occurring without purpose. Some psychologists saw infants as empty vessels as unresponsive organisms with limited perceptual abilities and little capacity to learn, remember or think. Psychologists have since learnt a great deal about the capabilities of infants and children in many areas of development. The changed view of the cognitive capabilities of infants was mainly initiated as a result of the work of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. His theories on the development of cognitive abilities were 200

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Figure 5.26 Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896 1980)

Figure 5.27 Because she cannot tell us what she is thinking, should we assume that she is not capable of thought? Weblinks

Piaget and cognitive development videos

Key principles of Piaget s theory Piaget proposed that cognitive development, or development of mental abilities, occurs as we adapt to the changing world around us. He described adaptation as the continuous process of using the environment to learn and of learning to adjust to changes that occur in the environment. On a daily basis, adaptation involves taking in, processing, organising and using new information in ways which enable us to adjust to changes in our environment. According to Piaget, adaptation occurs through two closely related processes which he called assimilation and accommodation.

an existing mental idea or develop a new mental idea to categorise truck after realising that trucks do not belong in the category of cars. Similarly, accommodation means creating a separate mental category for hammer that is different from that for spoons.

assimilation Assimilation is the process of taking in new information and fitting it into and making it part of an existing mental idea about objects or the world. Through assimilation, we explain or make sense of new information in terms of our existing knowledge and understanding. For example, a young child may see a truck and call it a car, simply because a car is the only vehicle for which the child has an existing mental idea. Similarly, if the child is given a new toy hammer while using a wooden spoon for stirring in a pot, the child may use the hammer for stirring because the child has assimilated the hammer into an existing mental idea. Through assimilation, both the truck and the hammer have become part of the infant s experience and the infant will be able to recognise them in the future.

accommodation Sometimes we cannot assimilate new information into an existing mental idea, regardless of how hard we try. It simply won t fit; that is, we can t change the information in any way to link it in with what we already know. In this case, we are forced to change, or accommodate, an existing mental idea to fit in the new object or experience. According to Piaget, accommodation is the other process by which an individual deals with information about the world. Accommodation refers to changing an existing mental idea in order to fit new information. This is a more advanced process than assimilation because it involves restructuring the way in which existing information is mentally organised so new information may be included. Whereas the process of assimilation fits new information into an existing mental idea without modifying the information, accommodation involves modifying existing information (or mental ideas) so the new information may be incorporated. Therefore, a child uses accommodation if they change

Figure 5.28 The infant has assimilated the new object of a toy hammer by using it for stirring in the pot, as she does with a wooden spoon. This demonstrates the infant s attempt to understand new information (that is, a hammer) by applying existing information (that is, using the hammer like a wooden spoon).

Piaget illustrated the related processes of assimilation and accommodation with an example of infants sucking behaviour. Infants are born capable of sucking. This is a reflexive behaviour that is innate, so it does not need to be learnt. The sucking reflex is important for survival because it enables the infant to feed from a nipple on a breast. When placed on a nursing mother s breast, infants demonstrate assimilation by using a nipple in the activity of sucking. However, not all objects can be sucked in exactly the same way. For example, when presented with a teat on a bottle, infants try to assimilate the teat in the activity of sucking because this new object (and situation) is like a nipple (and the situation of sucking from a nipple). If they are unsuccessful in achieving the result they require (that is, obtaining milk), infants have to modify their behaviour by changing the shape of their mouth, the placement of their gums, the amount of suction used, the rhythm of the activity and so on. These changes demonstrate accommodation. Consider the case of 18-month-old Georgia who points to a full moon and says ball . She has assimilated the object of the moon C h a p t e r 5 Theories of psychological development

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into her existing mental idea of circular-shaped objects which is built mainly around her experience with balls. When she is older, she will be able to understand that there are differences between a full moon and a ball, even though they are both circular. When she recognises the moon as being different from a ball, she will have accommodated it. According to Piaget, all behaviour involves assimilation and accommodation. The interaction of these related processes allows a child to progressively adapt to the world. When accommodation is required, as it often is, changes occur in a child s behaviour and in what the child becomes capable of doing. Importantly, the processes of assimilation and accommodation also enable a child to form what Piaget calls a schema (the plural is schemata) a mental idea, or organised mental representation, of what something is and how to deal with it. For example, Stefan learns that if he pulls the cork off a bottle he can drink the contents. He has assimilated the schema (pulling at the top of a bottle to open it) and can now apply that schema to all bottles, including screw-top ones. Stefan will realise eventually that his earlier schema does not work every time and that it applies only to certain types of bottles. Thus, accommodation involves finding out and modifying an existing schema process (Davenport, 1988). As part of this process, Stefan must actively explore, discover and experiment through interaction with his environment. Children develop schemata for bedtime, animals, school and cleaning their teeth. The first schemata infants form consist of a small number of actions; for example, reflexes such as sucking. As children grow older they are able to let one thing such as a word stand for another thing. These are just some of the numerous schemata that are usually formed in the course of a lifetime. We use schemata in perception; that is, to interpret, organise and assign meaning to information obtained through our senses such as sight, sound, smell, taste and touch. Thus, we form schemata through experience. We also continually modify them as we take in new information and adapt to our changing world through assimilation and accommodation. Cognitive development continues throughout the lifespan. From the time we are born, we encounter new situations and information. We try to understand and make sense of these experiences by assimilating them into our existing schemata of the world. If we are unable to assimilate these experiences we are forced to accommodate (or else ignore) them. In this way, we continually modify our existing ideas of the world. According to Piaget, this ongoing process forms the basis for the development of our cognitive abilities. 202

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Figure 5.29 Trying to drink milk from her rattle (assimilation), this infant will eventually develop an understanding that rattles only make noise (accommodation).

learnIng actIVIty 5.1 5 assimilation and accommodation in your life 1. List three recent examples where you have been in a new situation and have been able to assimilate the new information. 2. Describe a situation when, as a child, you were required to accommodate new information and thereby change or modify your view of the world or people.

learnIng actIVIty 5.1 6 review questions 1. (a) What is meant by the term cognitive development? (b) Give examples of general and specific abilities which are associated with cognitive development. 2. What is adaptation? What role does it play in cognitive development? 3. (a) What did Piaget mean by the terms assimilation and accommodation? Explain with reference to examples different from those used in the text. (b) In what main way are assimilation and accommodation different? (c) Give an example, different from those used in the text, to illustrate the way in which assimilation and accommodation can work together. 4. (a) Explain what Piaget meant by the term schema. (b) Give two specific examples of schemata you have formed. Give an example of a schema a young infant may have and one an adult person may have.

Piaget s four-stage theory of cognitive development Piaget s theory of cognitive development proposes that we move through four distinct and sequential stages from birth to adulthood in developing our cognitive abilities. Each stage in the process is linked to an approximate chronological age range. This does not mean that individuals jump from one stage to the next on their birthdays. Some people may be capable of more advanced thinking than that associated with their chronological age, but they may still use mental abilities associated with an earlier stage. Piaget also suggested that individuals do not develop the mental capabilities of a later stage without first having acquired those of an earlier stage. Furthermore, the rate at which each person proceeds through the stages may vary, but according to Piaget, everyone proceeds through these stages in the same order. In addition, not all individuals will reach stage four which is the final stage in his theory. For example, some individuals with a severe intellectual disability may never move past the first or second stage. As well as describing a sequential progression through four stages, Piaget outlined key cognitive accomplishments that individuals achieve in each stage. He also described the kinds of thinking typical of each stage. According to Piaget, what people know is not as important as the way in which they think and how they acquire mental abilities.

months of age), they discover the concept of object permanence. Object permanence refers to the understanding that objects still exist even if they cannot be seen or touched. Before object permanence develops, out of sight really is out of mind for infants; that is, if they can t see it, they behave as if it doesn t exist.

Figure 5.30 In the sensorimotor stage, infants construct their understanding of the world by coordinating their sensory experiences with motor abilities.

Sensorimotor stage (birth to two years) The first stage of cognitive development spans from birth to about two years of age and is known as the sensorimotor stage. In the sensorimotor stage, infants construct their understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (for example, vision and touch) with motor (movement) abilities, hence Piaget s use of the term sensorimotor . In the first months of an infant s life, the various types of incoming sensory information are not coordinated. The infant does not realise that they can reach for a toy or dummy which is less than an arm s length away. After the first three months, however, most infants begin to integrate sensory and motor information and can start to coordinate their behaviour to grasp an object or turn towards a noise. With increasing mobility, the infant s perception of the world expands quickly. At about the same time as the infant begins to crawl (around seven to nine

Figure 5.31 Object permanence is the key cognitive accomplishment of the sensorimotor stage. For an infant in the latter period of sensorimotor development, out of sight is not out of mind . Options and variations C h a p t e r 5 Theories of psychological development

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In the early stages of acquiring object permanence, the infant will follow an object with their eyes, but they stop following it when it disappears from view. For example, they will watch the family dog walk past them, but if the dog goes into another room they show no interest in where it might have gone. However, once they have acquired object permanence, they will search actively for an object of interest even if they can no longer see it. For example, they might look towards where they last saw the dog before it moved out of sight. Object permanence may explain why a game of peeka-boo is so much fun for infants. Each time the object disappears, it ceases to exist for the infant. Whenever the object reappears, it is as if a whole new object has been created out of nothing. In Piaget s view, object permanence is an ability which infants gain through coordinating their sensory input, but only after much trial-and-error learning. According to Piaget, object permanence is the key cognitive accomplishment of the sensorimotor stage. Older people take object permanence for granted for example, you know this textbook still exists when you look away from it or put it in your school bag. The sensorimotor infant also develops the ability to carry out goal­directed behaviour; that is, behaviour which is carried out with a particular purpose in mind. The infant begins to develop this ability towards the end of the sensorimotor stage, working out various ways to obtain things they want. An infant also performs many untried actions and begins to think of new ways of solving problems. For example, the infant learns to reach objects on a table by pulling themself up at the side of the table.

learnIng a ctIVIty 5.17 Designing a test for key sensorimotor accomplishments

seven years of age. The thinking of the pre-operational child is much more sophisticated than that of one- to two-year-olds. As children progress through the pre­operational stage, they become increasingly able to internally represent events (that is, think about and imagine things in their own mind). This further develops their abilities to think in more complex ways. An important development that occurs during this stage is symbolic thinking the increasing ability to use symbols such as words and pictures to represent objects, places or events. Later, the ability to use symbols can become part of pretend play, in which a pile of sand can become a turtle, a box can become a television and endless numbers of make-believe friends can share an imaginary tea party or adventure. According to Piaget, children in this stage typically are unable to or have difficulty in seeing things from another person s perspective. Piaget called this egocentrism. In using this concept, he was not referring to selfish behaviour. He was indicating that preoperational children are capable only of seeing the world from their point of view. Three-year-old Dimitrios demonstrates this notion very well. Dimitrios loves trains. He has many train sets of his own, but is always keen to add a new train to his collection. When asked what he thought his mummy would like from Santa, he replied, a diesel train . Dimitrios is not selfish; he will happily share his toys. However, he is unable to think about the question from his mother s perspective and consider what she would like from Santa. By the end of the pre-operational stage, a gradual shift from egocentric thought to decentred thought has occurred. In the next stage of cognitive development, the child is able to think about situations from another person s perspective. This comes with the key cognitive accomplishment Piaget called decentring.

Piaget described two key cognitive accomplishments of children during the sensorimotor stage: • an understanding of the concept of object permanence; and • the ability to carry out goal-directed behaviour. For each of these accomplishments, suggest an ethically appropriate way to test whether an infant in the birth to two-year age group has accomplished the ability.

Pre-operational stage (two to seven years) According to Piaget, at about two years of age each infant moves from the sensorimotor stage to the preoperational stage of cognitive development. The child progresses through this stage until approximately 204

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Figure 5.32 Egocentric children think others see the world in the same way they do. When told to hide they cover their eyes. Because they can t see themselves they think others can t see them either.

BOX 5.8 An experiment by Piaget to test egocentrism Piaget proposed that all children in the pre-operational stage are egocentric in the way they think. In being egocentric, they see things from only their own point of view and have difficulty seeing things from another person s point of view. In one experiment to study egocentrism, Piaget used an apparatus called a diorama. This consisted of three model mountains made of papier-m ch . Each mountain was a different size, shape and colour and each had a different landmark on top. One mountain had a hut, one had a cross (like that of a church) and one was covered in snow. First, the child was asked to walk around the diorama and become familiar with the landscape from all sides. Once the child had done this, they were required to sit facing the three mountains and a doll was placed behind the first mountain. The researcher asked the child, What can the doll see? The child was then shown several pictures of the mountains from different viewpoints. One picture was the view of the mountains from where the child was seated. The process was repeated with the doll in front of the second mountain and then the third mountain. Each time, the child was asked the question about the doll s viewpoint and was required to select one of the pictures. Piaget found that children up to about seven years of age usually selected the picture which showed what they could

see. According to Piaget, seeing things from a different perspective occurs at a later age when children stop centring, or focusing, on themselves that is, they stop being egocentric and can form a mental picture of something else as the centre of attention that is, the ability called decentring. decentring

Figure 5.33

BOX 5.9 Testing egocentrism There are many different tests that psychologists have devised to assess whether a child is egocentric in their thinking and therefore unable to see things from another person s viewpoint. One test involves presenting a child with a card which has a star drawn on one side and a circle drawn on the other (see card A below). The researcher shows the child both sides of the card to ensure the child can accurately identify each

shape. Sitting directly in front of the child, the researcher turns the card around several times so the child can see one side of the card and the researcher can see the other. The researcher asks the child what can you see? , then the researcher asks the child what can I see? . The procedure is repeated several times to ensure the child is not guessing. In order to gain more information about the child s reasoning ability, the child may be asked to give reasons for their answers.

Card FRONT

Card BACK

FRONT

BACK

Figure 5.34 The front and back of cards used in research to assess egocentrism. Different items can be drawn on the cards for example, shapes (card A), different animals (card B), or cartoon figures.

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Children in the pre-operational stage also use a thinking style called animism. Animism is the belief that everything which exists has some kind of consciousness or awareness. For example, a rusty tricycle may be thought of as sick , a tall tree may be described as old and a child who hurts their knee after bumping into a coffee table may smack the naughty table.

other, he can correctly identify the lines as being the same . However, when the second row of tokens is bunched up as a group, Rick believes there are more tokens in the line than in the group, because it looks more , even though he had correctly counted the tokens in both original lines and watched the second line being narrowed into a tighter group. In this test, Rick appears to be focusing on only the length of the row in judging the tokens and he seems unable to take into account quantity and space. This example also highlights another of the key cognitive accomplishments of children in the latter period of the pre-operational stage reversibility. Rick is incapable of mentally reversing the process he saw. Reversibility is the ability to follow a line of reasoning back to its original starting point. Phillips (1981) has provided another example involving a problem of reversibility for a four-year-old boy. The boy was asked whether he had a brother. Yes. His name is Jim , replied the boy. Then, when the fouryear-old was asked whether Jim had a brother, the boy answered, No .

Figure 5.35 The snowman has collapsed and the three younger children are concerned about its welfare. One girl described it as sick , another as sore and the other as hurt .

Piaget proposed that animism was linked to egocentric thinking. Pre-operational children unable to see things from another person s point of view assume that everyone and everything is like themselves. They have emotions and can feel pleasure and pain, so they think objects can too. Another key cognitive accomplishment in the latter part of the pre-operational stage is called transfor­ mation understanding that something can change from one state (form or structure) to another. For example, earlier in the pre-operational stage, a child presented with an ice-block in a glass could identify both the ice-block in its solid state and the liquid after it had melted, but the child could not explain or understand the melting process. Pre-operational children can identify the initial and final stages of a process, but are unable to explain any of the stages in between. While the thinking of a pre-operational child is significantly more sophisticated than that of one- to two-year olds, the pre-operational child can focus on only one quality or feature of an object at a time. This process is known as centration. Five-year-old Rick s play with tokens demonstrates this. When 12 tokens are arranged into two equal lines of six opposite each 206

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Figure 5.36 Children in the pre-operational stage have difficulty taking into account more than one quality of an object at a time.

learnIn g actIVIt y 5. 18

A psychologist observed that her 2 -year-old son became frightened when an older child put on a Batman mask. The younger child behaved as if the mask had actually changed the wearer into Batman. The psychologist was intrigued by her son s apparent confusion between appearance and reality and decided to undertake research to find out at what age children develop the ability to distinguish between appearance and reality. The psychologist devised an experiment using Fluffy, a well-behaved black cat. Her sample consisted of four children of friends and relatives. The children were aged from three to six years, with one child aged three, another four, and so on. At the start of the experiment, Fluffy was presented to all the children and they all said that he was a cat. After they played with Fluffy for five minutes, the psychologist hid the top half of Fluffy s body behind a screen while she strapped a realistic mask of a ferocious dog onto his head (see figure 5.37). As she removed the screen, the psychologist asked a set of questions to assess the children s ability to distinguish between the animal s real identity and its appearance: What kind of animal is it now? Is it really a dog? Can it bark? The strength of the children s ability to distinguish appearance and reality was measured on an 11-point rating scale. Children who said that the cat had turned into a dog were given a score of 1, while children who said that the cat only appeared to turn into a dog but could never really become one were given a score of 11. As shown in figure 5.38, the three-year-old focused almost entirely on Fluffy s appearance. The child said Fluffy had actually become a ferocious dog and might bite them. The six-year old was amused by this, having understood that the cat only looked like a dog. The four- and five-year olds showed considerable confusion. They didn t believe that a cat could become a dog, but they did not always answer the psychologist s questions correctly.

The psychologist concluded that young children experience confusion between appearance and reality but have a better understanding of the difference between appearance and reality by age five. At the age of six, it is likely that children will be able to distinguish between appearance and reality. bilit to distinguish appearance from realit

evaluation of research experiment on distinguishing between appearance and reality

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Figure 5.38 Age-related increase in children s ability to distinguish appearance from reality

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Construct a hypothesis relevant to this research. Describe the research method used. Describe the results of the research. What criticisms can be made of the sample in terms of (a) size? (b) representativeness? Is the conclusion valid on the basis of (a) sample size? (b) representativeness of the sample? Can the results be generalised to all children aged three to six years? Explain your answer. Suggest a sample and sampling procedure that would better enable the results to be generalised and have external validity. Is this research ethical? Give reasons for your answer.

Figure 5.37 Fluffy the cat

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learnIn g actIVIt y 5. 19 Data analysis dreaming in pre-operational children The following extract comes from a conversation between Piaget and a preschool child aged six years and six months of age. The data were collected during a study Piaget conducted with children about dreaming. Piaget : Do you know what a dream is? Child: When you are asleep and you see something. Piaget: Where does it come from? Child: The sky! Piaget: Can you see it? Child: Yes when you re asleep. Piaget: Could I see it if I was there? Child: No. Piaget: Why not? Child: Because you wouldn t be asleep. Piaget: What do you dream with? Child: The mouth. Piaget: Where is the dream? Child: In the night. Piaget: Where does it happen? Child: In the bed on the pillow.

acquiring this concept. She can recognise that if she pours cordial from a long, thin glass into a short, wide glass, the volume (amount) of cordial remains the same (figure 5.39). However, Jill s younger five-yearold brother, who is still in the pre-operational stage, believes that a short, wide glass has less cordial than does the tall, thin glass. This example illustrates the conservation of volume concept. eBook plus Weblink

video on children completing conservation tasks

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concrete operational stage (seven to twelve years) The concrete operational stage begins at about seven years of age and continues through to about 12 years of age. The thinking of concrete operational children revolves around what they know and what they can experience through their senses; that is, what is concrete. A key cognitive accomplishment for a child in the concrete operational stage is understanding conservation. Conservation refers to the idea that an object does not change its weight, mass, volume or area when the object changes its shape or appearance. For example, seven-year-old Jill is in the process of 208

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(Source: Piaget, J. (1929). The Child s Conception of the World. London: Paladin, p. 114.)

1. What kind of data are collected in the case study? 2. How does the child describe what a dream is? 3. Does the child think the dream comes from an internal or external source? Explain your answer with reference to the case study data. 4. What kind of thinking is the child using? In your answer refer to Piaget s descriptions of thought processes of pre-operational children. Give evidence from the child s responses to support your view. 5. Is the thinking of the preschool child typical of children in this stage of cognitive development? Explain with reference to Piaget s theory.

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Figure 5.39 Conservation of volume. A child who understands this concept recognises at step 3 that, despite the different shapes of the glasses, C and D hold the same volume (amount) of liquid.

Conservation of mass is another aspect of this logical thinking process that is acquired during the stage of concrete operations. In acquiring this understanding, children are able to deal with the fact that two identical plasticine balls still have equal amounts of plasticine even if one is changed into the shape of a sausage (figure 5.40).

Figure 5.40 Conservation of mass. A child who has attained this accomplishment will recognise that, despite the changed shape of ball 2, balls 1 and 2 still have the same amounts of plasticine.

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(a) Conservation of number. The child sees two identical rows of M&Ms (or other objects) and says there is the same number in each row. The M&Ms in one row are spread out and the researcher asks if the rows have the same number of M&Ms. A

child who is asked to state whether there are more brown beads than wooden beads, will state that there are more brown beads. However, the concrete operational child will be able to identify that there are more wooden ones because white beads are also wooden.

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(b) Conservation of length. The child sees two identical pencils (or other objects) that are equal in length. One of the pencils is moved slightly and the researcher asks if one pencil is longer than the other. Figure 5.41 Other tests to assess conservation

Another key cognitive accomplishment in the concrete operational stage is the ability to organise information (things or events) into categories based on common features that sets them apart from other classes or groups (categories). This is called classification. A procedure devised by Piaget to assess a child s ability to classify information is outlined in the following task. A child is presented with 20 wooden beads, 18 of which are brown and two of which are white. The pre-operational

Brown beads

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Figure 5.42 Wooden bead experiment task used to assess classification

Wooden beads an example of a

During the stage of concrete operations, children learn to view the world more accurately and precisely. They begin to think logically about concrete objects and to understand simple changes in them. By the end of this stage, children demonstrate the ability to create mental pictures of objects and processes and they begin to move towards abstract thinking the major achievement during the formal operational stage.

learnIn g actIVIt y 5. 20 research investigation Piaget s theory

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This research investigation involves comparing cognitive abilities of two children in different stages of cognitive development. The choice of age groups of participants should ensure the children are in the same lifespan stage but different cognitive stages, as described by Piaget s theory (for example, at six years of age and at nine years of age). This will enable you to find out whether a child in a later stage thinks in a more sophisticated and logical way than a child in an earlier stage. A variation of this research activity could be to compare the responses of males and females, examining sex differences in cognitive abilities. You should construct a hypothesis for the research prior to conducting the study. It is essential that you obtain informed consent from the parents of the children participating in the study and conduct the investigation in accordance with ethical standards for research (see chapter 2). Select three different cognitive tasks which children in the most advanced cognitive stage you selected should be able to accomplish. Test both participants on these tasks. Suitable

tasks include conservation of volume (see figure 5.39), conservation of mass (see figure 5.40), and egocentrism (see box 5.9). When collecting data, be sure to record each child s answers AND their explanation for the answer. This will assist you in interpreting your observations (results). Report Prepare a formal report on the research investigation based on the reporting conventions described in chapter 7. Your report should include the following: 1. a statement of the aim of this research investigation 2. the research hypothesis 3. a summary of the results using appropriate descriptive statistics 4. a conclusion based on the results, referring to the hypothesis 5. a statement about whether the results can be generalised, including an explanation of why or why not 6. a description of a potential extraneous variable that may be relevant, including an explanation of how the results may have been affected 7. other information requested by your teacher.

eBook plus eLesson

demonstration of Piagetian tests

Assessment task and criteria

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learnIn g actIVIt y 5. 21 Matching exercise Match each of the terms listed on the left with a definition listed on the right. Write the letter corresponding to the correct definition in the space provided at the left of the correct term. ___ reversibility

(a) understanding that objects still exist even if they cannot be seen or touched

___ egocentrism

(b) understanding that an object s weight, mass, volume or area remains the same even if the object changes in appearance

___ object permanence

(c) following a line of reasoning back to its original starting point

___ conservation

(d) seeing the world only from one s own point of view

___ animism

(e) changing an existing mental idea to fit new information

___ transformation

(f) organising information into categories based on common features

___ centration

(g) taking in new information and fitting it into an existing mental idea

___ classification

(h) understanding the process whereby something changes from one state to another

___ accommodation

(i) believing that every object has some kind of consciousness

___ assimilation

(j) focusing on one quality of an object at a time

Formal operational stage (12 years and over) At about the time many young adolescents enter secondary school, at approximately 12 years of age, they are usually in Piaget s final stage of cognitive development the formal operational stage. In the formal operational stage, more complex thought processes become evident and thinking becomes increasingly sophisticated. A key cognitive accomplishment in the formal operational stage is abstract thinking a way of thinking that does not rely on being able to see or visualise things in order to understand concepts (as the child in the concrete operational stage does). For example, an adolescent is able to understand intangible concepts such as What is honesty? , or the difference between the mind and the brain and why ethical issues need to be considered when conducting research with human and animal participants. They also develop further their ideas about their own beliefs (for example, whether God exists), values (judgements about the goodness or badness of things) and morality (such as whether actions are right or wrong ). Another key cognitive accomplishment of the formal operational stage is logical thinking. As individuals move through this stage, they are able to develop strategies to solve problems, identify a range of possible solutions to problems, develop hypotheses (predictions and explanations) and systematically test solutions. It is not until the stage of formal operations that an individual is able to form an accurate understanding of the concepts of time and distance that 210

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is, what it means for something to have happened in 200 BC or how far 4000 kilometres really is. During the formal operational stage, the ability to think and behave in idealistic ways is also accomplished. For example, adolescents often compare themselves and others to some ideal standard and strive towards being like their ideal person. They are also able to think about the future and what is possible, make plans and set goals. While a child at an earlier stage can identify that they want to be a truck driver or an astronaut, most children, prior to reaching the stage of formal operations, do not have an accurate concept, or any concept at all, of what it means to be a truck driver or an astronaut. Nor do they have any understanding of the steps involved in becoming either of these. According to Piaget, the formal operational stage is the final stage of cognitive development and adult thinking is an extension of the abilities that develop or are acquired earlier in this stage. While Piaget proposed that most individuals pass sequentially through the four stages, he acknowledged that individuals can progress at different rates, so the age ranges for each stage should only be viewed as a guide. Piaget initially believed that all children would eventually reach the stage of formal operations so there was no point pushing them. However, following further research, he revised his thinking on this point. In 1972, Piaget suggested that, unlike earlier stages, formal operational thinking may not be achieved at all. It seems that irrespective of cultural background and specific experiences, all children (except those who are intellectually disabled), develop the skills of

concrete operations, but the extent to which they are able to use formal operational thinking could depend on both educational and everyday experiences. Mathematical training in logic has been identified as enhancing an individual s ability to use the formal

operations. Nonetheless, this training is not essential for formal operational abilities to develop. There are many individuals who have had very limited or no education who are capable of the most sophisticated and abstract formal operational thinking.

Figure 5.43 In the stage of formal operations, adolescents are able to think abstractly and logically.

BOX 5.10 An experiment by Piaget to assess formal operational thinking One experiment used by Piaget to assess formal operational thinking involved a pendulum problem . The researcher showed a child several different weights which could be hooked on the end of a piece of string to make a pendulum. The researcher then asked the child to choose the length of the string, the weight to be attached and the height at which the weight should be released. The problem involved working out which of the three factors (length, weight or height), or combination of factors, determines the speed at which the pendulum will swing. The solution involves changing one of the three factors while keeping the other two constant and seeing if it has any effect on speed. Piaget found that children in the pre-operational or concrete operational stages randomly change one or more of the factors (length, weight or height), rather than changing them or testing their respective effects in a systematic and logical way. Consequently, children in these stages tend to find it difficult to solve the pendulum problem. However, someone in the formal operational stage approaches the problem-solving task in a more systematic way and discovers more quickly that the length of the string is the factor that determines the speed of the pendulum (that is, the shorter the string, the faster a pendulum swings).

Figure 5.44 Does length, weight or height determine the speed at which a pendulum will swing?

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BOX 5.11 Application of Piaget s theory in educational settings Piaget s theory and the research findings of many psychologists since Piaget have provided educators with a better understanding of how children at different ages think and learn. This has enabled educators to modify and improve teaching and learning methods in schools. Think for a moment about how you were taught in primary school compared with secondary school. You probably used many more concrete aids in primary school, like beads for counting, an orange cut into portions when you were learning fractions and books with many pictures to help you understand a story. In secondary school, by contrast, most students are beginning to enter the formal operational stage of cognitive development, so teaching methods can therefore be quite different. Because students are better able to understand concepts in their heads , without having to physically manipulate or see things, fewer concrete teaching aids tend to be used. A subject that all teachers study during their training involves educational psychology. This subject focuses on understanding cognitive development in children and adolescents. Piaget s theory is frequently referred to in these courses. Teachers, therefore, come into teaching with a knowledge and understanding of ways in which children and adolescents think and learn, and they are expected to take into account principles of cognitive psychology in their teaching methods.

Figure 5.45 Teachers take into account the development of cognitive abilities in their teaching methods.

learnIn g actIVIt y 5. 22 test your logical thinking and reasoning ability 1. Identify the faulty reasoning in the following arguments. (a) All elephants have big ears, My teacher has big ears, Therefore, my teacher is an elephant. (b) If Alanah sleeps in she will be late for school, Alanah was late for school, Therefore, she must have slept in. 2. From the following information, work out the answers to questions (a), (b) and (c). A police officer is questioning witnesses about whether any of them saw a car being stolen. She is faced with the following statements: Rob: I didn t see anything. Tran: I didn t see everything. Ky-long: I saw something. Frank: I didn t exactly see nothing. Mark: I saw nothing. Yiannis: I saw everything. Questions (a) The police officer then dismisses two of the witnesses. Which two? (b) Which of the remaining witnesses is likely to be the most helpful?

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(c) Arrange the statements in what you believe to be their order of usefulness , starting with the most informative statements and finishing with the least informative. (Note: There may be some statements which mean much the same thing.) 3. Consider the following information. Six passengers on a pleasure cruise are from Melbourne, Perth, Adelaide, Darwin, Brisbane and Hobart. Marco and the man who comes from Melbourne are doctors, the man from Adelaide and Chris are engineers and Evan and the Perth man are chefs. One man s name is David. The man from Brisbane is older than Marco, while Chris is younger than the man from Hobart. Brendan and Pierre fought together in World War II, but the Adelaide man was not in the armed forces. In the ship s chess championship, Brendan played the man from Melbourne while the man from Brisbane played Chris. Using logical thinking and reasoning, identify: (a) who comes from which city. (b) what is each man s occupation.

learnIn g actIVIt y 5. 23 Summarising Piaget s theory Complete the table below to summarise the various age-related stages of Piaget s theory, common ways of thinking and key cognitive accomplishments in each stage. Include a brief description of each accomplishment. table 5.2 Summary of Piaget s theory of cognitive development

Stage

Approx. age range

Common ways of thinking

learnIn g actIVIt y 5. 24 Visual presentation Piaget s stages of cognitive development Draw a picture or take a photo that depicts a key accomplishment of each of Piaget s stages of cognitive development. Present your graphic representation of Piaget s stages in a sequential way with a brief summary of the stage and accomplishment beneath each image.

learnIn g actIVIt y 5. 25 Oral presentation an educational toy

advertising

Select an educational toy that promotes development in an infant or a child aged between 0 10 years. Develop an advertisement to promote the toy. In your promotion of the toy, you should identify the age range of the children for whom it is appropriate. You should also indicate why it would be appropriate for children of that age, with reference to Piaget s theory of cognitive development. Present your advertisement using two or more different types of data (still, moving images, written text or sound).

criticisms of Piaget s theory Piaget s theory has had a great impact in psychology and his place in the history of psychology is significant. His research findings and theory stimulated considerable interest in the development of cognitive abilities and provided the impetus for thousands of research studies by other psychologists over many years. Many of these research studies have confirmed various aspects of Piaget s theory or extended Piaget s theories into other areas of development. Important practical applications also come from Piaget s theory; for example, the idea that the developmental readiness of young children for reading, writing, mathematics

Key cognitive accomplishments

and other cognitive tasks needs to be considered before giving them such tasks. Some parents try to give their children a jump start in life by enrolling them in academically demanding programs when they are quite young. On the basis of Piaget s theory, many child development experts warn that children should not be pushed too early, before they have sufficiently cognitively matured . However, since the 1970s in particular, other researchers have also discovered that infants know a lot more, and know it sooner, than Piaget believed they did. It s not that the infants are smarter now; rather, many resesarchers have found gaps in Piaget s research methods and findings (Bernstein & Nash, 2002). In refining Piaget s methods, they have found, for example, that key cognitive accomplishments described by Piaget for the different stages are often achieved by children much younger than the ages proposed by Piaget. Consequently, many psychologists now believe that the age ranges for each stage proposed by Piaget vary more widely than Piaget described. For example, researchers have found that children are capable of concrete operational tasks such as conservation and classification at younger ages than described by Piaget. Pre-operational children in Piaget s studies may have been unable to do these tasks, not because they lacked these cognitive abilities, but because during testing they lost concentration, their attention wandered and they forgot parts of the problems they were given (Kail & Bisanz, 1992). It has been shown that when conservation problems are presented without distracting information, children as young as four and five years old can consistently complete them accurately (McGarrigle & Donaldson, 1974). A further criticism of Piaget s theory is that Piaget may have overestimated young children s language ability, leading him to assume that wrong answers came from faulty thinking. An alternative explanation for a child s answer could be that the child misunderstood the task or did not explain their answer clearly (Donaldson, 1979). C h a p t e r 5 Theories of psychological development

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Piaget s theory has also been criticised for the small number of participants in many of the experiments he used to test his ideas. In particular, Piaget often referred to examples involving his own children. Although qualitative data from observations of his own children provided useful descriptions not easily available using other research methods, some psychologists have expressed concerns about the generalisations Piaget made from such limited data. A small sample size is rarely representative of the population to which the research findings will be applied. When a small sample is used, it is more likely that the participants will not match or reflect the population of research interest in personal characteristics that can influence the results of the study. In the study of cognitive development using children (including infants) as participants, personal characteristics of individual children (such as social and ethnic or cultural background, environmental experiences, attention span, language, memory, temperament, personality, sociability, physical competence and so on) can influence their performance on the experimental task. These variables can also be equally relevant to studies of cognitive development using adolescents and adults as participants. The small sample size in many of Piaget s experiments helps explain why researchers who tested his findings have found that children can acquire such abilities as object permanence (see box 5.12) and conservation at much younger ages than originally proposed by Piaget.

learnIng actIVIty 5.2 6 review questions 1. Briefly outline three criticisms of Piaget s theory. 2. Give an example of a research study and its findings that shows children can perform a cognitive task at an earlier stage than described by Piaget.

learnIng actIVIty 5.2 7 essay Piaget s theory of development Write an essay of about 400 500 words in which you describe Piaget s theory of cognitive development. In your essay, ensure that you: • define cognitive development • describe Piaget s stages in cognitive development • describe the key accomplishments in each stage • include examples of key accomplishments in each stage • refer to relevant research findings that support Piaget s theory • include reference to criticisms of his theory • express your ideas in a clear and concise way • accurately cite and reference all material. References may be used in obtaining information for your essay.

BOX 5.12 Experiments that demonstrate object permanence in one- to four-month-old infants The results of empirical research conducted by psychologists suggest that the ability to recognise object permanence can be acquired at a much younger age than that originally proposed by Piaget. In one experiment, psychologists Mundy-Castle and Anglin placed four-month-old infants in front of an apparatus that had two windows, A and B. A colourful, attractive toy could be seen through each window by the infants. The apparatus was designed so that the object inside it travelled in an ellipse (egg-shape) past each window. The object went past window A at the bottom, then moved towards the top as it passed window B, then moved down past window A again and so on. The researchers observed the direction of the infants eye gaze after the object had been set in motion. They found that after several revolutions, the infants started to track or follow the object round the ellipse and seemed to anticipate where it would appear next. They concluded that these fourmonth-old infants seemed to have object permanence. Results of other experiments have found that even one-month-old infants seem to have some idea of object

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permanence. For example, psychologist Tom Bower (1989) showed one-month-old infants an attractive toy, then placed the toy in front of them on a table. A screen designed to slide in front of the toy could hide it from the infant s view. The toy was either left on the table or removed before the screen slid away again. Bower expected that if the infants had some understanding of object permanence, then they would expect the toy to still be there when the screen was removed. If the toy had been removed, they would show surprise. Bower found that most of the infants appeared surprised when the screen slid back and the toy was missing. He concluded that infants are capable of object permanence well before the age of about seven months the age proposed by Piaget as generally being associated with the ability to recognise object permanence. Bower has spent many years studying visual perception and other cognitive abilities of infants and children. He believes that object permanence involves several visual perceptual abilities which may be innate and this may explain why an infant can demonstrate object permanence from a very young age.

Moral developMenT A man had exploratory surgery to establish whether he had lung cancer. Straight after the operation, the doctor told the man and his family that the cancer was inoperable and he could not be cured. At the time the surgeon spoke with the man, he was still not fully alert because of the effects of the anaesthetic. Over the next couple of days, the man repeatedly asked the nurse who was looking after him about the results of his surgery. The nurse realised that the man had not remembered what the surgeon had told him. She contacted his wife who asked her not to tell him about the seriousness of his condition. The nurse wondered whether she should respect the wishes of the man s wife, or whether she should tell the man he had incurable cancer. This is an example of a moral dilemma. A moral dilemma is a social problem which has two or more solutions, each of which is wrong in some way. At various times in our lives, our morals are challenged when we are confronted with a moral dilemma. In these situations we have to decide which one of two courses of action to take, both of which can make us feel psychologically uncomfortable. The word moral comes from a Latin word meaning custom ; that is, the generally accepted way of doing things according to the rules within a particular society (or culture). The term moral refers to the distinction between right and wrong. We usually use the word in relation to behaviour. Moral behaviour is behaviour that is considered proper or ethical according to a society or culture. For example, if a person finds an envelope containing $1000 what should they do? Should they hand the money into the police or should they keep it? For many people, the morally right decision would be to hand it to the police. What would you do? What would you have done five years ago? What would you have done when you were seven years old? Morals are learned through experience. For example, if a child continually breaks the rules in a game of chasey by refusing to admit they have been caught, the other players eventually will exclude them from the game. Or if an adolescent hits on a friend s boyfriend or girlfriend they may be subsequently ignored by other members of their friendship group for having done the wrong thing. This is likely to influence whether or not they do this again. Of particular interest to psychologists is how our morals develop and what factors influence their development. Moral development involves the gradual development of an individual s concept of right and wrong. It includes the development of a conscience , religious values, social attitudes and certain behaviour. As with

other areas of development, there are different theories which describe and explain moral development. Generally, theories of moral development describe the way in which we learn the social rules which govern behaviour. The theories do not refer to the laws made by governments. Rather, they focus on the way in which we develop a sense of what is right or wrong in our socio-cultural environment. As we progress through childhood, we learn to distinguish between behaviours considered to be good or bad , and begin to develop our own judgements, attitudes and beliefs about acceptable and unacceptable behaviour. Many research studies have found that that moral development depends considerably on cognitive development. It seems that children cannot make a moral judgement about the rightness or wrongness of an action until they achieve a certain level of cognitive maturity and are able to put themselves in the position of others (that is, to shed egocentric thinking). A number of psychologists, including Piaget, constructed theories to describe and explain moral development. However, the best-known theory is that proposed by American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg.

Kohlberg s theory of moral development Kohlberg s theory on moral development is based on studies he conducted using both cross-sectional and longitudinal research methods. In one crosssectional study, Kohlberg (1969) compared groups of children at different ages. He assumed that if children in the various age groups differed consistently from each other in their moral reasoning for a particular dilemma, then it was likely that the differences between the groups resulted from age differences. This would mean that differences in moral reasoning are agerelated and he obtained evidence to support this. In a longitudinal study which spanned almost 20 years, Kohlberg (1976) followed the moral development of a group of boys who ranged in age from 10 16 years at the commencement of the study. To test how people of different ages use moral reasoning, Kohlberg presented each participant with various moral dilemmas. The participants were required to judge the rightness or wrongness of the behaviour of the people involved in each moral dilemma. Kohlberg was less interested in whether the individuals involved in the moral dilemmas were judged to be right or wrong or good or bad. He was more interested in the kinds of thinking participants used to arrive at their decisions, and the reasons they gave for their judgements about the behaviour of the individuals involved in the dilemmas. C h a p t e r 5 Theories of psychological development

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On the basis of his research findings Kohlberg concluded that the development of moral reasoning progresses sequentially through a series of developmental stages, similar to the progression through the cognitive stages described by Piaget. He identified three broad levels of moral development the preconventional level, the conventional level and the postconventional level, each of which has two distinct sequential stages, resulting in six stages in total. table 5.3 Levels and stages in Kohlberg s theory of moral development

Age

Level

Stage

0 9 years

Preconventional

1. Obedience and punishment orientation 2. Naively egotistical orientation

10 15 years

Conventional

3. Good boy/nice girl orientation 4. Law-and-social-ordermaintaining orientation

16+ years

Postconventional

5. Legalistic-socialcontract orientation 6. Universal-ethical orientation

Figure 5.46 American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg (1927 87) Weblink

eLesson on Kohlberg

BOX 5.13 Kohlberg s original moral dilemma One of Kohlberg s best-known moral dilemmas is the story of Heinz. Kohlberg used this dilemma to identify an individual s stage of moral development. His theory is focuses on how people think about behaviour involving moral decisions, rather than what choices they make. Consequently, there are no right or wrong answers to the question of what Heinz should or should not do. Below is a description of Heinz s dilemma. A woman is near death from a particular kind of cancer. There is one drug the doctors think might save her a form of radium that a local pharmacist has recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the pharmacist is charging 10 times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium but charges $2000 for a small dose of the drug. Heinz, who is the sick woman s husband, goes to everyone he knows to borrow the money. But he still has only about $1000, which is half of what the drug costs. Heinz tells the pharmacist that his wife is dying and asks if he will sell him the drug at a cheaper price or let him pay later. But the pharmacist says, No, I discovered the drug and I m going to make money from it. Feeling desperate, Heinz considers breaking into the man s shop to steal the drug for his wife. What should Heinz do?

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the case of Heinz

Figure 5.47 Heinz s moral dilemma

Heinz do?

what should

Preconventional level (0 9 years) At the preconventional level, children have little awareness of the moral behaviour which is socially or culturally acceptable. They see rules as something they have to follow because others, usually authority figures, tell them to. The rules are not something they truly believe in. For an individual at this level of moral development, what is right is what you can get away with or what is personally satisfying. In stage 1, obedience and punishment orientation, children follow rules to avoid punishment. Their behaviour is based largely on fear, rather than on the belief that the behaviour is right or wrong. For example, someone in this stage of moral development might justify not cheating on a test because of fear of being caught. For children in this stage, whether behaviour is right or wrong depends on its consequences. A behaviour may not be considered wrong if no-one finds out about it and therefore there is no punishment. For example, if a child did cheat on a test and didn t get caught, they may not think it was wrong to cheat. Furthermore, children in this stage of moral development

believe that the worse a punishment is, the more bad a behaviour must be. Thus, a severe punishment would result in a preconventional child thinking the behaviour that caused the punishment must have been very wrong . In stage 2, naively egotistical orientation, children start to think that they will be rewarded if they do something right. Thus, they often will do the right thing to please others, rather than doing it because they think it is the right thing to do. They have some concern for the views of others, but they are more likely to do the right thing if they think they will get something in return. Individuals in this stage might justify cheating with the remark, I needed to get a good mark because Mum promised me a new iPod if I got an A on the test . By the end of this stage, children begin to show the early signs of moral behaviour and start to be able to put themselves in the position of another person.

conventional level (9 15 years) By early adolescence, most people have matured to the conventional level of moral development. People at the conventional level are considerate of the thoughts and feelings of others, have internalised many moral values

Figure 5.48 Children in the obedience and punishment stage of moral development might justify cheating with the remark, It s OK, I didn t get into trouble . C h a p t e r 5 Theories of psychological development

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and seek to obey the rules set down by others; for example, by parents, friends, teachers and the government. Their motivation to follow the rules is less about avoiding punishment or receiving rewards, as it is for the preconventional moral thinker. Rather, according to Kohlberg, they do this to gain the approval of others. The views of others are clearly recognised and given serious consideration. Many people do not develop beyond the conventional level of moral reasoning and some people do not develop beyond stage 3. In stage 3, good boy/nice girl orientation, the pre-adolescent often obeys rules in order to please others and to obtain praise or approval from people who are important in their life. Like individuals in stage 1, what is right or wrong is determined by others. However, unlike individuals in stage 1, individuals in stage 3 conform or do the right thing to gain social acceptance, not because they are fearful of the punishment if they don t do the right thing. They generally conform to avoid disapproval from others or to avoid feeling guilty. Having others think you are good or nice is important. Because their behaviour is so dependent on others, individuals in this stage have difficulty saying no to friends and resisting peer pressure. An adolescent in this stage is likely to be tempted to share answers on a test to help a friend. The conforming behaviour

eventually leads to an internal awareness of rules and behaviour, which, in turn, leads to the development of respect. In stage 4, law-and-social-order-maintaining orientation, the adolescent s focus shifts to social institutions such as the law, school or church. The adolescent seeks to avoid the guilt and shame which come from criticism by authoritative figures such as police, teachers and priests. Instead of conforming to gain social approval as they do in stage 3, individuals in stage 4 tend to conform to maintain social order; that is, to follow the rules of society and the law. According to Kohlberg, they usually accept rules and laws without question, just because of what they are. For example, they may criticise their parents if they don t drive at 40 kph around school zones because it is the law, without asking themselves why driving at that lowered speed is important or beneficial. To an individual in stage 4, moral behaviour is law-abiding behaviour. An adolescent in this stage of moral reasoning is more likely to refuse to allow a friend to copy from them during a test because it is not allowed according to the teacher s or school s rules. According to Kohlberg, stage 4 reasoning is more advanced than stage 3 because in stage 4, people are conforming to society s rules rather than responding to their immediate peer group.

Figure 5.49 Individuals in stage 4 are concerned with doing the right thing and conforming to rules and laws. They may criticise their parents if they don t drive at 40 kph in a school zone because it is the law . 218

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Postconventional level (16+ years) The postconventional level is the final level of Kohlberg s theory and involves true morality. According to Kohlberg, at the postconventional level, an individual s decision to do what is morally right is guided by their conscience. At times, their conscience may conflict with society s laws. Furthermore, morally right and legally proper is not always the same thing. For example, consider the moral dilemma involving euthanasia. Euthanasia is the act of ending the life of a person who has a terminal illness or injury, or assisting them to die. Euthanasia is illegal in most countries and unacceptable in many cultures. However, there are some people who believe that euthanasia should be allowed if the dying person has made the decision to end their life at a particular point in time while they are of sound mind . A person who argues for euthanasia and would be prepared to carry it through would be considered to be reasoning at the postconventional level. In our society, their arguments for justice for the dying person would conflict with our laws. In stage 5, legalistic-social-contract orientation, individuals choose moral principles to guide their behaviour, being careful not to interfere with the rights of others. As with stage 4, individuals in stage 5 tend to follow existing laws. A person in stage 4 is unlikely to challenge any law. However, a person in stage 5 is more likely to challenge a law that interferes with human rights. Stage 5 individuals realise that laws are not completely fixed and that laws can be changed to better serve people. Stage 5 individuals believe that a law should be changed if, after discussion, the majority agree that changing the law would meet the needs of more people within the society. A person in stage 4 might say the law is the law and it can t be changed . A person in stage 5 might say this is not a sensible law. It s not what the majority of people want, so let s change it . Stage 6 is the most advanced stage of moral reasoning. In stage 6, called universal-ethical orientation, the individual knows that what is moral is not simply what the majority of people want to do. Individuals in stage 6 have highly individualistic moral beliefs. Their moral views sometimes conflict with their society s views of what is right and wrong. People in stage 6 follow their

conscience, even if it means getting friends or society offside . They want laws that are best for everyone, regardless of whether the rest of society agrees. Kohlberg eventually questioned whether it was possible to really separate stage 5 and 6. Just as not everyone achieves cognitive accomplishments in Piaget s stage of formal operations, psychologists now believe that not everyone achieves the moral reasoning of the postconventional level (Colby & others, 1983).

Figure 5.50 At the postconventional level, an individual s decision to do what is morally right is guided by their conscience.

While people move through the Kohlberg s stages sequentially, research findings indicate that not all individuals go through all stages. For example, one study found that only 10% of Kohlberg s sample of 24-yearolds operated at level 3. The majority of these participants still reasoned in terms of what others would think of them or whether they would be rewarded or praised for their behaviour (that is, level 2). According to Kohlberg, each stage grows out of the stage before and represents a more complex way of thinking. Once a person has achieved a higher stage, they will not go back to an earlier level of moral reasoning. C h a p t e r 5 Theories of psychological development

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BOX 5.14 Kohlberg s moral dilemma the case of Heinz: reasoning in each stage of moral development Kohlberg believed that the responses an individual gives to Heinz s dilemma described in box 5.13 depended on their stage of moral development. When determining an individual s stage of moral development, Kohlberg considered the reasons they gave for whether Heinz should steal the drug rather than their answer of whether or not he should steal it. The chart below summarises the moral reasoning associated with each level and stage of Kohlberg s theory for Heinz s dilemma. Stage 1

Postconventional level

Conventional level

Preconventional level

Decision

220

Obedience and punishment orientation

physical consequences determine what is good and bad

Steal it

Don t steal it

Reason

It isn t really bad to take it. It isn t like he didn t ask to pay for it first. The drug he d take is only worth $200, he s not really taking a $2000 drug.

Stage 2

Naively egotistical orientation

Decision

It s a big crime. He won t get permission, and will use force to break into the shop. He will do a lot of damage, stealing a very expensive drug and damaging the store, too.

what satisfies one s own needs is good

Steal it

Don t steal it

Reason

It s all right to steal the drug because his wife needs it and he wants her to live. It isn t that he wants to steal, but it s the only way he can get the drug to save her.

Stage 3

Good boy/nice girl orientation

He shouldn t steal it. The pharmacist isn t wrong or bad, he just wants to make a profit. That s why you re in business, to make money.

what pleases or helps others is good

Decision

Steal it

Don t steal it

Reason

He was only doing something that was natural for a good husband to do. You can t blame him for doing something out of love for his wife. It would be worse if he didn t love his wife enough to save her.

If his wife dies, he can t be blamed. It isn t because he s heartless or that he doesn t love her enough to do everything that he legally can. The pharmacist is the selfish or heartless one.

Stage 4

Law-and-social-order-maintaining orientation

Decision

maintaining social order or doing one s duty is good

Steal it

Don t steal it

Reason

He should steal it. If he did nothing he would be letting his wife die. It s his responsibility if she dies. He has to take it with the idea of paying the pharmacist back later when he has the money.

Stage 5

Legalistic and social contract orientation determine what is good

It is a natural thing for Heinz to want to save his wife, but it s always wrong to steal. He knows he will be stealing and taking a valuable drug from the man who made it.

values agreed on by society including individual rights

Decision

Steal it

Don t steal it

Reason

The law wasn t set up for these circumstances. Taking the drug in this situation isn t really right, but he s justified in doing it.

You can t completely blame someone for stealing, but even extreme circumstances don t justify taking the law into your own hands. You can t have everyone stealing whenever they get desperate.

Stage 6

Universal ethical orientation

what is right is a matter of conscience and what s best for all people

Decision

Steal it

Don t steal it

Reason

This is a situation which forces him to choose between stealing and letting his wife die. In a situation where the choice must be made, it is morally right to steal. He has to act to preserve and respect life.

Heinz is faced with the decision of whether to consider the other people who need the drug just as badly as his wife. Heinz ought to act not according to his particular feelings toward his wife, but considering the values of all the people involved.

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Angie’s wish: death with dignity

law for his organisation’s role in intro ns to achieve her goal, but resented mea he , cciu Bele Ms to s nder ew Flou By Julia Med feel like a criminal to ducing Mr er being made to police would arrest Mr After nearly two decades fighting canc at present say (that) did not think the laws ‘Our it. ue purs life s, who has mesothelioma. — and days before she took her own gh I have been able to think, Flounder thou even s need On his own position, Dr Nitschke said I am — Angie Belecciu says Australia reason and make choices all my life, inter. laws gh.’ he always had legal concerns when to rethink its euthanasia not able to know when l’ve had enou ning plan was were body who se le who peop two, of with g The mother Fearful of the long, arduous deaths she actin story ss their illne tell to her ting said er, wan canc and hs bone deat Ms with , their ed riddl ative care units her had watched in palli t what constituted had left her with two choices: letting last year with another because the laws abou ged arran cciu Bele ly slow vague. ‘One was ined she rema until s, to assisted suicide body deteriorate terminally ill man, Don Flounder ly fami we haven’t with bed hope I . ital akes hosp a mist in e ed te can mak euthanas butal — a potent barbitura Nem in obta a he g dyin and friends around her — or made any mistakes in this regard,’ commonly used to euthanase animals. . them out with swift, peaceful death Restricted by her illness, she paid for said. , After months of meticulous planning Ms Belecciu is the latest in a line Flounders and his the some of the costs Mr e uted exec fully care 57, , cciu re Bele whe Ms of Australians — including Angeliqu lris faced to travel to Mexico, wife was t She Jane day. t, the Flowers, Max Bett, Bob Den second of the two on Mon the drug could be purchased over , urite favo have her in who ning — mor t found yesterday y clinics. When Mr Mills and Lisette Nigo had counter at veterinar of softest pyjamas. It is unclear if she her Nembutal last made their deaths public in the hope with ed arriv s Flounder . laws n tralia Aus to felt ge r been alone or not. chan neve forcing a year, Ms Belecciu said she had t Ms Belecciu contacted The Age last ht was gone, my Dr Nitschke said he was not confiden weig ‘The f: relie e mor nal, natio Inter Exit the of of help any or the week with the Federal Government ht fear was gone.’ e his a pro-euthanasia group she had soug e mad s nder Flou states and territories would be brav Mr after But . time any laws the nnel out during her illness, to tell her story ge Cha chan to ng enough to that joumey public by talki After explaining the constant pain cciu’s homes soon. Bele Ms and his n, Seve ths, is had gripped her bones in recent mon e last year. While Greens senator Bob Brown te were raided by federal polic Aus allow to and she said she wanted to create deba bill s a trying to introduce The police did not find their drug de deci ently about legislative change. pend inde to d. s tralian territorie the case appeared to be close ‘We humans are not humane to our Ms Belecciu’s death their own laws on this issue, Dr Nitschke of ing hear On ld wou it own species. If I was an animal, said he would said it would be a tiny step in the process. me this week, Mr Flounders be cruel and against the law to allow ‘file’ ‘Waiting for politicians or for legislative not be surprised if he and his wife’s to continue my life,’ she said. g to change is like waiting for bloody hell to goin they are was reopened. ‘What ‘If I had one wish it would be that n freeze over.’ ridde bedI’m n? priso in to do? Put us . one day, everyone will have the right be to have ld wou it so , time the For help or information visit www of t you mos line choose,’ she said. ‘It doesn’t mean Help even it ide e Suic mak beyondblue.org.au, call ld in hospital, which would have to take that choice, but you shou for Victoria on 1300 651 251, or Lifeline on worse from a publicity point of view have it.’ 131 114. them,’ he said. In a letter to the founder of Exit t Dr Nitschke said although he migh Ms , chke Nits ip Phil Dr Source: The Age, 2009, March 25. International, of the the also be sailing close to the edge have to ed bless felt she said cciu Bele

learnIn g actIVIt y 5. 28 Media response angie s wish: death with dignity Read the newspaper article on Angie s wish, then answer the following questions. 1. What moral dilemma did Angie face? 2. In which stage of Kohlberg s theory of moral development is Angie likely to be? Explain your answer with reference to Kohlberg s theory. 3. What arguments might a person in stage 4 of Kohlberg s theory put to Angie about euthanasia?

4. (a) What would you do if you were in Angie s situation? Explain your reasons. (b) On the basis of the reasons you gave for (a) above, in which stage of Kohlberg s theory of moral development would this type of moral reasoning occur? 5. In which stage of Kohlberg s theory of moral development is each of the following individuals likely to be: (a) Don Flounders? (b) Dr Philip Nitschke?

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learnIn g actIVIt y 5. 29 Debate euthanasia should be legalised The class should be divided into two teams the affirmative and the negative. The affirmative team argues in favour of the statement. The negative team argues against the statement. Each team should: • collect evidence in support of the view they are debating • develop arguments to support the view to which they have been assigned • elect three speakers to present their team s arguments.

criticisms of Kohlberg s theory Although Kohlberg s theory of moral development provides useful information about how moral thinking may develop among people in Western societies, many psychologists have been critical of his theory. A major criticism of Kohlberg s theory is that it does not always accurately describe moral development of females. Kohlberg s theory was developed using data collected mainly from male participants. Studies by other psychologists suggest that females may use different reasoning than males when confronted with moral issues and that their moral reasoning may also develop differently. For example, as males move from being egocentric (thinking about themselves), they focus on justice (that is, on what is fair) and the rights of individuals in society. For males, the focus is more on how to deal with and respond to events in the environment. As females develop morally from being egocentric, they become more concerned with their own welfare and that of others. In particular, they become concerned with how people will feel about the consequences of specific behaviours and events. Females tend to focus on how particular behaviours will affect relationships in deciding on what is morally right or wrong and on the importance of the responsibilities individuals have to themselves and others (Gilligan, 1982, 1993). Another criticism of Kohlberg s theory is his use of moral dilemmas to judge an individual s level of moral development. Each dilemma requires the participant to say what they will do when presented with a particular social situation. However, research has shown that what people say they will do is not always consistent with what they actually do (Shaffer, 2000). Thus, individuals may be identified as being in a particular stage by their response to various moral dilemmas, when in reality they may be in a different stage if their moral behaviour was being judged. 222

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Psychologists have also criticised Kohlberg s method of data collection. Kohlberg s research using moral dilemmas relied heavily on children s understanding of language and on their ability to communicate their thoughts in words. However, some younger children may not have always understood the stories and may not have been able to express what they were thinking. This may have led Kohlberg to misjudge the way in which children think about moral issues. Consequently, some psychologists believe that Kohlberg s theory may not be accurate for all age groups, particularly his description of the first stage. There are also cultural differences in the development of moral reasoning which are not addressed by Kohlberg s theory. For example, one study tested moral reasoning in people from small villages in isolated rural areas of Africa who had limited access to sources of information such as newspapers, radios, televisions or the internet. Thus, they were unable to hear about the views of others on social and moral issues. The researchers found that very few of these individuals showed moral reasoning beyond stage 3 of Kohlberg s theory (Snarey, 1995). Other cross-cultural studies have found similar results. In summary, Kohlberg s theory of moral development seems to focus on American males and may not be very relevant to females or to people in nonWestern societies. Valid criticisms have been made of the way in which the data were gathered, the type of data he actually gathered, and whether there is a link between moral thinking and behaviour. Nonetheless, Kohlberg s theory stimulated interest in both research and the construction of other theories on moral development. This has resulted in a better understanding of the way in which we develop our thinking about what is right or wrong.

learnIng actIVIty 5.3 0 review questions 1. Define the terms moral development and moral reasoning with reference to an example different from those used in the text. 2. (a) What methods did Kohlberg use to study moral development? (b) Why have Kohlberg s research methods been criticised? 3. Describe the moral reasoning people tend to use at each of Kohlberg s three levels. 4. How would lying be explained by a person in each of Kohlberg s first five stages of moral development? 5. Other than presenting participants with moral dilemmas and asking for their responses, how else might psychologists study the development of moral thinking?

learnIn g actIVIt y 5. 31

learnIng actIVIty 5.3 3

applying Kohlberg s theory

research investigation testing Kohlberg s theory of moral development

For the following moral dilemma, describe a response which might be given by someone in each of the first four stages of Kohlberg s theory. Jill goes shopping one day with her best friend, Sujatha. Sujatha tries on a jumper and walks out of the shop wearing it under her jacket. Jill is left to face the store s security person who insists that Jill names Sujatha and gives Sujatha s address. The manager of the store tells Jill she will be in serious trouble if she does not disclose Sujatha s name and address. What should Jill do?

learnIn g actIVIt y 5. 32 Data analysis Kohlberg s (1975) research on cheating at school In one study, Kohlberg (1975) collected data on cheating behaviour at school by students in different age groups. He asked participants questions about whether they had ever cheated and summarised their responses in the graph shown below. Consider Kohlberg s results and answer the following questions. 100 90 Cheating behaviour ( )

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Preconventional

Conventional

Postconventional

Figure 5.51

1. At which level of moral development are individuals most likely and least likely to cheat at school? 2. Do the results obtained from the study support Kohlberg s theory of moral development? Explain with reference to Kohlberg s theory. 3. Kohlberg collected data from males only. Do you believe the results may have differed if data was also collected from females? Explain your answer. 4. In what ways might the results differ if a crosscultural study was conducted to test Kohlberg s theory; for example, by replicating the study in an Asian or African city or an isolated community?

This investigation enables you to test Kohlberg s theory and one of his data collection methods. You are required to present a moral dilemma to two individuals in the same lifespan stage, but in a different stage of moral development. For example, one participant could be aged 13 14 years and the other 17 18. Each participant should be presented with the dilemma separately. Your data will then be combined with those collected by the rest of the class. You should construct a hypothesis prior to data collection. Your hypothesis should focus on the stage of moral development expected for each participant based on Kohlberg s theory. The procedures of this investigation should be considered when constructing your hypothesis. Explain to each participant that you will give them a brief story to read about a teacher s dilemma, followed by three questions about the dilemma. Provide each participant with a copy of the teacher s dilemma to read. After the participant has read the dilemma, ask them to complete the response sheet below in which they give their opinion of what the teacher should do and their reasons for their answer. Thank the participants for their involvement in your research and debrief them about the purpose of the research. The teacher s dilemma Mr Fisher is a secondary school maths teacher. Jim is one of his brightest students but has not worked very hard in the first half of the year. In his final year 11 maths exam, Jim scored 48%, which was not a pass. Before sitting the exam, Jim told Mr Fisher that he needed to pass maths in order to get an apprenticeship and get into the trade course he has always wanted to do. Mr Fisher knows that if Jim fails maths, he will not get into the trade course. He also believes that Jim will end up unemployed. Mr Fisher wonders whether he should change Jim s mark so that he passes maths. Response sheet 1. What should Mr Fisher do? ❑ Change Jim s mark so that he passes maths ❑ Not change Jim s mark which means that Jim fails maths 2. Briefly explain the reason for your decision and how you worked out what Mr Fisher should do.

(continued)

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3. Here are some statements that other people have said are important when thinking about this dilemma. Rank them in order of importance by giving each statement a number according to how important it was when making your decision. A rating of 1 means most important and 5 means least important. (a) _____ Mr Fisher should follow his professional standards. (b) _____ Mr Fisher should think about the consequences for himself. (c) _____ Mr Fisher should consider what action other teachers would approve of. (d) _____ Mr Fisher should consider what action will most benefit all people in the school. (e) _____ Mr Fisher should consider what action would be most consistent with his own moral beliefs. Scoring question 3 In the list below are the moral developmental levels which correspond to the statements (a) to (e) in question 3. Use this information together with each participant s answers for question 2 to estimate their level of moral reasoning according to Kohlberg s theory. Key to Kohlberg s stages for question 3 (a) Conventional level (b) Preconventional level (c) Conventional level (d) Postconventional level (e) Postconventional level On the basis of each participant s responses to questions 2 and 3, assign them to one of Kohlberg s three levels of moral reasoning. Report Prepare a formal report on the research investigation based on the reporting conventions described in chapter 7. Your report should include the following: 1. a statement of the aim of this research investigation 2. the research hypothesis 3. a summary of the results using appropriate descriptive statistics 4. a conclusion based on the results, referring to the hypothesis 5. a statement about whether the results can be generalised, including an explanation of why or why not 6. a description of a potential extraneous variable that may be relevant, including an explanation of how the results may have been affected 7. other information requested by your teacher. (Adapted from Hausfeld & others (1983). Research Exercises for Introductory Psychology. North Ryde, NSW: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.)

Assessment task and criteria 224

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pSYCHoSoCIal developMenT There is little doubt that early childhood experiences are important in the development of social behaviour. For instance, the nature of the attachment formed between an infant and caregiver(s) is viewed by most psychologists as being vital in emotional development. Psychologists also believe this first social relationship is equally important in social development. Similarly, many of our social skills develop in early childhood through interaction with other children during play. These are, however, just some of the early childhood experiences which influence the course of social development. Experiences with other family members, adults, friends, peers, school, work, the media and so on also significantly contribute to the development of social behaviour.

erikson s theory of psychosocial development One view of the way in which social development occurs throughout the lifespan was described by Danish psychoanalyst Erik Erikson. His theory is based on extensive research mainly using case studies. Erikson studied a range of people living in different cultures (for example, Denmark, Germany, wealthy American adolescents and indigenous Sioux Indians). He also made intensive studies of the lives of important historical figures (such as Martin Luther King who led the freedom movement for African-Americans). Erikson believed that social development occurs through a combination of the effects of psychological processes which take place within individuals (psycho) and the experiences of individuals during their lifetimes, particularly their interaction with other people (social). This is why he called his theory psychosocial development. Erikson viewed psychosocial development as a progression through eight sequential stages, with each stage corresponding with a different period in the lifespan. In each of these stages, according to Erikson, the individual has to deal with a different psychosocial crisis that is normal for people in that stage of life. A psychosocial crisis is a social dilemma or problem an individual faces in adjusting to society. According to Erikson, our personality and how we interact with others are shaped by how we deal with or resolve the psychosocial crises. Each crisis involves a struggle between two opposing tendencies, one of which comes from our internal personal needs and the other from the demands of society, but both are experienced by the person.

Figure 5.52 Erik Erikson (1902 94) Weblink

eLesson on Erikson

Erikson believed that our internal needs, or what we want for ourselves, change as we grow older. At the same time, the expectations and demands made on us by other people, such as parents, friends, teachers and society in general also change, which puts pressure on us to change too. For example, in the psychosocial stage of development which corresponds with adolescence, the psychosocial crisis experienced by an individual is called identity versus identity confusion . According to Erikson, individuals experience a conflict involving their sense of personal identity; that is, a conflict between who they are and who they want to be. In dealing with the conflict, individuals may, for example, experiment with different aspects of who they might want to be by trying out different hairstyles and clothing styles. They may also change friends and think about different career paths they could follow in the future. In terms of Erikson s theory, a crisis is not a catastrophe but a turning point in life. Each crisis needs to be resolved if healthy psychosocial development is to occur. The way in which each crisis is resolved can have either a positive (good) or negative (bad) outcome, depending on the individual s ability to deal with that crisis. Erikson used the term crisis in the way that doctors do. A crisis is like a patient being in a serious condition for a period of time, at the end of which the patient takes a turn for the better or worse. However, Erikson did not believe that failure to resolve any psychosocial crisis will necessarily have consequences which are permanent or irreversible. He believed that

setbacks in any stage can eventually be overcome with proper attention, care and love. As shown in table 5.4, each of the eight crises involves a conflict between two characteristics which are the opposite of one another. One is a positive aspect and the other a negative aspect. Erikson believed that successful resolution of each crisis should be in favour of the positive characteristic. Erikson added, however, that the opposite negative aspect must also exist to some degree if healthy psychosocial development is to occur. Therefore, resolution of the trust versus mistrust crisis in stage 1, involves developing the right mix of trust (to allow intimate relationships) and mistrust (for self-protection). According to Erikson, the ages at which people go through each of the eight stages can vary because of each individual s unique life experiences. However, the order in which individuals progress through the stages is fixed. Erikson believed that it is necessary to experience each crisis (but not necessary to resolve each crisis) before proceeding to the next stage. Erikson also believed that different stages can overlap, so it is possible for an individual to be dealing with more than one crisis at any particular time. For example, the crisis of trust versus mistrust in stage one is not necessarily resolved during the first 18 months of life. It can arise again in each successive psychosocial stage. It is possible to gain basic trust in early infancy then lose it later because of a negative social experience in some later stage in life. In addition, an individual may fail to resolve a crisis at one time but resolve that crisis in a later stage. table 5.4 Erikson s eight psychosocial stages

Stage Age

Developmental period

Psychosocial crisis

1

birth to 12 18 months

early infancy

trust versus mistrust

2

18 months to 3 years

late infancy

autonomy versus shame or doubt

3

3 to 5 years

early childhood initiative versus guilt

4

5 to 12 years

middle and late industry versus childhood inferiority

5

12 to 18 years

adolescence

identity versus identity confusion

6

18 to 25 years

young adulthood

intimacy versus isolation

7

25 to 65 years

adulthood

generativity versus stagnation

8

65+ years

late adulthood

integrity versus despair

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Erikson s description of the eight psychosocial stages is a picture of what is ideal. According to Erikson, the better an individual deals with a psychosocial crisis in any stage, the healthier their psychosocial development. However, not being able to resolve a crisis does not prevent the individual from moving into the next stage. Regardless of whether a psychosocial conflict is successfully resolved, individuals move into the next psychosocial stage because they mature and because of their changing social situations. However, according to Erikson, if a conflict is not resolved, it will have a negative effect on the individual s social relationships.

forms a view of the world as a safe place and of people as caring, helpful and dependable. While a predictable world is important for the infant to develop trust, some variation in the way infants experience their world is also both important and desirable. However, this variation should occur in a way which enables the infant to learn to anticipate it and deal with it comfortably. For example, music can provide regular changes in sounds and variation of food can provide regular changes in taste. From such variations, the infant can learn that experiences are not always predictable but that there is no need to be concerned about this.

learnIn g actIVIt y 5. 34 review questions 1. 2. 3. 4.

What does the term psychosocial mean? Define psychosocial development. What was Erikson s main source of research data? What is a psychosocial crisis and why is it said to occur? Give an example of a psychosocial crisis. 5. What is meant by the idea that resolution of a crisis should include the right mix of both the positive and negative aspects? Explain with reference to an example. 6. How often might a particular psychosocial crisis occur in the course of a lifetime?

Stage 1: trust versus mistrust (birth to 12 18 months) This stage, which occurs in the first 12 18 months of life, involves a conflict between trust at the one extreme and mistrust at the other. According to Erikson, to come out of this stage in the best way, the infant needs to develop the right balance of trust and mistrust. Erikson used the term trust broadly to refer to the views and expectations that infants develop about their world. He believed that when an infant has developed a healthy sense of trust, they will view the world as a predictable, safe, caring and happy place. When the world is predictable, the infant can anticipate reactions; for example, being able to rely on being fed when hungry, knowing that a cuddle and care will be given when they are hurt or that help will arrive if they are stuck under a chair while crawling around a room. A predictable world also includes the knowledge that a frown or a firm no will be a consequence of inappropriate behaviour. According to Erikson, if an infant is to grow into a person who is trusting and trustworthy, the quality of care they receive is important. The infant whose needs are met when they arise, whose discomforts are quickly removed, who is cuddled, played with and talked to, 226

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Figure 5.53 Infants develop trust when their world is predictable; for example, being able to rely on being fed when hungry or cuddled when they need it.

Sometimes an infant s cry is answered immediately, sometimes it is ignored briefly then answered and sometimes the crying infant can be ignored and left for long periods. When infants needs are not consistently recognised, their world can become unreliable and unpredictable. When care is inadequate, irregular or even rejecting, mistrust can develop. According to Erikson, if infants develop a strong sense of mistrust, they will become anxious and insecure. They may become fearful and suspicious toward the world and

people in it and this may continue to later stages of psychosocial development. If infants become more mistrusting than trusting, their anxiety and insecurity can negatively affect relationships with family and others. For example, parents may believe they have a bad and irritable infant who is too demanding and wants too much attention. Parents and other family members may become impatient with the infant and respond in ways that may cause the infant to become even more irritable and mistrusting. Consequently, the family may become more despairing and frustrated. This means that the development of these important early relationships can be caught in a downward spiral. Erikson believed that, under certain circumstances, developing a sense of mistrust rather than trust can form the basis of antisocial behaviour later in life. On the other hand, trust in infancy builds the foundation for a lifelong expectation that the world will be a good and safe place. The trust versus mistrust crisis is generally not resolved totally in infancy. It can arise again in later stages. For example, children who enter school with a sense of mistrust may, over time, learn to trust teachers who take the time to show them that they are trustworthy. It is also possible to gain basic trust in infancy and lose it later. Sometimes people who develop a sense of trust in infancy can lose it because of experiences later in life; for example, if a trusted partner betrays you by cheating on you. Clinical psychologist David Elkind provides an example of the loss of trust in the case of a four-yearold boy he was counselling at a court clinic: He was being seen at the court clinic because his adoptive parents, who had had him for six months, now wanted to give him back to the agency. They claimed that he was cold and unloving, took things and could not be trusted. He was indeed a cold and apathetic boy, but with good reason. About a year after his illegitimate birth, he was taken away from his mother, who had a drinking problem, and was shunted back and forth among several foster homes. Initially, he had tried to relate to the persons in the foster homes, but the relationship never had a chance to develop because he was moved at just the wrong times. In the end he gave up trying to reach out to others, because the inevitable separations hurt too much. Like the burned child who dreads the flame, this emotionally burned child shunned the pain of emotional involvement. He had trusted his mother, but now he trusted no one. Only years of devoted care and patience could now undo the damage that had been done to this child s sense of trust (Elkind, 1971).

Data analysis

Stage 2: autonomy versus shame or doubt (12 18 months to three years) During the second stage, which occurs between 12 18 months and about three years of age, the conflict that occurs involves autonomy at the one extreme and shame or doubt at the other. Erikson believed that successful attempts by infants to establish their independence during these years contributes to a sense of autonomy. Autonomy refers to the ability to do things independently and the feelings of self-control, self-confidence, self-reliance and competence which accompanies this. We have autonomy when we are in a position to make our own choices and act on those choices; for example, when we choose to stay where we are or to go somewhere else, or when we choose to do some particular thing or not do it. Alternatively, a sense of being too dependent on others can lead to a lack of self-confidence, selfconsciousness and feelings of shame or doubt about our capabilities. Although it is desirable for autonomy to be developed in this stage, Erikson believed that a certain amount of self-doubt about our capabilities is appropriate. Infants need to know the right balance between what they can do, what s safe to do and what they should do, compared with the activities for which they are not yet ready. According to Erikson, the psychosocial crisis of autonomy versus shame or doubt which occurs in this stage is based on the infant s developing motor and cognitive abilities. This is the time when infants gain more and more control over their bodies and aspects of their behaviour. They learn to control some of their impulses and to feel pride in their accomplishments. Toddlers begin toilet training in this stage and exercise autonomy when they gain some control over their bowel and bladder. Both to toddlers and to caregivers this is an important milestone. Language skills are another important achievement in developing autonomy. As infants get better at making themselves understood, they feel more powerful and become more independent. During the second year of life, when infants can move about on their own and have discovered that they can cause events to occur, they begin to show their independence. They often want to explore, investigate and do things by themselves. The infant not only talks and walks, but also climbs, opens and closes things, pushes and pulls, holds and lets go. They take pride in these new accomplishments and often want to do things without help; for example, feeding themselves, buttoning clothes or flushing the toilet. In many respects, this second psychosocial stage is an all by myself period. C h a p t e r 5 Theories of psychological development

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Figure 5.54 An infant s eagerness to button their clothing without help demonstrates their increasing autonomy.

Autonomy builds on the sense of trust developed in the first stage. Erikson believed that infants who have a well-developed sense of trust are also best prepared to become autonomous. This is because the caregiver is seen as a safe base from which the infant can explore the world with increasing independence. As time passes, these infants move further from their caregivers, often happily playing by themselves with only occasional glances to check that safety and security are nearby. By gently encouraging independence, by not immediately responding to every single request from the infant and by respecting the fact that the infant is an active, inquisitive person, caregivers promote the infant s development of autonomy. If caregivers recognise the infant s need to do what they are capable of doing at their own pace and in their own time, then the infant develops a sense that they can control their muscles, their impulses, their behaviour and their environment they have a sense 228

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of autonomy. However, when the infant s caregivers do for the infant what the infant is capable of doing themself, they reinforce a sense of shame and doubt. When caregivers are consistently overprotective and restrict what the infant is permitted to do, make fun of unsuccessful attempts at independence and criticise accidents (for example, wetting, dirtying, spilling or breaking things), infants can develop an excessive sense of shame with respect to other people and they begin to doubt their own abilities to control the world and themselves. Erikson believed that if the infant leaves this stage with less autonomy than shame or doubt, they will find it more difficult to achieve autonomy later in life. On the other hand, the infant who moves through this stage with a much greater sense of autonomy than feelings of shame and doubt is better prepared to be autonomous in later stages of development. The balance between autonomy and shame and doubt set up during infancy can be changed in either positive or negative directions by later events. In addition, too much autonomy can be as harmful as too little. For example, consider the actual case of a seven-year-old boy with a heart condition. He learned very quickly how terrified his parents were of any signs in him that he may have been experiencing heart difficulties. The boy used this problem to rule the household. The family could not go shopping or for a drive or on a holiday if the boy did not approve. On those rare occasions when the parents took control and said no! , he would get angry, his face would become purple and he made gagging sounds. These reactions would frighten the parents into giving in to him. According to the psychologist who was counselling the family, this boy was actually frightened of the amount of power he had and was really eager to give it up. When the parents and the boy came to realise this and to recognise that a little shame and doubt were appropriate for balancing against too much autonomy, the three were able to develop a healthier relationship (Elkind, 1971).

Stage 3: Initiative versus guilt (three to five years) The third stage, which occurs between about three and five years of age, involves a conflict between initiative at the one extreme and guilt at the other. Having established a sense of trust and autonomy in infancy, children develop an increasing sense of their own power and now want to try new things and use their power. According to Erikson, initiative involves being able to plan, think for oneself and carry out various kinds of activities with purpose.

Children from three to five years of age (the preschool years) are very active and increasingly have more control over their bodies. They can run, jump, wrestle, climb and ride a tricycle. Their mental capabilities are also developing. They have good language skills, they are inquisitive, they participate in imaginative play, and they are beginning to understand that other people have different thoughts and feelings from them. They also start to realise they can make things happen. Children at this age no longer merely react. They plan and think for themselves, act with purpose, explore and follow their curiosity. They can therefore initiate and carry out various activities on their own, often just for the sake of being active. They no longer just respond to or imitate the actions of other children (Elkind, 1971; Erikson, 1963).

to feel ashamed by other people; whereas in this third stage they learn to make themselves feel ashamed. According to Erikson, whether or not a child leaves this stage with a stronger sense of initiative than guilt depends largely on the way in which caregivers respond to the child s self-initiated activities. Children who are given a lot of freedom and the opportunity to initiate play activities simply for the sake of doing them will have their sense of initiative strengthened. Initiative is also strengthened when caregivers answer their children s questions (intellectual initiative) and do not discourage or make fun of their fantasies. On the other hand, if children are made to feel that their play is silly and stupid, that their questions are annoying or a nuisance, and that fantasy is a waste of time, then they may develop a sense of guilt over selfinitiated activities, feelings that may continue through later stages (Elkind, 1971).

Stage 4: Industry versus inferiority (five to 12 years)

Figure 5.55 Initiative involves being able to think for yourself and acting with a purpose.

On the other hand, children in this age group also become increasingly aware that there are limits beyond which they must not go when showing initiative and using their powers. For example, they become aware of rules about what is (and what is not) permitted, what will (and what will not) be tolerated, and even questions they should not ask. Thus, along with initiative comes the potential for feeling guilt about going too far, about overstepping boundaries, about asking too many inappropriate questions, about becoming the wrong kind of person (Morris, 1990). For example, consider the case of five-year-old Sumi who feels so angry at her little brother that she wants to hit him. Sumi also realises that hitting her brother is wrong and that this action would upset her parents. She knows she has the ability to hit her little brother, but realises she cannot always do what she wants. She also realises that she will feel guilty if she fails to control her behaviour. In the autonomy stage (stage 2), children can be made

The fourth stage, which occurs between about five and 12 years of age, involves a conflict between industry at the one extreme and inferiority at the other. During this period, which corresponds with the primary school years, children have a desire to learn how things are made, how they work and what they do. According to Erikson, children will develop a strong sense of industry, unless they are restricted by feelings of inferiority or inadequacy. During this stage of development, children gain mastery over their bodies. It is also a period during which they become capable of logical reasoning, and of playing and learning by rules. For example, it is not until this stage that children are really able to take turns at games that require them to obey rules, such as monopoly and other board games. Although play continues to be important, as it is in all other stages, this is the period when the child must learn to work and become productive. According to Erikson, children must learn the technology or tools which are important for being an industrious, productive worker in their society. In New Guinea, the Arapesh boy learns to make bows and arrows and traps and the Arapesh girl learns to plant, weed and harvest. In Western, industrialised societies such as Australia, the basic tools required to become a productive, industrious worker later in life involve literacy (reading and writing) and numeracy (using numbers). These tools are mainly learned in school. At school, the child also learns to be a worker and to earn recognition by producing things of quality, both by themselves and with others. Importantly, school also exposes the child to C h a p t e r 5 Theories of psychological development

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many peers with whom they cooperate and compete, and against whom they measure their abilities and accomplishments. To the five-year-old child, entering school is like entering a new world which is different from home. In many respects, school is a social world with its own goals, rules, achievements and failures.

Figure 5.56 In stage 4, children learn the basic tools that will enable them to become productive, industrious workers later in their lives.

When children are encouraged in their efforts to get the most out of things they already have, to do practical things (whether it be to cook, assemble a jigsaw puzzle, or construct a cubby house), are allowed to finish their products and are praised and rewarded for their results, then their sense of industry is enhanced. But parents who see their children s efforts as mischief and making a mess promote the development of a child s sense of inferiority. When children feel less adequate than their peers in achievements, skills and abilities, they develop a sense of inferiority. The child s school experience also affects their industry inferiority balance. For example, a child who has difficulties with schoolwork can have a particularly unhappy school experience, even when their sense of industry is encouraged and rewarded at home. This child may be too bright to be in special classes, but too slow to compete with children of average ability. Consequently, the child regularly experiences failure in academic efforts and this reinforces their sense of inferiority. On the other hand, children who have their sense of industry squashed at home can have it revitalised at school through a sensitive and encouraging teacher. Therefore, whether the child develops a sense of industry or inferiority does not depend solely on the caregiving efforts of the parents (as it does in earlier stages), but on other significant adults in the child s life as well (Elkind, 1971). 230

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Stage 5: Identity versus identity confusion (12 to 18 years) The fifth stage, which occurs between about 12 and 18 years of age, involves resolving the conflict between identity at the one extreme and identity confusion at the other. During this period, which corresponds with adolescence, the psychosocial crisis involves developing a sense of identity. Failure to resolve this crisis produces identity confusion . Erikson used the term identity to refer to the overall image individuals have of themselves. Erikson believed that identity is something all people seek and that the search for identity is a lifelong search. However, it first comes into focus during adolescence. During adolescence, the individual matures cognitively as well as emotionally and physically. In addition to the new feelings, sensations and desires that are experienced as a result of bodily changes, the adolescent develops a variety of new ways of looking at and thinking about the world. Among other things, adolescents can think about how other people think and contemplate what other people think of them. They can also form clear ideas about ideal families, religions and societies which they can then compare with their own experiences of family, religion and society. Erikson believed that the task of this fifth stage is for adolescents to use their cognitive abilities to bring together all the things they have learned about themselves in the various roles they have undertaken in life; for example, as a son or daughter, brother or sister, student, sportsperson, friend, leader, follower, musician, employee and so on. The different images of the self learned through these different roles need to be integrated, or pulled together, into a complete image of the whole person that makes sense and that shows continuity with the past while preparing for the future. The adolescents who succeed at this task develop a psychosocial identity, a sense of who they are, where they have been and where they want to go in life. If the person has reached adolescence with a healthy sense of trust, autonomy, initiative and industry, then their chances of developing a meaningful sense of identity are much better. The opposite is true for the person who enters adolescence with considerable mistrust, shame, doubt, guilt and inferiority. According to Erikson, preparation for a successful adolescence and forming an integrated psychosocial identity must, therefore, begin in infancy. When young people do not attain a sense of personal identity, they show a certain amount of role confusion a sense of not knowing who they are, where they belong, to whom they belong or where they are headed in life. According to Erikson, such confusion is often

seen in delinquent young people. Some young people seek a negative identity opposite to the one that their parents and relatives would prefer them to have; for example, an identity as a delinquent , metal head or a petrol head . Role confusion may also be evident when a young person takes an excessively long time to reach adulthood. However, a certain amount of identity confusion is normal and, according to Erikson, helps explain the inconsistency, or changeable nature, of much adolescent behaviour, as well as adolescents selfconsciousness about their appearance. Failure to establish a clear sense of personal identity during adolescence does not mean that a person is a failure or will never establish a strong sense of who they are. People who attain a sense of identity in adolescence will still come across challenges to that identity as they move through life (Grotevant, 1992; Harter, 1990; Elkind, 1971).

Figure 5.57 Role confusion can cause some young people to adopt a negative identity , which is opposite to their parents preferences.

Stage 6: Intimacy versus isolation (18 to 25 years) The sixth stage of psychological development which occurs between about 18 and 25 years of age, involves a conflict between intimacy at the one extreme and isolation at the other. Failure to resolve this conflict results in avoiding interpersonal relationships and experiencing a sense of isolation. Erikson used the term intimacy to refer to the ability to share with and care about another person without fear of losing oneself in the process. Isolation refers to the sense of being alone without anyone to share one s life with or care for. During later adolescence and the early years of adulthood, it becomes possible for the first time to engage in a truly intimate relationship with another person outside the family; to love another person for their real qualities and not just for the satisfaction that can be obtained from the relationship. According to Erikson, this kind of relationship cannot occur earlier in life because a person cannot establish true intimacy without first developing a strong sense of personal identity and independence and being secure in their place in the world. People who do not fully understand who they are find it difficult to deal with the complete and open sharing that is required in an intimate relationship. Erikson s description of intimacy versus isolation may provide some insight into people who say I m not ready for a committed relationship . Furthermore, a person without a strong sense of identity tends to frequently seek praise, flattery and adoration from others, and this interferes with the shared commitment and honest communication that are essential for an intimate relationship to develop and last. People who lack a sense of identity tend to isolate themselves, or form superficial or shallow relationships with others (Grotevant, 1992; Morris, 1990). According to Erikson, intimacy does not necessarily involve sex and it includes the relationship between friends. For example, soldiers who have served together under the most dangerous circumstances often develop a sense of commitment to one another that illustrates intimacy in its broadest sense. If a sense of intimacy is not established with friends or a partner, the result, in Erikson s view, is a sense of isolation (Elkind, 1971). As with other psychosocial crises, the development of intimacy does not occur only during the stages of late adolescence and young adulthood. Nor do individuals stop seeking intimacy after the early adulthood stage. Intimacy, like identity, continually changes over time and is influenced by experiences later in life. C h a p t e r 5 Theories of psychological development

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Stage 7: generativity versus stagnation (25 to 65 years)

Figure 5.58 Soldiers who serve together may develop a sense of commitment to one another that lasts a long time, illustrating intimacy in its broadest sense.

BOX 5.15 The Modified Erikson Psychosocial Stage Inventory The Modified Erikson Psychosocial Stage Inventory (MEPSI) was developed for research purposes to examine the way in which adolescents resolve crises in the first six psychosocial stages. The MEPSI is a questionnaire with 12 items for each of the six psychosocial crises. Following are some sample items which the respondent is asked to indicate as being either true or false. Crisis

Item

Trust

My dealings with people usually turn out well for me.

Autonomy

I know when to please myself and when to please others.

Initiative

I m an active person who likes to do a lot of different things.

Industry

I usually finish things that I start.

Identity

I have a clear idea of what I want to be.

Intimacy

I have a close emotional relationship with another person.

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The seventh stage, which occurs between about 25 and 65 years of age and corresponds with adulthood, involves a psychosocial crisis of generativity at the one extreme and stagnation at the other. Generativity refers to a person s concern with others beyond their immediate family, with future generations and the nature of the society and world in which those generations will live. Basically, people who achieve generativity build their lives around doing things that help others, will leave a lasting mark on future generations and will make the world a better place in which to live. Erikson believed that people go through this psychosocial crisis towards the middle of the seventh stage when they look ahead to the latter half of their lives and feel a need to participate in the continuation of life. According to Erikson, if this need is not met, people develop a sense of stagnation. Stagnation refers to boredom, inactivity, too much concern with personal needs and comforts and a lack of personal growth. According to Erikson, having children is an important part of generativity for many people. He did not believe, however, that everyone needs to become a parent in order to be generative. Nor did he believe that parenthood guarantees that someone will be generative. Generativity is sometimes achieved by becoming involved in activities which promote the development of younger people; for example, as a sport coach, scout or guide leader, member of a school council or involvement with some other youth organisation. Generativity can also be achieved by actively participating in groups concerned with social or environmental problems, such as poverty, unemployment and global warming. Similarly, work with community agencies, volunteer work for welfare groups and service on committees dealing with social or environmental problems provides opportunities for generativity. In all these examples, the act of helping is in itself satisfying and recognition or reward is not sought. Many adults also achieve a sense of generativity through their paid work. Working creatively, skilfully or productively in a job that has a lasting influence on the lives of other people can help develop a strong sense of generativity and a lasting feeling of pleasure and satisfaction. This could apply to jobs in fields such as architecture, teaching, nursing, legal aid, social work, scientific research and engineering. Some people in middle adulthood change careers in an effort to find a job that provides a greater sense of generativity and lasting satisfaction (Morris, 1990).

has been lived and the crisis of integrity involves an examination of that life and a judgement of whether that life, with all its ups and downs, gains and losses, good decisions and mistakes, pleasures and pains, was worthwhile.

Figure 5.59 Generativity can be achieved by becoming involved in activities which promote the development of younger people.

According to Erikson, becoming generative is not always easy. It depends on the successful resolution of the crises in each of the previous six stages. Furthermore, the attainment of generativity can be difficult in a youth-oriented society that seems eager for older people to step aside and let younger, more technologically savvy workers take over. Thus, older workers can lose opportunities for generativity by not being able to pass on the wisdom and skills they have developed over the years (Dacey & Travers, 1991). As in Erikson s other psychosocial stages, it is the balance of the positive and negative aspects of the crisis which is important. For example, some stagnation can provide a break that leads to greater generative activity in the future. However, too much stagnation can result in an obsession with oneself, severe depression or despair in the next stage.

Stage 8: Integrity versus despair (65+ years) The eighth stage, which occurs after about 65 years of age, comes at a time when most of a person s life s work is nearing completion and there is time for reflection. The last psychosocial crisis to be faced is integrity versus despair. According to Erikson, the sense of integrity arises from the individual s ability to look back on their life with satisfaction. Integrity refers to a sense of satisfaction with one s achievements in life and a belief that all that happened in the course of one s life has been useful, valuable and meaningful. The major part of life

Figure 5.60 Integrity develops from looking back at achievements in life with satisfaction.

At the other extreme is the individual who looks back on life with a sense of despair. Despair involves bitter feelings of hopelessness, involving lost opportunities, mistakes that were made and the sense that life has been meaningless and empty. In the latter years of life, the individual may realise with despair that time seems to have run out and it is too late to do all the things they want to do. While a person must achieve a greater sense of integrity than despair for the successful resolution of the final crisis, Erikson believed that some despair is inevitable. For example, he suggested that even if someone felt completely fulfilled with their life, the fact that other people have suffered throughout their lives may make them feel some despair.

learnIng actIVIty 5.3 5 MePSI 1. Box 5.15 briefly describes the Modified Erikson Psychosocial Stage Inventory (MEPSI) which was developed for research purposes. Read the description and examples of sample items for the positive outcome of each stage. Then suggest an item which might be suitable for assessing the negative outcome of the psychosocial crisis in each of the first six stages. 2. Suggest sample items which might be suitable for assessing the positive and negative outcomes of the psychosocial crisis in each of the last two stages.

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learnIn g actIVIt y 5. 36 Identifying erikson s psychosocial stages of development Identify the psychosocial crisis most likely to be unresolved in each of the following examples. Explain the person s feelings and behaviour in terms of Erikson s theory: 1. a new employee who is reluctant to do a task on their own for fear of making a mistake 2. a 28-year-old woman who constantly gives others compliments seeking to get compliments in return 3. a 38-year-old who has had three broken engagements in the past 10 years 4. a lawyer who decides to take up politics and runs for a state government seat in parliament because she is passionate about making a difference to the environment 5. an adolescent boy who is reluctant to develop friendships with females after his girlfriend cheated on him 6. a person who wishes they could relive their working life so they could do it better 7. a 10-year-old who misbehaves in class and avoids doing any schoolwork 8. an adolescent girl who always waits to be asked to join in social activities.

criticisms of erikson s theory Erikson s psychosocial theory provides a useful outline for understanding aspects of psychosocial development and interpreting some of the major changes that occur at different times throughout the lifespan. Unlike many other theories on development, Erikson s theory describes changes which take place across the entire lifespan from birth to older age. Another positive feature of Erikson s theory is that it describes how healthy social (and personality) development is achieved. He explains how each stage of development can have a positive outcome as well as a negative outcome. This balanced view of psychosocial development is a feature which made Erikson s theory appealing to clinical psychologists and psychiatrists who sometimes use it in their work with people of all ages. In his theory, Erikson recognised that parents (especially the mother) are important influences on psychosocial development. However, his theory is different from other theories in its emphasis of the role of individuals in their own psychosocial development, and of the influences of the social world to which the individual belongs. Erikson recognised other important influences in the individual s world, such as the father, 234

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siblings, other caregivers, the school, friends, peers, the wider social environment and the individual s own characteristics. Criticisms of Erikson s theory have been based on the lack of experimental evidence to support it. His theory is developed mainly from case studies of people in several different cultures and on his experiences with individuals he counselled, rather than scientifically controlled research. Experimental evidence for Erikson s theory has been difficult to obtain because of the problems with examining each of the stages under controlled conditions. For example, it is hard to define basic trust precisely enough for thorough scientific testing in a laboratory setting. However, in the past 15 or so years, various research attempts have been made to test Erikson s theory using cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. Findings from these studies indicate some empirical support for aspects of Erikson s theory (Marcia, 1999; Bradley & Marcia, 1998). Another criticism of Erikson s theory is that it did not consider the way in which socio-cultural influences have differing effects on males and females. For example, Erikson failed to describe female psychosocial development in general and his theory primarily describes male psychosocial development. Criticisms have also been made about more specific aspects of Erikson s theory; for example, Erikson s belief that identity is found in adolescence. Australian psychologists Lindsay Gething and Desmond Hatchard (1989) suggest people continue their search for identity well into young adulthood. They also criticise Erikson s theory for overlooking the role of work in identity formation of the young adult. They believe this is a big gap in the theory, especially as Erikson strongly argued about the importance of industry in childhood and the importance of career preparation in adolescence. Many recent studies of adult development have shown that undertaking a career during adulthood is a major path in the search for identity. Furthermore, experiences at the workplace can affect our social development as much as people with whom we have relationships. Erikson s theory states that all people experience a midlife crisis during adulthood. However, research which has tested this proposal suggests that this is not the case. Many adults do not experience a mid-life crisis, both in Western societies and in many non-Western societies and cultures (Costa & McCrae, 1994). Erikson s theory prompted and continues to stimulate considerable research since it was first published (Thomas, 2000). For example, some psychologists have studied ways in which specific life and cultural experiences affect psychosocial development. It has been found that when and where people are born and grow up can significantly influence psychosocial development

(Elder, 1998). For example, people who were children during the Great Depression (1929 39), when they had very little, were always careful with their money even when they were financially secure years later.

learnIn g actIVIt y 5. 37 review questions 1. Describe three criticisms that have been made of Erikson s theory. 2. Why is it important for a theory to be based on experimental research evidence? 3. What is your view of Erikson s theory? Briefly explain with reference to one or more psychosocial crises.

learnIn g actIVIt y 5. 38 Visual presentation of erikson s theory

summary

Prepare a table, chart or other type of visual organiser in which you summarise Erikson s theory of psychosocial development. In your presentation you should: • describe psychosocial development • outline the key ideas of Erikson s theory • accurately name and describe the approximate age range for each stage • accurately describe the positive (e.g. trust) and negative (e.g. mistrust) outcomes for each psychosocial stage • describe the main factors that influence positive psychosocial outcomes • present information in a logical arrangement • express information in a clear and concise way.

pSYCHoloGICal CHanGeS In THe verY old Generally, people throughout the world are living longer than they did in the past. The average life expectancy has dramatically increased since the 1950s, following World War II. Currently in Australia, a male baby born this century is expected to live to about 79 years of age (barring an accident or life-ending illness). A female baby born this century is expected to live to about 84 years of age (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2009). The increase in life expectancy is mostly due to advances in medical knowledge and improvements in the availability and quality of aged care services. The increase in the number of older aged people has stimulated much research on ageing, and, in psychology, the psychological changes associated with ageing. Psychologists who specialise in the study of older people and the psychological effects of the ageing process are called geropsychologists. Many geropsychologists categorise people in the lifespan stage of older age in either of two subgroups the young old and the very old (or the old old )(Baltes, 1997). While these subgroups are not determined only by age, it is generally accepted that the young old are those people between the ages of about 65 85 years and the very old are those over 85 years. This distinction is made because psychological abilities and wellbeing of the very old tend to be different from the young old. Generally, the young old experience fewer cognitive, social and emotional changes when compared with the very old; whereas the very old are more likely to experience considerable decline of cognitive abilities, and social and emotional changes as they age.

learnIn g actIVIt y 5. 39 Visual presentation overview of theories of human psychological development Prepare a poster in which you use a graphic organiser such as a timeline(s) and images to show the development of psychological characteristics across the lifespan, including key accomplishments in three different areas of development, such as perceptual, emotional (attachment), cognitive, moral or psychosocial development. In your presentation you should: • make reference to three theories of development • briefly define each area of psychological development

• show how the different areas of psychological development can influence each other • briefly describe key accomplishments in each area of psychological development • identify the age(s) at which each of the key accomplishments occur in each area of psychological development • give appropriate examples to illustrate your understanding of the three areas of psychological development and key accomplishments • accurately describe and explain key concepts • present information logically • express information in a clear and concise way.

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cognitive changes Various longitudinal studies that have tracked the cognitive functioning of groups of people into very old age have shown that this is the first period in a person s life where almost all cognitive changes involve decline or deterioration of mental abilities. In terms of specific cognitive abilities, very old people tend to have difficulty separating relevant from irrelevant information (McDown & Shaw, 2000). For example, in a conversation, a very old person may focus on an irrelevant detail and miss the main point of what has been said. In addition, the very old tend to have difficulty paying attention to more than one thing at a time. Many find it difficult to retain information in conscious awareness when thinking about it (Kemper & Sumner, 2001). This may make driving difficult. Driving involves paying attention to many different pieces of information at any given moment. For example, at a four-way intersection a driver has to monitor where every vehicle is, remember the road rules and use these to make a decision as to which vehicle has the right of way and then decide when they should enter the intersection. This is a complex cognitive task and may explain why some very old drivers are hesitant with their driving and are, at times, unaware of others on the road. The very old also tend to be much slower at mentally processing information than others who are much younger than them. However, if they are given plenty of time, many are still able to, for example, come up with the answer to a crossword clue or to solve a problem requiring logical reasoning (Salthouse, 1996). In addition, the very old tend to experience considerable difficulty learning new information (Singer, Lindenberger & Baltes, 2001). This may explain why learning how to use new technology, such as a mobile phone, a DVD recorder or computer software is often a difficult task for the very old. Memory is another cognitive ability that tends to decline among the very old. There are several different kinds of memory. Some tend to decline minimally in the very old, whereas others tend to be more affected by the ageing process. For example, the long-term memory for skills and thought processes required to do something such as how to use the oven (called procedural memory) is affected to a lesser extent than other kinds of memory. However, the long-term memory for various experiences and events in one s life (called episodic memory) tends to decline more. For many very old people, the longterm memory for facts and general knowledge (called semantic memory) tends to be unaffected until about age 90 and then it slowly declines. Various explanations have been proposed for the cognitive changes associated with the ageing process. 236

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Geropsychologists attribute the cognitive decline in most abilities to the ageing brain. For example, the gradual deterioration and loss of brain cells associated with ageing often results in a slowing of the speed at which information is transmitted along nerve pathways throughout the brain (Korten & others, 1997).

Figure 5.61 Learning how to use new technology is often difficult for very old people

BOX 5.16 The Berlin Aging Study (BAS) A team of German psychologists conducted a study on the cognitive abilities of very old people living in the city of Berlin. Participants were randomly selected using the electoral roll. There were 516 participants, drawn from six different age groups to obtain a stratified random sample. The age groups were 70 74, 75 79, 80 84, 85 89, 90 94 and 95+ years. Each group consisted of 43 females and 43 males. Information about each participant was obtained from a series of interviews. Each participant was first interviewed to obtain data about their life histories and socio-cultural background; for example their educational qualifications, occupation, income level and social class . A medical history was also obtained, including information about current sensory functioning; for example, vision and hearing. Anyone who had an ongoing medical illness was excluded from the study. Finally, each participant was tested on overall intelligence and four cognitive abilities speed of processing information (perceptual speed), general knowledge, memory, and time taken to come up with ideas, words and possible solutions to a problem (fluency of thinking). Participants were first assessed in 1990. Then, three follow-up interviews and assessments were conducted every two years, in 1993, 1995 and 1997. Some participants died or developed illnesses and were unable to continue for the duration of the study. Consequently, the final sample from whom the results were obtained consisted of 132 individuals, in equal numbers for each age group and gender.

The results showing changes in general intelligence and the cognitive abilities over time are shown below.

Score

(a) Overall intelligence 70 60 50 40 30 20 0

70

80

90 ge

100

110

100

110

Score

(b) Perceptual speed 70 60 50 40 30 20 0

70

80

90 ge

Score

(c) General knowledge 70 60 50 40 30 20 0

70

80

90 ge

100

110

100

110

100

110

Score

(d) Memory

70

80

90 ge

Score

(e) Fluency of thinking 70 60 50 40 30 20 0

Data analysis Study

Berlin aging

Read the summary of the Berlin Aging Study on cognitive abilities in the very old in box 5.16 and answer the following questions. 1. Name the research method used in the Berlin Aging Study. 2. (a) Explain the meaning of the term random stratified sample. (b) Why was random stratified sampling used? 3. Construct a hypothesis that might have been used in the research. 4. What do the results indicate about changes in cognitive abilities among the very old? Explain with reference to the results. 5. To what extent can the results be generalised to: (a) all very old people living in Berlin? (b) all very old people living in Germany? (c) all older people in Western societies? (d) all older people in the world? Give a reason for each answer.

Psychosocial changes

70 60 50 40 30 20 0

learnIng actIVIty 5.4 0

70

80

90 ge

Figure 5.62 Changes in overall intelligence and various cognitive abilities over seven years among participants in the Berlin Aging Study

According to Erikson, a person s psychosocial experiences in older age will depend, to a large extent, on how they perceive their earlier life when they reflect on it. If they view their life as meaningful, useful and productive they are likely to experience integrity and therefore be more content or happier in their old age. Conversely, very old people who are filled with regrets or bitterness about past mistakes, missed opportunities or bad decisions are likely to feel disappointment, experience despair and therefore be less content or happy. However a very old person s reflections and judgements on their past experiences are not the only factors that determine psychological wellbeing among the very old. Many contemporary psychologists believe that psychosocial wellbeing when very old may be only partly determined by satisfaction with past life experiences. A person s current life circumstances, events and attitudes to life are also considered important (Ryff, 1989). The very old have relatively unique experiences that can be challenging and often stressful. For example, sight and hearing, and physical abilities such as mobility and strength, all decline. These kinds of changes often affect a person s ability to function effectively in everyday life as they once did and therefore their overall satisfaction with their present life. The decline C h a p t e r 5 Theories of psychological development

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in cognitive abilities can also be very frustrating for many very old people. Coping with the unwanted changes to their mental functioning can be a further source of personal dissatisfaction. For many, thinking about these cognitive losses and contemplating a future where these abilities will not be regained can be very distressing, even when a cognitive loss such as an occasional loss of memory is relatively minor. Among the very old, there is also a considerable increase in the number of individuals who develop dementia a progressive deterioration of brain functioning. This is not only associated with a serious loss of cognitive abilities but often dramatic changes in personality, and social and emotional wellbeing too. Many very old people, with or without dementia, also report feeling lonely. When their friends and other peers die, their social world shrinks. They become increasingly dependent on family for social contact. Many also experience a loss of independence when they become less mobile or can no longer drive their car. This restricts their social life even further and many become confined to their homes or restricted to their local area for outings, making them feel even more isolated and lonely. Associated with this loss of autonomy is a loss of identity as they depend more and more on others to do things which, in the past, they have done themselves; for example, going shopping, walking the dog, putting the bin out or going to appointments. In sum, when considering the whole person, very old age is associated with many losses. These can occur in all areas of the person s life physically, cognitively and psychosocially (Baltes & Smith, 1999).

SUCCeSSFUl aGeInG Some geropsychologists have considered how the psychological impact of the losses very old people experience can be minimised to enable them to be more productive and satisfied in the latter part of their lives. German psychologist Paul Baltes has been prominent in this area. Baltes introduced the concept of successful ageing, which is sometimes called successful development. According to Baltes, successful ageing occurs when a very old person maximises and attains positive (desired) outcomes while minimising and avoiding negative (undesired) outcomes. In the process of maximising positive outcomes, the individual uses strategies to continue to develop their skills to their full potential. For example, a very old person who is a skilled writer might continue to read widely, do crossword puzzles and write letters on issues of concern to daily newspapers or write items and newsletter articles for a community organisation with which they may be involved. By continuing to use their skills, the very old person is not only maintaining use of their cognitive abilities, but also preventing further deterioration or losses. According to Baltes, this gives the very old person a sense of achievement and worth, thereby enhancing their life satisfaction.

learnIn g actIVIt y 5. 41 review questions 1. Based on the findings of research studies, what could you say to your 75-year-old grandparent about the changes they might expect in their cognitive functioning over the next 10 years? Your 85-year-old grandparent? Explain your answers, with reference to examples of the everyday use of cognitive abilities. 2. What is a possible explanation for the cognitive changes associated with ageing? 3. Describe three psychosocial changes experienced by the very old. Give an example of how these changes might be observed in everyday life experiences of a very old person. 4. How do the cognitive and psychosocial changes experienced by the very old affect their life satisfaction? Explain your answer.

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Figure 5.63 German geropsychologist Paul Baltes (1939 2006) Weblink

video of Baltes describing ageing processes

Successful ageing also involves developing strategies to minimise the effect of losses that have been experienced. For example, a very old person who is unable to concentrate on reading for long periods of time may compensate for this by reading for short periods often.

Baltes Selection, Optimisation and compensation theory According to Baltes, promoting gains and managing losses are the two main ways of ageing successfully. He constructed a theory to describe and explain how these two goals could be achieved. Baltes theory is called the Selection, Optimisation and Compensation theory (SOC) and describes selection, optimisation and compensation as three distinct, but interrelated processes that are all vital for successful ageing. The following example of 80-year-old concert pianist Arthur Rubenstein illustrates how these three processes work. Rubenstein was asked in a television interview how he managed to remain such an excellent concert pianist throughout his old age. Rubenstein gave three reasons. He said that he played fewer pieces of music, practised them more often, and used variations and contrasts in speed to make it seem as though he was playing faster. He did this by playing more slowly just before a fast segment so that it seemed as if he was playing the fast section much faster than he actually was (Baltes & Smith, 2003). By reducing his range of playing pieces, Rubenstein was being selective. This gave him more opportunity to practise each piece more often in order to optimise, or give his best performance. He also looked for different ways to overcome the loss of his finger speed when playing the piano, thereby compensating for a skill for which he has experienced loss. According to Baltes, when a person uses selection, they reduce the number of goals they try to achieve, then prioritise the goals. For example, after moving into a retirement village, an individual s goal might be to develop friendships within the village. If they are invited to attend the Friday night community dinner at the village as well as a family dinner on the same evening, they may select the village dinner over the family dinner. This reflects their current priority of building friendships close to home .

Optimisation involves making the most of the abilities, resources and opportunities available to achieve the optimal or best outcome. For example, if a very old person wanted to prepare a dinner for a family member s birthday, they might choose simple recipes, or something they have cooked before. They may also practise what they plan to cook prior to the special day and prepare as much of the meal as they can in advance. Using strategies such as these will optimise the likelihood of a successful dinner, which is the desirable outcome.

Figure 5.64 Concert pianist Arthur Rubenstein

Because very old people experience losses in many aspects of their lives, one of their challenges is to maintain a productive life. In order to maintain a productive (and enjoyable) life, they must develop new strategies to compensate, or substitute , for each of C h a p t e r 5 Theories of psychological development

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these losses. For example, someone whose partner dies may have to develop strategies to cope with being on their own. They may arrange to have company each day and find ways to occupy their time so they don t feel so lonely. Similarly, a person who can no longer read due to deteriorated eyesight may compensate for their loss of vision by listening to talking books which have been recorded to CD.

According to Baltes, people who select, optimise and compensate are able to more successfully adapt to the psychological (and physical) changes they experience through ageing. His research has shown that very old people who use these strategies generally feel happier and more satisfied with their lives because they are contributing to their own successful ageing (Baltes & Baltes, 1990).

learnIng a ctIVIty 5.42 review questions 1. What is meant by the term successful ageing? 2. According to Baltes, what are the two main goals of successful ageing? Give an example of each goal. 3. Describe the three key processes involved in Baltes theory of successful ageing. Give an example to illustrate each of these processes. 4. Eighty-five-year old George was employed as a motor mechanic throughout his working life. He is still very interested in cars and how they work, but now only reads about Holden cars because he drives a Holden. He still likes to service his own car. He always plans to do it when he knows his grandson is available to help, because he can no longer get underneath the car. He also sometimes needs help getting nuts and bolts off and on. To help ensure he doesn t forget all the tasks he needs to do when he services the car, George writes a checklist which he ticks off as he completes each task. He also re-reads the car manual the day before each service

to refresh his memory of how it all works . George is always very pleased with himself when he completes the servicing and his Holden starts without any trouble. (a) Describe the selection, optimisation and compensation strategies used by George. (b) Is George successfully ageing? Explain your answer with reference to Baltes SOC theory. 5. Carmella is 87 years old. She has been asked to give a talk to her granddaughter s year 6 class on what it was like when she first arrived in Australia from Italy at the age of 19. Carmella is very anxious about the presentation. She finds it difficult to stand for long periods of time and her hearing has experienced age-related deterioration. Carmella doesn t want to embarrass her granddaughter by not speaking well or by not hearing questions. Describe one selection strategy, one optimisation strategy and one compensation strategy that Carmella might use to give her confidence that she can successfully speak to the children.

learnIng a ctIVIty 5.43 Visual presentation psychological changes in the very old Construct a concept map or other graphic organiser to show the way in which different psychological factors interact to influence the psychological wellbeing of a very old person. You may also include other factors that impact on psychological wellbeing. You may find it helpful to follow the steps outlined below in constructing your concept map. 1. Make a list of all the psychological factors that may influence the psychological wellbeing of a very old person. 2. Write each factor on a separate small piece of paper or post-it note. (This will allow you to move around the factors as you think about the ways in which they influence psychological wellbeing.)

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3. Construct a diagram showing how the various factors influence psychological wellbeing by arranging the pieces of paper in a layout which you believe best shows their relationship. (a) Write the words psychological wellbeing in the middle of an A3 size sheet of paper. (b) Place linked factors close to each other and nonlinked ones apart. (c) Rearrange the influences until you are satisfied with their placement. (Note: There is no right way of arranging the concept map.) 4. Stick the pieces of paper down or write the arrangement on the paper or construct it on your computer. 5. Rule lines between linked (related) factors and write on each line what the relationship is. You can use words such as shapes , determines , can lead to , contributes to , influences and assists . An example of a concept map is shown on page 160.

learnIn g actIVIt y 5. 44 Practical activity interview with a very old person

must be fully informed about the purpose of your research and give their consent prior to the start of the interview.

The aim of this research activity is to test Paul Baltes theory of successful ageing. You are required to interview a very old person to find out about the changes they have experienced in their cognitive, and psychosocial functioning, and how they manage these losses. Prior to conducting the interview, you should construct a relevant hypothesis that could be tested by your research. You should develop a series of relevant questions to use during the interview. It is important to be sensitive to the feelings of the older person as talking about the losses in their abilities or psychological wellbeing may be distressing for them. Ensure you also include questions about successes in their life. Record the answers to your questions either in writing or using a sound or video recorder. At the conclusion of the interview, thank the participant for their assistance. Ensure you follow all ethical standards and practices when you conduct your research. In particular, your participants

Report Write a brief report to include in your folio of practical activities. In your report, ensure you: • state your hypothesis • summarise the losses the participant described in a table using three headings cognitive losses , psychosocial losses and other losses • summarise any strategies the participant uses to overcome their losses in a table using three headings selection , optimisation and compensation • state whether your hypothesis is supported, with reference to your results • with reference to Baltes theory on successful ageing, state whether your research participant is experiencing successful ageing. Give reasons for your answer. • describe two limitations of this research design. Explain how these limitations may have affected your results. Suggest how each of these limitations be overcome if this practical activity were repeated?

learnIn g actIVIt y 5. 45 essay theories of psychological development Write an essay of about 500 600 words in which you describe two theories of human psychological development. In your essay ensure you should: • define the two areas of psychological development • briefly describe the main ideas of the two theories of psychological development

learnIn g actIVIt y 5. 46 Oral presentation interview with developmental theorists Working with a partner, prepare a five- to 10-minute interview conducted by a science journalist with two developmental psychologists whose theories you have studied. In your interview, ensure you include one or more questions on each of the following topics: 1. what the theory is about 2. how development occurs

• briefly describe relationships between the two theories with respect to psychological development • refer to research evidence on which the theories are based • use appropriate examples to demonstrate your understanding of key concepts • accurately define and explain all key terms • express your information in a clear and concise way • accurately cite and reference all material. References may be used in obtaining information for your essay. Assessment task and criteria

3. key concepts in the theory 4. everyday examples to describe the theory 5. research findings that may or may not support the theory 6. possible limitations or criticisms of the theory 7. possible areas for further research 8. other relevant information. Use two or more data types in your interview; for example, still or moving images, written text or sound.

Assessment task and criteria C h a p t e r 5 Theories of psychological development

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tr ue/Fals e Q uiz Indicate whether each item is true or false by writing T or F in the blank space next to each item. 1. _____

Gibson proposed that perceptual development is a continuous process.

2. _____

A two-year-old who points at a cat and says doggy has not yet learned to use affordances.

3. _____

Bowlby proposed that the mother is the best caregiver.

4. _____

Ainsworth s research found that most children form a resistant attachment type.

5. _____

Harlow s research found that attachment in rhesus monkeys depends on privation.

6. _____

Egocentrism is a key accomplishment in Piaget s pre-operational stage.

7. _____

Piaget s stages are all linked to chronological age ranges.

8. _____

Someone who thinks it s OK to make fun of someone else publicly because everyone else thinks they are a loser is using moral reasoning at the preconventional level.

9. _____

Erikson proposed that if we don t resolve a psychosocial crisis in a specific stage, then our social and emotional development will be permanently affected.

10. _____

Baltes proposed that successful ageing involves maintaining one s strengths and minimising the effects of any losses.

The answers to the true/false questions are in the answer section at the back of this book and in eBookPLUS.

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C H A PT E R TEST SectIOn a

Multiple-choice questions

Choose the response that is correct or that best answers the question. A correct answer scores 1, an incorrect answer scores 0. Marks will not be deducted for incorrect answers. No marks will be given if more than one answer is completed for any question. 1. The correct sequence of the stages of cognitive development described in Piaget s theory is A. sensorimotor, concrete operational, preoperational, formal operational. B. sensorimotor, formal operational, concrete operational, pre-operational. C. pre-operational, sensorimotor, formal operational, concrete operational. D. sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, formal operational. 2. The close affectionate bond that forms between an infant and another person is best described as A. a critical or sensitive period. B. attachment. C. separation distress. D. separation anxiety. 3. Trinh believes that the clouds look sad today . Piaget refers to this way of thinking about objects as A. centricism. B. animism. C. classification. D. transformation. 4. According to attachment theory, infants form the closest attachment to A. people most closely involved with them. B. people they like. C. people who spend the most time with them. D. only one person. 5. Bree and Emma s father bought them a Big M each while out shopping. He decides to pour the milk out of each carton into different glasses and his daughters watch him do this. Emma s glass is much wider than Bree s glass and she complains that Bree has been given more milk than she has. It is likely that Emma has yet to develop an understanding of A. conservation of volume. B. conservation of mass. C. conservation of length. D. classification.

6. According to Gibson, perceptual differentiation tends to become A. more efficient and selective with age. B. less efficient and selective with age if someone explores the environment too much. C. more difficult when too many distinctive features are learned. D. a way of perceiving rather than a change in what is perceived. 7. Moral development involves the ability to A. identify a moral dilemma. B. recognise when someone is telling a lie. C. distinguish between right and wrong. D. develop strong emotions of issues of concern. 8. Secure attachment in infancy tends to result in adults who A. are reluctant to move out of the family home. B. have good self-esteem. C. are uncomfortable sharing personal information. D. have difficulty trusting others. 9. In developing his theory of psychosocial development, Erikson primarily relied on evidence from A. case studies. B. experiments. C. cross-sectional studies. D. longitudinal studies. 10. Piaget s formal operational stage is characterised by the development of A. logical thinking. B. animism. C. classification. D. egocentrism. 11. According to Kohlberg, a child at the preconventional level who does the right thing at school does so because A. they want people to like them. B. the teacher tells them to. C. they want to follow the school rules. D. they want to avoid being punished. C h a p t e r 5 Theories of psychological development

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12. Milan s friend has asked if he can borrow Milan s revision notes that he prepared for a psychology test. Milan refused because he considered it cheating. Milan s moral reasoning suggests that he is most likely in Kohlberg s stage A. 3. B. 4. C. 5. D. 6. 13. Psychosocial development refers to changes in a person s A. reasoning ability. B. relationships with others. C. thought processes in relation to their interactions with other people. D. capacity to learn. 14. An infant who demonstrates a resistant attachment pattern of behaviour. A. feels secure. B. will not seek to be close to their caregiver. C. seeks to be close to the caregiver then wriggles to be freed from them. D. will not be distressed when separated from their caregiver. 15. According to Baltes theory of successful ageing, compensation refers to A developing strategies to prioritise goals. B finding ways to practise cognitive abilities. C minimising the number of tasks that need to be done. D finding different ways of overcoming losses. 16. According to Erikson, the order in which people go through his eight stages is A. varied. B. fixed. C. age-related. D. sex-related.

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17. Cognitive decline in older age is best explained by A. loneliness. B. loss of mobility. C. increasing dependence on family members. D. deterioration of brain cells and functioning. 18. According to Bowlby, the four characteristics that all need to be present if a strong infant caregiver attachment is to form are A. emotional development, evolution, motivation and comfort. B. a safe haven, proximity maintenance, a secure base and separation distress. C. a mother, attachment targets, a safe haven and a secure base. D. evolution, a mother, a secure base and proximity maintenance. 19. Baltes s theory of successful ageing describes strategies involving A. selection, optimisation and compensation. B. identification, maximisation and compensation. C. selection, maximisation and compensation. D. identification, realisation and compensation. 20. According to Piaget, abstract and logical thinking are not consistently apparent until an individual has reached the stage. A. sensorimotor B. pre-operational C. formal operational D. concrete operational

SectIOn B

Short-answer questions

Answer all questions in the spaces provided. Question 1 According to Harlow s research, influencing attachment in rhesus monkeys.

is a vital factor 1 mark

Question 2 Distinguish between Piaget s processes of assimilation and accommodation with reference to an example.

2 marks

Question 3 According to Gibson s theory, what role do each of the following factors play in perceptual development? (a) the infant

(b) the environment 2 marks

Question 4 What are two key influences on moral development?

2 marks

Question 5 Explain what a psychosocial crisis is with reference to one of the crises identified by Erikson. Ensure you correctly name the crisis.

3 marks

eBook plus The answers to the multiple-choice questions are in the answer section at the back of this book and in eBookPLUS. The answers to the short-answer questions are in eBookPLUS. Note that you can complete Section A of the chapter test online through eBookPLUS and get automatic feedback.

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CHAPTER

6

MENTAL ILLNESS ACROSS THE LIFESPAN What is mental illness? ............................... 248 Psychotic illness ........................................ 249 Non-psychotic illness............................. 249 Incidence of mental illness in Australia .................................................... 251 Classifying mental illnesses .............. 254 Labelling someone with a mental illness ..................................................................... 256 Disruptions to normal development ..................................................... 258 Autism Spectrum Disorder .............. 258 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) .............................. 263 Eating disorders ....................................... 266 Anxiety disorders .................................... 271 Schizophrenia ........................................... 275 Dementia ...................................................... 281

For most people, the distinction between physical health and physical illness is quite clear. When we are physically healthy or well, our bodies are functioning as we know they should and we have no aches, pains or problems that cause us concern or prevent us from doing the things we normally do. Our physical health or wellbeing can be viewed as being somewhere along a continuum, ranging from extremely healthy or well, when we have no physical complaints or concerns, to extremely unhealthy or unwell. There are also different levels of wellbeing in between the two extremes. For example, muscle soreness after having played a sport for the first time might cause mild discomfort and be considered a problem for a day or so, but it would not be considered a serious physical illness. While the muscle pain might remind you of the need to be fitter, it is unlikely to prevent you from washing the dishes, attending school, going to your casual job, or having a driving lesson. However, an excruciating pain in your knee may indicate that you have a more serious problem with your physical health. A physical health problem for which your discomfort is severe and/or lasts for an extended period of time will often lead you to see a doctor for a diagnosis and a treatment plan. Mental health is similar to physical health in many ways; however, mental health primarily involves the mind, whereas physical health primarily involves the body. A problem with mental health can affect the mind and behaviour in much the same way that a problem with physical health can affect the body and behaviour. Like physical health, mental health includes various states of wellbeing, ranging along a continuum from mentally healthy, through to a short-term mental health problem (such as feeling sad or unhappy about something), to a mental illness that may be serious and/or prolonged. When we are mentally healthy, we are usually able to deal effectively with most issues that arise in everyday life. Good mental health doesn t mean we don t have times of sadness, anger or anxiety. Good mental health is reflected in how well we deal with the positive and negative emotions associated with the various events in our lives. For example, a mentally healthy person who is preparing to do their first of six exams in two days time may feel anxious and be grumpy or shorttempered. However, they will probably still be able to eat, study, sleep, remember what to take to the exam, hold a conversation with friends and laugh when something funny happens. Most people have times in their lives when they have problems with their mental health, as they do with their physical health. Like physical health problems, mental health problems may last for a short period of time

Figure 6.1 A physical health problem primarily involves the body; whereas a mental health problem primarily involves the mind.

after which the unwanted thoughts or feelings begin to subside and eventually a state of mental wellbeing is restored. For example, when a relationship breaks up, we can quite reasonably expect to experience emotions such as sadness or anger. At these times, some people prefer to be alone for a while and may not socialise. They may not sleep well or may lose their appetite for a period of time. However, symptoms associated with mental health problems do not usually have long-term consequences and, after a while, most people are able to resume their lifestyle as it was prior to the onset of their problem. In some cases, mental health problems develop into a mental illness, lasting for a longer period of time, such as months, years or even for a lifetime. Mental illnesses, like physical illnesses, are not uncommon in Australian society. The incidence of mental illness has steadily increased in Australia over the past 20 years. Currently, about 45% of the Australian population that is almost every second person experiences a mental illness of some kind at some time in their life (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2007). This does not mean there is a mental illness epidemic in our society. Rather, greater community awareness of mental illness and advertising campaigns that encourage people to recognise and seek support for mental health issues, may explain the recent increase in the incidence of mental illness. As with physical illnesses, someone experiencing symptoms of a mental illness that prevents them from being able to successfully undertake their everyday activities may consult a mental health professional for a diagnosis and treatment plan. Furthermore, as with serious physical illnesses, some people experience a mental illness on only one occasion and fully recover. For others, the illness may recur throughout their lives. In most cases, a mental illness can be effectively managed or treated with appropriate professional support. C h a p t e r 6 Mental illness across the lifespan

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(b)

WHAT IS MENTAL ILLNESS? Mental health professionals tend to use the term mental health problem when the difficulties experienced by a person are mild, temporary and able to be treated within a relatively short period of time. Mental health problems are commonly experienced in response to normal stressful life events. They are usually resolved when circumstances improve or we find a constructive way to address them. A mental health problem can become a mental illness if it is not dealt with effectively. The term mental illness is more likely to be used when the difficulties experienced by a person are more serious, likely to persist for a relatively long time and likely to require a longer-term treatment plan. Although there are varying definitions of mental illness among mental health professionals, mental illnesses are generally considered to be disorders that interfere with emotions, thought processes, behaviour and perception, causing variable amounts of stress and suffering to the person involved. Consequently, mental illnesses are often referred to as mental disorders (Mental Health Institute, 2009). Mental illness is often defined as a psychological dysfunction experienced by an individual which usually involves distress, impairment in the ability to cope with everyday life, and thoughts, feelings and/or behaviour that are not typical of the person or appropriate within their society and/or culture. Psychological dysfunction refers to a breakdown in cognitive, emotional and/or behavioural functioning during which a person s thoughts, feelings or behaviour differ from those they normally experience in that situation. Furthermore, the individual usually experiences considerable distress and difficulties in coping with everyday life experiences. For example, suppose you agreed to go to a party on a date with someone for the first time. Imagine feeling so anxious and distressed during the entire evening that you were unable to talk to people, felt sick, and all you wanted to do was go home. In this situation, it could be said that your thoughts and feelings are dysfunctional, as they are preventing you from having a good time and thereby leading you to behave in a way which is different from how you would normally behave when at a party. However, if your friends, who had met the person you dated, agreed with you that they seemed secretive, untrustworthy and suspicious, it would not be considered dysfunctional for you to be anxious and want to avoid being with them by returning to the safety of your home. As well as being associated with mental illness, distress can also be a natural part of everyday life. When a person is distressed they are extremely upset. 248

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(c) (a) Figure 6.2 Mental illness is associated with (a) psychological dysfunction, (b) distress, (c) impaired functioning, (d) atypical thoughts, feelings and/or behaviour and (e) socially or culturally inappropriate thoughts, feelings and/or behaviour.

People experience distress for many different reasons in everyday life. For example, if someone close to you dies, it would be normal for you to be extremely upset or distressed. Therefore, defining mental illness by distress alone is misleading. However, distress is often present when someone experiences a mental illness. Impairment in the ability to cope with everyday life is another symptom of mental illness. If a person is unable to do the kinds of things they normally do on a daily basis, they are considered to have impaired functioning. However, as with other symptoms, impaired functioning on its own does not necessarily indicate a mental illness. For example, some people might be shy or lazy. While being shy or lazy might impair their functioning to the extent that it may prevent them from doing some things, this does not mean they have a mental illness. A shy person would be considered to have impaired functioning if they were so shy that they found it impossible to mix with others, were unable to attend school or work and avoided situations where other people are present. Another symptom of a mental illness is that a person s thoughts, feelings and behaviour are atypical. Atypical means that the person responds in a way(s) that is not normal for them. For example, if a usually friendly,

(e)

Western cultures a person in a trance-like state who believed they were possessed by the devil would probably be considered to have a mental illness. However, in some cultures, this behaviour would not be considered unusual or abnormal. In these cultures, individuals who experience this state may even be highly regarded as it may be believed that they have direct contact with God. Therefore, it is important to understand a person s cultural background before judging whether their behaviour is a symptom of mental illness.

Psychotic illness (d)

outgoing person becomes withdrawn, does not talk or interact with others and stays in their bedroom alone for extended periods of time, they would be considered to be behaving in a way that is atypical for them. However, someone who behaves in an unconventional or extremely different way, would not necessarily be considered to be showing symptoms of a mental illness. For example, the male singer Marilyn Manson wears heavy make-up on stage and behaves unconventionally, but this is not atypical behaviour for him when performing. Therefore, this behaviour, on its own, would not be considered to indicate mental illness. Likewise, Australian actor Barry Humphries has for many years dressed up and performed as Dame Edna Everage. This has become part of Humphries s normal behaviour and therefore would also not be considered atypical of him or a symptom of mental illness. Finally, even if a person s thoughts, feelings and behaviour appear to be abnormal, if the ways in which they think, feel and act are culturally appropriate and/ or common in their society, then they would probably not be considered to have a mental illness. Each culture or society has its own set of norms or standards about what is considered normal and abnormal behaviour within that culture or society. For example, in many

Mental illness is a general term that describes a group of psychological illnesses that negatively affect a person s mental health and functioning. Mental illnesses can be broadly classified into two different categories called psychotic and non-psychotic illnesses. A psychotic illness, commonly referred to as psychosis, involves loss of contact with reality. Losing contact with reality means that the individual has difficulty making sense of their thoughts, feelings or what is actually happening around them. Alternatively, the individual may live in a reality they have created in their mind. Many people with a psychotic illness experience delusions; that is, false beliefs that do not match reality. For example, a delusion may involve the false belief of having the power to change someone else s behaviour by blinking at them or by breathing faster or slower. People with a psychotic illness may also experience hallucinations; that is, they may hear, see, smell, taste or feel things that are not actually present. For example, they may hear voices telling them to do things, when, in reality, no-one is actually speaking to them. This may be a frightening experience which makes them agitated and distressed. One of the psychotic illnesses is schizophrenia, which we consider in detail later in this chapter.

non-psychotic illness When someone has a non-psychotic illness, they remain in touch with reality despite their dysfunctional thoughts, feelings and behaviour. They may experience intense and/or prolonged feelings of sadness, anxiety and fear to such an extent that they have difficulty coping with their daily activities. For example, they may have difficulty going to work, enjoying their leisure time and/or having a relationship. The symptoms they experience cause them considerable personal distress. Examples of non-psychotic illnesses include anxiety disorders such as phobias and obsessive-compulsive disorder, mood disorders such as depression and substance abuse disorders (Mental Health Research Institute, 2009a). C h a p t e r 6 Mental illness across the lifespan

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learning a ctivity 6.1 review questions 1. (a) Explain the meaning of the term mental illness. (b) In what ways is a mental health problem different from a mental illness? Give an example of both a mental health problem and a mental illness to highlight the difference. 2. Convert the definition of mental illness stated in the text into a definition of mental health. 3. Give an example of how a mental illness may lead to a physical illness and vice versa. 4. Define each of the following general symptoms or characteristics of a mental illness. (a) psychological dysfunction (b) distress (c) impaired functioning (d) atypical thoughts, feelings and behaviour (e) socially and/or culturally inappropriate behaviour 5. Distinguish between psychotic and non-psychotic illnesses. 6. For each of the following examples, indicate with the appropriate letter(s) which symptom(s) of a mental illness is apparent. (a) psychological dysfunction (b) distress (c) impaired functioning (d) atypical thoughts, feelings and/or behaviour (e) socially and/or culturally inappropriate behaviour.

Jan Jan collects old newspapers and uses them as wallpaper . She has two rooms completely wallpapered with the newspapers from the last three months. She has started on her third room and intends to wallpaper her entire house, including the ceilings. Khalid Khalid recently started to feel sad and lonely. While still able to function at school, go to his casual job and fulfil other commitments, Khalid feels down most of the time. He worries about what is happening to him. Chrissy Chrissy is a successful businesswoman, but has recently stopped showering. She refuses to leave her apartment or see any of her friends, and spends her whole day watching television talk shows. This behaviour has been continuous for three weeks. Visits by her family and friends and the threat of losing her job have failed to bring Chrissy back to reality and she continues to spend her days staring blankly at the television screen. Zophia Zophia is afraid to leave her house. For the past three years, she has forced herself to go out in order to maintain contact with her friends and family. More recently, she has felt physically sick whenever she goes beyond the front gate. Consequently, she spends most weekday evenings worrying about whether she will be able to get beyond the front gate in the morning so that she can get to work.

learning a ctivity 6.2 rating mental health issues On a mental health continuum, like that shown below but drawn to a full page width, indicate where you consider each of the following individual is best placed. 1. Joe is extremely anxious before a job interview. 2. Stacey is excited about getting into the university course of her choice. 3. In the 48 hours following his grandfather s death, Hamish has no energy, stays in bed for hours during the day, does not eat much, does not shower, experiences a constant headache, stays awake all night and has bouts of uncontrolled crying. 4. Over a period of four months after her grandfather s death, Ismail has no energy, stays in bed for hours

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5. 6. 7. 8.

during the day, does not eat much, does not shower often, experiences a constant headache, stays awake all night and has bouts of uncontrolled crying. Jan worries about how she looks before going to a party. Kania is so worried about how she looks before going to a party that she doesn t go. Mal is angry with his brother for using all the hot water in the shower. Rae is so angry with her brother for using all the hot water in the shower one day that she does not talk to him for six months.

Compare your mental health ratings with others in your class. Explain differences in ratings by class members.

Mental health problem

Mental illness

In 2007, the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) conducted a national survey on the mental health and wellbeing of Australians aged 16 85. Of the 16 million Australians in that age group, almost half (45% or 7.3 million people) indicated they had experienced a mental illness at some stage in their lifetime. One in five (20% or 3.2 million) people reported they had experienced a mental illness in the previous 12-month period. This latter statistic indicates a significant increase in the reported incidence (frequency) of mental illness from a similar survey conducted 10 years earlier. In 1997, one in six people (18%) reported a mental illness in the previous 12 month period. According to the World Health Organization (2009), the pattern of increasing incidence of mental illness is occurring not only in Australia, but worldwide.

As shown in figure 6.4, mental illness can occur in any stage of the lifespan, though some illnesses tend to be more common in some stages, such as in childhood, adolescence, adulthood or older age. Overall, however, more people aged between 16 24 years reported having experienced a mental illness in the previous 12 months than was reported by people in any other age group. One explanation of this finding is that young people experience many psychological changes throughout their adolescent years at the same time as they are trying to establish their identity a time of considerable upheaval. 30 25 Percenta e

incidence of mental illness in australia

20 15 10 5

Total population aged 16 85 years surveyed

0 16 24 25 34 35 44 45 54 55 64 65 74 75 85 e rou ( ears)

16 million (100%)

Figure 6.4 Comparison by age group of the percentage of people who reported having experienced one or more mental illnesses in the previous 12 month period Source: ABS (2007), National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing.

Any mental illness

No mental illness

45%

55%

Mental illness in past 12 months

No mental illness in past 12 months

20%

25%

Figure 6.3 Incidence of mental illness reported by Australians aged 16 85 years in the 2007 National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing

The ABS survey findings also indicate that males and females experience similar rates of mental illness. However there is a gender difference in the types of mental illnesses experienced. For example, as shown in table 6.1, males experience substance abuse disorders such as alcohol and drug dependence more than females; whereas females report experiencing anxietyrelated disorders more than males. Furthermore, more females are likely to experience depression compared with males.

The most common types of mental illness reported by Australians in the survey were those classified as non-psychotic. As shown in table 6.1, the survey found that 26% of people aged 16 85 years reported experiencing an anxiety disorder at some stage in their life, 25% reported having experienced a substance abuse disorder and 15% reported having experienced an affective disorder (such as depression). table 6.1 Gender differences in reported experiences of a non-psychotic mental illness

% in population Mental illness

Female

Male

Total

Any non-psychotic illness

43

48

45

Anxiety disorder (e.g. phobia)

32

20

26

Substance use disorder (e.g. alcohol or drug dependence)

14

35

25

Affective disorder (e.g. depression)

18

12

15

Source: ABS (2007), National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing.

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Psychotic illnesses are less common. The overall incidence of psychotic illnesses in Australia is 3%. About 1% of the population have been personally affected by schizophrenia in their lifetime and 2% of the population have experienced bipolar disorder (Department

of Human Services, 2009). Bipolar disorder involves frequent swings in mood from high to low ; for example, experiencing a very sad or depressed mood then suddenly shifting to an extremely elevated mood of feeling elated and highly active.

BOX 6.1 Myths about mental illness There are many myths associated with mental illness. These misunderstandings often lead people to discriminate against people with a mental illness by treating them in inappropriate ways; for example, by refusing to employ them on the grounds they have suffered from a mental illness in the past. These myths have also been the cause of the stigma, or negative labelling, that is often attached to people with a mental illness. Myth: Mental illness is a type of intellectual disability. Fact: Mental illness can impair thinking, but it is not a type of intellectual disability. Mental illness is not necessarily associated with low intellectual functioning. Like physical illness, mental illness affects people with low, average and high intellectual functioning. Myth: Mental illness is a form of brain damage. Fact: Some mental illnesses have been associated with brain damage; for example, Alzheimer s disease and autism, but there are many people who experience a mental illness who have no brain damage. However, some mental illnesses, such as schizophrenia and depression, are thought to be associated with a change in the biochemistry of the brain, particularly in the way certain neurotransmitters work. This may be linked to changes in thoughts, feelings and behaviour. Myth: Mental illness is genetically inherited. Fact: Most people with a mental illness do not have family members with the illness. For some mental illnesses, there does not seem to be a genetic link at all. For others, such as schizophrenia and some types of depression (for example, bipolar disorder), a predisposition or tendency to develop the illness may be inherited, but there is not a cause effect relationship between specific genetic backgrounds and specific mental illnesses. For those mental illnesses that have been linked to genetic factors, genetics are only one of several factors that can contribute to the illness. Other factors that contribute to the onset of a mental illness include stressful life events, drug abuse, hormonal changes and, in some instances, physical illness. Myth: People can get rid of their mental illness just by getting on with life . Fact: It is rarely possible for someone with a mental illness to make the symptoms go away just by adopting a positive attitude.

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Myth: Once you have a mental illness, it stays with you for the rest of your life. Fact: Many people make a full recovery if they are given appropriate treatment at an early stage of their mental illness. Like many physical illnesses, such as diabetes, treatment can be used to manage mental illness so that the person can function effectively in everyday life. Mental illness is not always experienced constantly, but can come and go sometimes a person may have just one episode of mental illness and then recover completely. Others require ongoing treatment throughout their lives to prevent recurrences. Though some people can become dysfunctional due to a serious mental illness, many others are able to lead full and productive lives. Myth: Mental illness won t affect me. Fact: In Australia, as many as one in two people will develop a mental illness at some stage in their lives. Young adults (18 24) are more likely than older people to experience a mental illness, and females and males are equally likely to experience mental illness. However, the type of mental illness experienced by males and females tends to differ. Females are more likely than males to experience anxietyrelated problems and depression, while males are more likely than females to experience substance abuse problems. Everyone is vulnerable to mental health problems. Reluctance to acknowledge that they may be experiencing a mental illness can prevent people from seeking professional treatment early in the illness. This can result in worsening symptoms or a longer recovery time. Myth: People with a mental illness should be isolated from the community. Fact: Hospitalisation is not necessary for most people with a mental illness. Some people require hospital care, but often only for a brief period of time. Due to recent advances in the treatment of mental illness, patients are no longer required to be isolated or confined to special wards or psychiatric institutions as they once were. There are a small minority (about 1 in 1000) who require hospitalisation, sometimes against their will, but this is unnecessary for most people with a mental illness. One of the greatest obstacles for people in trying to get well is the negative attitudes of others towards their illness. Support, understanding and encouragement are very important to people recovering from a mental illness and can help prevent the feelings of isolation and the discrimination that they may otherwise experience. (Based on Department of Human Services 2007, What is Mental Illness? pamphlet)

learnin g activit y 6. 3 review questions 1. What percentage of the population of 16 85-year-olds report having experienced a mental illness at some stage in their life? 2. (a) Refer to table 6.1 and describe gender differences in the incidence of non-psychotic mental illness. (b) What is a possible explanation for the gender differences? 3. Which age group experiences (a) the highest incidence of mental illness? (b) the lowest incidence of mental illness?

4. Refer to figure 6.4 and describe the relationship between age and incidence of mental illness. What is a possible explanation? 5. Describe a sampling method that would be appropriate for the survey conducted by the ABS. Give a reason for your answer. 6. What is a possible limitation of the data obtained in the ABS survey? 7. How might Erik Erikson explain the differences between the two age groups identified in your answers to questions 3(a) and (b)?

learnin g activit y 6. 4 Practical activity survey on myths about mental illnesses There are many myths or misunderstandings about mental illnesses in the general community. Some common myths are discussed in box 6.1. This information is based on the results of research conducted by the Department of Human Services (2007) and is published in a pamphlet distributed to mental health clinics, community health centres, doctors surgeries and the like. This practical activity involves conducting a survey to investigate how common the myths are in your local community.

Working with a partner, you will each survey three individuals in different age groups using the survey below. The data collected by different pairs of students will then be combined to form the class results. The age groups to be surveyed will be determined through a class discussion. When the age groups are decided, you should construct a relevant research hypothesis. All participants should be volunteers and give informed consent. In order to obtain informed consent, you will need to prepare an appropriate written description of what the research activity is about, what it requires of participants and how the results will be used. You must also ensure other ethical standards and practices for research are followed.

Questionnaire Age group: _______ Indicate whether you think each of the following statements is true (T) or false (F) by circling either T or F. 1. Mentally ill people are usually intellectually disabled. 2. People with mental illnesses usually have brain damage. 3. Mental illnesses are inherited from parents. 4. People can get over their mental illnesses by adopting a positive attitude and getting on with life . 5. Once you have a mental illness, it stays with you for the rest of your life. 6. People with mental illnesses should be isolated from the general community. 7. Mental illness is quite uncommon in the Australian population.

T/F T/F T/F T/F T/F T/F T/F

Report Prepare a brief report on the research activity to include in your folio of practical activities. Your report should include: 1. a statement of the aim of the activity 2. the research hypothesis 3. a summary of the results using appropriate descriptive statistics 4. a conclusion(s) based on the results and referring to the hypothesis 5. a potential limitation that may have affected the results in an unwanted way 6. other relevant information that may be requested by your teacher. Options and variations C h a p t e r 6 Mental illness across the lifespan

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classifying mental illnesses All sciences classify; that is, they identify important similarities in objects of interest and sort them into categories according to those similarities. For example, botanists classify plants according to species, astronomers classify the stars, planets and other astronomical bodies according to colour, size and temperature, and the medical profession classifies diseases according to the organ or system affected. Likewise, mental health professionals, clinical psychologists and psychiatrists classify mental illnesses according to characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings and behaviour. If, on the basis of information gathered, a mental health professional believes a person may have a mental illness, their symptoms are checked against a range of categories of symptoms to help make a diagnosis of the specific type of mental illness. The principle behind making a diagnosis in this way is based on a simple assumption. When certain symptoms regularly occur together and develop or progress in a particular way, they are considered to be typical of a particular mental illness. When people display this particular pattern of symptoms, they are assigned to that diagnostic category. A list of the categories of mental illnesses or disorders, with descriptions of the symptoms and guidelines for assigning individuals to the categories, is known as a classification system. The first comprehensive classification system for mental illnesses was developed in 1883 by German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin. Kraepelin s categories have formed the basis of the two most recognised classification and diagnostic systems for mental illnesses used today the International Classification of Diseases and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. The International Classification of Diseases (ICD) is the classification system currently used by the World Health Organization to identify mental illnesses as well as other medical conditions. However, the system most widely used by mental health professionals throughout the world to identify and classify mental illnesses for the purpose of diagnosis is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, or the DSM as it is more commonly called. The DSM was first developed by the American Psychiatric Association in 1952. As indicated in its title, DSM uses the term mental disorder rather than mental illness (which is the term commonly used by mental health professionals in Australia). However, both terms refer to types of mental health problems, ranging from relatively minor to very serious.

DSM-iv-tr Since the first DSM was developed in 1952, it has been revised a number of times, most recently in 2000. The next revision of the DSM, called the DSM V, is due in 254

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2011. The current DSM is called the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Fourth Edition, Text Revision or DSM-IV-TR. The DSM-IV-TR provides a system for classifying mental disorders based on recognisable symptoms that are precisely described. It also provides information on the typical course of each disorder (that is, a description of how the disorder will progress), the age at which people are more likely to develop the disorder, the degree of impairment, the prevalence of the disorder (how commonly it occurs), whether the disorder is likely to affect others in the family and the relationship of the disorder to gender, age and culture. An important feature of the DSM-IV-TR is that it does not suggest specific causes of disorders unless a cause can be definitely established. It simply names the disorders and describes each in detail.

Figure 6.5 The DSM-IV-TR provides the most commonly used system for classification and diagnosis of mental disorders. Reprinted with permission from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (© 2000). American Psychiatric Association.

The DSM requires qualified mental health professionals to evaluate a client s condition on five separate scales of information. To develop the best possible treatment plan for a particular individual, the mental health professional needs to accurately assess a specific mental disorder, understand its symptoms and also be aware

of any other factors that may influence the mental disorder and its management. A diagnosis of a mental illness should always be made by a health professional with training and experience in mental health because some symptoms may also be a part of a person s ordinary experience. A diagnosis is usually made during an assessment which involves several lengthy interviews. During the assessment, the mental health professional talks to the client to find out what their issues and concerns are and assess their symptoms based on DSM guidelines. Once a diagnosis is made, the mental health professional develops a treatment or management plan for the illness.

Figure 6.6 An assessment of a mental illness usually involves several lengthy interviews with a mental health professional.

BOX 6.2 DSM categories of mental disorders Some of the categories of mental disorders described in DSM-IV-TR are shown below Categories

Description

Disorders usually first diagnosed in infancy, childhood and adolescence

These disorders tend to emerge and sometimes disappear before adulthood. They include developmental disorders (such as autism), learning disorders, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, conduct disorder and separation anxiety disorder.

Delirium, dementia, amnestic and other cognitive disorders

These disorders typically involve impairment in cognitive functioning. They include Alzheimer s disease and Korsakoff s syndrome.

Substance-related disorders

These disorders are brought about by the use of substances that affect the central nervous system. They include alcohol use disorders, opioid use disorders, amphetamine use disorders, cocaine use disorders and hallucinogen use disorders.

Schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders

In this group of disorders, functioning deteriorates until the person reaches a state of psychosis, or loss of contact with reality.

Mood disorders

Disorders in this group are marked by severe disturbances of mood that cause people to feel extremely and inappropriately sad or elated for extended periods of time. They include major depressive disorder and bipolar disorders.

Anxiety disorders

Anxiety is the main disturbance in this group of disorders. They include generalised anxiety disorder, phobias, panic disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, acute stress disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder.

Somatoform disorders

These disorders are characterised by physical symptoms that are thought to be caused primarily by psychological rather than physiological factors. They include conversion disorder, somatisation disorder and hypochondriasis.

Eating disorders

People with these disorders display abnormal patterns of eating that significantly impair their functioning. The disorders include anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa.

Sleep disorders

People with these disorders display chronic (persistent) sleep problems. The disorders include primary insomnia, primary hypersomnia, sleep terror disorder and sleepwalking disorder.

Impulse-control disorders

People with these disorders are chronically unable to resist impulses, drives or temptations to perform certain acts that are harmful to themselves or to others. The disorders include pathological gambling, kleptomania, pyromania and intermittent explosive disorder.

Adjustment disorders

The primary feature of these disorders is dysfunctional response to a stressful event, such as divorce or business difficulties, that first occurs within three months after the onset of the stressful event.

(Source: APA (2000). DSM-IV-TR. Washington, DC: Author.)

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learnin g activit y 6. 5 review questions 1. What does the abbreviation DSM stand for? 2. What is the DSM used for? 3. List the seven kinds of information provided by the DSM-IV-TR about each mental illness. 4. (a) Suggest why it is important that only qualified mental health professionals use the DSM to diagnose a client s condition. (b) Suggest one or more ways in which the DSM could be misused by non-qualified individuals. Explain your answer.

staff they had been hearing voices. All of the pseudopatients (fake patients) were admitted to the hospitals and diagnosed as suffering from schizophrenia. From the moment they were admitted they behaved as they normally would and no longer faked the symptoms of schizophrenia. Their stay in the hospitals ranged from seven to 52 days. None of the medical staff identified them as pseudo-patients; however, some of the actual patients recognised them as frauds. When the pseudopatients were finally released, it was on the grounds that they were in remission . None of them was seen as being cured , suggesting that the symptoms could recur.

LABELLING SOMEONE WITH A MENTAL ILLNESS Labelling is a term sometimes used to describe the process of classifying and naming a mental illness following a diagnosis. Labelling can be useful. For example, it can help clinical psychologists (and psychiatrists) recognise and specifically describe a mental illness and assist them in identifying appropriate treatment, therapy or support. It is also helpful when mental health professionals communicate with one another about a client s mental health, to ensure a common understanding of what is being discussed. Similarly, labelling is useful when describing mental illnesses in journal articles, which are published to improve mental health professionals understanding of these illnesses. However, labelling patterns of thoughts, feelings and behaviour as a mental illness (or mental disorder) can also have a negative effect on the individual being labelled. It can influence how they think and feel about themself and the way in which they are viewed by others in the community. Labelling can create misunderstandings that may bias our perceptions of a person in terms of the way they do behave or may behave. Once a label has been given to a person, it may be there for life and consequently may affect the way that individual is treated by others. A classic study by American psychologist D. L. Rosenhan (1973) has been used by many psychologists to demonstrate some of the problems of labelling. Rosenhan and his colleagues set up a situation where eight people who had never experienced symptoms of any serious mental illness presented themselves to various psychiatric hospitals and told the medical 256

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Figure 6.7 A dormitory room in a psychiatric hospital like that visited by Rosenhan (1973). In recent times there has been a shift away from this type of accommodation. If a person needs hospital care for a mental illness, accommodation is often in a private room as part of a psychiatric unit in a public or private hospital.

Rosenhan concluded that medical staff, including psychologists, could not recognise normal behaviour and once a person was labelled as having a specific mental illness, all of their subsequent behaviour was interpreted as part of their illness. For example, while the pseudo-patients were in hospital, they openly made notes relating to Rosenhan s research study. However, the staff interpreted this activity as part of their schizophrenic behaviour. After Rosenhan s results were published, the hospital staff said that, in order for this to be a fair assessment, they should have been warned of the experiment. In a follow-up study, Rosenhan told staff at one hospital that in the next three months pseudo-patients

would present themselves to the hospital. The hospital staff were asked to identify which of their new patients were the pseudo-patients. In fact, no pseudo-patients were actually sent, yet one staff member was sure that 41 out of 193 patients were pseudo-patients. Rosenhan concluded that a system of diagnosing and labelling mental disorders that allowed these kinds of errors to occur was not a very reliable one. Not all psychologists agree with Rosenhan s conclusions. Many have also criticised his procedures. For example, when Rosenhan published his study Robert Spitzer (1976) argued that being able to lie and get admitted to a hospital is no proof that the system used to diagnose mental health problems does not work. He pointed out that hearing voices is a sign of serious psychological dysfunction and rightfully should not have been ignored just because the person then appeared normal . He also stated that the diagnosis of in remission is a rare one and shows that the staff did realise the pseudo-patients were not behaving completely as expected of a person labelled schizophrenic.

learning activity 6.6 evaluation of research rosenhan (1973) study Read the summary of the research on the problems of labelling conducted by Rosenhan (1973). Evaluate the research by answering the following questions. 1. What was the aim of the research? 2. Construct a possible hypothesis for this research. 3. What type of research method was used? 4. Who were the participants in the research? 5. Which current ethical standards and practices may have been breached by Rosenhan? Give a reason for each suggestion. 6. What do the research findings suggest about the effects of labelling someone with a mental illness? 7. Describe one criticism of Rosenhan s procedures. Do you think this is a reasonable criticism? Explain your answer. 8. Describe one advantage and one disadvantage of using a mental illness label.

BOX 6.3 What is insanity? The word insane was often used in the past to describe people who had a serious mental illness. This term was not used by psychologists or psychiatrists to describe a mental health problem but it was used by the legal profession. In legal matters, insanity describes the behaviour of someone who, at the time of committing a crime, was not in control of their behaviour, nor able to know the difference between right and wrong behaviour. In the Australian legal system, the term insane is no longer used. The term mental impairment is now used in legal matters to describe a person who has a mental illness or an intellectual disability (low level of intellectual functioning). The legal system argues that an individual who claims to have a mental impairment at the time of committing a crime is innocent because they were unaware that they were doing the wrong thing at the time of doing it. Clinical or forensic psychologists and psychiatrists are often called to give their professional opinion in court of the individual s behaviour. However, it is the judge and jury who decide whether the individual was mentally impaired at the time the crime was committed. If a person is found not guilty of committing a crime due to mental impairment, they do not necessarily go free. There are a range of consequences available to the judge. They can be given a custodial supervision order which involves spending a specified period of time in prison or in a secure psychiatric setting, such as the Thomas Embling hospital in Fairfield. They can also be given a non-custodial supervision order where they live in the community under certain conditions, such as seeing a psychologist for treatment on a weekly basis.

Figure 6.8 David Mark Robinson was found not guilty on the grounds of mental impairment after trying to hijack a Qantas jet in May 2003. Robinson, who was diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia, believed that he was on a mission from God to kill the devil when he attempted to take over the plane.

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LEARNING ACTIVITY 6.7 Media response — Far Side cartoon Consider the following cartoon showing someone diagnosing a client with a mental illness.

Figure 6.9

DISRUPTIONS TO NORMAL DEVELOPMENT Psychological development does not always follow a smooth course. When psychological development is seriously disrupted, mental health is often affected and a mental illness may result. This can occur in any stage of the lifespan. Some mental illnesses or disorders begin in infancy, others during childhood and still others have their onset during adolescence, adulthood or old age. Some mental illnesses are more prevalent in certain lifespan stages than in others; for example, dementia is more common during older age, but occasionally occurs during adulthood. Other mental illnesses may occur at any time across the lifespan. For example, anxiety disorders or depression can be experienced at any stage of the lifespan from childhood to older age. Furthermore, some mental illnesses have no cure and once acquired, the symptoms are experienced for the rest of the person’s life. For example, autism has its onset in infancy. Individuals with autism experience the difficulties associated with the disorder throughout their entire life into older age. Other mental illnesses may be experienced for short or long periods of time. For example, some individuals who experience depression may have only one episode of it during adulthood, then never again in their life. Other individuals may become depressed during adolescence and experience its symptoms either continuously or occasionally into older age. Whether someone will be affected by a mental illness depends on a combination of factors — their genetic make-up, environmental ‘triggers’ and their personal vulnerability. In the remainder of this chapter we consider some specific mental illnesses or disorders that either begin during, or are more commonly experienced in a particular stage of the lifespan.

Answer the following questions. 1. How accurately does the cartoon reflect diagnosis and classification of a mental illness by a mental health professional? 2. How do mental health professionals diagnose and classify a mental illness? 3. (a) What is meant by the term labelling? (b) How might labelling a person, as portrayed in the cartoon, affect: (i) how they feel about themselves? (ii) how they are treated by others? 4. What kind of message does this kind of cartoon send to the general community about people who seek help from mental health professionals?

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Autism Spectrum Disorder By the time James was 12 months of age his parents were aware that he was ‘different’ from other children of the same age. He made very few sounds and seldom communicated using his voice. His mother commented ‘he doesn’t seem to know us’. He didn’t interact with her in the same way her first child did and he seemed to have no connection with his older brother Sam. James seldom responded when Sam tried to play with him or make him giggle. He didn’t imitate the behaviour of others as children of his age usually do when they wave goodbye, ‘clap hands’ or ‘blow kisses’. James would often sit in the corner of a room and stare for long periods of time at the lights or the corner of the ceiling, or fiddle endlessly with a piece of cloth or scrunched up paper. He seemed

to be in a world of his own. His parents thought he might be deaf because he didn t seem to respond to his name. However, over time, they realised that James s lack of response to noise was selective because loud noises seemed to distress him. As James got older, he spent long periods of time playing alone with a few favourite objects, such as his Disney figurines. He would arrange them in neat lines, always in the same order. If anyone else attempted to rearrange them or direct his attention to something else, James would have a tantrum. He also became distressed whenever his mother was out of sight. Although her return would stop his tears, he made no attempts to gain her attention and would return to doing what he was previously. James had little interest in food and when he did eat, it was always the same foods. He had very poor sleep habits. He rarely slept during the day and was difficult to settle at night. James was eventually diagnosed with autism. Autism is one of the few mental disorders that begin in infancy. Its symptoms are generally very apparent by the time the child is three years of age. Autism is a disorder characterised by extreme unresponsiveness to others, poor communication skills and highly repetitive, routine type behaviours. Infants and children with autism have difficulty interacting with and communicating with others, and they have a limited range of behaviours, interests and activities. There is no specific test to diagnose autism. Mental health professionals use observations of the child and detailed parent interviews to establish an understanding of the child s behavioural characteristics. This profile is then compared with the DSM criteria in order for a diagnosis of autism to be made. The symptoms of autism fall into three main categories social interaction, communication and behaviour. Individuals with autism have difficulty with social interactions. They find it hard to form normal social relationships and often respond inappropriately in social situations. This is often first noticed in infancy. Most infants with autism do not develop strong attachments. They make very little eye contact with people and they generally do not respond by snuggling when they are held. In addition, autistic infants seldom seek comfort from a caregiver when they are distressed. As children they have difficulty making friends. They can often be seen alone in the school playground at playtime and lunchtime. Autistic children show little or no interest in others and often do not respond when someone calls their name. If they do respond in a social situation, their response is often inappropriate for the situation. Children with autism also have difficulty showing affection which may explain why they are often alone. They do not engage in imaginative or interactive play and have a

preference for a small range of toys or objects which they always use in the same way. Communication problems are very evident in individuals with autism. Autistic individuals either have no language or very limited language skills. If they do speak, individuals with autism use language in an unusual way; for example, they may use the word you to refer to themselves. The speech of autistic individuals is formal, mechanical and monotone; that is, there is no variation in their tone when they speak. Autistic individuals often display ecolalia, where they repeat back what someone else says, like an echo. Those individuals who can communicate often have difficulty having a conversation as they seem to have no understanding of the social rules of listening and then talking. Children with autism have a limited range of behaviours, which they tend to repeat. For example, they may spend long periods of time spinning around in a circle or rocking back and forth in the same spot. Some psychologists believe that autistic children continue this repetitive behaviour because it is comforting for them and has a calming effect on them. Autistic individuals also like routine and can spend long periods of time arranging and rearranging objects so they are in a straight line or a particular order. They have a strong need for sameness and become very distressed with change, such as if furniture is rearranged or if their regular teacher is away and they have a different teacher for the day. Individuals with autism become strongly attached to particular objects and some develop a preoccupation with their hands or fingers. Some individuals spend long periods of time intently watching their own hands and fingers as if mesmerised by their movements.

Figure 6.10 Some autistic children can spend long periods of time arranging and rearranging objects so they are in a straight line or a eBook plus particular order. Weblink

video on autistic behaviour

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table 6.2 Parental reports of the social behaviour of their autistic children before the age of six

Percentage of responses Behaviour

Never

Rarely

Often

Very often

Almost always

1. Ignored people

0

4

22

29

45

2. Emotionally distant

0

8

23

19

50

3. Avoided eye contact

2

4

20

16

58

4. No affection or interest when held

11

11

35

26

17

5. Going limp when held

30

33

17

17

2

6. Stiff/rigid when held

33

24

7

18

18

6

30

34

11

19

8. Withdrew from affection

12

33

29

10

15

9. Cuddling when held

26

24

29

10

15

10. Accept/return affection

30

34

26

4

6

11. Looked through people

4

10

22

22

41

12. Seemed not to need mother

12

20

32

8

28

13. Responsive smile to mother

14

30

30

14

12

14. Unaware of mother s absence

17

25

25

14

19

7. Ignored affection

Source: Adapted from Volkmar, F. R., Cohen, D. J. & Paul, R. (1986). An Evaluation of DSM-III Criteria for Infantile Autism. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 25, p. 193. Copyright 1986 by the American Academy of Child Psychiatry. Adapted by permission.

Most individuals with autism also have a low level of intellectual functioning. However, some autistic individuals have an exceptional ability in a very specific area; for example, in being able to tell you, within seconds, the day of the week of any date in any year, or memorising the order of the names in a section of the phone book, such as all the C names. Some autistic individuals have normal or above normal intelligence, but these individuals usually have a less severe kind of autism. Contemporary psychologists use the term Autism Spectrum Disorder in relation to autism. The word spectrum is used because of the wide range of individual differences in the experience of autism. No two people with autism are alike in the specific symptoms they experience and the severity of their symptoms. Autism Spectrum Disorder includes a range of different types of autistic disorders which vary in severity. For example, Asperger s Syndrome is one kind of autistic disorder. Generally, someone with Asperger s Syndrome has many of the symptoms of autism, but they do not have the same difficulty with language. Individuals with Asperger s Syndrome are also more likely to have normal or above normal intelligence. However, irrespective of the specific diagnosis, each individual diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder is delayed in their development, has significant difficulties participating in everyday life and 260

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requires sensitive understanding, specialist support and intervention (Autism Victoria, 2009). Researchers believe that the incidence of Autism Spectrum Disorder in the community is probably higher than research findings actually show. Although the majority of symptoms of autistic disorders are present during infancy, it is often only those infants with more severe symptoms who are diagnosed with the disorder at this early age. Many individuals are not identified as having an autistic disorder until childhood or adolescence when their behaviours are more obviously different from others their age. Thus, researchers predict that there are probably more individuals with an Autism Spectrum Disorder which is undiagnosed. Australian researcher John Wray (2007) conducted a three year longitudinal study on the incidence of autism in Australia. His research findings show that about one in 160 children (0.6%) between the ages of six and 12 years have an autistic disorder, with significantly more boys likely to be affected than girls. This is equivalent to more than 10 000 Australian children in that age group and about 125 000 Australian people of all ages. As yet, a specific cause of autism and autistic type disorders has not been identified. However, research evidence suggests that most people with an Autism Spectrum Disorder have some kind of brain dysfunction

whereby different parts of the brain don t communicate in a normal way. This may be the result of either a physical or chemical change in the developing brain, either before birth or in early infancy. Some researchers consider the cause of this brain dysfunction to be the result of the interaction of several genes involved in brain development. Other researchers have proposed that environmental factors primarily contribute to the onset of Autism Spectrum Disorder. For example, there is some research evidence that suggests contact with rubella (German measles) either before or after birth may be a factor in developing autism. To date, there is no known cure for Autism Spectrum Disorder. The majority of infants and children with Autism Spectrum Disorder remain affected by

the symptoms into adulthood and old age. However, different strategies can be used to treat some of the behaviours associated with Autism Spectrum Disorder. For example, one kind of behaviour therapy called behaviour modification can be used to help an autistic child develop communication and social skills. This involves consistently reinforcing the child whenever they behave in an appropriate way until they learn this way of behaving. For example, the parent of an autistic child might give the child something they like whenever the child makes eye contact with people, smiles at others or listens when others speak. Behaviour modification can also be used to manage or control inappropriate behaviour. For example, a child who regularly rocks back and forth or has tantrums may be

BOX 6.4 Autistic disorders in the movies The Australian movie The Black Balloon (2008) is a story of two teenage brothers, one of whom is severely autistic. Both movie critics and mental health professionals support the movie s realistic portrayal of the disorder. Elissa Down, who wrote and directed the movie, grew up with two autistic brothers.

Mozart and the Whale (2005) is a movie about a romance between two young adults who have a form of autism called Asperger s Syndrome. The movie is based on the book of the same title, which follows the relationship highs and lows of real-life couple Jerry and Mary Newport.

In Snow Cake (2006), Sigourney Weaver plays an independent autistic woman who helps a guilt-ridden stranger come to terms with his issues about love and death. Weaver s performance was praised by many in the autistic community as being a true portrayal of the disorder.

Other movies that highlight an autistic disorder include: • Adam (2009) • Mary and Max (2009) • Killer Diller (2004) • The Other Sister (1999) • I am Sam (1998) • Mercury Rising (1998) • Cube (1997) • Forrest Gump (1994) • What s Eating Gilbert Grape (1993) • House of Cards (1993). Source: Adapted from American Scientific Mind, April/May 2009, p. 69.

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reinforced when they do not behave in this way to try to increase the likelihood that they won t behave in this way in social situations. Children with an Autism Spectrum Disorder usually need a structured environment both at home and at school. For example, they need a predictable routine at home in relation to getting up in the morning, meal times and going to bed at night. Autistic children who have severe communication and/or intellectual disabilities may attend a school specifically for autistic children that provides specialised programs designed to meet their particular learning and behavioural needs. Children whose language problems and intellectual disabilities are less severe are likely to attend a regular school where they may receive additional assistance through an integration program. eBook plus Weblink

Autism Victoria

learning activity 6.1 0 Media response movies about autistic disorders Box 6.4 briefly describes movies that feature one or more characters with an autistic disorder. Watch one of these movies, or another which features an autistic disorder, and record your observations of how the disorder is portrayed. An observation checklist based on the one below should be used. As you record your observations, you should include specific examples of behaviours in each category. After you have watched the movie: • develop a profile of one (or more) of the characters depicted with an autistic disorder, based on the data in your observation checklist • comment on how accurately the autistic disorder is portrayed in the movie, with reference to the information in the text. table 6.3 Observation checklist

learnin g activit y 6. 8

Behaviour

review questions

Social interaction

1. (a) What is autism? (b) Why do mental health professionals prefer to use the term Autism Spectrum Disorder? 2. Describe the three broad categories of symptoms associated with autism with reference to an example. 3. Suggest why autism is difficult to diagnose in infancy. 4. What is the incidence of Autism Spectrum Disorder in Australian children? 5. Suggest a possible explanation of autism in terms of the interaction between heredity and environmental factors. 6. Give an example of how behavioural symptoms of autism may be treated to help an autistic child function more effectively in everyday life.

Character

Character

Character

Communication

Behaviour

learnin g activit y 6. 9 Data analysis social behaviour in autistic children Consider the data in table 6.2 on behaviours associated with autism and answer the following questions. 1. Describe the sample and the population from whom the data were obtained. 2. Which three behaviours were most frequently observed in autistic children? 3. Which three behaviours were least frequently observed in autistic children? 4 (a) With reference to the data, what are the most common symptoms of autism?

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(b) To what extent is there consistency between symptoms commonly reported by the research participants and those described in the text? 5. If the data were to be graphed, which type of graph would be most appropriate? Give a reason for your answer. 6. (a) Give two examples of behaviours for which parents may have experienced difficulties in making distinctions. (b) What does your answer to (a) above suggest about a possible limitation of the data? (c) Suggest another possible limitation of the data.

attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder (aDHD) Danny s mother cannot remember a time when her son was not doing something naughty . As a young child, he was very active. He was so active that one night when he was rocking in his cot he almost rocked his cot apart. Danny was often doing things he wasn t allowed to do, such as pulling bottles out of the medicine cupboard, playing with the detergents under the kitchen sink, or poking things into a power point. Danny s mother said he was clumsy and accident-prone as a child. He had more visits to the emergency department of the local hospital than his older brother and younger sister. He always seemed to be on the go . Danny s mother recalls that he progressed from crawling to running and seldom walked anywhere. He found it difficult to sit still to listen to a story and seldom watched a full 30 minute television program without losing interest part way through. Danny had difficulty managing his behaviour when he started school. It seemed he was always in trouble for doing something he shouldn t have been doing. He could not pay attention for longer than a few minutes and had difficulty following instructions. He was unable to stay sitting at his table working on a task for any length of time. When he did sit down he constantly jiggled his leg, tapped his pencil on the table, fidgeted with something, tickled the person next to him or just mucked around . Much of his class time was spent wandering around the room. He had difficulty learning new concepts and skills, and the gap between his learning and that of his peers was significant. He refused to follow directions from teachers and his constant back-chatting resulted in him being sent out of the classroom regularly. Danny also had difficulty making and keeping friends. He annoyed and frustrated his peers because he never followed the rules in games and often walked away halfway through. On one occasion, when he was playing in a football match at school, he tried to play virtually all the positions on the field himself. He was short tempered, swore at his teammates and he sulked when they didn t kick or handball to him or when free kicks were given against him. He would react in a similar way in the classroom when reprimanded by his teacher for misbehaving. Over time, his attitude to school became increasingly negative and his mother often had difficulty in getting him to go to school. Danny s behaviour at home was no different. His room was a mess. He did everything quickly and most tasks were only half done. He was often in trouble with his parents for not doing what had been asked of him. His father commented that while he often did the wrong thing, it seemed that he forgot what he was meant to be doing rather than deliberately trying to be naughty. After a referral from the school counsellor to a paediatric psychologist, eBook plus Danny was diagnosed with AttentionVideo on ADHD Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).

ADHD is the most commonly diagnosed childhood mental disorder. The symptoms of ADHD are sometimes evident during infancy. More often, though, the symptoms of ADHD become apparent during childhood, usually before seven years of age. However, many parents are aware by the time their child is four or five years old that there is something different about their behaviour. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a disorder characterised by inattention, and hyperactive and impulsive behaviour that is more frequent and severe than in other children of the same age. Inattention associated with ADHD means that the individual usually has difficulty concentrating and listening for longer than a few minutes. They are easily distracted and have difficulty sticking to the same task for very long. For example, during story time on the mat at kindergarten, a child with ADHD is likely to listen for the first few minutes. They may then start wriggling and turning around to see what the person behind is doing and start talking to them. They may then get up from the mat to play with the blocks for a few minutes, then move on to another activity. Inattentive children usually have difficulty completing tasks.

Figure 6.11 Children with ADHD are often inattentive and easily distracted.

Another symptom of ADHD is hyperactivity. Hyperactive children are very restless. They appear to have excessive energy and are always doing something. They have difficulty keeping still for an extended period C h a p t e r 6 Mental illness across the lifespan

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of time. If they are required to remain in one spot for a period of time, they seem to need to find a way to release some of their energy. For example, if sitting at a table at school, they will often fidget, tap their fingers or pencils, or be touching something. Hyperactive children are often considered chatterboxes at school. This may be another way of releasing their excess energy. The third symptom of ADHD is impulsivity. Impulsive children act before they think. They do not consider the consequences of their actions before doing them and they are often considered to be risk-takers. Children with ADHD are often unable to control the urge to blurt things out or wait their turn in a conversation, activity or game. Other people often interpret the behaviour of ADHD children as naughty. However, much of the behaviour of ADHD children is outside their control. They are unable to control their impulsive behaviour rather than making a deliberate choice to be naughty. The pattern of inattentiveness, hyperactivity and impulsiveness must be present for at least six months before a diagnosis of ADHD is given. Thus, a child who is very excited about their upcoming birthday party and who has difficulty concentrating, is loud and runs around the house knocking things over would not be considered to have ADHD simply on the basis of this one experience of uncontrolled behaviour. However, if this kind of behaviour continued, further investigation for ADHD may be considered. Despite the view of some people that children with ADHD will grow out of it , 75% of children with ADHD continue to experience these difficulties into adolescence and often adulthood (Weis & Hechtman, 1986). However, research findings indicate that not all of the symptoms of ADHD continue into adulthood. Specifically, hyperactivity is likely to decrease with age. One research study has also found that, over time, while concentration difficulties persist, the impulsivity diminishes (Hart & others, 1995). Another study found that young adults with ADHD were more likely than their peers without ADHD to have driving infringements such as car accidents and speeding (Barkley, Murphy & Kwasnik, 1996). Adults with ADHD are likely to experience difficulty with following directions, remembering information, organisational skills, and completing tasks within a time limit. Although the symptoms of ADHD may change over time, many of the difficulties still persist. The exact numbers of children with ADHD are not known as it is possible that there are many children with ADHD who have not been diagnosed. However, it has been estimated that about 7% of Australian children have ADHD (Royal Australasian College of Physicians, 2008). Other statistics suggest the incidence of ADHD is anywhere from 2.3% to 20% in school-aged 264

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children and adolescents (Parliament of Australia, 2004; NHMRC, 2003). The statistics do consistently report that about 90% of children who are diagnosed with ADHD are boys and 10% are girls (APA, 2000). However, the reason for the large gender difference is unknown. One explanation may be that adults are more tolerant of hyperactivity among girls, who tend to be less active than boys with ADHD. The cause(s) of ADHD is also unknown. However, there is general agreement among doctors and psychologists that ADHD has a neurological basis; that is, there is some kind of difference or change in the brain of children with ADHD. Research findings suggest that when the senses of children with ADHD are presented with information from the environment, their brain responds to it in a different way than that of children who do not have ADHD.

Figure 6.12 Brain scans of children with ADHD (left) differ from brain scans of children who do not have ADHD (right).

Both genetic and environmental factors are thought to play a part in ADHD. Research studies within families have shown that children whose parents or other close relatives have ADHD are four to five times more likely than others to develop the disorder (Albayrak & others, 2008; APA, 2000). Exposure to various environmental factors both before and after birth have also been associated with an increased likelihood of developing ADHD. For example, while in utero, risk factors include exposure to nicotine, alcohol, rubella (German measles), maternal stress, or toxins such as lead and mercury. Like autism, ADHD has no cure, but the symptoms can be managed. There are two main kinds of treatment available to help people with ADHD manage their symptoms medication and various behaviour therapies. Typically the goal of medication is to reduce the ADHD symptoms children experience. In about 70%

of children, medication improves attention span and as a result, school performance also often improves. The medication can also control impulsive and hyperactive behaviour which improves the child s social relationships. Improved relationships with others give the child more confidence and boosts their self-esteem. However, the medication can have unpleasant side-effects, such as insomnia (sleeplessness), drowsiness and irritability. To avoid the side-effects some parents choose not to use the medication with their children. Behaviour therapies are often used to assist the ADHD child to control some of their difficult behaviour. Behaviour therapies include social skills training and behaviour modification programs. Social skills training might incorporate learning specifically how to share, cooperate and negotiate with peers, which assists the child to experience more positive peer relationships. Behaviour modification programs are also used to assist the child to learn to control some of their impulsive and hyperactive urges themselves. For children with ADHD, behaviours such as staying in their seat in class, not calling out in class or completing a homework task may be the desirable behaviours that are rewarded. Training parents and teachers in how to manage inappropriate behaviour of ADHD children is another important aspect of assisting the ADHD child. table 6.4 Frequency of symptoms in ADHD and non-ADHD adolescents

ADHD, %

NonADHD, %

Fidgets

73.2

10.6

Difficulty remaining seated

60.2

3.0

Easily distracted

82.1

15.2

Difficulty waiting turn

48.0

4.5

Blurts out answers

65.0

10.6

Difficulty following instructions

83.7

12.1

Difficulty sustaining attention

79.7

16.7

Shifts from one uncompleted task to another

77.2

16.7

Difficulty playing quietly

39.8

7.6

Talks excessively

43.9

6.1

Interrupts others

65.9

10.6

Doesn t seem to listen

80.5

15.2

Loses things needed for tasks

62.6

12.1

Engages in physically dangerous activities

37.4

3.0

Symptom

Children with ADHD generally attend regular schools. They sometimes have a special program to help manage their behaviour and they may receive additional support from a teacher aide, particularly if their hyperactivity and impulsivity are difficult to contain. Despite their disorder, most ADHD children, adolescents and adults lead productive and generally happy lives.

learning activity 6.1 1 review questions 1. What is Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)? 2. Describe the three broad categories of symptoms of ADHD. Give an example of each. 3. Suggest a reason to explain why ADHD is often not diagnosed until a child starts kindergarten or school. 4. What is the incidence of ADHD in Australia? 5. Do children grow out of ADHD? Explain your answer with reference to research findings. 6. Explain what is meant by the phrase ADHD has a neurological basis . 7. What are other possible explanations for ADHD? 8. Describe two ways in which ADHD may be treated. eBook plus Weblink

ADHD Coalition of Australia

learning activity 6.1 2 Data analysis frequency of symptoms in aDHD and non-aDHD adolescents Consider the data in table 6.4 on the frequency of symptoms in ADHD and non-ADHD adolescents and answer the following questions. 1. (a) Which three behaviours were most frequently observed in ADHD adolescents? (b) Which three behaviours were most frequently observed in non-ADHD adolescents? 2. Which three behaviours were least frequently observed in ADHD adolescents? 3. (a) Use your answers to question 1 (a) and (b) to write a definition of ADHD. (b) Compare and contrast this definition with the one given in the text. 4. If the data were to be graphed, which type of graph would be most appropriate? Give a reason for your answer. 5. Why is it important to include data from non-ADHD adolescents? Explain your answer with reference to the data.

Source: Adapted from Barkley, Du Paul & McMurray (1990).

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learning a ctivity 6.13 Oral presentation

aDHD

Imagine you are a teacher. Your year 7 home group is about to get a new class member who has ADHD. The student with ADHD and their parents have requested that you inform all the year 7 teachers of the class that the new student has ADHD. They want the teachers to understand why the student s behaviour may differ from that of the other students in the class. Using two or more data types still or moving images, written text or sound prepare a presentation that you could give to the teachers of the year 7 class about ADHD and how they might support the new student.

eating disorders Chloe was 14 when she started dieting for the first time. Chloe wasn t overweight, but believed she wasn t as thin as some of her friends. At about the same time she began dieting, her family was going through a difficult time. Dieting was the one thing over which Chloe felt she had some control. When Chloe lost weight, she received compliments from her friends which made her feel good about herself and encouraged her to keep dieting. Some of her friends were dieting too, so they would encourage each other to skip meals. Chloe felt a real connection with her dieting friends . To maintain this connection, Chloe felt she needed to keep dieting. No-one at home seemed to notice how fussy she was with food. Chloe felt her mother didn t pay her much attention most of the time, but she definitely noticed when I lost weight , Chloe said. Chloe wanted her mother to say she looked good. She felt losing weight was the only way this would happen. One day Chloe was out with her boyfriend when an attractive girl walked past. Chloe noticed him look at the girl. Chloe thought the girl was really attractive and she started to think about all the qualities the girl had that she didn t. She made an excuse to go home. When she got home, Chloe locked herself in the bathroom and cried until she made herself vomit. She made the decision to try to lose more weight so she would look more attractive. She convinced herself that if she was thinner, her boyfriend wouldn t look at other girls. Chloe s view about how fat she was, was reinforced when she read the latest fashion magazines. Whenever she looked at the celebrities in the magazines, Chloe felt fatter and uglier than ever. She desperately wanted to look like them. These events reinforced in her mind that she had to continue with her diet and lose a bit more weight. Chloe told herself that she would be happy with her body and others would like her if she lost another five kilograms. Chloe s weight loss was gradual at first. After a couple of months, most people who knew Chloe noticed how thin she 266

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had become. Her PE teacher was concerned not only about her weight loss, but also about her lack of energy and stamina. She had always been a strong distance runner, but now was struggling to run 200 metres. Chloe s PE teacher requested a meeting with Chloe and her mother. At the meeting, Chloe admitted that she was exercising strenuously twice a day and that she had stopped menstruating. Chloe also said she had restricted her food intake considerably and was now finding it very difficult to eat. A referral to her GP, and subsequently a clinical psychologist and dietician, confirmed that Chloe had an eating disorder. Eating disorders are more common in adolescence than in other stages of the lifespan. While some children show symptoms of an eating disorder, and some adults can develop an eating disorder, it is during adolescence that eating disorders most often develop. An eating disorder is a general term used to describe any disorder involving a severe disturbance in eating behaviour. For example, there are two different types of eating disorders and, depending on the disorder, an individual may severely restrict the amount and type of food they eat, or they may consume huge amounts of food in a short period of time. According to the DSM-IV-TR, a diagnosis of an eating disorder means that the person s eating behaviour is no longer within their control and it causes a significant change in their psychological, social and physiological functioning. The two most common eating disorders are called anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa (see box 6.5). We consider anorexia nervosa. Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder that involves the persistent refusal to maintain body weight at or above a normal level, intense fear of weight gain, a distorted perception of body image (how their body looks), the absence of menstruation (in females) and extreme concern with body shape and weight. An individual with anorexia nervosa generally believes that the normal weight range for people their age and gender is too high for them. They often set themselves a target weight which is usually considerably below the appropriate weight prescribed by the medical profession. Anorexics use various means to lose weight and are often fearful of putting weight on once they have lost it. While one of the main symptoms of anorexia is lack of food consumption, this generally doesn t mean lack of interest in food. Most anorexics are very focused on food and many talk more about food than any other topic. They often spend considerable time counting kilojoules and thinking of ways to ensure their kilojoule intake is kept to a minimum. Many anorexics exercise excessively to burn more kilojoules. With a reduced kilojoule intake and/or excessive kilojoule output there is a significant

loss of weight. According to the DSM-IV-TR, someone cannot be diagnosed as anorexic unless they weigh at least 15% less than the prescribed minimum normal weight for their height and age.

Figure 6.13 One of the criteria for a diagnosis of anorexia nervosa is weighing at least 15% less than the prescribed minimum normal weight for their height and age.

Anorexics also think in distorted ways. They have a different perception of their body shape and size compared with the view others have of them. They consider themselves bigger and heavier than they actually are. Many have low self-esteem and consider themselves unattractive (Gupta & Johnson, 2000). The distorted thinking of anorexics is also evident in the expectations they have of themselves. Attitudes commonly expressed by individuals with anorexia include, I must be perfect in every way , or I will become a better person if I deprive myself of things that I love . Another symptom of anorexia nervosa is loss of menstruation in females. According to the DSM-IV-TR, a female is not considered to have anorexia if they are still menstruating, even if they have all of the other symptoms. Research studies have shown that a certain percentage of body fat is required for the body to maintain proper hormonal functioning. If the percentage of body fat falls below this level, hormone production changes and menstruation ceases. When weight increases and the minimum level of body fat is regained, menstruation will resume. If a girl develops anorexia before puberty, the onset of menstruation will be delayed.

Anorexics are also very focused on their body shape and weight. If they think they have eaten too much, they will do all kinds of things to get rid of the kilojoules, such as exercising more, making themselves vomit or taking laxatives. Starving the body of nutrition can cause a range of medical problems for individuals with anorexia nervosa. Some of these problems include lowered body temperature which results in them feeling cold even when the air temperature is high; reduced bone density making bones more fragile and more likely to break; hair loss from the scalp; growth of fine hair over the body and face; and other chemical changes in the body that can lead to heart failure or the collapse of the circulatory system. Accurate data on the incidence of anorexia nervosa is difficult to obtain. Anorexia is a disorder that can be present for a long time without being diagnosed, especially if the symptoms are moderate and/or have not been noticed by others. However, it is estimated that, in Australia, about 1% of adolescent girls develop anorexia, though some studies suggest this figure may be higher (Eating Disorders Foundation Victoria, 2009). Among adolescent girls, anorexia is the third most common chronic (ongoing) illness after obesity and asthma (EDFV, 2009). However, anorexia is not confined to girls. The number of boys being diagnosed with anorexia has increased in recent years. Of all adolescents diagnosed with anorexia, one in 10 is male and nine in 10 are female. Among children, one in four diagnosed with anorexia is male. There is no single cause of anorexia nervosa. Psychologists believe there are several key factors that put an individual at risk of developing anorexia. The more of these factors that are present, the greater the likelihood that an individual will develop the disorder (Lask, 2000). The risk factors for anorexia can be divided into three main groups biological factors, psychological factors and socio-cultural factors. Biological influences on the onset or development of anorexia include genetic factors and brain functioning. Research studies suggest that genes are likely to play a role in determining an individual s susceptibility to anorexia. In one study, researchers found that relatives of people with anorexia were up to six times more likely than non-relatives to develop the disorder (Stroeber & others, 2000). Genes may put certain individuals at risk of developing an eating disorder by contributing to abnormalities in hormone levels and an imbalance in brain chemicals (Kaye & others, 2000). Furthermore, genes may also play a role in the development of certain personality characteristics that predispose individuals to an eating disorder. C h a p t e r 6 Mental illness across the lifespan

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Psychological factors that may contribute to anorexia include having high personal expectations, low self-esteem, a high need for approval from others, perfectionist tendencies, feelings of lack of control in some aspects of one s life and difficulty in expressing needs. In addition, anorexics are also more likely to be anxious in social situations and have difficulty asserting themselves. Many experience bouts of depression and anxiety. While not all anorexics have all of these symptoms or characteristics, many have some of them. Socio-cultural factors also play a role in the development of anorexia. Socio-cultural factors associated with anorexia include family background, cultural background, and images of attractive physical appearance and size promoted in the media. Individuals with anorexia have all types of family backgrounds and experiences. While there is no typical family profile for anorexia, there is some evidence that certain family environments may contribute to the onset of anorexia or its severity. These include overly controlling parents; how the family deals with feelings; the family s values, particularly the importance placed on appearance within the family; communication between family members; emotional connections between family members; parents own body image and eating behaviour; and whether there has been abuse within a family.

Figure 6.14 The incidence of anorexia is higher in cultures where appearance is considered important and where attractiveness is promoted by the media in terms of being slim and having perfect features.

Cultural background may also influence the onset and severity of anorexia. For example, anorexia tends to be more common in cultures where appearance is considered important and beauty is defined in terms of being slim for women and muscular for men. The use of slim female models with clear skin and athletic 268

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tanned males in the media can create an expectation that, in order to be attractive, appealing to others, successful and therefore happy, we need to look like these role models . For a vulnerable person who feels that they don t compare favourably to the images portrayed in the media, these constant messages can negatively impact on their self-esteem and influence them to try to change how they look so they too can be attractive and appealing to others, successful and ultimately happy . Eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa are very serious. About 50% of individuals who have anorexia recover completely. Of the remaining 50%, about 20% continue to experience issues with food for the rest of their lives and about 20% die in the longer term due to either medical or psychological complications of the disorder. The earlier treatment is started, the better the chance of recovery. The kind of treatment used depends on the severity of the individual s condition. When an individual s weight loss is extreme, vital organ function such as kidneys, liver, heart and lungs can be impaired. In this potentially life-threatening situation, the individual is hospitalised and they may be fed intravenously (through a tube) until their body is no longer malnourished. They are usually required to remain in hospital until they reach a target body weight determined by their doctor. The vast majority of people with anorexia are treated as outpatients. Treatment of anorexia generally involves several health professionals working together, each focusing on a different aspect of the illness; for example, a psychiatrist and/or a clinical psychologist and a dietitian. The treatment plan for an individual depends on a number of factors such as how long the person has had the illness, how severe it is, how ready they are to try to change their eating behaviour, family support and their age. The most successful treatment deals with both the physical and the psychological aspects of the eating disorder and may include combinations of medical treatment, psychological therapies and nutritional counselling. Many physical health problems arise from an eating disorder, most of which are overcome once eating returns to a normal level. However, during the illness, a range of medical treatments are often required. Medications are sometimes prescribed, one of which might be an anti-depressant. This has the dual purpose of improving a person s mood and may also help to stabilise their weight through the recovery process. Mental health professionals use one or a combination of psychological therapies depending on the personality and needs of their client. One kind of psychological therapy, called cognitive behavioural therapy

(CBT), focuses on the connection between thoughts and feelings. The goal of CBT is to change how the individual feels by changing the way they think about their circumstances and/or themself (see box 6.6). Other kinds of psychological therapies may also be used to help the individual deal with issues that may be relevant to their anorexic condition. Working with the family of an individual who has an eating disorder is another important aspect of the person s recovery. This is often done with family

therapy. Family therapy involves sessions with various combinations of the individual s immediate family, such as parents, siblings or partners. The family unit is supported by a mental health professional to deal with the concerns of each family member about the wellbeing of the individual with anorexia. Family therapy also helps families deal with any conflict or tension between family members, communication problems or difficulties in expressing feelings within the family (EDFV, 2004).

BOX 6.5 Bulimia nervosa Although people with anorexia nervosa may occasionally binge eat, repeated binge eating is called bulimia nervosa. In many cases of bulimia, binge eating occurs at least once per day, usually in the evening. Recent Australian research findings indicate that about 5% of Australian women (mostly young adult women) will be affected by bulimia at some time in their lives. About 95% of bulimics are women and about 5% men (EDFV, 2009). The main symptoms of bulimia nervosa are: • recurrent episodes of binge eating (rapid consumption of a large amount of food in a set period of time) • a feeling of lack of control over eating behaviour during the eating binges • self-induced vomiting • use of laxatives or diuretics (to empty the bowel or bladder) • strict dieting or fasting • vigorous exercise in order to prevent weight gain

• persistent overconcern with body shape and weight. Unlike anorexics who can be skeletally thin, bulimics tend to maintain a normal body weight. However, the repeated bingeing and purging of the body by vomiting and using laxatives or diuretics can have serious physiological effects. Both the vomiting and use of laxatives can disrupt the balance of the electrolyte potassium in the body, with dehydration and heart failure as possible results. Urinary infections and kidney failure can also occur, as well as epileptic seizures. Some of the less serious effects include sore throat and swollen glands caused by repeated vomiting. The vomitus is acidic and it eats away at the enamel of the teeth, making bulimics prone to tooth decay. Bulimics have an additional problem in that they have significantly lower metabolic rates than non-bulimics thus making it easier to gain weight. It is not yet known what is responsible for the lower metabolic rate, but it may be due to the bingeing and then purging.

BOX 6.6 Cognitive behaviour therapy Of the many different therapeutic approaches available, the cognitive therapies have become the most widely used by clinical and counselling psychologists. One type of cognitive therapy is called cognitive behaviour therapy. Cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) is based on the idea that emotional or behavioural problems result from unrealistic or irrational thinking about oneself, others and situations. With CBT, the assumption is that the way we think about any event or situation affects how we feel about it and this, in turn, affects our behaviour. For example, if you get an assignment back that contains a number of criticisms and is accompanied by a low mark, you may think, I am so dumb, I am hopeless. I will never be able to do well in this subject . This, in turn, may lead to a feeling of helplessness or worthlessness in that subject and may result in you not trying to do well in the future. According to the principles of CBT, you can change the way you feel by thinking about a situation in a more positive

and optimistic way. For example, instead of thinking, I am dumb, I am hopeless, I will never do well in this subject , when you next get low marks for an assignment for which you made a big effort, change your thinking to, This was a difficult task, I know I can do better next time. Just because I haven t done well on one assignment doesn t mean I have failed this subject or that I can t do well in the future . According to cognitive behaviour therapists, thinking in this manner may still result in feeling disappointed, but it is less likely to lead to feeling depressed and may result in trying harder in the future. CBT is considered to be a particularly useful therapeutic technique in the treatment of anxiety related disorders, eating disorders and depression. During CBT, the mental health professional challenges any of their client s thinking patterns that may lead to unhelpful feelings. This is done through discussion during therapy sessions. The client is (continued)

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taught to identify irrational thoughts and how to replace these with more realistic and rational thinking. To practise this skill, clients are also often required to keep a daily journal where they record what they think, how they feel and the behaviour associated with these thoughts and feelings. During CBT, clients also learn that their happiness and emotional wellbeing are things over which they have control. It is not the bad event or experience that causes their negative feelings, but their negative interpretation of the event and their thoughts about themselves, the world and their future (Beck & others 1979). For example, a person with an anxiety disorder who hears a news report that a semitrailer has crashed into their neighbour s house may start to worry excessively that this will happen to them and that their whole family will be killed. Through CBT, these exaggerated and irrational thoughts are challenged and replaced by more helpful realistic thoughts, such as this was an accident and the likelihood of it happening to my house and family is remote . Encouraging people to change their self-talk is an effective way to change their thinking. Have you ever felt anxious before an important exam? Has your anxiety also been associated with negative thoughts, such as, This exam is going to be so hard. I know I am going to fail. Everyone else looks confident and relaxed. I wish I were better prepared. I m so nervous, I know I will forget everything . To change this negative pattern of thinking, psychologist Donald Meichenbaum (1997) suggests you do some stress inoculation training . The training involves learning how to reframe your thinking by replacing the negative thinking with more realistic thoughts, like, Relax. The exam may be hard, but everyone else will find it difficult too. I have prepared for the exam and I do know this work. I don t need a perfect score to obtain a good result . You might try this technique next time you find yourself thinking and feeling negatively. ou

ent

I am so dumb. I am hopeless. I will never be able to do well in this subject.

Receiving a low mark on an assignment

Figure 6.15 Using CBT, negative thoughts and feelings can be turned into more positive and optimistic thoughts and feelings.

270

ts

ou

ts

This was a difficult task. I know I can do better next time, one bad result doesn t mean I have failed the subject.

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

learning activity 6.1 4 review questions 1. (a) How is an eating disorder defined? (b) Eating disorders are described as being both psychological and physiological. Explain what this means. 2. What are five key symptoms of anorexia nervosa? 3. (a) What is the incidence of anorexia in Australian adolescent girls? (b) What is the gender difference in incidence of anorexia: (i) in adolescence? (ii) in childhood? 4. Construct a table in which you summarise the possible causes of anorexia in point form in three categories: biological, psychological and socio-cultural. 5. Briefly describe two of the approaches to treating anorexia. 6. Read box 6.5 and write two key points that distinguish anorexia nervosa from bulimia nervosa.

learning activity 6.1 5 visual presentation nature and incidence of anorexia nervosa Use a flow chart, concept map or another diagram to summarise the causes, nature and possible treatment strategies for anorexia nervosa.

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eating disorder support

Fee in s

e a iour

Anxious, worthless

Give up, make no effort on work for this subject in the future

Fee in s

e a iour

Disappointed, but not devastated. More optimistic

Try harder in this subject in the future

anxiety disorders Twenty-eight-year-old Cassandra has been worried about her health, her job and her marriage. She has always worried about things, but over the past eight months she has worried excessively and become more nervous and tense. This heightened anxiety began after an argument with a team member at work who she believed to be taking credit for her work. Since the argument, Cassandra has been unable to stand up to this person. She worries constantly about the quality of her work and that if she makes a mistake she will lose her job. She has begun to lie awake at night, preoccupied with thoughts about how to deal with her difficult work colleague, what the future holds for her, how she will ever get another job if she is sacked, and whether her husband is faithful. Cassandra has visited her doctor a number of times in the past eight months for various problems including severe stomach cramps, diarrhoea, chest pain and shortness of breath, which she felt sure were signs of a serious physical illness. The doctor has repeatedly assured Cassandra that she does not have any major physical illness. Cassandra was eventually diagnosed with an anxiety disorder. Anxiety is a state of emotional arousal associated with feelings of apprehension, worry or uneasiness that something is wrong or something bad is about to happen. Anxiety has three basic components: 1. feelings of tension, apprehension, dread and an expectation of not being able to cope 2. behavioural responses such as avoidance of a feared situation, impaired speech and movements, and difficulty completing complex tasks requiring mental effort 3. physiological responses including muscle tension, increased heart rate and blood pressure, rapid breathing, dry mouth, nausea, diarrhoea and dizziness. Anxiety is a normal part of our lives. All people feel anxious from time to time and in moderate degrees. In everyday life, anxiety is an adaptive response. Mild to

moderate levels of anxiety improve our ability to cope, our reactions can become faster, our understanding better and our responses more appropriate. In fact, it is anxiety that can prompt us to have a medical checkup, to study for an exam, to slow down when running on a slippery surface and to avoid other dangerous situations. It is normal to be aroused, tense and anxious before important events, but the anxiety should not become so severe that it impairs performance. High levels of anxiety can reduce our capacity to plan, to make accurate judgements, to carry out skilled tasks, or even to understand information. While most people feel anxious sometimes, some people feel anxious most of the time. For these people, anxiety is not an adaptive response. It is a source of extreme distress and can indicate an anxiety disorder. Anxiety disorders are the most frequently experienced and diagnosed of all the mental disorders. Anxiety disorders are characterised by chronic ( persistent ) feelings of tension, distress, nervousness and apprehension or fear about the future, with a negative effect. They most commonly occur in adulthood but can affect people in any stage of the lifespan. They are very rare in infancy. Anxiety disorders are not so severe that individuals lose touch with reality or behave in socially unacceptable ways. However, they do interfere with an individual s ability to function normally in everyday life. The DSM describes five main kinds of anxiety disorder generalised anxiety disorder, panic disorder, phobias, obsessive compulsive disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder (see box 6.7). Overall, 2.5 million individuals, or about 14.4% of the population, have experienced an anxiety disorder (ABS, 2007). As shown in figure 6.16, anxiety disorders are more common in adulthood than in other stages. The incidence of anxiety disorders is fairly consistent from adolescence through the mid-fifties, but drops markedly after that into old age.

20

Percenta e

15

10

5 0 16 24

25 34

35 44

45 54 e rou ( ears)

55 64

65 74

75 85

Figure 6.16 The incidence of anxiety disorders in the previous 12-month period by age group (ABS, 2007) C h a p t e r 6 Mental illness across the lifespan

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Furthermore, anxiety disorders are more frequently experienced by females than males. In the 2007 ABS survey, 32% of females indicated they had experienced an anxiety disorder at some time in their life compared with 20% of males.

causes of anxiety disorders Some anxiety disorders can be linked to a single event. For example, a specific phobia involving spiders may be traced back to a distressing experience with a spider at some previous time. Similarly, a post-traumatic stress disorder may be closely linked to an intensely distressing event that was harmful or life-threatening (see box 6.8). However, it is also possible that two individuals may experience either of these events and one subsequently develops an anxiety disorder while the other does not. This indicates that the development or onset of anxiety disorders is not simply explained by one event or factor alone. Generally, psychologists believe that, in most cases of anxiety disorder, a number of factors combine in influencing onset. These include biological and psychological factors. For example, there is research evidence that biological factors such as brain chemistry or the presence of certain genes may create a predisposition to developing an anxiety disorder (Plomin & others, 1997). There is also considerable research evidence that psychological factors such as childhood experiences, learning processes and how we interpret specific events can influence the development of an anxiety disorder (Beck, 1977; William & others, 1997). Certain personality traits have also been found to be more common among people with anxiety disorders.

For example, individuals who are more neurotic than others are more likely to have an anxiety disorder. People who are highly neurotic tend to be withdrawn, self-conscious, insecure, jittery and pessimistic and to more easily experience guilt feelings (Eysenck, 1990). The main forms of treatment for anxiety disorders involve various kinds of behaviour therapy and medication. Cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) is most frequently used. CBT aims to change the irrational and unrealistic beliefs, attitudes and expectations people often have in relation to their worries and fears by changing their negative, maladaptive thoughts into more rational thought (see box 6.6). CBT can provide the person with a different way of thinking about events in their life and enables them to take greater control over their feelings and behaviour, and feel less anxious. Relaxation and controlled breathing skills are also often taught to people with an anxiety disorder as a way of keeping their anxiety under control. Anti-anxiety medications are commonly prescribed by GPs or psychiatrists for people with an anxiety disorder to help treat the symptoms. They can be effective in reducing the physiological effects of the disorder; however, they can have side effects including impaired cognitive functioning, drowsiness and lethargy (lack of energy). With prolonged use, this medication can become physically and psychologically addictive. When medication is stopped, the original symptoms often return. Therefore psychiatrists often combine medication with CBT in the treatment of anxiety disorders (Anxiety Disorders Association of Victoria, 2009).

BOX 6.7 Types of anxiety disorders Type

Description

Generalised anxiety disorder

The individual worries constantly and excessively about the possibility of everyday, real-life problems occurring, such as being late for an appointment.

Panic disorder

The individual has recurring, unexpected attacks of anxiety (panic attacks) in situations when most people would not be afraid, such as when shopping in a large shopping complex.

Phobia

The individual has an excessive, persistent and unreasonable fear of a particular object, activity or situation, such as a fear of spiders, dentists or water.

Obsessive compulsive disorder

The individual has recurring, unwanted thoughts that produce anxiety, and a need to perform repetitive and rigid actions to reduce their anxiety. The repetitive behaviours, such as excessive handwashing, often interfere with their everyday functioning.

Post-traumatic stress disorder

The individual s anxiety and fear are linked to a traumatic event and continue to be experienced long after the event.

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list of phobias; fear of flying

BOX 6.8 Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Twenty-seven-year-old Jeremy and his family lost their house in a bushfire. While Jeremy, his partner and their two-month-old daughter escaped without injury, their elderly neighbour was killed. Six months later, Jeremy is finding it difficult to stop thinking about the fire. He has trouble sleeping, and what sleep he does get is interrupted by dreams about being trapped in the fire and escaping only at the very last minute. In these dreams, Jeremy sees himself back in the burning house and hears the screams and crying of his partner and daughter. Then he sees Elsie, the nextdoor neighbour, running out of her house with her clothes on fire. This is usually when he wakes up, sweating profusely and unable to get back to sleep for the rest of the night. It feels as if the trauma is happening all over again. Other incidents in everyday life also trigger these memories for Jeremy, such as the sound of fire engines and seeing fires on TV news reports. He experiences feelings of helplessness, feels powerless and can t concentrate for any length of time, which is interfering considerably with his work. His partner says that since the fire, Jeremy has become withdrawn and distant towards her. Traumatic and tragic events occur almost every day. Feelings of fear, sadness, guilt and anger are common reactions to trauma and part of the normal human response. For some people, the difficulties they experience associated with the traumatic event are short-lived, but for others they persist and may even become more pronounced over time. This is called post-traumatic stress disorder. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a severe psychological reaction, lasting at least one month, to an intensely traumatic event that was harmful or life-threatening either to the person or to others. These events include assault, rape, armed robbery, natural disasters such as bushfires, floods, accidents, war or terrorism. In some cases, the symptoms will appear immediately after the event; in other cases, they may not appear until several months later. Often, the symptoms can linger for years. The DSM-IV-TR describes three main groups of symptoms associated with PTSD intrusive symptoms, avoidance symptoms and hyperarousal symptoms. Intrusive symptoms involve continual unwanted entry of the traumatic event into the thoughts of the PTSD sufferer, as they relive the traumatic event in their mind. These symptoms include: • distressing memories of the event • distressing dreams of the event • acting or feeling as if the traumatic event were actually happening again • intense psychological distress when reminded of the event • physiological reactions such as sweating and heart racing when reminded of the event.

Figure 6.17 Survivors of traumatic events such as bushfires may experience PTSD associated with the event.

Avoidance and numbing symptoms involve attempts to block out unpleasant memories and feelings associated with the trauma. These symptoms include: • efforts to avoid thoughts, feelings or conversations associated with the traumatic event • efforts to avoid activities, places or people which arouse recollections of the traumatic event • inability to recall an important aspect of the traumatic event • markedly diminished interest or participation in significant activities or relationships with others • a restricted range of emotional responsiveness; for example, unable to feel love. Severe trauma can also result in the feeling of being constantly in danger. People with PTSD are likely to feel jumpy and always on guard . These types of symptoms are called hyperarousal symptoms. They include: • difficulty falling or staying asleep • irritability or outbursts of anger • difficulty concentrating • hypervigilance (always on the lookout) for signs of danger. Typically, individuals with PTSD have at least one or more symptoms from each category. PTSD is often accompanied by a range of other physical and psychological problems, including feelings of panic, depression and abuse of alcohol or other drugs in an attempt to self-medicate and dull the painful memories. Post-traumatic stress disorder is experienced by about 6.4% of the Australian population, with females (8.3%) more likely than males (4.6%) to have PTSD (ABS, 2007).

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BOX 6.9 Five simple habits that defeat anxiety If you experience occasional bouts of anxiety that impair your functioning, consider the following habits you could develop to help overcome your anxiety. (1) Acknowledge your anxiety It is helpful to acknowledge your anxious feelings and share how you re feeling with a trusted person. Talk to your school counsellor or a doctor, or go to an online support group and talk with others about what you re going through. When you acknowledge your anxious feelings, you take an important step toward dealing with the problem. (2) Learn strategies to immediately deal with anxiety symptoms Learn strategies to deal with symptoms of anxiety such as the slow breathing technique (see eBook) or other relaxation strategies. There are many website and self-help books that teach people how to reduce anxiety symptoms easily and effectively. (3) Use positive language Research shows that the words you use can have a powerful effect on how you feel. Most anxiety sufferers use negative words that destroy their self-esteem and promote a sense of loss of control; for example: can t, always, never and should. The use of negative words perpetuates anxiety. They result in more anxious thoughts and physical symptoms.

Replace negative words with positive ones. Positive words promote your feelings of self-worth and being in control. When you use positive language, the statement: I can t control my anxiety becomes I can control my anxiety, and I m learning skills to manage it. The statement: Why do I always feel so anxious? becomes I often feel anxious, but not all of the time. The statement: I can t be late for school becomes I may be late for school. It s unfortunate, but it s OK. (4) Set small, achievable goals Anxiety sufferers tend to set unrealistically high expectations for themselves. To counteract this tendency, set goals that you can easily achieve. This builds your confidence and your sense of accomplishment. (5) Work on the problem NOW Realise that your anxiety and fear will not go away until you start working on it. The perfect time to deal with your anxiety is right now . . . this moment. You do not need to feel symptom-free or confident or energetic to begin. All you need to do is take the first step. There are many resources available to help overcome anxiety; for example, books, courses, doctors, counsellors and support groups. (Source: Adapted from Repich, D. (2004). Six simple habits that defeat anxiety. Retrieved June 2004 from www.conqueranxiety.com.)

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Anxiety Disorders Association of Victoria

learning a ctivity 6.16

learning activity 6.1 7

review questions

Oral presentation disorders

1. (a) Explain the meaning of the term anxiety. (b) Give an example of when anxiety may be beneficial. (c) Give an example of when anxiety may be potentially harmful. 2. (a) What is an anxiety disorder? (b) In what way is the anxiety experienced as a normal part of everyday life different from the experience of anxiety that characterises an anxiety disorder? 3. (a) What percentage of the Australian population report having experienced an anxiety disorder at some stage in their lives? (b) What sex and/or age differences are there in the reported incidence of anxiety disorders? Give a possible explanation of these data.

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Select one of the following anxiety disorders to research phobia, panic disorder, generalised anxiety disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder. Prepare a brochure or PowerPoint presentation in which you outline the: 1. nature of the anxiety disorder 2. incidence of the anxiety disorder in Australia and by gender 3. one treatment method used 4. support groups available. Information about the incidence of anxiety disorders can be obtained from the Australian Bureau of Statistics website. Use two or more data types still or moving images, written text or sound to prepare your presentation.

Schizophrenia Stephen experienced no health difficulties until he was 19. He did well at school. He had no problems with exams. Looking back, Stephen says that he felt he was shyer than his classmates, but no-one else noticed this. When he was younger, he had some close friends, but when his family moved from the country to the city, he became isolated. When Stephen went to university he immersed himself in his studies. However, he soon began to have a weird feeling that everything wasn t quite right. He had difficulty concentrating on reading. He stopped going home to his parents place on weekends. He hung around his flat, often not showering for days. Initially, he was able to hide what was going on, but he became more and more irritable and impatient. He was preoccupied with the weird feeling. Family and friends said he was distant . He talked to them less and less often and became increasingly withdrawn. While on a tram one day Stephen passed some police directing traffic at an intersection. At that moment, he knew for certain that they were there to warn him that he was going to be killed by an Eastern European gang who had previously worked for the Secret Service. At that moment, everything made sense to him. Stephen became very watchful. He made detailed notes of news bulletins, the registration numbers of cars that parked outside his flat and who was scratching their nose in class. He was convinced his life was in danger and eventually went to the police. The desk sergeant listened to his concerns but told him it was unlikely that a gang would target him. A few days later, Stephen became convinced that the noises he had begun to hear were actually part of the electronic surveillance the gang had set up in his flat. The voices were discussing him, saying unpleasant and deeply personal things about him. They became so intense that he stripped the wallpaper off the walls of his flat to work out where the bugging devices were located. Within a month everything came to a head. One day, when browsing in a newsagent Stephen noticed one of the sales

staff scratching his nose. He took this as a sign and began screaming at the salesperson, You ll never get me, I will never break . The police were called and Stephen was subsequently admitted to hospital. After admission to hospital, Stephen was diagnosed with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia commonly occurs in adulthood, though its first onset can be in adolescence. When an individual develops schizophrenia, the people around them often notice significant changes in their behaviour. The affected person becomes more easily stressed, has mood swings and has difficulty telling the difference between reality and fantasy. They begin to withdraw from relationships with others, their work performance often deteriorates and they stop caring for themselves. Schizophrenia is a psychotic mental illness characterised by distorted perceptions, bizarre thoughts, disorganised speech, disturbed emotions and a deterioration in coping with everyday life. Some people mistakenly believe schizophrenia is the same as split personality . This is not the case. The DSM-IV-TR does not describe any disorder as split personality . There is, however, a disorder called multiple personality disorder which is different from schizophrenia. One of the symptoms of schizophrenia involves distorted perceptions, sometimes due to hallucinations. An hallucination is a distorted perception during which the individual sees, hears, feels and/or smells something that is not physically present. For example, someone who experiences an auditory hallucination may hear someone else or something talking to them when there is no-one else present. Hallucinations can make it difficult for individuals with schizophrenia to focus their attention on external activities or events, such as reading, watching television or having conversations with others. Bizarre, or weird , thoughts are another symptom of schizophrenia. This is evident in the delusions that schizophrenics commonly experience. A delusion is a

Figure 6.18 British artist Louis Wain shows the progression of his changing perceptions of a cat through his artwork as his symptoms of schizophrenia developed.

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videos on schizophrenia

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firmly held, but usually false, belief which causes significant distress to the individual who experiences it. For example, one schizophrenic s delusion was that her thoughts were being broadcast to other people every time she breathed out; another schizophrenic s delusion was that his thoughts were being injected into his mind against his will (Cosgrave, 2009). Some schizophrenics experience delusions of grandeur, for which they falsely think that they are someone important or that they have done something significant; for example, thinking they are Jesus Christ, or that they dictated the Harry Potter stories to J.K. Rowling, or that they are going to be awarded an Order of Australia medal. The thinking of schizophrenics often becomes confused. At times, they have difficulty following a logical line of thinking in a way that makes sense to others. This is often evident in their disorganised speech; that is, speech that is disconnected, illogical and jumbled. As a result, communication with others is sometimes difficult. A single, perhaps unimportant word in one sentence can become the focus of the next sentence. For example, when asked about his itchy arm, a man with schizophrenia responded, The problem is insects. My brother used to collect insects. He is now a man five foot, 10 inches tall. You know, 10 is my favourite number. I also like to dance, draw, and watch television (Comer, 2001). Individuals with schizophrenia may also experience disturbed emotions. Sometimes their emotional response to a situation may be inappropriate; for example, they may cry while watching a cartoon, or they may laugh when hearing a news report of a murder. At other times, they may appear emotionless and show no emotion at all, or become emotionally volatile and overreact emotionally in disjointed and unpredictable ways. One of the early symptoms of schizophrenia is a noticeable deterioration in the way an individual is coping with their everyday life. This often includes a decline in their ability to cope with work or studies, their personal care for themselves and their social relationships. For example, they may stop showering, have difficulty getting out of bed in the mornings, stop going to work, withdraw socially or have arguments with people. A symptom of one type of schizophrenia is called catatonia (see box 6.10). Catatonia is a disturbance of movement where muscles become rigid or fixed. Catatonia can take a number of different forms. For example, some individuals with schizophrenia go into a catatonic stupor during which they remain virtually motionless and seem totally unaware of their environment for long periods of time. Others may exhibit catatonic posturing during which they stand motionless in an awkward, bizarre position for a long period of time. 276

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Figure 6.19 Schizophrenic patients exhibiting catatonic posturing, whereby they stand motionless in awkward positions for long periods of time. These patients were photographed in the early 1900s.

Not all individuals experience all symptoms associated with different types of schizophrenia. There are five different types of schizophrenia, each of which has some specific symptoms that distinguish them from the general symptoms described above (see box 6.10). According to the DSM-IV-TR, for a diagnosis of schizophrenia to be made, an individual must experience two or more of the symptoms for a period of at least six months. The onset of schizophrenia can be acute or insidious. When the onset is described as acute, the person experiences the symptoms over a very short period of time, such as a few days. When the onset is insidious, the symptoms develop very gradually, sometimes over months or a year before they affect daily functioning. While some people experience their first symptoms when they are 16 or 17, for other people their first symptoms may not appear until they are in their thirties. Some people only have one episode or experience of schizophrenia. For the majority of people though, the illness remains with them for their lifetime. Schizophrenia affects about 1% of the Australian population. It is experienced in all cultures and in all levels of society throughout the world. It affects males and females equally. But the age of onset of the symptoms is often earlier for males than females. From the ages 16 20, more males than females are affected. However, between the ages of 25 and 30, more females than males are affected. There are no research findings which explain these age-related gender differences. There are a number of theories on what causes schizophrenia. Most theories refer to biological and/ or socio-cultural factors as contributing significantly to the development of schizophrenia. Recent research studies have consistently found that biological factors such as heredity, brain chemistry and

brain anatomy seem to influence the onset or development of schizophrenia. Many psychologists believe that we inherit a predisposition to schizophrenia. This view is supported by research studies of family histories of people with schizophrenia which indicate that schizophrenia tends to run in families. As shown in figure 6.20, the research findings show that the more closely related individuals are to someone with schizophrenia, the greater the likelihood of developing the illness. For

example, identical twins have a 48% risk. This means that if one twin has schizophrenia, the other one will too in 48 out of every 100 pairs of twins. Similarly, if one parent has schizophrenia, there is a 13% chance of their children having schizophrenia (Gottesman, 1991). Having a genetic predisposition alone does not cause schizophrenia. Rather, it increases the likelihood of developing schizophrenia, depending on the degree of biological relationship to someone with schizophrenia.

BOX 6.10 Types of schizophrenia Paranoid schizophrenia

Individuals are preoccupied with delusions (false beliefs) of persecution (for example, someone or something is out to get me ), grandeur (for example, I am the saviour of the planet ), or both. The delusions occur as hallucinations. Paranoid schizophrenics are distrustful and are constantly watchful, as they are convinced that others are plotting against them.

Catatonic schizophrenia

Individuals typically alternate between states of being completely immobile and extremely excited, but one state usually predominates. Behaviour may shift between one or more of the following: • catatonic stupor (does not react or move spontaneously and may be mute) • catatonic negativism (resists attempts to be moved) • catatonic rigidity (has rigid posture despite attempts to be moved) • catatonic excitement (excited, purposeless movements) • catatonic posturing (assumes inappropriate or bizarre positions).

Disorganised schizophrenia

Individuals are extremely withdrawn and live in private worlds dominated by incoherent speech and grossly disorganised behaviour. Speech may be unintelligible, and unusual mannerisms and facial expressions are sometimes apparent. Behaviour is often bizarre.

Undifferentiated schizophrenia

Individuals are schizophrenic but do not meet the criteria for other types of schizophrenia, or meet the criteria for more than one type.

Residual schizophrenia

Individuals have experienced at least one episode of schizophrenia but obvious symptoms are no longer apparent.

First-de ree re ati e

Percenta e o ris

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ird-de ree re ati e

econd-de ree re ati e

50 48% 40

46%

30 20 10

17% 13% 9% Identical Offspring Fraternal Offspring Sibling twin of one twin of two schizophrenic schizophrenic parent parents

5% 6% Parent

6%

4%

Half Grandchild Nephew/ sibling niece

e ations i to erson

it sc i o

2%

2%

2%

1%

Uncle/ aunt

First cousin

Spouse

General population

renia

Figure 6.20 Family relationships and risk (%) of developing schizophrenia C h a p t e r 6 Mental illness across the lifespan

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The brain chemistry of most schizophrenics tends to be different from that of people who do not have the illness. Many schizophrenics have higher levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine which is used to communicate information within the brain and can therefore affect brain functioning. The excess of dopamine may contribute to the confused thinking experienced by many schizophrenics. In addition, brain scans show that the brains of many individuals with schizophrenia are often smaller and structurally different from that of individuals who do not have schizophrenia. Scans also show that the parts of the brain involved in logical thinking and other cognitive processes such as perception tend to be smaller in schizophrenics (Wright & others, 2000). Socio-cultural factors such as stressful life events and/or a person s drug use can also play a part in the development or onset of schizophrenia. While stress itself doesn t cause schizophrenia, psychologists believe that stressful events can trigger the illness or increase the chances of developing schizophrenia in someone who is already genetically vulnerable. The use of some drugs, such as marijuana, ecstasy and amphetamines ( speed ), has also been found to trigger episodes of schizophrenia. In some individuals, the symptoms of

schizophrenia disappear once the drug wears off. In other people, the symptoms do not go away when the effects of the drug wear off. This means that their drug use has triggered the start of a mental illness that they will have for the rest of their life. Schizophrenia cannot be cured. However, various kinds of treatment can help schizophrenics manage their illness and control their symptoms. These include medication, hospitalisation, skill development and social support. Many years ago, a person who developed a severe form of schizophrenia would have been institutionalised and many spent the rest of their life in a mental institution, often confined to a straight jacket and a padded cell. The current emphasis in the treatment of people with schizophrenia is to avoid long-term institutional care and provide support in the community to enable schizophrenics to live as normal a life as possible. Hospitalisation is mainly used to stabilise the symptoms a schizophrenic experiences with the view to the person returning home as quickly as possible. Medication is currently the main treatment for schizophrenia. Medication helps control the psychotic symptoms schizophrenics experience by returning the chemical imbalance in their brains to normal levels.

Figure 6.21 Drugs such as cannabis, ecstasy and amphetamines have been associated with both single episodes of and ongoing schizophrenia. 278

U n i t 1 Introduction to psychology

BOX 6.11 Schizophrenia in the movies Figure 6.22 Many years ago, people who developed schizophrenia were hospitalised and often restrained.

For example, medication often settles agitation, helps restore thinking patterns to normal and helps control hallucinations. This enables the person to resume their normal life. However, the medication used to treat schizophrenia tends to have unpleasant side-effects; for example, drowsiness, a constantly dry mouth and shaking. Sometimes, additional medication is prescribed to manage the side-effects of the anti-schizophrenic medication. In addition to medication, supporting the schizophrenic person in the community is an important part of managing the illness. A mental health professional will have regular contact with the person and monitor how well they are coping in their daily life. The professional can also help the schizophrenic person learn about their illness and ways of managing it most effectively. They may also assist the person to find appropriate housing if they have nowhere to live, to find a suitable job and assist with other skills depending on the problems and needs of the individual. If the illness is diagnosed early and a schizophrenic person is treated with medication and support, they may be able to lead a relatively normal and productive life for quite a long time. In Melbourne, a public mental health facility called the Early Psychosis Prevention and Intervention Centre (EPPIC) has been established to provide support for young adults who experience symptoms of psychotic illnesses such as schizophrenia. One of the goals of EPPIC is to intervene as early as possible in the course of psychosis. Early intervention is important in delaying the onset of more severe and debilitating symptoms.

Many movies featuring someone with schizophrenia have been made, some of which present more accurate portrayals of the illness than others. While films such as those listed below raise the awareness of schizophrenia in society, they need to be considered alongside reputable sources of information about the illness. The Soloist (2009) A Beautiful Mind (2001) Donnie Darko (2001) Spider (2002)

Lost Highway (1977) Me, Myself & lrene (2000) Spinning Out (1991) Blade Runner (1982)

Figure 6.23 Russell Crowe in the film A Beautiful Mind, in which he plays John Nash, a brilliant mathematician who suffers from schizophrenia

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BOX 6.12 The Cunningham Dax Collection The Cunningham Dax Collection, with more than 15 000 works, is one of the world s largest collections of artworks by people with experience of mental illness and/or psychological trauma. Amassed over a 60-year period, the Collection consists of works on paper, paintings, ceramics, textiles, mixed media objects, artists books and the moving image, created in both psychiatric hospitals and non-clinical settings. More than an art collection or an art gallery, the Collection is a unique educational institution where innovative approaches to learning about mental health are fostered through the use of these artworks. The exhibitions of these artworks offer an engaging and non-threatening space where students can explore mental health issues in a stimulating and supportive environment. During the academic year the Cunningham Dax Collection curates an exhibition of approximately 60 works chosen

Romy Dwosh (1978 ) GEN, Eric, 2007 oxide washed, glazed and enamelled earthenware with nuts 19 × 15 × 15 cm Artist s statement As a nut bowl, GEN, Eric points his tongue at stigma. The highly identifiable medication cocktail on his tongue (the obvious cause of his obscene side-effect), brings to light the inadequacies of many psychoactive medications, often considered the ultimate solution to psychiatric illness. Whilst I am not anti-psychiatry, I am against the over-use or misuse of medications in psychiatry, which often consequentially dehumanise those experiencing mental illness. More than anything GEN, Eric is a call for research, compassion and solutions, and (like my own experience with the adverse reaction of Tardive Dyskinesia) is at once both an horrific and hysterical expression of the inadequacy of existing options.

with the educational interest of secondary students in mind. A new exhibition with a different theme is assembled each year. In addition, the Collection has an active touring exhibition program that visits rural and regional communities. VCE psychology students may visit the Collection for a one- or two-hour program. During the one-hour program students are encouraged to explore a range of issues through the exhibition with some guidance from a mental health clinician. The two-hour program, Mindfields , has two additional components: a half-hour talk from a neuroscientist from the Mental Health Research Institute on the brain and current understandings on the neuroscientific basis of mental illness, and a half-hour talk by a person with experience of mental illness. The Cunningham Dax Collection is situated in Parkville, Victoria.

Leah (1985 ) My demon, 2008 oil pastel on paper 29.5 × 42 cm Artist s statement My art work has carried me through the struggle of the past six years and has provided me with an emotional outlet, relaxation, personal satisfaction and a means of communication with myself, family and friends. Some pieces are purely aesthetic and inspired by still life, photographs and landscape. Others are a means of expression and convey my thoughts and feelings. And some are a mixture of the two. Art has been a therapeutic tool for me, but through doing it I have grown to love it, and my creativity and ability has improved over time and it has become more and more satisfying. It is also a valuable tool, providing me with personal reflection, understanding and awareness, and has helped me learn more about myself and my illness. Looking back I can see how unwell and distressed I was, and how the depression and anorexia stole my identity and my life for so many years.

Figure 6.24 Two of the artworks in the Cunningham Dax collection, all of which were created by mentally ill people

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learnin g activit y 6. 18

Dementia

review questions

At the age of 68, Diana was beginning to experience lapses in her memory. She was aware of the changes she was experiencing and wrote herself notes to remember things. Some longtime friends were coming for dinner one night and Diana had lists of what she had to prepare, labels on the plates to remember what food to put on each plate and place tags to remember each person s name. Diana laughed about her absentmindedness . In addition to her memory lapses, Diana was also experiencing increasing episodes of dizziness. On one occasion, she was driving home from her local shopping centre. After stopping at a red light, she realised she was lost. Despite having travelled this route many times, Diana had no idea where she was or how to get home. She became very anxious and distressed. On another occasion Diana didn t recognise her 30-year-old niece at a family gathering, claiming they had never met. Over a period of about 18 months, Diana s cognitive difficulties became more and more obvious and debilitating. Eventually Diana told her doctor about the problems she had been experiencing and after some testing, Diana was diagnosed with dementia.

1. (a) What is schizophrenia? (b) Briefly describe the main symptoms of schizophrenia. (c) Explain the difference between a hallucination and a delusion with reference to an example of each. 2. Consider the different types of schizophrenia described in box 6.10. What type do you believe is the most severe? Explain your answer. 3. One night at a dance party, Nuri smoked a lot of marijuana. He started to experience symptoms of schizophrenia. (a) Does this mean he has schizophrenia? (b) Will he recover from his schizophrenic symptoms? (c) Explain your answer using the criteria for diagnosing schizophrenia. 4. (a) How common is schizophrenia in Australia? (b) Describe the age-related gender differences in the onset incidence of schizophrenia. 5. What role do hereditary and environmental factors play in the development or onset of schizophrenia? Explain with reference to research findings. 6. In what ways is schizophrenia treated?

learnin g activit y 6. 19 Media response movies about schizophrenia Box 6.11 lists several movies about schizophrenia. Watch one of these movies, or another in which schizophrenia is featured, and record your observations of how schizophrenia is portrayed. An observation checklist based on the one in table 6.5 at right should be used. You can modify this table by accessing it through your eBook. As you record your observations, include specific examples of behaviours in each category. After watching the movie: 1. develop a profile of one (or more) of the characters depicted with schizophrenia, based on the data in your observation checklist 2. comment on how accurately schizophrenia is portrayed in the movie, with reference to the information in the text 3. describe any treatment used to manage schizophrenia in the movie 4. state whether the treatment used in the movie accurately reflects the way(s) in which schizophrenia is treated by the mental health profession.

Dementia is the progressive deterioration of the functioning of neurons in the brain, resulting in memory impairment, a decline in intellectual ability, poor judgement and, sometimes, personality changes. There are many different types of dementia, the most common of which is Alzheimer s disease (see box 6.13).

table 6.5 Observation checklist

Behaviour

Name of character

Name of character

Name of character

Distorted perceptions Bizarre thoughts Disorganised speech Disturbed emotions Unusual behaviour Everyday life coping

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BOX 6.13 Types of dementia There are many different types of dementia, each with different causes and some different symptoms. The most common types are described below. Type of dementia

Description

Alzheimer s disease

The individual experiences a gradual widespread degeneration of brain neurons. This results in severe deterioration of cognitive abilities, personal skills and behaviour, eventually causing death.

Vascular dementia

The individual experiences brain damage as a result of narrowing of the arteries that supply blood carrying oxygen to the brain. This often results after the person has had a stroke. Depending on where the brain damage occurs, they may experience a deterioration of cognitive abilities, personal skills and/or behaviour.

Pick s disease

The individual experiences damage in the front part of the brain initially, with changes to personality and behaviour most common.

Parkinson s disease

This develops from the loss of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain. Progressively, the individual loses control of voluntary movements, and many individuals experience cognitive decline and difficulties caring for themselves. Personality changes may also occur. Dementia is common in individuals with Parkinson s disease, but not everyone with Parkinson s disease develops dementia.

Dementia usually develops over a number of years. In the early stages, individuals may occasionally have problems with familiar tasks such as working out the correct change when buying something, or they may forget what they have just said or done and repeat it. They may not have any idea of where they are at times or what day or time it is. Some people with dementia have difficulty finding the right words and it becomes increasingly difficult for them to learn new information or skills. Most, however, can still recall in vivid detail events that happened when they were five or 25. As the illness progresses, cognitive failures become more evident and the risks to the person s safety increase. They become increasingly forgetful and they may do things like leave food cooking in the oven or forget to eat, and bills may go unpaid. Many individuals have increasing difficulties with speech, may wander off and get lost, or need help with maintaining personal hygiene such as showering and toileting. Some people experience changes in their personality; for example, they may become quite argumentative or aggressive when previously they were easygoing. The last stage of the illness is one of total dependence and loss of almost all activity. Memory problems are extreme and the individual becomes physically dependent on others for their survival. They often are unable to feed themselves, don t recognise relatives, friends or familiar objects, have difficulty understanding what is said to them, have difficulty walking and may display inappropriate behaviour in public such as taking off their clothes. Eventually, the individual dies, either from dementia or an associated cause. 282

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Dementia affects different people in different ways. Some individuals are bewildered and frightened by the changes they experience; whereas others seem quite unconcerned and unaware of their deteriorating abilities. The length of the illness for each individual also differs. Research findings indicate that the younger a person is when dementia first begins, the quicker the deterioration occurs. Thus, if the onset occurs when an individual is very old, the degeneration of neurons seems to occur at a slower rate. Dementia is not a normal part of the ageing process and the majority of older people do not develop dementia. It is also incorrect to assume that any older aged person who becomes a bit forgetful or absentminded, who occasionally misplaces their keys or can t remember someone s name, is developing dementia. However, people in their forties and fifties can develop dementia, though it is more common in people over 65 years of age. Because of the difficulty in identifying people with mild or moderate dementia, there are no totally accurate statistics about the incidence of dementia in Australia (Australian Institute of Health & Welfare, 2004). However, estimates based on a range of studies indicate that about 6.5% of the population over 65 years are affected by dementia (AIHW, 2004). As shown in figure 6.26, the incidence of dementia increases with age. There is a gender difference in the incidence of dementia. About twice as many females as males have dementia. However, this data could be misleading. Overall, females considerably outnumber males in the older population by about two to one, because females tend to live longer than males.

Figure 6.25 Dementia may develop to the extent of total dependency on others.

Percenta e it dementia

50

30

10

55

65

75 e ( ears)

85

Figure 6.26 Incidence of dementia in relation to age

Generally the causes of dementia can be categorised in terms of biological and environmental factors. Biological factors involved in the onset of dementia include genetic influences and abnormal brain function. Research findings indicate that a number of genes, in combination, influence whether or not an individual has a predisposition for dementia (Selkoe, 1997). There are various theories on the causes of dementia related to abnormal brain function. For example, one type of dementia, called vascular dementia, results from a stroke, which occurs when the arteries leading to the brain are narrowed because of deposits left in them as a result of smoking or obesity. Another brain function problem that may lead to dementia involves a kind of rusting of the neurons. And yet another kind

of abnormal brain function that may cause dementia involves low levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine, which may result in Parkinson s disease. Environmental factors that may contribute to the onset of dementia include viral and bacterial infections such as HIV, AIDS, meningitis and syphilis; drug abuse of various kinds; the ingestion of various environmental toxins such as mercury, lead and carbon monoxide (through smoking); and a diet high in fat. The kind of treatment provided for a person diagnosed with dementia depends on the type of dementia they have and how far their illness has progressed. Determining this involves taking a complete medical and family history, doing neuropsychological testing and performing brain scans. A cognitive functioning test is also often given to determine the degree of cognitive deterioration (see table 6.6). Once the specific type of dementia and the severity of the dementia has been identified, a treatment plan can be developed. The focus of most treatment plans is to maintain the individual s cognitive functioning for as long as possible and slow the rate at which the illness progresses. There are three main types of treatment used to assist people with dementia medication, cognitive therapy and behaviour therapy. Currently, medication is used to help maintain and improve some cognitive functions, such as shortterm memory, reasoning ability, use of language and coping under pressure (Krall, Sramek & Cutler, 1999). C h a p t e r 6 Mental illness across the lifespan

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Although sometimes helpful, these drugs are often of limited benefit and tend to assist only in the early stages of dementia. Cognitive therapy assists the client to manage the decline in their cognitive functioning by teaching individuals memory techniques or how to use a computer to store information. Behavioural therapies are used in assisting individuals with dementia to change behaviours that may harm them or cause considerable stress to their family, such as wandering off at night and lack of attention to personal hygiene or diet. Psychologists also often work with the families of people with dementia to help them understand the changes they should expect and to give them strategies to cope with the deterioration of the dementia sufferer s abilities; for example, learning to ask questions that contains the answer. It is easier for an individual with dementia to respond to a question like, Was that person you just spoke to on the phone Peter or Joe? , rather than, Who was on the phone? Labels on drawers and cupboards that list what is in them, or naming each room of the house with a label on the door can also assist an individual with dementia to remain in their own home longer.

For many families, the most difficult decision is whether and when to arrange for the person with dementia to be moved into full-time care in a specialised setting. This is often done with the support of the mental health professional(s) caring for the person with dementia.

Figure 6.27 Labelling drawers and eBook plus cupboards assists a person with dementia in coping with daily tasks. Weblink Alzheimer s Australia

table 6.6 Test for Alzheimer s disease

Type

Maximum score Question

Orientation

5 5

What is the (year) (season) (date) (day) (month)? Where are we (state) (country) (town) (hospital) (floor)?

Registration

3

Name three objects, using one second to say each. Then ask the patient all three after you have said them. Give one point for each correct answer. Then repeat them until the patient learns all three. Count and record the number of trials it takes for the patient to correctly recall all three objects.

Attention and calculation

5

Count backward from given number (like 100) by 7s. (Give one point for each correct answer; stop after five answers.) Alternatively, spell world backwards.

Recall

3

Name the three objects learned above. (Give one point for each correct answer.)

Language

9

Show the patient two everyday objects, such as a pencil and a watch. Ask the patient to name the objects. Repeat the following: No ifs, ands, or buts . Follow a three-stage command: Take a piece of paper in your right hand, fold it in half and put it on the floor . Read and obey the following: Close your eyes . Write a sentence. Copy this design.

(1 point) (1 point) (3 points) (1 point) (1 point) (1 point)

Diagnosis of Alzheimer s disease may include the use of a relatively simple test of the patient s mental state and abilities, like the test above, which is called the Mini Mental State Inpatient Consultation Form. A low score on the test does not necessarily indicate a medical diagnosis of dementia. The test also includes an assessment of the patient s level of consciousness. Source: Adapted from the Mini Mental State examination form, Folstein, Folstein, & McHugh, reprinted in The Merck Manual of Geriatrics.

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Study shows busy minds good for the what’s-its-name By Kate Benson e for THAT part of the brain responsibl elderly memory shrinks twice as much in limited people who had little education, active social life or have not kept mentally d. foun has study a , teens since their Researchers at the University of NSW three followed a group of 60-year-olds over years. It found that those who had been men since lly inua cont e activ tally and physically pus, the age of 13 had a larger hippocam t-term shor rning gove brain the part of the memory and navigation skills. is a A small or atrophied hippocampus r’s major factor in developing Alzheime d foun been has ity activ tal men and disease, degento delay the onset of some other on’s erative brain diseases, such as Huntingt rt, repo the of or auth and Parkinson’s. The ersity’s univ the of la, nzue Vale ael Mich rs had school of psychiatry, said researche

using for the first time compared brains, y man over ing, imag ance magnetic reson rns. years in relation to mental activity patte that This added weight to previous work helped showed that complex mental activity block dementia. why ‘It also helps throw some light on een betw link t isten cons this there has been ’ Dr mental activity and lower dementia risk, Valenzuela said. the hippocampus shrinking, people could help But he said the study, published in al, themselves. Public Library of Science’s ONE journ for pus ‘Our prior research shows the risk indicated that the size of the hippocam late into even , eable mall quite dementia is was not directly related to intelligence. er life,’ he said. ‘It is vital that everyone is ‘Among the people who had the bigg ng a involved in cognitive, social and physical hippocampi, it came down to them havi ing, tai activities in late life such as danc said. he ’ real diversity of interests, a new ing learn and lling trave g, sailin their chi, Some had gone back to university in ple.’ ty of language, for exam 60s and 70s, and others had a varie Source: © 2008 The Age/AAP, lot’. a e ‘quit lised socia and ests inter July 15. See full copyright notice on , 2008 com drug y man e He said that whil acknowledgements page. the panies were searching for ways to stop

learnin g activit y 6. 20 review questions 1. (a) What is dementia? (b) Describe three changes a person with dementia may experience in their daily functioning. (c) Is it true to say dementia is a normal part of the ageing process? Explain your answer. 2. Dementia involves the progressive deterioration of neurons. Explain what this means. 3. Describe and suggest a reason for the gender difference in the incidence of dementia. 4. Outline one biological and one environmental factor that may be associated with dementia. 5. One of many tests used to diagnose dementia involves giving a series of three instructions to the individual and observing what they do or how they answer; for

example, Take a piece of paper in your right hand, fold it in half and put it on the floor . (a) What cognitive function is this testing? (b) If the individual has dementia, what response might be expected? Explain your answer. 6. Describe three things the family of an individual with dementia could do to enable the individual to stay in their own home for as long as possible. 7. Suppose a group of researchers believed they had found a drug that could prevent the deterioration of cognitive functioning in individuals with dementia. In order to test whether the drug was truly effective, they wanted to conduct a research study with individuals in the early, middle and late stages of dementia. Describe three ethical standards or practices that are relevant to this research.

learnin g activit y 6. 21 evaluation of research in old age

memory

Read the article above about busy minds and memory in old age, then answer the following questions. 1. What was the study about? 2. What research method was used? 3. Identify the sample and the population.

4. Construct a hypothesis that could have been used in the study. 5. What conclusions did the researchers draw? 6. What suggestions did Dr Valenzuela make for minimising the risk of dementia in old age? 7. Are the research findings reported in this article consistent with information provided in the text about the treatment of dementia? Describe any similarities and differences.

Video on Australian dementia researcher Michael Valenzuela C h a p t e r 6 Mental illness across the lifespan

285

learning a ctivity 6.22

trUe/Fa lSe Q UiZ

Oral presentation mental illness support organisations

Indicate whether each item is true or false by writing T or F in the blank space next to each item.

Use the internet, a telephone directory or other sources to identify an organisation that supports people and/or the families of people who have one of the mental illnesses described in this chapter. Alternatively, you may research a different mental illness if permitted by your teacher. The aim of this activity is to find out about the service, the kinds of support and/or information available and how it can help. In your presentation, include the following information: • the name of the organisation • the mental illness(es) supported • age group(s) of people who are supported • types of services provided • costs • contact details of the organisation • other information of relevance. Prepare a summary of the information you gather using two or more different data sources, such as still or moving images, written text or sound and present this in a written or oral form.

1. _____

Mental illness and psychological dysfunction are essentially the same.

2. _____

About every second person in Australia reports having experienced a mental illness at some time.

3. _____

A delusion is a false belief about reality.

4. _____

The percentage of Australian people who report having a mental illness is higher in older aged people than in any other stage of the lifespan.

5. _____

The DSM-IV-TR is the most widely used method for determining causes of mental illnesses.

6. _____

Labelling involves classifying someone with a mental illness.

7. _____

Children with autism have difficulty forming relationships with others.

8. _____

Hyperactivity associated with ADHD generally diminishes with age.

9. _____

Only adolescent girls can be diagnosed with anorexia nervosa.

learnin g activit y 6. 23 Mental illness brochure Select one of the mental illnesses described in the text. Develop a fact sheet in the form of a brochure that could be displayed in a doctor s surgery or community agency. The fact sheet should include the following information: • name of the illness • different types of the illness (if relevant) • brief description of the illness(es) • typical symptoms • lifespan stage when it most commonly begins or occurs • incidence in Australia • types of treatment • a support organisation. eBook plus Weblink

10. _____

Schizophrenics have more than one personality.

The answers to the true/false questions are in the answer section at the back of this book and in eBookPLUS.

Mental Illness Fellowship Victoria

learning a ctivity 6.24 essay

mental illness

Write an essay of about 500 words on one of the mental illnesses described in this text. In your essay, ensure that you: • define the mental illness • describe common symptoms of the mental illness with reference to examples • describe the incidence of the mental illness in Australia, with reference to possible age and gender differences

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• • • • •

outline possible causes of the mental illness describe two commonly used treatment methods refer to relevant research findings accurately define and explain all key terms use appropriate examples to demonstrate your understanding of key terms and ideas • express your ideas in a clear and concise way • accurately cite and reference all material. References may be used in obtaining information for your essay.

C H A PT E R TEST SectiOn a

Multiple-choice questions

Choose the response that is correct or that best answers the question. A correct answer scores 1, an incorrect answer scores 0. Marks will not be deducted for incorrect answers. No marks will be given if more than one answer is completed for any question. 1. Mental illness is best described as A. any psychological problem involving anxiety. B. the opposite of physical illness. C. any psychological problem. D. any psychological problem that impairs the ability to cope in everyday life. 2. A person with a mental illness often experiences atypical thoughts, feelings and/or behaviour. This means that their thoughts, feelings and/or behaviour A. are not normal for them. B. are not typical of their culture or society. C. do not have a physiological basis. D. are dysfunctional. 3. A disadvantage of labelling a person with a specific mental illness is that A. there are not enough labels to cover all the different mental illnesses. B. the label may be misunderstood by admitting officers if the individual needs to be hospitalised. C. a label can influence the thoughts, feelings or behaviour of the person with the illness in an unwanted way. D. the process of labelling is often inaccurate and usually unreliable. 4. The DSM-IV-TR A. classifies mental disorders according to their underlying causes. B. presents a detailed list of symptoms of different mental disorders. C. recommends appropriate courses of treatment for mental disorders. D. All of the above are correct. 5. Schizophrenia A. can usually be cured by medication. B. is a type of split personality. C. has its onset in childhood. D. is a psychotic mental illness.

6. Which of the following statements is true about the incidence of mental illness in the Australian population? A. More females than males are affected by mental illness. B. Males and females experience mental illness in about the same proportion. C. More males than females are affected by mental illness. D. More females than males experience mental illness in childhood. 7. Dementia A. is a normal part of the ageing process. B. is more common among males. C. is untreatable. D. has a biological basis. 8. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder A. has symptoms that are difficult to diagnose. B. involves many undesirable behaviours that are controllable. C. is more common among males. D. can be cured through behaviour therapy. 9. Individuals with severe dementia usually A. experience hallucinations. B. can be cured by medication. C. have difficulty caring for themselves. D. have a long life expectancy. 10. Cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) involves A. changing the way a person feels by changing their thinking. B. treating mental illness using relaxation techniques. C. changing the way a person thinks by changing their feelings. D. treating mental illness using medication.

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SectiOn B

Short-answer questions

Answer all questions in the spaces provided. Question 1 A/an

is a false belief which is firmly held but can be distressing. 1 mark

Question 2 In what main way is a mental illness different from a mental health problem?

1 mark

Question 3 What is the main difference between psychotic and non-psychotic mental illnesses?

2 marks

Question 4 Identify two cognitive changes associated with dementia.

2 marks

Question 5 Describe two of the following mental disorders or illnesses: • schizophrenia • Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder • anorexia nervosa • an anxiety disorder • an autistic disorder

4 marks

eBook plus The answers to the multiple-choice questions are in the answer section at the back of this book and in eBookPLUS. The answers to the short-answer questions are in eBookPLUS. Note that you can complete Section A of the chapter test online through eBookPLUS and get automatic feedback.

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Unit 2 self and otheRs On completion of this unit the student should be able to: OUTCOME 1

OUTCOME 2

• explain how attitudes are formed and changed, and discuss the factors that affect the behaviour of individuals and groups;

• compare different theories of intelligence and personality, and compare different methodologies used in the measurement of these.

UNIt 2

KeY KNOW LeDGe

Chapt er 7:

• experimental research: operation of independent and dependent variables; identification of extraneous and potential confounding variables;

Res eaRc h met h o ds 2

• techniques of qualitative and quantitative data collection • statistics: measures of central tendency including mean, median and mode; spread of scores including standard deviation and variance; frequency

reporting conventions

distributions showing bimodal, normal and skew (positive and negative) distributions; scatter plots and correlation

Chapt er 8:

at t i t ude f oRmat i o n an d c hang e

Chapt er 9:

• classic and contemporary theories and studies relating to the formation and change of attitudes, including the applications and limitations of the tri-component model of attitudes

• the interrelationship between attitudes, prejudice and discrimination:

factors contributing to the development of prejudice factors which may reduce prejudice: inter-group contact (sustained contact, mutual interdependence, equality), cognitive interventions and super-ordinate goals social and cultural grouping, stigma, stereotypes and prejudice: gender, race and age • research methods appropriate to the measurement of attitudes and behaviours • self-reports, surveys, questionnaires, interviews, rating scales • the extent to which ethical principles are applied to research investigations into attitudes and behaviours

• social influences on the individual:

effects of status and social power within groups, informed by researchers such as Zimbardo factors affecting obedience including social proximity, legitimacy of authority figures and group pressure, informed by researchers such as Milgram factors affecting conformity, including normative influence and culture, informational influence, unanimity, group size, deindividuation and social loafing, informed by researchers such as Asch, and Smith and Bond ways in which a group may influence others to change their behaviour including peer pressure, risk-taking behaviour

s oc i al i nf luen c es on t h e i nd i vi du al Chapt er 10:

• pro- and anti-social behaviour of the individual:

characteristics of, and factors influencing, pro-social behaviour: situational (bystander intervention and effect), social norms-reciprocity principle; social responsibility norm; personal (empathy, mood, competence); altruism characteristics of, and factors influencing, anti-social behaviour: diffusion of responsibility; audience inhibition; social influence; cost-benefit analysis social learning theory, including the work of Bandura explanations of aggression from ethological, biological, psychodynamic and social learning perspectives

P Ro-s o ci al an d an ti s oc i al b eh avi ou R Chapt er 11:

i nt elli genc e

• the concept of intelligence and factors that influence intelligence, including the interaction of genetic and environmental factors • classic and contemporary approaches to describing intelligence, including:

•

• • •

Chapt er 12:

P eRs o nali ty

Howard Gardner s theory of multiple intelligences Robert Sternberg s triarchic theory of intelligence Cattell-Horn-Carroll model of psychometric abilities Salovey and Mayer s ability-based model of emotional intelligence strengths and limitations of scientific methodologies used to measure intelligence, including: Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Stanford-Binet test Weschler s Intelligence Scales research methods and ethics associated with investigations into intelligence standardised and non-standardised tests reliability including test-retest, inter-rater, parallel-forms and internal consistency; and validity including content, criterion-related, construct and external

• the concept of personality, including characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings and behaviours of an individual, and the influence of genetic and environment factors

• classic and contemporary theories of describing and classifying personality:

• • • •

psychodynamic including the work of Sigmund Freud trait theories including the work of Gordon Allport, Raymond Cattell (16 personality factor model), Hans Eysenck (PEN model), Costa and McRae (NEO-PI/Five Factor model) humanistic including the person-centred theory of Carl Rogers the use of personality and aptitude inventories in vocational selections and workplace settings: Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Holland s Self Directed Search strengths and limitations of methodologies used to describe and classify personality, including the use of projective tests research methods and ethics associated with investigations into personality reliability including test-retest, inter-rater, parallel forms and internal consistency; and validity including content, criterion-related, construct and external

Chapter

7

RESEARCH METHODS 2

Research methods .......................................................................... 292 Qualitative and quantitative research ........................ 292 More on experimental research .................................... 295 Correlational studies .............................................................. 301 Descriptive statistics ...................................................................... 305 Frequency distribution ......................................................... 305 Measures of central tendency .......................................... 307 Variability ........................................................................................ 310 Reliability and validity in research ............................... 315 Reporting conventions ................................................................ 317 Research report ......................................................................... 317

ReseaRch methods A research method is a particular way of conducting a research study or investigation to collect data. In unit 1, we examined experimental research. We also examined other research methods including case studies, observational studies, longitudinal and cross-sectional studies, and twin and adoption studies. In unit 2, we build on what you have learnt about experimental research; for example, why the IV and DV are operationalised , and how extraneous variables can become confounding variables if they are not controlled. We also consider other descriptive research methods, including self-report methods such as surveys and rating scales. Self-report methods are covered only generally in this chapter, but they are described in greater detail in the study of attitudes when you are likely to use a self-report method for your own investigation. Finally, we consider a third category of research called correlational studies .

be described in quantitative terms. For example, in a survey, a question might ask participants to use a fivepoint scale to rate their feelings on issues such racial prejudice or bullying. Information about individuals scores on a range of psychological tests such as intelligence tests and personality tests also tend to be provided as quantitative data. In addition, data collected for experimental and correlational research are typically collected in a numerical form and are therefore usually quantitative.

Qualitative and quantitative research In psychology all research involves the collection of data; however, the way in which the data are collected differs depending on the research method used. The type of data collected is used as the basis of classifying research methods into two broad categories called qualitative research and quantitative research. Qualitative research involves the collection of qualitative data. Qualitative data are non-numerical data; that is, they are not expressed as numbers. For example, qualitative data may be a researcher s description of how a participant reacted when they were teased, a participant s comments on how they felt when they were excluded from a group activity, a video recording of social interaction within a group, a photograph of a participant s facial expression when surprised, or a participant s diary records after a traumatic experience. This type of data can describe any aspect of a person s thoughts, feelings or behaviour; more specifically, what something is like, or how something is experienced. Qualitative data may be collected as written or verbal statements made by participants, or as descriptions of behaviour observed and recorded by the researcher. In contrast, quantitative research involves the collection of quantitative data. Quantitative data are numerical data; that is, they are expressed as numbers. They may be raw data, such as the number of people who stop to help someone in need, or the mean time taken for passers-by to stop and provide help to someone. Thoughts, feelings and behaviour can all 292

U n i t 2 self and others

Figure 7.1 A photo of a facial expression is an example of qualitative data.

Experiments are usually described as quantitative research because participants responses during the experiment are typically measured then described in a numerical form. Research involving analysis of written information (for example, descriptions in a diary or responses to open-ended interview questions such as How did you feel when you were bullied? ) is usually described as qualitative research. However, describing research methods as either qualitative or quantitative can be misleading because it suggests that certain research methods are only suitable for collecting either qualitative or quantitative data or can only produce either qualitative or quantitative data (Banyard & Grayson, 2000). Experiments can produce qualitative data as well as numbers. For example, consider the Stanford Prison Experiment conducted by Zimbardo (1972) (see pages 378 81). Zimbardo observed, described and

reported common and unusual behaviour and verbal responses of the prisoners and guards , often referring to specific examples (qualitative data). However, Zimbardo also measured the extent to which the prisoners were prepared to obey the demands of the guards and reported his observations in the form of graphs and tables (quantitative data).

Figure 7.2 Surveys or questionnaires typically involve closedended or predetermined responses that can be converted into numbers. In such cases, the numerical data are referred to as quantitive.

Similarly, analysis of responses given by participants in a discussion group or in extended, essay-type text can produce quantitative as well as qualitative data. For example, Gilligan and Attanucci (1988) studied the difference between males and females (i.e. sex differences) in responding to moral dilemmas. Participants were presented with various moral dilemmas, including that of Heinz used by Kohlberg in his research. They gave their answers to several dilemmas, explaining the reasoning behind their answers. This provided qualitative data that was useful in assessing and describing participants thoughts and feelings in a richer way than is possible through collecting only quantitative data. However, the researchers also analysed the content of different interview responses, categorised and coded the responses, then calculated percentages of different kinds of moral judgements that appeared in the interview records, thereby also obtaining useful quantitative data. Both qualitative and quantitative research methods have advantages and limitations. Although qualitative research fits less comfortably with traditional scientific principles and procedures than does quantitative research, it should not be viewed as less scientific than or not as useful as quantitative research.

Researchers who undertake qualitative research often become part of the research study, known to or interacting with participants as they collect the data. For example, in the moral dilemma study, the researchers met with the participants and collected data through an open-ended interview procedure. Interacting with participants in this way can provide a richer and deeper understanding and description of participants and their responses. However, factors that can influence the results of the research, such as the personal biases of the researcher or participants responding in ways they believe they should respond, can be difficult to control. Quantitative research usually involves data collection under conditions that are strictly controlled to prevent or minimise the influence of such factors. For example, in an experiment, whether it be conducted in a laboratory or field ( real life ) setting, the researcher will use specific procedures to ensure that their involvement and the real purpose of the experiment are unknown to the participants. A typical procedure in a laboratory experiment is to use a research assistant who is unaware of the purpose of the research or the specific experimental conditions to which participants have been assigned. In a field experiment, the researcher may observe participants from a hidden location to ensure that their presence or knowledge of their presence does not influence participants responses in an unwanted way. The decision of whether to use a qualitative or quantitative research method depends on what it is that the researcher is trying to find out. More specifically, the decision depends on whether the topic of research interest is best studied through qualitative research, quantitative research, or both. Generally, if the research topic is about how something is experienced that is best studied as a whole , then qualitative research that will produce qualitative data tends to be used. For example, a psychologist may be interested in finding out about the experiences of life and the complex interactions between residents, and between staff and residents, in a detention centre for refugees and asylum seekers. For this study, a qualitative research method would provide the most valuable data. Assuming permission could be obtained, the researchers may choose to observe the daily lives of people living in the detention centre, perhaps living with, and living like them. The research would provide rich, detailed descriptions of life within the detention centre. There would be minimal emphasis on interpreting and categorising the behaviour of the children and adults in the detention centre so that it could be described in numerical form. If the research topic of interest has a more restricted focus and is about specific aspects of behaviour that can C h a p t e r 7 Research methods 2

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be observed and measured, then quantitative research that will generate quantitative data tends to be used. For example, a researcher may be interested in whether allowing individuals to undertake paid work while in the detention centre increases their level of self-esteem. Selected participants may be given a choice of different paid jobs and, after a period of time following their completion of paid work, they may be asked to complete a rating scale (in their own language) to assess their selfesteem. The participants ratings of their self-esteem, using a score from 1 to 10, could be compared to their scores on a similar rating scale completed before commencing paid work. For this research study, there may be little emphasis on collecting more complex, qualitative data. However, the researcher could also decide to collect qualitative data; for example, to address the question of how it feels to have paid work in the detention centre, as compared with not having paid work (Banyard & Grayson, 2000).

Figure 7.3 Qualitative research may be used to study life experiences of refugees and asylum seekers in a detention centre.

learning a ctivity 7.1 review questions 1. Explain the main difference between qualitative and quantitative research with reference to qualitative and quantitative data and an example of each type of data. 2. Briefly describe one advantage and one limitation of qualitative research as compared with quantitative research. 3. Complete the following table by indicating whether each research design is an example of qualitative research, quantitative research, or both.

Research design Conducting an experiment to investigate whether having regular rest breaks during a prolonged study session improves performance on a test Observing the social interactions of pre-school children in a playgroup using pre-determined items on an observation checklist Organising a small number of participants into a discussion group to study the experience of sexual discrimination in the workplace Studying the behaviour of newborn infants by observing and recording their second-by-second movements during their first 72 hours of life following birth Using a written questionnaire with closed-ended questions (e.g. Yes/No) to survey a large number of bushfire victims who may be experiencing post-traumatic stress disorder Investigating the effects of observing violence by analysing and interpreting children s drawings after they have watched violent cartoons on television Investigating ways in which females are portrayed in the print media by analysing newspaper and magazine advertisements Testing the relationship between scores on an intelligence test and scores on a personality test Observing whether drivers conform to road rules by counting the number of drivers who disobey a stop sign at an intersection Observing the effects of using a treat as a reward to teach a dog to sit on command

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Qualitative Quantitative research research

learnin g activit y 7. 2 Media response qualitative and quantitative research Locate one newspaper, magazine or internet article that reports psychological qualitative research and one reporting quantitative research. Make a copy of each article so that they can be presented next to each other on an A3 sheet of paper. If required, reduce the size of the articles through photocopying, but ensure they are still legible. Writing in point form on the A3 sheet, complete the following tasks for each article: 1. State whether the article reports qualitative research, quantitative research or both. 2. Identify the specific research method and/or data collection technique. 3. Outline what the research study is about and the main findings (if described). 4. Identify a potential limitation of the research study.

More on experimental research An experiment is used to find out whether one variable (the IV) causes a change in another variable (the DV). The experimenter deliberately manipulates an IV in order to observe and measure the effect of this manipulation on the DV. Manipulation of an IV typically involves exposing some participants to the IV (experimental condition) and not exposing other participants to the IV (control condition). The effect of the IV is determined by comparing the responses of participants who were exposed to the IV with those who were not exposed to the IV. If this comparison shows that the IV has an affect on the DV, and the experiment has been carefully controlled, then it can be assumed that the IV probably caused the change in the DV. When used for research, an experiment is always designed to test a hypothesis. The hypothesis is a basically a prediction about what will happen in the experiment. It must be constructed and worded in such a way that the results obtained from the experiment will either support or not support the prediction. In order to achieve this, the experimenter must construct and express the hypothesis in a particular way. The hypothesis must clearly and precisely state how the IV and DV involved in the experiment will be observed and measured. This is called operationalising the IV and DV.

Operationalising the iv and Dv Operationalising the IV and DV involves turning the IV and DV into procedures or actions ( operations ) that can be observed and measured. This is an important step because many of the thoughts, feelings and behaviours psychologists investigate can have different meanings and can therefore be observed and measured in more than one way. For example, suppose that a researcher wants to find out whether noise has an effect on problem-solving ability. What is meant by noise (the IV) and problem-solving ability (the DV) and how will these variables be observed and measured? Will the noise be music? If so, will it be classical music, rock music or some other type of music? Will the noise be people talking, whales communicating, an engine revving, the sound of a plane flying overhead or a combination of different types of noises? Will the noise be loud, medium or soft? Will the noise be heard continuously or irregularly? Similarly, consider problem-solving ability . What type of problem? Will it be a personal problem, a problem involving someone else or an intellectual problem? Will the problem be simple or complex? Will the problem be presented orally, in writing or audio-visually? Will the problem have one solution or several solutions? Furthermore, precisely how will ability to solve the problem be observed and measured? Getting the problem right or wrong? Solving it quickly or slowly? Both accuracy and speed? When the IV and DV have been operationalised, they are usually stated in the hypothesis. When this is done, the research hypothesis is commonly called an operational hypothesis. An operational hypothesis is a research hypothesis that refers to how the variables being studied will be observed and measured. This means that the IV and DV are stated in operationalised terms. In addition, an operational hypothesis refers to the population from which the sample has been selected and may also refer to, or suggest how, the experiment will be conducted. For example, in a study on noise and problem-solving ability, the operational hypothesis could be stated as: Year 11 VCE students who continuously listen to loud rock music when solving previously unseen written problems will solve fewer problems during a one hour session than do Year 11 VCE students who do not listen to loud rock music . This hypothesis has all the characteristics required for an operational hypothesis: • the IV is described in operationalised terms: continuously listening to loud rock music throughout a one hour session • the DV is described in operationalised terms: the number of previously unseen written problems that are solved C h a p t e r 7 Research methods 2

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• the population from which the sample is drawn is

stated: Year 11 VCE students • how the experiment will be conducted is stated:

one group will listen to loud rock music when problem-solving (experimental group) and another group will not listen to loud rock music when problem-solving (control group). In addition, like all other research hypotheses, an operational hypotheses is: • an educated guess (usually based on existing theory or previous research findings) • prepared as a carefully worded statement (rather than a question) • expressed clearly and precisely (rather than vaguely and generally) • testable (the IV and DV are capable of being observed and measured) • written as a single sentence. Operationalising the IV(s) and DV(s) ensures that these variables are precisely defined. This has two important benefits. Firstly, it is only when the experimenter has precisely defined the variables that the experiment can actually be carried out. Secondly, when the variables are defined in such a precise way, another researcher interested in the results or perhaps even doubting them, will be able to repeat the experiment in order to test ( check ) the results obtained. When a study is replicated using a similar sample and similar results are obtained, there is greater confidence in the accuracy of the results. Alternatively, if replication of a study fails to produce the same basic findings, researchers have less confidence in the findings reported for the original research.

Figure 7.4 Does body piercing make a person more or less attractive? The answer depends on how you operationalise attractive .

table 7.1 Ways in which IVs and DVs can be operationalised

Research question of interest

IV example

DV example

Do students learn more effectively in early morning or late afternoon classroom lessons?

• time of lesson

• score on a test of recall (amount of information remembered)

If a teacher ignores a student s attention-seeking behaviour in class, will this strategy reduce the student s attention-seeking behaviour?

• teacher not paying attention to attention-seeking behaviours

• frequency of attention-seeking behaviours

Does playing violent computer games cause aggressive behaviour?

• a computer game classified by the Commonwealth Government. censors as violent

• number of presses of a button that administers a shock to another student

Does allowing a child to sleep in the same bed as their parents result in the child being overly attached to the parents?

• child sharing bed with both parents over a specified period of time

• frequency of separation anxiety behaviours when either or both parents leave the child alone with a stranger

What types of jokes are funny to people of different cultural backgrounds?

• different types of jokes

• number of audible laughs detected by an audiometer and number of smiles detected an electromyograph (measures facial muscle contractions)

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learnin g activit y 7. 3 review questions 1. Explain the meaning of the phrase operationalising the IV and DV with reference to an example. 2. What is an operational hypothesis? 3. List the key characteristics of an operational hypothesis. 4. What are two benefits of using an operational hypothesis for a research study? 5. Write an operational hypothesis for two of the following research topics: • Does regular exercise improve psychological wellbeing? • Do people drive less safely when feeling stressed? • Do people talk more after they have eaten than they do when they are hungry? • Does perception of time change when in a relaxed state?

learnin g activit y 7. 4 visual presentation key characteristics of an operational hypothesis Construct an operational hypothesis on a topic of interest to you. You may wish to check this textbook for ideas. Write your hypothesis on an A3 sheet of paper or PowerPoint slide and label all its key characteristics. Consider using a format such as that in figure 7.25 on page 320 for describing the referencing style used in psychology.

identification of extraneous variables In an experiment, the researcher will manipulate the IV while attempting to control all the other variables that may influence the IV in an unwanted way. These unwanted variables are called extraneous variables. An extraneous variable is a variable other than the IV that can cause a change in the DV. Extraneous variables are called unwanted because they can make it difficult for the researcher to conclude that any change in the DV was caused by the presence of the IV and not some other variable. The researcher attempts to identify and control relevant extraneous variables when designing the experiment and does so before the experiment is conducted. Sometimes, the researcher does not become aware of relevant extraneous variables until after the

experiment has commenced; for example, during the experiment or when evaluating the experiment after it has been conducted. In some cases, the researcher remains unaware of relevant extraneous variables until another researcher points them out after reading the report on the experiment. Commonly used categories of extraneous variables are participant variables, situational variables and experimenter variables. The name of each of these three categories indicate the source of each type of extraneous variables.

Participant variables The individual characteristics that participants involved in research bring with them to the experiment are called participant variables. Participant variables include biological sex, intelligence, personality characteristics, motivation, emotional state, mood, problem-solving ability, self-esteem, health, cultural background and so on. Each of these variables and many other specific participant variables can affect the way participants respond in an experiment. Thus, the experimenter tries to take the relevant participant variables into account when they design their experiment. For example, a researcher might conduct an experiment to test whether ignoring the attentionseeking behaviour of children who misbehave in class will reduce the frequency of their attention-seeking behaviour. However, a reduction in the frequency of attention-seeking behaviour after a month of ignoring this type of behaviour may not only be a result of ignoring the misbehaviour. Factors relating to the children or their respective personal experiences may have impacted on their changed behaviour. For example, if a child s family situation becomes more or less unsettled, their behaviour may change, irrespective of the researcher s experimental treatment. A child s health or mood may also have an impact on whether or not they use attention-seeking behaviour and how often they may do so. Researchers attempt to control the effect(s) of participant variables by ensuring, as far as possible, that participants in different conditions of the experiment are as similar as possible in important personal characteristics and abilities that may influence the results of the experiment. This is achieved by using a random allocation procedure to assign participants to different conditions of the experiment; that is, the experimental and control groups. If participants are randomly assigned to the different conditions, then it may be reasonably expected that any pre-existing differences among the participants will even out across the different groups. C h a p t e r 7 Research methods 2

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Treatment of participants

Attractiveness

Health

EXPERIMENTER VARIABLES

Mood Personality characteristics

Personality issues

PARTICIPANT VARIABLES Expectations

EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES

Tiredness

Self-esteem Air temperature

Time of day

SITUATIONAL VARIABLES

Background noise

Testing conditions

Testing venue

Figure 7.5 Categories of extraneous variables

learning a ctivity 7.5 identifying participant variables For each of the following research topics, identify a relevant participant variable that an experimenter may need to control. 1. The effect of praise on the frequency of answering questions in class 2. The effect of alcohol on performance of a memory task 3. The effect of amount of time spent studying on exam performance 4. The effect of reading books on performance on crossword puzzles

Situational variables Important differences in the individual characteristics of research participants are not the only factors that can have an unwanted effect on the dependent variable and therefore the results of an experiment. All participants in different groups of the experiment must be tested under the same conditions and in the same situation in order for the experimenter to more confidently conclude that any change in the DV is the result of the IV. Thus, the experimenter needs to control situational variables. A situational variable is any variable associated with the experimental situation itself that may affect the results of an experiment. Situational variables include factors such as background noise, time of the day, testing venues, testing 298

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Intelligence

Motivation

Gender

Emotional state Cultural background

Health

conditions, air temperature and so on, depending on the IV and DV being observed and measured in the experiment. An effective way of avoiding situational variables is to consider them when planning the experiment and ensure they are eliminated, minimised or that the same variables occur in all experimental conditions if they can t be adequately controlled. For example, if background noise is likely to affect the results of an experiment in an unwanted way, then its potential effects could be controlled by conducting the experiment in a soundproof room. This would remove any unwanted effect the noise may have on the DV. If unwanted background noise cannot be entirely eliminated because of the situation in which the experiment must be conducted, then the researcher would attempt to ensure that the same kind of background noise occurred at about the same level and times in all of the different experimental conditions. There are potentially many extraneous situational variables that can affect experiments and it is difficult for the researcher to predict and control all of them. Consequently, researchers tend to focus on controlling those situational variables that are likely to have a significant effect on the DV in an unwanted way. For example, in an experiment to determine the softest noise a person can hear, it would be very important to control background noise. However, in an experiment to test the effect of caffeine on performance of some physical task, background noise may not be so critical. A researcher may also minimise the effects of situational variables by balancing or equalising their effects for all groups of participants involved in the research. For example, suppose that a researcher wanted to conduct an experiment to test the effectiveness of a particular reading program on children s reading skills. If two different rooms are to be used to test the children, a way of controlling the possible effects of being in the

different rooms could be to test half the participants in each group (that is, some using the reading program and some not using the reading program) in each room. Another procedure for controlling situational variables is to test participants in random order, rather than testing all participants in one condition first, then all participants in the other condition. In this way, any variable which may change over time such as the temperature, time of day, or the functioning of the apparatus will affect the conditions approximately equally.

learnin g activit y 7. 6 identifying situational variables For each of the following topics, describe one situational variable that may affect the outcome of the experiment in an unwanted way. 1. Whether the presence of passengers results in more accidents by red P-plate drivers 2. Whether a particular study technique improves performance on an exam 3. Whether the use of mental imagery improves goal shooting accuracy in hockey 4. Whether feedback improves performance when learning a new task

Rosenthal (1966) used some of his laboratory assistants as research participants for an experiment with rats in a maze. The participants were asked to place the rats in a maze. Some of the laboratory assistants were told that their rats were specially bred to be maze bright ; the others were told that their rats were maze dull . However, the rats had been randomly allocated to each group. The results showed that the group of apparently maze bright rats learned the maze significantly faster than the maze dull rats. Rosenthal concluded that the speed with which the rats completed the maze had more to do with the laboratory assistants than the rats abilities. He suggested that the laboratory assistants expectations about their rats capabilities caused them to subtly alter their training and handling techniques, which, in turn affected the animals learning.

Experimenter variables

Figure 7.6 Example of a maze used for maze running laboratory experiments with rats. 4 Number of minutes to complete maze

Personal characteristics of the experimenter and the experimenter s behaviour during the experiment may also unintentionally affect the results of an experiment in an unwanted way. These types of extraneous variables are called experimenter variables. Experimenter variables are variables associated with the personality characteristics of the experimenter or the experimenter s behaviour during the experiment which may affect the results of an experiment. Factors such as an experimenter being tired, their expectations of the outcome of the research, personal issues, health, their gender, how they dress and their attractiveness are examples of potential experimenter effects. Such factors may affect the way the experimenter relates to the participants which, in turn, may result in the participants behaving in a manner different from how they would otherwise behave, thus altering the outcome of the experiment. Furthermore, an experimenter may sometimes unknowingly treat participants in the experimental and control groups differently and thus may unintentionally influence the results of the experiment. Experimenter variables have been studied extensively by the German-born American psychologist Robert Rosenthal. He has found experimenter variables to be present in many areas of research. Rosenthal used the term experimenter effect to describe them. In one study,

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Maze bright Maze dull Kind of rat Figure 7.7 The rats described as maze bright learned to run the maze much faster than the rats described as maze dull .

Experimenter-related extraneous variables may involve not only the personal qualities and actions of the researchers, but also unintentional biases in the treatment of data. For example, experimenters may unknowingly make an error in summarising or interpreting the data in favour of what they want to show. C h a p t e r 7 Research methods 2

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To prevent experimenter biases from affecting the results, researchers often design experiments so the person collecting the data and the participants are unaware of the experimental conditions; nor are they aware of the results expected from the different conditions. Only the person in charge of the research, who has no personal contact with the research participants, is aware of this information.

learning a ctivity 7.7 identifying an experimenter effect Consider the following experiment which was conducted by Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968), then answer the questions that follow. At the beginning of the school year, some teachers were told that the children in their class had academic promise . Other teachers were not given any information about the academic potential of the children in their class. At the end of the year, children whose teachers were told they had academic promise showed significantly greater gains in IQ scores than children whose teachers were given no information. The children had in fact been randomly allocated to the classes. 1. What is the IV and DV in this experiment? 2. Explain the results in terms of a specific experimenter variable that was actually manipulated by the researchers.

learning a ctivity 7.8 review questions 1. (a) What is an extraneous variable? (b) Why do researchers attempt to minimise or control the potential effects of relevant extraneous variables? 2. (a) What are participant variables? Explain with references to examples. (b) Under what circumstances can participant variables influence the results of an experiment in an unwanted way? (c) Describe the most commonly used procedure for controlling participant variables when designing an experiment and explain why it is effective. 3. (a) What are situational variables? Explain with reference to an example. (b) Describe one way of controlling situational variables when designing an experiment. 4. (a) What are experimenter variables? Explain with reference to examples. (b) Describe two different ways in which experimenter variables can influence the results of an experiment in an unwanted way. (c) Describe two procedures for controlling experimenter variables in experimental design.

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confounding variables Every experiment used in psychological research is designed to answer the same basic question: Does the IV cause the predicted change in the DV? The experimenter recognises that there are other variables that can affect participants responses (the DV), such as all those variables collectively referred to as extraneous variables. Extraneous variables are inevitable and do not pose a problem if controlled in an appropriate way. For example, suppose that an experimenter wants to observe the effect of drinking red cordial (the IV) on concentration levels in children (the DV). Relevant participant variables that can affect the experiment s DV, such as the intelligence, age, whether they have ADHD, and motivation of participants, may be controlled by randomly allocating participants to different experimental conditions. This procedure would ensure a relatively even spread of participant characteristics in the experimental group (drink red cordial) and the control group (do not drink red cordial). Similarly, the experimenter could also control situational variables that can affect the DV for this experiment. For example, both experimental and control group participants could do the task on which their concentration will be tested at the same time in similar rooms or even the same room. By strictly controlling unwanted effects of relevant extraneous variables on the DV, the effects of the IV on the DV can be isolated. If there is a noticeable (measurable) change in the DV, then the experimenter can confidently conclude that the IV caused the change in the DV. If a variable that can affect the DV is not controlled, then its effect on the DV may be confused with that of the IV. When this happens, the uncontrolled variable is referred to a confounding variable. A confounding variable is a variable other than the IV that has had an unwanted affect on the DV, making it impossible to determine which of the variables has produced changes in the DV. Basically, a confounding variable is a second unwanted IV. It is called a confounding variable because its effects are confounded or confused with those of the IV, thereby preventing the experimenter from concluding that the IV caused the predicted (hypothesised)change in the DV. The presence of one or more confounding variables does not necessarily mean that the IV did not cause the changes in the DV. However, the presence of a confounding variable suggests that there may be one or more alternative explanations for the results obtained in the experiment. The more alternative explanations there are for the results, the less confident the experimenter will be that their IV was responsible for the results.

A confounding variable is different from an extraneous variable. A confounding variable causes a measurable change in the IV. This change is consistent with what was predicted in the hypothesis, whereas an extraneous variable may or may not affect the DV. What both types of variables have in common is that they cause problems for the researcher undertaking an experiment. However, each type of variable can also be controlled through appropriate experimental design.

learnin g activit y 7. 9 review questions 1. What is a confounding variable? 2. Explain why the presence of confounding variables is problematic for the experimenter. 3. In what way does a confounding variable differ from an extraneous variable? 4. Identify the IV(s) and a possible confounding variable in each of the following experiments. Explain your answers. (a) An experiment was conducted to study whether young adults performed better on maths problems when working alone or when working in small groups. Two groups of randomly selected and allocated participants were used. Because of a shortage of rooms, the participants working alone completed the problems in a small tutorial room with no windows in the corner of the school library. The participants working in small groups completed the problems in a large classroom with big windows on the first floor of the building (above the library). As hypothesised, the groups performed better than the individuals. (b) An experiment was conducted to study whether alcohol consumption increases errors when driving. Volunteer participants were given a drink that they were led to believe contained alcohol. It looked and tasted like an alcoholic drink but did not contain any alcohol. The participants were then given a test in a driving simulator with automatic transmission and the number of driving errors was recorded. The next day, at the same time, participants were given an alcoholic drink that looked and tasted like the nonalcoholic drink. After allowing sufficient time for the alcohol to take effect, the participants were given a test in a driving simulator with manual transmission and the number of driving errors was recorded. The results showed that more driving errors were made after having the alcoholic drink.

correlational studies Sometimes, experimental research is impractical or inappropriate to use. For example, suppose a researcher wanted to find out how a severe emotional trauma in childhood affects school performance. It would be unethical to set up two similar groups of participants and expose one of these groups to some kind of traumatic event that would trigger a severe emotional reaction, so that its effects on a measure of school performance could be observed. In such cases, researchers tend to rely on existing information to assess the co-relationship , or correlation, between the variables that are of research interest. A correlational study is a non-experimental research method used to investigate the relationship between two or more variables; for example, the relationship between air temperature and violent crimes, level of anxiety and health problems, or between the age of the mother at the time of giving birth and onset of postnatal depression following birth. Correlational research involves assessing the degree and type of relationship (if one exists) between two or more variables. This is usually done by applying a statistical technique to data which are available on each variable. For example, to study the relationship between air temperature and occurrence of violent crimes, the researcher could obtain existing data on both the daily air temperature (such as maximum and minimum temperatures) over a period of time and violent crimes committed over this period of time, then determine the number of violent crimes committed on very hot days.

Figure 7.8 A researcher may obtain existing data to study whether there is a correlation between air temperature and violent crime. C h a p t e r 7 Research methods 2

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The term correlation is used to identify and describe how two (or more) variables are co-related . Correlation does not tell us whether one variable, such as air temperature, causes another, such as violent crimes. Rather, it tells us whether a relationship exists between two variables, the direction of the relationship (that is, positive or negative), and the strength of the relationship; that is, when one variable increases or decreases, whether the other variable likely to increase or decrease. For example, when air temperature rises, does the incidence of violent crimes increase (and vice versa)? For any two variables which are assessed in a correlational study, there are three possible relationships between them: positive, negative and zero (no relationship).

Positive and negative correlation A positive correlation means that two variables vary, or change , in the same direction; that is, as one variable increases, the other variable tends to increase (and vice versa). For example, as age increases, vocabulary tends to increase (and as vocabulary increases, age tends to increase, or the lower the age, the smaller the vocabulary). A negative correlation means that two variables vary, or move , in opposite directions; that is, as one variable increases, the other variable tends to decrease (and vice versa). A negative correlation is like a see-saw. For example, as self-esteem increases, sadness tends to decrease (and as sadness increases, self-esteem tends to decrease). A correlation is usually described by a number known as a correlation coefficient. A correlation coefficient is expressed as a decimal number which can range from +1.00 to −1.00. The plus or minus sign describes the direction of the relationship between the two variables; that is, positive or negative. A correlation coefficient with a plus sign indicates a positive correlation. This means that high scores for one variable tend to go with high scores on the other, middle scores with middle scores, and low scores with low. For example, if there is a high positive correlation (for example, +0.75) between age and problem-solving ability, then older people would tend to be good problem-solvers (for example, they would solve many problems in a 20-minute period) and younger people would tend to be poor problem-solvers (for example, they would solve fewer problems in a 20-minute period). A correlation coefficient preceded by a minus sign indicates a negative correlation. This means that when a score on one variable is high, the score on the other tends to be low, and middle scores tend to go with middle scores. For example, if there is a high negative correlation (for example, −0.75) between age and problem-solving ability, then older people would tend 302

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to be poor problem-solvers and younger people would tend to be good problem-solvers. When reporting correlation coefficients for positive correlations, researchers usually omit the plus sign from the front of the score. However, the minus sign is always included for a negative correlation.

Strength of correlation The decimal number of the correlation coefficient describes the strength of the relationship between the sets of scores for two variables; that is, whether the relationship is strong, moderate or weak. A correlation coefficient which is close to +1.00 indicates a very strong positive correlation between two variables. A correlation coefficient which is close to −1.00 indicates a very strong negative correlation between two variables. Correlation coefficients of 1.00 and −1.00 indicate perfect correlations but these rarely occur in psychology. For example, 0.13 and −0.13 would be considered a weak positive and weak negative correlation respectively. A correlation coefficient which is close to 0.00 indicates little or no relationship between two variables.

correlation and causation Correlations show the existence and extent of relationships between variables but they do not necessarily indicate a cause effect relationship; that is, that one variable causes the other. For example, as the world rotates on its axis, people get older. There is an extremely strong correlation between these two factors but it would be incorrect to assume that the Earth s rotation causes people to age or that people s ageing causes the Earth to rotate. There are also many instances when high correlations suggest a logical cause effect relationship, and sometimes correlations really do represent causal relationships. The number of friends a person has may be closely related to how happy they are. But a very high correlation doesn t necessarily mean that there is a cause effect relationship because both variables may be correlated with a third variable. For example, there is a high positive correlation between the number of permanent teeth in children and their ability to answer increasingly difficult questions on intelligence tests. It cannot be assumed, however, that having more teeth causes increased cognitive ability. The correlation is high because a third variable increasing age accounts for both new teeth and cognitive development. Similarly, there is a very high correlation between the number of years spent in schooling and income as an adult. Both of these variables, however, have also been found to correlate not only with each other, but with a third variable the parents income. When two variables are correlated, this is not

learnin g activit y 7. 10 review questions 1. What is a correlational study? Explain with reference to an example different from those in the text. 2. What is the main distinction between the findings of an experiment and those of a correlational study? 3. What determines the researcher s choice of correlational research instead of experimental research? 4. Name and briefly describe the three possible general types of relationships found between variables measured in a correlational study. Give an example of each type of correlation, different from those used in the text. 5. What do the terms direction and strength of correlation refer to and how are they shown? 6. What conclusion could be drawn from the following correlation coefficients? (a) length of time spent studying for an exam and exam grade achieved: 0.72 (b) consumption of alcohol during pregnancy and birth weight of the baby: 0.47 (c) colour of socks worn in an exam and grade achieved: 0.06 (d) being breast-fed from 0-6 months of age and level of alertness (0.41) compared with being bottle-fed (0.28)

Scatter plots Correlational data are often displayed in a scatter plot (also called a scattergram or scatter diagram). A scatter plot is a graph of scores (or other values) on two different variables (or measures). The values of one variable are shown on the vertical axis (Y axis) and the values of the other variable on the horizontal axis (X axis). Each pair of scores is plotted as a single point (a dot) in the scatter plot. Figure 7.9 shows correlational data for 12 participants obtained from a correlational study on physical attractiveness and reaction time for a specific task. The name of each participant is represented by a dot. For example Tina has a score of 80 on the attractiveness measure and 6 on the reaction time measure; Paul has a score of 40 on the attractiveness measure and 1 on the reaction time measure. The spread of the dots on a scatter plot gives an idea of the strength of the correlation; that is, the extent to which the two variables are related. The stronger the

correlation, the more likely it is that there is a direct relationship between the two variables. The widely spread dots in the scatter plot in figure 7.9 suggest that the two variables, attractiveness and reaction time, are not related. This would be represented by a correlation close to 0 (zero). In a zero correlation, individuals with high scores on one variable may have high, middle or low scores on the other variable. Figure 7.9 shows that participants with high scores on attractiveness have high, medium and low reaction times. Figures 7.10 and 7.11 both show a strong correlation as the dots cluster close together in a cigar-shaped pattern. Figure 7.10 shows a strong positive correlation and figure 7.11 shows a strong negative correlation. 100 90 80 Attractiveness

accepted by psychologists as evidence of causation in the absence of other research evidence. In such cases, researchers may test the possible cause effect relationship by conducting a controlled experiment.

Alex Tran

Jessie

Tina

70 James

60

Vince

50 40

Paul

30 20

Melissa

0

Hamish Sarah

Kate

Mikala

2

4 6 8 Reaction time Figure 7.9 Scatter plot showing data for 12 participants obtained from a correlational study that investigated the relationship between physical attractiveness and reaction time

Y

Y

X Figure 7.10 Strong positive correlation

X Figure 7.11 Strong negative correlation

The direction of the correlation, that is, whether the correlation is positive or negative, is indicated by the slope or lean of the dots, that is, whether they slope upwards or downwards (or neither). For example, in figures 7.12 and 7.13, a line has been drawn through the middle of the dots to help identify the slope. In figure 7.12, the upward sloping line indicates a positive correlation, whereas the downward sloping line in figure 7.13 indicates a negative correlation. Note that in both figures 7.12 and 7.13, the dots are closely clustered around each line. How closely the dots cluster to a line drawn through them indicates the strength of C h a p t e r 7 Research methods 2

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the correlation. For instance, a strong positive correlation is indicated in figure 7.12 and a strong negative correlation is indicated figure 7.13.

Y

X Figure 7.12 Strong positive correlation

Y

learning activity 7.1 2 Practical activity estimating the correlation between heredity and height This practical activity involves a correlational study to investigate whether there is a co-relationship between the height of parents and the height of their children. An hypothesis should be constructed prior to conducting the activity. You will need to measure your own height in centimetres (without shoes) and calculate the mean height of your parents in centimetres (taken without shoes). If you can obtain data from only one parent, then that parent s height should be used as your score. Combine your data with other class members using the headings in the data sheet below. Report Write a brief report on the activity to include in your folio of practical activities. In your report, ensure you include: • a statement of the aim of this activity • the research hypothesis • a scatter plot showing the relationship between the heights of children and their parent(s) • a statement on whether a correlation is evident between the two variables, and if so, the direction and strength of the correlation • a possible limitation of the research activity, including an explanation of why it is a limitation. Data sheet

Student s height (cm)

Participant

X

Mean of parents height (cm)

Figure 7.13 Strong negative correlation

learning a ctivity 7.11 Data analysis estimating the correlation between two variables Using the data in table 7.2, draw a scatter plot to estimate the correlation between level of self-esteem (shown by ratings of 1 10, with 1 representing extremely low and 10 representing extremely high) and fear of riding on a roller coaster (shown by ratings of 1 10 with 1 representing extremely low and 10 representing extremely high). (a) State the strength and direction of the correlation between the two variables. (b) Write a conclusion describing the relationship between level of self-esteem and fear of riding on a roller coaster, as shown by your scatter plot.

table 7.2

Participant

Level of self-esteem

Fear of riding on a roller coaster

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

3 2 9 8 2 4 5 3 3 5 7 9

5 6 1 1 9 9 6 3 8 4 2 2

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learnin g activit y 7. 13 interpreting scatter plots State the direction (positive, negative, zero) and strength (strong, moderate, weak) of the relationship between variables X and Y in each of the following scatter plots. (d) Y (b) Y (a) Y (c) Y

X

(e) Y

X

(f) Y

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(h) Y

(g) Y

X

descRiPtive statistics Descriptive statistics are used by researchers to organise, summarise and describe the data collected from a research study so that the data can be more easily interpreted. Essentially, using descriptive statistics is one part of the process of making sense of raw data. For example, a researcher who is interested in finding out whether people s attitudes towards sexual harassment change with age gives a questionnaire to 100 people in the age group 10 14 years; 100 people in the age group 15 19 years; 100 people in the age group 20 24 years and so on to the age of 84. Selection of so many participants means that an enormous amount of data are collected. There are too many numbers to gain an overall impression of whether attitudes towards sexual harassment do change with age by looking at the data in its raw form. Consequently, researchers need to organise and summarise the data collected in order to gain a snapshot or impression of what the results show about the research question. This is done by using descriptive statistics. One way of organising and summarising the data so that it can be interpreted using a descriptive statistic is to construct a frequency distribution.

Frequency distribution A frequency distribution is a way of organising data to show how often (that is, frequently ) a value or measure (for example, a score) occurs in a set of data. Frequency distributions are often shown in a table. The frequency of different data can also be represented

X

X

X

graphically as a histogram or frequency polygon (see chapter 2). When graphed, a frequency distribution often shows a particular pattern. Certain patterns are given particular names, such as normal distribution, negatively skewed distribution, positively skewed distribution and bimodal distribution.

normal distribution If any characteristic of a very large group of individuals is measured then plotted as a graph, the data will tend to fall in a bell-shaped pattern called a normal distribution. In a normal distribution, most of the data are located around the centre of the distribution, tapering to a few extremely high or extremely low scores either side of the middle, giving the curve a symmetrical or balanced appearance. A normal distribution provides information about what percentage of the population would normally fall within a certain range of scores. One type of normal distribution is referred to as a normal distribution curve. The normal distribution curve is a theoretical ideal and is rarely perfectly achieved in reality. However, most human characteristics and abilities tend to be normally distributed if a very large representative group of participants is studied. If we plotted enough data (for example, scores from different individuals on a particular human characteristic or ability such as weight, height, reaction time, intelligence or personality), a shape or pattern representing the normal distribution curve is likely to be produced. More specifically, suppose that we measured the number of one-hour driving lessons required for C h a p t e r 7 Research methods 2

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(figure 7.16). On a negatively skewed distribution, there is a disproportionate number of high scores. The tail of the graph tapers in a negative direction, towards the lower scores. Frequency (number of six-month-old children)

Frequency (number of 17-year-old learner drivers)

a large, representative sample of 17-year-old learner drivers to obtain their driver s licence, we might find that a few learners would be competent drivers after one or two lessons, while a few learners may need 25 or more lessons. However, most would fall around the mid-point of these extremes at about 11 15 lessons.

Low

1

5 9 13 17 21 Number of one-hour driving lessons

25

High Number of teeth Figure 7.15 Positive skew a curve skewed to the left, indicating that there is a clustering of a relatively large number of low scores

Positively and negatively skewed distributions Sometimes the scores in a frequency distribution graph are unevenly distributed and cluster to the left or the right ends of the graph. In such cases, the distribution is called a skewed distribution as there is a lack of balance or symmetry in the distribution. For example, if the number of words twelve-month-old children spoke were plotted, many of the scores would cluster towards the lower end (left) of the graph producing a positively skewed distribution (figure 7.15). The skew of the graph is linked to the direction of its tail . On a positively skewed distribution, there is a disproportionate number of low scores. The tail of the graph tapers in a positive direction towards the higher scores. Alternatively, if the number of words 16-year olds know were plotted, many of the scores would cluster at the higher end (right) of the graph producing a negatively skewed distribution

Frequency (number of 16-year-olds)

Figure 7.14 Example of an ideal normal distribution curve

Low

High Number of teeth Figure 7.16 Negative skew a curve skewed to the right, indicating that there is a clustering of a relatively large number of high scores

Bimodal distribution In a set of scores collected during an experiment, if two particular scores occur equally often, the data have two modes or are bimodal. If the data were represented in a frequency distribution graph, the graph would have two peaks (one for each mode) as shown in figure 7.17.

learning a ctivity 7.14 identifying frequency distributions For each of the following research topics, identify the type of frequency distribution (normal, positive skew or negative skew) you might expect if data from 5000 individuals were collected. 1. Score on a general knowledge quiz by adults aged over 21 years 2. Results of a year 10 maths test undertaken by year 7 students 3. The number of year 11 students in metropolitan schools who ride a bike to school on a daily basis

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4. The amount of homework completed by year 12 students 5. The number of hours spent on Facebook each week by year 11 students 6. The amount of sleep each day of newborn infants 7. The amount of sleep each day of 16-year olds 8. The age at which infants first speak a recognisable word 9. Scores obtained by VCE students on an anxiety scale one hour before their first exam 10. Grades obtained for a VCE Psychology exam

A bimodal distribution such as that in figure 7.17 would be likely to be obtained, for example, if an English vocabulary test was given to two groups of students one group of students who had spoken English all their lives and the other group of students who were newly arrived migrants from a non-English speaking background.

Frequency of scores

High Mode 1

Mode 2

Low Low

Scores on an English vocabulary test

High

Figure 7.17 An English vocabulary test was given to two groups of students. One group have spoken English all their lives and the other group are newly arrived migrants from a nonEnglish speaking background. Which group of students would you expect to be represented by mode 1 and which group of students would you expect to be represented by mode 2?

learnin g activit y 7. 15 review questions 1. (a) What are the distinguishing features of a graph showing a normal distribution? (b) List three characteristics, different from those described in the text, that would probably show a normal distribution if data on a large enough group of participants were collected. 2. What is a normal distribution curve? 3. What is a skewed distribution? 4. (a) In what main way is a positively skewed distribution different from a normal distribution? (b) Give an example, different from those described in the text, that would probably show a positively skewed distribution if data on a large enough group of participants were collected. 5. (a) In what main way is a negatively skewed distribution different from a normal distribution? (b) Give an example, different from those described in the text, that would probably show a negatively skewed distribution if data on a large enough group of participants were collected. 6. (a) When is a frequency distribution graph called bimodal? (b) Give an example, different from those described in the text, that would probably show a bimodal distribution if data on a large enough group of participants were collected. eLesson on statistics

Measures of central tendency An important feature of a frequency distribution is that it presents a complete summary of the scores (or other measures) of participants on a particular characteristic or task. However, if different groups of participants are being assessed under different conditions or they are being measured on several characteristics, summarising the data as a frequency distribution can make it difficult to compare the performance of the different groups. Therefore, data are often summarised by calculating a single numerical score that can be used to describe the data for the whole group(s). This score, called a measure of central tendency, is a descriptive statistic that indicates the central or average value of a set of scores. When a measure of central tendency is calculated, it often provides a typical score for a set of scores. Suppose you collected data for a practical activity which involved comparing males and females on a memory test. The research participants are in five year 7 classes, each of which has 25 students. Data for each of the 125 students 65 girls and 60 boys are obtained. To help determine which group performed best, a measure of central tendency could be calculated. This would provide a single score for girls and a single score for boys. Scores could then be compared to estimate which group of participants, boys or girls, performed best on the memory test. The most commonly used measures of central tendency are the mean, median and mode.

Mean The mean is the arithmetical average of all the individual scores (or measures) in a set of scores. It is calculated by adding all the scores together and dividing the total by the number of scores. For example, 10 4-year olds were required to complete a seven-piece jigsaw puzzle. The length of time (in seconds) it took each child to complete the puzzle is listed below: 26, 17, 21, 18, 12, 17, 18, 24, 25, 17 The mean for the group is calculated by adding the scores together (195), then dividing the total by the number of scores (10). The mean is 19.5 seconds. The formula for calculating the mean is shown as Χ (mean) =

∑ (sum or total of all scores)

N (number of scores)

In this example, the mean provides the most exact measure of central tendency. However, in other sets of data, the mean may not always provide the most accurate measure of central tendency of a set of C h a p t e r 7 Research methods 2

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Figure 7.18 The mean does not always give a completely accurate picture of scores.

scores, especially if the scores cluster at the extreme ends of the set of possible scores. For example, if a set of scores consisted of 140, 140, 140, 140, 180, 180, 180, 180, the mean would be 160. Suppose that these data referred to height (in centimetres) of a netball team. A manufacturer of netball skirts would be surprised when the players attended for a fitting of their skirts, having been informed that the mean height is 160 centimetres. Thus, when a mean is provided for a set of data, it doesn t necessarily follow that any of the individual scores will be the same value as the mean or even approximate it. Often the mean is calculated to several decimal places. In many instances this does not create a problem; however, sometimes the mean score may become meaningless in real life. For example, if the mean number of children per family in Australia is 1.75, it is difficult to imagine what 0.75 of a child means.

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When scores in a set of data cluster closely around a central score, the mean is a fairly accurate indicator of the typical score; that is, it is representative of the scores. If, however, the scores are very widely spread, unevenly distributed or cluster around extreme values, then the mean can be misleading. For example, a few high values within a relatively small set of data may inflate (increase) the mean. In such cases, another measure of central tendency will be a more accurate measure of the typical score and would therefore be used. Two other measures of central tendency which can be considered are the median and the mode.

Median Another way of obtaining a score that may represent the central point in a set of scores is to arrange the scores in order of size and select the score that falls in the middle as being typical of the whole set of scores. This middle score is called the median. The median is the middle score (or mid-point) of a set of scores. If the scores were represented as a frequency distribution, the median is the point that divides the distribution into two equal halves when the scores are arranged from lowest to highest (or highest to lowest). For example, the time taken (in seconds) for each child to complete the jigsaw puzzle in rank order (from lowest to highest) is: 12, 12, 17, 17, 17, 18, 18, 21, 24, 25, 26. In this example the median is 18. When there is an even number of scores, the median is the average of the two middle scores. For example, if the two middle scores are 20 and 21, the median would be 20.5. The median is a particularly useful descriptive statistic if there are limited data, but if there are a large amount of data, determining the median can be time consuming and often impractical. The median is also a useful statistic when many very high or very low scores occur in the set of scores (for example, if there is a skewed distribution) because the

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Rank

%

1

98

2

91

3

91

4

60

5

59

6

57

7

57

8

57

9

56

10

54 Total

680

Mean

68

Median

58

The calculation of the mean score on the test does not provide an accurate impression of the average score on the test, because the inclusion of three very high scores inflates the mean figure. In situations such as this, the median is a more accurate reflection of the typical score on the test as it is closer to the majority of scores in the set of data.

Generally, when most of the scores in a set of data cluster around a central value (that is, there tends to be a normal distribution), the mean is a fairly reliable indicator of a typical score; that is, it is a useful representation of the data. When extreme scores occur in a set of data (that is, a skewed distribution), a more representative measure of central tendency is the median. The mode provides a useful indicator of a common or usual score because it is the most frequently occurring score. It describes what happens most often in a set of scores; that is, what is the typical score for that group. (a)

High

re uenc

table 7.3 Test results

When to use the mean, median and mode

Low Low

(b)

High

Low Low

Mean Median Mode

High

cores (c)

High

re uenc

26, 25, 24, 21, 18, 18, 17, 17, 17, 12, 12 the mode would be 17 because it occurs three times. The mode is infrequently used in statistics because it is often not typical or representative of a complete set of data. For example, if a set of scores is 1, 1, 6, 7, 8, 10, the mode would be 1, which is not a representative scores of the complete group. If one of the scores of 1 is changed to 10, the mode shifts completely to the opposite end of the scale. Thus, a single score can alter the mode dramatically, which is in contrast to the median, and to a lesser extent the mean, where individual score changes tend to have less of an effect.

High

cores

Mode A third measure of central tendency is the mode. In everyday language, the word mode means common . This term accurately describes what the statistical mode is; that is, the mode is the most frequently occurring score in a set of scores. Using the scores again for the children completing the jigsaw puzzle:

Median Mean Mode

re uenc

median is not affected by extreme scores. For example, the test results shown in table 7.3 were obtained when a psychology teacher gave her class of 10 students a test on research methods in psychology.

Low Low

Mode Median Mean

High

cores Figure 7.19 In a normal distribution curve, (a) the mean, median and mode all have the same value and are at the exact centre of the curve at the top of the bell shape. In (b) negatively and (c) positively skewed distributions, the median is often a more accurate measure of central tendency. C h a p t e r 7 Research methods 2

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BOX 7.1 The median provides optimism Researcher Stephen Jay Gould (1985) has told how understanding information about statistics helped him cope with the news that he had a rare and serious form of cancer. Being a researcher, when he was first diagnosed with cancer he immediately headed for the library to learn all he could about the disease. The first thing he found was that it was incurable, with a median life expectancy of only eight months after diagnosis. Most people might have assumed that a median mortality of eight months means I will probably be dead in eight months . But Gould realised that although half of all patients died within eight months, the other half survived longer than that. Since his disease had been diagnosed in its early stages, he was able to begin treatment early in the illness and with his strong will to live, Gould figured he could reasonably expect to be in the half of the distribution that survived beyond eight months. Even more comforting to him was the fact that the distribution of deaths from the disease was negatively skewed: the cases to the left of the median of eight months could only extend to zero months, but those to the right of the median could go on living for years. Gould saw no reason why he should not expect to be in the tip of that right-hand tail. For Stephen Jay Gould, statistics, properly interpreted, were profoundly nurturant and life-giving . They offered him hope and inspired him to fight his disease. Many years after his initial diagnosis, Gould was still actively working in scientific research. (Adapted from Wade, C. & Tavris, C. (1990). Psychology. New York: Harper Collins.)

learnin g activit y 7. 16 review questions 1. (a) What is a measure of central tendency and what does it indicate? (b) When would a researcher use a measure of central tendency to describe data in preference to a summary of the data in a table or graph? 2. (a) How is the mean calculated? (b) When is the mean most useful as a descriptive statistic? (c) Give an example that indicates when the mean is not a particularly useful descriptive statistic. Briefly explain your choice of example. 3. (a) What is the median and how is it calculated? (b) When is the median a particularly useful descriptive statistic and why? 4. (a) What is the mode? (b) When should the mode not be used in preference to the mean or median and why?

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learning activity 7.1 7 calculating measures of central tendency 1. A researcher studied the effects of stress during pregnancy on the birth weight of babies. The following data on the birth weight (in kilograms) of babies whose mothers stated they were stressed for the majority of their pregnancy were obtained: 2.8, 3.3, 2.5, 3.0, 2.9, 4.4, 3.5, 2.7, 3.2, 4.4. (a) What is the mean weight of the sample of babies? (b) Is the mean weight an accurate representation of the babies weights? Explain your answer. (c) What is the median weight of the babies? (d) What is the mode for the data? (e) Which measure of central tendency best describes the data? Explain your answer. 2. The birth weight (in kilograms) of babies whose mothers stated they were not stressed during their pregnancy were also obtained. These data were: 3.8, 5.4, 4.3, 4.2, 3.5, 4.1, 4.0, 4.4, 3.9, 5.4. (a) What is the mean weight of the sample of babies? (b) Is the mean weight an accurate representation of the babies weights? Explain your answer. (c) What is the median weight of the babies? (d) What is the mode of this set of data? (e) Which measure of central tendency best describes the data? Explain your answer.

variability If you collected data on the ages of a sample of year 8 students, there would be very little variability. However, if you collected data on the heights or other physical characteristics of the same students there would be much greater variability. Most research data are made up of measures or values (for example, scores) where there is some variability; that is, there is a spread of scores and not all scores are the same. Suppose that two year 11 psychology teachers discussed the abilities of their respective classes. Teacher A explained that in the mid-year exam, the mean of her students results was 78%. Teacher B replied that the mean of his students results in the same exam was 68% and that his students must therefore be less capable than his colleague s. But how do you know I m not just an easy marker? One of my students got 97%. Then again, another student got 18% responded teacher A. Teacher B was surprised: The lowest mark in my class was 53%, but my highest mark was only 81%, he said, so how do we know which class has the better abilities? The discussion between the teachers indicates that a mean, on its own, doesn t provide the complete description of the data. The mean and other measures

of central tendency describe the central value of a frequency distribution. In order to more accurately represent the data, a second kind of descriptive statistic is often used a measure of variability. A measure of variability, or dispersion, indicates how widely the scores are spread or scattered around the central point. The two distributions in figure 7.20 are both normal distributions and have the same mean, but they differ in their variability; that is, how far the scores are spread either side of the mean. Mean

High

Normal distribution wit low variabilit

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A Normal distribution wit ig variabilit

B

Low Low

core

High

Figure 7.20 Both graphs are normal distributions with the same mean. Graph A shows low variability indicated by the clustering of scores around the mean. Graph B shows high variability indicated by a greater spread of scores from the mean.

In distribution A, the scores are tightly packed around the mean, indicating low variability. For example, if you graphed data collected on the length of newborn infants, it is likely that the graph would be a normal distribution with very low variability. Most scores would cluster around the mean with very little spread of scores either side of the mean. In distribution B, the scores are more widely spread from the mean, indicating high variability. For example, if you plotted data on the heights of year 8 students at a school, it is likely that the graph would be a normal distribution with very high variability. The scores are likely to be spread further from the mean, as some students will be quite short and others quite tall.

BOX 7.2 Charles Darwin s view on variability Variability within species began to be viewed in a new light after the publication of Charles Darwin s book, The Origin of Species. In this book, Darwin showed that variability is an important part of the process of natural selection. Evidence in support of this view was obtained through studying several species of finches in the Galapagos Islands, on the equator near South America. Suppose that an island is mostly populated by finches with long, narrow beaks, but with some variability; for example, a minority of finches have shorter, wider beaks. This gives them the ability to crack open harder seeds than their long-beaked relatives. Suppose also that these hard seeds suddenly become the only available source of food for the finches on the island. The finches with short beaks would now have a survival and reproductive advantage. Since they are able to feed more easily, they would live longer and produce more offspring than the long-beaked finches. Over time, this would lead to the evolution of a new species. Darwin s research suggests that variability is more than just a natural mistake it is essential to evolution. (a)

(b)

Figure 7.21 Examples of (a) short-beaked and (b) long-beaked finches

learnin g activit y 7. 18 Predicting high and low variability For each of the following examples, indicate whether you believe there is likely to be high or low variability among the data. 1. The amount of alcohol consumed to reach a blood alcohol content of 0.05% 2. The amount of alcohol consumed by adolescents on a weekly basis 3. The age at which adolescents go to their first party

4. The age at which children speak their twentieth word 5. The amount of bullying incidents in secondary schools 6. The amount of nightly sleep obtained by people of all ages 7. The number of people with a phobia 8. The number of people aged 70+ years who have experienced the death of a friend 9. The reaction times of adult participants to a visual stimulus presented on a computer screen 10. The ability to recall a recently learned list of 10 words in their correct order on the first attempt

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Measures of variability Suppose a researcher is interested in testing a hypothesis that chatting on MSN when studying produces lower performance in a test of the material being studied than does studying the same information without any distraction. Two groups of students participate in the research one group study whilst chatting on MSN with 5 friends over a 30-minute period (experimental group) and the other group study without any distraction (control group). Calculating a mean score on the test for each group of participants will assist the researchers in deciding whether their hypothesis is supported. So why do we need to know about the variability of the scores? Measuring the variability of the scores provides researchers with information about how reliable any difference between two means is (for example, the difference between the experimental and control group). If the sets of scores are highly variable (widely spread) then any difference between the means of the two groups is less reliable and is more likely to have occurred by chance. However, if each set of scores has a low variability (with scores clustered around the mean), any difference between the means of the two groups is more likely to be due to the effects of the independent variable (rather than chance), in this case, whether chatting on MSN. There are several different ways of measuring variability, including the range, variance and standard deviation.

Range The simplest measure of variability in a set of scores is provided by the range. The range is a numerical score that describes the difference between the highest and lowest score in a set of scores. The range is obtained by subtracting the smallest or lowest score from the highest score in a set of scores. It gives a very general measure of the variability of a set of scores. Note how the range is calculated for each set of scores below. These scores were obtained from a study that compared the number of social interactions of males and females during a 30-minute observation period at a party. Males: 17, 18, 18, 19, 19, 20, 20, 20, 21 Range: 21 − 17 = 4 Females: 17, 18, 18, 19, 19, 20, 20, 20, 27 Range: 27 − 17 = 10 The range can be a useful measure of variability when all the scores are clustered together and variability is low, as in the example of the number of social interactions for males. However, because the range is based only on the two extreme scores, it may give a wrong impression of the spread of scores in a set of data. For example, the 312

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number of social interactions for females has a range of 10. This gives the impression of an evenly spread distribution of scores across 10 scores when, in fact, the breadth of the range is due largely to one extreme score. That is, most scores are clustered together and it is only one extreme score that makes the range high. Therefore, although the range adds information about differences in behaviour (and hence, scores) for a group of participants, because it is only based on two figures, does not often accurately represent variability.

Variance Another measure of variability in a set of scores is the variance. Variance is a better measure of variability than the range because it is based on every score in the set of scores, not just the two extreme scores as is the range. The variance represents the spread of scores around the mean. While calculation of the variance includes every individual score in a set of scores, the variance score which results provides a very general impression of the spread of those scores. Determining the variance initially involves identifying whether an individual score is higher or lower than the mean. When the individual score is higher than the mean, the difference is said to be a positive difference. When the individual score is lower than the mean, the difference is said to be a negative difference. For example, in a set of scores such as 15, 10, 5, the mean would be 10. The individual score of 15 is five points higher than the mean and therefore a positive difference. However, the individual score of 5 is five points lower than the mean, so it is a negative difference. Because some scores are positive and other scores are negative, when the overall difference of the scores from the mean is calculated, the positive and negative scores cancel each other. This problem is overcome mathematically by squaring each score to eliminate the positive and negative signs. The squared score is the variance. Therefore, when the variance is calculated, the result obtained is in square units rather than in original units such as IQ points or test scores and so on. Variance is useful in that it can provide a comparison between two sets of data. For example, if one set of scores has a variance that is double that of another set of scores, we can say that it has twice the variance or spread. In addition, if all the scores in a set of data are the same, the variance is zero; that is, there is no variability among the set of scores. Although variance does reflect the spread of scores in a set of scores, it is not an easily interpreted number. In itself, the number that indicates the variance has little meaning it merely provides an indication of how individual scores differ from the mean. For

example, a variance of four does not mean that the score is four points different from the mean. Variance is seldom used as a measure of variability on its own, because it provides only general information about the spread of scores from the mean. A more precise and therefore widely used measure of variability is standard deviation.

Standard deviation provides information about the variability, or spread, of a set of scores in relation to the mean. If all the scores in a set of scores were the same, there would be no variability and the standard deviation would be zero because none of the scores would be spread out from the mean. A low standard deviation indicates that there is little variability in the set of scores and that most scores are clustered around the mean. In this case, the mean is a representative descriptive statistic (figure 7.22, curve C). The higher the standard deviation, the greater the variability there is among the scores (figure 7.22, curve A).

Standard deviation The standard deviation of a set of scores takes every score in the distribution into account. The standard deviation summarises how far, on average, a score differs (that is, deviates ) from the mean in the same units of measurement as the original data, for example, in IQ points, test scores and so on. The mathematical calculations involved in determining the variance and standard deviation are similar. Calculating standard deviation, however, involves one additional step taking the square root of the variance score. In so doing, the standard deviation is a more useful statistic because it is then measured in the same units as the original data. For example, if you were measuring IQ, the standard deviation for a set of data would be in IQ points, or if you were measuring reaction time on a task, the standard deviation for a set of data would be measured in milliseconds or seconds. The variance in both of these examples would be measured in IQ points squared and seconds squared units of measurement which have little meaning.

Mean High

re uenc o scores

B

A

Low Low

High

cores

Figure 7.22 This graph shows three normal distributions, each with a different standard deviation. The purple curve has the highest standard deviation and the orange curve has the lowest standard deviation.

BOX 7.3 Graphs and standard deviation

Number o scores or individuals

Standard deviations can also be shown on a graph that illustrates the variability of a distribution from the mean (figure 7.23). When standard deviations are represented on the X axis of a normal distribution curve, the percentage of scores falling between the mean and any given point on the horizontal axis is always the same.

For example, 68.26% of the scores will fall within one standard deviation either side of the mean; 95.44% of the scores will fall within two standard deviations either side of the mean. These percentages apply consistently in a normal distribution curve, irrespective of the size of the standard deviation. 99.74% 95.44% 68.26%

2.14%

2.14% 0.13%

13.59% 3

2

34.13%

34.13%

1 Mean +1 tandard deviations rom t e mean

0.13%

13.59% +2

+3

Figure 7.23 When standard deviations are represented on the X axis of a normal distribution curve, certain fixed percentages of scores fall between the mean and any given point. Most scores fall in the middle range within one standard deviation either side of the mean.

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The standard deviation is a particularly useful descriptive statistic in that it provides a point of comparison between two different sets of scores. For example, suppose a replacement teacher comes to a new school hoping for an easy day s work. The replacement teacher is offered either of two classes, both of which have a mean IQ score of 100. There appears to be no difference between the two classes. The teacher is then informed that the standard deviation of IQs in one class is 1 and the standard deviation in the other is 3. Since a higher standard deviation means more variability, the class with the standard deviation of three may take more effort to teach because students vary more in ability.

learning activity 7.1 9 review questions 1. (a) What does a measure of variability indicate? (b) Why do researchers use measures of variability when summarising their data? 2. (a) What is the range and how is it calculated? (b) What effect do extreme scores have on the range? 3. What specific information about variability of scores is provided by variance? 4. (a) What information does the standard deviation provide about the distribution of scores? (b) One set of data (A) produced a standard deviation of 1 and another set of data (B) produced a standard deviation of 2. What conclusions could be made about (A) and (B)?

Figure 7.24 A class of students with a low standard deviation of IQ scores may take less effort to teach because students are likely to be less variable in their ability.

learnin g activit y 7. 20 interpreting data using the mean and standard deviation 1. Two classes sat the same Psychology exam. The following descriptive statistics were calculated from the students results in each class: Class A: mean 70%. Class B: mean 70%. On the basis of the mean scores alone, what might teachers of these classes conclude about the knowledge of students in each Psychology class? Explain your answer.

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2. Suppose the teachers then calculated the standard deviations for their respective classes and obtained the following results: Class A: mean 70%; standard deviation: 0.5 Class B: mean 70%; standard deviation: 2.3. On the basis of this additional information, what conclusions might the teachers now draw about the knowledge of the students in each Psychology class? Explain your answer.

reliability and validity in research An important goal of research is to obtain results that are both reliable and valid. This will mean that the results are consistent and accurate. Reliability refers to the consistency, dependability and stability of the results obtained from a research study. For example, if you measured your blood alcohol level on a breathalyser and then decided to double-check it, you should expect to get the same result. Similarly, if you conducted an experiment on a group of participants and repeated it again with a similar group of participants under the same conditions, you should expect the results to be very similar on each occasion the experiment is conducted. Because conducting an experiment is a more complicated process than measuring your blood alcohol level, it is not expected that the results will be identical each time the experiment is conducted. However, if the results are to be considered reliable, then they should be similar each time the experiment is repeated. Of course, a researcher always sets out to obtain reliable results. However, when their study is repeated, it may be found that the results are not reliable. This is more likely to occur if the study is not repeated in exactly the same way in which it was first conducted; for example, if there are differences in important personal characteristics of participants or if the conditions under which the study was first conducted are significantly different in some way. Validity means that the research study has produced results that accurately measure the behaviour or event that it claims to have measured. For example, if you measured your biceps with a cloth tape measure that had been left outside in the open weather for a long time and had become inaccurate through stretching, the result would not be a valid measure of your true bicep size. The inaccurate cloth tape measure, however, is reliable as it will give you the same result each time it is used. In other words, a measure can be reliable even though it is not valid, but a measure cannot be valid unless it is reliable. Another type of validity relates to the conclusions the researcher makes about a study. In this case, the results are valid if the conclusion(s) drawn by the researcher is (are) correct. This means that the conclusion is specifically based on those variables that the study was investigating and the data obtained from the study. For example, if a researcher concludes that a new drug they tested in an experiment reduces symptoms of depression, or that participants

in a taste-preference study preferred Coca-Cola over Pepsi, the research is valid only if the new drug really works or if the participants really did prefer Coca-Cola (Stangor, 1998). As with seeking reliability, researchers always attempt to conduct valid research; that is, they attempt to draw accurate conclusions from their data. Yet often, despite a researcher s best intentions, their research is invalid or not as valid as it could have been. This can occur for a number of different reasons. Sometimes a researcher may draw a conclusion from their data that cannot actually be drawn; that is, the data do not actually justify, support or back up the conclusion. Another reason that research and its results may be invalid is because one or more extraneous variables have not been adequately controlled, have become confounding variables, and have therefore influenced the results in an important way. For example, in an experiment, a confounding variable and the IV will both affect the results. When this happens, the researcher will find it difficult to separate the effects of the IV and the confounding variable and therefore cannot be certain whether it was the IV or the confounding variable that caused the change in the DV. Researchers often distinguish between the internal and external validity of their studies. They consider both internal and external validity in judging the overall validity of a study. Internal validity refers to the design of the research and the procedures used to conduct the study. For example, researchers need to be confident that the specific method used to conduct a study actually tests the hypothesis and that the hypothesis has been tested in a convincing way. If a study has gaps or flaws , such as using a sampling procedure that resulted in an unrepresentative sample when it was important to have a representative sample, then the study may be considered as lacking in internal validity. External validity means that the conclusions can be generalised ( applied ) to the population from which the sample used in the study was drawn. For example, a researcher conducted a laboratory experiment on the effects of stress on behaviour using a relatively small sample of participants. If the experiment has external validity, this means that the conclusions can be generalised to apply to situations outside, or external to, the laboratory. Often, researchers must strike a balance between internal and external validity, because the more strictly a researcher controls what participants experience, the less the situation may resemble life outside the laboratory (Westen, Burton & Kowalski, 2006). C h a p t e r 7 Research methods 2

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BOX 7.4 Statistical significance and p values The term statistical significance is used to indicate how likely (or unlikely) it is that any result obtained from a research study is due to chance. In most experiments, there will usually be a difference in the mean scores of the experimental and control groups. For example, the mean score on a task requiring concentration (time taken to thread a needle) achieved by the experimental group with a loud noise present (the IV) may be 15.7 seconds and the mean score on the same task the control group without noise may be 12.6 seconds. Can it be concluded that the difference in mean scores is due to the independent variable? Perhaps the difference was due to chance factors? For example, perhaps the independent and control groups were slightly different in their composition, or make up , of participant characteristics, such as eyesight, despite the use of random allocation. Random allocation doesn t guarantee even distribution of participant characteristics in the different groups of an experiment. Perhaps there were a few individuals with slightly better eye hand coordination in the control group? Perhaps the light was slightly better when the control group participants performed the needle-threading task? Perhaps the experimenter was tired and slightly impatient when instructing the experimental group participants? Perhaps the effects of these three apparently controlled variables added up and combined in such a way as to cause the difference? How big does the difference in the mean scores between two groups need to be before it can be said that the difference is due to the independent variable rather than chance factors? What is an acceptable difference between the mean scores? Is a difference such as 3.1 seconds (15.7 minus 12.6) big enough ? Is 2.5 seconds a big enough difference? 4.5 seconds? One way to find out if the results of the experiment (or correlational study) are due to the variables that were tested rather than due to chance factors is to repeat these studies several times in exactly the same way with the same participants to see if the results are about the same each time the study is replicated. This would be very time consuming, inconvenient and possibly impractical because participants may not be continually available. However, it is usually unnecessary to undertake these replications. A more efficient way of measuring the reliability of the results is to apply a test of statistical significance to the results. A test of statistical significance is used to determine the extent to which chance influenced the results of a study and whether this is at an acceptable level. The test would enable a precise statistical or mathematical

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value to be obtained. This value, which is expressed as a decimal number out of 100, will indicate the likelihood, or probability, that if the same study were repeated, a specific result, such as the difference in mean scores, would be similar (or different). If the likelihood of the given result occurring by chance is very low, then it is said that the result is statistically significant. If the result is statistically significant, then the researcher can conclude that chance factors did not influence the result at an unacceptably high level. In such a case, the psychologist can also conclude that the result supports the research hypothesis being tested. Just what is an acceptable or unacceptable level, or cut-off point , when determining the role of chance factors? In general, psychologists accept a given result, such as the difference in mean scores, as statistically significant if it is found that the probability or likelihood that the result might be due to chance is 5 or fewer times ( 5) in 100, or a 1 in 20 chance, if the same study were to be repeated 100 times. The way of saying this is that the result is significant at the 0.05 level; that is p 0.05. A significance level of p 0.06 (less than or equal to 0.06) would indicate that there was a 6% (or 6 or less in 100) chance that the result obtained was most likely due to chance and this would generally be viewed as unacceptable. It would then be said that the results are not significant and therefore do not support the research hypothesis. The level of significance of any given result is called a p value, with p standing for probability. An acceptable p value for results is established before the research study is conducted. In some cases, a stricter probability level than p 0.05 is used, such as p 0.01 (less than or equal to 1 in 100) and p 0.001 (less than or equal to 1 in 1000). Such a probability level would be used when the findings of the research are so important that the researcher wants to be extremely confident of the results; for example, when the research hypothesis being tested involves a radical new way of treating depression or if it contradicts a research finding or theory that is widely accepted. In some other cases, a researcher might be prepared to accept a more lenient level of significance than p 0.05. For example, a researcher may conduct a pilot, or trial , study on a research topic of interest to see if it is worthwhile carrying out a full-scale research study. The researcher may set a significance level of 10% (p 0.1). This would indicate that there may be a significant difference in the mean scores obtained or the correlation between the two variables may be of a particular strength or direction. Therefore, it is worth continuing with further research, perhaps with refinements to the procedures.

RePoRting conventions The final and very important stage in conducting research involves writing a report on the research and its findings. This is done for two main reasons: • to communicate or share the results with others, particularly other researchers interested in what was studied, and • to enable replication of the study to test the validity and reliability of its results. When reporting research, psychologists provide a detailed description of the study and its findings. The report has two important characteristics: • there is enough information to enable close examination of all stages of the investigation (including the results), and, if required, to replicate the study; and • reporting conventions are used. Reporting conventions are well-established and widely-recognised standards, or rules , about how a report is written and presented. Reporting conventions determine aspects of the report such as writing style, structure of the report, headings, presentation of tables and graphs, and formats for referencing. For example, the writing style, or language used in a psychological research report is like that of all scientific reports. The language is formal, clear, concise, written in the past tense, in the third person and using the passive voice. Appropriate phrases that meet these language standards are: An experiment was conducted to test . . . , Each participant was . . . , The results show . . . , It can be concluded that . . . . Scientific reports are not written using the first person, for example, I did . . . , We asked . . . , In my opinion . . . , I believe that . . . , . . .and then we asked the participants to . . . . Conventions for psychological research reports are based on those described in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Fifth Edition (2001). This manual, commonly called the APA manual , is widely recognised and used by psychologists throughout the world to guide their preparation and presentation of research reports. These conventions are also used by psychology students for writing research reports conducted as part of their studies. The following guidelines for writing a research report and referencing are based on the APA manual.

conducted. Generally, the report is presented in a logical sequence that describes: • What was done • Why it was done • How it was done • What was found • What the findings probably mean. Although the different sections of the report described below are usually presented in the order shown, they do not have to be prepared in that order. For example, the abstract which summarises the investigation appears first in the report but is usually easier to write last.

title This should be brief (usually one sentence) and indicate clearly what the investigation was about. Quite often, researchers use a statement based on the hypothesis for a title.

abstract This is a brief summary (about 120 words) of the investigation, usually presented as a single paragraph. It should include a statement of the purpose (that is, aim) of the investigation, the main features of the method (information about the participants and an overview of the procedures used), the results (main findings) and the conclusion(s).

introduction This section (about 200 250 words) gives the background of the investigation. It often summarises relevant theory and results of other research related to the research investigation. The introduction provides background information for the current investigation. If you are unable to find relevant background information, or it is not required by your teacher, then you should explain the rationale (that is, reasoning) for conducting the investigation. The introduction is often written in a way that leads the reader to a statement of the aim (purpose) of the investigation and the hypothesis which was tested. The hypothesis is usually included in the last paragraph of the introduction and should be expressed as a specific statement which is operationalised and refers to the independent and dependent variables.

research report

Method

A research report is presented in sections that follow a set order. However the structure of the report and organisation of the sections may sometimes be modified to suit the particular investigation that was

This section (about 150 200 words) clearly describes how the investigation was conducted. There should be enough details for the reader to know exactly what was done so that the investigation could be replicated C h a p t e r 7 Research methods 2

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exactly in order to test the results. The method is often divided into three sections participants (or subjects), materials (or apparatus) and procedure. Participants. This section includes details on how many participants were used, important characteristics that might have influenced the results (such as age, sex, educational background), the population (that is, the larger group) from which they were drawn, and how the participants were selected (that is, the sampling procedure) and allocated to groups. Details of the participants are often presented as a table. Materials. A list of the equipment and other materials used. A diagram(s) can be used, if appropriate. A description of word lists, questionnaires, observation checklists, test items, data sheets and so on which were used in conducting the research should be included. These should be referred to in this section by listing them and examples should be included in an appendix at the end of the report. Procedure. A detailed description of the steps involved in conducting the investigation. This information should be presented in a logical sequence (for example, step-by-step). Information about the roles of the experimenter and specific instructions given to participants (where appropriate) should be included. (If you used a procedure described elsewhere, your teacher may permit you to cite the source instead of writing all the information.)

results This section has a summary of the main results. These should be accurate and displayed clearly. Tables, graphs, charts and other figures are used, depending on the type of data collected. Each of these should be numbered and have a descriptive title (in italics); for example, Table 1. Age differences in . . . and Figure 1. Number of correctly recalled . . . The title of a table is placed at the top of the table and the title of a figure is placed at the bottom of the figure. The reader should be able to understand any table or figure without referring to another section of the report. Only summary data should be presented in the results section. Raw data should be included only in an appendix. Generally, detailed comments (that is, interpretation) on the results are included in the discussion.

Discussion In this section (about 200 250 words), the results are interpreted and explained. The section usually starts with a statement about whether the hypothesis is supported or rejected on the basis of the results obtained. 318

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The general relevance of the results to the population from which the sample was drawn, and to the theory or other research (referred to in the introduction), should also be described. In drawing conclusions, variables other than the IV and their possible impact on the results should be considered and explained. It may also be appropriate to suggest ways of effectively controlling such variables if the experiment were to be replicated.

references This section has a list of all sources cited in the report (but no others). Every quotation or summary of information from another source which is used in the report must be substantiated with a reference. The list of references should be presented in alphabetical order based on the surname of the first named author of a source. The formats for writing references which are commonly used in psychology are described in box 7.5.

appendices (if any) This is where materials which do not fit into the other sections of the report are placed. There should be a different appendix for each set or category of materials. Each appendix should be numbered and have a title (for example, Appendix 1. Test items for visual perception skills). Materials included in an appendix should be referred to in the body of the report (for example, Test items for visual perception skills (see Appendix 1)).

BOX 7.5 Referencing in psychology The APA manual also describes conventions for citing and referencing sources of information used in a research report, essay or other psychological document. The conventions described in the APA manual are based on referencing styles commonly known as the author date or Harvard system. There are numerous examples of the APA method, in the references at the back of this text. Citations Whenever another source is used to present evidence, give an example, develop an argument and so on, the source must be cited. This procedure helps the reader distinguish between your ideas and work and those of another person(s). When writing a research report or essay, it is sometimes necessary to cite within a sentence, and at other times at the end of a sentence (or paragraph).

Examples of how this is done are: Within a sentence One author: In a study by Trotter (2001), participants were required . . . Two authors : A similar result was reported by Trinh and Jones (2002), who found that . . .Three or more authors: Black, White and Yellow (2005) studied the effects of . . Three or more authors cited again : Black et al. (2006) concluded that . . . Note that et al. is a short form of et alia , which is Latin for and others . In this text we prefer to use and others for citations from journal articles or texts with four or more authors. At the end of a sentence One author : The sex of the person in need of help was a factor that influenced whether or not the research participants would provide help (Willow, 2005). Two authors : Our attitudes do not always match our behaviour (Pine & Chan, 2004). Three or more authors : This behaviour is not unique to humans. It has also been observed in primates such as apes and gorillas (Cole, Voulos, Schnell & Koumaki, 2005). Or, if the study has been cited previously . . . apes and gorillas (Cole et al., 2004).

Citing references within sources Sometimes you need to cite a source that was referred to by another author; for example, when you read about a study or research finding that was summarised and cited in a textbook. In this case, you would cite the source as follows: Watson (as cited in White, 2008) replicated the study using . . . Quoting from a source If you copy (word for word) information from another source instead of summarising the information using your own words, you should use quotation marks at the start and end of the quotation, use an ellipsis ( . . .) when you omit words, and provide the reference and page number. For example: Tanaka and Young (1988) explained the observation in terms of . . . the inability of a three-month-old child to recognise themself (p. 18). References The reference list includes all references used in compiling the report or essay. The references are listed in alphabetical order based on the surname of the first author (if there is more than one) using the formats in the following chart.

Type of publication Format

Example

Book

1. Author. (The surname of an author and their initials. If there is more than one author, the names are presented in the order they appear on the title page of the book.) 2. Year of publication. (Enclosed in brackets, followed by a full stop) 3. Title of the book. (Underlined or italicised and followed by a full stop) 4. City of publication and state (if city is not well known). (Followed by a colon) 5. Name of the publisher. (Followed by a full stop)

Book with one author: Carr-Gregg, M. (2005). Surviving Adolescence. Camberwell, Vic: Penguin.

1. Author. (The surname of an author and their initials. If there is more than one author, the names are presented in the order they appear in the article.) 2. Year of publication. (Enclosed in brackets, followed by a full stop) 3. Title of the article. (Followed by a full stop) 4. Title of the journal. (Underlined or italicised and followed by a comma) 5. Volume number of the journal. (Underlined or italicised and followed by a comma) 6. Page numbers. (Followed by a full stop)

One author: Caughy, M.O. (1996). Health and environmental effects on the academic readiness of school age children. Developmental Psychology, 32, 515 522.

Article in journal

Book with two or more authors: Plomin, R., DeFries, J.C., McClearn, G.E. & Rutter, M. (1997). Behavioural Genetics. New York: W.M. Freeman & Company.

Two or more authors: Bushman, B.J. & Huesmann, L.R. (2006). Short-term and longterm effects of violent media on aggression in children and adults. Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine, 160 (4), 348 352.

(continued)

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Type of publication Format

Example

Newspaper or magazine

1. Author. (The surname of an author and their initials. If there is more than one author, the names are presented in the order they appear in the article.) 2. Date of publication. (Enclosed in brackets, with the year before the date, followed by a full stop) 3. Title of the newspaper or magazine. (Underlined or italicised and followed by a comma) 4. Page numbers. (Followed by a full stop)

If you know the author: Benson, K. (2008, July 15). Study shows busy minds good for the what s-its-name. The Age, p. 13. If you do not know the author: Mother pleads guilty to attack on teen. (2009, August 12). Herald Sun, p. 32.

Internet sites

1. Author. (The surname of the author and their initials or the organisation followed by a full stop) 2. Date of webpage publication. (If available and enclosed in brackets, followed by a full stop) 3. Title of article. (If specified) 4. When (month, date, year) information was retrieved. (Followed by a comma and the word from) 5. Full http address. (Not followed by a full stop)

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2008). Population by Age and Sex, Australian States and Territories. Retrieved January 26, 2009, from http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@ nsf/primarymainfeatures

Motion picture (movie), TV, DVD, audio

1. Main contributors. (The surname, and, in brackets, Elissa Down (Director). (2007). The Black the role of the main contributors, usually the producer, Balloon (Motion picture). Australia: Black director and/or writer) Balloon Productions. 2. Year or date released. (Enclosed in brackets and followed by a full stop) 3. Title. (Underlined or italicised) 4. Motion Picture. (Identify as a motion picture or other media type, in brackets and followed by a full stop.) 5. Origin. (Give the motion picture s country of origin, where it was primarily made and the name of the production company)

Personal communication or interview

1. Personal communications or quotes from interview are cited within the text. They are not listed in the References. 2. At the end of the quoted information, provide the initial(s) and surname of the source of the information followed by the date, month and year the information was obtained. 3. Enclose the source and date of the information in brackets, followed by a full stop.

L. Cosgrave (interview, 23 May, 2009).

Year of publication

Authors names: last name followed by initials

Title of article

arr regg, M , nderb , rover, ( ) isk taking be aviour o oung women in Australia screening or ealt risk be aviours Australian Journal of Psychology, 178 (12),

Name of journal in italics

Journal volume numbers in italics

Figure 7.25 Example of the conventions used by psychologists for referencing

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Page numbers in the journal

learnin g activit y 7. 21

true/Fa lse Qui z

review questions

Indicated whether each item is true or false by writing T or F in the blank space next to each item.

1. Explain the meaning of the term reporting convention. 2. What is a potential benefit of following conventions when reporting research? 3. List, in their correct order, the main sections of a report on psychological research. 4. Consider box 7.5 on referencing in psychology. Rewrite the following references correctly for inclusion in the reference list for a psychological research report or essay. (a) Joseph Santana, Psychology of the adolescent 2006, John Wiley & Sons, Milton, Queensland pages 73 5. (b) Maria Kotsakidas, Henry J Smith and William Tan. Prosocial behavior in Eastern cultures, page 26 of 4th Edition. Published in 2009 by Cougar Publishers Incorporated in Tokyo Japan. (c) Reports on death row and bereavement of friends and relatives by people aged 80+. Journal article by Peter William Tobin, Susan Willow and Chester Willis McFadden in 2006 Volume 27 of the Australian Journal of Social Psychology on pages 34 41 (d) An article called Violence Reigns Supreme in King Street on page 22 of the Age on Wednesday 20th July 2009; written by Felicity Mohammad.

1.

_____ Quantitative research involves numerical data.

2.

_____ A valid research study is one with results that are likely to be similar if the study is repeated using a different sample.

3.

_____ The mode is the mid-point in a set of scores.

4.

_____ A measure of variability indicates how often a score occurs in a set of scores.

5.

_____ An extraneous variable is a variable other than the IV that can cause a change in the DV.

6.

_____ A negatively skewed distribution will have a disproportionate number of high scores.

7.

_____ A confounding variable can cause the predicted change in the DV.

8.

_____ The standard deviation summarises the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a set of scores.

9.

_____ A formal report on research is written in the past tense.

10. _____ A positive correlation means that two variables tend to change in the same direction. The answers to the true/false questions are in the answer section at the back of this book and in eBookPLUS.

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Multiple-choice questions

Choose the response that is correct or that best answers the question. A correct answer scores 1, an incorrect answer scores 0. Marks will not be deducted for incorrect answers. No marks will be given if more than one answer is completed for any question. 1. An operational hypothesis for an experiment states A. whether the results are valid and reliable. B. the key characteristics of the hypothesis. C. whether the IV and DV can be controlled. D. how the IV and DV will be observed and measured. 2. Descriptive statistics are used to A. organise and summarise results. B. operationalise a hypothesis. C. draw conclusions from results. D. identify the IV and DV in a hypothesis. 3. A confounding variable is best described as A. an IV that causes the predicted change in the DV. B. a variable that may have caused a change in the DV, making it difficult to isolate the effect(s) of the DV. C. a DV that has an unwanted effect(s) on the IV. D. a variable that has not been operationalised causing the experimenter to become confused. 4. A researcher collects scores on a reading ability test and hours of TV watching per week for a sample and then calculates a correlation coefficient of 0.74. What conclusion may be drawn from this result? A. Watching TV causes a person to have lower reading ability. B. Higher reading ability test scores tend to be achieved by people who watch a lot of TV. C. Higher reading ability test scores tend to be achieved by people who do not watch a lot of TV. D. Fewer hours of TV watching are co-related with lower scores on reading ability. 5. Reporting conventions refer to A. standards for writing a research report. B. the validity and reliability of a research report. C. standards for replicating research. D. rules that must be followed when conducting research. 322

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6. Which of the following values is most affected by extreme scores? A. mean B. median C. mode D. range

The following information relates to questions 7, 8, 9 and 10. 7. In an experiment on memory, a psychologist collected the data shown below from 10 different participants. The data were scores on a test of the number of items in a list of 10 words that could be remembered one month after first learning the words. 1, 4, 7, 5, 7, 2, 3, 7, 1, 3 The mean of the scores is A. 30. B. 3.8. C. 7. D. 4. 8. The range for the scores is A. 10. B. 6. C. 7. D. 4. 9. The median for the scores is A. 4. B. 3. C. 3.5. D. 3.8. 10. The mode for the scores is A. 10. B. 7. C. 3.8. D. 6.

11. If you know that your height is the median height for your age, then your height is A. higher and lower than half of the people your age. B. the average for everyone your age. C. the most common height for your age. D. at the extreme end for people of your age. 12. The number of times that a value or measure occurs in a set of data is shown by A. standard deviation. B. frequency distribution. C. measure of central tendency. D. variance. 13. An extraneous variable is linked to the motivation of the participants in an experiment. This type of extraneous variable is best described as a/an variable. A. situational B. participant C. confounding D. experimenter 14. Measures of variability are used to find out the A. frequency distribution of a set of scores. B. average or middle point of a set of scores. C. most commonly occurring score(s) in a set of scores. D. spread of scores from the mean for the set of scores. 15. The standard deviation is used to find out the A. difference between the highest and lowest scores in a set of scores. B. spread of scores from the mean and therefore the variability of individual scores. C. spread of scores from the mean but not the variability, as the lowest score is not subtracted from the highest score. D. most commonly occurring scores in a set of scores. 16. A difference between a confounding variable and an extraneous variable is that A. a confounding variable may or may not affect the IV. B. a confounding variable may or may not affect the DV. C. an extraneous variable may or may not affect the IV. D. an extraneous variable may or may not affect the DV.

The following information relates to Questions 17 and 18. A

B

Y

Y

X C

X D

Y

Y

X

X

17. Which scatter plot shows a strong negative correlation? A. Plot A B. Plot B C. Plot C D. Plot D 18. Which scatter plot shows a strong positive correlation? A. Plot A B. Plot B C. Plot C D. Plot D 19. A researcher is interested in studying the extent to which education level can be used to predict political preferences. The researcher would most likely conduct A. a participant observational study. B. a non-participant observational study. C. correlational research. D. experimental research. 20. The direction of a correlation refers to A. whether the correlation is positive or negative. B. whether one variable is likely to have caused a change in another variable. C. the degree to which the two variables are co-related. D. the extent of the spread of a set of data on a scatter plot.

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Short-answer questions

Answer all questions in the spaces provided. Question 1

In a normal distribution, most of the data are located toward the of the distribution. 1 mark

Question 2

When can it be said that a confounding variable may have been present in an experiment?

1 mark

Question 3

Explain the difference between a conclusion that can be drawn from a study that uses an experimental design and a study that measures the correlation between variables.

2 marks

Question 4

A psychology student wanted to investigate whether VCE students who cannot recall their dreams have a low level of attention. Construct an operational hypothesis for this study.

2 marks

Question 5

Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative research with reference to an example of a research topic that would be suitable for each research type.

4 marks

eBook plus The answers to the multiple-choice questions are in the answer section at the back of this book and in eBookPLUS. The answers to the short-answer questions are in eBookPLUS. Note that you can complete Section A of the chapter test online through eBookPLUS and get automatic feedback.

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CHAPTER

8

ATTITUDE FORMATION AND CHANGE Attitude formation ...................................... 326 Tri-component model of attitudes .................................................... 327 Attitudes and behaviour .................... 329 Factors influencing attitude formation ................................................. 333 Attitudes towards people ........................ 337 Stereotyping .............................................. 337 Prejudice and discrimination ......... 340 Factors contributing to the development of prejudice ........... 346 Factors that may reduce prejudice .................................................. 349 Measurement of attitudes ....................... 359 Observational studies ........................... 359 Self-report methods .............................. 360 Advantages and limitations of attitude measurement devices ........................................................ 365 Ethics in conducting research on attitude measurement ............. 366

ATTITUDE FORMATION Is the Eureka Tower an eyesore? Should pokie machines be banned? Should VCE students be allowed to leave the school grounds when they are not required to be in class? Is a one-year break between VCE and tertiary studies worthwhile? Should politicians be legally obligated to tell the truth? Do you enjoy heavy metal music? What is the best age at which to get married? Are there better ways of spending the money used to stage the opening and closing ceremonies at the Olympic Games? Should public transport be free? What do you think of terrorists? Your reactions to these questions reflect your likes and dislikes about objects, people, groups, events and issues. These reactions are what psychologists generally call attitudes. We have intense feelings about some of our attitudes, but others are less important to us. Although some of our attitudes are not as strong as others, the attitudes we form tend to last. Our attitudes are learned through experience. They reflect our unique experiences as individuals, as well as our socio-cultural background. As we interact with different individuals and groups, and as we are exposed to various kinds of media and life in general, we form attitudes, are influenced by them, display them to others, argue about them and sometimes change them. We are aware of many of our attitudes, but there are some of which we are unaware until we need to express them. Attitudes can be viewed as ideas that we hold about ourselves, others, objects and experiences. The term attitude can be defined in many different ways, but contemporary psychologists commonly define an attitude as an evaluation a person makes about an object, person, group, event or issue. This definition indicates that we can form attitudes towards anything for example, ferris wheels and computers (objects); ourselves and politicians (people); our friendship group and Greenpeace (groups); Easter and elections (events); and euthanasia and global warming (issues). In defining an attitude, the term evaluation refers to a judgement being made, either positive, negative or neutral, about some specific aspect of our lives and the world in which we live. This means that attitudes involve reactions likes and dislikes, feelings for and against, preferences and aversions, or non-involvement (where an actual response is not necessary). However, the judgement (evaluation) must be relatively consistent and lasting for it to be called an attitude. Figure 8.1 We form attitudes towards all kinds of objects, people, groups, events and issues. A key characteristic of an attitude is that it involves an evaluation, or judgement, which may be positive, negative or neutral. 326

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tri-component model of attitudes Psychologists have proposed various theories and models to explain and/or describe what attitudes are, how they are formed and the circumstances under which they may change. The most influential and widely used model is called the tri-component, or multicomponent, model of attitudes. The tri-component model of attitudes proposes that any attitude has three related components the affective, behavioural and cognitive components which are sometimes referred to as the ABCs of attitudes (Aronson, 2008). The affective component of an attitude refers to the emotional reactions or feelings an individual has towards an object, person, group, event or issue. Thus, it is based on a judgement which results in a positive response (for example, liking or favouring), a negative response (for example, disliking or hating) or a neutral response (for example, lack of interest or concern). The affective component of an attitude is reflected by expressions such as I enjoy chatting with friends on MSN (positive), I hate country music (negative) and I m not interested in politics (neutral). The behavioural component of an attitude refers to the way in which an attitude is expressed through our actions (or how we might behave should the opportunity arise). For example, running to keep fit or protesting about an increase in tertiary HECS (fee) payments are actions that reflect the behavioural component of your

attitudes towards fitness and the requirement to pay higher fees for university studies. The cognitive component of an attitude refers to the beliefs we have about an object, person, group, event or issue. Our beliefs are linked to what we know about the world. They develop as a result of our experience throughout the course of our lives. Some beliefs are based on fact. For example, the belief that AIDS can be transmitted by heterosexuals as well as homosexuals is true. However, some beliefs are false. For example, it is not true that all psychologists and psychiatrists do the same kind of work. Furthermore, some beliefs can be verified and others cannot be proven. For example, we can verify the belief about heterosexual transmission of AIDS by asking a doctor or by checking a book on AIDS. However, we cannot verify the belief that there is intelligent life in another galaxy. An attitude involving a verifiable belief is more easily changed than an attitude involving an unverifiable belief. Although the affective, cognitive and behavioural components of an attitude have been described separately, the tri-component model proposes that all three components must be present before it can be said that an attitude exists. In many cases, the affective, cognitive and behavioural components are consistent. For example, you might feel good about going to school (affective component) and work hard in and out of class (behavioural component) because you believe that good grades are required to get into the tertiary course of most interest to you (cognitive component).

Figure 8.2 The behavioural component of an attitude refers to the way in which an attitude is expressed through actions; for example, by attending a protest march. C h a p t e r 8 Attitude formation and change

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Similarly, you might avoid a spider (behavioural component) because you are scared of spiders (affective component) and believe spiders can harm you (cognitive component).

learning activity 8.1

Cognitive component (beliefs)

review questions

Attitude

Affective component (feelings)

Behavioural component (actions)

Figure 8.3 The tri-component model of attitudes proposes that all attitudes have three related components. The model describes what an attitude is and the three components, but it does not explain how attitudes form or change.

Some psychologists believe that there are possibly only affective and cognitive components of attitudes because a person s behaviour does not always reflect the attitude they hold; that is, the behavioural component is often inconsistent with the affective and cognitive components of the attitude. For example, a person may dislike watching test cricket (affective component) because they believe it takes too long for a result (cognitive component), but they may choose to attend a match because their friends are going (behavioural component). Furthermore, a person may know that dental hygiene is important and agrees that six-monthly dental visits are vital (cognitive component), but refuses to go to the dentist (behavioural component) because the sound of a dental drill makes them feel anxious (affective component). There are also times when the behavioural component is consistent with one other component, but these two components are inconsistent with the third component. This often results from one or more of the components being stronger, or more intense, than the other(s). For example, a person may be in love with their partner (affective component), have doubts about the future of the relationship (cognitive component), but continue in the relationship (behavioural component). In this example, the affective and behavioural components do not correspond with the cognitive component, and the heart has ruled the head . Consider also the example of a person who hates pumpkin soup (affective component) but eats it when staying 328

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at a friend s place (behavioural component) because the person believes it is the polite thing to do (cognitive component). In this case, the head has ruled the heart .

1. Give a psychological definition of the term attitude. 2. How can an attitude be distinguished from a passing thought about someone or something? 3. (a) Outline what the tri-component model is, ensuring you refer to its key assumptions. (b) Give a brief description of each component, with reference to an example of each component different from those used in the text. 4. Give an example that illustrates when the three components are consistent and an example of when they are inconsistent. Use examples different from those used in the text.

learning activity 8.2 analysing attitudes Consider the following attitude statements and identify the affective, behavioural and cognitive components that may form the attitude of each statement. 1. VCE students are young adults and therefore should not have to bring a note when absent from school. I resent being treated like a child. 2. I don t care if someone doesn t get a job if they don t dress appropriately for the job interview. They don t deserve the job. 3. I d rather play basketball than netball because it s much more exciting and you are less likely to be injured. 4. I m not particularly interested in Australian Rules football and I don t know much about it so there s no way I would go to a match. 5. There should be harsher penalties for drink-driving. It was devastating when my friend was seriously injured as a result of a drink driver s recklessness. I ll never drink when I m responsible for driving.

learning activity 8.3 visual presentation tri-component of attitudes Prepare a graphic organiser to summarise an attitude based on the model shown in figure 8.3. Use an example of an attitude that is of interest to you.

limitations of the tri-component model of attitudes The inconsistency which can occur between the three different components of an attitude appears to the observer as an inconsistency, usually between a person s attitude and their actual behaviour. Attitudes and behaviour are also frequently linked because many people believe that attitudes play a significant role in influencing or even directing behaviour. Therefore, it is sometimes assumed that understanding a person s attitude enables us to predict their behaviour with considerable accuracy. However, this assumption has been challenged by research findings. One of the first research studies on the relationship between attitudes and behaviour was conducted by American sociologist Richard La Piere (1934). La Piere was interested in finding out whether there was a consistency between a person s attitudes towards others with different racial backgrounds and their behaviour towards such people, as demonstrated by discrimination (treating them differently). Over a two-year period, beginning in 1930, La Piere travelled 16 000 km around the United States with a Chinese couple. They stayed in 66 hotels, motels or caravan parks, and dined in 184 different restaurants. La Piere expected that he and his Chinese companions would experience considerable discrimination, because there was widespread prejudice against Asians in America at that time. To his surprise, however, La Piere and the Chinese couple were refused service on only one occasion and La Piere judged their treatment overall to be good in nearly 50% of the places they visited. Six months later, he sent a questionnaire and accompanying letter to the manager of each restaurant and the places they had stayed at. In the letter he asked the question, Will you accept members of the Chinese race as guests in your establishment? La Piere received replies from about 50% of the places they had visited. In these replies, only one response stated that they would accept Chinese visitors as guests. As indicated by their responses, their attitudes clearly differed from their actual behaviour towards the Chinese couple. La Piere concluded that attitudes do not reliably predict behaviour. However, a number of criticisms have been made about La Piere s research method which may have led to an incorrect conclusion. For example, La Piere s presence with the Chinese couple may have encouraged a different response from that which the Chinese couple may have received had they visited alone. Furthermore, while the group received good customer service face-to-face, the responses to the letters may have been completed by different

employees from those who actually attended to them when they visited (Wicker, 1969). Despite these criticisms, later studies have also found inconsistency between attitudes and behaviour. Most psychologists now believe that a person s attitudes and behaviour are not always consistent and sometimes a person s attitudes and observable behaviour will be unrelated or only slightly related (Aronson, 2008; Westen, Burton & Kowalski, 2006). Because our actual behaviours may not always reflect our true feelings and beliefs, some psychologists do not support the tri-component model of attitudes. Instead, they suggest that an attitude only has affective and cognitive components, and that there is no behavioural component. However, most psychologists still support the tri-component model of attitudes but accept that it is unrealistic to expect attitudes to always correspond perfectly with behaviour because it seems that behaviour is rarely the product of a single influence there are many influences on our behaviour besides our attitudes. However, this does not mean that attitudes and behaviour are never closely related. Under certain conditions, attitudes and behaviour are more likely to match.

learning activity 8.4 evaluation of research Piere (1934)

la

Prepare a flow chart summary of the main features of the experiment by La Piere (1934). You should: 1. state a possible aim of the experiment 2. construct a possible hypothesis 3. identify the independent and dependent variables 4. identify the participants and how they were selected 5. briefly state the main results obtained 6. briefly state the conclusion that was drawn from these results 7. identify two limitations or criticisms of the research method 8. identify a key ethical issue relevant to the research.

attitudes and behaviour There are many factors that influence whether attitudes and behaviour will be consistent. Research findings have identified a number of conditions when it is more likely that attitudes and behaviour will match. Some of the more important conditions involve how strongly we hold the attitude, how easily the attitude comes to mind, the situation we are in, and our personal belief that we can actually perform the behaviour associated with an attitude. C h a p t e r 8 Attitude formation and change

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Strength of the attitude A strong attitude is an attitude that is usually thought about, well-known and easily accessible. It also tends to be personally relevant and have a strong underlying emotional component. The stronger the attitude, the more likely it is that it will be stable and consistent over time, be resistant to change, and influence behaviour. Stronger attitudes are more likely to predict behaviour than weaker attitudes. American social psychologist Stephen Kraus (1995) analysed the results of more than one hundred research studies on attitudes and behaviour. On the basis of this meta analysis, Kraus concluded that an attitude tends to be closely linked to behaviour and can be used to predict behaviour when the attitude is strongly held. He also found that people with a strong attitude towards something tend to hold that attitude with a lot of confidence and certainty that it is the right attitude. This means that the person who has long believed with great confidence that couples of the same sex should be able to legally marry is more likely to do something that demonstrates their attitude, such as attending a protest march or writing a letter to their parliamentary representative in support of same-sex marriages.

was obtained. If information relating to an attitude is obtained through direct experience rather than indirect experience, then it will usually be associated with a stronger attitude. For example, your attitude towards cyberbullying is more likely to be stronger if you have personally experienced cyberbullying as a victim than if you read an article about cyberbullying in a school newsletter or daily newspaper. Direct experience leads people to think and talk about their experience more, which in turn strengthens their attitude. Attitudes that are formed through indirect experience tend to be less emotionally intense and do not tend to result in retelling or thinking about the experience to the same extent as more personal experiences do (Boninger, Krosnick & Berent, 1995). We are also likely to hold strong attitudes when we are surrounded by like-minded people who are important to us. For example, people who hold an attitude passionately tend to have family members and close friends who also hold that attitude. They are also likely to belong to groups whose members share the same belief. Interaction with like-minded people tends to provide validation and support for an individual s own attitudes. Research findings indicate that when we are surrounded by others with the same attitudes, the attitudes we hold are stronger, more resistant to change and more likely to influence associated behaviour (Visser & Mirabile, 2004; Hogg, White & Terry, 2002).

accessibility of the attitude

Figure 8.4 Someone with a strong attitude towards same-sex marriages is more likely to do something that demonstrates their attitude.

Why are some attitudes stronger than others and therefore more likely to be closely related to behaviour? One reason is that a strong attitude is often based on a considerable amount of information and the person tends to be well-informed about the attitude topic. However, the strength of an attitude is indicated not only by the amount of information on which it is based but also on how that information 330

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American social psychologist Elliot Aronson has proposed that attitudes and behaviour are more likely to be consistent when the attitude is accessible to the person who holds the attitude. According to Aronson (2008), an accessible attitude is a strong attitude that easily comes to mind it has been thought about, is well known and has been stored in memory ready for use. For example, if asked to respond to the word snake , most people will be able to readily respond to the word in a way that reflects their attitude. Words such as scary or dangerous may come to mind. Similarly, our attitudes towards people we know are usually accessible. For example, most of us know someone about whom we immediately think creep or wicked when we see or think about them. Aronson believes that, in some cases, accessible attitudes are so closely related to behaviour that they can guide or even predict behaviour. A research study by American social psychologists Russell Fazio and Carol Williams (1986) provides evidence that highly accessible attitudes can guide behaviour. One measure of attitude accessibility is the speed with which an individual can state their attitude. Using this measure of attitude accessibility, Fazio and Williams were able to make very accurate predictions of

who people would vote for in the American presidential election of 1984. About five months before the election, Fazio and Williams took a computer to a local shopping centre and asked passers-by to give their opinions about various issues, including an evaluation of each of the two presidential candidates. The computer recorded the speed with which each person evaluated the presidential candidates. This was the researchers measure of attitude accessibility. After the election, Fazio and Williams asked the participants to state which candidate they had voted for. The results showed that those individuals with highly accessible attitudes (fast responses) five months before the election were more likely to vote for their favoured candidate. American social psychologist John Bassili (1995) replicated the Fazio and Williams experiment during a more recent presidential election and obtained similar results (Aronson, 2008).

Perceived control over the behaviour Attitudes and behaviour are also more likely to match when people perceive that they have control over the behaviour that may be triggered by their attitude. Perceived control is the belief an individual has that they are free to perform or not perform behaviour linked to an attitude and a belief that they can actually perform that behaviour (Ajzen & Fishbein, 2002). This means that someone who believes drink driving is dangerous and gets upset by media reports of alcoholrelated road deaths, is likely to do something about it only if they believe that they can actually do something about it and there is nothing really stopping them from doing so. If they don t hold both of these beliefs, then they are unlikely to even try.

Social context of the attitude American social psychologists Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen (1975) have proposed that whether an attitude leads to actual behaviour may be dependent on the social context or specific situation in which a person finds themselves. In some cases, the situation may dominate, or overpower , the affective and cognitive components of an attitude someone holds. This can be illustrated by the situation in which a student has strong, unfavourable and almost entirely negative beliefs and feelings about a teacher, and expresses these openly to friends in the school grounds during recess. However, when encountering that teacher in the classroom, the student smiles and speaks respectfully and politely to the teacher. Consequently, when the relationship between attitudes and behaviour is being considered, the circumstances in which those attitudes are expressed must be considered (Smith & Mackie, 2000).

Figure 8.6 The social situation a person is in may lead them to smoke, even though they hold an attitude that smoking is bad for your health. However, this may be overridden by perceived control. Can you explain how?

Figure 8.5 Our attitudes and behaviour are not always consistent, nor does the expression of an attitude or behaviour accurately reflect the expression of the other. C h a p t e r 8 Attitude formation and change

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BOX 8.1 Cognitive dissonance If we are aware of inconsistencies within our attitudes, or when the way in which we actually behave is different from the way we believe we should behave, then we can experience psychological tension or discomfort. This experience is called cognitive dissonance. For example, dissonance is likely to occur for people who continue to smoke even though they are aware that smoking is harmful to their health. When people experience dissonance, they try to reduce the psychological discomfort they feel. This may be achieved by changing either their attitudes or their behaviour. American psychologist Leon Festinger (1957), who developed cognitive dissonance theory, believed that the experience of dissonance is psychologically unpleasant and people not only are motivated to avoid it but will actively work at reducing or abolishing it. According to Festinger, this can be done in several ways. One way is to change your attitude. You might absolutely adore your boyfriend or girlfriend but if they leave you for someone else, dissonance may occur. To reduce or avoid psychological discomfort you might say that it was only a crush and you are glad it is over. Similarly, if you are rejected for a job interview you may conclude that the job was not what you really wanted anyway. In this way we avoid the unpleasant feelings of cognitive dissonance by changing our attitude. Another way of reducing dissonance involves changing the behaviour to suit the attitude. For example, if you hold the attitude that sport is necessary to maintain good health yet do not play any sport, you could reduce dissonance by changing your behaviour and taking up basketball, hockey or another sport. Festinger also proposed that we can avoid dissonance by reducing the importance we give to our attitudes and behaviour. Using the sport example, you might say, playing strenuous sport is not such a good idea and I probably get enough exercise in daily activities anyway . We can also add

new elements to the situation to support our belief in the attitude or behaviour. Using the sport example again, you might say, I don t play sport because I have a bad knee .

Figure 8.7 If you are on a diet but feel like eating pizza, reading the label on the supermarket packet may provide some information about nutritional content which is comforting and thereby reduces dissonance.

Festinger believed that people will choose the easiest course of action to reduce or avoid dissonance. This can often mean changing our attitudes. Sometimes, however, people make no attempt to reduce or avoid dissonance. This may occur because they can tolerate some level of dissonance, particularly if the conflict is not too strong.

learning a ctivity 8.5 review questions 1. (a) Can someone s attitude be used to reliably predict their behaviour? Explain your answer. (b) Name and briefly describe each of the key factors that may influence attitude behaviour consistency. (c) Rank each of the factors that influences attitude strength and explain your rankings for the highest and lowest ranked factors. (d) Suggest a factor which you believe influences attitude strength but has not been described in the text. 2. Can someone s behaviour be used to reliably predict their attitude? Explain your answer.

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3. There are many instances in everyday life when a person s behaviour does not reflect their attitude. For example: (a) someone who criticises her friend for cheating on her boyfriend, because the boyfriend is her brother, but who does the same thing herself and claims it is different (b) someone who claims that Australia should not accept migrants, but who enjoys eating at Vietnamese and Middle-Eastern restaurants. From your experiences, describe two examples of a mismatch between an attitude which has been expressed and the behaviour which took place.

learnin g activit y 8. 6 visual presentation relationship between an attitude and behaviour Using as an example one of your attitudes, prepare a concept map or another diagram which shows the relationship between this attitude and behaviour, and different factors which can influence the relationship. Consider using the description of how to construct a concept map in learning activity 4.11 on page 159. Note that this learning activity requires you to publicly reveal your attitude so you should consider this when deciding on the attitude to use.

learnin g activit y 8. 7 Media response attitudes

analysing

in an attempt to get consumers to associate a product or service with a particular object or event. For example, soft drink advertisements which show young, attractive people having fun use a neutral object (the soft drink) and try to create positive associations with it. The intention is that consumers will learn to associate the product with good times and consequently buy the product. Another example of classical conditioning being used by advertisers to influence our attitudes to products is the use of well-known sporting identities to endorse products by wearing brand-name logos on their sports gear. Again, the intention is that the manufacturers want consumers to learn to associate their product with the skills and success of the athlete endorsing the product. While these are examples of the formation of positive attitudes, negative attitudes can also be acquired through classical conditioning in the same way. In classical conditioning, it is the pairing and consequent association of two stimuli that is essential for learning to occur.

Look in the Letters to the editor or My say sections of one of your daily or local newspapers. Select an item of interest to you in which an attitude to someone or something is expressed. Cut out or make a copy of the article and answer the following questions. 1. Identify and briefly explain four possible factors that may have resulted in the author expressing the attitude in the media. 2. On the basis of your answer to question 1, to what extent was the author s behaviour of writing the letter predictable? Explain your answer.

Factors influencing attitude formation We are not born with particular attitudes towards school, studying, sport, drugs, religion, global warming, personal relationships, political parties, aliens, dirty jokes, and so on. Attitudes are formed, usually over a long period of time, through the process of learning. Psychologists have described three different types of learning which influence attitude formation: classical conditioning, operant conditioning and modelling. The process of forming an attitude through each of these types of learning is different, but each type of learning does not necessarily occur in isolation of the others.

classical conditioning Classical conditioning is a simple form of learning which occurs through repeated association of two different stimuli. A stimulus is an event which may trigger a response. Advertisers often use classical conditioning

Figure 8.8 Advertisers often use classical conditioning in an attempt to make consumers associate the manufacturer s products with a positive stimulus or event. By repeatedly pairing a product with images and ideals consumers are likely to feel positive about, such as Olympic swimmers Eamon Sullivan and Stephanie Rice, the advertiser attempts to make people learn to associate positive feelings such as success with the product. C h a p t e r 8 Attitude formation and change

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During conditioning

Previously neutral object

presented together with

Positively evaluated stimulus well-liked music

Positive feelings produces

After conditioning leads to

Positive feelings

Previously neutral object Figure 8.9 The process of classical conditioning is often used in advertisements.

Operant conditioning Operant conditioning is a kind of learning which is based on the assumption that we tend to repeat behaviour which has a desirable consequence or result (for example, a reward), and tend not to repeat behaviour which has an undesirable consequence or result (for example, punishment). The concept of reinforcement is very important in the process of learning through operant conditioning. Reinforcement is any event which strengthens ( reinforces ) a response or increases the likelihood of a particular response occurring again. Reinforcement in the form of a reward strengthens a response and increases the likelihood of it occurring again by providing a pleasant or satisfying consequence for that response. For example, a reward such as praise, acknowledgement, a gift or money can strengthen a response made by a person. When an appropriate reward is consistently given for a behaviour then it is likely that the behaviour will occur more frequently in the future. Similarly, if we are rewarded for demonstrating an inclination towards a certain attitude, or for expressing a particular attitude, the reward will reinforce the attitude, making us more likely to express the attitude in the future. For example, if you stated an attitude which is held by your parents they may compliment your good judgement. The attitude might relate to your saying that one political party is better than another, or that getting a good job is important to success in life. Reinforcement of this attitude by your parents compliment is likely to strengthen the attitude, making you more likely to express it again in the future. Each time the attitude is reinforced, the stronger it is likely to become. 334

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Figure 8.10 This child s attitude towards the Geelong Cats Australian Rules football club may have formed through reinforcement by his/her parents.

Attitudes are also reinforced by other significant people in our lives, such as friends, relatives and teachers. For example, if every time you mention to your friends that you believe it s important to make some sacrifices in order to do well in the VCE exams they respond by saying That s a good idea , or I agree completely , your attitude to study is likely to strengthen. In this case, the attitude reinforced by friends is likely to be consistent with that held by parents. However, it is also possible that other people can reinforce attitudes that are different from those held by our parents. This may cause mental conflict for the individual involved, but the resulting discomfort does not necessarily prevent an attitude from forming. Punishment can influence the formation of our attitudes in a similar way to reinforcement, but it works in reverse. If punishment follows the expression of a

particular view or action indicating an attitude towards an object, person, group, event or issue, then it may weaken the attitude, or suppress it (hold it back). For example, if you told one of your parents that you missed the last bus on Saturday night so you hitchhiked home instead of ringing them, and you were grounded as a consequence of having hitch-hiked, then your attitude towards hitch-hiking would be more likely to weaken, or alternatively be withheld from your parents in the future.

Modelling We often modify or adopt attitudes by observing other people, particularly people close to us and people who we respect and admire. This type of learning is called modelling, or observational learning. Modelling occurs when someone uses observation of another person s actions and their consequences to guide their future thoughts, feelings or behaviour. The person being observed is referred to as a model. For example, if you observe your parents regularly conserving water at home and purchasing water-saving products such as a water-saving shower head or a water tank, it is likely you will adopt a similar attitude to water conservation. We are more influenced by models when we observe their actions being rewarded rather than criticised. Using the same example, if friends compliment your parents on their water conservation efforts, this will probably increase the likelihood that you will adopt a similar attitude, or strengthen (reinforce) an existing attitude about the importance of water conservation.

Figure 8.11 These teenagers may have formed a positive attitude towards water conservation through modelling their parents behaviour.

The media also reinforces particular attitudes. For example, television programs and advertisements often show males in leadership roles and females in roles not involving leadership. Children observe and sometimes model what they see in the media so their attitudes can be significantly influenced by media exposure. We can also form attitudes through modelling without being consciously aware of it. For example, a child who initially has neither a positive nor a negative reaction to people of a particular social group may see one of their parents displaying negative body language towards members of that group. Consequently, the child may start to model such negative reactions towards that particular group and thus show early signs of prejudice.

repeated exposure Attitudes can also form through repeated exposure by simply being exposed to an object, person, group, event or issue repeatedly. Forming an attitude through repeated exposure also involves learning processes. In all cases of attitude formation, some kind of personal experience is required (and experience is the basis of all learning). Experience may be either direct personal experience (for example, going bungy jumping) or indirect personal experience (for example, hearing about bungy jumping). Research findings indicate that if we are exposed to an object, person, group, event or issue repeatedly, we can develop a positive attitude towards it. Furthermore, it has been proposed that the positive attitude develops regardless of whether or not there is a reward, motive or any sort of reason for doing so. Simple repeated encounters, which are neutral and don t affect us in any way, are all that is needed to produce a positive attitude. This phenomenon is called the mere exposure effect. The mere exposure effect describes the increase in liking for an attitude, object, person, group, event or issue as a result of being repeatedly exposed to it(Seamon & others, 1995). The influence of repeated exposure on attitude formation was identified by Polish-born American psychologist Robert Zajonc (pronounced zy-ence). In one experiment, Zajonc (1968) repeatedly exposed participants to various items that they were unlikely to have seen before, such as Chinese characters, nonsense words and photographs of faces. It was assumed that because the participants were extremely unfamiliar with these items, they had no attitude towards the items before the experiment. Furthermore, it was assumed that the items were sufficiently neutral to not influence the participants attitudes towards C h a p t e r 8 Attitude formation and change

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them. The participants were shown some of the items 25 times, and other items 10 times, five times, or only once. The participants were then shown the entire group of items and asked how much they liked each one. Included with these items were other similar items which the participants had never seen before. The results indicated that the more often the participants had seen the items presented in the experiment, the better they liked them, and the unfamiliar items were liked least. Figure 8.12 shows the results obtained following exposure to the Chinese characters at different frequencies (i.e. number of times shown). 3.9

BOX 8.2 Repeated exposure to yourself If you are shown a photograph of yourself (the true image), then shown a reverse image of that photograph (the image you see every day in the mirror), you would probably prefer the reverse image because it is the one you are frequently exposed to. When we are given the same choice with a picture of family or friends, we tend to choose the true image (Mita & others, 1977).

3.7 Favourability of attitude

better because they recognise them, and the feeling of recognition is pleasant. This in turn acts as a reinforcer (Fazio, 1990). However, other psychologists disagree with the view that familiarity or recognition underlies the formation of a true attitude. Their view is based on research evidence which suggests that people like things they have seen, even when they cannot recognise the items, and even when they are unaware that they have ever seen them (Bootzin & others, 1986).

3.5 3.3 3.1 2.9 2.7 2.5 0

1

2 5 Frequency of exposure

10

25

Figure 8.12 Results from the experiment by Zajonc (1968) on the influence of repeated exposure on attitude formation

Research also indicates that negative attitudes do not arise from repeated exposure unless there is a negative experience (for example, dislike, pain, fear, disgust) associated with the exposure. If a negative experience is associated with the exposure, we may form a connection between the negative experience and the focus of the attitude. In many cases we need only one negative experience to form a negative attitude. For example, a single unexpected close encounter with a live snake in the bush can be enough to form a negative attitude towards snakes. Many advertisers are aware of the repeated exposure effect and use it to try to influence formation of our attitude towards a product. The assumption is that, through repeated exposure, we will gradually start to like the advertised product without ever having tried it. However, it is also possible to start disliking a product after viewing endlessly repeated ads, which is why advertisers regularly change their ads (Aronson, Wilson & Akert, 2002). Although there is considerable research evidence indicating that repeated exposure can lead to the formation of a positive attitude, psychologists are not sure why this occurs. Some psychologists suggest that repeated exposure involves learning processes such as reinforcement. For example, people like familiar items 336

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Figure 8.13 A true image (top) and a reverse image (bottom)

learnin g activit y 8. 8 Summarising influences on attitude formation 1. Briefly describe each of the learning processes which influence attitude formation. For each learning process give an example of how an attitude may form, using examples different from those in the text. 2. Use the table below or in your eBook to summarise influences on attitude formation. In the left column of the table, list five attitudes that you hold. In the middle column, briefly outline a significant personal experience which may have influenced formation of the attitude. In the appropriate column(s) at the right, indicate which factor(s) best describes the way in which you formed the attitude. Factor Attitude

Personal experience

Classical conditioning

Operant conditioning

Modelling

Repeated exposure

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

learnin g activit y 8. 9

Stereotyping

visual presentation attitude formation through operant conditioning

When we evaluate people, we tend to do so by trying to fit them into a category based on our knowledge of people and the world. For example, a person may be judged as being a member of a social group (such as male or female, young or old) and/or a member of a cultural or religious group (such as Australian or Vietnamese, Muslim or non-Muslim). This process of grouping or fitting people into a category based on what we know about them is called stereotyping. Being stereotyped as belonging to a particular social or cultural group carries with it the belief by people who form the stereotype that all individuals in the group have the same characteristics. A stereotype is a collection of beliefs that we have about the people who belong to a certain group, regardless of individual differences among members of that group. For example, a stereotype of a doctor might be: wealthy, drives an expensive car, lives in a big house, works long hours and is conservative. Stereotypes help us to make sense of our world by giving it order. They provide us with a general system which guides our interactions with others. Because it is not possible for us to intimately know everyone we meet, we use stereotypes to assist us in knowing how we should react to new people we meet. For example, if you are at a party, meet an attractive person, then discover that the person is a police officer, your behaviour towards them may be influenced by the stereotypical view of police as being always on the job . One problem with stereotyping is that stereotypes can be inaccurate. Stereotypes are often based on incorrect

Consider figure 8.9 showing the use of classical conditioning by advertisers to influence attitudes towards their products. Draw a similar figure to show how operant conditioning can influence attitude formation, with reference to an example involving one of your attitudes.

ATTITUDES TOWARDS PEOPLE When we meet someone for the first time, we tend to judge them on a number of characteristics such as how they look, the way they dress, the way they speak, their mannerisms, and how they greet us. We may ask for information about their age, where they live, which school they go to or the type of music they like. We build up a view about them that can help guide the way in which we will interact with them. Our initial evaluation of people is conducted very quickly and the first impressions that we develop tend to be lasting ones. This is called the primacy effect, whereby the initial impression we form of a person is more influential than any later information obtained. This is why psychologists suggest we should look our best for a job interview. The interviewer will tend to make a judgement about our suitability for a position based on the first impression we give. Even though the first impression may not be accurate, it can still have a lasting influence.

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or inadequate information. Consequently, many social and cultural stereotypes are formed on the basis of little or no empirical evidence. When we stereotype a person as belonging to a particular group, we ignore their individuality. In particular, we tend to disregard information about the individual that does not fit the stereotype we have of them. We are more inclined to pay attention to information that is consistent with a stereotype and ignore information that is not consistent with it. We often presume things about people because of the way in which they have been stereotyped. By doing this, we can bring some order and structure to the impressions we have of people (Aronson, 2008; Smith & Mackie, 2000). The results of an experiment by American social psychologists John Darley and Paget Gross (1983) indicate that once we have categorised a person as belonging to a stereotype, we tend to perceive and remember the person not by individual characteristics, but by the characteristics the person shares with the group we have put them into. Their experiment involved a group of teachers who were given a description of a student. Half the teachers were shown a photograph of a female student outside an old, cheap looking home that looked as if it had been poorly maintained and needed a lot of repairs. The other half were shown a photo of the same girl outside a more expensive looking , well-maintained home. The teachers were then shown a video of the student doing a test.

At times she appeared attentive and interested and at other times she appeared bored and distracted. The teachers were then asked to make a prediction about the girl s academic performance and explain why they formed their opinion. The teachers who had seen the girl outside the cheap looking home predicted poor performance and remembered the segment in the video where she was bored and distracted. Those who had seen her outside the expensive looking home predicted good performance and remembered the parts of the video where she had been attentive. The teachers stereotyped views had influenced what they saw, what they remembered and their expectations. Another problem with stereotyping is that it can lead to stigmatisation. A stigma is a negative label associated with disapproval or rejection by others who are not labelled in that way. If a social or cultural group is stigmatised, or negatively evaluated, then members of that group can feel like outcasts who are devalued, ignored and rejected by others, simply because they are members of the stigmatised group. In turn, this can lead to feelings such as shame, disgrace, lower self-esteem, loss of self-confidence and restricted ambitions in life. It can also have harmful effects on overall psychological wellbeing, particularly when membership of the stigmatised group is an important part of the individual s self-concept or self-image (Crocker, Major & Steele, 1998).

Figure 8.14 People in wheelchairs are often stereotyped as being unable to do everyday things like shopping, cooking and driving a car, and as being very dependent on others. This is not true of all people in wheelchairs. 338

U n i t 2 Self and others

BOX 8.3 Gender stereotypes in other societies Anthropologist Margaret Mead (1935) studied many cultures in the Pacific region. Her findings on three New Guinea tribes illustrate the way in which gender role stereotypes can vary in different societies. While living in the same geographical region, the three tribes showed striking differences in the roles assumed by each gender. The Tchambuli tribe possessed clearly defined gender roles, but these were nearly opposite to those assigned in Western society. Women were assertive, impersonal and the dominant gender. They also took the initiative in courtship . Males on the other hand were passive, dependent upon the females and concerned about personal appearance. While men gossiped and were homemakers, females were the head of the family. In the neighbouring Arapesh tribe, the females and males displayed behaviour that has traditionally been considered feminine in Western society. Both genders were cooperative and passive, and were encouraged to be responsive to the needs of others. Both genders were responsible for childcare. In courtship, neither gender took an aggressive role. In the Mundugumor tribe, both females and males tended to be highly aggressive and competitive. Cruelty, ruthlessness and violence were characteristics that were encouraged in both genders. In addition, gentle and caring behaviour by males or females was rarely observed.

Figure 8.15 Through studying various cultures in the Pacific region, Margaret Mead learned that gender role stereotypes differ in different societies.

learning activity 8.1 0 Stereotypes and expectations How would you describe each of the following people? Use two or three key words for each person. • Someone who drives a Ferrari • Someone who has had cosmetic surgery • Someone who has a pitbull terrier as a pet • Someone who belongs to a bikie gang • Someone who is a union leader • Someone who is a vegetarian Compare your responses with those of others in the class. In what way can stereotyped views influence how someone thinks, feels or behaves towards people whom they consider to fit the stereotype?

learning activity 8.1 1 Practical activity a stereotype

examining

Ask students in another class to draw a picture of a scientist. Instruct them to include the working environment and as many features as possible about the scientist. Place the drawings around your classroom and consider the following points. • How many people depicted the scientist as a female and how many drew a male scientist? • How many depicted the scientist as wearing glasses, working alone in a laboratory and wearing a lab coat? • In what age group was the scientist generally depicted as being? Report Prepare a brief report on the practical activity to include in your folio of practical activities. Your report should include: 1. a statement of the aim of the activity 2. a summary of the class quantitative results using descriptive statistics, such as (i) the percentage of participants who depicted the scientist as male/female (ii) the percentage of participants who depicted the scientist as wearing glasses (iii) the percentage of participants who depicted the scientist as working in a laboratory (iv) the percentage of participants who depicted the scientist at each different age group 3. a summary description or drawing of a stereotypical scientist based on the most frequently depicted characteristics in the drawings 4. a statement about whether the stereotype of a scientist developed from this data could be generalised to apply to all scientists, including your reasons.

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learnin g activit y 8. 12 visual presentation stereotypes Prepare a collage depicting a particular stereotype; for example of football players, teachers, elderly people, adolescents, or some other group. On the images, identify the characteristics that collectively contribute to the stereotype. Identify two reasons why stereotypes are often inaccurate.

learning a ctivity 8.13 Practical activity stereotypes

gender role

Margaret Mead (1935) studied gender role stereotypes in a number of societies and found that they can vary in different societies or cultural groups (see box 8.3). What is a possible gender role stereotype in Australian society? Ask a male and a female who you know to give you five words that typically describe a male and five words that typically describe a female. Combine your individual data with the rest of the class to develop a stereotype of a male and a female. Report Prepare a brief report to include in your folio of practical activities. Your report should include: 1. a statement of the aim of this activity 2. a conclusion in which you describe a male and female stereotype based on the class results 3. a statement about whether these stereotypes accurately reflect males and females in Australian society, with an explanation for your view.

Prejudice and discrimination Stereotyping can lead to prejudice, which can in turn result in discrimination. The term prejudice literally means prejudgement . Because prejudice involves a judgement, it is usually considered to be an attitude, but specifically one for which the focus is people. Like other attitudes, prejudice can be positive or negative. For example, someone may be prejudiced in favour of heavy metal musicians or against heavy metal musicians. This means that if you were to meet the lead singer of a famous heavy metal band, you will be inclined to either like or dislike them and to expect them to have certain personal characteristics based on your stereotypic view of famous musicians or famous heavy metal bands . 340

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Psychology has focused on the study of prejudice as a negative attitude, mainly because of the social problems that prejudice towards other people can cause. Consequently, prejudice is often defined in psychology as holding a negative attitude towards the members of a group, based solely on their membership of that group. Any group can be the focus of prejudice. The group may be women, men, members of an ethnic group such as Chinese or Greeks, members of a particular religious group, indigenous people such as Aboriginals, elderly people, people with specific illnesses such as AIDS or a mental illness, people with a disability or with a particular sexual preference, certain occupations such as artists or truck drivers, or even people who behave in a particular way, such as bullies or shy people. A person who is prejudiced against some group tends to evaluate its members negatively merely because they belong to that group. Their individual characteristics or behaviour are usually overlooked. It doesn t matter if the information about an individual or a group is faulty or incomplete. They are viewed in a negative way simply because they belong to the specific group. Prejudice often involves members of a majority group holding negative attitudes towards the members of a minority group. Members of a majority group are greater in number and are sometimes described as the ingroup , whereas members of a minority group are fewer in number and are sometimes described as the outgroup . According to American psychologist Herbert Blumer (1961), there are four basic characteristics of prejudice which can often be observed among members of a majority social group who hold a prejudiced attitude towards members of a minority group. First, they tend to believe that they are superior to the minority group to whom the prejudice is directed. Second, the majority group tend to believe the minority group is different from them and that they do not belong . Third, the majority group tend to believe that they are more powerful and important than the minority group. Finally, Blumer suggests that a majority group that displays prejudiced attitudes is insecure, fearing the minority group may become more powerful and important than itself. More recently, psychologists have distinguished between old-fashioned (or traditional) and modern forms of prejudice. Australian psychologists Anne Pederson and Iain Walker (1997) describe old-fashioned prejudice as a form of prejudice in which members of the majority group openly reject minority group members and their views towards the minority group are obvious and recognisable to others. More specifically, the views of people with old-fashioned prejudice are much like those described by Blumer. For example, old-fashioned racial prejudice typically involves a view that white

people are biologically superior to black people and that the races should be segregated; that is, white people and black people should be separated or isolated from one another. People who are prejudiced in an old-fashioned way towards another race tend to believe that blacks should be segregated from whites in all aspects of life, such as employment, schooling, housing and the like. Many also believe and express strong racial stereotypes such as Blacks are lazy and dumb and Blacks are alcoholics and rely on government handouts . Pederson and Walker describe modern prejudice as a form of prejudice which is more subtle, hidden and expressed in ways more likely to be accepted within the majority group. For example, modern racial prejudice includes the belief that black people have the right to opportunities available to all members of society, but they want more rights than anybody else and probably don t deserve these rights. Someone with an attitude involving modern prejudice might publicly support an affirmative ( positive ) action program to help overcome the disadvantages experienced by minority group members in obtaining employment or access to tertiary education. However, they may have reservations about the fairness of such a program to members of the majority group. They are also more likely to keep their real views private and not share them openly when it is believed that those views may be socially unacceptable and may reflect on them in an unfavourable way. Although a clear distinction can be

made between old-fashioned and modern prejudice, these forms of prejudice tend to be closely related. In Australian society, and most other Western societies, modern forms of prejudice are more common than old-fashioned forms. This is mainly because open expressions of prejudiced behaviour such as name-calling, abuse and discrimination are illegal and not socially acceptable. However, this does not mean that prejudiced attitudes towards people in certain social groups have dramatically reduced or do not exist. Prejudice may be still be widespread, but more difficult to observe than in previous times when it was more openly expressed (Aronson, 2008; Vaughan & Hogg, 2002). Prejudice can also be expressed through behaviour. When this occurs, it is called discrimination. Discrimination refers to positive or negative behaviour that is directed towards a social group and its members. Of particular concern to psychologists (and to Australian society in general) is discrimination against an individual or specific group. Discrimination against people can take many forms. For example, it may involve behaviour such as ignoring people, excluding people from places or positions, putting people down, or, in its extreme form, it may be expressed in physical violence against a particular group, or even genocide. Genocide involves the extermination of an entire group, such as Hitler s attempts to kill all Jewish people during World War II.

Figure 8.16 In May 2000, thousands of people around Australia marched for reconciliation with the Aboriginal people. The march aimed to raise awareness of the prejudice Australia s Indigenous people have faced since European settlement. C h a p t e r 8 Attitude formation and change

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(a)

(c)

(b) Figure 8.17 Prejudice has been the cause of many atrocities worldwide, including (a) the starvation and subsequent extermination of many Jews by the Nazis, the mass slaughter and dispossession of Aborigines, particularly in Tasmania, where Truganini (b) and many others were transported to a makeshift settlement and forced to adopt European culture, and (c) the auctioning of Africans as slaves in the US. 342

U n i t 2 Self and others

The Victorian Equal Opportunity and Human Rights Commission (2009) describes two forms of discrimination direct and indirect discrimination. Direct discrimination occurs when someone is treated unfairly and is disadvantaged because of a personal characteristic. For example, direct discrimination would occur if someone was overlooked for a job specifically on the basis of their race, sex, age, religious belief or some other personal characteristic. Indirect discrimination occurs when treating everybody the same way disadvantages someone because of a personal characteristic. For example, if an employer refuses to allow employees to wear any head covering in the workplace, this may be indirect discrimination against employees whose cultural or religious background requires that they wear a particular type of head covering. Similarly,

suppose that a factory decided that all employees who had worked continuously for their company for the past 10 years would get a pay rise. This is indirect sex discrimination as it is likely that a higher proportion of women than men would miss out on the pay rise, because more women than men interrupt their working lives to have and care for children. Both direct and indirect discrimination are considered to be unfair. Current government legislation also makes it unlawful to treat someone unfairly because of their race, sex, age, religious belief or any other personal characteristic. The basic difference between prejudice and discrimination is that prejudice is an attitude and discrimination is a behaviour arising from prejudice. When prejudice and discrimination are directed at people who are members of a particular racial or ethnic group, for example, Aborigines, Somalians or Muslims, it is called racism. When directed at women or men because of their sex, it is called sexism. When directed at people because of their age, it is called ageism. Generally, the attitudes and behaviour of a

person who is racist, sexist or ageist are often affected by the person s belief that people of different races, sexes or ages have different personal characteristics and abilities. Furthermore, racism, sexism and ageism often result because a person (or group) feels superior to an individual or group in terms of race, gender or age, and regards them as being inferior or less able in one or more ways.

learning activity 8.1 5 Media response prejudice

analysing

In box 8.4 there is an example of gender prejudice analysed in terms of the tri-component model of attitudes. (a) Locate a suitable image(s) in the print media about racial prejudice. (b) Analyse racial prejudice in the same way. (c) Choose another example of prejudice and analyse it in the same way, including specific examples of each component.

learnin g activit y 8. 14 review questions 1. Define prejudice, with reference to an example. 2. (a) Describe Blumer s (1961) four characteristics of prejudice. (b) Apply these characteristics to analyse a prejudice you believe is held by a majority social group in Australian society towards a minority group. Which characteristics do you believe may or may not be true? Explain your answer. 3. (a) Explain the difference between old-fashioned (traditional) and modern prejudice. (b) Which form of prejudice do you believe occurs most frequently in Australian society? Explain your answer with reference to an example(s).

4. Explain the difference between direct discrimination and indirect discrimination with reference to an example of each type of discrimination different from those referred to in the text. 5. Describe the relationship between prejudice and discrimination. 6. What is the key difference between prejudice and discrimination? 7 (a) Explain the meanings of the terms racism, sexism and ageism. (b) How do racists , sexists and ageists tend to view someone of another race, sex or age? (c) Give an example of a racist, sexist or ageist comment.

BOX 8.4 Analysis of gender prejudice using the tri-component model of attitudes Prejudice can be directed towards young people, the elderly, females, males, the physically and intellectually disabled, people with different ethnic backgrounds, people who are more or less wealthy than others and so on. The example at right uses gender prejudice to illustrate the tri-component model of attitudes. In this example, the affective, behavioural and cognitive components of a prejudiced attitude are consistent with one another.

Components of an attitude

Components of gender prejudice towards females

Cognitive (belief)

Believes females are inferior (negative stereotype of females)

Affective (feeling)

Dislikes females (negative feelings about females)

Behavioural (action)

Discriminates against females (negative actions toward females)

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BOX 8.5 Challenging racism: The Anti-Racism Research Project A team of researchers from different universities throughout Australia has been conducting a study since 2001 to collect data on racist attitudes in Australia . The study has involved over 12 500 participants who have responded to questions asked in a telephone survey.

Some of the data collected between 2001 and 2008 are presented in table 8.1. One of the main conclusions drawn by the researchers is that racism is quite prevalent in Australian society and the occurrence of racism differs from place to place.

table 8.1 Attitudes to cultural diversity, old racisms and recognition of racism, state comparisons, Qld/NSW (2001), Victoria (2006), SA/ACT (2007), NT/Tas/Perth (2008)

% Yes/Agree

Attitudes

NSW 2001

QLD 2001

Victoria 2006

SA 2007

ACT 2007

NT/Tas/ Perth 2008

84.3

85.5

89.5

87.5

94.3

93.7

1. Cultural diversity It is a good thing for society to be made up of different cultures. Australia is weakened by ethnic groups sticking to their old ways. I feel secure with different ethnic groups. Are there any cultural/ethnic groups that do not fit into Australian society?

44.9 75.3

42.2 73.7

40.8 81.4

37.5 80.2

24.5 86.7

37.6 82.3

45.4

40.6

35.9

40.0

28.1

34.1

2. Old racisms It is not a good thing for people of different races to marry. All races of people are equal. Humankind is made up of separate races .

12.9 83.2 76.7

12.4 83.9 78.6

9.6 86.0 76.1

9.1 85.1 79.8

3.9 87.0 75.3

4.6 80.6 74.7

83.3

83.0

83.8

88.3

87.7

92.3

39.1 13.2

38.1 10.7

42.7 11.9

45.9 12.3

44.6 8.1

37.9 17

53.7 28.3

48.6 28.1

42.9 24.7

49.8 31.7 30.7

41.4 21.4 20.9

37.2 22.7 19.8

18.1 17.0 8.0 19.7 25.1 27.0

16.1 14.6 5.5 14.3 20.3 24.4

17.7 17.4 7.6 18.6 22.8 27.2

14.6 16.1 7.3 14.4 21.4 27.6

16.3 20.4 6.9 17.9 23.4 25.4

27.7 28.8 13.7 24.8 35.6 47.5

3. Acknowledgment of racism There is racial prejudice in Australia. Australians from a British background enjoy a privileged position in our society. I am prejudiced against other cultures. 4. Outgroups Anti-Muslim concern Anti-Indigenous concern Anti-black African concern 5. Experience of discrimination Workplace Education Police Shop or restaurant Disrespect Insults

Source: The UNSW/MQU Racism Surveys, NSW/QLD, Oct Dec 2001; Victoria, Aug Oct. 2006, SA/ACT September October 2007, NT/TAS/Perth, July August 2008.

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learnin g activit y 8. 16 Data analysis Box 8.5 has results from an Australian research study on racism. Read the introduction and some rows of data which may be of particular interest to you in table 8.1. Note also one of the conclusions that has been drawn by the researchers. An analysis of the data in table 8.1 suggests other valid conclusions. For example, in relation to the first two rows of data on cultural diversity: • about one in 10 Australians do not believe that it is a good thing for society to be made up of different cultures ; and • over 40% of Australians in some states believe that Australia is weakened by ethnic groups sticking to their old ways . Consider the data and complete the following tasks involving data analysis. 1. State two valid conclusions that can be drawn from the data in each of the five attitude categories (but different from the two referred to above). 2. (a) Construct two different types of graphs to make comparisons between the different regions of Australia. (b) For each of your graphs, state a valid conclusion that could be drawn from the data. 3. (a) Give an example of regional data that would be misrepresented if a mean percentage was calculated for a particular attitude to obtain a nationwide statistic. (b) State the region(s) for which data would be misrepresented and explain why this would occur. 4. How could you determine the region which appears to be the most racist? 5. Suggest a reason to explain why there are regional differences in racist attitudes. 6. Box 8.5 states one conclusion drawn by the researchers on racism at a nationwide level. Draw another valid nationwide conclusion from the data. 7. The data for different regions were collected at different times. Does this suggest that conclusions drawn from the data should be more tentative than they would be if all data were collected at similar times? Explain your answer. 8. Suggest a possible problem with a research design involving data collection via the phone. 9. What information about the research would you need to know before you were confident that conclusions from the data are valid and reliable? Explain your answer. 10. Give an example of how the data could be used to combat racism in Australian society.

BOX 8.6 Racism in Australia Deakin University psychologist David Mellor (2003) has undertaken research on Indigenous Australians experiences of racism. Mellor believes that when researching levels of racism in society, it is important to ask groups of people who are potentially victims of racism about their experience, not just focus on the perpetrators of racism and the degree to which they are racist. Mellor interviewed 34 Aboriginals living in Melbourne suburbs. All of the participants referred to themselves as Koori people. The interviews lasted for approximately 40 to 80 minutes. Mellor identified four kinds of racism that were experienced by the participants. He called these verbal racism, behavioural racism, discrimination and macro-level racism. Verbal racism included name calling such as the words abo or coon and the emphasis of the word black before using another derogatory term to refer to the person; for example You black ___ . Overheard comments, deliberate direct comments, jokes and taunts were other examples of verbal racism that the participants reported experiencing. Behavioural racism was directly observable and shown in ways such as ignoring and avoiding, and by doing things such as not sitting next to Aboriginal people on public transport. Other examples of behavioural racism included assaults, being stared at, and segregation such as parents not wanting their children to play with Aboriginal children. Discrimination was a third area of racism identified by Mellor. Examples of this included being denied hotel accommodation despite having a booking at the hotel. Another example described by participants was of students on a school bus not letting Aboriginal students sit down. Racism at the macro-level involves racism at the wider community level, as opposed to racism from individuals. Macro-level racism includes more subtle attitudes or behaviours such as selectively viewing past events involving Aboriginals and racism. Participants reported that they believed events such as the removal of children from their families, now often referred to as the Stolen Generation , and the fact that Aboriginal people occupied Australia before European colonisation, were often trivialised. Participants also reported that the dominance of white culture means that Aboriginal people cannot practise many traditional aspects of their culture, and therefore this was a form of racism. Mellor found that the participants in this study didn t just experience modern racism, which is less obvious and is seen to be milder, but rather experienced a wide range of old-fashioned racism, much of which was blatant and obvious. Adapted from Spencer & others (2005). Psychology for South Australia Stage 2. Milton, Qld: John Wiley & Sons. p. 64.

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se Racism stops Australian–Sudane e, lif w ne ng yi jo en om fr le op pe g youn according to a new report danese people prevents them Racism against young Australian–Su and limits their access to serfrom moving freely in the community rding to a report launched acco , ation vices, employment and educ ortunity and Human Rights today by the Victorian Equal Opp Commission. Dr Helen Szoke said the Commission Chief Executive Officer, allocated significant have iders prov ce government, police and servi ralian–Sudanese community resources to meet the needs of the Aust munity life — but more com in ion and enable their full participat needs to be done. riences of Australian– The report, Rights of Passage: Expe t of more than 200 interviews Sudanese young people, is the resul more than 30 community with ions with young people, consultat en submissions. and government workers as well as writt including the provision ions ndat mme The report makes 37 reco assist young people to rces resou ation educ and on of informati cost and accessible lowof ision to deal with racism, the prov ing education and training recreation and meeting places, ongo about human rights and es bodi ic of police, teachers and publ responsibilities. people’s desire to find ‘This report highlights the young ns, while experiencing ralia Aust as t men treat fair acceptance and

subtle and systemic to blatant race-based barriers ranging from the and hostile,’ Dr Szoke said. place, young Australian– ‘In order for real change to take t and genuine involvement in Sudanese people need to have a direc support them,’ she said. to ned desig developing the programs the Commission about racial told ed view inter le peop g The youn t the way they were treated abou erns abuse in the streets, their conc as well as their struggles with by police and portrayed by the media m. navigating the education syste reported verbal or physical Australian–Sudanese young people street, waiting for public the n dow racist attacks while walking The behaviour included racial transport or when on buses or trains. es and eggs. bottl wine abuse, threats and throwing of consulted with Victoria had ion miss Com the said Dr Szoke several government and g enon Police, City of Greater Dand looked forward to and rt repo the of on arati prep the departments in mmendations of reco the g essin working closely with them in addr the report.

l Opportunity & Human Source: © 1998–2009 Victorian Equa 2008. Authorised by the mber Dece 17 on, Rights Commissi an Rights Commission, Hum & y Victorian Equal Opportunit Level 3, 380 Lonsdale Street.

learning a ctivity 8.17 Media response racism towards australian Sudanese people Consider the article on racism towards young Australian Sudanese people. 1. Briefly explain what the article is about. 2. Who published the report?

3. Give examples of old-fashioned (traditional) and modern prejudice referred to in the article. 4. What are the consequences of prejudice towards young Australian-Sudanese? 5. How are the problems associated with racism being addressed? 6. Comment on the likely impact of the proposed strategies for addressing the problem. Explain your answer with reference to how prejudice is learned.

Factors contributing to the development of prejudice Psychologists have proposed many different factors that contribute to the development of prejudice. Like other attitudes, prejudice is primarily influenced by learning processes, including repeated exposure. For example, children hear many prejudiced views expressed by parents, other adults and peers and they may adopt these views. Children can also learn prejudices through the subtle messages conveyed in the media about groups in our society. 346

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Figure 8.18 The development of prejudice is primarily influenced by learning.

Stereotyping can also lead to prejudice. Research studies have found that when stereotypes involve an us and them type belief, this can provide a foundation from which prejudice develops. Us and them is evident when we categorise ourselves and others into ingroups and outgroups .

ingroups and outgroups American psychologist Gordon Allport (1897 1967) proposed that people tend to categorise themselves and others into groups which can in turn influence their attitudes towards the group members. However, this depends on the type of group in which they are categorised. Allport described any group that you belong to or identify with as an ingroup. For example, your friendship groups, peer group, family, school, religion, sex, race, culture, the country in which you live and even the AFL team you barrack for would be called your ingroups. An outgroup is any group you do not belong to or identify with. When we categorise our social world in this way, we tend to believe that people belonging to our ingroups have individual differences but are generally more like us. Consequently, we tend to view them positively and more easily develop loyalty to them due to common membership of the same group. However, we tend to consider people belonging to an outgroup to be less like us and more like each other. We therefore are more likely to view them negatively. Allport argued that this type of categorisation and stereotyping of members of ingroups and outgroups can lead to prejudice towards members of outgroups. Futhermore, we are more likely to give preferential treatment to, or discriminate in favour of, members of our ingroup when the opportunity arises. Recent research has provided evidence of this type of attitude and behaviour in both children and adults (Aboud, 2003; Hewstone, Rubin & Willis, 2002). The impact of distinguishing members of ingroups and outgroups on the basis of stereotyping was demonstrated in a controversial classroom activity by American primary school teacher Jane Elliot in 1968. One Monday, Elliot announced to her year 3 class of 28 children in a small, all-white, rural community that those with brown eyes were superior and those with blue eyes were inferior. To make it more realistic, the brown-eyed children were given extra privileges such as more playtime and access to new play equipment. They were also constantly told that they were better than the blue-eyed children; for example, more intelligent and harder working. The blue-eyed children were repeatedly told that they were inferior and made to wear armbands to distinguish them in a more obvious way. They were also not allowed to drink from the

same water taps used by the brown-eyed children. Soon, the brown-eyed children refused to play with their blue-eyed classmates. They became arrogant and bossy, often treating them in nasty ways. The academic results of the brown-eyed children also improved, with some doing much better than ever before. The blueeyed children became increasingly timid and began to complete their schoolwork poorly. The following Monday, Elliott reversed the exercise. This time the blue-eyed children were told that they were superior and the brown-eyed children were told that they were dumb and lazy. Although the blue-eyed children started to behave as the brown-eyed children had in the previous week, their behaviour was not as intense, probably because they knew what it was like being in their position. Later that day, Elliot ended the activity.

learning activity 8.1 8 case study analysis classroom activity

elliot s

1. Jane Elliot s classroom activity is often described as an experiment . (a) Explain why it is not a true psychological experiment. (b) Explain why her activity is best described as a case study. 2. In point form or using a flow chart, outline what Elliot did. 3. What results did Elliot obtain? 4. In what way does Elliot s activity illustrate how ingroups and outgroups can contribute to the development of prejudice and discrimination? 5. Identify three ethical issues that may be relevant to Elliot s activity. 6. Elliot s activity attracted nationwide attention and proved to be controversial. Suggest a reason for the controversy, other than ethics. 7. Give an example of how an Elliot-type activity involving ingroups and outgroups could be used to reduce prejudice and discrimination eBook plus in the workplace. Weblink

Jane Elliot video

intergroup conflict Prejudice can also develop from intergroup conflict. Intergroup conflict occurs when members of different groups compete to achieve or control something that is wanted by the members of each group. In particular, competition over economic resources like jobs and housing, social status ( standing ), positions of power or even political advantage is more likely to lead to prejudice, especially in times of hardship when desired resources are limited. C h a p t e r 8 Attitude formation and change

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When people compete for sought-after resources that they do not have, they may develop negative attitudes towards those who do have them. Similarly, when people acquire sought-after resources, they seek to maintain them. Consequently, they may develop negative attitudes towards those who do not have them but want them, and may therefore be a potential threat. For example, during the global economic crisis in 2008 2009, unemployment rose dramatically throughout the world. Corresponding with this widespread job loss was a significant rise in negative attitudes and behaviour towards refugees, asylum seekers and international visitors on working visas. Essentially, they were perceived by residents in many countries as taking our jobs . The idea of prejudice developing through intergroup conflict over competition for limited resources is supported by research findings. For example, studies have found that lower-class whites in America have more racist attitudes than higher-class whites. However, this may also be due to higher-class people being less prejudiced because they view lower-class people as not representing a serious threat to their employment, status and income (Huffman, 2002).

attributions In an attempt to understand our world and the people in it, we often draw on our experiences with others and try to evaluate the causes and consequences of both their behaviour and our behaviour. When we do this, we are often more able to predict what will happen in a particular situation if we or others react in a specific way. This process of trying to explain observed behaviour in terms of a particular cause is called attribution. According to psychologists, an attribution can be either internal (from within the person) or external (from the environment). If we attribute behaviour to internal factors, we tend to blame one or more characteristics of the person for causing the behaviour. For example, if we hear that Mario has lost his job because he failed to let his supervisor know that he was not going to work for a week, we may think it was typical of Mario because he is often unreliable and irresponsible. We are attributing his behaviour to internal factors. If, however, we believe that this behaviour occurred because his mother was seriously ill and he was preoccupied with worrying about her health, we have attributed the cause to external factors. Attribution theory can help us to understand the formation of the attitudes we hold about different groups in our society. The characteristics that we attribute to members of a group in trying to understand their behaviour can influence our attitudes towards them and the ways in which we may treat them. However, attribution is a personalised, or subjective, process and is therefore influenced by several types of bias. 348

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Research studies have found that people tend to overestimate the influence of personal characteristics and underestimate the influence of the situation they are in when explaining a person s behaviour. This is called the fundamental attribution error (Gilbert & Malone, 1995; Ross, 1977). For example, if you see a bikie shouting and arguing with a policeman, you might conclude that bikies are rebellious, excitable, argumentative and aggressive. You might not consider that something in the situation (such as the bikie being blamed for something that they did not do) caused the behaviour. We tend to focus on the personal characteristics we attribute to the person rather than the context in which their behaviour is taking place. Another type of bias associated with the fundamental attribution error is called the just world hypothesis. The just world hypothesis, also known as the just world error, is the tendency for individuals to believe that they live in a world where people generally get what they deserve and deserve what they get (Lerner, 1980). When something tragic happens to someone, we tend to believe they deserved it rather than believe situational factors were responsible for it; for example, the belief by some people that when underworld criminals are murdered, they deserved it because they have done things in their past to harm others. When the just world hypothesis is adopted by someone, it means that the victim is blamed. This type of false belief can form the basis of prejudice. Furthermore, people with this type of belief are less likely to try to do something about the misfortune or suffering experienced by the victim(s).

Figure 8.19 Notorious Melbourne underworld criminal Carl Williams is shown here under police guard. The just world hypothesis helps explain why many people believed he deserved to be sentenced to life imprisonment.

learnin g activit y 8. 19 review questions 1. Distinguish between an ingroup and outgroup with reference to relevant examples from your own experience. 2. How can categorising people into ingroups and outgroups lead to prejudice? 3. Give a contemporary, real-life example of prejudice that has developed from intergroup conflict over resources and for which prejudice maintains conflict between the two groups. 4. (a) Briefly describe what a fundamental attribution error involves. (b) Give an example of a fundamental attribution error made by someone you know or that you have observed. 5. Explain how the fundamental attribution error can influence the development of prejudice with reference to an example. 6. (a) Define the just world hypothesis. (b) Give an example which illustrates the just world hypothesis, different from those used in the text.

Factors that may reduce prejudice Anti-discrimination laws have led to a significant reduction in the number of observable expressions of prejudice in Australian society. This legislation, which has been accompanied by an education campaign about social problems associated with prejudice and discrimination, has also led to increased opportunities for women and members of minority groups in our society. The media has also played an important role in combating prejudice. For example, investigative journalists have highlighted problems and issues faced by individuals and groups who are the targets of prejudice and discrimination. This not only informs us about the existence of continuing or new problems and issues around prejudice, but also creates public debate that increases our understanding of these problems and issues, and puts political pressure on governments to do something . However, changes in legislation and reporting by the media do not mean that prejudice and discrimination have ceased to be problems in Australia. For example, although the attitudes of many Australians towards Aboriginal people have improved in the past 20 years, the physical, material and spiritual struggle of the Aborigines has not. Similarly, although the stereotype of women is more positive than it was 20 years ago,

women continue to find it difficult to gain access to leadership roles and positions of power in our society that have traditionally been held by men (Davidson, 2004; Hogg & Vaughan, 1998). Although legislation and education through the media (and in schools) have helped reduce prejudice and discrimination, changing laws and informing people about prejudice and discrimination does not necessarily mean that people will stop being prejudiced. Consequently, further reducing prejudice and discrimination in our society still remains a very important challenge and alternative strategies to tackle these issues need to be considered. Findings from research studies conducted by psychologists indicate there are other methods that can also help reduce prejudice and discrimination. Generally, no one particular method will effectively eliminate prejudice and discrimination so a number of methods need to be used in combination. These must be directed at the individual as well as society. One way of reducing prejudice is through intergroup contact. This involves increasing contact between groups who are prejudiced against each other. Ways of reducing prejudice through intergroup contact were the focus of many research studies throughout the 1950s and 1960s, particularly in America where prejudice towards African Americans (negroes) created major social, political and economic problems. More recently, psychologists have focused on ways of reducing prejudice through cognitive interventions. This involves changing the way in which prejudiced people think about prejudice and people who are the victims of prejudice.

intergroup contact Prejudice can be reduced by increasing intergroup contact; that is, increasing direct contact between two groups who are prejudiced against each other. However, research findings indicate that the contact between the groups will reduce prejudice only under certain conditions. In particular, it is more likely that prejudice will be reduced if there is close and ongoing contact between the two groups, if the two groups have to rely on each other for some reason and if each group has equal status in the contact situation.

Sustained contact Suppose that someone from a bikie gang regarded as being violent moves into your neighbourhood. Although you may have heard about the gang, you have previously had nothing to do with any of its members. However, the information you have heard has led you to form a stereotype and develop a prejudicial attitude towards the gang and its members. C h a p t e r 8 Attitude formation and change

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When you first see your new neighbour, his rough, tough, tattooed appearance, his manner of dress and the fact he owns a motorbike reinforces your stereotype. You decide to have as little contact with him as possible. However, the fact that he lives in the house opposite yours makes this difficult. You see him often, sometimes even doing normal things like taking the wheelie bin out for rubbish collection and mowing the lawn. In time, you start to briefly exchange pleasantries whenever you see him out in the street or at the local shops. In fact, as you get to know him better, he turns out to be quite friendly and pleasant. Although you believe that this person is different from you in too many ways to ever become your friend, your sustained contact with him that is, ongoing contact either directly or indirectly over a period of time has helped break down a stereotype that was substantially based on minimal information obtained from secondary sources. Does it follow that direct contact between groups who are prejudiced towards one another will help break down stereotypes and reduce prejudice? The possibility was first raised by American psychologist Gordon Allport in 1954 and has come to be known as the contact hypothesis. The contact hypothesis proposes that certain types of direct contact between members of different groups can reduce prejudice. The assumption is that close, prolonged contact of a fairly direct nature (one-on-one

or face-to-face) leads to a re-evaluation of incorrect stereotypes about the other group and its members, thereby reducing intergroup stereotyping and prejudice. For example, if members of different groups are able to socialise, they will be able to exchange information and learn things about each other that challange or break down the stereotypes behind the prejudice. This suggests that direct intergroup contact over a period of time may be an effective means of eliminating, or at least reducing, prejudice. However, reality indicates otherwise. For example, consider the high level of contact between men and women, Europeans and Aboriginals, and younger and older people since Australia was first settled. Despite the ongoing and frequent contact, many men still hold prejudiced attitudes towards women, as do Europeans towards Aboriginals and younger people towards the elderly. Consider also the high level of contact between Palestinians and Israelis, Muslims and Christians, black and white Americans. None of these situations of sustained contact has on its own been successful in significantly reducing or eliminating prejudice. Mere contact over time is insufficient. According to the contact hypothesis, a number of specific conditions must be present for the sustained contact to be effective in reducing prejudice. One condition which must be present for contact to be effective is that the two different groups must have contact that makes them dependent on each other. This is called mutual interdependence.

Figure 8.20 A prejudiced attitude toward bikies might make you nervous if this man moved into your neighbourhood. However, sustained contact might help break down your stereotype and reduce your prejudice. 350

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Mutual interdependence If two rival groups who dislike and are prejudiced against each other are placed in a contact situation in which they are mutually interdependent that is, dependent on each other there is a greater likelihood that the rivalry and negative stereotypes can be broken down, thereby reducing the prejudiced attitudes the groups hold about each other. This contact condition was first demonstrated in a well-known experiment conducted by Turkish-born American psychologist Muzafer Sherif (1956). The experiment was conducted in three phases and has come to be known as the Robber s Cave Experiment because of its location at a place called Robber s Cave. Sherif s experiment involved two groups of children who developed negative attitudes towards each other, became bitter rivals and were constantly in conflict, a condition he and his colleagues created at a three-week summer vacation camp. The participants were 22 white, middle-class, Protestant boys aged 11 to 12 with no record of school, psychological or behavioural problems. To confirm this information obtained from school records, the researchers observed the children s behaviour in the playground. The researchers also obtained the boys informed consent in the presence of their parents. The experiment was described generally and relatively accurately, with the participants (and parents) being led to believe that the researchers were studying the formation of friendship groups and various aspects of group behaviour. According to one of the research assistants, both the parents and each boy enthusiastically gave their permission (Harvey, 2004). In the first phase of the experiment, the boys were randomly allocated to one of two groups. The two groups arrived at the campsite in separate buses and were kept apart in different areas of the camp so that they would be unaware of each other s presence. In this first phase, Sherif s aim was to promote the development of cohesion within each group; that is, a sense of belonging and togetherness . Group cohesion was achieved by organising activities that involved cooperation and required the members of each group to be highly interdependent on each other. For example, within each group, the boys cooperated in preparing meals, building a rope bridge, building a diving board for the swimming pool and so on. These types of activities proved to be very effective in building group cohesion. The boys made up names for their respective groups (the Rattlers and the Eagles ), they designed a flag and they developed certain types of behaviour and expressions that were unique to their group. This phase lasted for one week, at the end of which the cohesiveness within each group was well established and the stage was set for conflict.

Figure 8.21 Turkish-born American psychologist Muzafer Sherif (1906 1988)

In the second phase, Sherif organised intergroup competitions to test a hypothesis that when two groups have conflicting aims, their members will become hostile to each other even though the groups are composed of normal, well-adjusted individuals . Sherif allowed the groups to discover that they were sharing the campsite. Seeing those guys using our ball field and our equipment created tension and rivalry. According to data collected from questionnaires completed by the boys, each group had become so closely knit that the other group was viewed as outsiders . The researchers stirred up the negative feelings between the groups by treating one group better than the other some of the time and by pitting the two groups against each other in a week-long tournament involving competitions with prizes awarded to the winners. Hostilities escalated as the tournament progressed, culminating in a flag burning when one group won the tug-of-war competition. Furthermore, while the group that won the tournament was celebrating, the other group raided their cabins and stole the prizes. In one contact situation, name-calling started and fist fights broke out. As predicted by Sherif, the experiment had transformed 22 perfectly normal, well-adjusted boys into two gangs of brawling troublemakers, full of hostility towards each other. C h a p t e r 8 Attitude formation and change

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Figure 8.22 In Sherif s 1956 experiment, the tug-of-war competition increased the hostility and rivalry between the Rattlers and the Eagles.

In the third phase, Sherif wanted to see if he could improve relations between the two groups by increasing contact through intergroup cooperation in non-competitive situations. So he arranged for them to share meal times and watch movies together. However, this failed as the boys in these groups had become enemies and continued to fight with each other. Once rivalry, bitter feelings and hostility between the groups had been aroused, simply eliminating the competition and bringing them together in situations involving casual, non-interactive contact did not eliminate the rivalry and associated negative attitudes and behaviour. Sherif overcame the rivalry and negative attitudes by making the groups mutually interdependent on each other. This was achieved by creating and setting up three situations where the members of one group alone could not accomplish the required task. The first situation involved damage to the water supply system. The only way the system could be repaired so that water once again became available was if all the boys worked together in order to repair it. The second situation required all the boys to pool their money to pay the rental fee of a movie they all wanted to see. In the third situation, while the boys were on an outing, the truck that was to go and pick up their food for the day stalled. In order to get the truck going again, it was necessary for the boys to pull it up and over a steep hill. This could be accomplished only if all of them pulled together, regardless of which group they belonged to. Figure 8.23 Situations which required a joint effort from both groups of boys helped to reduce their prejudice against one another. 352

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Superordinate goals After the two groups of boys had become bitter rivals, Sherif initially tried to improve their poor interpersonal relationships and reduce the prejudice and hostility between them by arranging for them to share meal times and watch movies together. This unstructured intergroup contact did not help reduce the tension. The boys in each group used it as an opportunity to tease and throw food at each other. When this simple form of contact failed to reduce the prejudice, Sherif presented the groups with superordinate goals and observed the effect of a superordinate goal on intergroup conflict. A superordinate goal is a goal that cannot be achieved by any one group alone and overrides other existing goals which each group might have (Sherif, 1966). For example, the Kyoto Protocol on climate change has a superordinate goal for the elimination of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere to minimise global warming. This goal cannot be achieved unless many industrialised nations throughout the world cooperate by making a commitment to the Protocol and limiting their emissions of greenhouse gases by set amounts. Although many nations have signed up in support of the Protocol, America has its own goals for levels of greenhouses gases within its territorial boundaries and has refused to sign the agreement. Unless America signs, thereby agreeing to change its individual goals, the superordinate goals of the Kyoto Protocol cannot be achieved. In Sherif s experiment, there were three situations involving superordinate goals. These were: (1) the camp s water system broke down, and both groups had to work together in order for it to be repaired; (2) a movie which both groups wanted to see could be

shown only if they cooperated by pooling their money in order to obtain it; and (3) a truck which was to collect food for both groups stalled, and could be started only if both groups pulled it. In order for these goals to be achieved, intergroup contact involving cooperation was required a level of cooperation in which the two groups were mutually interdependent. Sherif believed this would eliminate negative attitudes and stereotypes held by both groups towards each other, thereby reducing future conflicts between them. Establishing superordinate goals did, in fact, have these effects. Superordinate goals improved intergroup relationships, but not immediately. After repairing the water supply, the two groups mingled good-naturedly, but they ended the day with a food fight. They rented a movie with pooled resources, but the two groups sat on opposite sides of the dining hall to watch it. After six days of cooperation, however, their hostilities were greatly decreased, as can be seen in figure 8.24. In fact, when it was time to leave, they asked if they could travel home together on the same bus. As the boys took their seats, the camp staff noticed that a Rattler was just as likely to sit next to an Eagle as to another Rattler (Smith & Mackie, 2000). ercentage of outgroup seen unfavourably

Hostile feelings and negative attitudes were gradually reduced through these goal-focused cooperative activities. The boys made friendships across groups and began to get along better, and the barriers between the groups were broken down to such an extent that the boys essentially viewed themselves as belonging to one larger group of campers. Sherif reported that by the end of the camp the groups were actively seeking opportunities to mix, to entertain and to treat each other . The boys made far less negative ratings of the opposing group and the prejudice and hostility seemed to have disappeared, as shown in figure 8.24. Sherif s Robber s Cave experiment revealed how mutual interdependence can reduce prejudice and conflict between groups. Mutual interdependence was created by setting the groups superordinate goals. This is another condition that is required if contact is to be effective in reducing prejudice.

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Figure 8.24 The results of the Robber s Cave experiment

Equality of status Another condition of the contact hypothesis is that for contact between two groups to reduce prejudice between the groups, then the groups must have equal status in the contact situation. The status of a group refers to the importance of the group when compared with another group, as perceived by members of the group(s) making the comparison. If one group is perceived as being more important or better in some way that is valued by the other group, then the more important group would be described as having a higher status than the less important group. Conversely, the less important group would be described as having a lower status. When the members of both groups perC h a p t e r 8 Attitude formation and change

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ceive their own group and the other group as being equally important, they would be described as having an equality of status. Generally, the more status a group has, the more power and influence it usually has over another group with less status, and vice versa. When status between two groups is not equal, the group members tend to view the other group members differently and may also treat them differently. For example, in Sherif s experiment, there was a lot of status attached to winning each of the competitive events in the four-day tournament. After the first event, the members of the winning group perceived themselves as better than the members of the other group, whereas the losing group members reported a higher level of resentment and other negative attitudes towards the winners. Sherif took advantage of this by allowing the winning group into the dining room for the evening meal first, but with not enough food available for both groups. The winning group knew that the losing group would be arriving later but proceeded to select and eat the best food and leave only scraps for the other group. This made the winners feel even better but fuelled the resentment and hostile feelings of the losers. However, when the two groups were given equality of status and had to rely on each other to achieve the superordinate goals, the negative attitudes and behaviour towards each other gradually disappeared. More recent experiments have also found that differences in perceived

status between groups are an important factor that can maintain or increase prejudice, and perceived equality of status is a factor that can reduce prejudice. In summation, contact between groups who are prejudiced towards each other may lead to a reduction in intergroup prejudice, but may also increase prejudice unless the contact occurs under certain conditions. Contact will be more likely to reduce intergroup prejudice if it occurs over a prolonged period of time, and if the groups are engaged in activities that require mutual interdependence, such as when working cooperatively to achieve a common, superordinate goal, and if the groups perceive each other as being equal in status in the contact situation. However, many psychologists believe that it is important that the contact situation in which these conditions are present must also be supported by authorities, laws or customs that favour intergroup contact and promote equal and fair treatment of both groups (Pettigrew, 1998). For example, if prejudice is to be reduced in a contact situation, then the groups that are prejudiced against each other must believe they have the legal and moral support of authorities, such as the judicial system, government, police, employers and teachers. That is, the larger, overall culture and surrounding social environment in which the contact occurs must support equality in its laws and in the actions of its officials if prejudice is to be reduced (Tavris & Wade, 1995).

learning a ctivity 8.20 Practical activity

Prisoner s dilemma

This practical activity can be used to test the effect of having a superordinate goal linked to the behaviour of rival individuals. The original Prisoner s dilemma activity involved a hypothetical situation in which two prisoners are questioned by police about the same crime. The prisoners, who are held in different locations, are each given the following options: 1. if neither prisoner informs on the other, they will each receive a one-year sentence because there will be insufficient evidence to imprison them for longer 2. if both prisoners inform on each other, they will each receive a five-year sentence 3. if only one prisoner informs on the other, the informant will receive a $100 fine, while the other prisoner will receive a 10-year prison sentence. The dilemma the prisoners face is whether or not to inform. If prisoner A informs on prisoner B, then prisoner A stands to get off with a minor fine (as long as B doesn t inform) or a five-year sentence (if B does inform). If A does not inform, A might receive a one-year sentence (if B also does not inform) or a 10-year sentence (if B does inform).

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At the same time, prisoner B is going through the same reasoning process. The prisoners have only one chance to make a decision and they are unable to communicate with each other. Not to inform is to show good faith, to trust and to be cooperative. To inform is to be suspicious, take advantage of the other person and to be competitive. The aim of this activity is to investigate the effectiveness of various cooperative and competitive strategies used by people in a situation involving a superordinate goal and conflicts. Each participant will require two copies of the data sheet on page 355 (label them data sheet A and data sheet B) and a copy of the scoring schedule (table 8.2). All materials can be downloaded from your eBook. The activity can be completed with pairs of students from within the class and/ or another class. It is important, however, that participants have no prior knowledge of the Prisoner s dilemma activity. The object of the activity is for each participant to win as many points as they can. The activity has 15 trials and is played under two conditions. In condition A, participants

will change partners for each trial. In condition B, participants will remain with the same partner for all 15 trials. Participants should complete the first 15 trials each with a different partner (condition A). Partners are not permitted to discuss strategies during the activity. Results are recorded on data sheet A. (If there are fewer than 15 participants, some participants can use partners more than once.) For trial 1, the Prisoner s dilemma is described to participants and each participant is required to select either don t inform or inform as their response without talking to their partner. Participants should record their choice under Your choice next to trial 1 on data sheet A. Participants may then ask for their partner s choice; their partner s choice is recorded under Partner s choice on data sheet A. Participants then calculate their score using the scoring schedule. A running total of points should be recorded in the Cumulative total column on the data sheet. After all 15 trials in condition A are completed, participants select their partner for condition B. Each pair of participants should work through 15 more trials in the same way as in condition A. These results are recorded on data sheet B. Instructions for participants On each successive trial, you and your partner are required to select either don t inform or inform . You may not discuss your choice with your partner before making the selection. The final choice is to be yours alone. For each trial, first make your choice and record it on the data sheet, then record your partner s choice, and finally calculate

your score according to the scoring schedule and record it in the Win/loss column. Keep a cumulative total of your score. table 8.2 Scoring schedule

Both participants don t inform

+5 points each

One participant doesn t inform

−10 points

One participant informs

+10 points

Both participants inform

−5 points each

Report Prepare a brief report on the practical activity to include in your folio of practical activities. Your report should include answers to the following. 1. What was the aim of the activity? 2. In which condition were there more cooperative responses? How do you account for this? 3. What conclusion(s) about the impact of a superordinate goal on cooperative behaviour can be drawn from your results? 4. Describe any extraneous or confounding variables that may have affected the results; for example, consider other factors that could influence an individual s decision to cooperate or compete with a partner.

Data sheet

Trial

Your choice

Partner s choice

Win/loss

Points total

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

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learnin g activit y 8. 21 evaluation of research Sherif s (1956) robbers cave experiment Prepare a flow chart in which you summarise the main features of the Robbers Cave experiment conducted by Sherif (1956). You should: 1. identify the participants in the Robbers Cave experiment 2. identify the two groups in the Robbers Cave experiment and the way in which participants were allocated to the two groups 3. state a hypothesis that could have been tested in each of the three phases of the experiment 4. identify the independent and dependent variables in each phase 5. briefly state the main results obtained in each phase 6. briefly state a conclusion(s) for the Robbers Cave experiment 7. briefly describe two key ethical issues raised by the Robbers Cave experiment 8. explain whether the results could be generalised in situations outside the Robbers Cave experimental setting.

cognitive interventions Some psychologists suggest that if people are aware of the harmful effects of prejudice, they are then in a position to be able to do something about it. For instance, when they understand where prejudice comes from and how to reduce it, they have the knowledge to do something about it. This can be achieved through strategies involving cognitive intervention. Cognitive intervention involves changing the way in which someone thinks about prejudice. For example, when used to reduce prejudice, a specific cognitive intervention strategy may require a prejudiced person or group to consider prejudice from the victim s perspective or to have their negative stereotypes challenged and broken down. If people can be encouraged to understand others based on their individual characteristics rather than generalising some of their characteristics to stereotype them, then prejudice may be lessened. For example, paying closer attention to personal attributes rather than focusing on race, gender or age may prevent stereotyping, and therefore prejudice, from forming. The findings of research studies provide support for the effectiveness of cognitive intervention in reducing prejudice. In one study, Kawakami and his colleagues (2000) used a cognitive intervention strategy to break down and change age-related stereotypes held by university students. The participants first completed a computer training session in which they were taught about agerelated stereotypes. Following the training session, the 356

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participants were required to respond to stereotype and non-stereotype photographs of elderly people that were shown on their computer screens. If the photograph showed an elderly person in a way that was consistent with age-based stereotypes (such as frail or weak, slow or dependent on another person), they were instructed to press a Yes button. If the photograph showed an elderly person in a way that was not consistent with age-based stereotypes (for example, strong, quick, independent) they were instructed to press a No button. As well as recording the number of Yes and No responses, the researchers recorded the time taken by each participant to respond to each photo. The results showed that, gradually over time, the participants learnt to more accurately identify agebased stereotypes and that their response times to the different photographs became faster and faster. The researchers concluded from these results that their cognitive intervention strategy had led participants to break down or undo negative stereotypes of elderly people and replace them with new, positive ones. Furthermore, in testing whether the cognitive intervention would have a lasting effect, the researchers compared the participants results for a similar activity with those of a group who had not received any information about age-based stereotypes. They found that the participants who received the training were less likely to label characteristics and activities of elderly people in terms of a negative stereotype than were those participants who did not receive the training.

Figure 8.25 Age-based stereotypes such as all old people are frail can be broken down with cognitive interventions that challenge the negative stereotypes.

American psychologist Patricia Devine (1989) believes that virtually everyone s thinking is influenced by their exposure to negative stereotypes, often in ways that reinforce the stereotype. This can occur in many aspects of everyday life, such as in the home, at school, at work, when socialising with friends, when shopping and so on. Devine also believes that some people are influenced in a way that makes them more inclined to try to overcome the possible negative effects of these experiences by correcting their judgements. Thus, being unprejudiced may not mean never having stereotypic thoughts or feelings come to mind, but rather acknowledging them and making a conscious effort to avoid being influenced by them or trying to overcome them. Like trying to break any bad habit, this work is not easy, for it requires people to wrestle with inner conflicts between the negative stereotypes they have learnt and the non-prejudiced views they also hold (Huffman, 2002). Based on her findings of research studies on reducing prejudice through cognitive intervention strategies,

Devine proposes that reducing the prejudiced attitude of an individual requires a three-step process. First, the individual must decide that their prejudiced attitude and behaviour are wrong and consciously reject prejudice and stereotyped thinking. Second, they must hold fast to their non-prejudiced beliefs and make these an important part of their personal self-concept; that is, how they think and feel about themself as a person. Third, the individual must learn to suppress or block from conscious awareness prejudicial reactions that may occur and deliberately replace them with nonprejudiced responses that are based on their personal standards. So, according to Devine, the next time you find yourself saying, Oh, those A people, they re all alike not like us B people , stop and think. Stereotyping may be a natural cognitive process, but we don t necessarily have to automatically assume the prejudiced attitudes that stereotypes can promote. Nor should we act on those biases. Rather, it s important that we make a conscious effort to see each person as he or she really is a unique individual (Huffman, 2002).

learnin g activit y 8. 22 review questions 1. Consider the use of legislation to reduce prejudice. (a) Give an example of Victorian and Commonwealth of Australia legislation that has been designed to eliminate discrimination arising from prejudice. (b) Which form of prejudice does legislation affect old-fashioned, modern or both? Explain your answer. (c) Explain why legislation alone may be inadequate for reducing prejudice. 2. Psychological research has found that intergroup contact and cognitive intervention can reduce prejudice. Briefly describe the focus of each approach.

3. Intergroup contact helps reduce prejudice, but only under certain contact conditions. Briefly describe each of these contact conditions. 4. Explain what a superordinate goal is and give an example of how, this type of goal could be used to reduce conflict between two rival groups in the school grounds. 5. Give an example of a cognitive intervention strategy for reducing prejudice. Refer to the three steps that must occur in a person s thinking in order for the strategy to be effective and lasting.

learnin g activit y 8. 23 Media response

analysing a movie on reducing prejudice

Watch the movie Remember the Titans (2000) directed by Boaz Yakin with Denzel Washington playing coach Boone. 1. Give three examples of racial prejudice and discrimination shown in the movie. 2. Explain how the coach in this movie reduces the prejudice that exists between the two different groups of students. Refer to and give examples of the presence or absence of: (a) one or more superordinate goals (b) intergroup contact and the three contact conditions (c) a cognitive intervention strategy (d) any other type of strategy used by the coach.

Figure 8.26 Options and variations C h a p t e r 8 Attitude formation and change

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learning a ctivity 8.24 visual presentation

factors that may reduce prejudice

Prepare a concept map or use another diagram to show the connections between and the interrelatedness of factors that may help to reduce prejudice. An example of a concept map can be found on page 160. You may find it helpful to follow these steps in constructing your concept map. 1. Select a specific type of prejudice; for example, racism, sexism or ageism. 2. From the information in this chapter, make a list of factors that you believe might help to reduce this kind of prejudicial attitude and give an example of how it might be applied to this particular kind of prejudice. 3. Write each factor and its example on a separate small piece of paper like a Post-It note. (This will allow you to move the factors around as you think about the ways they may relate or interact in reducing prejudice.)

4. Arrange the pieces of paper in a layout which you believe best shows the relationship(s) between the factors. (a) Write the specific prejudice in the middle of an A3-size sheet of paper. (b) Place linked factors close to each other and nonlinked ones further apart. (c) Rearrange the factors until you are satisfied with their placement (there is no one correct answer). 5. Stick the pieces of paper down or write the arrangement on the A3 sheet. 6. Rule lines between linked (related) factors and write on each line what the relationship is. You can use words such as determines , influences , interacts , can lead to , contributes , assists and reduces .

learning a ctivity 8.25 essay

attitude formation and change

Write an essay of about 600 700 words in which you explain how attitude are formed and change. In your essay, ensure that you: • accurately define the term attitude and the relationship of an attitude to behaviour • briefly describe other components of an attitude, as proposed by the tri-component model • describe key factors that can influence attitude formation

• describe key factors that can influence attitude change • use appropriate examples • refer to two examples of relevant research • structure the information in a logical way • express your information in a clear and concise way • accurately reference and cite all source material. References may be used in obtaining information for your essay.

Assesment task and criteria

learning a ctivity 8.26 Oral presentation

attitude formation and change

Develop an oral presentation in which you explain how attitudes are formed and changed. Your oral presentation must use two or more data types, for example still or moving pictures, images, written text and sound. A PowerPoint presentation would be appropriate. In your presentation, ensure that you: • accurately define the term attitude and the relationship of an attitude to behaviour • use a diagram or another image to describe the components of an attitude as proposed by the tricomponent model

• use graphics and text in point form or sound to describe key factors that can influence attitude formation • use graphics and text in point form or sound to describe key factors that can influence attitude change. • use appropriate examples to illustrate key concepts • refer to two examples of relevant research • organise and sequence the information in a logical way • express or present your information in a clear and concise way. References may be used in obtaining information for your visual presentation.

Assesment task and criteria 358

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MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDES Psychologists use two main approaches to measuring or assessing attitudes. One approach involves observing people s behaviour, thus obtaining information about underlying attitudes which may be associated with the observed behaviour. Another approach involves asking participants to tell the researcher about their attitudes for example, by responding to questions or statements in an interview, questionnaire or rating scale. One approach is not necessarily better or more valid than the other. There are advantages and limitations for each approach and for each assessment device. Which approach or assessment device is used depends on the particular attitude under investigation or the situation in which it will be investigated. Some attitudes or situations may be more suited to one approach than the others. The specific attitude measurement device used also determines the type of data obtained; that is, qualitative data or quantitative data.

Observational studies Observation of behaviour is one method of gaining information about a person s attitude. Observational studies involve watching and describing behaviour as it occurs. The behaviour under investigation is clearly visible and can be recorded. This approach to measuring attitudes is referred to as an indirect measure because it involves observing what someone does (or has done), then inferring, or assuming, the underlying attitude(s) which may be associated with the observed behaviour. In most research studies on attitudes that use the observation method, people are unaware that they are being observed. For example, in a study of graffiti in male and female toilets, the researchers found that females produce more graffiti and that their graffiti has more romantic content than does male graffiti (Wales & Brewer, 1976). The researchers may not have been able to obtain these kinds of data on attitudes towards graffiti through other methods where research participants are aware that they were being studied. This is because the participants may not be completely honest about their use of graffiti. Consequently, observational studies of attitudes can be very useful in some situations. In addition, observational studies enable flexible research procedures which can be adjusted to suit the topic of research interest. For example, in a study to obtain information about people s attitudes towards certain political organisations, American psychologist Stanley Milgram (1969) developed a procedure called

the lost letter technique. Milgram prepared 400 identical envelopes which were all stamped and addressed in the same way. One hundred letters were addressed to Friends of the Nazi Party , 100 were addressed to Friends of the Communist Party , 100 were addressed to Medical Research Associates and 100 were addressed to Mr Walter Carnap . The same address (a post office box number) was used on all the envelopes. The letters were then carefully lost in a district of the American city of New Haven. The researchers placed the letters on footpaths, in telephone booths, in shops and in other places where they were likely to be found by passers-by. Milgram did not wait around to observe whether people picked up the letters and posted them. Instead, he employed a simpler and more efficient observation procedure by going to the post office box on a daily basis and observing and recording which of the letters were posted after they were found. His results showed that 72% of the medical letters and 71% of the personal letters to Walter Carnap were posted, but only 25% of the Nazi Party and Communist Party letters were posted. In this way, Milgram was able to learn about the attitudes of New Haven citizens towards certain political groups, without the research participants knowing they were being studied. Observation of behaviour is an indirect and usually unobtrusive technique for measuring attitudes. Being unobtrusive helps ensure that participants do not realise their attitudes (as assumed to be reflected by certain behaviour) are being measured. This means that participants responses are not influenced by their knowledge of being in a study. Another advantage of observation is that it can provide data about attitudes which researchers might not be able to obtain through other measures. For example, a person may state that they have a certain attitude but their observed behaviour may indicate otherwise. Observation of behaviour, however, does not always give an accurate indication of a person s attitude because observed behaviour and attitudes have often been shown to be inconsistent. Another problem with using an indirect measure such as observation of behaviour is the difficulty with measuring the strength of the attitude. Psychologists can only draw conclusions using the available evidence, and the evidence is limited by the fact that the people being observed are often not interviewed by the researcher. However, observation of behaviour is often the only method of data collection that can be used, especially for very sensitive topics where a researcher suspects a person might not be completely honest about their attitudes and behaviour, or even know how they might behave in a situation until they are actually in the situation. C h a p t e r 8 Attitude formation and change

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Figure 8.27 What underlying attitude to water conservation can be inferred from observation of this behaviour?

Self-report methods Sometimes researchers are interested in information about attitudes that is impossible to observe for example, data on attitudes towards shoplifting, drug use or sexual activity. In these cases, researchers rely on self-reports. Self-reports are written or spoken answers to questions or statements presented by the researcher. In most cases, one person s self-report is compared with those of others responding to the same questions or statements. Data which are based on self-reports given by participants are called subjective data. Assuming that the participants are honest, can accurately recall what they have been asked to describe and are able to give detailed accounts of their attitudes and related experiences, the data obtained from self-reports can provide valuable information about a person s attitudes. Self-reports can be used to obtain both qualitative and quantitative data. When using self-report methods involving questions, researchers usually choose between free-response and fixed-response questions. Free-response (or openended) questions require respondents to describe their attitudes freely in their own words (that is, qualitative data). For example, the researcher might ask 360

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a question such as, What kinds of advertisements should be banned during children s TV viewing times? or How can people be encouraged to use less gas and electricity in their homes? These kinds of open-ended questions enable research participants to provide detailed responses without being restricted to providing answers that fit into specified categories that are often used with other kinds of questions. Furthermore, free-response questions enable the researcher to ask questions of clarification or follow-up questions as participants give information about their attitudes. However, free-response questions can be limited in that answers can be difficult to summarise or score (and therefore convert to quantitative data). This makes it harder for researchers to statistically describe and interpret the data obtained. To overcome this limitation, researchers often ask fixed-response questions which enable quantitative data to be collected. Fixed-response (or closed) questions usually provide a respondent with a number of fixed alternative answers for example, Do you support the use of health warnings on cigarette packets: Yes, No, Undecided? and How many hours per evening do you usually spend on homework: 0 1 hours, 2 3 hours, 4 5 hours, 6 7 hours, more than 7 hours? Fixed-response questions provide specific alternatives

from which the respondent chooses, enabling the researcher to accurately and concisely summarise the responses in the form of quantitative data. Answers to fixed-response questions are usually easier to interpret than are answers to free-response questions.

learnin g activit y 8. 27 Writing open-ended and fixed response questions For each of the following research topics, write an example of an open-ended question and an example of a fixed-response question that could be used for selfreport data collection. 1. Whether increasing the tax on alcopops would reduce their consumption by adolescents 2. Whether the number of children in a family affects how close siblings are to each other 3. Factors that contribute to happiness in older age 4. Whether having a mental illness affects the number of friends a person has 5. Whether a person is prejudiced towards someone of a different ethnic or racial group

Questionnaires, surveys and interviews Questionnaires, surveys and interviews are all examples of attitude measurement devices which are classified as self-reports. Questionnaires are written sets of questions. They are used in research as part of the survey method of gathering data. A survey is used to collect data from a large number of people. In a survey, the researcher gives a standardised set of questions to a large number of research participants, either faceto-face, by post, by telephone or over the internet. A survey provides quantitative data on attitudes. Unlike the census, which aims to survey the entire population of Australia, a sample survey collects information from a carefully selected group of people which the researcher believes has characteristics that are representative of the entire population from which the sample is drawn. An example of the results of a sample survey of the Australian population is shown in table 8.3. This survey involved measurement of attitudes towards social issues and the findings were based on a sample of about 1500 people. Despite the small sample size, the results are generally regarded as reliable.

Figure 8.28 An interview is usually a face-to-face discussion between a researcher and an individual for the purpose of obtaining detailed information. C h a p t e r 8 Attitude formation and change

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An interview is usually a face-to-face discussion between a researcher and an individual for the purpose of obtaining detailed information. Instead of being completely standardised, as is a questionnaire, an interview is interactive. An interviewer may vary the questioning to follow up on something the respondent has said. Good interviewers are sensitive to the process of social interaction, as well as to the information provided. They are trained to establish positive social relationships with their respondents that encourage trust and the sharing of information. This is possible with both face-to-face and telephone interviews. An interview can provide qualitative or quantitative data on attitudes. table 8.3 Most important social issues ranked on first and second highest priorities for all people aged 14+

on a five-point scale. For example, an attitude statement used in a Likert scale could be: War is sometimes necessary to maintain justice . Respondents are required to rate their answers by selecting one response from a range of responses such as strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree or strongly disagree. Researchers have several choices in selecting how answers should be indicated on the five-point scale for example, ticking or crossing a blank space, circling a number or underlining a response. Each of the responses has a numerical value (for example, from 1 to 5) and the respondent s attitude is defined as the sum (total) of these values. A Likert scale for measuring attitudes towards illegal drugs could include statements such as the those shown in box 8.7.

2009

2008

Economic growth

55%

50%

Interest rates

55%

48%

BOX 8.7 Likert scale to measure attitudes towards illegal drugs

Health

53%

56%

Circle your response to each statement below.

Environment

51%

55%

SA

A

N

D

SD

Education

50%

52%

1. The use of illegal drugs is a major social problem in Australia today.

Drugs

47%

52%

SA

A

N

D

SD

Crime

46%

46%

Unemployment

40%

36%

2. There should be no restrictions on using illegal drugs as long as the individual using them does not harm anyone else.

Gambling

31%

31%

3. Laws should be strictly enforced regarding the use of illegal drugs.

SA

A

N

D

SD

4. It is an invasion of privacy when law enforcement authorities search people suspected of carrying illegal drugs.

SA

A

N D

SD

5. Individuals using illegal drugs should be punished severely.

SA

A

N D

SD

6. In the privacy of their own homes, individuals should be allowed to use any illegal drug they desire.

SA

A

N D

SD

Source: Nielsen Panorama Survey 1, 2009.

rating scales Rating scales are another self-report method. Rating scales typically provide a series of fixed-response questions or statements about different aspects of an attitude to which the respondents indicate the extent of their agreement or disagreement. This enables the researcher to explore an attitude more thoroughly than by using other measures. For instance, rating scales can be used to accurately measure the direction (whether people are in favour or against), or the strength (how strongly people react) of an attitude. Consequently, rating scales can provide very specific quantitative data on attitudes. The most commonly used rating scales in psychology in the measurement of attitudes are the Likert-type scales. A Likert scale focuses on measuring the direction of an attitude. It generally consists of about 20 questions or statements about an attitude to which respondents indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement 362

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SA A N D SD

= Strongly agree = Agree = Neither agree nor disagree = Disagree = Strongly disagree

When developing a Likert scale, half the attitude statements are worded in a positive way and half are worded negatively. For statements 1, 3 and 5, the answers would be scored as follows: SA = 1, A = 2, N = 3, D = 4 and SD = 5. For questions 2, 4 and 6, the answers would be scored in reverse: SA = 5, A = 4, N = 3, D = 2 and SD = 1. When a respondent has completed the Likert scale, all of the responses are scored and a total is calculated.

The result is the attitude score. Generally, the higher the score of a respondent, the more favourable the attitude. The lower the score, the less favourable the attitude. Box 8.8 describes how to construct a Likert scale.

Video interview with Dr Helen McGrath on research methods used to study bullying

BOX 8.8 How to construct a Likert scale The following steps enable you to construct a Likert scale to collect quantitative data for your own research on an attitude. Although your scale is likely to be a useful measure of an attitude, it will not be valid or reliable. This means that you will have to be careful with the conclusions you draw from the results obtained. Step 1 Identify an attitude towards an object, group, issue or event of interest or importance to you. Step 2 Write a list of different aspects of the attitude topic. For example, the Likert scale on illegal drugs in box 8.7 is based on aspects such as crime, punishment, civil liberties, privacy laws and impact on Australian society. If you have difficulties in generating a list, you may find it helpful to discuss your topic with others. Step 3 Use your list to develop a group of attitude items (questions or statements) on the topic. Although Likert scales usually contain about 20 items, you should consider a scale based on about six or eight items. Generally, the list should consist of items which deal with different points of view on the topic. Consider the following guidelines for writing Likert scale items. • Write items that are unlikely to be agreed with by everyone or no-one. About half of your items should be favourable towards the topic and the other half unfavourable. The more effective items will be those that tend to push respondents towards the strongly agree or strongly disagree ends of the scale. Try to avoid including items which are neutral and likely to cluster responses in the uncertain category (that is, neither agree nor disagree ). • Use simple, clear language that is suited to the experience, age, and cultural and educational background of the participants whose attitudes you are measuring. • Write your items in such a way that they are unambiguous and only one interpretation is possible. • Write each item so it contains only one complete idea. • Avoid using words such as ‘all’, ‘always’, ‘none’ and never .

Step 4 When you have written your items, trial ( test ) them with people who will not be a part of your sample but who have personal characteristics in common with those likely to be in your sample. This will assist you to identify problems with your items which you may not have noticed. • Form your items into a list, with columns for respondents to indicate whether, and to what extent, they agree or disagree with each item. Randomly distribute positive and negative items in the list to avoid a pattern of responses. • Present the items in a questionnaire format. The questionnaire should have a short introduction that includes instructions for respondents. For example: Here is a list of statements about . . . Please read each statement quickly but carefully, then indicate whether you agree or disagree with each one by putting a circle around: SA = Strongly agree A = Agree N = Neither agree nor disagree D = Disagree SD = Strongly disagree. Step 5 • Make several copies of your questionnaire and test your questions again by asking two or three people with similar backgrounds to those in your sample to rate each response. • Determine their scores for each response and then calculate their score for the entire scale. Score responses by allocating 1 for the most negative response, through to 5 for the most positive response for each item. • Analyse the responses to determine which items you should include in the final scale. The best items are those that have a very high or very low relationship with the total score for all items. You may wish to rewrite or even replace items that seem to cluster responses in the neutral/unsure category. (Adapted from Grivas, J. & Lawrie, P. A. (1991). Psychology: Experiments and Activities. Marrickville, NSW: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, pp. 401 403).

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BOX 8.9 Semantic differential scale Another scale that psychologists sometimes use to measure attitudes is the semantic differential scale. A semantic differential scale can be used to measure the strength of an attitude, the direction of an attitude, the personal meaning of the attitude to the respondent and feelings towards the topic being measured. Semantic differential refers to the different ways in which individuals interpret the same word or concept. The semantic differential scale is based on pairs of adjectives about a key word or attitude topic. The pairs of adjectives represent opposite dimensions, or aspects, of the word or topic. Rating each dimension involves evaluations such as good bad, pleasant unpleasant and helpful harmful. The respondent is required to indicate on each scale (usually seven-point) the extent to which their attitude to a word or topic is good bad, likeable unlikeable, strong weak and so on. For example, the respondent may have to rate the topic classical music on dimensions such as good bad, boring interesting, beautiful ugly, pleasant unpleasant and so on. To indicate an attitude, the respondent places a cross or a mark on a line to describe their view or feelings about the dimension. The researcher gives each mark a score, and the totalled scores become the attitude score. The scale is scored as indicated in figure 8.29, with low scores for the negative dimension and high scores for the positive. On an actual semantic differential scale, the numbers are omitted and only blank spaces are presented so that a response can be made. Although useful, the semantic

differential scale is limited in that judgements are usually more difficult to make than those required for other rating scales such as the Likert scale. Responses to the word children Happy 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Sad Bad 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Good Wise 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Foolish Ugly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Beautiful Warm 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Cold Tense 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Relaxed Likeable 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Unlikeable Figure 8.29 Scoring a semantic differential scale Children Happy Bad

Sad Good

Wise

Foolish

Ugly

Beautiful

Warm

Cold

Tense

Relaxed

Likeable

Unlikeable

Figure 8.30 A completed semantic differential scale. The plot lines show the ratings by a respondent on a semantic differential scale for the word children .

BOX 8.10 Using focus groups to measure attitudes Sometimes, achieving a deep understanding of attitudes or behaviour that may be related to an attitude of interest is more valuable than precise numerical data obtained through quantitative research. A qualitative research method that enables such an in-depth understanding involves the use of a focus group. The term focus group refers to a group interview technique by which data are obtained through discussion between research participants in a group setting. An important feature of the focus group method is the use of group interaction. Participants are encouraged to talk to one another, ask questions, exchange personal experiences and points of view and comment on each other s experiences and opinions (Kitzinger, 2000). This is different from a conventional group interview in which the researcher asks each person to respond to a question in turn. Focus groups can be used to obtain information on all types of attitudes, behaviours and experiences; for example, people s attitudes towards racism, sexism and ageism, attitudes towards global warming, the attitudes and needs of staff in an organisation, the impact of legislation or advertising campaigns, bullying in schools or the workplace,

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dating, the experience of being a victim of a violent crime, the experience of having a brain injury, experiences of services provided by psychologists, and so on. A key idea behind the focus group method is that interacting with others in a group situation can help people to explore and clarify their attitudes and other views in ways that would be far less possible in a one-to-one interview or a conventional group interview. To promote group discussion, the researcher (called a facilitator ) uses open-ended questions and encourages research participants to discuss issues of importance to them in relation to the research topic, and even to generate questions for discussion with the rest of the group (Kitzinger, 2000). A focus group study can consist of anything from a few to over 50 different focus groups, depending on the aims of the research and the resources available. Even just a few groups can generate a large amount of data. For this reason, many studies using focus groups rely on a small number of groups. The preferred size for a focus group is from four to eight people. Sessions may last for around one or two hours or extend into a whole afternoon or a series of meetings. Sessions are relaxed, in a comfortable setting,

with participants usually sitting round in a circle to help establish an atmosphere that encourages free expression and open discussion. Some studies combine the focus group method with other data collection techniques; for example, focus group discussion is useful when seeking to explain or explore the results of a survey or to analyse observed behaviour in which participants have engaged (Kitzinger, 2000). The main advantage of focus groups involves the richness or detail of the qualitative data that can be generated about a topic of interest. They are particularly suited to gathering information about attitudes and related experiences. The groups are generally easy to organise and sessions are relatively inexpensive to conduct. Another advantage of a focus group is that it is useful for collecting information from people who cannot read or write, or have other communication difficulties. In addition, the safety in numbers factor within a group situation can encourage the participation of those who may normally be uncomfortable or anxious about revealing accurate or detailed information about themselves to an interviewer in a one-to-one interview situation. Co-participants in the focus group can also provide support through their expression of attitudes or feelings that are common to their group, but which they may consider to be very different or abnormal from those of people not in the group. This is particularly important when researching very sensitive or taboo experiences such as the death of

advantages and limitations of attitude measurement devices Questionnaires and rating scales are usually simple to complete and are widely regarded as useful devices for the measurement of attitudes. They can also be administered to large numbers of people at the same time. How informative and useful they are is often dependent on the researcher s and/or administrator s skills. Although they rely on self-reporting and are best used with people who have well-developed language skills, rating scales typically provide valuable quantitative data on attitudes that are difficult to collect using other measurement devices. There are also limitations to the usefulness of selfreport methods involving written responses, whether they use free-response or fixed-response questions. For instance, self-reports cannot be used with young children, illiterate adults, people from non-English speaking backgrounds who have yet to learn English well (unless translated) and some intellectually disabled or mentally ill people. Even when verbal reports can be used, they may not be accurate. Participants may not remember clearly what they actually experienced or they may misunderstand the questions. Furthermore,

a loved one or sexual violence. However, one limitation of focus groups related to this is that the presence of other research participants does not enable the confidentiality of more conventional research settings.

Figure 8.31 Group interaction is an important aspect of a focus group.

self-report methods, other than rating scales, are often time-consuming to complete. Consequently, it is important that only essential questions are included. Another limitation of self-reports is what some psychologists refer to as social desirability, where people may give false or misleading answers to create a favourable impression of themselves. For example, with socially sensitive issues such as attitudes to minority groups, cruelty to animals and environmental issues, people sometimes give socially desirable responses instead of reporting their true attitudes. They want to appear likeable, to have a social conscience , or to look good, so they present attitudes which encourage others to see them in a positive way. Alternatively, the participants may be embarrassed to report their true attitudes or feelings. Furthermore, in self-reports based on interviews, the interview situation may allow personal biases and prejudices to affect how the interviewer asks questions and how the respondent answers them. An indirect measurement device such as an observational study has the advantage of being unobtrusive and can also provide valuable information about attitudes. The observation of behaviour technique helps ensure that participants responses are not influenced by their knowledge of being in a research study. However, the results of observational studies are limited by the fact that those being observed are often not C h a p t e r 8 Attitude formation and change

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interviewed by the researcher. Furthermore, it is difficult to accurately measure aspects of an attitude, such as strength and direction, through observation of behaviour assumed to reflect the attitude.

Figure 8.32 Self-report methods of data collection provide useful information about attitudes. However, they rely on participants having well-developed language skills and being able to accurately recall and state the information required of them.

When psychologists collect any kind of data, they need to do so carefully and to describe it accurately. It is extremely important to collect the numbers or facts as they exist, and not as one would expect or personally hope they would be. Like all people, however, psychologists have personal biases, prejudices and motivations or expectations to obtain particular data or results. These can creep into the research or the report on the research, distorting the data and their meaning. Consequently, psychologists attempt to be objective and to prevent or minimise subjective influences such as personal biases and prejudices in order to protect the quality of the research. Being objective involves taking steps to prevent personal factors from influencing any aspect of the research. It requires that observations and other data collection techniques are made and recorded in as unbiased a way as possible, without the usual prejudices and emotional distortions.

ethics in conducting research on attitude measurement All researchers are required to follow ethical standards whenever they conduct a research study, regardless of the research method or data collection technique that will be used. These standards are described in detail in chapter 2 and they should be read carefully and considered thoughtfully whenever you are planning to conduct your own research. In this section, we specifically consider ethical standards and practices that apply to research using a self-report method such as a questionnaire or Likert scale, some of the consequences of not paying enough attention to ethical issues and some of the ways of reducing the likelihood of ethical problems.

respecting rights Each individual has the right to choose whether or not to participate in research and to make that decision from an informed basis. They also have a right to privacy. The researcher must respect these rights. Researchers must ensure that the people from whom they are collecting information understand the purposes of research and how the information will be used. They must also ensure participants are voluntarily providing the information. Essentially, this means that participants are willing and happy to provide information. If they are not, then the researcher will fail to meet an important ethical standard. Furthermore, if participants are not participating voluntarily there is a strong likelihood that they will not provide accurate information, thereby potentially risking the validity and reliability of the research and its conclusions. Participants also have rights in relation to the information they provide to the researcher. Sometimes, researchers using questionnaires or rating scales

learnin g activit y 8. 28 Summarising methods of measuring attitudes Use the table below or in your eBook to summarise key features of different methods for measuring attitudes.

Feature Description Quantitative or qualitative data Advantages Limitations

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Observation of behaviour

Self-report methods Questionnaire

Survey

Interview

Rating scale

unintentionally view their participants as objects to get information from, rather than seeing them as partners in the research. If a participant is viewed simply as an object, then it is likely that they will be considered as mere providers of information. When the information is obtained, the participants may be forgotten. This means that their rights may be overlooked when analysing, describing or reporting the information they provided. For example, you may forget the participant s right to have their information interpreted in a way that does not misrepresent the meaning they intended. To interpret information in a way that a participant did not intend would not only SAMPLE ONLY NB: Two forms should be used

show a lack of respect for their rights, but would also provide results that are inaccurate.

Obtaining informed consent It is essential that the researcher obtain the informed consent of each participant, or the participant s legal guardian where appropriate. The researcher uses a briefing statement and written consent form to ensure that each participant is able to give their informed consent. This procedure is consistent with the ethical guidelines all researchers are expected to follow. Figure 8.33 shows an example of a briefing statement and consent form given to research participants.

TO BE PRINTED ON SCHOOL LETTERHEAD

one to be retained by the participant and one by the researcher (or teacher).

STATEMENT OF INFORMED CONSENT TITLE OF STUDY: .............................................................................................................................................................. DESCRIPTION OF STUDY: Insert a description of the study. Include: • the reasons for the study • the method used to collect data • how the data will be analysed, described and presented • steps taken to maintain confidentiality of the data • whether the participant will have a chance to see and comment on the final report • what will happen to the final report • who will read the report and have access to it • name(s) of researcher(s), supervisor/teacher and school • status of the researcher(s). I, ................................................................, consent to taking part in the research study described above. I understand my rights as a participant in this research. The objectives and procedures of the study have been explained to me and I understand them. [Where deception is used the following clause should be included.] I understand that it is sometimes essential, for the validity of research results, not to reveal the true purpose of the research to participants. If this occurs, I understand that I will be debriefed as soon as is practicable after my participation and, at that time, given the opportunity to withdraw from the research and have records of my participation erased. I have been advised the results of the research will be presented in a formal written report but that my personal details will remain confidential. I voluntarily consent to participate but I understand that I may withdraw from the study at any time. If you have any questions, comments or complaints to make on this research study, please contact [insert the researcher s name and/or the Psychology teacher s name] at [insert the researcher s and/or the Psychology teacher s full contact details, including phone number(s)]. Name of Participant: ............................................................ Signature: ........................................................................... (to be printed) Name of Researcher: ............................................................ Signature: ........................................................................... (to be printed) Date: ............................................... Figure 8.33 An example of a briefing statement and written consent form C h a p t e r 8 Attitude formation and change

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Generally, the briefing statement and consent form ensure that, before the researcher begins to collect data, they explain to each participant: • the reasons for the study • the method used to collect data • how the data will be analysed, described and presented • whether the participant will have a chance to see and comment on the final report • what will happen to the final report • who will read the report and have access to it.

confidentiality Participants responding to items in a questionnaire or rating scale provide information in the belief that it will be treated in confidence. This means at least two things. First, the researchers should not gossip or talk about the information individual participants provided or from whom they received it. Confidentiality means keeping the information private and preventing access to it by anyone outside the research team, except when presenting the research report to others. Second, even when the information is finally written in a report, it should be impossible for an individual participant s information to be identified.

Their particular information should be a part of the total information presented. You can achieve this fairly easily with questionnaire or rating scale data where you report a total number or a percentage of responses; for example, All participants older than 60 years of age reported that females are more likely than males to face discrimination in the workplace when seeking promotion to a leadership role . There are a number of other ways available to the researcher to ensure that the identity of participants is kept confidential. For example, the names of the participants and the name(s) of the specific location(s) where the questionnaire or rating scale was completed can be changed. Furthermore, information should not be reported in a way that is easily linked to a particular person. For example, if you were administering the questionnaire or rating scale at your local shopping centre and there was only one pharmacy, then you wouldn t report data such as, . . . the pharmacist said . . . or . . . the pharmacist s assistant gave a very high rating . . . because it would easily identify the individual who provided the information. Unless participants have agreed to being identified in the final report, their privacy must always be respected, confidentiality maintained and anonymity preserved.

learning a ctivity 8.29 Practical activity

conducting research to measure attitudes

Construct a questionnaire to measure attitudes on a topic about which people in different lifespan stages are likely to differ, then collect the data and prepare a report on the research. The research topic should relate in some way to attitudes towards people; for example, stereotypes or prejudices held by people towards females, the elderly, or people who belong to a minority cultural, ethnic or racial group in Australian society. Think about the differences you might expect to find between attitudes of people in different lifespan stages and construct a relevant hypothesis. The questionnaire should use conventional closed-ended questions requiring a Yes or No response, or Likert-type scale items (see box 8.8). This will enable the participants responses to be converted into quantitative data and to support description, analysis and interpretation of your results. Use about 8 10 questions or statements in your questionnaire; this can be increased if the research is undertaken as a small group or class exercise. You should trial your questionnaire on one or two individuals who are not part of the research sample to find out

whether you need to refine the questions, instructions or procedures. Ensure you follow all ethical standards and practices when planning and conducting your research. In particular, note the requirement to obtain informed consent from all participants. One part of meeting this requirement involves the design and use of a briefing statement and consent form (see figure 8.33). You may customise this document in your eBook to design your own briefing statement and consent form. Select a sample of about 10 volunteer research participants from people in different lifespan stages. This could be two adolescents, two adults and so on. Report Following data collection, organise and summarise the data using appropriate descriptive statistics. Then write a report on your research to include in your folio of practical activities. A complete report is not required, unless specified by your teacher. The report should include the following sections: Introduction, Procedure, Results and Discussion.

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trU e/FalS e Q UiZ Indicate whether each statement is true or false by writing T or F in the blank space next to each statement. 1. _____

All attitudes are learnt.

2. _____

An attitude can be held towards any person or thing.

3. _____

An attitude and behaviour are more likely to match when the attitude is strong, accessible and the individual believes that something can be done about the attitude.

4. _____

Attitudes can be measured both directly and indirectly.

5. _____

Stereotyping involves holding a negative attitude towards a member of a group based solely on their membership of that group.

6. _____

Discrimination is a belief that we have about people who belong to a certain group, regardless of individual differences among members of the group.

7. _____

An outgroup is any group which you belong to or identify with.

8. _____

Attitudes cannot be changed.

9. _____

A free-response question is essentially the same type of question as an openended question.

10. _____

A survey may involve both a questionnaire and an interview.

The answers to the true/false questions are in the answer section at the back of this book and in eBookPLUS.

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C H A PT E R TES T SectiOn a

Multiple-choice questions

Choose the response that is correct or that best answers the question. A correct answer scores 1, an incorrect answer scores 0. Marks will not be deducted for incorrect answers. No marks will be given if more than one answer is completed for any question. 1. The relationship between behaviour and attitudes tends to be A. indirect. B. consistent. C. direct. D. inconsistent. 2. Which of the following attitude measurement methods is best for collecting qualitative data? A. A questionnaire with open-ended questions B. A rating scale with fixed-response questions C. A questionnaire with closed-ended questions D. An interview with fixed-response questions 3. When two rival groups have equality of status, then prejudice A. is more difficult to reduce. B. is easier to reduce. C. will probably result in discrimination. D. will probably result in intergroup conflict. 4. Which of the following statements best describes discrimination? A. Discrimination involves positive action to support someone in a minority group. B. Discrimination involves negative action against someone in a minority group. C. Discrimination involves either positive or negative action towards someone in a minority group. D. Discrimination involves stereotyping of all individuals in a minority group whilst overlooking individual differences. 5. When used to reduce prejudice, a cognitive intervention strategy will involve A. use of legislation. B. formation of stereotypes. C. changing the way in which prejudiced people think about others against whom they are prejudiced. D. a goal that is unattainable by any one group alone and overrides existing goals which each prejudiced group may have. 370

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6. When conducting research using a questionnaire, a briefing statement is used to inform participants about A. their rights. B. ethical and unethical questions that will be asked. C. the types of answers that maintain confidentiality. D. how to complete the questions quickly and efficiently. 7. Lucio is on vacation in Alice Springs and observes an Aboriginal adult being ejected from a hotel. He assumes that the person is probably an alcoholic and caused trouble. Lucio is unaware that the Aboriginal person is a non-drinker who had attended the hotel to forcibly take home his brother who is actually an alcoholic and often gets into trouble when he gets drunk. Lucio s assumption about the ejected Aboriginal person is best explained by A. the just world hypothesis. B. modern prejudice. C. the fundamental attribution error. D. the non-contact hypothesis. 8. Which of the following statements best describes a superordinate goal? A. A goal that everyone agrees with B. A goal that everyone believes is achievable C. A goal that everyone agrees with and everyone believes is achievable D. A goal that cannot be achieved by any one group alone and overrides other existing goals which each group may have 9. Prejudice is a/an ; whereas discrimination is a/an . A. stereotype; behaviour B. attitude; stereotype C. behaviour; attitude D. attitude; behaviour

10. Which of the following behaviours best indicates old-fashioned prejudice? A. Making negative comments about the sexual preferences of a male nurse B. Being unconcerned about the appointment of a female to a position not traditionally held by females C. Publicly expressing a view that all people should have equal rights D. Publicly expressing a view that all people should have equal rights, but privately being against equal rights for all people 11. Jane, who is working full time, applies for a credit account with a department store. She is told that she cannot have an account unless her husband acts as a guarantor. The store does not require male employees to have a guarantor. This is an example of A. a superordinate goal established by the department store. B. equal opportunity. C. anti-discrimination. D. discrimination. 12. Which of the following is not a self-report measurement device? A. Questionnaire B. Survey C. Observation of behaviour D. Interview 13. An essential feature of an attitude is that it involves A. an opinion. B. evaluation. C. prejudice. D. behaviour that can be observed, either directly or indirectly. 14. Prejudice between two rival groups is most likely to be reduced when the groups A. are mutually interdependent on each other. B. are in contact with each other. C. compete in activities for which rewards are given to the winners. D. have increased contact in non-competitive situations.

15. Which of the following factors influences repeated exposure in attitude formation? A. Learning B. Prejudice C. Discrimination D. Attitude strength 16. An ingroup is best described as a group A. with members who have common attitudes. B. to which someone belongs. C. to which people of a similar age or with common attitudes wish to belong. D. with members who avoid intergroup conflict. 17. A person who is opposed to Japanese whaling is more likely to do something that is consistent with their attitude if he or she A. reads a very informative article about the cruelty of Japanese whaling. B. watches a news items on TV which clearly establishes the excessive slaughter of whales by Japanese whaling fleets. C. has a very strong attitude against Japanese whaling. D. has a prejudiced attitude towards Japanese people. 18. An attitude is more likely to predict behaviour when the attitude is A. formed in a social context. B. strongly held. C. under perceived control. D. learned through cognitive intervention. 19. A stigma is a negative through stereotyping. A. feeling B. label C. evaluation D. behaviour

that may arise

questions or statements 20. Rating scales use for attitude measurement. A. free-response B. open-ended C. fixed-response D. quantitative

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SectiOn B

Short-answer questions

Answer all questions in the spaces provided. Question 1 A Likert scale focuses on measuring the

of an attitude. 1 mark

Question 2 What is a limitation of relying only on behavioural observations to measure an attitude?

1 mark

Question 3 Briefly explain how attitudes are formed, with reference to prejudice.

2 marks

Question 4 Define stereotyping with reference to an example.

2 marks

Question 5 Describe the tri-component model of an attitude, ensuring you refer to a key assumption underlying the model.

4 marks

eBook plus The answers to the multiple-choice questions are in the answer section at the back of this book and in eBookPLUS. The answers to the short-answer questions are in eBookPLUS. Note that you can complete Section A of the chapter test online through eBookPLUS and get automatic feedback.

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CHAPTER

9

SOCIAL INFLUENCES ON THE INDIVIDUAL Social influence .............................................. 374 What is a group? ............................................ 374 Status and power within groups .......... 376 Types of power ......................................... 376 Effects of status and power within groups ....................................... 378 Zimbardo s Stanford Prison Experiment ............................................ 378 Ethical issues in Zimbardo s experiment ............................................ 381 Obedience ......................................................... 384 Milgram s experiments on obedience .............................................. 384 Factors affecting obedience ........... 387 Ethical issues in obedience studies ........................................................ 390 Conformity ....................................................... 394 Asch s experiments on conformity .............................................. 394 Factors affecting conformity .......... 396 Group influences on behaviour ......... 404 The peer group ....................................... 404 Peer pressure ............................................ 406 Risk-taking behaviour ......................... 409

SOCIAL INFLUENCE We have all experienced situations in which we have influenced or been influenced by other people to think, feel or behave in a certain way. In psychology, the term social influence is used to refer to the ways in which others influence our thoughts, feelings and behaviour. Social influence is defined as the effects of the presence or actions of others, either real or imagined, on the way people think, feel and behave. Social influence is exerted in many different ways and may come from a person, a group or an institution such as a school, church or government. The impact of social influence may be constructive (helpful), destructive (harmful), or neutral (have no effect). In all cases, however, social influence involves a degree of pressure, varying from slight to intense, that is exerted on an individual to change their thoughts, feelings or behaviour in some way. This pressure from others can be real or genuine pressure or it can be imagined; that is, it does not actually occur, but it is still experienced as real pressure. We do not always give in to the pressure social influence can be, and often is, resisted. In this chapter, we examine several different types of social influences on the individual and consider factors that influence whether or not the individual will resist. Since social influence most often occurs when we are in a group situation, we first examine what a group is.

WHAT IS A GROUP? Suppose two people are in a bus shelter waiting for a bus. They are alone in the shelter, sitting at opposite ends of the bench. Neither is looking at the other, but each is aware of the other s presence. Are they a group? Are two people who go jogging together each weekend a group? Are five strangers riding in an elevator a group? Are the students in your psychology class a group? Are the people queued up to use the ATM a group? The word group is often used in everyday conversation to refer to any set of two or more people. Social psychologists, however, believe that a group is more than a gathering of people. Although definitions vary slightly, there is general agreement that a group is any collection of two or more people who interact with and influence one another and who share a common purpose. Figure 9.1 Which of these collections of people is a group? 374

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It probably did not surprise you that you need at least two people to form a group. But is there an upper limit to the number of people for a group? Can you have a group of thousands of people? For example, can the 90 000 spectators who attend the Boxing Day test match at the Melbourne Cricket Ground be considered a group? The number of people is just one of the characteristics of a group and the actual number of individuals is not so important. What is more important is that, for a collection of people to be called a group, the individuals involved must also interact with (for longer than a few moments) and influence one another. They must also share a common purpose, or goal.

Under the definition of a group commonly used by social psychologists, the two people in the bus shelter and the people lined up at the ATM in figure 9.1 are not considered a group. Five strangers in an elevator are not a group (but could become a true interacting group if the elevator got stuck between floors). In contrast, the two joggers in figure 9.1 would be considered a group and the students in your class would also be considered a group. In both these groups, the individuals involved are likely to interact frequently, often for longer than a few moments, and they often have a common purpose. They probably will communicate with and affect each other at different times, they may be aware of having something in common and they are likely to have a sense of belonging.

learning activity 9.1 review questions

Figure 9.2 Are these fans, doing the Mexican wave at the Boxing Day test cricket match, a group?

Although the MCG spectators may interact with and influence one another occasionally during the game, for example, in a Mexican wave , the interaction is minimal and not actually the kind associated with true interacting groups. Members of groups act and react towards one another and typically have an effect on one another. Moreover, although a Mexican wave may promote a sense of belonging for some spectators, this feeling is short-lived and unlikely to be shared by everyone present. Nor is it likely that the feeling of belonging is as well developed as that held by members of true groups the feeling of being not merely in the group but part of the group. In sum, those at the Boxing Day test match may be best described as a gathering of people in the same location engaged in a common activity. Social psychologists often use the term collective (or aggregate) to describe such a gathering of people who have minimal direct interaction. The audience at a rock concert is a collective, as is a mob.

1. (a) Explain the meaning of social influence as used in psychology. (b) Give an example of when you (or someone you know) has experienced real pressure and imagined pressure to think, feel or behave in some way and managed to resist the pressure. How difficult was this in each situation? (c) Do you believe that imagined pressure can be just as powerful an influence on an individual as real pressure? Explain your answer. 2. What four key characteristics distinguish a group from other collections of people? 3. What is a collective? Give an example different from those used in the text. 4. In what ways are a group and a collective similar and different? 5. Which of the following collections of people are groups? members of a hockey team psychologists attending an international conference all the cyclists participating in a race a duo of singers 150 VCE students in a school a church congregation three friends who live in the same house 23 looters raiding a store during a civil riot campers at a caravan park shoppers at a shopping centre shop owners at a shopping centre 16 Swedish spectators with the same face paint sitting together at the Australian Open tennis tournament

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learning a ctivity 9.2 visual presentation and collectives

groups

Prepare a poster-style presentation on a A3 sheet of paper or a short PowerPoint presentation in which you: • present images (e.g. photos, graphic representations) of three or four groups to which you belong • define a group • distinguish between a group and a collective • define social influence. Ensure the information is logically organised and you are concise with expression. Point form is acceptable.

STATUS AND POWER WITHIN GROUPS Within a group, each member can have an identifiable status. Status refers to the importance of an individual s position in the group, as perceived by members of the group. For example, consider your family group. Who has the highest status and who has the lowest status? Do these two individuals rate as equals in terms of the amount of power they have in the family? Does each person have a similar amount of influence or control over the other? The answer to these questions is probably no . It is important, however, to recognise that an individual s status can have an important effect on their behaviour towards others in the group. Status

can specifically affect the expectations that individuals have of each other s behaviour and how individual group members relate to one another. A person s status in a group also determines the amount of power they have within the group. Power refers to an individual s (or group s) ability to control or influence the thoughts, feelings or behaviour of another person (or group). Interaction between any two or more individuals typically involves power to some degree. Power is a basic aspect of life as a social being and can be observed in all kinds of relationships and interactions, including those involving people we dislike, as well as friends and lovers. Even when individuals are unaware of their effect on others, this effect still exists to some extent. However, there are many situations where one individual will deliberately and consciously attempt to use their power to influence others.

types of power Social psychologists have identified different types of power. One approach to distinguishing between different types of power is summarised in table 9.1. Each type of power arises from the source of that power. For example, if a person has control over something you need or want, then that person has power over you. The type of power used by an individual usually depends on their specific role as well as the specific situation. The status of an individual may also affect the type of power used in a specific situation. Often, more than one type of power is used simultaneously to exert influence.

table 9.1 Types of power

Type of power

Source of power

Example

Reward power

Ability to give positive consequences or remove negative consequences in response to specific behaviour

An employer has the power to give a pay rise or promotion.

Coercive power

Ability to give negative consequences or remove positive consequences in response to specific behaviour

An employer can dismiss an employee; a teacher can give detention, or not allow a student to attend a school excursion or function.

Legitimate power

An individual s status or position in a group, institution or society in general gives them the right (authority) to exercise power over those with a lower status or with less authority.

A group leader, captain of a team, police officer

Referent power

Individuals identify with or want to be like or liked by this person.

A famous person you want to be like or a friend who you want to be liked by

Expert power

Having special knowledge and skills that are desirable or needed

A student skilled in using a computer software application assists other students in the class.

Informational power

Having resources or information that are useful and are not available elsewhere

Librarian; someone who has had a specific experience that someone else wants to know about.

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Figure 9.3

learnin g activit y 9. 3

learning activity 9.5

review questions

visual presentation power

1. Define what is meant by the terms status and power. 2. Describe the relationship between status and power in a group situation. 3. Give an example of a group situation in which you have: (a) considerable status (b) little or no status. 4. (a) Describe a group situation in which you have been involved where power has been exerted on an individual(s) in the group. (b) Using the information in table 9.1, identify the type of power(s) that was used to influence the group member(s) in the situation described in 4(a).

learnin g activit y 9. 4 identifying types of power Identify one or more types of power that may be held or used by each of the following individuals: • the cartoon character in figure 9.3 asking for the latrine (toilet) to be cleaned • classroom teacher • tennis coach • witness to a crime who refuses to testify • clinical psychologist • host of a radio talkback show • the Pope • dog owner • parking inspector • pilot of a jumbo jet • museum tour guide • famous actor • soccer player with a penalty shot at goal • prison guard.

types of

In groups of three or four, select one type of power described in table 9.1. Prepare a role play of an everyday situation that demonstrates the use of this power in influencing others. Present your role play to the class and ask other class members to identify which type of power was demonstrated in your presentation.

BOX 9.1 Social hierarchies Status and power within a group are often based on an individual s position in the pecking order or social hierarchy that may have developed. A social hierarchy shows the order of dominance of different members of a group, with the most dominant individual (the leader) at the top and the least dominant individual(s) at the bottom of the hierarchy. Among animals, the hierarchy is often determined by age, physical strength and sex; for example, the oldest and strongest male often becomes the most dominant animal and holds the position at the top of the hierarchy. In simple animal hierarchies, the general rules are male dominates female, bigger dominates smaller and older dominates younger individuals. There are, however, exceptions. For example, in breeding seasons, females may become more dominant, or at other times, a group of lower-ranking animals may band together to try to push out the highest ranked animal in the hierarchy. Within groups of people, a social hierarchy is often determined by the status, power and specific roles of the various individuals of the group. For example, in a work environment, the social hierarchy is relatively easy to identify and is determined by legitimate power that goes with certain positions. Most of the group members would (continued)

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accept that their manager, supervisor or team leader has the right to exert power over them in relation to their work tasks. Hierarchies serve an important function in all groups as they can assist in reducing the amount of conflict within the group, thereby allowing for more harmonious functioning. Individuals who know where they stand in the group are less likely to create unrest than those whose position is unclear. The hierarchy also gives group members a better understanding of their role expectations knowing what is expected of them in their various relationships with other group members.

Figure 9.4 In this troop of baboons, the most physically powerful male is at the top of the social hierarchy, followed by other males, then females and infants.

Figure 9.5 In this platoon of soldiers, the most dominant soldier is clearly evident.

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effects of status and power within groups Status and power within a group are often linked to the role each individual has in the group. A role is the behaviour adopted by an individual or assigned to them that influences the way in which they function or act in different situations and life in general. Basically, a role is a part an individual plays in life that carries with it expectations of how to behave in different situations. Each individual has many roles in everyday life. Some roles are relatively temporary in the context of our lifespan (for example, babysitter, student, casual employee, captain of a basketball team) and others are more permanent (such as female, brother, parent, friend, priest). Regardless of whether a role is temporary or permanent, once the role is taken on, there is usually an expectation by other members of the group that the individual will behave in a way that is consistent with that role. These role expectations have a strong influence on an individual s behaviour within a group, especially when their role provides considerable power and status. Generally, individuals tend to use their status and power in desirable ways and to the benefit of the group. In some cases, however, individuals misuse or abuse their power and status. One of the most significant demonstrations of the effects of power and status within a group occurred in a study that has come to be known as the Stanford Prison Experiment.

Zimbardo s Stanford Prison experiment The Stanford Prison Experiment (SPE) was conducted in the summer of 1971 by American psychologist Philip Zimbardo at Stanford University in California. Zimbardo wanted to find out the psychological effects of being either a prison guard or a prisoner. To do this, he set up a simulated prison environment in the basement of the Stanford University psychology building, complete with cells, security doors and drab surroundings without windows or light. Zimbardo s participant selection procedure involved placing an ad in the local newspaper inviting male volunteers for a study on prison life that would run up to two weeks for the pay of US$15 per day (equivalent to about US$120 today). Seventy university students replied to the ad and were each interviewed and given psychological tests. Twenty-four of those judged to be normal, average and healthy were selected to be participants in the experiment. Equal numbers of participants were randomly allocated to either of the two experimental conditions either a mock guard or a mock prisoner . This was achieved by the toss of

a coin. The experiment actually commenced with nine guards and nine prisoners. The remaining guards and prisoners from the sample of 24 were on call in case they were needed (Zimbardo, 1972).

Figure 9.6 Philip Zimbardo

Having the role of prison guard carried considerable power and status within the entire group of research participants. Having the role of prisoner carried minimal power and little or no status. As events unfolded, power, status and role expectations associated with being a guard or prisoner brought about unexpected changes in behaviour. To enhance reality, participants selected as prisoners were arrested at their homes by real police. This surprised the prisoners as they had been told to wait at home until contacted . Following their arrest, they were taken to a police station where they were searched, fingerprinted and charged with committing an offence. They were then taken to the mock prison where they were stripped naked, skin-searched, sprayed for head lice, issued with a uniform, bedding, soap and a towel and placed in a 2 × 3 metre barred cell with two other prisoners. The prisoners were required to ask permission from the guards to perform routine activities such as using the toilet, smoking a cigarette or writing letters. They were also required to refer to themselves and each other only by their prison numbers and to the guards as Mr Correctional Officer . Guards were given military-style khaki uniforms to wear, clubs (similar to batons) and whistles to use in maintaining order, and reflective sunglasses to conceal their identities and emotions. Guards worked eight-hour shifts and went

home when they were not on duty. Although instructed not to use physical violence, they were allowed considerable freedom in developing rules and strategies to keep the prisoners under control. All of these procedures ensured the guards believed that they had considerable status and power. According to Zimbardo (2009), their role was power laden and it took them only a day to adapt to their new, unfamiliar roles as dominating, powerful and coercive .

(a) In the Stanford Prison Experiment, mock prisoners were arrested by local police officers

(b) The prisoners were locked up in a mock prison Figure 9.7 C h a p t e r 9 Social influences on the individual

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On the second day of their imprisonment, the prisoners staged a number of disturbances, but their rebellion was quickly stopped by the guards. Over the next few days the guards behaved with increasing aggression and became more authoritarian. They used their power to make the prisoners smile, laugh or refrain from smiling or laughing, on command, for no apparent reason. They encouraged prisoners to call each other names and made them do things like clean the toilets with their bare hands. The prisoners became increasingly traumatised, passive and dehumanised. Four prisoners had to be released during the first four days because of reactions such as rage, hysterical crying, confusion, severe anxiety and depression. One had to be released early after developing a rash all over his body. The rash was diagnosed as being stress related. Each day the guards abused their power further by tormenting the prisoners with more frequent commands, insults and demanding tasks. Although the experiment had been planned to last for two weeks, it was terminated after six days because it was getting out of control. Every aspect of the prisoners behaviour fell under the total and arbitrary control of the guards . However, the guards were abusing their power and becoming genuinely brutal and vicious towards the prisoners who, in turn, were becoming withdrawn, submissive and bitter. According to Zimbardo (2009), we observed and documented on videotape that the guards steadily increased their coercive and aggressive tactics, humiliation, and dehumanisation of the prisoners day by day. The staff

(researchers) had to remind the guards frequently to refrain from such abuses . . . and displays of their dominating power and authority.

Figure 9.9 The mock guards abused the status and power which came with the role they had been randomly allocated.

Most of the participants never forgot how they had behaved in the experiment, whether they were guards or prisoners. A number of participants temporarily suffered emotional distress which was not present prior to the experiment. At the conclusion of the experiment, one guard commented: I was surprised at myself . . . I practically considered the prisoners cattle and I kept thinking: I have to watch out for them in case they try something (Zimbardo, 1975). While the prisoners were relieved that their ordeal was over, the guards were reluctant to give up their positions of power.

Figure 9.8 The guards repeatedly humiliated the prisoners, sometimes lining them up for a body search for no apparent reason. 380

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Commands Insults Aggression Threats Questions Use of instruments Guards Prisoners

Information Helping Resistance 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

Frequency (Source: Zimbardo, P. G. (1992). Psychology and Life. (13th ed.). New York: Harper Collins, p. 579.)

Figure 9.10 Guard and prisoner behaviour across 25 observation periods over six days in the Stanford Prison Experiment. Note the substantial difference between the dominating, controlling, hostile behaviour of the guards and the passive-resistance behaviour of the prisoners.

The results of this experiment showed that the behaviour of normal, well-educated men can be significantly affected when a role they are given involves considerable power and status. Zimbardo (2009) believes that the findings of his experiment can be applied to the harsh and sometimes inhumane treatment of prisoners in real-life prisons. He believes that prisons are places that demean humanity . . . and bring out the worst in social relations among people. They are as bad for the guards as the prisoners in terms of their destructive impact . . . and continue to be places of evil . . . that are failed experiments .

ethical issues in Zimbardo s experiment The Stanford Prison Experiment provides valuable insights into the effects of status and power on individual behaviour. The experiment also raises important ethical issues and has been criticised by many psychologists on ethical grounds. Zimbardo (2009) has addressed these criticisms by arguing that his study was both ethical and unethical. It was not unethical because it followed the guidelines . . . of the Ethics Committee . . . that reviewed it and approved it. There was no deception; all participants were told in advance that, if they

became prisoners, many of their usual rights would be suspended and they would have only minimally adequate diet and healthcare during the study. Their rights should have been protected by any of the many citizens who came to that mock prison, saw the deteriorated condition of those young men, and yet did nothing to intervene among them, their own parents and friends on visiting nights, a Catholic priest . . . and many professional psychologists . . . and staff of the psychology department, all of whom watched live action videos of the study or took part in parole board hearings or spoke to participants and looked at them directly . Furthermore, we ended the study earlier than planned, ended it against the wishes of the guards, who felt they finally had the situation under their control, and that there would be no more disturbance or challenge by the prisoners . Zimbardo states that his study was unethical . . . because people suffered and others were allowed to inflict pain and humiliation on their fellows over an extended period of time ; all participants were exposed to seeing and hearing the suffering of prisoners who had done nothing to deserve punishment and abuse ; and we did not end the study soon enough. We should have terminated it as soon as the first prisoner suffered a severe stress disorder on Day 2 . eBook plus Weblink

Zimbardo s website on the SPE

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BOX 9.2 Real-life prisoner abuse at Abu Ghraib In March 2003, the Iraq War commenced with the invasion of Iraq in the Middle East by a multinational force consisting mostly of American and British soldiers. The invasion was based on a belief that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction . The international community, including Australia, was fearful that Iraq would use the nuclear and chemical weapons in a hostile way. When Baghdad, the capital of Iraq, was overtaken, the Abu Ghraib prison was re-established as a detention centre for Iraqi prisoners of war. In 2004, photos (and videos) such as those shown below were leaked from the Abu Ghraib prison. Many of these images were taken by military personnel who were serving as guards in the prison. The photos appeared in newspapers throughout the world and shocked most people. Investigations gradually revealed details of how the prisoners were abused and treated inhumanely in many ways by both the male and female guards. Unlike Zimbardo s prison experiment, this happened in real life. The guards who committed the inhumane acts all did so voluntarily. They were all eventually sentenced to lengthy prison sentences.

learning activity 9.6 review questions 1. Explain how status and power can affect behaviour within a group, ensuring you refer to the Stanford Prison Experiment (SPE) and the behaviour of both guards and prisoners. 2. Can the findings of the SPE be generalised to group situations in everyday life (other than prisons)? Explain, with reference to an example. 3. Identify and describe three breaches of ethical guidelines for research that occurred in the SPE.

learning activity 9.7 Media response and abu ghraib

SPe

Consider the newspaper article by Muriel Reddy in The Sunday Age and the text and photos in box 9.2. 1. In what ways was the treatment of prisoners at Abu Ghraib like that of the prisoners in the Stanford Prison Experiment (SPE)? 2. Can the findings of the SPE be generalised to Abu Ghraib? Explain your answer. Ensure you clearly distinguish between your views and those of Zimbardo.

learning activity 9.8 evaluation of research Zimbardo (1971)

Figure 9.11 Torture and humiliation at Abu Ghraib

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U n i t 2 Self and others

Prepare a flow chart summary of the main features of Zimbardo s SPE. The flow chart should include the following: 1. a possible aim of the experiment 2. a possible hypothesis 3. who the participants were and how they were selected 4. the experimental conditions and key variables that were tested 5. the main results obtained 6. the conclusion that was drawn from these results 7. whether the experiment has external validity, with reference to a possible generalisation 8. two main limitations or criticisms of the research method 9. key ethical issues.

in n e k ic s to in t u p y r o Barbarism the practice in Iraq

g

heroes, the people ‘Then there are the few t ha ‘W d: raib, there ine pla ex to resist. At Abu Gh Professor Zimbardo telling who are able again n ws iner who ga ne tra be g s the do ard in gu the is t re three heroes — happened was the A 1970s experimen we e y u’r dd yo ers, a Re er, iel ov pri d ur sons. M ers, “ben dogs bite the son one group of prison for all the wrong rea up, refused to let his to gro er use ab oth the the ed to ort d d soldier who rep female camels”, an on reports. e sec Th .’ ly on m” t the no o camels, hump d a third wh had his commander, an for Professor Philip “you’re male ers ars for e ye son nc pri 33 r ide en ev fou tak as en s s It ha t study was halted wh k the photo place in the sun. Bu s sound resisted but too Zimbardo to take his akdowns. ‘Doesn’t thi bre el al r.’ lev on de the oti an at em mm co ed at ish his ing aston happen believes that prisons even he has been ed very familiar to what has been Professor Zimbardo city he has receiv ed. ask he ’ q? veiled in a cloak Ira of worldwide publi are in b s Abu Ghrai sted throughout the world s between what ha ere lel int ral en pa be Guans the ha of se rdo becau in cites the example of Professor Zimba Abu Ghraib prison factors have of secrecy. He l suina 16 tio en ua be sit t ve ha tha been happening at re in the effect ted in 1971. ng’s tanamo Bay where the uc ldi nd Go co m he ars, llia dy pe Wi stu ap g a it Iraq and since readin three years and, tailing the sadistic on events nts the story of cides in the past the ou o rec int ich ns wh tio Since the scandal de es, iga Fli - Lord of the or other invest US troops broke, Pro ned on an island and no public roo ma ys abuse of detainees by bo of erup int a gro m. been conducting deaths. descent into barbaris fessor Zimbardo has the negative factors en er the world. their subsequent ov wh all s, ‘In Iraq, you had all ou m fro ym on dia an me l fee le op pe views with n dership, little or no lf he lea ha ‘W as the boys in place — lack of ed to testify on be — ask ed en be int s pa ha or CIA who he ed w od No ers they are ho rm, accountability, no training and the with abusing prison were — or in unifo es do these Fli to rs the of a soldier charged die of sol rd Lo in . I be lie ve clearly encouraged the ed fus dif re is ty ali q. tur du in Ira ind ivi me of the pic es we a study he conducted the ir the most incredible things,’ he said. ‘So is ed nd nn mi pla n y His cause célèbre is ma the hu se the t ere tha or to staged by the CIA becau ty in California, wh s the capacity to do y were at Stanford Universi ator since facility but it ha uc t we to show them to other detainees the ed tha d an rld er wo ch e ear sam the ered In . . . low A ing CI he has been a res yth the ry be an and Bach, going to interrogate. Once ced such extraordina s, the zart and Beethoven nu Mo mi d 1968, which produ or ha o d ve zer lte ha ha to l be s that it had to the moral threshold lin, Idi Amin and Po y and horrifying result we have also had Sta y to do whatever the soldiers were at libert ys. as da ed ard after six reg y t.’ o the Po tw le ve for op ned to run believes we ha wanted to these pe In the study, desig Professor Zimbardo t to which animals . . . ge students into ten lle ex co 24 the d d ide ate div tim weeks, he atly underes saw are not the by situation. to test the power of gre ‘If the pictures we ur can be influenced vio guards and prisoners ha e be from simulated Th ve m ur. mo fro u vio rn yo ha lea n alter be final phase, the animals and we ial soc are social situations to e ‘W ts tes n . .’ is doing it, the ne psychological sodomy to sodomy . sident people. If the majority students had undergo bardo said US Pre drug addiction other , Zim me ’ cri sor le. of fes y tab ep tor Pro his acc abuse is what is and had no t er tha son y s the pri 90 per cent ma turbance. George Bush insist erwever, while up to Am or psychological dis Ho od go se of the rdo s t, ba ion en act Zim experim es not reflect the edient, Professor ‘do ob ly ond However, during the arr bli the be s rs’ ssive bystanders ican soldiers. That just illustrate ed their ‘prisone another group of pa d ordinary men stripp sai m, ur. the vio d ha de them, degra ge the bad be gance of Americans.’ naked, humiliated would not challen tem with their Age, 2004, May 16. ads, chained them sys he ir the the ed er ain ov int Source: The Sunday gs ma put ba scent into They de a n ga be y, all together and fin silent dissent. sexual degradation.

learnin g activit y 9. 9 essay

effects of status and power

Write an essay of about 400 500 words in which you discuss how status and power can affect the behaviour of individuals and groups. In you essay, ensure that you: • accurately explain the terms group (as distinguished from a collective), status, power (including types of power) and social influence • discuss how status and power can affect the behaviour of individuals and groups

• use appropriate explanations and examples • refer to Zimbardo s Stanford Prison Experiment, including its findings and a possible generalisation(s) from the findings • organise the information in a logical way • express your information in a clear and concise way • accurately cite and reference source material. References may be used in obtaining information for your essay.

Assessment task and criteria C h a p t e r 9 Social influences on the individual

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OBEDIENCE There are many occasions in everyday life when we change our behaviour in some way in order to conform. The pressure to conform often occurs in subtle, not so easily identifiable ways. We also change our behaviour in response to more obvious influences. This can occur when we are required to do something because someone with authority asks or tells us to do or not do something. For example, our parents, teachers, sports coaches and employers are all authority figures who have the power to get us to behave in certain ways in particular aspects of our lives. When they ask us to do something that is clearly in their area of power, we usually obey and do as we are told. When we defy them, we usually do so knowing that there may be undesirable consequences. From a very early age, we learn that we must be obedient when someone with legitimate authority over us commands us in some way or other to behave in a certain way. Obedience occurs when we follow the commands of someone with authority, or the rules or laws of our society. The term is sometimes used interchangeably with the term compliance. However, while compliance involves changing one s behaviour in response to a request to do so, it does not necessarily involve an authority figure. Leaders in groups are often in the powerful position of being able to exert influence over other members of the group. Why do other group members usually obey the leader? This question becomes important when the leader attempts to exert their power and influence over other group members, pushing them to behave in a manner that is different from the way in which they want to behave or would normally behave. Several disturbing historical events sparked interest in this question among psychologists. An example of such an event was the gassing, starving and shooting of millions of Jewish people in concentration camps during World War II by Nazi soldiers under Hitler s direction. Social psychologists refer to this situation as one involving blind obedience to authority. Victims were usually unknown to their executioners and were, in the main, unseen. Did all those Nazi soldiers who carried out Hitler s instructions support this course of action, or were they just following orders as they stated at the Nuremberg trials of war criminals following World War II? 384

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Figure 9.12 Mass grave of Jews killed during World War II. In defence of their actions, Nazi soldiers and officials stated that they killed and maimed people because they were just following orders .

Milgram s experiments on obedience In a series of well-known and very controversial experiments, American psychologist Stanley Milgram (1963) investigated factors involved in determining obedience to an authority figure. For his first experiment, Milgram advertised for 40 male research participants between the ages of 20 and 50 years, offering to pay them US$4.50 (equivalent to about US$60.00 today) for one hour of their time to participate in an experiment at Yale University in the state of Connecticut. He wanted to find out whether individuals would obey an authority figure who was instructing them to inflict pain on another person. Participants were informed, however, that they were

involved in a study on the effects of punishment on learning . Imagine yourself as one of the respondents to the advertisement and as one of Milgram s participants being treated in the following way.

(a) Stanley Milgram with the shock generator used to administer the shocks

Figure 9.13 Stanley Milgram (1933 1984)

You arrive at the university to be met by one of Milgram s assistants, the experimenter, dressed in a white laboratory coat. You chat with the experimenter who seems quite friendly and the purpose of the research is explained. You and another participant (who, unknown to you, is a confederate working for the experimenter) draw slips of paper to determine who will be the teacher and who will be the learner . Again, unknown to you, the draw is rigged so that the participant (you) always becomes the teacher and the confederate (experimenter s assistant) is always the learner. The learner is taken to an adjoining room, strapped into a chair wired through the wall to an electric shock machine and has electrodes placed on their wrists. You witness all this before being taken to your seat in the next room and receiving instructions about your task to teach the learner to remember pairs of words. You are instructed that each time the learner makes a mistake you are to deliver a brief shock of increasing intensity through a shock generator with 30 levers marked at 15-volt intervals from 15 to 450 volts (see figure 9.14(a)). The shock generator also has descriptions of the severity of the shock levels from slight shock to danger to severe shock . On the first error, you are required to administer 15 volts and are to move up to the next higher voltage for each further error. With each flick of the switch, lights flash and an electric buzzing sound fills the room.

(b) Learner (confederate) being strapped into the apparatus

(c) An obedient research participant administering a shock Figure 9.14

eBook plus Weblink

video on Milgram s experiment

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Deliberately, the learner (confederate) makes errors. By the fifth error (75 volts), you hear a grunt from the next room. If you question the experimenter as to whether to continue you receive a standard reply, The experiment requires that you must continue . Then, if you show further reluctance to continue administering the shocks, you are told, It is absolutely essential that you continue and finally, You have no other choice, you must go on . If you continue to administer the shocks, after the eighth error (120 volts), the learner cries out, at 150 volts the learner demands to be let out, at 180 volts the learner cries that they cannot stand the pain any longer and at 300 volts the learner refuses to continue and becomes silent. How would you feel as the teacher at this point? How far would you go in administering the shocks? How obedient would you be in this situation? After the experiment, all participants (the teachers ) were debriefed and informed that the learners did not actually receive the electric shocks and that they were confederates of the experimenter. The results were unexpected of 40 participants, none stopped administering the shocks before 300 volts and 26 continued to administer the shocks at the 450-volt level. Five participants refused to go on with the experiment at 300 volts when the learner began kicking the walls.

75 volts

Ugh!

90 volts

Ugh!

105 volts

Ugh! (louder)

120 volts

Ugh! Hey this really hurts.

135 volts

Ugh!!

150 volts

Ugh!!! Experimenter! That s all. Get me out of here. I told you I had heart trouble. My heart s starting to bother me now. Get me out of here, please. My heart s starting to bother me. I refuse to go on. Let me out.

165 volts

Ugh! Let me out! (shouting)

180 volts

Ugh! I can t stand the pain. Let me out of here! (shouting)

195 volts

Ugh! Let me out of here. Let me out of here. My heart s bothering me. Let me out of here! You have no right to keep me here! Let me out! Let me out of here! Let me out! Let me out of here! My heart s bothering me. Let me out! Let me out!

210 volts

Ugh!! Experimenter! Get me out of here. I ve had enough. I won t be in the experiment any more.

70

225 volts

Ugh!

60

240 volts

Ugh!

50

255 volts

Ugh! Get me out of here.

270 volts

(Agonised scream) Let me out of here. Let me out of here. Let me out of here. Let me out. Do you hear? Let me out of here.

285 volts

(Agonised scream)

300 volts

(Agonised scream) I absolutely refuse to answer any more. Get me out of here. You can t hold me here. Get me out. Get me out of here.

315 volts

(Intensely agonised scream) I told you I refuse to answer. I m no longer part of this experiment.

330 volts

(Intense and prolonged agonised scream) Let me out of here. Let me out of here. My heart s bothering me. Let me out, I tell you. (Hysterically) Let me out of here. Let me out of here. You have no right to hold me here. Let me out! Let me out! Let me out! Let me out of here! Let me out! Let me out!

100 90

Victim silent

Victim silent Most powerful shock: 450v

Severity of shock

Danger: Severe shock

Very strong

Strong

0

Medium

10

Victim kicks wall

20

Extremely intense

30

Victim screams

40

Intense

80

Weak

Percentage of participants who obeyed

table 9.2 The learner s protests in the Milgram experiment

Figure 9.15 Results of the Milgram (1963) experiment. The data show that 65% of participants obeyed an authority figure to the extent that they potentially put someone else s life at risk by doing so. (From Coon, Introduction to Psychology, 4th edition. © 1986 Wadsworth, a part of Cengage Learning, Inc. Reproduced by permission. www.cengage.com/permissions.)

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(Source: Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View. New York: Harper Row.)

Milgram s experiments attracted a great deal of interest among psychologists. Many variations of his standard experiment were subsequently conducted in other countries and cultures, including Australia, Austria, England, Germany, Italy, Jordan, Spain and the Netherlands. These studies produced a range of results, with the level of obedience found to be higher in some studies and lower in other studies than that in Milgram s original experiment, but nonetheless still occurring at a significant level. The Australian study was conducted at the University of Sydney by Wesley Kilham and Leon Mann (1974), using 63 male and 62 female first-year psychology students. Kilham and Mann varied Milgram s experiment so that the orders to administer a shock did not come directly from the experimenter, but from another person called the transmitter . Participants given the role of the transmitter received the instructions to administer a shock from an authority figure (the experimenter) and relayed them to the person who had to carry them out. This person was called the executant . Neither the transmitter nor the executant were allowed to talk to each other (or the experimenter), except when the transmitter relayed the commands of the experimenter to the executant. Kilham and Mann hypothesised that the person in a transmitter role would be more obedient than the person in the executant role. This was based on their belief that a person in the transmitter role is more detached from the destructive act and will therefore feel less responsible for the consequences of their actions. Kilham and Mann found that significantly more participants were fully obedient in the transmitter role (54%) than the executant role (28%). Furthermore, more male transmitters were fully obedient than female transmitters (40%) or male executants (40%), and more female transmitters (40%) and male executants (40%) were fully obedient than female executants (16%).

learning activity 9.1 1 evaluation of research Milgram (1963) Prepare a flow chart summary of the main features of Miligram s experiment on obedience to authority. The flow chart should include the following: 1. a possible aim of the experiment 2. a possible hypothesis 3. who the participants were and how they were selected 4. the experimental conditions and key variables that were tested 5. the main results obtained 6. the conclusion that was drawn from these results 7. whether the experiment has external validity, with reference to a possible generalisation 8. two main limitations or criticisms of the research method 9. key ethical issues.

Factors affecting obedience Milgram s original experiment on obedience to an authority figure used a sample made up entirely of adult male participants. In subsequent experiments, Milgram (1974) tested the effect of other variables on obedience. For example, in another study, 40 adult females showed the same level of obedience as did the males 65% delivered an electric shock to the maximum intensity of 450 volts. Similar results have also been obtained in different countries throughout the world using people from different socio-economic backgrounds, including children and elderly people in the role of the teacher. Most participants expressed considerable distress at what they were asked to do, yet

learnin g activit y 9. 10 review questions 1. Define what is meant by the term obedience. 2. (a) In what way is compliance like obedience? (b) In what way is compliance different from obedience? 3. Why was Milgram s (1963) experiment very controversial ? 4. How obedient do you believe you would be as a teacher in Milgram s experiment? Explain your answer. 5. Is obedience to authority likely to be influenced by an individual s cultural background? Briefly explain with reference to research findings.

6. In your opinion, how far do the teachers responses in Milgram s experiment reflect what happens in real life? Explain with reference to an example. 7. What were Kilham and Mann (1974) interested in finding out in relation to obedience? 8. In what two key ways did the Kilham and Mann (1974) procedures differ from those of the Milgram (1963) experiment? 9. List three main results obtained by Kilham and Mann (1974). 10. On the basis of the Kilham and Mann (1974) findings, how likely is it that female participants would respond as did the male participants in the Milgram (1963) experiment? eBook plus eLesson on Kilham and Mann experiment C h a p t e r 9 Social influences on the individual

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most also continued to obey. In sum, obedience in a Milgram-type experimental situation seems to occur regardless of gender, socio-economic background, age or culture. Does this mean you would be likely to obey an authority figure to deliver 450 volts that could kill somebody? The answer is Not necessarily . It appears that several factors interact in influencing someone to obey an authority figure. These factors include how close the authority figure is to the person who must obey, whether the authority figure is perceived as being legitimate and having power, and group pressure to obey.

Social proximity Generally, social proximity refers to the closeness between two or more people. This may include the physical distance between the people as well as the closeness of their relationship. In Milgram s experiment, social proximity was defined as the physical distance between the teacher and learner, including whether or not the teacher is physically present in the same room as the learner. Milgram found that, the closer the learner ( victim ) was to the teacher (person administering the shock), the more likely that person was to refuse to administer the shock. For example, as shown in figure 9.16, when the teacher was in the same room with the learner and standing only 45 50 cm away, the number of fully obedient teachers dropped from 65% to 40%. And when the teacher was required to force the learner s hand down into contact with a simulated shock plate , the number of fully obedient teachers dropped to 30%. Milgram also found that when the teacher was out of the room and issued his or her orders by telephone, the number of fully obedient teachers dropped

to about 20%. Furthermore, in this experimental condition, the experimenter s authority was frequently defied. For example, several of the teachers administered shocks of lower intensity than they were supposed to and never told the experimenter that they were doing this. In situations outside the laboratory, it seems that it is also easier to obey an order to do something horrific when the victim is distant and not physically nearby or visible. For example, consider how much easier it might be during a war to obey a military command to drop a bomb from a high-flying aeroplane and kill thousands of helpless people, as compared with obeying a command to shoot and kill a helpless individual standing in front of you. It is also easier to sign a document ordering someone s torture or death than to actually torture or kill them yourself.

legitimacy of authority figures An individual is also more likely to be obedient when the authority figure is perceived as being legitimate and having power. As shown in figure 9.16, when an ordinary person (someone with no particular authority) instead of the experimenter gave the orders, full obedience dropped from 65% to 20%. In one variation of his original experiment, Milgram (1974) set up a situation in which the experimenter received a fake telephone call that required him to leave the laboratory. After the experimenter left, another confederate who was posing as a participant entered the room and took charge. He decided that the shock should be increased one level for each wrong answer and ordered the teacher to follow this command. With the legitimate authority figure gone and someone with no apparent authority in charge, 80% of the teachers

Percentage of participants who gave 450 volt shocks

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Milgram s original study

Learner is 45 50 cm away from teacher

Teacher holds learner s hand on shock plate

Figure 9.16 Factors that influenced obedience to authority 388

U n i t 2 Self and others

Teacher is out of room and gives orders by telephone

Orders are given by ordinary person rather than experimenter

Teacher observes two others disobey

Teacher observes two others obey

often ignored the confederate and refused to comply fully. When the confederate pretended to be disgusted by this defiance and sat down in front of the shock generator and tried to deliver the shock himself, most of the defiant participants protested vigorously. Some even tried to unplug the shock generator so it could not be used. In one instance, a physically big teacher actually picked up the confederate from his chair in front of the shock generator and threw him across the room. This rebellion against an illegitimate authority figure contrasted sharply with the compliance usually shown to the authorative experimenter. In Milgram s (1963) experiment at Yale University, the authority figures were easy to recognise because all the experimenters wore white lab coats. They looked like expert scientists from a prestigious university and this helped reinforce the legitimacy of their authority in the experimental situation. In everyday life, individuals in authority also tend to have visible signs of their authority. Police officers, paramedics, firefighters, parking officers and security guards all wear uniforms. CEOs of large corporations and politicians wear suits. Doctors in hospitals wear stethoscopes around their necks. These symbols of their authority are often enough to bring about obedience. When confronted by these obvious signs and reminders of who is in charge, many people find it difficult to resist.

Figure 9.17 We are more likely to obey an authority figure when we perceive them as having legitimate authority. A uniform provides a readily visible sign of someone s authority.

group pressure An individual is also more likely to be obedient where there is little or no group support for resisting the authority figure. As shown in figure 9.16, when the teachers were exposed to the actions of disobedient people who refused to obey the authority figure s commands, full obedience dropped from 65% to about 10%. Milgram observed this effect of group pressure by placing the teacher with two confederate teachers. Initially, the two confederates pretended to collaborate by agreeing to follow the shock administration procedure. Then, they pretended to defy the experimenter and refused to administer shocks after the 150 volt to 210 volt range. After the participant observed this disobedience, the confederates turned to the participant and ordered them to administer the shock. Almost 90 per cent refused to do so. On the other hand, an individual is more likely to be obedient where there is group support for the authority figure. As shown in figure 9.16, when the teachers were exposed to the actions of two people who consistently obeyed the authority figure s commands to the end, full obedience increased from 65% to 72.5%. In Milgram s study, participants were faced with the dilemma of whether to obey an authority figure or consider the health and safety of another human being. Obedience to authority was the more common response. Milgram s study demonstrates how strong social influence is in affecting individuals behaviours. Individuals will often rationalise, or justify, their behaviour by offering the excuse that they cannot be held responsible for their actions because they are acting under instructions. Experiments such as those conducted by Milgram provide an interesting and important insight into human behaviour. We are often confronted with situations where we have to decide whether to do what others are expecting or demanding from us, or take a stand against their expectations or demands. However, you should keep in mind that the Milgram experiments provide an example of authority being abused. Without obedience to the laws of our democratic society, groups could not function and social life in the way we are accustomed to it would be extremely difficult, if not impossible. C h a p t e r 9 Social influences on the individual

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Figure 9.18 In 1989, students demanding free rights of speech protested in China s Tiananmen Square. Fearful of social upheaval, the Chinese government ordered soldiers to forcibly stop the demonstration. The power of obedience led young soldiers to carry out these orders and murder students their own age. Observing other soldiers obeying the order was one factor that influenced their compliance.

ethical issues in obedience studies A common criticism of many studies of obedience, such as those conducted by Milgram, is that they are unethical. For example, according to ethical standards for research, a participant s full and informed consent must be obtained prior to the start of the experiment, the participant s health and wellbeing must be safeguarded and the participant must be informed about their rights and permitted to withdraw from the experiment whenever they choose to do so (see pages 81 4). Milgram s experiment seems to have disregarded each of these standards. Milgram did not actually obtain informed consent from his participants. To do so would have meant that participants had full knowledge of the real purpose and nature of the experiment. This would have undoubtedly influenced their natural responses in the experiment and, therefore, the results. To avoid this, Milgram used deception. This means the participants were intentionally misinformed about what the experiment actually involved. Consequently, the participants did not truly give informed consent when they agreed to participate in the research study. There were also other deceptions after the participants had agreed to 390

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take part in the experiment. For example, participants were introduced to someone whom they were led to believe was another participant, but who was in fact a confederate, and participants drew slips of paper to determine who was to be the teacher and who was to be the learner, but the draw was rigged to ensure that the confederate would always be the learner. It is also clear that the mental health and wellbeing of participants were not adequately safeguarded. In fact, for one experiment, Milgram (1974) reports a participant as having been reduced to a twitching, stuttering wreck who was rapidly approaching a state of nervous collapse. He constantly pulled on his earlobes, and twisted his hands. At one point, he pushed his fist into his forehead and muttered: Oh God, let s stop it . But Milgram did not intervene and stop the experiment. Nor did Milgram make it clear to the participants that they could withdraw from the experiment whenever they wanted to do so. While they were free to withdraw in the sense that they were not tied down or locked up in the experimental room, it was never made clear to them that they could withdraw. The fact that the participants were paid money to take part in the experiment also placed a certain obligation on them not to end their participation. Ethical standards for research acknowledge the need for deception in some studies. When using deception, researchers are required to follow strict guidelines, including debriefing participants at the end of the experiment. Debriefing involves explaining the reasons for conducting the research and clearing up any misunderstandings or concerns on the part of the participant. Debriefing may also involve ensuring the participant leaves the experimental setting in the same mental state as they were in before the experiment. Milgram (1974) reported that his debriefing procedure, involving a friendly reconciliation with the victim , was sufficiently thorough to ensure that each participant left the laboratory in a state of wellbeing . In a follow-up study, Milgram, assisted by a psychiatrist, discovered that very few participants felt they were harmed by their experiences. Only 1.3% of participants felt that they were sorry or very sorry to have taken part in the experiment, whereas 83.7% were glad to have taken part.

Despite this, some psychologists argue that Milgram s efforts to obtain naive participants were unethical because the participants were not fully informed and every opportunity was taken to persuade the participant to continue when some were clearly uncertain whether

they wished to do so. On the other side of the debate, some psychologists believe that the risks to participants were worth taking in order to investigate a very important aspect of behaviour that has important benefits for society when properly understood (Wren, 1999).

BOX 9.3 Obedience in cults and sects The terms cult and sect are often used interchangeably because they have some common features. They are, however, different types of groups. A key distinction is in the separateness of the identity of the group. A cult is a group which claims to have a great devotion to some person, idea or object. A cult usually has a religious basis and there is a living, charismatic and influential leader who is often seen as the guiding spirit behind the religious beliefs and practices of the group. A sect is a group that follows a particular set of principles, beliefs and practices and which has a separate identity within a larger group or organisation. A sect is generally a faction (breakaway group) within the larger group and is often not formally recognised by the larger group. There are many cults and sects throughout the world. Most cults and many sects establish their own set of social

norms that are often different from those of the rest of society. One well-known cult was established in the 1960s by the Reverend Jim Jones. Initially located in Indiana in the United States, Jones relocated his congregation to Guyana in South America, where he set up his own community called Jonestown. Jones was extremely influential over his group of loyal followers. In 1978, the mass media around the world were filled with horrific scenes (below) and stories from Guyana, South America, where close to 1000 people died at Jonestown. Under the direction of the Reverend Jim Jones, the members of Jones s People s Temple fed a poison-laced drink to their children, administered the potion to their infants, and drank it themselves. Their bodies were found lying together, arm in arm; 911 perished (Aronson, 1988).

Figure 9.19 Jonestown massacre, 1978 Weblink

videos on Jonestown massacre

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learnin g activit y 9. 12

learning activity 9.1 4

review questions

Practical activity observational study on obedience to a road law

1. (a) Describe the relationship between social proximity and how obedient someone is likely to be to an order to do something harmful to another person. (b) Describe the relationship between the perceived legitimacy of an authority figure and how obedient someone is likely to be to an order to do something harmful to another person. (c) In what way can group pressure influence obedience? 2. Draw a diagram showing how social proximity, legitimacy of an authority figure and group pressure influence obedience. 3. Describe three ethical issues raised by Milgram s experiments on obedience. 4. Explain whether or not the amount of stress to which participants were subjected is justifiable in terms of the importance or benefits of the research itself and its outcomes.

learning a ctivity 9.13 Oral presentation experiments

obedience

Working in small groups, prepare and conduct a five minute TV current affairs report on one of the obedience experiments and what the findings suggest about factors that affect the behaviour of individuals and groups. The presentation of your report should use two or more data types; for example, still or moving images, written text and sounds. Your group s report should include such aspects as: • aim(s) or rationale of the experiment; that is, why it was conducted • key features of the experimental design • main results obtained • one or more interview(s); for example, an interview with a participant ( teacher ) exploring their thoughts and feelings during the experiment, and what influenced their behaviour; an interview with a representative of the Australian Psychological Society on ethical issues relevant to the experiment. The report may include media techniques for creating interest or controversy but must be substantially factual.

In this research activity you will investigate how individuals vary in their degree of obedience to a road law. The activity involves observation of drivers reactions to the road law requiring them to bring their vehicle to a complete stop at a STOP sign. The aims of the activity are: 1. to observe how individuals vary in their obedience to a road law 2. to investigate whether the gender of the driver and their social proximity (being alone or with passengers) has any influence on obedience to the road law. The activity requires you to undertake research with a partner by making joint observations of drivers behaviour at a STOP sign. To ensure accuracy, you and your partner will jointly confirm the classification of the drivers behaviour and record their data in a checklist such as the one shown in table 9.3 (and also in your eBook). Prior to undertaking observations, you should: • become familiar with the different classifications of drivers behaviour in the checklist and how to distinguish between them • construct two relevant hypotheses to test gender differences and social proximity • complete several trial observations with your research partner before commencing actual data collection. Other important procedures are: • Determine the time of day for making observations (preferably some time other than a peak period) and the observation period (about 30 40 minutes). Alternatively you might consider making a minimum number of observations. • Find a conveniently located and relatively busy four-way intersection which has a STOP sign(s). Record the condition of the road (e.g. wet or dry), visibility (e.g. clear or hazy), busy-ness of the intersection (e.g. light, moderate or heavy traffic) and any other potentially relevant variables (e.g. presence of a police officer). • Position yourself in an inconspicuous spot from which you can unobtrusively observe motor vehicles as they approach the STOP sign. • As each vehicle approaches the STOP sign, observe the occupants to determine the gender of the driver and whether the driver is alone or accompanied by passengers. (continued)

Assesment task and criteria 392

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• Record the data in the observation checklist. • Observe the driver s reaction to the STOP sign and classify the behaviour in accordance with the four categories in the key . To ensure greater control over observations and to simplify the data analysis: • only private motor vehicles should be included in the study • only cars which are travelling in one preselected direction should be counted; for example, cars continuing ahead across the intersection (all vehicles which turn left or right are forced to slow down or stop and should therefore not be counted) • as it is essential to restrict the drivers to be observed to those who are relatively free to obey the law for stopping, only those vehicles that are first to arrive at the STOP sign should be included • If an otherwise acceptable vehicle is forced to slow down or stop to avoid colliding with traffic ahead of it, or crossing the intersection from another direction, it should not be counted. Key for driver behaviour observations 1. Stops the vehicle at or near the white line across the road which is associated with the STOP sign. For example, observe whether the vehicle s wheels stopped revolving. table 9.3 Observation checklist

Gender of driver Vehicle observed

Male

Female

2. Slows down considerably (almost but not completely stops). For example, able to visually determine the design on the hubcaps or count the locknuts on a wheel. 3. Slows down slightly (a clearly observable reduction in speed but faster than a walking pace). For example, difficult or impossible to determine the design on the hubcaps or count the locknuts on wheel. 4. Does not slow down at all (a complete disregard of the STOP sign). For example, the vehicle continues across the intersection at same or even greater speed. Report Prepare a brief report on the research activity to include in your folio of practical activities. Your report should include: 1. a statement of the aims of this research 2. a brief explanation of the relevence of the research to obedience 3. the research hypotheses 4. a summary of your results (or the class results if collated) using appropriate descriptive statistics 5. conclusions based on the results obtained and referring to the hypotheses 6. potential extraneous variables that my be relevent, including explanations of why they may be relevent 7. other information that may be requsted by your teacher.

record of driver s behaviour

Social proximity

Alone

With other(s)

Driver behaviour 1 Stops

2 Slows down considerably

3 Slows down slightly

4 Does not slow down at all

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ... ... ... Source: Adapted from Grivas, J. & Lawrie, P. (1991). Psychology: Experiments and Activities. Marrickville, NSW: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

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CONFORMITY At various times in our lives, we all experience group pressure to conform. Conformity is the tendency to adjust one s thoughts, feelings or behaviour in ways that are in agreement with those of a particular individual or group, or with accepted standards about how a person should behave in certain situations (social norms). For example, conformity occurs when someone does something (for example, swears) which they do not normally do, to go along with the rest of the group (who all swear). Conformity also occurs when we wear a formal evening dress or a suit (rather than jeans) to a debutante ball, or stand (rather than sit) when Advance Australia Fair is played at a sports event. Psychologists have conducted many experiments to understand various conditions under which conformity occurs. One of the best known series of experiments on conformity was conducted by Polish-born American psychologist Solomon Asch in the 1950s.

Figure 9.21 Solomon Asch (1907 1996)

Weblink

Figure 9.20 Conformity involves adjusting our behaviour or dress so that it meets with accepted standards in a given situation.

asch s experiments on conformity In several classic experiments, Asch investigated group pressure to conform. In different experiments, Asch studied factors that he believed influenced conformity, such as group size and whether or not the group is unanimous (in complete agreement) on what should be said or done. 394

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video on Asch experiment

In one of the experiments conducted by Asch (1951), the participant came into a room that contained six other people and an experimenter and sat at the end of a long table, in a chair that had been purposely left vacant. Each participant was told they were taking part in a psychological experiment on visual judgement . The experimenter then showed two cards to the group. On one card was a single vertical line. On the second card were three vertical lines (see figure 9.22). The participant was asked to select the line from the second card that matched the length of the line on the first card. In total there were 18 trials, each using a different pair of cards. In some of the trials, the difference in the length of the lines was hardly noticeable so the matching line was difficult to identify. In other trials, the three lines were noticeably different. The participant was not aware that the other people around the table were confederates. The confederates had been instructed to answer correctly for some of the trials and to answer incorrectly for the majority of trials. After hearing the confederates answers, the participant had to decide between giving the same answer as the others in the group (in other words, conforming), even though on many trials their answer was obviously incorrect, or giving the answer they believed was correct.

X

A

B

C

Figure 9.22 Asch s research participants were asked which of lines A, B or C was closest in length to line X.

About 75% of the participants agreed with the confederates incorrect responses at least once during the trials. About 33% of the participants agreed with incorrect responses in half or more of the trials. However, 24% of the participants did not conform to the incorrect responses given by the confederates at all. When the participants in Asch s experiment were questioned later, all reported experiencing some degree of self-doubt about their opinion as to which lines matched up. Those participants who had generally conformed and agreed with the answers the confederates gave, said that they were aware that their responses and the confederates were wrong but they went along with the group because they did not

Figure 9.23 The unsuspecting participant (number six) was asked to make judgements about the length of lines presented to the group, after the other group members had exerted group pressure on him by unanimously selecting the same wrong answer. C h a p t e r 9 Social influences on the individual

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want to spoil the experimenter s results and they did not want to generate disharmony or conflict. Some of the participants who gave the correct response went so far as to apologise for correctly responding. Those participants who did not conform said they felt conspicuous and crazy , like a misfit when they gave answers that disagreed with those of the rest of the group.

learnin g activit y 9. 15 review questions 1. Define what is meant by the term conformity with reference to an example different from those used in the text. 2. Consider the Asch (1951) experiment. (a) Briefly describe the procedure used by Asch to study conformity. (b) Is it valid to conclude that participants gave incorrect answers because they experienced group pressure to conform? Explain with reference to the results obtained in the experiment. (c) What explanation can you offer for the 24% of the participants in the experiment who did not conform and disagreed with the confederates incorrect responses during any of the trials? (d) Suggest a variation to the procedure that would use an experimental group as well as a control group for comparison purposes. 3. Which of the following factors do you believe would influence conformity in an experiment using Asch s (1951) procedures? Answer without referring to the text. the size of the group whether the group members are unanimous in their views whether the group is viewed as being a valuable source of information awareness of accepted standards about how one should behave (social norms) cultural background of participants whether participants simply don t try hard and just go along with the group whether participants feel anonymous in the group situation 4. Asch s experiment has been criticised by some psychologists as being unethical because of the use of deception. Is the criticism justifiable? Answer with reference to relevant ethical standards. 5. In your opinion, to what extent do the participants responses in the Asch experiment reflect what happens in everyday life outside the laboratory?

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Factors affecting conformity Prior to his experiments, Asch hypothesised that people would not conform in situations where they could clearly see what is correct and what is incorrect. Although most of the university students who were research participants in his experiments did not conform to group pressure that was exerted on them, many did. Asch made his views about this clear: That reasonably intelligent and well-meaning young people are willing to call white black is a cause of concern (Asch, 1955). Asch s findings also aroused interest among other psychologists and a great deal of research on conformity followed. On the basis of Asch s and other research findings, a number of key factors that influence conformity have been proposed. These include: • the size of the group • whether or not the group members are unanimous in their views • whether the group is viewed as being a valuable source of information • awareness of accepted standards about how one should behave (normative influence) • cultural background • social loafing • anonymity in a group (deindividuation).

group size Asch varied group size in his experiments by having 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9 or 15 confederates unanimously and falsely state that a comparison line was the same length as the standard line. His results showed that conformity increased with group size, up to a size of four. Beyond a group size of four confederates, conformity did not continue to increase significantly. A group size of 15 actually produced a lower level of conformity than did a group size of three. Other researchers who tested these findings have obtained similar results. A possible explanation is that as more and more people start to express the same opinion, an individual may suspect that they are behaving like mindless sheep and therefore not want to follow in their footsteps . However, when opinions are the same in a smaller group, an individual may think that each member of the group is behaving independently. This latter view may be more influential on whether a conforming response is made. Consequently, a belief that one, two or three independent thinkers have reached the same answer may have a more powerful effect than a belief that 14 people are mindlessly doing as the others do . In sum, group size seems to be an important factor influencing conformity, but probably only up to a point.

Percentage of conforming responses

50

participant, the amount of conformity reduced by about 80%. Experiments by other psychologists who subsequently investigated this ally effect have found that when research participants are led to believe that their thoughts, feelings or behaviour are supported, shared or not disagreed with by someone else in their group, even when everyone else in the group agrees with a different view, the presence of the ally leads to a reduction in the level of conformity. The presence of an ally who shares one’s view, or at least doesn’t accept the views of the majority, can be seen as providing social support that strengthens resistance to conformity.

45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Group size Figure 9.24 Conformity increases with group size up to about four, but beyond that, group size tends to have little influence on conformity.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 9.16 Evaluation of research — Asch (1951) Prepare a flow chart summary of the main features of Asch’s experiment on conformity. Your flow chart should include the following: 1. a possible aim of the experiment 2. a possible hypothesis 3. who the participants were and how they were selected 4. the experimental conditions and key variables that were tested 5. the main results obtained 6. the conclusion that was drawn from these results 7. whether the experiment has external validity, with reference to a possible generalisation 8. two main limitations or criticisms of the research method 9. key ethical issues.

Unanimity Imagine yourself in Asch’s experiment when everyone in the group gives the same answer, but an answer that is different from your answer; that is, there is unanimity, or complete agreement, among the other group members as to what the answer is. Would you be willing to disagree with everyone else if you believed that they were all incorrect? The results of Asch’s experiment indicate that it is difficult to be a minority of one, to stand against the group, even when you think you are right and everyone else is wrong. However, Asch also found that it takes only one person to disagree with the group’s judgement to significantly affect conformity. When he allowed one confederate to answer in the same way as the research

Figure 9.25 A group’s unanimity creates pressure to conform, but it takes only one individual to disagree with the group’s judgement to significantly affect conformity.

Informational influence In other experiments on conformity, psychologists have found that individuals are more likely to conform to the views of group members when they want to provide a correct response but they are unsure about what the correct response is. For example, suppose that you want to buy a car and have narrowed your preferences down to two cars, a red car and a purple car. They are both about the same price but have some C h a p t e r 9 Social influences on the individual

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different features. You don t know much about cars so you seek advice from a friend who does. Your friend checks both cars and recommends that you buy the purple one because it has lower kilometres ometres on the odometer, the tyres are less worn, the registration will take longer to expire and the engine runs more smoothly. If you accepted your friend s recommendation, then you would be conforming because information they provided influenced you to make a specific choice. In this case, you were motivated to make the right choice, viewed your friend as a valuable source of information that you lacked, then were guided by the information your friend provided when deciding what to do. Informational influence occurs when conformity results from a need for direction and information on the correct response in a specific situation. Informational influence leads people to accept other people s views when they are uncertain about what to do. Research studies have specifically found that informational influence is more likely to lead to conformity when participants feel incompetent, when the task is difficult, or when participants are concerned about being right (Hewstone, Stroebe & Jonas, 2008; Myers, 1990). In all these situations, we may be motivated by wanting to be right and access to relevant information can influence us to conform.

normative influence When informational influence leads us to conform, we conform because we want to be right. When normative influence leads us to conform, we conform because we want to be liked and accepted by the group. Normative influence to conform occurs when our response in a group situation is guided by one or more social norms. When we are aware of social norms for a particular situation, awareness of these norms can be a powerful influence on both the likelihood that we will conform and the strength of conformity that occurs. According to psychologists, this is partly explained by our desire to be liked and accepted by other people, as well as our concern with being rejected by others. We also like to receive praise and approval from others, particularly from those who are important in our lives, such as friends, parents, teachers and employers. A useful way of meeting these needs for acceptance and approval is to be (or appear to be), as similar to others as possible (Hewstone, Stroebe & Jonas, 2008). From a very young age, at home and at school in particular, we learn that agreeing with other people and behaving as 398

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they do when the situation demands it usually brings positive results people are more likely to like us and accept us, and may even give us praise or approval when we conform.

Figure 9.26 Although it can be diffi difficult, cult, individuals can sometimes resist society s pressure to conform. © The New Yorker Collection, 1992, Charles Barsotti, from cartoonbank.com. All rights reserved.

culture Asch s experiment using the line-judgement task has been repeated by researchers in many different countries and cultures throughout the world since it was first conducted. Sometimes it has been repeated in exactly the same way and at other times it has been repeated with variations; for example, by using patterns rather than lines or participants of different social backgrounds, such as gender, age and educational qualifications. When British psychologists Rod Bond and Peter Smith (1996) examined the results of 133 of these Asch-type experiments that have been conducted in 17 different countries, they found differences in conformity. As shown in table 9.4, conformity occurred less often in studies conducted in North America and Western Europe (for example, France and Portugal) than in other parts of the world such as Africa, Fiji and Asia (for example, Hong Kong and Japan). Bond and Smith believe that the results of their meta-analysis study suggest that there are cultural differences in conformity. The lowest conformity occurred in individualist cultures (such as North America and Western Europe). In individualist cultures, being an individual and independent is valued and encouraged, and achieving personal goals is considered to be more important than achieving group goals. In these cultures, it is also considered acceptable for the individual to place achievement of personal goals ahead of achieving group goals. Furthermore, those who

maintain independence and resist group pressure are viewed as strong-minded and regarded more positively than those who conform. Consequently, conformity to incorrect answers given by the group in an Asch-type experiment would tend to be regarded as undesirable and weak. The highest level of conformity occurred in collectivist cultures (such as those found in some Asian and African countries). In collectivist cultures, achieving group goals is considered to be more important than the achievement of individual goals, and individuals are encouraged, and sometimes expected, to place group goals ahead of their personal goals. These cultures also encourage uniformity ( everyone being like everyone else ) and values and beliefs that promote conformity and fitting in for the good of the wider community, rather than individuality. Consequently, conformity to incorrect answers given by a group of confederates in an Asch-type experiment would tend to be regarded as appropriate (Smith & Bond, 1998; Bond & Smith, 1996). table 9.4 Results of Asch-type conformity studies across different cultures associated with different countries or regions

Number of studies

Averaged effect size

Asch s USA studies

18

1.16

Other USA studies

79

0.90

1

1.37

10

0.81

Belgium

4

0.94

France

2

0.56

Netherlands

1

0.74

Germany

1

0.92

Portugal

1

0.58

Japan

5

1.42

Brazil

3

1.60

Fiji

2

2.48

Hong Kong

1

1.93

Arab samples (Kuwait, Lebanon)

2

1.31

Africa (Zimbabwe, Republic of the Congo (Zaire), Ghana)

3

1.84

Nation

Canada UK

The averaged effect size in the right-hand column is the result of a statistical procedure to allow the results of Asch-type studies to be combined and averaged across different studies. The smaller the effect size, the lower the conformity, and the greater the effect size, the higher the conformity. (Source: Smith P. B. & Bond M. H. (1998). Social Psychology Across Cultures (2nd ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon, p. 16.)

(a)

(b) Figure 9.27 Conformity can be influenced by cultural norms: (a) collectivist cultures such as that found in Japan tend to be more conformist; (b) individualist cultures like the USA tend to be less conformist. C h a p t e r 9 Social influences on the individual

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Social loafing Sometimes the presence of others in a group situation results in reduced performance, especially when the other people are co-workers. This reduction in the effort of an individual member of the group as a result of the presence of others results in social loafing. Social loafing refers to the tendency of an individual to make less effort when involved in a group activity than when working alone. It was first systematically studied and observed in a tug-of-war experiment involving two teams of eight people. The results showed that the collective effort exerted by each team did not match the total of the individual efforts. For example, blindfolded participants who were assigned the first position in the tug-of-war machine (see figure 9.28) and told to pull as hard as you can pulled 18 per cent harder when they knew they were pulling alone than when they believed that others were also pulling (Ingham & others, 1974).

Generally, social loafers conform to their group, but with less effort. This is based on their belief that conforming (or not conforming) will not make much of a difference in what the group decides (or does), so they just go along with whatever the group agrees to do (or does). The influence of social loafing on conformity can depend on many different factors. Experimental research findings indicate that people are less likely to loaf in groups when the group consists of friends rather than strangers, but this depends on the extent to which the group s decision or behaviour is of importance to the individual. For example an individual is less likely to conform through social loafing when they view their group s outcome as important, challenging or appealing.

Figure 9.28 This tug-of-war apparatus was used in the experiment by Ingham and others (1974). Participants in the first position did not pull as hard when they thought that people behind them were also pulling.

In the laboratory, social loafing has been observed among people in a variety of situations such as ropepulling (tug-of-war), shouting and clapping, pumping water or air, writing poems or editorials, producing ideas and typing. However, most of these studies were conducted with American and European participants. Research on social loafing using Chinese participants has found that participants work harder in a group situation than when they work alone. This finding indicates a cultural difference in social loafing (Moghaddam, Taylor & Wright, 1993). Social loafing can also be observed in everyday life situations. For example, some workers who do not pay for membership of a union are social loafers if they accept the improved benefits for workers achieved by the union. 400

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Figure 9.29 Conformity by social loafing is eliminated entirely when maximum effort from individual members of a group is essential for the group s goal to be attained.

American social psychologists Steven Karau and Kipling Williams (1993) analysed the findings of 78 research studies on social loafing and found that social loafing is less likely to influence conformity, if at all, when: • maximum effort from everyone in the group is essential for the group s goal to be attained • the group is valued by its members (for example, the group is made up of close friends) • the task is important, challenging or appealing to those performing it

• the group is small • members of a group believe that it is possible for their

individual performance to be judged in some way • other group members are not expected to perform

well so social loafing might lead to failure on the task • those working on the task are women rather than men.

In these situations, group members do not pass judgement on an individual s behaviour because they are all doing it . To pass judgement would be to also condemn one s own behaviour. Therefore, the behaviour continues because group members blame the situation they are in, rather than taking the responsibility for their own decisions and behaviour.

Deindividuation A group can sometimes have a negative influence on the thoughts, feelings and behaviour of its members. In particular, when in a very large group or a faceless crowd , people sometimes shed their normal inhibitions and conform to the group by participating in acts of aggression and other types of anti-social behaviour in which they would normally not engage. Such changes in thinking, feeling and behaving that occur in a large group have been explained by deindividuation. Deindividuation is the loss of individuality, or the sense of anonymity, that can occur in a group situation. Deindividuation is a psychological state and is believed to be an important factor in explaining the extreme behaviour of some people in crowds, particularly in situations where high levels of emotion are involved; for example, screaming hysterically during a rock concert or abusing a football umpire, as well as less restrained mob behaviour, street riots and the violence observed in some English and European soccer fans. Research studies have identified two important factors that bring about deindividuation which results in conformity to a group. These factors are anonymity and a shift in attention.

Anonymity in a group In groups, when people feel anonymous or invisible , and less accountable for their actions, they may choose to conform to a group which is behaving in ways they otherwise would not. Furthermore, being part of a large crowd or being unrecognisable through some sort of disguise, such as a uniform or fancy dress, can lead people to conform to a group by doing things they ordinarily would not even think about. For example, a jeering crowd protects the aggressive individual football fan from taking responsibility for threatening an umpire because everyone else is doing it too . And rioters who become anonymous in a mob may loot other people s property, as is witnessed during periods of civil unrest or war. In a large group situation or crowd, people believe they can get away with such anti-social behaviour because they cannot easily be distinguished from others who are behaving in the same way.

Figure 9.30 Deindividuation helps explain the looting of properties that occurred during the 2003 war in Iraq. Many people who would not normally engage in such anti-social behaviour had little difficulty conforming to what many others were doing.

Generally, the bigger the group, the greater the anonymity and the more likely it is that group members will use this anonymity to behave in ways they usually would not. In one experiment, Zimbardo (1970) dressed adult females in identical white coats and hoods so they were individually anonymous and resembled members of the racist group known as the Ku Klux Klan (see figure 9.31). Zimbardo found that female participants disguised with masks, and therefore deindividuated, were more likely to conform to a request to give high-voltage electric shocks to a helpless female than those without masks who were easily identifiable and not deindividuated.

Shift in attention When individuals are with others in a group, their attention is often focused on the activities of the group and events in the environment; that is, events external to the individual (Lord, 1997). This results in fewer opportunities to focus on internal thoughts. Consequently, individuals in a group are less likely to C h a p t e r 9 Social influences on the individual

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reflect on the appropriateness of their actions, and will therefore give less thought to the consequences of their behaviour (Diener, 1980). As a result, people are more likely to act impulsively and conform to a group or situation. This is intensified when group members act as one , such as by wearing uniforms, singing or chanting together. The heightened emotions that accompany the group behaviour make it difficult to stop (Aronson, Wilson & Akert, 1999).

Figure 9.31 The anonymity of the masks in Zimbardo s (1970) experiment resulted in the participants being more likely to give electric shocks to another female.

Girl a walking bomb

BOX 9.4 Ethical issues in conformity studies A common criticism of many studies of conformity, such as those conducted by Asch, is that they were unethical. They are considered to be unethical primarily because they involve the use of deception. This means the participants are intentionally misinformed about the real purpose and nature of the experiment. Consequently, they do not truly give informed consent when they agree to participate in the research study. The reason participants are deceived by the researchers is to ensure their knowledge of the real purpose of the experiment does not influence their natural responses and, therefore, the results. Some psychologists argue that criticism of conformity studies on these ethical grounds is unreasonable because the research study could never be conducted if participants gave informed consent. They also argue that participants are always debriefed at the end of the study and therefore eventually gain the true information about the experiment. Ethical standards for research acknowledge the need for deception in some studies. When using deception, researchers are required to follow strict procedures, including debriefing participants at the end of the experiment. However, the debriefing process can sometimes cause unintended psychological harm. For example, on discovering that they conformed to group pressure by intentionally giving incorrect answers, some participants can feel embarrassed or even humiliated and their self-esteem may suffer. Although the debriefing process should ensure any psychological harm arising from the experiment is undone , there is no guarantee that this will be the case.

e he was not name was not used becaus , said her ice accuse of being a his tion pol o rma wh info d, ban out e hus giv her to became suspicious Iraq, and authorised in a aid aida In al-Q al-Q up for gro ber the AN alert policeman who er of father was a suicide bom w himself at her memb Brigadiery’s seemed to play a central istr o wh Min of a 15-year-old girl, thre r, rior the mo Inte her the Iraq; and a vest loaded a bomb. Khalaf said her and found she was wearing role in turning Rania into General Abdel Kareem said ia Ran ce, offi y single mother of Ministr a n, rior ma with bombs. Inte Sal d an saa In Bas mother, chained her b. bom a was t ves cess or leader the prin w a — kno Sabah Mohammed Khalaf did not was an ‘emira’ stripped away her she ious when her five, man denied Sal Ms . Iraq to the bars of a window, In a But she said she was suspic aid to wear in al-Q ice. her dev told the up. d gro sins use cou the def to ale and tion fem ss dre band’s having any connec girl would have hus 14 from a poor at e uld help her rheumatism. brid a wo Had he not intervened, the it — ia ing say Ran it, for As ber this year. ” and they said the fifth grade and been Iraq’s 30th suicide bom ‘I asked, “Is it explosive? family, who quit school in ard. rew 00 $49 a Khalaf him ned ear His bravery read or write — Brig-Gen “No”,’ she said. el Ali Ismail ” They can barely es? . wir her h se wit the do are to at hat wh “W His commander, Colon ure ‘I asked, he was uns girl, Rania, did she y said, “Don’t said Fatah, said he thought the not say if she knew what ld me it won’t explode. The cou told He ng. had the wires doi o h wh wit was ld y she chi pla at a n’t wh Do w just g. kno was thin not touch any was doing or d,’ he said. ted into being a ‘She wasn’t in her right min and it will not explode”.’ been drugged and manipula ted ven pre n y me onl wo not er old the t, oun acc The young policeman ia’s er. By Ran potential kill Rania from her made her dizzy, ghtened conloss of life but also saved But Rania’s arrest has hei gave her peach juice, which . are squ the to bombings by y fwa ide hal suic her in ked rise fate. a wal cern about this vest.’ and they ed from der d she wan fini she , am I said d Go ‘Thank For three hours, she women in Iraq. bers had more her mother, to she said. The number of female bom side streets trying to find w kno not did ht in 2007 to e.’ eig she lod e exp from aus ‘I didn’t the vest, bec than tripled this year, ia was still in a give her s said. cial offi y itar mil A day after the arrest, Ran US 8, 29 in 200 who put what to do. ple peo con the by d ut nde abo rou ke sur spo is August 27, p. 26. daze as she But Rania’s story Source: Herald Sun, 2008, s who forced her condition on ke spo o wh , cer offi her up to it — her relative : one ntly drugged her; fusion to don the vest and appare

402

U n i t 2 Self and others

learnin g activit y 9. 17

learning activity 9.1 9

review questions

visual presentation concept map on factors influencing conformity

1. Name and briefly describe each of the key factors that influence conformity, with reference to relevant examples and research findings. 2. If you completed question 3 in learning activity 9.15, check your answers. Which of the factors did you believe would influence conformity? Does this suggest common sense is adequate in science? Briefly explain your answer. 3. Name the factor that influences conformity in each of the following situations. (a) Sasha doesn t know which of three outfits she could buy for the upcoming deb ball is the best one so she accepts the advice of her older sister on which outfit to buy. (b) Jake doesn t actually enjoy drinking in hotels but he still goes to the local hotel with his workmates on Fridays because everyone else wants to go . (c) Sujintha doesn t usually worry about good manners when eating at home with his family but is well-mannered when eating out with his family in a restaurant. (d) Voula is normally shy but joins in a Mexican wave at the MCG during the Boxing Day test cricket match. 4. Are conformity studies that do not meet all ethical standards justifiable? Explain your answer.

learnin g activit y 9. 18 Media response bomber

suicide

Prepare a concept map showing the key factors that influence conformity and possible relationships between the different factors. An example of a concept map and how to construct one are on pages 159 60. Consider constructing your concept map around a centrally-placed example, such as conformity in a queue for concert tickets or conformity in the school yard .

learning activity 9.2 0 essay conformity and behaviour Write an essay of about 500 600 words in which you discuss how conformity can affect the behaviour of individuals and groups. In your essay, ensure that you: • accurately explain the terms group (as distinguished from a collective), conformity and social influence • discuss key factors that can affect conformity • use appropriate explanation and examples • refer to the Asch experiments and Smith and Bond studies, including research findings and their wider applications • comment on cultural differences in conformity • organise the information in a logical way • express your information in a clear and concise way • accurately cite and reference source material. References may be used in obtaining information for your essay. Assesment task and criteria

Consider the photo of 15-year-old Rania shown at right. Rania is chained to window bars as Iraqi police remove her vest loaded with explosives. The police believed that she was a suicide bomber, but her explosives failed to detonate. Their investigation revealed that her father was a suicide bomber for the al-Qaida terrorist organisation in Iraq and her mother was an emira a princess or leader in the al-Qaida organisation. 1. Explain Rania s behaviour with reference to factors that influence conformity. 2. Give a possible explanation(s) of Rania s behaviour in terms of obedience and a combination of conformity and obedience. Figure 9.32

Source: Herald Sun, 2008, August 27, p. 26.

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GROUP INFLUENCES ON BEHAVIOUR Most people spend much of their lives as part of one group or another. From the time we are born and throughout childhood and adolescence we become a member of different groups; for example, our family, friendship groups, sports teams, clubs and organisations. Group membership continues into adulthood and older age to include people in our workplace, social groups and ongoing partnerships we form with others. Most of the groups we belong to are joined voluntarily. We also become members of other groups automatically on the basis of personal characteristics we have, such as our sex, religion, ethnicity and nationality. Most of us, however, take for granted our membership of the groups to which we belong. Yet the successful functioning of each group is highly dependent not only on its composition, but also on its members all working towards a common goal(s). Stop for a moment and reflect on one of the most important and influential groups to which you belong a peer group consisting of your friends, which is often described in psychology as a clique or friendship group . Now consider some of the following questions. How do peer groups exert pressure and influence over the group members? Why are some peer groups more powerful than others? Are group members capable of abusing their power when given more power? Can a peer group influence one or more of its members to engage in risk-taking behaviour? In answering questions such as these, we gain a greater understanding of ourselves, others and social relationships. This, in turn, enables us to take greater control over what happens to us in the many groups to which we belong.

the peer group A peer group is usually made up of people who have similar interests, do the same sorts of things and often associate or interact with one another. For example, the peer group of an adolescent will be made up of other adolescents. A peer and a friend are not necessarily the same. The term peer refers to anyone who has one or more characteristics or roles in common with one or more other individuals, such as age, sex, occupation or social group membership. However, friendship involves a positive relationship between two (or more) people who usually regard or treat each other in similar ways. Adolescents attending a particular school or college have many peers (other adolescents), but they may or may not have many friends (Kaplan, 2004). 404

U n i t 2 Self and others

Figure 9.33 One of the most important and influential groups to which you belong is a peer group consisting of your friends.

A distinguishing characteristic of adolescence is the amount of time young people spend with their peers. Some typical features of an adolescent peer group are: • it often has its own norms or standards of acceptable behaviour and anyone who breaks these norms may be rejected by other members of the group • it often has its own style of dress (including hairstyles), its own places for socialising, its own taste in music, dancing, sport and so on • it usually has its own special attitudes to matters such as sex before marriage, smoking, alcohol, illegal drugs, bullying and so on • it often has its own language or lists of expressions which may not make sense to anyone outside the peer group • its members usually discuss their problems with one another but not with outsiders. Australian psychologist John Cotterell (1996) describes the peer group to which most adolescents belong as a clique a relatively small group of friends of similar age, and generally of the same sex. For example, when an adolescent speaks of my friends , my mates , the girls , the guys , or uses some other collective noun of this kind, they are usually referring to a friendship clique, an interaction-based grouping of peers who hang around together and may be either close friends or just friends . According to Cotterell, clique members communicate easily with one another, and spend a great deal of their time together simply talking and enjoying each other s company (see box 9.5). They vary in the extent of closeness or intimacy, ranging from individuals who are friends only in a specific situation, such a sports team or interest group, to clusters of close friends who are inseparable. Furthermore, an adolescent may belong to several different cliques containing different friends; for example, team-mates at hockey practice after school, classmates in psychology lessons, the guys at the party, the after-school mates in the local neighbourhood. Some of these cliques meet only in a specific setting (for example, the basketball stadium or the local shopping centre), and the relationship is one

learning activity 9.2 1

of companionship that is restricted to this particular setting. In contrast, close friendships are not restricted to a particular setting.

review questions 1. Define the term peer group with reference to an example. 2. Distinguish between the terms peers and friends. 3. Define the meaning of clique with reference to an example. 4. (a) Read box 9.5 then describe a clique to which you belong. Ensure you refer to the size of the clique, sex, ages and clothing styles of its members, and activities in which the clique usually participates. (b) Draw a diagram to show your various clique memberships, using arrows to show the relationship (or lack of) between the different cliques to which you belong.

Figure 9.34 A clique is a relatively small group of friends of similar age and generally of the same sex.

BOX 9.5 Characteristics of adolescent cliques in a shopping mall Australian psychologist John Cotterell (1996) has observed adolescent cliques in various public settings, including shopping malls and entertainment venues in the city (such as Melbourne CBD) and also in major seaside resorts (such as Lorne and Portsea). As shown below, he found that cliques could be identified by their similar clothing and appearance, as well as by their preferred leisure activities and styles of hanging out . He observed that clothing differences were minor rather than

dramatic (no punks or Gothics were seen, and only one skinhead group), but they were nonetheless a sign of group membership. According to Cotterell, the adolescents appeared to make a considerable effort to wear clothing which was similar to that of their friends. This suggested to him that, for both males and females, clothing, shoes and hairstyle are used by individual group members to identify themselves as being members of the group.

table 9.5 Results from observational studies on adolescent cliques conducted by Cotterell (1996)

Group size

Sex

Ages

Clothing style

Activities

5

3 male 2 female

14 16

Trendy appearance. Boys in jeans and shirts, girls in skirts with shirt out and belted

Eating, talking, joking, mucking about Shopping: girls look at clothes, boys chase each other

4

4 male

17 18

Jeans, striped shirts, deck shoes, hair gelled, earrings

Eating at caf : throwing paper napkins at each other, discussing girls

6

6 female

12 13

Short skirts, with shirts out, with belts around waist

Window-shopping, rushing from shop to shop and laughing loudly

3

3 male

14 15

Black jeans, T-shirts with emblems, pointy shoes, greasy hair

Smoking, nudging each other about girls nearby and laughing

5

5 male

16 17

Jeans, T-shirts, runners, untidy hair

Leaning on railing and pushing, shoving, loud comments about nearby girls

5

5 female

15

Fashionable appearance, slim with long blonde hair, casual skirts and tops

Horsing around, chasing and laughing, much physical contact and jostling

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learnin g activit y 9. 22

style and school-related activities), and family issues (such as relationships with parents and time required to be home after going out with friends). Peer pressure is generally viewed by adults as a powerful negative influence in an adolescent s life, which is the main reason parents are concerned about peer pressure. While some adolescent peer groups promote and support anti-social behaviour, the negative influence of the peer group is often over-emphasised, especially by worried parents (Coleman & Hendry, 1999). Many psychologists, however, believe that the influence of the peer group during the adolescence is usually positive and constructive. Furthermore, in many areas that concern parents, such as sexual behaviour or drug use, the pressure of the peer group may not be so powerful, or may actually support the views promoted by parents. In early adolescence, at least, peer group pressures tend to be against such activities and actually may have a more positive than negative influence (Berndt & Zook, 1993). When peer pressure to engage in smoking, drinking, sexual activity and drugs does start to feature in adolescence, it may largely be due to a shift towards or acceptance of adult standards of behaviour rather than adolescent rebellion and experimentation (Coleman & Hendry, 1999). Research findings indicate that the age at which young people are more likely to be influenced by peer pressure is between the ages of 11 16 years, peaking at around age 14 and declining thereafter. But anti-social behaviour resulting from peer pressure tends to peak a bit later, during middle adolescence, before declining. Other research studies offer conflicting results and do not show such a decline for peer pressure toward misconduct during middle adolescence (Kaplan, 2004; Heaven, 2001; Cotterell, 1996). One way to investigate peer influence is to ask adolescents how they would respond if their friends urged them to do something they did not want to do. Research studies have found that willingness to do as peer group members suggest increases between middle childhood and middle adolescence, but declines thereafter. Research studies have also found that best friends have a much greater influence on adolescents

Practical activity designing and conducting an observational study on cliques Working with a partner or as a member of a small group, design a naturalistic observational study in which you collect data on one male and one female adolescent clique in a local shopping centre. The study should be designed to test some of the findings of Cotterell s (1996) study, including a comparison of male and female cliques. You should construct a relevant hypothesis and a suitable observation checklist before you conduct the investigation. Examples of observation checklists used in other studies are included in this textbook. You may wish to refer to these when constructing your checklist. Report Following data collection, organise and summarise the data using appropriate descriptive statistics. Then write a report on your research to include in your folio of practical activities. A complete report is not required, unless specified by your teacher. The report should include the following sections: Introduction, Procedure, Results and Discussion.

Peer pressure If you ask adults what concerns them most about adolescent peer groups, they will often name peer pressure. Peer pressure is social influence by peers; that is, real or imagined pressure to think, feel or behave according to standards, or guidelines that are determined by peers. Peer pressure in adolescence may be experienced (or used) in a variety of areas of everyday life. For example, when asked to name the peer pressures they experienced, adolescents in one study indicated that peer pressure tends to occur in four broad categories, as listed in table 9.6. These categories include social activities (such as going to parties), misconduct (such as drug use or sexual activity), conformity (such as dress table 9.6 Peer pressures experienced by adolescents

Peer social activities

Misconduct

Conformity to peer norms

Family issues

• • • •

• • • • •

• • • •

• Relationship with parents

Spending time with friends Going to parties Concerts and school events Pursuing opposite-sex relationships

Drug and alcohol use Sexual activity Petty theft Vandalism Minor delinquent activities

Dress and grooming Music preferences Involvement in school Academic matters (such as school work) • Extra-curricular activities

(Source: Adapted from Brown, B., Clasen, D. & Eicher, S. (1986). Perceptions of peer pressure, peer conformity, disposition and self-reported behaviour among adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 22, 521 530.)

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than do casual friends or the adolescent clique. For example, in the areas of smoking, drinking and other drug use, the influence of best friends is greater than that of other friends, and other friends influence is greater than that of peers in general (Kaplan, 2004; Heaven, 2001). Many people consider peers and parents to be exerting pressure in opposite directions. Although this tends to be the case in more superficial areas of life such as dress standards and hairstyles, research studies have found that the opinions of parents and friends often overlap in many of the more significant aspects of life involving education, careers and moral judgements (Kaplan, 2004). Girls generally experience more peer pressure than boys, especially in the areas of being socially active, dress and grooming, and in their relationships with boys. Being socially active is the area of greatest pressure for males, with grooming much less important. However, boys report experiencing more pressure to drink, engage in sexual activity and take drugs (Kaplan, 2004; Berndt, 1996). Adolescents often do not experience direct peer pressure from others. The pressure tends to come more from a desire to fit in with the group and follow group norms. This is a more subtle form of group pressure than is direct peer pressure. However, this subtler pressure can be just as intense. The more an individual wants to be a member of a group, the harder it is to resist peer pressure. Adolescents who hold a lower position in the group, are fringe members, or are less certain of their standing in the group, are more likely to be influenced by peer pressure than those with higher status. They tend to be influenced by peer pressure in order to keep their membership of the group by staying on side with other group members (Kaplan, 2004; Berndt, 1996). In sum, there is considerable research evidence that peer pressure does occur and that adolescents are influenced by it in different areas of their lives, but not all areas. It seems that peer pressure is not necessarily negative and that adolescents are more likely to be influenced by peer pressure in neutral , relatively harmless activities (such as dress standards and entertainment preferences) than they are to follow their peer group (or clique) into anti-social behaviours. Importantly, as pointed out by psychologist Paul Kaplan (2004) who specialises in adolescent behaviour, peer pressure is a factor in adolescent behaviour, but it does not act alone to dictate behaviour . . . Adolescents are not automatons; they often act on their own inclinations independent of friends, family and peers . Furthermore, adolescents

are individuals and it would be wrong to assume that all young people are equally susceptible to peer influence. Most, however, are somewhat susceptible to certain peer influences at particular times, under specific conditions (Heaven, 2001).

Figure 9.35 Peer pressure exerted by close friends can have a powerful impact on behaviour, but it can also be resisted.

learning activity 9.2 3 review questions 1. Explain the meaning of the term peer pressure in relation to group membership and with reference to social influence. 2. Is peer pressure experienced only by adolescents? Explain your answer, with reference to an example. 3. Consider the examples of peer pressure in table 9.6 with reference to your own experience. These examples are from a study conducted in 1986. Based on your experience: (a) Which examples are possibly no longer relevant? (b) What other examples could be included in the different categories? (c) Are there any categories missing from the table? If so, what are they? 4. Give two examples of a positive effect of peer pressure. 5. Draw a graph to show the relationship between peer pressure and age. On the Y axis, use a scale of 1 10, with 10 equivalent to the highest possible level of peer pressure. On the X axis, show age in years. 6. What kinds of sex differences have been found in the experience of peer pressure during adolescence? 7. List five research findings on peer pressure, other than age and sex differences.

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learning a ctivity 9.24 Practical activity social influence on volunteering This research activity enables you to investigate social influence by observing the effects on participants of persons next to them volunteering for an activity. It requires two students of the same sex working together, one student as the experimenter and the other as a confederate. At first, there will be at least six participants, who should be the same sex as the experimenter and confederate. Then, you will repeat the procedure with at least six participants of the opposite sex. Before undertaking the activity, you should identify relevant ethical issues so that they can be discussed and resolved with your teacher (see pages 81 4). You should also construct a relevant hypothesis. The experimenter and confederate should locate participants in some public place, such as a public library or the school library. (Note: When you involve the general public and strangers in an activity, you may get negative reactions; for instance, some people may become annoyed. If this happens, simply explain what you were doing, apologise and leave the prospective participant alone.) Select a situation in which a participant is sitting with at least two other people and there is a vacant chair. The confederate sits down in the vacant place and pretends to study or read. After about five minutes the experimenter taps the confederate on the shoulder and politely says Excuse me. Psychology is one of my subjects at school this year and I need someone to help me with an experiment for about five minutes. Would you mind helping me? You should find the experiment interesting . This should be said loud enough so that others in the immediate area can hear, but not loud enough to disturb people at another table. In the positive experimental condition, the confederate says Sure, I ll be glad to . The confederate says this in a whisper but loud enough so that others at the same table will hear it. The experimenter and confederate walk out of sight for about five minutes. Then they return, and the confederate sits down where they were seated previously. The experimenter politely thanks the confederate for assisting them and turns to another person of the same sex (a par-

ticipant) and repeats the original request. If the participant volunteers, the experimenter escorts the participant out of sight and hearing, then debriefs them; that is, explains what is going on, apologises for any inconvenience, thanks them for their cooperation and offers to answer any questions they may have about the research. The experimenter should also request that the participant not tell anyone about the activity and return to the table. In the negative experimental condition, the same procedure is followed at another table or location, except that the confederate says No, I would rather not . The experimenter then turns to a nearby person, a participant of the same sex who has overheard what the confederate has said, and asks if they will volunteer. If the participant volunteers, the experimenter and participant leave the area, then the participant is debriefed. In the control condition, the same procedures are followed but there is no confederate. The experimenter goes to a table or some other place and asks a person to help, using the same words as under the two previous conditions. Data for all class members can be combined and recorded in a table such as the one shown below. A suitable graph showing the percentages of responses by the participants in the different conditions should also be constructed. Report Prepare a brief report on the research activity to include in your folio of practical activities. Your report should include: 1. a statement of the aim of this research 2. a brief explanation of the relevance of the research to social influence 3. the research hypothesis 4. a summary of your results (or the class results if collated) using appropriate descriptive statistics 5. conclusions based on the results obtained and referring to the hypothesis. 6. potential extraneous variables that may be relevant, including explanations of why they may be relevant 7. other information that may be requested by your teacher.

table 9.7 Responses of participants under different conditions

Males Volunteers Condition

No.

1. Experimental positive 2. Experimental negative 3. Control

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%

Females Refusals

No.

%

Volunteers No.

%

Total

Refusals No.

%

Volunteers No.

%

Refusals No.

%

risk-taking behaviour Adolescents, like most adults, engage in a broad range of behaviours. Some behaviours are very safe and involve little or no risk of harm to the individual, such as changing a hairstyle or trying a new food. At other times, individuals choose to engage in behaviour that involves risk to their wellbeing, such as bungee jumping or using an illegal drug. Risk-taking behaviour is behaviour that has potential negative consequences. Behaviour viewed as risk-taking has the potential to harm the individual s psychological wellbeing and/or physical health in some way. The harm may range from embarrassment or a minor injury through to long-term trauma or death (Carr-Gregg, Enderby & Grover, 2003). A generally held belief about adolescent risk-taking behaviour is that it only involves negative, abnormal or anti-social behaviour. For example, activities such as smoking, drug abuse, binge drinking, unsafe sexual practices, prolonged sun exposure without protection and dangerous driving are all considered to be risky activities in which adolescents are known to engage, and which can place their health and wellbeing at risk (Moore & Gullone, 1996). Although a significant number of adolescents engage in such risk-taking activities that may result in negative consequences, risk-taking does not only involve negative behaviours. Adolescent risk-taking can also occur in positive and constructive ways; for example, performing a brave deed on impulse; being socially outgoing; being daring in fashion; taking a stand on something believed to be right, despite popular opinion; choosing to study a subject you have never studied before or leaving school to (a)

(b)

start an apprenticeship. These types of positive risks involve behaviour that tends to have healthy rather than unhealthy outcomes; for example, an increase in selfconfidence or self-esteem. However, they are considered to be risk-taking because they also have a potential negative consequence or cost, such as the social cost of embarrassment or failure, the physical cost of accident and injury, or the emotional cost of fear (Gullone & Moore, 2000). Negative risk-taking behaviour has attracted the most interest from psychologists (and the wider community) because of the potentially harmful outcomes but also because adolescents often lack both an awareness of the harm associated with risk-taking behaviours, and the skills to protect themselves. In order to study risk-taking behaviour, Australian psychologists Eleonora Gullone and Susan Moore (2000) gave a risk-taking behaviour questionnaire to a sample of 459 (239 males and 220 females) adolescents from four government secondary schools in Melbourne. The sample consisted of 197 younger adolescents aged 11 to 14 years (108 males, 89 females) and 262 older adolescents aged 15 to 18 years (131 males, 131 females). The questionnaire required the participants to name behaviours they believed to be risky, to judge the riskiness of these behaviours, and to rate each risky behaviour according to how often they engaged in it. On the basis of their results, Gullone and Moore categorised the responses into four types of risk-taking behaviour: • thrill-seeking • reckless • rebellious • anti-social. eLesson on risk-taking behaviour (d)

(c)

Figure 9.36 The four types of risk-taking behaviour identified by Australian psychologists Eleonora Gullone and Susan Moore (2000) (a) thrill-seeking, (b) reckless, (c) rebellious and (d) anti-social.

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Thrill-seeking risks involve behaviours that are challenging but relatively socially acceptable, such as engaging in dangerous sports (for example, skydiving or bungee jumping) and experimenting with relationships and sexuality. Reckless behaviours, on the other hand, are often thrill-seeking but have a higher chance of not being accepted by the adult population, and have negative social or health-related outcomes. Examples of reckless behaviours are drinking and driving, speeding, having unprotected sex and sharing needles when drugtaking. Rebellious behaviours involve experimenting with activities that are usually acceptable for adults but are generally disapproved of for adolescents. These behaviours may include smoking cigarettes, drinking alcohol, swearing and staying out late. Anti-social behaviours are those which are considered unacceptable for both adults and adolescents. Examples of anti-social behaviours include cheating, overeating and bullying others. Gullone and Moore also found significant age and sex differences in the types of risk-taking behaviour engaged in by adolescents. This is shown in table 9.8. Note that adolescents of different ages and sexes reported that they least often took reckless risks and most often took thrill-seeking risks. Furthermore, Gullone and Moore found significant age and sex difference in the adolescents judgements of the riskiness of behaviours in the four different categories. This is shown in table 9.8. Note that reckless risks were judged most risky and antisocial risks as least risky. Although some risk-taking behaviours engaged in by adolescents are socially acceptable and relatively harmless, many are not. An increasing number of Australian adolescents, both males and females as well as younger and older adolescents, engage in socially unacceptable behaviours that pose risks to their wellbeing. For example, research studies on Australian adolescents indicate that: • between one-quarter and one-third of adolescents drink alcohol in a way that makes this behaviour high risk, more than any other section of the Australian community; about 20% of adolescent females engage in binge drinking (five or more drinks on one occasion) on a weekly basis • 79% of adolescent males and 77% of adolescent females have used tobacco; 25% of 14 19 year olds are regular smokers; 6% of girls aged 12 years and 30% of girls aged 17 years are regular smokers • about 40% of 14 24 year olds report having used an illegal drug in the previous 12 months; twice the number of adolescent females use illegal drugs compared with adolescent males • blood-borne and sexually transmitted infections such as HIV and hepatitis C affect Australian adolescents in a higher proportion than any other age group 410

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• drug-related deaths represent about 25% of all

adolescent deaths in Australia • among year 10 12 students, both males and females

are unlikely to use a condom during sex • although rates of adolescent pregnancy have declined, this remains a major health issue for adolescent females • adolescents commit a higher proportion of petty crimes than any other age group. table 9.8 Risk-taking behaviours of male and female adolescents in different age groups

Age Type of risk

Sex

11 14 years 15 18 years

Males

Females

Thrill-seeking

2.28

2.46

2.43

2.34

Anti-social

1.68

1.97

1.93

1.77

Rebellious

1.72

2.10

1.98

1.89

Reckless

0.92

1.05

1.19

0.78

Based on Gullone & Moore (2000). This table shows mean scores on ratings of different types of risk-taking behaviours. Participants used a 5-point rating scale, where 0 = never done, 1 = hardly ever done, 2 = done sometimes, 3 = done often and 4 = done very often. table 9.9 Judgements of risk-taking behaviours of male and female adolescents in different age groups

Age Type of risk

Sex

11 14 years 15 18 years

Males

Females

Thrill-seeking

3.24

3.09

3.10

3.21

Anti-social

2.86

2.52

2.55

2.78

Rebellious

3.34

2.91

3.04

3.15

Reckless

3.61

3.40

3.36

3.63

Based on Gullone & Moore (2000). This table shows mean scores on judgements of the riskiness of different types of risk-taking behaviours. Participants in each age group used a 5-point rating scale, where 0 = not at all risky, 1 = not very risky, 2 = risky, 3 = very risky and 4 = extremely risky.

These kinds of statistics, coupled with the fact that the levels of such behaviours seem to have risen sharply in recent years, have led to considerable research by psychologists to determine the causes of adolescent risktaking behaviour. Peer pressure is one factor that can lead to inappropriate risk taking. However, to suggest that it is the only cause is an over-simplification. Factors to do with the individual such as age, sex, personality type, mental health (for example, whether they are depressed), family background, cultural background, perceived positive outcomes of risky behaviour, the level of maturity or development of the brain and ability

to judge the level of risk or potential harm associated with a risk-taking activity are among many factors that have been suggested as contributing to inappropriate risk-taking in adolescence. To date, psychologists have no completely satisfactory explanation or solution for adolescent risk-taking behaviour (Abbott-Chapman, Denholm & Wyld, 2008; Bennett, 2007; Kaplan, 2004; Carr-Gregg, Enderby & Grover, 2003).

learning activity 9.2 7 Media response analysing risk-taking behaviour Consider the photo shown below and answer the following questions.

learnin g activit y 9. 25 review questions 1. What type of behaviour is likely to be defined by psychologists as risk-taking behaviour? 2. Under what circumstances is risk-taking behaviour considered to be positive or negative? Explain with reference to relevant examples. 3. A year 11 girl decides to wear an outfit with stiletto heels for the first time when going on a blind date. Name and briefly describe three potential costs that may be relevant to this specific example of risktaking behaviour. 4. Define each of the four different types of risk-taking behaviour identified by Gullone and Moore (2000). For each type, give an example different from those in the text. 5. Psychologists believe that peer pressure is just one of many factors that contribute to inappropriate risktaking in adolescence. What other factors do research studies indicate as being potentially relevant? 6. Based on your own experience in peer groups, what factor(s) do you believe most influences risk-taking behaviour?

learnin g activit y 9. 26 Data analysis adolescent risk taking behaviour Consider tables 9.8 and 9.9 on risk-taking in relation to adolescents and complete the following tasks. 1. With reference to data in table 9.8, what conclusion can be drawn about: (a) age-related differences in risk-taking behaviour? (b) sex differences in risk-taking behaviour in adolescents? 2. With reference to data in table 9.9, what conclusions can be drawn about: (a) age-related differences in adolescents judgements of the riskiness of the four categories of risk-taking behaviour? (b) sex differences in adolescents judgements of the riskiness of the four categories of risk-taking behaviour? 3. Suggest a possible correlation between data in table 9.8 and data in table 9.9.

1. Why would the behaviour shown be classified as risk-taking behaviour? 2. What type of cost or negative consequence is associated with the behaviour? 3. Using Gullone and Moore s (2000) categories, what type of risk-taking behaviour is apparent? 4. Suggest three factors which may account for the behaviour shown, giving reasons for your answers.

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learning a ctivity 9.28

trUe/Fa lSe Q UiZ

Oral presentation factors affecting behaviour

Indicate whether each statement is true or false by writing T or F in the blank space next to each statement.

Prepare a presentation on factors that affect the behaviour of individuals and groups. Your presentation should focus on social influences and address each of the following: • status and power within groups • factors affecting obedience • factors affecting conformity • peer pressure • risk-taking behaviour and influences on risk-taking behaviour. Ensure you accurately describe key concepts, use appropriate examples to illustrate concepts and refer to relevant research findings. There should be balanced coverage of all five topics. Your presentation must use two or more data types; for example, still or moving images, written text and sound. PowerPoint is a suitable medium for the presentation. All information should be logically organised and clear. Text may be in point form.

1. _____

Social influence cannot be resisted.

2. _____

Status is the ability to control or influence the thoughts, feelings or behaviour of someone else.

3. _____

Obedience involves following orders given by someone in authority.

4. _____

Milgram found that as social proximity between the teacher and learner increases, so too does obedience.

5. _____

All friendship groups are peer groups too.

6. _____

Unanimity of opinion in a group is likely to increase conformity.

7. _____

Behaviour must have potential negative consequences in order to be classified as risk-taking.

8. _____

Thrill-seeking behaviour typically involves doing something that is socially unacceptable.

9. _____

Deindividuation occurs only in groups.

10. _____

Zimbardo s Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrated the importance of group size on conformity.

Assesment task and criteria

learnin g activit y 9. 29 essay factors affecting behaviour Write an essay of about 500 600 words in which you discuss factors that affect the behaviour of individuals and groups. In your essay, ensure that you: • discuss three of the following factors status and power within groups factors affecting obedience factors affecting conformity peer pressure risk-taking behaviour and influences on risk-taking behaviour • accurately explain key concepts • use appropriate examples • refer to relevant research findings • organise the information in a logical way • express your information in a clear and concise way • accurately cite and reference all source material. References may be used in obtaining information for your essay.

Assesment task and criteria

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The answers to the true/false questions are in the answer section at the back of this book and in eBookPLUS.

C H A PT E R TEST SectiOn a

Multiple-choice questions

Choose the response that is correct or that best answers the question. A correct answer scores 1, an incorrect answer scores 0. Marks will not be deducted for incorrect answers. No marks will be given if more than one answer is completed for any question. 1. The term social influence best describes A. someone s behaviour when they socially interact with others. B. the way in which someone interacts with others in different social situations. C. the influence of someone s personal thoughts and feelings on how they can best behave in a group. D. how the presence or actions of others can affect someone s behaviour. 2. A peer group is best described as a A. friendship group. B. two-way group. C. group whose members interact. D. group whose members share common characteristics. 3. Which of the following is not a characteristic of a group? A. There are two or more people. B. There is interaction between members. C. The members do not share a common goal. D. Different members can influence one another. 4. A clique is best described as a A. relatively small group of friends who are about the same age. B. relatively small group of adolescents. C. gathering of people who have minimal interaction. D. gathering of people in the same location engaged in a common activity. 5. A key finding of Zimbardo s Stanford Prison Experiment is that A. power can be used to influence someone else s behaviour but status cannot. B. status can be used to influence someone else s behaviour but power cannot. C. role expectations can lead people to behave differently from the way in which they would normally behave. D. all participants in the experiment did their best to behave as the experimenter wanted them to behave.

6. An individual s ability to control or influence someone else s behaviour is best described as A. power. B. status. C. a role. D. pro-social behaviour. 7. The importance of an individual s position or standing in a group, as viewed by members of the group, is best described as A. power. B. status. C. peer pressure. D. peer influence. 8. Which of the following is a source of power in a group? A. having information that group members need B. low status C. having the ability to be punished by others in the group D. a loss of individuality. 9. If someone in a group has legitimate power, then they have the to direct or influence the behaviour of other group members. A. social skills B. right C. expertise D. information 10. Risk-taking behaviour is best described as behaviour that A. influences someone to do the wrong thing. B. involves potential positive or negative consequences. C. is harmful. D. is anti-social. 11. Jake conforms because he wants to be liked and accepted by the group. This is an example of conforming due to A. normative influence. B. unanimity. C. informational influence. D. culture. C h a p t e r 9 Social influences on the individual

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12. Which of the following behaviours best describes conformity? A. following the commands of someone in authority B. adjusting one s actions so that they are consistent with those of group members C. giving an incorrect answer when all other group members give the correct answer D. giving the correct answer when all other group members give an incorrect answer 13. As group size increases, conformity by an individual to the group s behaviour tends to A. stay the same. B. decrease. C. increase. D. increase, but only up to a group size of four. 14. Lim is taking up surfing. She buys a surfboard with two fins rather than one fin on the advice of a surfer friend. This is an example of conformity due to A. normative influence. B. unanimity. C. informational influence. D. culture. 15. An analysis of the results of Asch-type experiments in many different countries found that A. people in North America and Western Europe show the highest levels of conformity to group pressure. B. people in collectivist cultures are less likely to conform to group pressure than people in individualistic cultures. C. people in individualist cultures are less likely to conform to group pressure. D. people in all cultures seldom conform to group pressure. 16. Research findings indicate that disobedience during warfare is rarer among those ordered to kill from a distance with a missile than close-up with a knife. These findings suggest that may influence obedience. A. friendship B. legitimacy of the authority figure C. social proximity D. group pressure

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17. Which of the following behaviours best describes obedience ? A. following the commands of someone in authority B. choosing to do as the rest of the group does, even when not in agreement with the group C. exerting power and influence over someone D. exerting power and status over someone 18. The results of Milgram-type experiments that have been conducted in many different countries with participants from all kinds of backgrounds indicate that A. most people refuse to be obedient when they become distressed. B. there are significant sex differences in obedience. C. there are significant age differences in obedience. D. obedience in a Milgram-type experimental situation seems to occur regardless of sex or age. 19. In one experiment on obedience, 22 hospital nurses were telephoned one at a time throughout the day by an unknown doctor who ordered them to give a patient an obvious overdose of a drug. All but one nurse complied without delay (until they were intercepted on their way to the patient). Although not all nurses are so compliant, these nurses probably obeyed due to A. ethical issues involved in disobeying a doctor. B. the doctor s legitimate authority over them. C. the social proximity of the doctor. D. group pressure to obey. 20. Sam is upset by an unfair request by a teacher to clean up the classroom, but obeys the teacher despite being upset. The teacher then makes the same request to Sara and Luke who refuse to obey. When Sam observes this, he also decides to disobey and stops cleaning. Sam s change of mind about complying with the teacher s request is best explained by A. ethical issues that are involved when teachers make unfair requests of students. B. the realisation that the teacher is not a legitimate authority figure. C. the social proximity of Sara and Luke. D. the presence of group support.

SectiOn B

Short-answer questions

Answer all questions in the spaces provided. Question 1 Define the meaning of peer pressure.

1 mark

Question 2 When we obey an order from someone in a uniform we are most likely influenced by the of this authority figure; whereas when we obey an order from someone because everyone else is obeying, then we are most likely influenced by . 2 marks

Question 3 When influence leads us to conform, we conform because we want to be liked and accepted by the group; whereas when influence leads us to conform, we conform because we want to be right. 2 marks

Question 4 Four drivers of other vehicles stop and help someone trapped in their car following a collision. The drivers work cooperatively in administering first aid and to safely remove the trapped person from the car before emergency services arrive. Explain whether or not the four drivers are a group, with reference to two distinguishing features of a group.

2 marks

Question 5 Explain how power and status affected the behaviour of the mock guards and mock prisoners in Zimbardo s Stanford Prison Experiment.

3 marks

eBook plus The answers to the multiple-choice questions are in the answer section at the back of this book and in eBookPLUS. The answers to the short-answer questions are in eBookPLUS. Note that you can complete Section A of the chapter test online through eBookPLUS and get automatic feedback.

C h a p t e r 9 Social influences on the individual

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CHAPTER

10

PRO-SOCIAL AND ANTI-SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR Pro-social behaviour ......................................................... 417 Factors influencing pro-social behaviour ..... 419 Altruism ..................................................................................... 430 Factors influencing reluctance to help ................ 432 Diffusion of responsibility ...................................... 432 Audience inhibition ................................................... 434 Cost benefit analysis .................................................. 435 Ethical considerations in studies on pro-social behaviour........................................................... 435 Anti-social behaviour ........................................................ 437 Aggression ......................................................................... 437 Bullying ............................................................................. 449

Humans are social beings. This is evident in the amount of time most of us spend in the company of other people. People throughout the world seem to need and seek interactions with others and, in the process, form all kinds of social relationships. In psychology, the term social relationship is used to describe the connection or association between two or more people, especially with regard to how they think, feel and behave towards each other. The types of social relationships we have may range from the intimacy of a close personal relationship with someone we know very well through to a more impersonal, formal and temporary relationship with a stranger, such as when giving directions to a tourist. Although most people also seek, enjoy and benefit from occasional periods of time alone, such periods tend to be relatively brief and most people are usually glad to return to the company of others. Rarely do individuals prefer to live by themselves throughout their entire lifetimes, in complete isolation from other people. All social relationships involve social behaviour. The term social behaviour refers to any behaviour where interaction occurs between two or more people. Social behaviour may involve smiling at someone, asking for and receiving advice from someone, or interacting with others in a group, such as when playing a board game or going out with friends. Generally, social behaviour may be classified as either positive or negative. Positive social behaviour is often referred to as pro-social behaviour. Negative social behaviour is often referred to as anti-social behaviour. Both pro-social and anti-social behaviour are of considerable interest to psychologists and have been the subject of numerous research studies. Of particular interest are pro-social behaviour that involves helping others and anti-social behaviour that involves harming others, specifically through aggressive behaviour. (a)

learning activity 10.1 visual presentation prosocial and anti-social behaviour Prepare a visual presentation in the form of a collage to illustrate pro-social and anti-social behaviours using relevant photographs and key words from newspapers and magazines.

Options and variations

pro-Social BehaViour Voluntary helping behaviour for no apparent personal reward is common in everyday life in Australian society. People offer directions, collect money for charities and fund-raising appeals, deliver food and clothing to people in need, feed a neighbour s cat when they go on holidays, listen to a friend s problems, mow the lawns of the local school and volunteer their personal time and labour to others in many different ways. Sometimes, people even risk their own health and safety to help total strangers. For example, consider emergency services personnel and volunteers who willingly search for survivors in unstable buildings and rubble after a natural disaster such as a cyclone or an earthquake. In some cases, people willingly volunteer all their time to help others. For example, the Catholic nun known throughout the world as Mother Teresa risked disease and all kinds of personal dangers, for many years, right up until her death, to help the most needy people in some of the poorest areas of Calcutta in India. Social psychologists refer to the everyday acts of helping others, as well as helping that involves personal cost to the helper, as pro-social behaviour. (b)

Figure 10.1 Examples of pro-social and anti-social behaviour: (a) volunteers providing food to the needy (b) rioters clashing with police. C h a p t e r 1 0 pro-social and anti-social behaviour

417

Pro-social behaviour is any behaviour intended to help or benefit another person, group or society. To determine whether behaviour is pro-social, the goal or underlying motive that initiates and drives the behaviour is a more important consideration than the actual outcome of the behaviour. True pro-social behaviour is intentional; that is, the helper deliberately tries to provide assistance. Opening the door for someone who has their arms full of parcels is an example of prosocial behaviour. It doesn t matter whether you voluntarily opened the door or were asked to do it the

intention was to help someone. However, if the outcome of behaviour benefits someone, but there was no intention to help, then the behaviour is not considered to be pro-social. For example, suppose that you are driving down a narrow laneway and stop to remove a box that is in the way so you don t damage your car. You place the box on the footpath out of your way and drive off. This action will also benefit other motorists who use the laneway. However, your behaviour is not considered to be pro-social because it was not your intention to benefit other motorists.

Figure 10.2 Catholic nun Mother Teresa spent most of her life engaged in pro-social behaviour, helping the poor in Calcutta, India.

learnin g activit y 10. 2 review questions 1. What is social behaviour? Give an example of social behaviour different from those in the text. 2. Define the meaning of the term pro-social behaviour. 3. What is the key characteristic that determines whether or not behaviour is considered to be pro-social? 4. A police officer arrives at the scene of a minor car accident during peak hour and immediately takes action

418

U n i t 2 Self and others

to redirect traffic away from the accident. Although the police officer is doing their job , is their behaviour prosocial? Explain your answer. 5. Give an example of a helping behaviour that is prosocial, and which is different from those in the text. 6 Give an example of a helping behaviour that probably would not be considered pro-social, and which is different from those in the text. Explain why your example would not be considered pro-social behaviour.

Factors influencing pro-social behaviour

Situational factors

In the 1960s and 1970s, many research studies were undertaken to identify and better understand factors that influence pro-social behaviour. Many of these studies were prompted by the disturbing case of Kitty (Catherine) Genovese, who was murdered in a New York street in 1964. At around 3 am, after returning home from her work in a bar, Kitty was attacked by a knife-wielding man as she walked across the road from her car to her apartment. Kitty tried to escape, but her attacker caught her and repeatedly stabbed her. Kitty s screams of terror and desperate pleas for help such as Oh my God, he stabbed me! Please help me! Please help me! I m dying! I m dying! woke 38 of her neighbours. Many switched on their lights and stood at their windows watching for up to 35 minutes as Kitty struggled with and tried to escape her attacker. Her attacker eventually fled, but only after he had left Kitty to die on the footpath. Only one of Kitty s neighbours called the police. No-one went to her aid. Why did the other 37 people do nothing, particularly those who had worked out that Kitty s life was clearly in danger? Are there any circumstances under which someone might have intervened to help Kitty? On the basis of their research findings, psychologists have identified a number of factors that influence the likelihood of pro-social behaviour occuring. These factors include aspects of the situation in which help is required, social norms ( social rules ) that inform us about our obligations to help, and personal factors associated with the individual who has the opportunity to help. (a)

Two researchers who were particularly interested in Kitty s case were American social psychologists Bibb Latane and John Darley. In order to understand why so many people failed to help Kitty, they conducted several experiments. On the basis of their research findings, Latane and Darley (1968) identified three key factors associated with the specific situation that influence whether people will be pro-social and help. These factors involve whether we notice the situation, whether we interpret the situation as one in which help is needed, and whether we are prepared to take responsibility for helping in that situation and consider actually doing something to help. Latane and Darley described these in a series of steps that occur one after the other.

Noticing the situation If you were walking through a shopping centre with your friends, would you necessarily notice a person who is slumped in front of a store and in need of help? It may be that you are so involved in a conversation with your friends that you don t. Clearly, if you don t notice that there is a situation where help may be required you will not respond in an appropriate pro-social way. But would you be more likely to notice the person slumped in front of the store if you were walking alone? Research findings indicate that, both in laboratory and real-world (field) experimental settings, when individuals are on their own they are quicker to notice something different or unusual than when they are in a group. A simple, commonsense explanation is that people in a group are more likely to be focused on their interactions with each other than on their surroundings, as compared with when they are alone.

(b)

Figure 10.3 (a) Kitty Genovese (b) The street on which Kitty was stabbed to death

Weblink video of John Darley discussing the Genovese case and bystander intervention C h a p t e r 1 0 pro-social and anti-social behaviour

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Noticing an incident that is different or unusual and may involve someone in need of help is a necessary first step in making a helping response. However, this is not enough. Once the incident is noticed, the person must then interpret the situation as one in which help is required.

Interpreting the situation Many situations in which help may be required are ambiguous or unclear. Therefore, people cannot always be sure that a helping response is appropriate or required. For example, if you saw someone slumped on the steps of a building in the middle of the day, as shown in figure 10.4, would you think they were drunk, injured, ill, upset, affected by an overdose of drugs or simply resting? Any one of these interpretations may be correct.

Figure 10.4 How would you interpret this situation? Is the person drunk, injured, ill, upset, suffering from a drug overdose or simply resting? Your answer is likely to influence how you might respond to this situation. You must interpret a situation as one which requires your help. This is the second step in making a helpful response.

Research findings indicate that the less ambiguous the situation, the more likely it is that help will be offered. Conversely, the more ambiguous the situation, the less likely it is that help will be offered. For example, in an experiment conducted by American psychologist Leonard Bickman (1971), female participants sitting alone in a cubicle heard a crash and a person s scream, followed by the reaction of a witness to the apparent accident. Each participant heard one 420

U n i t 2 Self and others

of three types of reactions the accident described by the witness as a certain emergency, the accident described as a certain non-emergency and the accident described with uncertainty about whether or not it was an emergency. When the participants heard the witness interpret the event as a certain emergency, they helped more frequently and more quickly than when the interpretation was uncertain or when the event was identified as a non-emergency. In another experiment, Clark and Word (1972) set up a different emergency situation where there was no ambiguity. In a room adjoining the room in which the participants were located, a maintenance worker who was actually a confederate climbed a metal ladder, fell off it and pulled the ladder over on top of himself. He grunted loudly and exclaimed, Oh my back; I can t move! He continued groaning with each breath, then he gave a cry for help. In all conditions of the experiment, whether they were alone or with other participants, 100% of the participants went to the aid of the victim. In a second experiment, Clark and Word (1974) staged the same fall. However, in this followup experiment, they added ambiguity by removing the verbal cues that an injury had occurred; that is, the victim did not say anything or groan after the fall. Under these circumstances, only 30% of the participants helped (Vander Zanden, 1981). To sum up, in order for helping behaviour to occur in response to an emergency situation, a potential helper needs to first notice the situation, then interpret the situation as one in which help is required. The interpretation can be influenced by other people, particularly the way in which others respond to the same situation. If an individual interprets a situation as one in which a helping response is needed, they must then decide whether they will take responsibility for helping.

Taking responsibility for helping Though you may notice and correctly interpret a situation as one in which help is required, you are unlikely to intervene and help unless you believe it is your responsibility to do so. For example, if you were at a swimming pool and saw a swimmer calling for help in full view of the lifeguard, you would be unlikely to jump in the water to provide help. Instead, you would probably decide that helping a swimmer in distress is the responsibility of the lifeguard (Baron & Byrne, 1991).

When someone else is nearby in an emergency situation, we may leave the responsibility to help to them, even if we don t interpret them as having the responsibility to help. For example, in the Kitty Genovese murder, most of the neighbours who saw Kitty being attacked and heard her pleas for help accurately interpreted the situation as an emergency, but they failed to help her. Seeing lights and silhouetted figures in neighbouring windows would have made Kitty s neighbours aware that others were also watching. Darley and Latane (1968) hypothesised that the presence of other onlookers affected each individual s sense of responsibility to take action. Consequently, no-one helped, in the mistaken belief that someone else would take on the responsibility for helping. Many experiments were subsequently developed to test this hypothesis. In one experiment conducted by Latane and Dabbs (1975), 145 confederates accidentally dropped coins or pencils while in a lift. In 1497 journeys in the lift, the confederates were helped 40% of the time when they were in the lift with only one other person and less than 20% of the time when there were six other passengers. When asked afterwards why they responded as they did, most of the participants who were the only other passenger in the lift referred to their feelings of a personal responsibility for helping. However, only a very small percentage of participants who were in the lift with one or more others indicated any feelings or beliefs of a personal responsibility to offer help. The results of this experiment demonstrate what psychologists call the bystander effect. The bystander effect is the tendency for individuals to be less likely to help another person in need when other bystanders are present, or believed to be present, as compared to when they are alone. Furthermore, the greater the number of bystanders, the less likely any one of them is to help. The bystander effect indicates that when we are in a situation where help is needed and we know that others are around, we may place the responsibility to help on them. Step 2 Step 1

yes

yes

learning activity 10.3 review questions 1. (a) Explain the meaning of the term situational factors in relation to the occurence of pro-social behaviour. (b) Briefly describe three features from a situation in which help may be required that may lead an individual to notice that situation. 2. (a) Explain how an individual s interpretation of an incident can increase the likelihood of their helping. (b) State two factors that influence an individual s interpretation of an incident. (c) Identify the IV and DV(s) in the experiment conducted by Bickman (1971) to investigate interpretation of a situation. 3. (a) What key factor can influence an individual s decision to take responsibility for helping after noticing and interpreting that help is required? (b) Identify the IV and DV(s) in the experiment conducted by Latane and Dabbs (1975). 4. (a) What is the bystander effect? (b) In what way can the presence of others affect our taking responsibility for helping?

Step 3

yes

no no

Consider providing help.

Take responsibility?

Interpret that help is needed?

Notice the incident? no

Figure 10.6 In an experiment on helping, Latane and Dabbs (1975) found that the more passengers there were in a lift, the less likely they were to take responsibility for helping another passenger .

No help

No help

No help

Figure 10.5 The steps required for helping behaviour to occur C h a p t e r 1 0 pro-social and anti-social behaviour

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learnin g activit y 10. 4 research investigation influence of the number of bystanders on helping This investigation enables you to observe whether the presence of different numbers of bystanders influences whether a person will stop and assist someone in need of help. Research is undertaken in a group of at least six people. One group member will be an observer who records responses, one will act as the person in need of help and four or more will act as bystanders. Pick a busy location that has many people moving around. It should be a public place where pedestrian traffic will not be obstructed and where there is no personal danger (such as stepping onto a road) to any person, including students undertaking research and members of the general public. The incident in which help is required involves a shopper (a group member) with armfuls of shopping bags, who drops a bag of lemons, oranges or small cans so that they roll in different directions. The bystanders (other group members) are located in an area within 2 3 m of the incident, but must not appear as if they are all together as part of a group. School uniform should not be worn. The observer should be situated close by, with a clear view of the situation, but they should be inconspicuous. The experiment involves five different conditions, each for a two-minute period, in the following order: 1. no bystanders 2. one bystander 3. two bystanders 4. three bystanders 5. four or more bystanders. There should be a 15-minute break between each condition. At the end of the two-minute period for each condition, the research team should collect all materials and leave the area for about 15 minutes. Then they should return to the same place and continue with the next condition of the experiment. The observer should record on a checklist, such as the one shown in table 10.1, the number of individuals who provide help in each of the five conditions. Later, the observer should make these data available to all class members. The group (or class) should decide beforehand precisely what provide help means; that is, the behaviour to be observed and measured should be operationalised. For example, does provide help mean stopping and picking up one item? More than one item? Does it mean doing something such as stopping an item from rolling (but nothing else)? Does it mean making a comment such as Do you need help? Does it mean more than one of these responses? A decision may also be made before data collection commences to record the sex of the people who help (and don t

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help) so that the effect of this variable is also tested. In this case, the observation checklist should be modified to enable recording of the sex of people who provide help. Once this issue(s) is resolved, construct one or more hypotheses for the experiment. table 10.1 Observation checklist

Number of bystanders

Number of individuals who provide help

Total

0 1 2 3 4 or more Analysis and interpretation 1. Summarise the class data in an appropriate table. The table should include the mean number (or percentage) of people (and of each sex if relevant) who helped for each condition. 2. Construct an appropriate graph to describe the data and enable comparisons. 3. What are the independent and dependent variable(s)? 4. Is there a cause effect relationship between the number of people who provided help and the number of bystanders during each condition? 5. Do the results support the hypothesis(es)? 6. Do the results provide evidence for the bystander effect on helping? 7. What other variables may have influenced an individual s decision to provide or not provide help? 8. Might the results have been different if bystanders wore school uniform or swapped roles for different conditions? Report Prepare a report on the investigation using the reporting conventions described on pages 317 30. Answers to the analysis and interpretation questions should be considered when writing the report. Your report should include the following sections: 1. introduction, including a brief explanation of factors that affect the behaviour of individuals and groups with specific reference to bystander theory, the aim(s) and the hypothesis(es) 2. method, including participants, participant selection, apparatus and procedures 3. results 4. discussion 5. reference list 6. other information requested by your teacher.

Social norms Often we help others because we believe that we ought to help; for example, we ought to return a lost wallet that we find and we ought to help a new student find their way to a classroom. In such cases, our desire to help is influenced by social norms. Social norms are standards, or rules , that govern what people should or should not do in different social situations (Cialdini & Trost, 1998). Although social norms are often not written down or explicitly stated, they are known ways of behaving in particular social groups or cultures, or society in general. We learn about the social norms for our culture or wider society by observing what other people say and do. In most cultures and societies, there is a norm which specifies that to be selfish is wrong and to be helpful is right. Furthermore, in most cultures and societies it is expected that we do what we can to help other people (Malim, 1997). Two social norms that can influence us to help are the reciprocity norm and the social responsibility norm.

Reciprocity norm The reciprocity norm is based on the reciprocity principle, an unwritten rule that we should give what we receive or expect to receive. The word reciprocal means to give mutually and the saying Do unto others as you would have them do unto you reflects the reciprocity principle. In accordance with the reciprocity principle, the reciprocity norm prescribes that we should help others who help us. For example, if you help a friend with their Maths homework, you would expect them to return the favour and assist you with another subject when you need help. This expectation is both reasonable and socially acceptable. To receive without giving in return goes against or breaks the reciprocity norm. This is especially the case if the initial help is given voluntarily and involves some sacrifice (Gross & Latane, 1974). However, for a variety of reasons, some people are unable to reciprocate when they have been helped. For example, children, elderly people and disabled people are often unable to give as much help as they receive. In such cases, the social responsibility norm influences us to help.

behaviour is likely to have been influenced by the social responsibility norm. As a member of a community and wider society, we learn and are led to believe that it is our duty or responsibility to help those in need, without any expectation that this help will be reciprocated (or returned or rewarded). It seems, however, that we are selective in the way we apply the social responsibility norm. For example, if someone needs assistance because they are a victim of circumstances such as fire, flood or burglary, and they have not been responsible for bringing about their hardship, then we are more likely to help and be generous in our help (Meyer & Mulherin, 1980). This was demonstrated by the generosity of the Australian public with their donations of millions of dollars to support the victims of the Victorian Black Saturday bushfires on 7 February 2009. People directly affected by the bushfires were perceived by the public as being victims of circumstances outside their control. Consequently, the social responsibility norm helped motivate the generous helping behaviour of the Australian public. If, however, we believe that someone in need of assistance is in some way responsible for bringing about their own problems, for example, by their laziness or poor judgement, then we are less likely to help them or we are unlikely to help them as much as we could. We tend to justify this by reasoning that they are in need of assistance because of problems they created themselves .

Social responsibility norm The social responsibility norm prescribes that we should help those who need help because it is our responsibility or duty to do so. For example, if you stop to assist someone who asks for directions, give up your seat on a bus to someone on crutches or help a lost child find their parents on a crowded beach, your helping

Figure 10.7 The social responsibility norm can influence us to help others who are victims of circumstances outside their control. Many Australians and people throughout the world gave help to those who lost everything in the 2009 Victorian bushfires. C h a p t e r 1 0 pro-social and anti-social behaviour

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learning a ctivity 10.5 review questions 1. (a) What are social norms? (b) What is the social norm for helping in Australian society? 2. (a) Define the reciprocity norm in relation to helping, using an example different from those in the text. (b) Give two examples of when someone might ignore the reciprocity norm to help. 3. (a) Define the social responsibility norm in relation to helping, using an example different from those in the text. (b) Under what circumstances might someone ignore the social responsibility norm to help? 4. For each of the following examples of helping, identify whether the reciprocity norm or social responsibility norm is more likely to be involved: (a) helping a friend choose an outfit for a school formal (b) collecting money for the Royal Children s Hospital Good Friday Appeal (c) helping a visually impaired person to find the door button or handle in a train carriage (d) buying raffle tickets for someone s sporting team hoping that they might subsequently buy raffle tickets from you (e) buying chocolates for a school fund-raising appeal after realising that you are hungry.

Personal factors Every year, many Australians are recognised for their helpful contributions to the community beyond what might ordinarily be expected, by being named as a recipient of an Australia Day or Queen s Birthday honour. Some people also receive bravery awards for risking their lives through acts of heroic helping. Do these people have specific personal characteristics that make them more likely to help others? While research on this topic has been limited, there is empirical evidence that suggests various personal factors can influence prosocial behaviour demonstrated through helping. Such factors include our ability to empathise with others, the mood we are in when help is needed and whether we feel competent to give the help that is required.

Empathy We are more likely to help someone in need of help if we feel empathy for them. Empathy is the ability to identify with and understand another person s feelings or difficulties. Empathic people tend to feel the distress of others, feel concern for them, and can imagine what it must be like to be in need of help. When we empathise with someone, we usually want their suffering to end and this can be a powerful motive for us to help in some way (Batson, 1995, 1991). Research findings indicate that, in an emergency situation where people appear to be in distress, the more distressed and upset bystanders become from observing the distress experienced by others, the more likely they are to provide help (Schroeder & others, 1995; Dovidio, 1984).

Figure 10.8 The more distressed and upset bystanders become when observing someone who appears to be distressed, the more likely they are to help. 424

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Percenta e o people o o ered to elp

American social psychologist Daniel Batson has conducted many experiments on the influence of empathy on helping behaviour. In one experiment, Batson and his colleagues (1997) asked 40 male and female university students who volunteered to be participants to listen to a pre-recorded interview with a female student. In the interview, the student described how both of her parents had been killed in a car accident and that she now had the responsibility of caring for her younger brother and sister. She wanted to remain at university, but because she had no money, she was considering either leaving university or having her siblings adopted. Before hearing the story, half of the participants in the experiment received background information about the female student designed to promote empathy for her. The other half of the participants were not given any background information on the female student. Later, all the participants were asked if they would help raise money to assist her. Batson and his colleagues were interested in whether the participants who heard the empathy-promoting background information would be more likely to help than those who had not heard it. As shown in figure 10.9, the results showed that those participants who heard the empathy-promoting background information offered to help more than those who had not heard this information (Batson & others, 1997). 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Did not hear the empathy-promoting information

Heard the empathy-promoting information

Figure 10.9 Results of the experiment by Batson and his colleagues (1997). Those participants who heard the empathypromoting background information were more likely to offer help than those who did not hear the empathy-promoting information.

Batson (1995) believes that empathic people may help others in distress for egoistic or selfish motives, as well as purely helpful, selfless motives (which he calls altruistic). For example, when we feel distressed about someone else s distress, we are motivated to do something to relieve or get rid of our own unpleasant feelings of distress. One way of doing this is to help the distressed person. In some cases, people may deal with their distress in another way. They get rid of their

unpleasant feelings by leaving the distressing situation. However, out of sight does not necessarily mean out of mind . When empathic concern is high, most people will help regardless of how easy it is to leave the situation. This was demonstrated by Batson in another experiment.

Figure 10.10 Daniel Batson

Batson and his colleagues (1981) staged an experimental situation during which 44 female participants, one at a time, were required to observe a female student suffering while she supposedly received electric shocks. All participants had been told that they were observers for a study investigating task performance under unpleasant conditions . Observing through a closedcircuit TV, each participant could see the student, hooked up to realistic-looking equipment, appearing to receive shocks at random intervals. The student, who was a confederate trained by the experimenters, reacted to the shocks in believable ways. At a critical point in the experiment, as previously arranged, the confederate student asked for a glass of water and informed the experimenter delivering the shocks that the shocks were very unpleasant and that she was very sensitive to shocks due to a childhood fall against an electric fence. The experimenter pretended to be sympathetic, then invited each participant to change places with the female student and take the remaining shocks for her. How many volunteered to suffer for someone else? The answer depended on the level of empathic concern and ease of escape each participant had. To create these conditions, before the observations began the experimenters led half the participants (Group 1) to believe that they had a lot of personal characteristics in common with the student. This had the effect of creating high empathic concern. The other half of the participants (Group 2) were led to believe they were C h a p t e r 1 0 pro-social and anti-social behaviour

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quite different from the student. This had the effect of creating low empathic concern. To create the two escape conditions, half the participants in both Groups 1 and 2 were informed they could leave the experiment after observing only a few of the electric shocks (easy escape condition) and half the participants in both Groups 1 and 2 were informed that they were required to observe all the electric shocks (difficult escape condition). However, none of the participants knew to which group they had been assigned. As shown in figure 10.11, the vast majority of highempathy participants helped out, regardless of the ease or difficulty of escape. Most low-empathy participants also helped when they knew they would have to continue to watch the female student suffer unless they took her place. But when they believed they could leave, most of the low-empathy participants did not help the student, instead taking the easy way out (Kassin, Fein & Markus, 2008).

Percenta e

o elped

100

Difficult escape Easy escape

80 60 40 20 0

High

Low

mpat ic concern Figure 10.11 When empathic concern was high, most people helped, regardless of whether escape was easy or difficult. When empathic concern was low, fewer people helped when escape was easy than when it was difficult. Source: From Brehm, Social Psychology (3rd ed.). © 1996 Wadsworth, a part of Cengage Learning, Inc. Reproduced by permission.

learnin g activit y 10. 6 evaluation of research Batson & others (1997) Prepare a flow chart to summarise the experiment on empathy conducted by Daniel Batson and his colleagues (1997). The flow chart should include the key features of the experiment and the procedures involved, presented in a logical sequence for example, an aim, a possible hypothesis, the IV, the DV, the experimental and control groups, results, a conclusion and ethical considerations in conducting the experiment.

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Mood Are we more likely to help someone if we are in a good mood or a bad mood? For example, do you believe that you would be more likely to help someone just after finding out that you achieved an A+ for an important exam? What if you just had a huge fight with your best friend? Would you be more or less likely to help a stranger who asked for your assistance at that time? Commonsense suggests that we will be more likely to help when in a good mood and less likely to help when in a bad mood. Generally, the results of research studies also indicate that a good mood increases helping, whereas a bad mood will sometimes increase and sometimes decrease helping behaviour. Many studies have found that people are more likely to help when they are feeling good. These studies typically create a mood-lifting experience for participants, such as finding money, imagining a holiday in Hawaii, being successful on a specific task or reading pleasant, positive statements about themselves. The researchers then observe whether or not participants demonstrate helping behaviour when given the opportunity to help. In one study, an experimenter made a phone call to people who, in the previous 20 minutes had been led to believe that they would receive a free gift. The experimenter pretended that she had dialled a wrong number and asked each person she rang to pass on a message as she had used the last of her money. The results indicated that the preparedness of people to pass on a phone message increased to around 95% during the five-minute period immediately after they first thought they would receive the free gift. However, once the good mood wore off, helpfulness decreased. Of the control group (those who were not informed they would receive the free gift), only 10% were prepared to help by passing on a message (Isen, Clarke & Schwartz, 1976). Generally, happy people are helpful people, irrespective of what has caused the good mood (Salovey, Mayer & Rosenhan, 1991). However, the good mood effect on helping tends not to last very long (Isen, Clarke & Schwartz, 1976). Because helping makes us feel good, people sometimes help in order to stay in a good mood. People may also help in order to escape from a bad mood. Consequently, people who feel guilty are often helpful people. For example, suppose that an acquaintance from school invites you to their holiday house for the weekend. You know this person has very few friends so you agree to go. However, on Friday afternoon you are invited to a party where all of your close friends will be. You text message your acquaintance with the excuse that your father has been taken to hospital so you can t go away. You go to the party, and while you are out, your acquaintance rings your house to ask how

your father is. Your father answers the phone and tells your acquaintance that he is perfectly well and that he has not been in hospital. When you find out what has happened, you are guilt-ridden and don t know how you will face this person at school on Monday.

Figure 10.12 Happy people tend to be helpful people.

Research findings have consistently found that many people will do whatever they need to in order to rid themselves of their guilt and restore positive feelings about themselves. For example, they may try to deal with their guilt by confessing, making negative comments about a person who made them feel guilty or

Good mood

they may repay the bad deed that caused guilt with a good deed. When given a chance to help a person to whom they had just lied, participants in one research study offered to help for a mean time of 63 minutes, compared with a mean time of two minutes by participants who had not lied and therefore felt no guilt. Our apparent eagerness to make up for a wrongdoing may reflect both the need to reduce our private guilt and the desire to restore the view others have of us. Psychologists believe that the positive influence of mood on helping behaviour results from a number of interrelated factors. Helping can soften a bad mood and maintain or promote a good mood. For example, a good mood, which usually develops from positive experiences such as receiving a gift or winning something, brings about positive thoughts. In turn, positive thoughts enable us to feel good about ourselves, and feeling good about ourselves makes us more likely to help others. However, there is an exception to this rule . This often occurs when people feel very unhappy, depressed or are grief-stricken (Kassin, Fein & Markus, 2008). In one experiment, the researchers created negative feelings in participants by asking them to imagine in vivid detail that their best friend of the opposite sex was dying of cancer. The researchers then asked half of the participants to focus their attention on their own worry and grief, their own sense of loss of their friend and their own feelings of sadness about the loss. The other half of the participants were told to focus their attention on their friend s thoughts and feelings, for example, their friend s fear, uncertainty and pain. Did the participants sad thoughts and feelings increase helping? Even though everyone was equally sad, helping depended on the focus of attention. When later given the chance to be an anonymous helper, 25% of the participants who focused their attention

Bad mood

Desire to remain in good mood

Attention focused on self

Attention focused on another

Helping in order to maintain good mood

Less likely to help

More likely to help

Figure 10.13 The effects of mood on helping. A good mood usually increases the likelihood of helping, whereas a bad mood can either increase or decrease the likelihood of helping. C h a p t e r 1 0 pro-social and anti-social behaviour

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on themselves volunteered to help, as compared with 83% of sad participants who focused their attention on their friend. These results suggest that if sadness or grief makes us think only of ourselves, this may prevent us from helping others and therefore experiencing the positive feelings this can bring (Thompson, Cowan & Rosenhan, 1980). However, this does not mean that helping is always a remedy for a negative mood. For example, you may have been so sad at some time in your life that no amount of helping would have made you feel better.

Competence Suppose that you are holidaying beside the Murray River and observe a swimmer in the middle of the river calling out for help as they are swept downstream. You have noticed the situation, have correctly interpreted it as one in which help is required and have also accepted responsibility for helping. You quickly look around and realise that there is no-one else around. Would you help by diving into the river and trying to reach the person in distress? If you didn t know how to swim, you would be extremely unlikely to do this. You would probably realise that diving into a river

to rescue someone if you are not a strong swimmer could lead to your own drowning as well as that of the other person. If, however, you were a strong swimmer and had been trained in lifesaving skills, you would be much more likely to help, even if other bystanders were present (Baron & Byrne, 1991). Clearly, we can t help someone if we don t have the skills required or don t know how. Consequently, our actual or perceived ability to help can influence whether or not we help in a specific situation, as well as the type of help we may offer. In the example described previously, if you were not a competent swimmer, you might not dive into the river, but you may try to help by calling for or running to find someone else who could. Research findings indicate that people with abilities or training that are relevant to a situation in which help is required are more likely to help. Furthermore, relevant training makes help not only more likely to be offered, but also more likely to be effective. For example, in one experiment, researchers staged an emergency in which someone was bleeding. Participants who had Red Cross first aid training were most likely to help the victim directly by applying pressure to the wound. Untrained participants were

Figure 10.14 What would you do if you saw someone in this situation? Does your decision depend on whether you are a strong swimmer? 428

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equally likely to help in this obvious emergency, but indirectly; for example, they phoned for an ambulance (Kassin, Fein & Markus, 2008; Smith & Mackie, 2000). In another experiment, American social psychologist Robert Baron (1972) found that when a person was in obvious pain, and the bystander knew that their response could relieve the person s suffering, then the greater the pain, the more quickly the bystander responded. Conversely, Baron also found that when the bystander believed that they could not reduce the person s pain, the greater the apparent pain, the more slowly the bystander responded. These findings suggest that when someone needs help and there is clearly something we can do about it, we tend to act quickly (especially when the victim is suffering). However, if we believe there is nothing we can do to help, we are less likely to offer assistance (Aronson, 2008).

learnin g activit y 10. 7 review questions 1. (a) What does research evidence suggest about the relationship between an individual s level of empathy and their likelihood to help? (b) Why are empathetic people more likely to help someone who is in need of help? 2. (a) How does an individual s mood affect the likelihood of their helping? Ensure that you refer to both good mood and bad mood. (b) Name one experiment designed to study good mood and one experiment designed to study bad mood. For each experiment, identify the IV and DV. 3. (a) Explain how an individual s view of their competence to help in a specific situation can affect the likelihood of their helping. (b) Construct a diagram similar to that in figure 10.13 to summarise the effect of perceived competence on helping. 4. Rasheen is on a high as she has just bought the dress she has been saving for and it was unexpectedly on sale. On her way to the shoe store, she notices a girl about her own age sitting up against a shop window on the footpath with a small sign and a box requesting money to help her buy a ticket to visit her family in Sydney. She believes that the girl is probably a street kid who may have made some wrong decisions in her life, possibly like Rasheen s childhood friend who turned to drugs when he hooked up with the wrong crowd . How likely is it that Rasheen will drop some money into the girl s box? Explain with reference to the three key personal factors that can influence helping behaviour.

learning activity 10.8 Summary of factors that influence helping Complete the table below or in your eBook to summarise key factors that influence the occurrence of helping. Factor

Description

1. Situational (a) Noticing (b) Interpreting (c) Taking responsibility 2. Social norms (a) Reciprocity norm (b) Social responsibility norm 3. Personal (a) Empathy (b) Mood (c) Competence

learning activity 10.9 Media response intervention

bystander

Reports on bystander intervention to help are common in the media. Select a newspaper, magazine, internet or TV report describing a situation in which a stranger(s) has assisted someone in need of help. Suggest an explanation of why the person(s) intervened and helped, with reference to: • situational factors • social norms • personal factors. Ensure you also define each of these factors. If the role of one or more of these factors is not apparent, suggest how it may have influenced the person(s) who helped. In the report on your media response: • include a copy of the media item • define pro-social behaviour and its key characteristics • correctly name and describe each factor involved in helping behaviour.

Assesment task and criteria C h a p t e r 1 0 pro-social and anti-social behaviour

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altruiSM Sometimes, pro-social behaviour such as voluntary work for the disabled, donating money to a charity such as the Salvation Army Red Shield Appeal, participating in the Lort Smith PALS program, or taking your dog to visit sick or elderly people, is labelled as altruism. Altruism is a specific kind of pro-social behaviour where the motive to help is totally selfless. Altruism refers to pro-social behaviour focused on the wellbeing or benefit of others without any thought to personal gain or reward (Batson, 1998). Suppose, for example, that you donate $10 to someone collecting money for homeless street kids. While you are keen to help the street kids, you also want to impress a friend with your generosity and apparent concern for others less fortunate than yourself. Because this behaviour involves an intention to help, it is an example of pro-social behaviour. However, it is not an example of altruism, because altruism involves no personal gain, reward or benefit. Some psychologists have argued that altruism also differs from ordinary helping behaviour in that it involves an element of personal risk that an altruistic act is one in which no conscious thought is given to one s personal wellbeing or interests, even placing the survival of another person ahead of one s own survival. Consequently, genuine altruism would be demonstrated by a passer-by who, for example, puts themself at risk by running into a blazing house to rescue a stranger trapped inside. If the element of personal risk is added to the definition of altruism, and the person is not taking that risk as a part of their normal job (such as emergency services personnel do), then examples of altruism are relatively rare.

elpin be a iour

Altruism

Figure 10.15

Most social psychologists adopt the more conventional definition of altruism referred to previously; that is, that altruism is helping behaviour which is not motivated by personal gain or reward, but does not necessarily involve an element of personal risk. 430

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Figure 10.16 Is this firefighter s behaviour altruistic?

However, there is still considerable debate about whether genuine altruism actually exists. There is some research evidence to suggest that some people may be genuinely altruistic. For example, in one study, people who had the opportunity to walk away without helping from a distressing situation they had observed with others, or who were offered rewards not to help, still chose to help someone in distress (Batson & Moran, 1999). Psychologist Daniel Batson (1995), who has extensively studied altruism, believes that sometimes people are truly altruistic and their focus is solely on the welfare of others with no consideration of themselves. The opposing view proposes that all instances of helpfulness have an underlying selfish explanation, even if it doesn t seem obvious. For example, box 10.1 summarises the results of a study on underlying motivations of volunteers who helped people with AIDS. The study was undertaken at a time when AIDS was not well understood and many people believed that any physical contact with someone who had AIDS could result in catching the disease.

BOX 10.1 Motivations of volunteers who help people with AIDS American psychologists Allen Omoto and Mark Snyder (1995) identified five categories of motivations underlying people s initial decisions to become volunteers to help people with AIDS. The five categories are shown below. Within each category, three examples of specific statements representative of the general motive are presented.

Personal development • To get to know people who are similar to myself • To meet new people and make new friends • To gain experience dealing with emotionally difficult topics

Values • Because of my humanitarian obligation to help others • Because I enjoy helping other people • Because I consider myself a loving and caring person

Community concern • Because of my sense of obligation to the gay commuity • Because I consider myself an advocate for gay-related issues • Because of my concern and worry about the gay community

Understanding • To learn more about how to prevent AIDS • To learn how to help people with AIDS • To deal with my personal fears and anxiety about AIDS

Esteem enhancement • To feel better about myself • To escape other pressures and stress in my life • To feel less lonely

Source: Kassin, S. (1995). Psychology. Boston, Massachusettts: Houghton Mifflin.

irit

p s r u o y f o t s te a : m Altruis

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learnin g activit y 10. 10 review questions 1. Explain the meaning of altruism. 2. Briefly describe two important characteristics of altruistic behaviour that distinguish it from ordinary helping behaviour. 3. Are altruistic people more or less likely to have a high level of empathy? Explain with reference to research findings. 4. Internationally famous rock stars and movie actors such as Bono, Madonna and Angelina Jolie are deeply involved in various activities to benefit starving or disadvantaged people in poor and/or war-torn countries. Can their pro-social behaviour be described as altruism? Explain your answer. 5. A martyr is someone who makes personal sacrifices or suffers greatly to advance a cause or principle that, in their view, will benefit a group or society. Is a martyr altruistic? Explain your answer. 6. Suggest an example of a contemporary or historical person who you believe has demonstrated altruistic behaviour. Explain why you consider their behaviour to be altruistic.

learnin g activit y 10. 11 Media response

altruism

Read the newspaper article by Chris Rau on altruism. The article refers to two specific incidents which Rau suggests involved altruistic action by bystanders. Explain whether each of these would be considered altruistic behaviour by contemporary psychologists. Is it possible that bystanders who helped in each incident may have had an underlying selfish motive? Explain your answer(s).

learnin g activit y 10. 12 Debate

altruism

Topic: All instances of behaviour believed to be altruistic have an underlying selfish explanation, even if it doesn t seem obvious. The class should be divided into two teams the affirmative and the negative. The affirmative team argues in favour of the statement. The negative team argues against the statement. Each team should: • collect evidence (including research findings) in support of the view they are debating • develop arguments in support of the view to which they have been assigned • elect three speakers to present their team s arguments.

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FactorS inFluencing reluctance to help When so many people failed to help directly or seek help while watching the Kitty Genovese incident, psychologists were interested to discover not only those factors that lead someone to help, but also those factors that prevent someone from helping. Among the many factors that influence someone to provide help are those to do with the specific situation in which help is required (situational factors) and those to do with the person who has the opportunity to help (personal factors). However, these factors can also explain why someone may be reluctant to provide help when help is required. For example, a person obviously will not help if they do not notice a situation in which help is required. Nor will they help if they fail to interpret the situation as one requiring their help or if they do not see themself as being competent to help. Therefore, understanding the situational and personal factors that lead people to help also reveals the circumstances under which people might not help. Many other factors have been identified through research studies to explain why people are reluctant to help or do not provide help even when they have the opportunity to do so. Two factors involve social influence; that is, the effects of the real or imagined presence or actions of others. One of these factors involves what psychologists refer to as a diffusion (spread) of the responsibility for helping among those who are present. When diffusion of responsibility occurs, helping can be perceived as unnecessary. We may also fail to help because we view others who are present as an audience and don t want to risk embarrassing ourselves in front of them, especially if the person we might have set out to help doesn t actually require help. Psychologists refer to this effect of the presence of others as audience inhibition. When audience inhibition occurs, although helping may seem necessary, we decide not to help.

Diffusion of responsibility The presence of other people can influence our decision about whether helping is our responsibility or not. People often fail to help when others are around because of the diffusion of responsibility across all the people who are present. Diffusion of responsibility is the belief that, in a situation where help is required and others are present, one or more other people will or should take responsibility for helping. When other people are present, responsibility is divided up or spread (diffused) across the whole group. This leads each individual to feel less responsible for helping than when alone because they assume that someone else will take

o attempted to elp Percenta e

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 (2-person group)

2 (3-person group)

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umbers o ot ers belie ed to be a ailable to elp

o attempted to elp

(a) Participants were more likely to help if they believed they were the only person who could hear the victim and therefore available to help than if they believed other people also heard the victim.

Percenta e

on the responsibility of helping. Thus, diffusion of responsibility helps explain why no-one helps when many people are present in a situation where help is required. The fact that there are a lot of other people around, actually decreases the likelihood that any one person will help (Aronson, 2008). In the Genovese murder, the responsibility for helping may have diffused across all 38 neighbours who witnessed the event. Ultimately, responsibility diffused to the level where only one person felt any personal responsibility to act. An experiment conducted by Darley and Latane (1968) examined diffusion of responsibility as an explanation of the failure to help in the presence of others. Seventy-two university students (59 female, 13 male) participated in the experiment. Participants were placed alone in separate rooms but were able to communicate with each other via an intercom. Thus, the participants could hear but not see one another. The experimenters then staged a simulated (fake) epileptic fit by playing a tape recording of a person having a seizure. Participants were led to believe that the person having the epileptic seizure was in an adjoining room. Three experimental conditions were compared. In one experimental condition, each participant was led to believe that they were the only one whose intercom was tuned in during the seizure. That is, the participant was alone with the victim (in a two-person group). In the second condition, participants were led to believe that two others were also tuned in (a three-person group) and in the third condition each participant was led to believe that five others were tuned in (a six-person group). As shown in figure 10.18(a), participants who believed they were the only ones who could hear the victim, and therefore believed that they had complete responsibility for helping the person, were more likely to attempt to help in some way. Those who believed that other people also heard the victim were less likely to help. The more people believed to be available to help and therefore sharing the responsibility to help with others, the less likely any individual was to help. In addition, as shown in figure 10.18(b), those who did attempt to help waited longer to do so as the number of people who heard the victim increased. Help was measured by recording the time from the beginning of the seizure until the participant left their room to help in some way. If no participant attempted to help, the experimenters waited six minutes before ending the experiment. Afterwards, all participants were asked to complete a questionnaire on their thoughts and feelings during the emergency, as well as tests designed to measure personal characteristics such as sociability and social responsibility. Furthermore, all participants were debriefed and given support to deal with any stress or negative emotions that might have experienced during the experiment.

120 100 80 60 40

person group person group person group

20 0

40

80 120 160 200 240 280 Seconds rom start o sei ure (b) People who helped waited longer before attempting to help as the number of people who heard the victim increased. Figure 10.18 Results of Darley and Latane s 1968 experiment

learning activity 10.13 Data analysis responsibility

diffusion of

Consider the procedure used by Darley and Latane (1968) to study diffusion of responsibility and the variables which were tested, and then complete the following tasks. 1. In relation to figure 10.18(a), describe the relationship between the percentage of people who attempted to help and the number of other people believed to be available to help. 2. Based on the results shown in figure 10.18(b), what conclusion can be drawn about the time taken to help when one or more others are believed to be available to help? 3. Explain what the results indicate about the cause effect relationship between the variables that were tested. 4. What conclusion can be drawn about diffusion of responsibility?

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learnin g activit y 10. 14 review questions 1. (a) Define diffusion of responsibility, with reference to a situation in which help is needed. (b) Explain how diffusion of responsibility can influence someone to not help when help is needed. 2. Explain each of the following situations in terms of diffusion of responsibility. (a) A local primary school sends out a notice asking parents to volunteer for a working bee . Most parents receive the notice but no-one turns up for the working bee. (b) In a firing squad, one of the shooters is randomly assigned a gun or rifle containing a blank bullet. All shooters fire their weapon simultaneously but no individual shooter knows whether they fired the fatal shot.

audience inhibition

room. In condition 1, a participant was in the room alone. In condition 2, one participant was in the room together with two confederates who had been instructed to not react when help was needed. In condition 3, a group of three participants were in the room together and all three were true participants. While participants in the three experimental conditions were completing the questionnaire, a staged emergency occurred where smoke was gradually pumped into the room through an air vent in the wall. The smoke was clearly visible and had a faint odour, but was not harmful to the participants. The experimenters observed the participants through the one-way mirror for the next six minutes and recorded how much time passed before the smoke was reported. For the entire experimental period or until a participant took action, smoke continued to flow into the room. Enough smoke had flowed into the room after four minutes to obscure vision. Of the participants who were alone in the room (condition 1), 50% left the room to report the smoke within two minutes and 75% had reported the smoke within 3 minutes. In contrast, 62% of the participants in the room with two other people (conditions 2 and 3), continued filling out the questionnaire throughout the entire six-minute period, even though the room was completely filled with smoke.

Percentage of participants who reported the smoke

As well as diffusing responsibility for helping to the point that no-one helps, the presence of other people can influence people not to help in other ways. People may stand back and not do anything to help because they don t want to embarrass themselves or feel foolish, especially if it turns out that help is not actually 100 needed or there is no emergency. The presence 90 Alone of others at the scene provides an audience and (Condition 1) 80 this increases the chance of being embarrassed or feeling foolish. Consequently, these aspects 70 of the situation can inhibit, or prevent, someone 60 from helping. This reason for failing to help 50 Two others present is called audience inhibition not helping (Conditions 2 & 3) 40 another person because of a fear of appearing 30 foolish in the presence of others. Audience inhibition typically leads bystanders to keep 20 calm in an emergency and check to see how 10 others present are reacting. The problem is that if people observe that everyone else is keeping 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 calm they will conclude that no-one else is concerned Time from start of smoke infusion (minutes) or upset and therefore help is not needed (Smith & Figure 10.19 Results from the Latane and Darley (1968) Mackie, 2000). This explanation of the reluctance of experiment. When alone in a room filling with smoke, participants anyone to help when given the opportunity to help was were more likely to report the smoke to the experimenters. also tested by Latane and Darley in what has become However, when in the room with two other people, participants known as the smoke-filled room experiment . were less likely to report the smoke. Of those who did report the Latane and Darley (1968) used 60 male university smoke, most took a much longer time to do so compared with students who volunteered for the experiment as those in condition 1. participants. They asked all participants to complete a When interviewed after the experiment, many particiquestionnaire in a small room that had a one-way mirror pants reported that when they were in the room with for observation purposes. Each participant was either two others, although they were concerned about the alone in the room or in the same room with two other people. The experiment had three conditions that difsmoke initially, they didn t want to embarrass themselves fered by number and type of people who were in the or appear foolish by looking too anxious, so they tried 434

U n i t 2 Self and others

to remain calm. Furthermore, participants noticed that the others appeared calm and unconcerned about the smoke. This led them to interpret the smoke as harmless, deciding that it was steam or a problem with the air conditioning. Reassured that there was no cause for concern by the lack of an obvious response by the others, each participant ignored the situation and continued completing the questionnaire. Thus, each participant s interpretation of the situation was influenced by their perception of the other people s responses and their audience inhibition. More specifically, each participant s lack of response influenced other individuals to do nothing. In contrast, when in the smoke-filled room alone, once the individuals noticed the smoke, many hesitated only briefly before investigating its source and reporting it (see figure 10.19). eBook plus Animation on smoke-filled room experiment

cost benefit analysis Another factor that influences our decision to help, regardless of whether others are present, is called cost benefit analysis. Suppose you had a close friend with kidney failure who was required to spend a great deal of time in hospital on a dialysis machine to prevent them from dying. A kidney transplant would enable them to resume a normal lifestyle and avoid the regular hospital visits. If they asked you to donate one of your kidneys (assuming you could do so), what would you do? In making the decision about whether to help, you might weigh up the costs of donating (considerations about your own health, risks of an operation, time, disruption to your own life) against those of not donating (guilt, disapproval from others). You may also consider the benefits of donating (feeling good about helping someone, time off school), compared with not donating (no interruptions to your own life, no pain or anxiety). If you went through this process in deciding whether or not to donate a kidney, and therefore to help or not, you would have undertaken a cost benefit analysis.

A cost benefit analysis involves an individual weighing up the personal and social costs of helping against the benefits of helping. Benefits of helping are like rewards. For example, depending on the type of help required, they may include an actual monetary reward or rewards such as the gratitude of the victim, help in return (reciprocity), feeling good and an increase in self-esteem, or social approval through the cheers from a crowd of onlookers or the thrill of making the evening news. Costs may include the effort and time required to help, risks such as personal injury, feeling bad (guilt or embarrassment), worsening the situation or loss of resources such as damaged clothing and missing an important appointment that may have led to a job. While we probably do not consciously work through a formal cost benefit analysis each time we are confronted with a choice about whether to help someone or not, if the anticipated costs of helping outweigh the benefits, we are less likely to help; if not, we are more likely to help.

ethical conSiDerationS in StuDieS on pro-Social BehaViour Many experiments on pro-social behaviour raise ethical questions and issues. For example, are participants in these experiments subjected to psychological harm by witnessing someone else s suffering while researchers attempt to understand what leads people to behave as they do under different circumstances? Is it appropriate to deceive unsuspecting research participants in order to control variables such as participant expectation or a placebo effect? In most of the experiments on pro-social behaviour, obtaining informed consent from participants prior to conducting the research would have resulted in the purpose of the experiment being revealed. This, in turn, is likely to have influenced the results of the research in unwanted ways, probably making them invalid or unreliable. Under these research

Figure 10.20 Sometimes the benefits of helping cannot be anticipated, occur unexpectedly and little cost benefit analysis is required.

Are you all right, Mister? Is there anything I can do?

© The New Yorker Collection 1972, Barney Tobey, from cartoonbank.com. All right reserved.

Young man, you re the only one who bothered to stop! I m a millionaire and I m going to give you five thousand dollars.

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circumstances, if informed consent is inappropriate and deception is used, then researchers are required to fully debrief participants after the experiment, explaining the purpose of the experiment, providing

the opportunity for the participants to discuss their responses to it, and providing support to participants who experienced stress or negative personal responses to experimental procedures.

BOX 10.2 Gender and helping behaviour Commonsense suggests that males are more likely to help females than to help other males and that females are more likely to help other females than males. However, research findings indicate that when it comes to helping others, it is not simply the gender of the helper or the recipient that determines whether help will be given or received. It is the combination of the gender of the helper, the gender of the recipient and the specific situation that determines whether help will be given. Psychologists Alice Eagly and Maureen Crowley (1986) analysed research studies on helping behaviour that compared the help received by male and female victims. They found significant trends in helping behaviour based on gender. When the helper was female, female and male victims were equally likely to receive assistance. However, when the helper was male, females were more likely to receive assistance than males, even when the females were strangers. Furthermore, the type of help that was required also influenced whether help was received. Males were more likely to help a female if the female was alone and perceived as being helpless or in distress ; for example, when she was seen to be a victim of circumstances outside her control, such as having a brokendown car or having her handbag stolen. Some psychologists have suggested that the willingness of male helpers to rescue females in need may be motivated by something other than a genuine desire to help and that cost benefit analysis may more accurately explain why they help. This is

consistent with the research finding that men help attractive women more often (Stroufe & others, 1977). The findings on gender and helping need to be considered in the context of our society. Females not only receive more offers of help in certain situations, they also seek help more readily than males. For example, they are twice as likely to seek medical help, welcome help from friends more readily and are more likely to seek counselling. Perhaps help-seeking behaviour is more socially acceptable for females in many cultures within our society than it is for males? Perhaps some males in our society grow up believing it is their role to protect females, hence they are more willing to take on a helping role when the person in need of help is female?

Figure 10.21 A male s willingness to assist a female who needs help may be motivated by many different factors.

learnin g activit y 10. 15

learning activity 10.16

review questions

Summary of factors that influence reluctance to help

1. (a) Explain the meaning of audience inhibition and how it can make someone reluctant to help. (b) Give an example of when you (or someone you know) have experienced audience inhibition. (c) What do audience inhibition and diffusion of responsibility have in common when considered as factors that influence people not to help? 2. (a) What does cost benefit analysis mean in relation to helping? (b) Describe a cost benefit analysis that may occur when deciding whether or not to help a friend with their homework. 3 Using a flow chart format or another type of diagram, explain how a cost benefit analysis can (a) make someone reluctant to help (b) result in helping.

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1. Complete the table below or in your eBook to summarise key factors that influence someone not to help. Factor

Description

1. Social influence (a) Diffusion of responsibility (b) Audience inhibition 2. Cost benefit analysis 2. Refer to factors that influence someone to help. Which factors could be included in the table above? Give a reason for your choice of each factor.

learning a ctivity 10.17

anti-Social BehaViour

visual presentation influences on helping and not helping

Pro-social behaviour involves positive social interactions. However, not all human social interactions are positive. The media bombard us daily with numerous examples of anti-social behaviour in everyday life, all involving negative social interactions. Anti-social behaviour is any behaviour that is disruptive or harmful to the wellbeing or property of another person or to the functioning of a group or society. Anti-social behaviour typically involves actions that break laws, rules or social norms concerning personal and property rights of others. At the core of many anti-social acts is aggression.

Construct a diagram such as a concept map to illustrate the relationship between the various factors that influence helping behaviour. An example of a concept map (and how to construct one) is on pages 159 60.

learnin g activit y 10. 18 essay

pro social behaviour

Write an essay of about 500 600 words in which you discuss factors influencing pro-social behaviour. In your essay, ensure that you: • define pro-social behaviour • discuss factors influencing pro-social behaviour, as exemplified by helping and/or altruism • discuss factors influencing reluctance to help • accurately explain key concepts • use appropriate examples • refer to relevant research findings • organise the information in a logical way • express your information in a clear and concise way • accurately cite and reference all source material. References may be used in obtaining information for your essay.

Assessment task and criteria

learning act ivity 10.19 Oral presentation behaviour

pro-social

Prepare a presentation on factors influencing pro-social behaviour. Your presentation should address each of the following: • what pro-social behaviour involves • factors influencing pro-social behaviour, as exemplified by helping and/or altruism • factors influencing reluctance to help Ensure you accurately describe key concepts, use appropriate examples to illustrate concepts and refer to relevant research findings. Your presentation must use two or more data types; for example, still or moving images, written text and sound. PowerPoint is a suitable medium for the presentation. All information should be logically organised and clear.

Assessment task and criteria

aggression In psychology, aggression is defined more precisely than the definition used in our everyday language. For example, an assertive and persistent sales assistant, whose behaviour might be considered aggressive by customers, may not be considered aggressive according to a psychological definition. Likewise, an over-exuberant netball player who is penalised for accidental physical contact with opponents is not necessarily behaving aggressively according to the psychological definition. However, fights, armed conflicts, terrorist bombings, sexual assault, domestic violence, suicide, racism, harassment, bullying and brutality of all kinds are all considered by psychologists to be demonstrations of aggression. While there is some debate among psychologists about the specific definition of aggression, there is agreement that a distinction needs to be made between self-assured, energetic enthusiasm (that is, assertive behaviour), like the sales assistant and the netball player described previously, and aggressive behaviour that hurts, harms or destroys. Thus, in psychology, aggression is often defined as any behaviour intended to cause physical or psychological harm to a person (including self), animal or object. The action might be physical, verbal or a combination of both. It may also involve subtle actions, such as ignoring or leaving someone out, which can cause psychological harm. For a behaviour to be considered aggressive, there must be an intention to harm, regardless of whether or not harm is actually done. Thus, if an angry classmate throws a book at you and you move away so it misses you, it is still an aggressive act. However, accidentally hitting someone with a cricket ball when they take a short cut across a sports oval is not considered to be an aggressive act, even though the person is likely to suffer more harm from being hit by a cricket ball than from not being hit by a book. If the intention is to harm, then the behaviour can be described as aggressive; if the behaviour was not intended to injure, but caused harm to another person, it may be described as reckless, but not aggressive. C h a p t e r 1 0 pro-social and anti-social behaviour

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Woman fights off attack

came Pen ni e be pon a e murder

Husband stab bed me, wife tells jury

Man sent to jail over siege at hospital ad Girl’s he smashed into wall

Jailed for a bad hair day Unhappy client stabbed stylist

ed car n park

own i nned d

u

Man g

Mother o

n baby kil

l charge

Vicious attacks at under-9 footy game Figure 10.22 There are many daily reports of aggression in our community.

learnin g activit y 10. 20 review questions 1. Distinguish between pro-social and anti-social behaviour. 2. How is aggression defined in psychology? 3. What key characteristic distinguishes aggressive behaviour from other similar type behaviours? 4. State whether each of the following examples demonstrates aggression. Give a reason for each answer. (a) Backchatting a teacher you like when asked to be quiet when talking to a friend during the lesson (b) Punching your brother or sister in rage even though you usually get on well with them (c) Insulting a friend (d) Refusing to sit next to a stranger on the bus because you hate all people with their ethnic background (e) A hired assassin shooting to kill but missing (f) Feeling annoyed at the opponent who deliberately trips you during a basketball match (g) Giving someone a dirty look (h) Pushing and shoving in the school corridor just because you felt like it (i) Starting a rumour about someone s family (j) Watching an extremely violent movie

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explanations of aggression There is no single, commonly agreed-upon explanation of the cause of aggression. Although many theories have been proposed to explain aggression, not all of these are strongly supported by scientific research evidence. Most of the different theories can be organised into one of four perspectives or approaches to explaining aggression: 1. psychodynamic perspective: aggression is an inner urge or force that builds up within us until it needs to be released 2. ethological perspective: aggression is instinctive and has adaptive and survival functions 3. biological perspective: aggression has a biological basis and is therefore influenced by our genes, biochemistry, brain and nervous system 4. social learning perspective: aggression is a learned behaviour and most of the learning occurs through observing aggressive behaviour and copying what we see.

Psychodynamic perspective Psychodynamic theories emphasise the complex interaction of mostly unconscious mental processes in explaining aggression. The first psychodynamic theory on aggression was developed by Sigmund Freud (1920).

Freud viewed aggression as a powerful, instinctive force or urge to harm ourselves and others. He proposed that aggression is one of a number of basic human instincts which are present in all of us at birth. According to Freud, the primitive aggressive urge rages and builds up deep within each of us and we constantly struggle (at an unconscious level) to keep it under control. Our struggle to keep it under control usually causes conflict between the need to satisfy our instinctive urge to harm ourselves or others and the need to follow the rules of the civilised society in which we live. In turn, this internal conflict can result in anxiety. Freud proposed that the primitive urge to be aggressive within each of us gradually builds up over time, and must at some time be released in order to prevent a sudden, uncontrollable explosion of violence. We manage this aggressive energy and avoid self-destruction or harm to others by directing it outwards. We mainly do this by channelling the builtup aggression into socially acceptable activities such as competitive sport, debating and other physically or verbally energetic activities. According to Freud, we can also release the built-up aggression by watching someone else be aggressive; for example, reading a violent novel, playing violent computer games and watching violence in a movie or boxing bout. According to Freud, we are often able to suppress (keep out of conscious awareness) or manage our aggressive urge because we also have a survival or life instinct that competes with the aggressive urge. When the survival instinct wins , we are able to maintain control over our aggressive instinct or redirect it in socially acceptable ways. However, sometimes the primitive aggressive urge overcomes our defences . In such cases, our level of aggression will depend on how much aggressive energy has built up. Freud s theory caused a great deal of controversy when it was first published and influenced many other theorists. However, his theory is based on assumptions about unconscious instinctive forces and urges that are difficult to scientifically test. Consequently, without supporting empirical research evidence, his theory is now mostly of historical interest. Some research studies have actually obtained results which are the opposite of what Freud proposes. For example, rather than leaving us non-aggressive and calmed, observing violence can lead to an increase in aggressive thoughts, feelings and behavior. Although some of Freud s followers developed psychodynamic theories that take account of influences on aggression that occur at the conscious level (such as learning), the psychodynamic explanation of aggression is mostly overlooked by contemporary psychologists.

learning activity 10.21 review questions 1. According to the psychodynamic perspective: (a) how is aggression defined? (b) how do we tend to keep our aggressive urge under control? 2. Use a diagram such as a flow chart to outline the psychodynamic explanation of aggression. The flow chart should start with an aggressive urge and finish with expression of the urge. 3. What is a major limitation of psychodynamic theory as an explanation of aggression?

Ethological perspective Ethology is the scientific study of animal behaviour. Ethologists focus on studying the behaviour rather than the animal, especially behaviour as it occurs in the animals natural habitat (environment). The scientific discipline that focuses on the study of the animal (rather than the behaviour) is called zoology. The Nobel prize-winning Austrian Konrad Lorenz is widely considered to be one of the founders of contemporary ethology. Lorenz devoted many years to research on aggressive behaviour in different species of animals including dogs, birds, fish and reptiles. As with other animal behaviours, Lorenz viewed aggression as an instinctive behaviour.

Figure 10.23 Konrad Lorenz (1903 1989) Weblink

eBook plus

Konrad Lorenz and imprinting

Instinctive behaviours can be observed in many species of animals; for example, in the nesting behaviour of birds, the migratory behaviour of some types of whales and fish, courtship behaviours of birds and the territorial behaviour of both land and water animals. In C h a p t e r 1 0 pro-social and anti-social behaviour

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one species of fish called the three-spined stickleback, the male s belly turns from grey to red at breeding time. The red-bellied fish will then build a nest and aggressively attack any other red-bellied stickleback that enters his territory, but not any grey-bellied stickleback. This instinctive aggressive behaviour is specific to the male of the species and is displayed by all male three-spined stickleback fish. In his book On Aggression, Lorenz (1966) defined aggression as a fighting instinct . . . that is directed against members of the same species . He proposed that this instinct evolved over many generations to help animals adapt to and survive in their natural environments. According to Lorenz, aggression promotes survival of the species because it is used for: • defence of the young; for example, in a species where the young require a relatively long time to develop, aggressive parents may be required for protection • balancing the distribution of the same species into territories across the available environment so that they are spaced out and don t compete for the same resources (and starve) • providing a structure for their society; for example, establishing a dominance hierarchy, or pecking order , and helping ensure the strongest of the species survive so that these genes are passed on to future generations and therefore the entire species has a better chance of survival. Does it necessarily follow that because aggressive behaviour is instinctive in some non-human animals it may also be an instinctive human behaviour? On the basis of his observations of non-human animal species, Lorenz proposed that people also have a fighting instinct and that it is also directed against members of the same species . For example, like animals, people use aggression to defend their young. They also organise themselves into territories and display territorial behaviour when defending against invaders who cross territorial boundaries and threaten access to valuable resources such as land, food, water and oil. Finally, humans also organise themselves into hierarchies with pecking orders. In some human societies, aggressive behaviour is used to maintain control over people lower in the pecking order or those who may challenge the dominance of those higher in the pecking order. In comparing people and animals, Lorenz drew on psychodynamic theory. For example, he agreed with Freud that we normally suppress our aggressive instinct, or that we may re-direct and release it in socially acceptable ways, such as by playing contact sports. 440

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Lorenz also proposed that only humans purposely kill each other. Since humans have no apparent natural weapons such as non-humans do (e.g. cats have claws), we have developed artificial weapons such as guns and bombs. According to Lorenz (1966), the evolution of our ability to develop artificial weapons due to our higher intelligence has occurred at a faster pace than that of our biological evolution (e.g. eventual disappearance of our suppressed aggressive instinct over time). This is why humans are still capable of deliberately killing other humans.

Figure 10.24 Humans have no natural weapons to use in aggression, so they have developed artificial weapons such as bombs.

Lorenz s ethological instinctive theory of aggression has been criticised on the grounds that it is based on very little empirical research and that it relies on generalisations applied to human behaviour from the results of very limited animal research. In addition, Lorenz s theory does not take account of the important roles that learning and socio-cultural influences play in shaping our behaviour. Nor does his theory adequately explain individual differences in aggression among people as well as differences within and between different cultures and societies. For instance, extreme forms of aggression are very common in some cultures and unusual in others. This diversity within the human species is partly evident in statistics for violent crimes. For example, as shown in table 10.2, the number of murders committed by young people in Colombia is more than 50 times greater than in Australia, and in Australia it is four times greater than in Japan.

table 10.2 Frequency of murders committed by people aged 10 29 years in different countries.

Country

No. of murders per 100 000 people

Colombia

84.4

Brazil

32.5

Russia

18

United States

11

Thailand

6.2

Chile

3

South Korea

1.7

Australia

1.6

Denmark

1.5

Italy

1.4

France

0.6

Japan

0.4

The biological theories suggest that there are important physiological factors that combine in various ways to influence whether an aggressive response will be made in a particular situation. Generally, biological influences on aggression can occur through genetics (our inherited characteristics), through the brain and its nervous system, and biochemically (as a result of the various chemical substances in the body). Both naturally occurring chemicals, such as hormones, and chemicals that are ingested, such as alcohol and other drugs, can affect the parts of the brain that control aggression.

Source: World Health Organization: World report on violence and health (2002).

learning act ivity 10.22 review questions 1. Distinguish between the scientific disciplines of zoology, ethology and psychology. 2. (a) Explain the meaning of the term instinctive behaviour. (b) Give an example of a human behaviour other than aggression that you believe may be instinctive. Analyse the example, with reference to the key characteristics of an instinct. Has this analysis led you to change your mind? Explain. 3. According to ethological theories, why do people behave aggressively? 4. What are three main limitations of Lorenz s ethological explanation of aggression?

Biological perspective Are we all born with genes for aggression? Are we born aggressive, but learn to control our aggression? Are some individuals more aggressive than others because their brain functions in a different way? Is aggression the result of our biological make-up, such as the presence of certain hormones or other chemicals in our bodies? Psychologists who have studied the relationship between the body and behaviour have developed various biologically based theories to explain aggression. Some of these theories are based on research with humans and/or animals.

Figure 10.25 The photo of Seung Hui Cho that he sent to NBC News in New York on the day he violently killed 32 people, then himself, at Virginia Tech University in April 2007. Was there something abnormal about Seung Hui s biological make-up that affected parts of the brain that control aggression?

Genetic influences Some biological theories have focused on the role of genes in aggression. Many of these theories have arisen from research findings from animal studies which suggest that there may be some genetic component to aggression (DiLalla & Gottesman, 1991). For example, successful attempts at breeding highly aggressive strains of rats, mice and rabbits in the laboratory suggest that, among these animals at least, individuals can inherit an aggressive tendency (Cologer-Clifford, Simon & Jubilan, 1992). In one study by Finnish psychologist Kirsti Lagerspetz (1979), the most aggressive mice were taken from a group and mated with each other, and the least aggressive mice were also interbred. This procedure was repeated for 26 generations. In the final group of offspring, the mice that had been bred for aggressive tendencies showed extreme aggression; for example, they immediately attacked any other mouse placed in their cage. On the other hand, the docile (non-aggressive) group were so placid that when other mice attacked them they did not fight back or defend themselves in any way. C h a p t e r 1 0 pro-social and anti-social behaviour

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This type of selective breeding experiment cannot be conducted with humans, nor would it be ethically permissible. In time, however, the Human Genome Project may provide an answer as to whether one or more human genes for aggression exist. In the meantime, psychologists have devised ethically appropriate research strategies to investigate links between heredity and aggressive behaviour in humans.

A commonly used research method to study the role of genetics in aggression involves twin studies. However, research using twin studies has provided mixed results. Some studies have found evidence of a strong genetic component in aggression. Other studies have found that environmental effects, such as experiences in life and socio-cultural background, have a stronger influence on aggression (Rhee & Waldmann, 2002). Generally, psychologists believe that our genetic make-up may make us more likely to become or be an aggressive person, but environmental factors play a crucial role in determining whether or not we do in fact become an aggressive person or are pre-disposed to use aggressive behaviour.

Neural influences

(a)

(b) Figure 10.26 (a) Genetic influences are believed to predispose the pit bull terrier s aggressiveness; (b) however, it is unclear whether human aggressive behaviour has been influenced by genetic factors. 442

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Because aggression is a complex behaviour, often involving thoughts and feelings as well as actions, the brain has a crucial role in aggression. However, psychologists believe that it is unlikely that one particular structure or area of the brain is solely responsible for aggression. In both animals and humans, researchers have identified several different parts of the brain involved in the production and control of aggressive behaviour (Anderson & Anderson, 1998). The hypothalamus and the amygdala are two structures located deep within the brain. These structures are made up mostly of neurons, as are all other brain structures. The neurons communicate with each other with signals that are a combination of electrical and chemical activity. This means that neurons that form brain structures can be manipulated using a weak electrical current. Researchers can do this using a device called an electrode. Using an electrode, researchers can activate ( switch on ) or block ( switch off ) a brain structure and stop it from functioning as it normally does. Researchers have found that when the hypothalamus and the amygdala of certain animals are electrically stimulated, aggressive responses increase, and when the electrical activity is blocked, aggressive responses decrease. Animals such as dogs and cats have been observed to display aggression towards objects that would usually produce a neutral response when the hypothalamus or the amygdala is activated by electrodes. When the activity of these brain structures is blocked by electrodes, the animals displayed passive behaviour towards objects that would usually produce an aggressive response. For example, a dog that would normally bark and growl at any passing dog may produce no response at the sight of another dog (Eggar & Flynn, 1963). Similar observations have been made by researchers who have electrically stimulated the amygdala in humans. In one study, a normally gentle woman who was suffering from a brain-related disorder had

an electrode placed in her amygdala by the neurosurgeon who was seeking to diagnose the cause of her problem. When the electrode activated the amygdala, the woman became aggressive and snarled comments such as Take my blood pressure. Take it now. She then tried to hit the surgeon, swinging blows at him with her arms (King, 1961). This uncharacteristic aggressive behaviour initiated by stimulation of the amygdala has led researchers to suggest that this brain structure is at least partly responsible for controlling aggressive responses. There are also many other research studies that provide evidence to support this view. Amy dala

Cerebral corte

Pituitary land ypot alamus

Figure 10.27 The cerebral cortex, hypothalamus, amygdala and pituitary gland are believed to play important roles in the production and control of aggressive behaviour.

Figure 10.28 Stimulation of the amygdala in the cat s brain has produced this aggressive response.

Another part of the brain that is often involved in aggression is the cerebral cortex, the outermost layer of the brain. The cerebral cortex plays an important role when we interpret someone else s behaviour. It also plays a role in initiating responses to this behaviour. For example, a threatening gesture can be interpreted either as an aggressive act or a joke, depending on who makes it, when, where and how it is made. The cerebral cortex processes and interprets the visual information it receives, deciding whether the gesture is an aggressive one or one made in jest.

Biochemical influences Another explanation of aggression is in terms of biochemical influences; that is, aggressive behaviour can result from the presence and activity of certain chemical substances in the body. These substances may occur naturally in the body (such as hormones) or they may be introduced into the body by ingesting them (such as alcohol and other drugs). Biochemical influences have been used to explain differences in the incidence of aggressive behaviour between the sexes, as well as differences between individual males and females. In most animal species, including humans, males are generally more aggressive than females. Compared with females, human males tend to behave more aggressively in everyday life and commit more violent crimes. One explanation for the sex difference in aggressive behaviour is the differing levels of the hormone testosterone in males and females. Although testosterone is predominantly a male sex hormone, it is also found in females at lower levels. Experiments with animals have shown that aggressive behaviour increases significantly when high levels of testosterone are present and low levels of testosterone result in less aggressive behaviour (Frank, Glickman & Licht, 1991). Experiments have also shown that, irrespective of species, when aggressive male animals are castrated (de-sexed), thus reducing their level of testosterone, the animal becomes more placid. However, after castration, if they are injected with testosterone, the animals tend to become aggressive again (see box 10.3). Various research studies in prisons have found that prisoners who were convicted of violent crimes, such as assault, rape and murder, tended to have a higher level of testosterone when compared with prisoners convicted of non-violent crimes, such as traffic offences, fraud or embezzlement (Dabbs & others, 1995). However, this does not mean that there is a cause effect relationship between high levels of testosterone and violent behaviour. Some prisoners convicted of violent crimes have low levels of testosterone and some prisoners convicted of non-violent crimes C h a p t e r 1 0 pro-social and anti-social behaviour

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have high testosterone levels. While a high level of testosterone may be one factor that can influence aggressive and other anti-social behaviour, there are also many other factors involved. Other kinds of chemicals that can increase the frequency of aggressive and other anti-social behaviour include alcohol, some prescribed medications and some illegal drugs such as heroin and ice. Research evidence suggests that, even with only a small quantity of alcohol in their blood, many people become disinhibited, having less control over their feelings and reactions than usual. This may lead to them behaving in ways they usually would not if they hadn t been drinking alcohol. Being an aggressive drunk is an example of disinhibition. When this happens, someone who is usually quite placid and non-confrontational can become aggressive or violent after drinking alcohol, even if unprovoked (Hull & Bond, 1986). While many researchers are uncertain why alcohol increases aggressive behaviour, some believe that the drug may affect the amygdala and other areas of the brain involved in aggression (Lau, Pihl & Peterson, 1995).

Figure 10.30 Alcohol can cause disinhibition, which may result in a normally placid person behaving aggressively.

BOX 10.3 The effect of testosterone on the aggressive behaviour of mice (b) Females

Postcastration

Precastration

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itin attac s (number per session)

itin attac s (number per session)

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Figure 10.29 Counts of the number of biting attacks initiated (a) by male mice before and after castration, (b) by female mice before and after removal of the ovaries and (c) by castrated male mice after being treated with testosterone. Source: Adapted from Rosenzweig, M. R., Breedlove, S. M. & Leiman, A. L. (2002). Biological Psychology. (3rd ed.). Sunderland, Massachussets: Sinauer Associates Inc.

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learnin g activit y 10. 23 review questions 1. Briefly explain aggression from the biological perspective. 2. Briefly describe roles believed to be played by each of the following physiological factors in aggression: (a) genes (b) the brain, with reference to specific brain structures (c) hormones and other chemicals.

learnin g activit y 10. 24 Data analysis testosterone level and aggression Consider the data in box 10.3 and answer the following questions. 1. How was aggression operationalised for the experiment with mice? 2. Suggest a reason for using female mice with their ovaries removed. 3. What does figure 10.29(a) indicate about the effect of castration (no testosterone) on aggression in male mice? Explain with reference to the data. 4. What does figure 10.29(b) indicate about the effect of ovary removal on aggression in female mice? Explain with reference to the data. 5. What does figure 10.29(c) indicate about the effects of testosterone on aggression in castrated male mice when testosterone is reintroduced into the bloodstream? 6. On the basis of all data, draw a conclusion about the role of testosterone in aggression by mice. Explain your conclusion with reference to the data. 7. To what extent can the results be applied to human aggression? Explain your answer.

Social learning perspective Social learning theories focus on how we learn aggressive behaviour through our interactions with others in the course of everyday life. These theories emphasise the roles of rewards and punishments in learning and how we mentally process information during the learning process. According to social learning theory, one of the main ways in which we learn aggression is from watching other people being aggressive and then copying their aggressive behaviour. The most common form of social learning is called observational learning or modelling.

3. (a) What is a possible biological explanation of males generally being more aggressive than females? (b) Give two explanations for the increase in aggressive behaviour that may accompany alcohol consumption. 4. Suppose that someone states that aggression is entirely learned and results from our experiences in life. Write a one-paragraph response in which you refer to the possible roles of biological factors in aggressive behaviour.

Observational learning involves learning by watching someone else s behaviour and the consequences of their behaviour, and then modelling, or imitating, the behaviour. The people whose behaviour we observe and imitate are called models. However, a model can also be a character in a television program, a movie, a book and so on. We are more likely to imitate the behaviour of someone who matters to us or to whom we can relate in some way than that of someone who is not so important. We do not simply observe some behaviour and immediately copy whatever we see. We also observe the consequences of the behaviour. If we observe positive, desirable consequences, then we are more likely to imitate and adopt the behaviour. If we observe undesirable consequences, such as the behaviour being punished, then we are less likely to imitate and adopt the behaviour. When behaviour is learned through observation, it may be modelled, or reproduced, immediately or at some time in the future. Canadian-born psychologist Albert Bandura (1977, 1973) has applied social learning theory and observational learning in explaining human aggression. Bandura has identified four conditions that are necessary for observational learning to occur: 1. you must pay attention to the model s behaviour 2. you must remember the model s behaviour 3. you must have the ability to reproduce, or imitate, the behaviour that you observed 4. you must be motivated to perform the behaviour. According to Bandura, if you observe the model s behaviour being reinforced (e.g. rewarded) then you will be more likely to be motivated to reproduce the behaviour. If you observe the behaviour not being reinforced or being punished, then you will be less likely to be motivated to reproduce the behaviour. These four conditions can be applied to learning aggressive behaviour. For example, young children may learn by observing their friends or sporting idols or by watching characters in movies that a conflict or disagreement can be quickly settled with fists or weapons rather than words. C h a p t e r 1 0 pro-social and anti-social behaviour

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Bandura (1965) demonstrated the influence of observational learning on aggressive behaviour by children in a well-known experiment. Three groups of preschool children watched a film of an aggressive adult model punching, hitting, kicking and verbally abusing a large inflatable doll named BoBo the clown. Each group saw a different version of the film. In the first version, the adult model s aggressive behaviour was rewarded with lollies, soft drink and praise by another adult. In the second version, the adult model s aggressive behaviour was punished with a spanking and by being told off by another adult. And in the third version there were no consequences for the adult model s aggressive behaviour. The children were then placed individually in the room with the inflatable doll and other toys. When observed through a one-way mirror, the children who had seen the adult model being rewarded for their aggressive behaviour, were more aggressive in their play than the children who had seen the other versions of the film. Their aggressive behaviour included imitating the adult model s aggressive behaviour toward the inflatable doll. The children who had seen the adult punished for aggressive acts showed less aggression, but they still learned something. When later offered rewards for all the aggressive acts they could perform, these children performed about as many aggressive acts as the children who had watched the rewarded adult.

The results of Bandura s experiment indicate that aggressive behaviour can be learned through observational learning. Over 100 psychological experiments on the effects of observing violence in media such as videos, DVDs and video games have also established a cause effect relationship between observing violence in these media and later performance of violent acts (Anderson, 2004). Similarly, over 50 correlational studies have found that observing violence in these media is linked to later performance of violent acts, but not in a cause effect way (Huffman, 2004). Despite these scientific research findings, there is still a great deal of uncertainty among many psychologists about whether violent behaviour demonstrated outside the laboratory situation is necessarily caused by observing violence in the media. There are also many experiments that have obtained results indicating that observing violence does not cause violent behaviour (Freedman, 1992). Many socio-cultural factors and cognitive processes that can influence observational learning may also influence whether or not someone will model violent behaviour they may observe. It is also possible that many people who regularly watch violent media are already prone to being violent. Observing violence in the media may not necessarily increase their violent behaviour tendencies and may even provide an outlet for their aggression.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 10.31 Photos taken during the experiment by Bandura (1965). Series (a) photos show the adult model eBook plus behaving aggressively towards BoBo the clown. Series (b) photos show a young male participant imitating the model. Series (c) photos show a young female participant imitating the model. Weblink video on Bandura s experiment 446

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BOX 10.4 Tips for managing anger and aggression Social interactions with others can be enhanced if we understand what triggers our anger and learn some strategies to manage it in a productive way.

• using effective problem-solving strategies to change problem situations and to better achieve what you want.

Learn the ABCs of your anger Anger trigger what caused you to be angry? Behaviour what did you do about it? Consequence what happened as a result of what you did?

Become an expert about your personal anger reactions. Ask yourself: • What causes me to feel this tense or agitated? • What situations tend to trigger angry reactions? • What are my thoughts about how others should or should not treat me? • How do I typically express my anger? • What do I gain or lose from expressing my anger this way?

Understanding anger There are a number of factors all operating at the same time in any angry situation. These factors include: • our present thoughts • the physical response that anger produces • the way we display our anger • the way that we experience life when we are angry • the way we behave when we are angry. If we are aware, our body can inform us of when we are angry. There are a number of physical signs of anger including: • the presence of tension or stress, for example, tense muscles, gritted teeth, clenched fists • the release of hormones into the bloodstream, sometimes giving the feeling of butterflies in the stomach • increase in breathing rate • increase in heart rate • increase in blood pressure that sometimes makes us appear to be flushed and is often associated with feeling hot. Managing anger Effective anger management does not mean keeping it all in. Anger management involves several important things: • learning how not to get angry in the first place • keeping anger at a moderate level of intensity and expressing it constructively

Deal with anger that does not harm another person by: • acknowledging angry feelings • asking yourself what the anger is about • talking with a friend or school counsellor • developing a plan for dealing with a stressful situation, if anger is linked to a specific situation • using physical exercise to release the tension • deep breathing, meditation or positive thinking. Deal with anger that involves another person by: • identifying the specific behaviour of the other person that has upset you • deciding if the issue is worth fighting about • expressing your viewpoint using an assertive, rather than aggressive approach • negotiating a resolution to the problem once you feel the other person understands the issue and your feelings • allowing yourself to forgive the other person. Ideally, you and the other person will at least try to change some behaviours to avoid future conflict over the same issue. (Adapted from Anger Factsheet (2004), Psychological Services Centre, University of Cincinnati, USA.)

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learning a ctivity 10.25 review questions 1. What general approach is taken by social learning theory in explaining human aggression? 2. Do you believe this approach can be applied to animal aggression? Explain your answer. 3. Most contemporary psychologists prefer to describe social learning theory more precisely as social cognitive learning theory. Suggest a reason for this preference. 4. Define observational learning.

5. A number of children in the Bandura (1965) experiment modelled aggressive behaviour. Explain why this occurred in terms of Bandura s four conditions that are necessary for observational learning to occur. 6. Suggest three examples of socio-cultural factors and three examples of cognitive factors that may influence observational learning of violence in the media. Ensure you give a brief description and explanation of each factor you suggest.

learning a ctivity 10.26

learning activity 10.28

evaluation of research observation of tv violence

visual presentation explanations of aggression

Consider the newspaper article reporting a research study on the effects of observing violence on TV and answer the following questions. 1. What was the aim of the study? 2. Briefly describe the procedure used by the researchers to study the effects of observing violence. 3. Identify the IV and DV. 4. Briefly describe the results. 5. What is a possible limitation(s) of the study? 6. Construct a flow chart to explain observational learning of aggression by children in the study using Bandura s process. 7. Although Bandara had demonstrated that children can observationally learn aggressive behaviour by watching violence in media, what criticism(s) might he make of the study on the basis of his social learning theory?

Prepare a poster in which you compare and contrast explanations of human aggression in terms of the psychodynamic, ethological, biological and social learning perspectives. The poster should: • use a graphic organiser such as a table, Venn diagram, chart or other type of diagram to summarise key similarities and differences in the explanations of aggression as well as limitations of each approach • include a psychological definition of aggression and an appropriate example(s).

learnin g activit y 10. 27 Oral presentation explanations of aggression Working in a small group, prepare a mock interview with a theorist from the psychodynamic, ethological, biological and/or social learning perspective. Questions and answers should directly relate to the perspectives and cover: • how aggression is defined or described • how aggression is explained • research evidence • limitations or criticisms of the approach. Other questions may also be asked. Your teacher will randomly allocate one or more perspectives to each group.

learning activity 10.29 essay explanations of antisocial behaviour Write an essay of about 450 550 words in which you compare and contrast explanations of anti-social behaviour. In your essay, ensure that you: • define and distinguish between anti-social and pro-social behaviour • explain aggression as an example of anti-social behaviour • compare and contrast factors that affect human aggressive behaviour with reference to three different approaches to explaining aggression, including limitations of each approach • accurately explain key concepts • use appropriate examples • refer to relevant research findings • organise the information in a logical way • express your information in a clear and concise way • accurately cite and reference all source material. References may be used in obtaining information for your essay. Assessment task and criteria

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Bullying The problem of bullying has been of considerable research interest in recent years, both in Australia and throughout the rest of the world. Bullying can occur in any environment, in any culture or society. It may occur at home, in the street, in a playground, in the workplace, at school, in a hospital, in a prison or anywhere else where people are in a group or can interact. A bully may be male or female, an adult, adolescent or child, an employer or employee, a teacher or a student. Of particular concern to psychologists and the community in general is bullying by students in both primary and secondary schools. Research findings indicate that students who are bullies, if allowed to continue bullying, are more likely to have criminal convictions in later life. Furthermore, students who are victims of bullying are less happy at school than students who are not victims. Victims of bullying also tend to have lower levels of selfesteem and increased feelings of worthlessness and hopelessness. These negative feelings can continue outside the school and through to adult life. Research findings also indicate that bullying can have far-reaching effects within a school. Bullying can create a climate of tension and intimidation in which students feel threatened and unsafe. Victims of bullying usually spend a great deal of time feeling anxious and worried. These feelings of anxiety and worry can spread across a year level or the entire school. Those who aren t victims and see someone being bullied or know that it is happening at school can become distressed, often thinking that they may become victims too.

What is bullying? Bullying has been defined in many different ways; however, there are some key elements common to all these definitions. They all suggest that bullying is aggressive behaviour that involves the inappropriate use of power by one or more persons over another less powerful person or group, and is generally repeated over time. There are many different types of bullying, which are often interrelated. The Victorian Department of Education and Early Childhood Development (2009) has defined three broad categories of bullying. • Direct physical bullying e.g. hitting, tripping and pushing, or damaging a person s property. • Direct verbal bullying e.g. name calling, insults, homophobic or racist remarks, verbal abuse. • Indirect bullying. This form of bullying is harder to recognise and often carried out behind the bullied person s back. It is designed to harm someone s social reputation and/or cause humiliation.

Figure 10.32 Each of these photos illustrates a different type of bullying. The different types of bullying tend to occur in settings from which the victim cannot easily escape. Furthermore, victims of bullying are often unable to defend themselves effectively. Some psychologists believe that these two features make bullying a particularly vicious form of aggression. C h a p t e r 1 0 pro-social and anti-social behaviour

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Indirect bullying includes: lying and spreading rumours playing nasty jokes to embarrass and humiliate mimicking encouraging others to socially exclude someone damaging someone s social reputation and social acceptance cyberbullying, which involves the use of email, text messages, chat rooms and other social networking programs to humiliate and distress. When bullying occurs, there is an imbalance of power, with a more powerful person or group attacking a less powerful one. This power imbalance is sometimes very obvious, such as when a bigger and stronger person bullies a much smaller, weaker one, or when a group of people bully an individual. However, bullying can often be much less obvious, such as when the difference in power is psychological (Rigby, 2009, 1996). For example, knowing something about someone who desperately doesn t want this information known by anyone else can be a source of psychological power for the person who knows the information over the person who doesn t want anyone else to know. Bullying is intentional or premeditated. It is a planned attack on someone, in either a physical or a psychological way. Finally, bullying involves acts that are usually repeated over time. This means that it is a persistent behaviour that generally involves acts that

occur more than once or twice . For example, consider someone who hits or verbally abuses someone else in self-defence, or who suddenly flares up and retaliates after being provoked. Are these behaviours bullying? Consider also the assistant at a childcare centre who excludes an infant from an activity because they believe that the activity is dangerous for a child so young. Is this bullying? These behaviours would not be considered bullying because bullying is behaviour intended to hurt or cause harm that occurs repeatedly across a period of time.

learning activity 10.30 review questions 1. What is bullying? 2. Briefly describe three key characteristics that distinguish bullying from other forms of aggression. 3. Explain the difference between direct and indirect bullying. 4. What are three possible explanations of bullying? 5. What is your opinion of the research finding on the different types of bullying that tend to be more commonly used by males and females?

Video interview with Australian researcher Dr Helen McGrath on her bullying research

BOX 10.5 Bullying in Australian schools It is estimated that one in five students in Australian schools may be bullied on a regular basis. Although bullying occurs in both primary and secondary schools, it tends to peak in the latter years of primary school and the early years of secondary school. Furthermore, boys tend to be victims more than girls and they tend to bully more than girls (Healey, Dowson & Nelson, 2009; Fuller, 1998).

The researchers also found that once a primary school student was a target for bullying, the student remained a target for some time. For instance, 26.7% of the students in the sample reported that they had been bullied for longer than one month and 17% reported that they had been a victim of bullying that had lasted for more than six months.

Primar y schools In one study of bullying amongst year 6 students in a Melbourne primary school, the researchers found that 45% of the students reported being seriously bullied at school (Fuller & others, 1997). The most common types of bullying experienced, in order of their occurrence, were: 1. being teased or called names 2. being hit, punched or kicked 3. comments about appearance 4. being left out of things on purpose. The worst time for bullying in the primary school was lunchtime, when few teachers are present or visible for a long period of time. Morning recess and before and after school were also times when bullying was more likely to occur.

Secondar y schools In another study on bullying among year 8 students from a number of Australian schools, the researchers found that 44% of the students reported having been seriously bullied at school (Healey, Dowson & Nelson, 2009). The most common types of bullying, in order of their occurrence, were: 1. being teased or called names (44%) 2. having rumours spread (21%) 3. being left out of things on purpose (14.5%) 4. being physically threatened or attacked (12.5%). Research has also found that the worst time for bullying in the secondary school was during lunchtime, followed by before and after school, then on public transport while travelling to or from school.

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learnin g activit y 10. 31 identifying bullying Which of the following examples involves bullying? Give a reason for each answer. (a) A school captain keeps giving a younger student a hard time because the younger student keeps spoiling other students games. (b) A teacher is fed up with a student who continually misbehaves, so the teacher decides to mimic the student in front of the rest of the class whenever the student misbehaves. (c) A sibling keeps giving cheek to her older sister whenever her sister s boyfriend comes over. (d) A year 8 girl is tired of being given a hard time by a year 8 boy and decides to retaliate by giving him a hard time whenever the opportunity arises. (e) A girl turns around and whacks the girl behind her who pulled her hair. (f) A child is hit by another child, runs home and reports it to his dad. His dad immediately goes outside, corners the offending child and speaks angrily for several minutes to the child who did the hitting. (g) A pair of friends decide they no longer want to have a third person as part of the friendship group so they suggest that the person should join another group.

Sex differences Researchers have found sex differences in bullying among children and adolescents; that is, male and female bullies tend to use different types of bullying. Boys are more likely to threaten someone with physical force and actually use physical violence, whereas girls are more likely to spread rumours, exclude other girls from social activities, belittle other girls or tease them (Healey, Dowson & Nelson, 2009; Kaplan, 2004; Rigby, 1997). There is, however, research evidence which indicates that girls may be just as aggressive as boys but are more able to hide this from adults (Fuller, 1998). Psychologist Paul Kaplan (2004) suggests that sex differences in bullying may exist because girls tend to be punished more severely than boys when they use physical violence. He also suggests that teasing and exclusion may be viewed by female bullies as very effective strategies when wanting to hurt another girl. Girls tend to place a higher value on their relationships and social connections than do boys. This view has been confirmed by an Australian research study. Australian psychologists Ken Rigby and Dale Bagshaw (2001) surveyed girls and boys in schools and found that more girls than boys viewed social aggression as more hurtful than physical aggression.

Figure 10.33 Exclusion may be viewed by female bullies as a very effective strategy when wanting to hurt another girl. C h a p t e r 1 0 pro-social and anti-social behaviour

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causes of bullying As with other forms of aggression, bullying is intended to harm others. In the case of bullying, the victim is often someone who has done nothing at all to the bully. What causes someone to use bullying acts? Since bullying is a form of aggression, factors that influence aggression also influence bullying. For example, one explanation of aggression, called the frustration aggression hypothesis, has been used to explain bullying. This is based on research findings that some parents of bullies tend to be inconsistent with discipline. Sometimes they are harsh and at other times they are lax ( slack ). When they do punish their children for misbehaviour, the punishments are often harsh and involve strong emotional outbursts. Overall, the climate of the family can be considered to be very angry and hostile, with parents having little involvement in their children s activities or lives. Bullies with this type of home background may be relieving the frustration experienced at home by taking it out on another, less powerful person (Kaplan, 2004). However, not all parents of children who bully others are inconsistent in their use of discipline or are less caring towards their children. Many children and adolescents who bully others come from caring families. There is also considerable research evidence to suggest that a child in a badly functioning family (called a dysfunctional family) is more likely to bully others. For example, Ken Rigby (1996) also conducted research on the family backgrounds of 644 adolescent children in South Australian schools. Rigby found that children identified as bullies, regardless of sex, were different from children not identified as bullies in terms of the way in which they thought their families functioned. For example, bullies tended to view their families as ones in which honesty was not important, there was a lack of freedom to express opinions and family members were not encouraged to work together in dealing with problems. Furthermore, bullies tended to view their families as being unsympathetic when they felt sad, not being able to understand them, treating them like a child rather than a maturing person, and generally not being caring or accepting of them. Other specific causes of bullying have also been suggested. On the basis of research findings conducted by other psychologists, Kaplan (2004) argues that some bullies may have a need to gain control over other people; for example, their victims. Other bullies may believe that they are gaining the respect of others through their acts of intimidation. By being a bully and getting what they want, they may achieve and maintain dominance and control in their friendship groups. Furthermore, because bullying often enables a bully to get what they want through aggressive acts, they learn that bullying is an effective way of achieving things. Consequently, bullies often have a positive attitude to bullying. 452

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In schools, bullies tend to be rejected or avoided by other students; however, they are not isolated by others. Bullies often report that they find it easy to make friends. They do form friendships, but mostly with other bullies or aggressive students. They seem unaware or unconcerned about their unpopularity with non-aggressive students. Furthermore, they often fail to understand the ways in which other students may view them, not realising how their bullying reduces the number of relationships they may have had if they did not bully others.

Video

Dr Helen McGrath on types and causes of bullying

BOX 10.6 Cyberbullying Cyberbullying is bullying which is carried out through an internet service such as email, chat rooms, discussion groups or instant messaging. It can also include bullying through mobile phone technologies such as short messaging service (SMS). Examples of cyberbullying are teasing and being made fun of; spreading of rumours online; sending unwanted messages; and defamation. Cyberbullying is an indirect form of bullying and has increased along with increased home access to the internet and personal use of mobile phone services. Anyone can be bullied online and the bully can act anonymously if he or she desires. In response to concerns about the increasing frequency of cyberbullying, the Australian Government has introduced an internet safety initiative called NetAlert. This consists of a wide range of activities, including: • a website that gives advice on cyberbullying; the NetAlert home page is located at www.netalert.gov. au/home.html • access to help for victims through the following online and telephone helplines: Kids Help Line (www.kidshelp.com.au) Bullying No Way (www.bullyingnoway.com.au) NetAlert Helpline (1800 880 176) Kids Help Line (1800 55 1800).

Figure 10.34 Cyberbullying has increased along with the increased usage of internet services and mobile phones.

learnin g activit y 10. 32

true/Fa lse Qui z

essay pro-social and anti-social behaviour

Indicate whether each item is true or false by writing T or F in the blank space next to each item.

Write an essay of about 500 600 words in which you explain the meaning of pro-social and anti-social behaviour and two key factors that influence each type of behaviour. In your essay, ensure that you: • accurately define and explain all key terms, particularly pro-social and anti-social behaviour • describe and comment on a range of key factors that influence pro-social and anti-social behaviour • use appropriate examples to demonstrate your understanding of key terms and ideas • structure the information in a logical way • express your information in a clear and concise way • accurately cite and reference all source material. References may be used in obtaining information for your essay. Assessment task and criteria

learnin g activit y 10. 33 visual presentation pro-social and anti-social behaviour Prepare a poster that outlines pro-social and anti-social behaviour and summarises a range of different factors that can influence them. In your poster, ensure that you: • define pro-social and anti-social behaviour • give examples of pro-social and anti-social behaviour • summarise a range of different factors that influence each type of behaviour and factors that influence both types of behaviour • show the interactive nature of different factors influencing pro-social and anti-social behaviour • present the information in a logical arrangement • express your information in a clear and concise way. References may be used in obtaining information for your presentation.

1. _____ The bystander effect is the tendency for individuals to help another person in need when other persons are present. 2. _____ Social influence can occur through imagined pressure by others as well as pressure that is actually experienced. 3. _____ Helping can depend on the level of empathetic concern an individual has for the person in need of assistance. 4. _____ Social behaviour does not necessarily involve social interaction. 5. _____ Diffusion of responsibility is likely to stop an individual from helping when others are present. 6. _____ Audience inhibition involves weighing up the personal and social costs of helping against the benefits of doing well in the presence of others. 7. _____ Bullying always involves the use of power in one form or another. 8. _____ In psychology, behaviour is not considered aggressive unless there is an intention to cause some type of harm. 9. _____ The ethological perspective proposes that aggression is instinctive in animals and must therefore be instinctive in humans. 10. _____ According to social learning theory, aggression can be learned through modelling. The answers to the true/false questions are in the answer section at the back of this book and in eBookPLUS.

Assessment task and criteria

learnin g activit y 10. 34 Oral presentation pro-social and anti-social behaviour Prepare a presentation that outlines pro-social and antisocial behaviour and summarises a range of different factors that can influence them. In your presentation, ensure that you: • accurately define and explain all key terms, particularly pro-social and anti-social behaviour • express your information in a clear and concise way

• outline and comment on a range of key factors that influence pro-social and anti-social behaviour • use appropriate examples to demonstrate your understanding of key terms and ideas • organise all information in a logical way. Your presentation must use two or more data types, for example, still or moving images, written text and sound. PowerPoint is a suitable medium for the presentation. References may be used in obtaining information for your presentation. Assesment task and criteria C h a p t e r 1 0 pro-social and anti-social behaviour

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Multiple-choice questions

Choose the response that is correct or that best answers the question. A correct answer scores 1, an incorrect answer scores 0. Marks will not be deducted for incorrect answers. No marks will be given if more than one answer is completed for any question. 1. A car accident that occurs at a busy intersection during peak hour is witnessed by several pedestrians. No-one is injured, but it is not until 45 minutes later that the police arrive to redirect traffic and clear the road. The police did not arrive earlier because no-one reported the accident. The failure of anyone to report the accident is best explained by A. bystander intervention. B. diffusion of responsibility. C. deindividuation. D. the social responsibility norm. 2. A key characteristic of pro-social behaviour is that it A. helps or benefits another person, group or society. B. always maximises social profits and minimises social losses. C. increases the sense of responsibility people have towards others. D. decreases the sense of responsibility people have towards others. 3. Brain-related factors that may influence aggressive behaviour are commonly classified as influences. A. biological B. social learning C. situational D. environmental 4. Sam was bullied throughout primary school and knows what it feels like to be bullied. During lunchtime, she sees a student being bullied by others. She immediately reports this to the teacher on playground duty and the teacher stops the bullying. Sam s motivation for helping is best explained by A. her noticing the incident. B. her sex. C. her empathy. D. the reciprocity norm. 454

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5. One characteristic often used to distinguish altruism from other types of pro-social behaviour is that altruism involves helping someone else A. when there is a risk of personal harm or loss. B. when other people are also present but are unlikely to help. C. when a person or group does not ask for help. D. when no personal gain or reward is involved. 6. Which of the following examples involves bullying ? A. A year 10 student keeps picking on a year 7 boy who annoys him. B. A teacher gives one week s detention to a student who has seriously misbehaved. C. A girl verbally abuses another student who shut the door on her fingers. D. A boy tells another student that he ll dob him in if he doesn t return the CD he believes was stolen from him. 7. Dominic decides not to stop and help an elderly lady with a flat tyre because stopping to help will make him late for a job interview and he may get his suit dirty. As Dominic drives past, he feels a bit guilty but consoles himself with the understanding that since the lady is a stranger, he will probably never see her again. Dominic s failure to stop and help is best explained by A. social norms. B. social influence. C. shift in attention. D. cost benefit analysis. 8. As the number of people who witness an incident in which help is required , the sense of responsibility to help that is felt by each person . tends to A. increases; increase B. increases; not change C. increases; decrease D. decreases; decrease

9. The reciprocity principle explains social interaction in terms of A. mutual respect. B. giving and receiving. C. having and not having. D. not wanting to owe anything to anybody. 10. Jake is driving to a fancy dress party wearing a Superman outfit. While waiting at a red traffic light, he sees an elderly lady collapse on the footpath. Although Jake is competent in first aid and has plenty of time to help, he drives off when the traffic light turns green because he is afraid he will look stupid to other motorists and pedestrians if he gets out and helps. Jake s failure to help is best explained by A. anti-social thoughts. B. the social responsibility norm. C. audience inhibition. D. bystander intervention. 11. The four conditions for observational learning, in the correct sequence are A. modelling, remembering, motivation, reproduction. B. remembering, motivation, reinforcement, reproduction. C. attention, motivation, reproduction, modelling. D. attention, remembering, reproduction, motivation.

SectiOn B

12. Behaviour that is disruptive or harmful to the wellbeing or property of another person is behaviour. commonly called A. pro-social B. anti-social C. unhelpful D. instinctive 13. Social norms are best described as A. rules. B. laws. C. instinctive ways of behaving. D. known ways of behaving. 14. The motivation of someone with a broken arm who races into a blazing house to save a total stranger is best explained by A. altruism. B. instinct theory. C. neural influences. D. social learning. 15. Being in a good mood typically increases the likelihood of helping, whereas being in a bad mood A. can increase the likelihood of helping. B. can decrease the likelihood of helping. C. can increase or decrease the likelihood of helping. D. has no affect on the likelihood of helping.

Short-answer questions

Answer all questions in the spaces provided. Question 1 Give a psychological definition of aggression.

1 mark

Question 2 Distinguish between the reciprocity norm and the social responsibility norm.

2 marks

C h a p t e r 1 0 pro-social and anti-social behaviour

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Question 3 According to Latane and Darley (1968), what three key factors associated with a specific situation in which help is needed are required before someone considers providing help?

3 marks

Question 4 Explain how being drunk in a large group or crowd can increase the likelihood of someone engaging in antisocial behaviour.

2 marks

Question 5 Jack is jogging to the local gym where he usually works out four or five times a week. He is feeling good because his dad just rang him on the mobile to tell him that he can go to Lorne for schoolies week. Shortly after the call, Jack spots a middle-aged man struggling to push his broken-down car to the side of a moderately busy street. It seems to Jack that the car has a flat battery or has run out of petrol. Jack chuckles to himself because he drives an even older model of the car and believes that it is a heap of rubbish . Explain whether Jack is likely to help the man push his car off the road. Ensure you refer to two key personal factors that can influence helping behaviour.

2 marks

eBook plus The answers to the multiple-choice questions are in the answer section at the back of this book and in eBookPLUS. The answers to the short-answer questions are in eBookPLUS. Note that you can complete Section A of the chapter test online through eBookPLUS and get automatic feedback.

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CHAPTER

11

INTELLIGENCE Ways of describing intelligence ............ 458 Binet intelligence as an age-related set of abilities .............. 459 Wechsler intelligence as verbal and performance abilities ............. 460 Gardner s theory of multiple intelligences ............................................ 461 Sternberg s triarchic theory of intelligence .............................................. 466 Cattell-Horn-Carroll model of psychometric abilities ....................... 468 Salovey and Mayer s ability-based model of emotional intelligence .............................................. 473 Measuring intelligence ................................ 476 Binet s test of intelligence ................. 476 Stanford Binet test of intelligence .............................................. 477 Wechsler s tests of intelligence ........ 478 IQ and its calculation ............................ 481 Does IQ = intelligence? ....................... 482 Variability of intelligence test scores ........................................................... 484 Test validity and test reliability ........ 486 Test standardisation and test norms ........................................................... 488 Standardised testing procedures ... 488 Culture-biased and culture-fair tests ................................................................ 489 Strengths and limitations of intelligence tests and IQ scores .................................................... 492 Ethical standards for intelligence testing .......................................................... 493 Factors that influence intelligence ...... 495 Interaction of genetic and environmental factors ...................... 495

When we hear the word intelligence used in a conversation, most of us have a good idea of what it means. Think for a moment about your own understanding of intelligence. Did words such as brainy , smart , bright , or clever come to mind? These are the kinds of words which many people associate with intelligence. But are these words appropriate descriptions of intelligence? How do psychologists describe intelligence? Is it something you either have or do not have? Is it a single, general ability or is it a combination of a number of different abilities? Are there different kinds of intelligence? Does intelligence change over time? Are people more similar in intelligence than they are different? To what extent is intelligence inherited? To what extent is intelligence a product of experience in everyday life?

WAYS OF DESCRIBING INTELLIGENCE Not all psychologists agree on what intelligence is. As shown in box 11.1, over the last 100 years or so, intelligence has been described in a variety of ways, including characteristics of thought processes (Binet, 1905), the global and aggregate capacity to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment (Wechsler, 1958) and the

human ability to use knowledge to solve problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly and adapt to environmental changes (Gazzaniga & Heatherton, 2006). Furthermore, there has been considerable debate among psychologists as to whether intelligence is a single, general ability that is present in all behaviour considered to be intelligent, or whether intelligence is a combination of separate, cognitive abilities, such as memory, reasoning and use of language, that are independent of one another, or whether intelligence is a combination of general abilities and specific abilities. Some psychologists have even described different kinds of intelligence that each individual has, such as an intelligence for language abilities and an intelligence for interacting with other people. A major reason for the variety of descriptions of intelligence is that intelligence cannot be directly observed. Unlike behaviours such as walking and talking, it is not possible to actually see intelligence. Consequently, psychologists rely on observations of behaviour which they believe to be associated with intelligence. For example, psychologists watch what people (and animals) do in situations which they assume require the use of intelligence. In most cases, this has involved giving people tasks to complete under test conditions and making judgements about underlying intelligence on the basis of performance on these tasks.

Figure 11.1 Some people associate intelligence with the kind of general knowledge required to do well on quiz shows. 458

U n i t 2 Self and others

Although there are many different descriptions of intelligence, most of them have several elements in common. Consequently, a widely accepted definition of intelligence is that it involves the ability to learn from experience, to acquire knowledge, to reason and to solve problems, to deal with people and objects, and to adapt effectively to the environment. There is also agreement among psychologists that intelligence is socially and culturally determined; that is, what is considered to be intelligence (and intelligent behaviour) can differ according to the society and/or culture in which it is observed. For example, behaviour which may be described as intelligent by people who are members of one society or culture may not be the same as that described by people who are members of a different society or culture.

BOX 11.1 Descriptions of intelligence the characteristics of an individual s thought processes that enable the individual to take and maintain a direction without becoming distracted, to adapt means to an end, and to criticise his or her own attempts at problem solution (Binet, 1905)

intelligence is a single general ability that is a kind of well or stream of mental energy that flows into everything an individual does (Spearman, 1923)

what intelligence tests measure (Boring, 1923)

intelligence consists of seven primary mental abilities (Thurstone, 1938)

the global and aggregate capacity to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment

learn in g a ctivity 11.1 review questions 1. (a) What is a widely accepted definition of intelligence? (b) In what ways might this definition differ within different cultural groups in our society? For example, how might intelligence be viewed by Aboriginal people? People with English-speaking backgrounds? People with non-English-speaking backgrounds? Give reasons for your answers. 2. Suggest a possible reason for why there is a variety of definitions of intelligence in psychology. 3. Do animals have intelligence? If so, which animals? Explain your answer with reference to psychological descriptions of intelligence.

Binet intelligence as an age-related set of abilities In the early 1900s, French psychologist Alfred Binet, together with his colleague Theophile Simon, developed the first intelligence test to be widely used throughout the world. This test was designed to assess and predict performance at school. In the early 1900s, the French government passed a law requiring all children to attend school. This meant that the French school system would have to meet the needs of children from a wide variety of backgrounds and differences in abilities. Binet was appointed by the government to find a way of identifying children who experienced difficulty with learning in ordinary classrooms. Once identified, these children were to be placed in special classrooms to benefit from instruction suited to their particular needs.

(Wechsler, 1958)

intelligence has two separate general abilities: fluid intelligence and crystallised intelligence (Cattell, 1971)

intelligence itself does not exist (Neisser, 1979)

intelligence has three aspects: componential, experiential, and contextual (Sternberg, 1985a)

a psychological potential to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in at least one cultural context; there are multiple intelligences (Gardner, 1999)

the human ability to use knowledge to solve problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly and adapt to environmental changes (Gazzaniga & Heatherton, 2006)

Figure 11.2 Alfred Binet (1857 1911) is shown here (second from the left) with an instrument he used in laboratory experiments to study the breathing rates of participants while they completed intelligence test items. C h a p t e r 1 1 Intelligence

459

to everyday life. He categorised these abilities into two distinct types verbal and performance abilities. Wechsler described verbal abilities as those that are entirely language-dependent, such as vocabulary and comprehension. He described performance abilities as those that are less dependent on language; for example, arranging pictures to tell a story and arranging blocks to form a pattern enable intelligence to be expressed in a way that is not entirely dependent on the use of language skills. Wechsler believed that both verbal learning a ctivity 11.2 and performance abilities are important componants of intelligence and are different ways in which intellireview questions gence can be expressed (McGrew, 2009). This view is reflected in the intelligence tests Wechsler designed, 1. How did Alfred Binet describe intelligence? which contained both tests of verbal abilities and tests of 2. (a) Explain the relationship between intelligence performance abilities. However, contemporary versions and age, as viewed by Binet. of Weschsler s tests no longer specifically distinguish (b) Explain how this view of intelligence and age may have guided the development of the first between verbal and performance abilities. intelligence test. Wechsler also suggested four conditions which (c) Estimate a possible correlation coefficient for should be present for any behaviour to be described intelligence and age. as intelligent. 3. Do you think the relationship between intelligence 1. Awareness. Intelligent behaviour is conscious and and age extends beyond childhood? Explain your controlled. In other words, you are aware of what opinion with reference to the entire human lifespan. you are doing and why you are doing it. Unlike an involuntary response such as a reflex, intelligent behaviour is intentional. 2. Goal directed. Intelligent behaviour has a purpose. It is not just any random ( haphazard ) behaviour. It is deliberately targeted at achieving some definable goal. 3. Rational. Intelligent behaviour is consistent and A description of intelligence that influenced many psyappropriate for accomplishing a particular goal. chologists was proposed by the Romanian-born, Amer4. Worthwhile. Intelligent behaviour ican psychologist David Wechsler. is valued by others it is conWechsler viewed intelligence as the structive and useful. global and aggregate capacity to One way of judging whether or act purposefully, to think rationnot any particular behaviour is ally, and to deal effectively with the intelligent is to apply the conditions environment . This description of Wechsler suggests. For instance, intelligence reflected Wechsler s is your reading of the text about dissatisfaction with approaches to Wechsler s views on intelligence describing (and testing) intellian example of intelligent behavgence which were popular at the iour? Answer this question using time among psychologists. Wechsler s conditions as checklist Wechsler believed that views of items ; for example: intelligence adopted by many psy1. Were you aware of what you were chologists throughout the world doing and was this behaviour were too narrow because they intentional? tended to focus primarily on those 2. Did your reading have a goal? abilities that enabled people to 3. Was your reading appropriate for do well (or not so well) at school. achieving your goal? In contrast, Wechsler proposed 4. Would others agree that your that intelligence involved a greater Figure 11.3 David Wechsler (1896 1981) reading was a worthwhile or valurange of mental abilities which were was a major contributor to the study of able activity? not only relevant to school, but also intelligence and its measurement. Binet viewed intelligence as a general ability associated with specific, but related, mental functions such as reasoning, memory, vocabulary, length and quality of attention, and perceptual judgement. Binet also assumed that intelligence is a quality that is agerelated. For instance, five-year-olds possess intelligence, but as a whole they should be more intelligent than three- and four-year-olds and less intelligent than six- or seven-year-olds.

Wechsler intelligence as verbal and performance abilities

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U n i t 2 Self and others

It is highly likely you answered yes to each question and reached a conclusion that, in terms of Wechsler s four conditions, reading the text is intelligent behaviour. There is also a good chance that applying the first three conditions was somewhat straightforward, but judging whether the behaviour was worthwhile was more difficult. Your answer to the fourth question probably depended on who the others were that judged the worth of your reading. For example, would a tribe of nomadic Aborigines make a judgement that reading about intelligence in a textbook is worthwhile behaviour? The answer is probably not and this leads to an important point made by Wechsler. Wechsler believed that definitions of intelligence reflected whatever any individual, group, or the whole of society at a given moment views as worthwhile, valuable and meaningful (Wechsler, 1975). This means that what is regarded as intelligent behaviour can vary between societies (for example, Australia and Fiji), within societies (for example, Australian Aborigines living in a remote desert region and Asian migrants living in a Melbourne suburb), and across time (for example, in the 1800s and the 2000s). What does our multicultural Australian society view as worthwhile and of value at this point in time? In general, our society, including its many different cultural groups with origins in countries throughout the world, values literacy (reading and writing), numeracy and a talent for science and computers. If you are very capable in several of these areas, it is likely that you will be judged as being intelligent. Of course, the judgement depends on who is making it and what it is that they value.

learnin g activit y 11. 3 review questions 1. How did David Wechsler describe intelligence? 2. Referring to an example not used in the text, explain the meaning of Wechsler s view that definitions of intelligence reflect whatever any individual, group, or the whole of society at a given moment views as worthwhile, valuable and meaningful . What is your opinion of Wechsler s view? 3. List some examples of what you believe is intelligent behaviour. Choose one of these examples and analyse it in terms of the four conditions suggested by Wechsler. Repeat the task by applying Wechsler s conditions to an example of an animal s behaviour which you believe is intelligent.

Figure 11.4 Is this intelligent behaviour?

gardner s theory of multiple intelligences American psychologist Howard Gardner proposes that we have multiple intelligences. Gardner (1983) originally identified seven different kinds of intelligence: • linguistic intelligence use of language and words (written and spoken) • musical intelligence musical competence, such as understanding pitch, rhythm and timbre • logical mathematical intelligence ordering and reordering numbers of objects to measure their quantity, using a sequence of logical steps in solving a problem • spatial intelligence mentally forming and using accurate visual images of real objects and events, mentally rotating objects in 3D-space • bodily kinesthetic intelligence using one s body in highly specialised and skilled ways, as seen in athletes, dancers, gymnasts and other physical performers • intrapersonal intelligence ability to understand one s own feelings and to draw on them to guide one s behaviour in an appropriate way • interpersonal intelligence ability to read other people s moods, motivations, intentions and other internal states and effectively act upon this knowledge. C h a p t e r 1 1 Intelligence

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In 1995, Gardner added an eighth intelligence: naturalistic intelligence, which involves the ability to recognise and categorise natural objects. Charles Darwin, who wrote many books about nature, is an example of someone who would be considered to have a high level of naturalistic intelligence. Gardner (1999) also believes there may be a ninth intelligence called existential intelligence. He describes this as the ability to raise and consider basic questions about existence, life and death. The Dalai Lama, who is the highest priest of Tibetan Buddhism, is considered to be strong in existential intelligence. Gardner (2009) continues to explore the existence of this intelligence.

bination of the different intelligences. Not even identical twins or clones would have exactly the same mix (Gardner, 1999). This is because a person can be strong in one intelligence and weak in others. For example, some people are highly skilled in the fine motor movements required to do microsurgery or embroidery but cannot write a good essay. However, according to Gardner, this does not mean a person cannot be strong in more than one kind of intelligence; for example, a person may excel in both embroidery and essay-writing. Some exceptional individuals are strong in several kinds of intelligences, but most people are probably strong in only a few.

Linguistic Naturalistic

Interpersonal

Musical

Individual s intelligences

Intrapersonal

Logical mathematical

Spatial Bodily kinesthetic

Figure 11.5 Gardner s theory of multiple intelligences. Gardner has identified eight different intelligences, each of which is independent of the others.

Gardner believes that each of these intelligences are not only different, but also independent of one another. He argues that each intelligence operates separately from the others and exists in a different part of the brain. This view is based on his research studies which show that a different kind of intelligence can be affected , depending on which part of the brain is damaged. Gardner also refers to people with savant syndrome. He notes that people with savant syndrome usually have very limited mental abilities and score low on intelligence tests, but have an extraordinary specific ability, such as recall of very specific detailed information about one particular topic, arithmetic or playing a musical instrument (see box 11.3). Two key claims of Gardner s theory of multiple intelligences are that (1) all people possess all these intelligences and (2) all individuals have a unique com462

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Figure 11.6 Howard Gardner

Gardner s theory created a great deal of controversy among psychologists, particularly his suggestion that non-academic abilities such as body control and personal skills are kinds of intelligences. Some critics have argued that these are not really mental abilities but talents or human virtues . In response, Gardner (1983) argued that, in contemporary Western technological society, we overestimate the value of literacy and numeracy. He suggests that if we lived in another society we would view intelligence differently. For instance, in the Caroline Islands of Micronesia, sailors navigate among hundreds of islands, using only the stars in the sky and their bodily feelings as they go over the waves. To that society, this ability is much more important than solving a quadratic equation . Similarly, Aboriginal people living in remote outback regions of Australia would value the ability to track animals more highly than solving a crossword puzzle. eLesson

Gardner s multiple intelligences

Figure 11.7 In Micronesia, navigational skills for travelling from island to island are highly valued.

Gardner also argues that we would view intelligence differently if we lived in another historical period. For instance, Five hundred years from now, when computers are carrying out all reasoning, there may be no need for logical mathematical thinking and the list of desirable intelligences will change . Another of the criticisms made of Gardner s theory is that the intelligences he proposes are not easily measurable, if they can be measured at all. In response to this, Gardner argues that while the different intelligences may not be measurable by conventional intelligence tests, they can be assessed by studying the activities children

engage in at school, such as composition (essay writing) or athletic activities (Gardner & Feldman, 1985). Despite the criticisms, most psychologists believe that Gardner has made a very important contribution to understanding intelligence. His theory has also been adopted by educators and applied in many school classrooms. For example, some Australian schools have adopted key principles of Gardner s theory and developed teaching and learning programs and activities that take into account the idea that children have different kinds of intelligences and need opportunities to use or develop them.

BOX 11.2 Gardner s criteria for an intelligence In order to determine what is an intelligence and what is not, Gardner (1999) developed a set of criteria that each kind of intelligence has to meet. These criteria are: 1. Potential isolation by brain damage; for example, linguistic abilities are clearly affected by strokes that damage certain parts of the brain. Isolation by brain damage means that if a particular part of the brain is damaged, an identifiable kind of intelligence can be expected to be affected. 2. The existence of exceptional individuals such as savants (people with low IQ but an extraordinary ability at something) and prodigies (people with exceptionally high IQs). These individuals enable the particular intelligence to be observed in relative isolation. 3. Identifiable way of operating or functioning; for example, musical intelligence consists of a person s sensitivity to melody, harmony, rhythm, timbre and musical structure. 4. A clearly evident developmental history within an individual, along with an expert performance that has

a definable nature; for example, the skills of an expert athlete, and the way in which they became an expert athlete, can be examined. 5. An evolutionary history and evolutionary possibility; for example, the different kinds of intelligence, although in other forms, can be seen in other species. 6. Support from tests in experimental psychology; there are, for example, valid and reliable tasks which can be used to study the particular intelligence. 7. Support from psychometric findings; for example, psychological tests can be applied to the study of the particular intelligence. 8. Involves the use of symbols; for example, language, mathematics and music use symbols, and interpretation of these provides valuable clues to the particular intelligence. Gardner has yet to include existential intelligence, mainly because it doesn t meet criterion 1.

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BOX 11.3 Savant syndrome Savant syndrome is a condition in which an individual has a low overall IQ, but displays an isolated, exceptional skill. According to Australian psychologist Ted Nettlebeck (1999), the skills are found only within a narrow range of activities. Skills may include calendrical calculation (naming the day of the week on which a given date will fall or has fallen), art (for example, drawing every detail of a cathedral after seeing it only once), music (such as playing a complex piano piece after hearing it only once) and memory for relatively trivial facts such as postcodes, bus routes, train timetables and sporting results. Savant syndrome is a rare condition occurring in about 1% of people who have an intellectual disability. Males significantly outnumber females in a ratio of about 6:1. In the past, an individual with savant syndrome was described as an idiot savant, a French term meaning learned idiot . Psychologists now prefer to use the non-negative terms savant syndrome or savant. In the movie Rain Man, Dustin Hoffman played the role of a savant with exceptional mathematical ability. Howard Gardner believes that many savants provide evidence that identifiable brain damage can severely impair certain mental abilities without impairing other mental abilities, thereby indicating that intelligence is not a single underlying, ability.

Figure 11.8 A 13-year-old boy with savant syndrome completed this drawing of St Mark s Cathedral in Venice, Italy, after just one look at it.

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Figure 11.9 In the movie Rain Man, actor Dustin Hoffman (left) played a savant and Tom Cruise (right) his brother.

Figure 11.10 Gardner s multiple intelligences: (a) linguistic (b) intrapersonal (c) musical (d) spatial (e) bodily kinesthetic (f) naturalistic (g) logical mathematical (h) interpersonal.

B

A D E

C

G F

H

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learning a ctivity 11.4

learning activity 11.7

review questions

Practical activity theory

1. Briefly outline the propositions in Gardner s theory of intelligence. 2. Give an example different from those used in the text of an ability or everyday task associated with each kind of intelligence described by Gardner. 3. On what kind of empirical research evidence is Gardner s theory based? 4. In what way is Gardner s theory similar to and different from Wechsler s? 5. Why is Gardner s theory controversial?

learning a ctivity 11.5 visual presentation gardner s theory Prepare a collage to illustrate Gardner s eight intelligences. Collect photos and key words from the print media. Using an A3 sheet arrange the photos and key words in a logical way. You may add additional words or phrases. Ensure you are include a title for your collage.

Options and variations

learning a ctivity 11.6 Developing intelligence test items based on gardner s theory For each of Gardner s eight intelligences, develop a test item which you believe is relevant to the intelligence and could be used to assess the intelligence. Test items may involve written responses, verbal responses, observation of performance or a combination of these response styles. Present your suggested items in a table such as that shown below (also in your eBook). Include an explanation of your choice of each item and why you believe it could be used to assess the relevant intelligences. Kind of intelligence

Possible item

linguistic musical spatial logical mathematical bodily kinesthetic intrapersonal interpersonal naturalistic

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Explanation

gardner s

Interview 10 people from a variety of socio-cultural backgrounds (e.g. age, occupation, ethnicity), about what they understand by intelligence . Ask them what characteristics they think a highly intelligent person would have. Record their replies and organise them into different categories. Compare the categories with Gardner s multiple intelligences. Report Prepare a brief report on the practical activity to include in your folio of practical activities. Your report should include: 1. a statement of the aim of this research investigation 2. a summary of your sample using descriptive statistics 3. a summary of your results 4. answers to the following questions: (a) Which of Gardner s intelligences were referred to in the responses and which were not? What is a possible explanation? (b) In what ways did responses vary in relation to socio-cultural background, if at all? What is a possible explanation? (c) What was your sample representative? Explain. (d) Can the results be generalised? Why or why not? 5. other informaton that may be requested by your teacher.

Sternberg s triarchic theory of intelligence Many descriptions of intelligence focus on mental abilities such as vocabulary, comprehension, memory and problem-solving that can be measured through intelligence tests. This reflects the tendency of psychologists to develop their understanding of intelligence by observing behaviour believed to be associated with intelligence. American psychologist Robert Sternberg (2004a, 1985a) believes that this focus on specific types of measurable, mental abilities is too narrow. He believes that studying intelligence in this way leads to an understanding of only one part of intelligence and that this part is seen only in people who are school smart or book smart . There are, for example, many individuals who score poorly on intelligence tests, but are creative or are street smart and therefore have a very good ability to adapt to the environment. According to Sternberg, these are

the two other parts of intelligence. The three parts of intelligence described by Sternberg are called analytical intelligence, creative intelligence and practical intelligence. These three parts are central in Sternberg s triarchic theory of human intelligence. Analytical intelligence

Practical intelligence

you have used creative intelligence. Creative intelligence would also be involved when using your imagination to write a short story, paint an artwork or create an advertisement. Unlike tasks requiring analytical intelligence, which have single correct answers, tasks requiring creative intelligence have open-ended or many possible answers, and you often need to come up with a new way of completing the task.

Creative intelligence

Figure 11.11 The three parts of intelligence described by Sternberg. When these are balanced, the individual has successful intelligence .

Analytical intelligence refers to the ability to complete academic, problem-solving tasks, such as those used in traditional intelligence tests. These types of tasks usually present well-defined problems that have a single correct answer. For example, questions may ask about the meanings of words (such as Is the meaning of concave the same as or opposite to the meaning of convex? ) and how to solve number-series problems with a missing number (such as What number comes next in the following series: 3, 5, 8, 12, 17, ____ ? ). Analytical intelligence is also used when you analyse , or break down into bits, familiar problems and devise strategies to solve them. People with a high-level of analytical intelligence would be likely to achieve well in school exams, the GAT and similar types of tasks that mainly depend on what is learnt in school and through books. This is why Sternberg (1985b) refers to analytical intelligence as being observed in people who are school smart or book smart . Creative intelligence refers to the ability to successfully deal with new and unusual situations by drawing on existing knowledge and skills. For example, suppose that you are driving along a deserted country road and your old model car breaks down because the radiator has run out of water. There is a creek nearby but you have nothing in the car that could be used as container to get water from the creek. Nor is there a nearby rubbish bin in which you might be able to find a suitable container (or use the bin itself). If you solve your problem by using an object such as your runners or one of the car s hub caps as a water container, then

Figure 11.12 Robert Sternberg

Practical intelligence refers to the ability to adapt to everyday life by drawing on existing knowledge and skills. Practical intelligence is involved when dealing with everyday personal or practical problems. It may also be involved when dealing with new and unusual situations in everyday life. For example, suppose that you found yourself alone in an unfamiliar Melbourne suburb, without money or a mobile phone and had missed the last train or bus back to your home. According to Sternberg, successfully dealing with this situation involves a distinctly different part of intelligence, often observed in people who are street smart . Furthermore, what is required to adapt successfully in one particular situation may be different from what is required to adapt in another situation. Street smart people can usually make these adjustments, applying their knowledge and skills in effective ways. Sternberg, proposes that the three parts of intelligence involve abilities that are different, separate and are not fixed ; that is, they can change (become C h a p t e r 1 1 Intelligence

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stronger or weaker) through experience in everyday life. Furthermore, an individual may be stronger in one or more of these parts. If a person is sufficiently strong in each of the three parts, then the three parts will be in balance . When this occurs, the person has what Sternberg calls successful intelligence. According to Sternberg (2004a), successfully intelligent individuals have the ability to achieve success according to their own definition of success, within their social and cultural environment. They do so by identifying and capitalising on their strengths, and identifying and correcting or compensating for their weaknesses in order to adapt to, shape, and select their environments . Furthermore, individuals with successful intelligence often have a can-do attitude and learn from past experiences. They also apply their mental abilities to achieve their goals and ambitions in everyday life situations.

learning a ctivity 11.8 review questions 1. (a) Name and briefly describe the three parts of intelligence in Sternberg s theory. (b) Give an example of each part of intelligence, using examples different from those in the text. 2. (a) According to Sternberg, what is the relationship between the three parts of intelligence? (b) How stable, or fixed , are the three parts? 3. (a) What is successful intelligence ? (b) When can it be said that a person has successful intelligence? (c) What is a characteristic that may distinguish individuals with successful intelligence? (d) In what way does successful intelligence enable an individual to adapt to different environments? 4. In what way is Sternberg s theory similar to and different from Gardner s theory?

cattell-Horn-carroll model of psychometric abilities Psychometrics is a specialist area of psychology that focuses on the measurement (metric) of psychological abilities (psycho). Psychometricians may study one or more general or specific psychological abilities or characteristics, ranging from cognitive abilities through to characteristics associated with personality or mental illnesses. All of these psychological abilities and characteristics involve underlying mental processes and are therefore not directly observable. Consequently, like many other psychologists, psychometricians observe what people do in order to gain an understanding of underlying mental processes. Observations undertaken by psychometricians typically involve testing, analysis and interpretation of test results using complex statistical techniques. Their observations may be for the construction of a theory and/or construction of a test that can be used to measure or assess ( test ) the ability. Psychometrics has been applied to the study and measurement of intelligence for over 100 years. For example, Binet used psychometrics to develop the first intelligence test. Three other prominent psychologists who studied, described and measured intelligence using psychometrics were the British-born psychologist Raymond Cattell (1905 1998), and American psychologists John Horn (1928 2006) and John Carroll (1916 2003). Cattell, Horn and Carroll referred to each other s theories and research evidence in developing their own theories of intelligence. All described intelligence as consisting of different cognitive abilities. They also believed that intelligence was best represented as a hierarchy, with different cognitive abilities arranged in separate strata, or levels. Cognitive abilities in the upper part of the hierarchy are described as broad . These broad abilities are made up of narrower , or more specific, cognitive abilities in the lower part in the

learning a ctivity 11.9 visual presentation

comparing two theories of intelligence

Prepare a table, chart or other type of visual organiser in which you compare and contrast two theories of intelligence. The theories may have been developed by early psychologists (Binet and Wechsler) or contemporary psychologists, (Gardner and Sternberg). Alternatively, you may compare an early and a contemporary theory. Your presentation should: • outline the key propositions of each theory • identify the main similarities and differences

• use appropriate examples to illustrate aspects of each theory • give your opinion about the usefulness of each theory • accurately describe and explain key concepts • present information in a logical arrangement • express information in a clear and concise way. References may be used in obtaining information for your essay.

Assesment task and criteria 468

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Broad abilities stratum

Narro abilities stratum

Gf

Gq

Gc

Gsm

Fluid Quantitative Crystallised Intelligence Knowledge Intelligence

ShortTerm Memory

Ga

Gv

Auditory Visual Processing Processing

Glr

Gs

CDS

Grw

LongTerm Retrieval

Processing Speed

Correct Decision Speed

Reading/ Writing

69 specific abilities, e.g. speed of reasoning, language development, communication, visualisation, memory for sound patterns, memory span, perceptual speed, verbal language comprehension, mathematical knowledge

Figure 11.13 Horn-Cattell Gf-Gc theory

hierarchy. The three psychologists also agreed on many of the cognitive abilities which they believed were part of intelligence. However, not all three agreed on the number of levels, the number of cognitive abilities, or what some of the cognitive abilities actually involved. Cattell and Horn worked together and developed a theory of intelligence called the Gf-Gc theory. The Gf-Gc theory describes intelligence as consisting of 10 separate and different broad cognitive abilities in an upper stratum and 69 narrow cognitive abilities in a lower stratum (see figure 11.13). Gf and Gc are abbreviations for two different intelligences involving different cognitive abilities. These two intelligences were originally described by Cattell (1941) and are called fluid intelligence (Gf ) and crystallised intelligence (Gc). Fluid intelligence (Gf) involves the use of reasoning for problem solving, particularly to solve new or unusual problems. It includes abilities such as identifying relationships between different concepts and drawing logical conclusions. Fluid intelligence depends minimally on skills and knowledge gained through formal education or cultural experience. It is described as biologically based and a kind of natural cognitive ability that we all have in differing amounts. Fluid intelligence is assessed using tasks that are not dependent on language

g General intelligence

General stratum

Broad abilities stratum

Narro abilities stratum

or specific knowledge; for example, tasks requiring you to identify a missing piece in a pattern or to organise different shapes or patterns into a logical sequence. Crystallised intelligence (Gc) involves the use of knowledge and skills we acquire through experience in everyday life. This includes all the knowledge and skills we learn through formal and informal education in our socio-cultural environment. Crystallised intelligence also involves the ability to reason, but reasoning using previously learned knowledge and problemsolving procedures. It is commonly assessed through tests of vocabulary and general knowledge. For example, tasks requiring you to define the meaning of a word or to name the Prime Minister of Australia involve fluid intelligence (McGrew, 2009). However, Gf-Gc theory is not simply a two-ability theory. As shown in figure 11.13, there are eight other cognitive abilities in the same stratum as Gf and Gc. These include different types of memory (Gsm and Glr) and visual processing (Gv). Below these on the bottom stratum are 69 narrow cognitive abilities that make up the broad, higher-order cognitive abilities. John Carroll (1993) developed a theory of intelligence called the three-stratum model of human cognitive abilities, which is more commonly known as the

Gf

Gc

Fluid Intelligence

Crystallised Intelligence

Gy General Memory and Learning

Gv

Gu

Gr

Gs

Broad Visual Perception

Broad Auditory Perception

Broad Retrieval Ability

Broad Cognitive Speediness

Gt Processing Speed (RT Decision Speed)

69 narrow abilities found in data sets analysed by Carroll

Figure 11.14 Carroll s three-stratum theory of cognitive abilities C h a p t e r 1 1 Intelligence

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three-stratum theory. Unlike the Gf-Gc theory which has two strata, the three-stratum theory describes intelligence as having three strata. As shown in figure 11.14, the top stratum consists of a single cognitive ability which Carroll called general intelligence (g ). Carroll believed that g underlies and is involved to some extent in all the other cognitive abilities. The second stratum consists of eight broad abilities. Most of these are similar to the broad abilities identified in Cattell and Horn s Gf-Gc theory. The third and lowest layer consists of 69 narrow abilities, which are also like those abilities identified in the Gf-Gc theory (McGrew, 2009). The Cattell-Horn-Carroll model of psychometric abilities is a combination of Cattell and Horn s Gf-Gc theory and Carroll s three-stratum theory, as indicated by its name. The model was developed by American psychologists Kevin McGrew and Dawn Flanagan (1998).

The Cattell-Horn-Carroll model of psychometric abilities, commonly referred to as the CHC model, describes intelligence as consisting of cognitive abilities arranged in a hierarchical structure of two strata called broad and narrow abilities. As shown in figure 11.15, stratum II consists of 10 broad abilities. Stratum I has 76 narrow abilities, which combine in groups to form the broad abilities. The model includes fluid intelligence (Gf ) and crystallised intelligence (Gc ) from Cattell and Horn s theory. However, it excludes general intelligence (g ) from Carroll s theory. The exclusion of g does not mean that it is believed to not be a separate ability or to not exist. It has been excluded because g is considered to be of little value in the construction of intelligence tests and other tests used to measure psychometric abilities (McGrew, 1997). Table 11.1 outlines what each of the 10 broad abilities involve.

table 11.1 Summary of the CHC broad cognitive abilities (stratum II)

Broad abilities

Characteristics

Fluid Intelligence (Gf )

• novel (new or unusual) problem-solving that depends minimally on skills and knowledge gained through formal education or cultural experience • use of reasoning and ability to form concepts • not dependent on language

Crystallised Intelligence (Gc)

• use of knowledge and skills acquired through experience in everyday life, including everything learned through formal and informal education in our socio-cultural environment • ability to reason using previously learned knowledge or problem-solving procedures • ability to communicate one s knowledge, especially using the language of one s culture

Visual Spatial Thinking (Gv)

• ability to think using visual images • ability to perceive, analyse and generate visual shapes and patterns • ability to store and recall visual information and representations

Auditory Processing (Ga)

• ability to think using auditory information • ability to identify, analyse, comprehend, combine and work out the difference (discriminate) between sounds • ability to store and recall sound patterns (e.g. pitch, tones, rhythms, voices)

Short-Term Memory (Gsm)

• ability to attend to, store and recall information which we are aware of in the immediate situation (e.g. events that occurred in the last minute or so)

Long-Term Storage and Retrieval (Glr )

• ability to store information and fluently retrieve it over longer periods of time than Gsm (e.g. beyond a minute) • abilities in different types of long-term memory

Cognitive Processing Speed (Gs)

• ability to rapidly and accurately perform easy, well-learned cognitive tasks that require little thinking, particularly when measured under pressure to maintain speed • use of attention and focussed concentration

Decision/Reaction Time or Speed (Gt )

• ability to react and/or make correct decisions quickly in response to simple stimuli

Quantitative Knowledge (Gq)

• use of mathematical knowledge which has been acquired primarily through formal education experiences

Reading and Writing (Grw )

• ability to read and write, drawing on the breadth and depth of learned skills and knowledge • includes basic skills (e.g. reading and spelling single words) and more complex skills (e.g. reading comprehension and the ability to write a story)

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Figure 11.15 Cattell-Horn-Carroll model of psychometric abilities. This model represents the structure of intelligence as a hierarchy. Intelligence is described as consisting of the 10 broad abilities in the top layer (stratum II), which are shown on the left in the chart above. Each broad ability consists of a group of specific, narrow abilities in the bottom layer (stratum I), which are shown on the right in the chart above. (Based on McGrew, 2009.) C h a p t e r 1 1 Intelligence

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The CHC model is supported by very comprehensive research evidence. It is highly regarded and widely recognised in contemporary psychology. The CHC model is also used extensively as the basis for classifying and/or determining the validity, reliability and value of intelligence tests used by psychologists. In addition, the CHC model and its data is the foundation on which many new and revised intelligence tests have been based (Alfonso, Flanagan & Radwan, 2005). The data on which the model has been devised are made available free (online) to psychometricans and other psychologists throughout the world. Although not all psychologists agree with all aspects of the theory, the hierarchical approach to describing the structure of human intelligence in terms of layers is viewed as a useful way of representing intelligence. Kevin McGrew, one of the developers of the original CHC model, continually reviews the model by applying psychometric techniques to new statistical data on the broad and narrow abilities. At present, McGrew (2009) is studying six possible new broad abilities called general knowledge (Gkn), psychomotor speed (Gps), psychomotor abilities (Gp), olfactory abilities (Go), tactile abilities (Gh) and kinesthetic abilities (Gk).

learning activity 11.10 review questions 1. Define the meaning of the term psychometric ability. 2. Suggest two examples of psychometric ability tests, other than intelligence tests. 3. What are Gf and Gc, and in what three key ways are they different? 4. What is a key similarity and a key difference between the Gf-Gc theory and the three stratum theory? 5. (a) Briefly describe the CHC model. (b) What key feature (s) was retained or included from the Gf-Gc theory and the three strati\um theory? 6. (a) What kind of statistics and/or results might be included within the CHC? (b) Suggest a reason why psychometricians would highly regard access to the CHC data. 7. What is a major use of the CHC model? 8. How might Howard Gardner view the CHC model s description of the content and structure of intelligence? 9. How might Robert Sternberg view the CHC model s description of the content and structure of intelligence?

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U n i t 2 Self and others

learning activity 11.11 comparing the cHc model with gardner s and Sternberg s theories Complete the table below or in your eBook to compare the CHC model with Gardner s and Sternberg s theories. Kinds of intelligences described by Gardner and Sternberg may be included more than once. When you complete the table, answer the questions about the data in your table.

CHC model

Gardner s intelligences

Sternberg s intelligences

Fluid Intelligence (Gf) Crystallised Intelligence (Gc) Visual Spatial Thinking (Gv) Auditory Processing (Ga) Short-Term Memory (Gsm) Long-Term Storage and Retrieval (Glr) Cognitive Processing Speed (Gs) Decision/Reaction Time or Speed (Gt) Quantitative Knowledge (Gq) Reading and Writing (Grw) 1. Suggest why it is possible to include one or more of Gardner s and Sternberg s intelligences more than once in the table. 2. What does the information in the table suggest about: (a) similarities between the broad cognitive abilities and different intelligences? (b) differences between the broad cognitive abilities and different intelligences? 3. What other tentative conclusion(s) may be drawn from the table? Explain your answer(s) with reference to information in the table.

learning activity 11.12 Developing intelligence test items based on the cHc model For each of the 10 CHC broad cognitive abilities, develop a test item which you believe is relevant to the ability and could therefore be used to measure or assess the ability. Test items may involve written responses, verbal responses, observation of performance or a combination of these response styles. Present your suggested items in a table such as that presented below (also in your eBook). Include an explanation of your choice of each item and why you believe it could be used to assess the cognitive abilities. Kind of cognitive abilities

Possible item Explanation

Fluid Intelligence (Gf) Crystallised Intelligence (Gc) Visual Spatial Thinking (Gv) Auditory Processing (Ga) Short-Term Memory (Gsm) Long-Term Storage and Retrieval (Glr) Cognitive Processing Speed (Gs) Decision/Reaction Time or Speed (Gt) Quantitative Knowledge (Gq) Reading and Writing (Grw)

scientific research interest throughout the world over the past 20 years, as well as the topic of numerous books, magazine and newspaper articles written for the general public (Mayer, Ciarrochi & Forgas, 2001). The theory of emotional intelligence was developed by American psychologists Peter Salovey and John Mayer in the early 1990s. Salovey and Mayer define emotional intelligence as the ability to recognise the meanings of emotions and their relationships, and to reason and problem solve on the basis of emotions (Mayer, 2009). According to Salovey and Mayer, the emotion part of the term emotional intelligence refers to a feeling with accompanying thoughts and physiological responses that communicates information about relationships. For example, happiness is a feeling that communicates information about relationships. Information often communicated by happiness is wanting to be with other people . Similarly, fear is a feeling that communicates information about a relationship, such as wanting to escape from other people . The intelligence part of the term emotional intelligence refers to the cognitive ability to reason in appropriate ways when using and interpreting emotional information (Mayer, 2009). Salovey and Mayer believe that emotional intelligence involves four branches , or areas, of abilities (as shown in figure 11.16). The four branches are described in their four branch model of emotional intelligence. This model is often referred to as an ability-based model because abilities are the four main components. The ability-based model of emotional intelligence describes the structure and content of emotional intelligence as consisting of four different abilities: • the ability to accurately perceive emotions in oneself and others • the ability to use emotions to facilitate (assist) thinking • the ability to understand emotions; and • the ability to manage emotions. Emotional intelligence

Salovey and Mayer s ability-based model of emotional intelligence Is our ability to recognise, understand and manage our own emotions and those of others a kind of intelligence? Is there a relationship between thinking and feeling? If so, are thinking and feeling interrelated, or possibly different parts of the same ability? These questions have generated a lot of interest and controversy in psychology, as well as a great deal of interest within the wider community. Emotional intelligence, or EI as it is sometimes called, has been the topic of considerable

Perceiving emotions

Facilitating thought

Understanding emotions

Managing emotions

Figure 11.16 Salovey and Mayer s four branch model of emotional intelligence, which is often called an ability-based model of emotional intelligence. Based on Mayer & Salovey (1997)

C h a p t e r 1 1 Intelligence

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Mayer and Salovey also identified skills relating to each of the abilities. Some skills develop early in the lifespan (e.g. in childhood) and other skills develop much later in the lifespan because they are dependent on psychological maturity (Mayer, 2009; Mayer & Salovey, 1997). 1. Perceiving emotion is the ability to detect, accurately express and interpret our own emotions and those of others. Essentially, this involves accurately identifying emotions we experience using the physiological and/or psychological signals that accompany each emotion. Perceiving emotion also involves being able to read the non-verbal signals such as facial expressions and other body language people use when expressing their emotions. According to Salovey and Mayer, being able to accurately recognise and express emotions is the crucial starting point for a more advanced understanding of emotions. 2. Using emotions to assist thought is the ability to use emotions to think more clearly or effectively. For example, this can involve reaching an understanding of why somebody said, did, or is about to say or do something, by considering the emotion(s) that may be involved. Emotional information is all around us and communicates important feedback about people and events. Accurately perceiving then using this information in an appropriate way can help us think about and better understand what is going on around us. Using emotions to assist thought also involves an ability to generate an emotion that we know from experience can assist thinking. For example, research studies have found that positive or negative emotional states such as being in a good or bad mood can for some people assist creative thinking and problem solving, depending on the individual. Some individuals are also able to use other people s moods to better understand and appreciate their points of view. 3. Understanding emotions is the ability to understand the meanings of emotions, their causes and consequences, and to understand changes in one s own emotions or those of other people when socially interacting with them. Each emotion communicates its own pattern of possible messages and actions associated with those messages. For example, a message of anger may mean that the individual feels that they have been treated unfairly. The anger, in turn, might be associated with specific sets of possible actions: peacemaking, attacking, revenge-seeking, or withdrawal to seek calmness. Understanding emotional messages and the actions associated with them is one important aspect of this ability (Mayer, 2009). 474

U n i t 2 Self and others

Other important aspects of this ability include understanding relationships between different emotional states (for example, that frustration can lead to anger), understanding complex feelings in oneself and others, and being able to empathise with how someone else may be feeling. 4. Managing emotions is the ability to manage, or effectively deal with , emotions in oneself and others. This ability also involves being open to feelings, both pleasant and unpleasant; being able to monitor and reflect on one s emotions and those of others; and the ability to engage in, stay in or detach from ( set aside ) an emotional state when it is appropriate to do so. Having good ability in this area means that you can control your personal feelings when required and not become overwhelmed by anxiety or anger. It also means that you can deal with someone else s emotions competently; for example, by knowing what to say or do.

Figure 11.17 Based on facial expressions and other body language, how would you perceive the emotions being expressed in this encounter?

Does having high levels of these four abilities mean that emotionally intelligent people are more likely to succeed in their marriages, parenting, careers or life in general than people who are not emotionally intelligent, or be more successful than academically smarter, but emotionally less intelligent, people? Commonsense suggests that they would and there is ample research evidence that our emotions influence our thinking and behaviour in everyday life. As proposed in Salovey and Mayer s theory, emotions can assist thinking and the ways in which people interpret and react to people and situations. Emotions can also be disruptive to rational, or reasoned , thinking.

Whether or not emotional intelligence is actually a kind of intelligence is disputed by many psychologists. Some have argued that it stretches the meaning of intelligence too far and that emotional intelligence may be best described as a social skill rather than an intelligence. However, most psychologists support the importance of the idea of emotional intelligence in everyday life and believe that it can provide useful information in understanding or even predicting behaviour. For example, if someone finds it difficult to work out how other people are feeling, they may have trouble establishing meaningful social or intimate relationships, or maintaining close friendships. Consequently, emotional intelligence may be important to maintaining healthy, everyday interpersonal relationships and strong, healthy long-term relationships. Similarly, emotional intelligence may be important to and a useful predictor of work success. For example, if someone cannot control their anger in the workplace, they are likely to upset members of their work team and attract negative attention from their supervisor or manager, which may result in the loss of promotion opportunities, or their job. Alternatively, if someone cannot recognise and manage stress, they may find it difficult in stressful jobs, such as those involving leadership, work in the emergency services, or as a nurse or

doctor in the emergency department of a public hospital. It has also been proposed that emotional intelligence may be important to general mental health. For example, some psychologists believe that low emotional intelligence may be a risk factor for suicidal behaviour or various mental illnesses. Such possible links between emotional intelligence and behaviour have led researchers to develop tests to measure and study emotional intelligence. One of the most widely used tests of emotional development has been developed by Salovey and Mayer together with their colleague David Caruso. This test is called the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT). The MSCEIT is an ability-based test which has been designed to measure the four branches of Mayer and Salovey s ability-based EI model. The test consists of 141 items and takes 30 45 minutes to complete. Examples of the type of items in the MSCEIT are shown in box 11.4. Emotional intelligence and its assessment is an emerging area in psychology and ideas about its existence and relevance appeal to commonsense. However, ideas and commonsense are not sufficient to prove that EI is important, either practically or scientifically (Ciarrochi & others, 2001). The ideas are still being tested and a great deal of research still needs to be done.

BOX 11.4 Examples of items in the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) Branch 1: Perceiving emotions

Branch 3: Understanding emotions Tom felt anxious, and became a bit stressed when he thought about all the work he needed to do. When his supervisor brought him an additional project, he felt ____. (a) overwhelmed (b) depressed (c) ashamed (d) self-conscious (e) jittery

1. No happiness

1

2

3

4

5

Extreme happiness

2. No fear

1

2

3

4

5

Extreme fear

Branch 2: Using emotion to assist thought What mood(s) might be helpful to feel when meeting in-laws for the very first time? Not useful Useful 1 2 3 4 5 (a) Tension

Branch 4: Managing emotions Debbie just came back from vacation. She was feeling peaceful and content. How well would each action preserve her mood? Action 1: She started to make a list of things at home that she needed to do. 2 3 4 5 Very effective Very ineffective 1 Action 2: She began thinking about where and when she would go on her next vacation.

(b) Surprise

1

2

3

4

5

2 3 4 5 Very effective Very ineffective 1 Action 3: She decided it was best to ignore the feeling since it wouldn t last anyway.

(c) Joy

1

2

3

4

5

Very ineffective 1

2

3

4

5

Very effective

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learning activity 11.13

learning activity 11.16

review questions

visual presentation Salovey and Mayer s ability-based model

1. Define the meaning of emotional intelligence. 2. Describe Salovey and Mayer s ability-based model of emotional intelligence. For each ability area (branch), include an example of an observable behaviour that would indicate someone has a high level of ability in the area (branch) and someone has a low level of ability in the area. 3. Which two intelligences described by Gardner are most like emotional intelligence? Explain your answer. 4. Which intelligence described by Sternberg is most like emotional intelligence? Explain your answer. 5. Would someone with a high level of emotional intelligence achieve a high score on any broad ability in the CHC model? If so, which one(s) and why? If none, why not?

learning activity 11.14 Debate emotional intelligence Topic: Emotional intelligence is more than a social skill . It is a kind of intelligence. Divide the class into two teams. One team should develop the arguments in favour of the statement being debated, which is called the affirmative . The other team should develop the arguments against the statement being debated, which is called the negative . Select three speakers from each team to have the debate. Each speaker should speak for no longer than three minutes.

learning activity 11.15 Media response analysing emotional intelligence Locate a newspaper or magazine article in which somone has behaved very emotionally in some situation. The article may involve a child, adolescent or adult. The person may or may not be famous . The setting may be anywhere; for example, in a car, street, theatre or a workplace. Analyse the person s behaviour with reference to each of the four ability areas (branches), in Salovey and Mayer s ability-based model of emotional intelligence. Suggest possible reasons for their behaviour with reference to the article. Ensure you include a copy of the article with your written report on this learning activity.

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Prepare a diagram or collage in which you summarise the key concepts and features of the Salovey and Mayer model of emotional intelligence.

MEASURING INTELLIGENCE There are many different types of tests that have been developed to measure, or assess, intelligence. In general, each intelligence test approaches the measurement of intelligence from a slightly different perspective, usually reflecting the way in which intelligence has been described by the test developer. However, most conventional, or traditional, tests are linked to school performance, often assessing abilities dependent on literacy and numeracy. They are also designed to be completed individually; that is, the tests are given (administered) by a test administrator to a test-taker one at a time.

Binet s test of intelligence Intelligence tests in the form in which they are used today evolved from the work of Alfred Binet. Binet s tests were specifically prepared for use with school children and were based on the assumption that intelligence is a quality that is age-related. In order to develop an intelligence test that was agebased, Binet and his colleague Theophile Simon first developed items (tasks and questions) designed to measure mental functions . The items were then trialled with a large number of children of different ages. This was done to find out how many children at each age level could successfully complete each item. The results indicated which items were least difficult and which were most difficult for children at each age level. Binet and Simon were then able to develop a test with items arranged from the least difficult to the most difficult. An item was viewed as a fair test of a particular age if most children (65 to 75%) in that age group could answer it correctly. For example, all items passed by most three-year-olds were placed in the three-year-old level, items passed by most four-year-olds were placed in the four-year-old level, and so forth. In 1905, Binet and Simon published their test. It consisted of sets of questions arranged in increasing order of difficulty. For example, tasks at the three-year-old level included pointing to the nose, eyes and mouth, repeating two digits (numbers), and identifying objects in a picture. Items at the seven-year-old level included

pointing to the left hand, describing a picture, following a series of three commands, and counting coins. Figure 11.18 shows an example of an intelligence test item for which children were required to name common household objects in a picture.

Figure 11.18 In this item from the Binet Simon test, children were asked to identify common household objects shown in this picture.

Children were given the Binet Simon test individually. Any child in the age range of three to eleven could be given the same test, and the tester followed a standard set of instructions. Testing would stop when it became clear that a child was unable to answer the questions, suggesting the items presented were too difficult. In simplified terms, the score obtained was determined by the number of items correctly answered. However, the score was expressed in terms of the age of the child for which the score was average. For example, if a child correctly answered eight items, and the average number of items answered by children aged three years and six months was eight, then the score was expressed as three years six months . Binet and Simon called this score mental level (of functioning). This is now called mental age (MA). Whether the mental age was judged as advanced, average, or slow depended on the child s age in years and months; that is, their actual or chronological age (CA). For example, an eight-yearold who scored the average number of items for an eight-year-old was assigned a mental age of eight. An eight-year-old who responded like an average six-yearold was assigned a mental age of six. Comparing an individual s mental age with their chronological age indicated whether their mental ability was similar to, better than, or lower than that of other children their age. Binet believed that children whose MA was two years below their CA required separate instruction and should therefore be placed in different school classes from students whose MA and CA were similar.

Stanford Binet test of intelligence Binet s test and its possible applications created a great deal of interest in the United States. After Binet died in 1911, his test was translated into English and adapted for use in the United States. The test was adapted by the American psychologist Lewis Terman who was lecturing at Stanford University in California but also working as an intelligence test developer. Terman revised many of the questions so that they were suitable for American children and extended Binet s test by adding items suitable for adults. He published the test in 1916, but with a new name the Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale. The Stanford Binet, as it is commonly called, has been revised five times since it was first developed. The most recent revision was in 2003. Revision of intelligence tests is undertaken to ensure the items are still current and relevant. This is achieved by trialling the items with a large, representative sample, then undertaking statistical analysis of the results. The current version of the Stanford Binet (or SB-5) is designed to measure the intelligence of people who are aged between two and 85+ years. The test is administered to one person at a time and takes about 45 60 minutes to complete. Five cognitive abilities are assessed. These are called Fluid Reasoning Knowledge, Quantitative Reasoning, Visual Spatial Processing and Working Memory. Some of the tasks rely entirely on the language skills of the test-taker. Other tasks rely less on language skills; for example, non-verbal responses including pointing out an answer or moving one of the pieces in a test item (Becker, 2003). Figure 11.19 shows the materials used in the latest version of the Stanford Binet and table 11.2 provides examples of the items included in the test.

Figure 11.19 Materials used in the Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale (SB-5) C h a p t e r 1 1 Intelligence

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table 11.2 Examples of the types of items used in the original Stanford Binet test, many of which are still relevant to the current version of the test. The current version of the test (SB-5) assesses a wider range of cognitive abilities.

Age

Task

2 years

Place geometric shapes into corresponding-shaped openings; identify body parts; stack blocks; identify common objects.

4 years

Name objects from memory; complete analogies (for example, fire is hot; ice is _______); identify objects of similar shape; answer simple questions (for example, Why do we wear shoes? ).

6 years

Define simple words; explain differences (for example, between a fish and a horse); identify missing parts of a picture; count out objects.

8 years

Answer questions about a simple story; identify absurdities (for example, in statements like John had to walk on crutches because he hurt his arm ); explain similarities and differences among objects; describe how to handle certain situations (for example, finding a stray puppy).

10 years

Define more difficult words; give explanations (for example, about why people should be quiet in a library); list as many words as possible; repeat six-digit numbers.

12 years

Identify more difficult verbal (language dependent) and pictured (non-language dependent) absurdities; repeat five-digit numbers in reverse order; define abstract words (for example, sorrow); fill in a missing word in a sentence.

14 years

Solve reasoning problems; identify relationships among points of the compass; find similarities in apparently opposite concepts (for example, high and low); predict the number of holes that will appear when folded paper is cut and then opened.

Adult

Supply several missing words for incomplete sentences; repeat six-digit numbers in reverse order; create a sentence using several unrelated words (for example, forest, businesslike and dismayed); describe similarities between concepts (for example, teaching and learning).

Wechsler s tests of intelligence Among the most widely used and respected individual intelligence tests are the intelligence tests first developed by David Wechsler in 1939. Though devised in America, they have been successfully adapted for use in Australia. The Wechsler tests are commonly referred to as the Wechsler scales. The best known of the Wechsler scales are the WAIS IV (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale), the WISC IV (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children) and the WPPSI III (Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence). The Australian version of the WAIS IV is designed for use with people aged 16 years 11 months to 90 years 11 months, and the WPPSI for children aged 2 years 6 months to 7 years 3 months. The design of the Wechsler scales reflects Wechsler s belief that intelligence is complex and involves a variety of cognitive abilities. The current version of the WAIS, which was released in 2008, has 10 core ( compulsory ) tests. The tests are organised in four categories called Verbal Comprehension, Perpetual Reasoning, Verbal Memory and Processing Speed. These four categories represent what the contemporary test developers believe to be the major components of adult intelligence. Some of the tests, such as Information and Arithmentic, are dependent on language and numerical knowledge and skills. They also depend on knowledge and skills acquired through socio-cultural experiences. Other tests, such as Matrix Reasoning and Visual Puzzles, are less dependent on 478

U n i t 2 Self and others

socio-cultural background. Box 11.5 shows examples of the kinds of items in the tests within the WAIS IV. The WAIS IV provides scores for each of the four components (called index or composite scores). The scores are useful for diagnostic purposes; for example, to identify a test-taker s strengths and weaknesses on each component. An IQ score, which is based on the total combined performance on the four components, is also calculated. The WAIS is the most widely used individual test of adult intelligence in Australia and throughout the world. It has been found to be a valid and reliable intelligence test. The WAIS has also been found to be a good measure of both fluid and crystallised intelligence (McGrew & Flanagan, 1998). A main advantage is that it tests language-dependent and non-language-dependent abilities separately and people who experience difficulties in speaking or understanding English can still be tested (but translated versions are used in non-Englishspeaking countries). Scores can still be obtained without administering the verbal components, since each component produces its own score. One problem with the WAIS IV (and WISC IV) is that it can take up to 90 minutes or more to complete. Consequently, a shorter version that takes about 15 to 30 minutes to complete has been developed. This version is called the WASI (Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence) and can be used with individuals aged 6 to 89 years. Educational and developmental psychologists find the Wechsler scales useful for diagnosing specific

learning difficulties and devising learning recovery programs. Clinical neuropsychologists also use the Wechsler scales, to help diagnose problems that may be experienced by people with brain damage. People with brain damage tend to score differently on tests in the Wechsler scales. For example, large differences in scores on tests dependent on language skills, as compared to tests not dependent on language skills, may indicate specific types of brain damage (McGrew & Flanagan, 1998). A specific version of the WAIS has now been developed for use by neuropsychologists. This version is called the WAIS-R-NI (Wechsler Intelligence Scale Revised as a Neuropsychological Instrument).

BOX 11.5 Examples of WAIS IV tests and items Test

Examples

Verbal Information A series of orally presented quesions that tap knowledge of common events, objects, places and people. Designed to assess general knowledge.

What is the capital of Australia? Who wrote Oliver Twist? What is the latitude of the equator?

Similarities Questions requiring that two items are compared for their essential similarity or concepts they represent. Designed to assess logical thinking and verbal reasoning. Vocabulary Questions that ask for oral definitions of words. Designed to assess ability to learn, understand and use vocabulary.

In what way are an apple and a pear alike? In what way are a nail and a screw alike? In what way are an hour and a week alike?

What is a guitar? What is a parasol? What does parallel mean?

Perceptual Reasoning Block Design Consists of coloured blocks which are put together to make a design identical to one shown on a card. Designed to assess spatial perception and visual problem-solving.

Blocks

Pattern to be reproduced

Matrix Reasoning Consists of a series of incomplete designs or patterns that are completed by pointing to or saying the number of the correct response from the possible choices. Designed to assess spatial reasoning and abstact problem-solving.

(continued)

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Test

Examples

Visual Puzzles Selection of three puzzle pieces from a choice of six pieces that, when combined, form a completed puzzle. Designed to assess visualisation, visual processing and spatial thinking.

1

2

3

4

5

6

Working Memory Digit span Orally presented sequences of numbers that are to be Digits forward: orally repeated, forward or backwards, from memory. 6 1 4 9 Designed to assess attention and short-term memory 3 6 7 2 Arithmetic Mental arithmetic problems that are presented and solved orally. Designed to assess abilities to reason using arithmetic.

Digits backwards: 1 8 3 6 2 9 4 7 1

5

How many 55-cent stamps can you buy for $5.50? If two pens cost 60 cents, what will be the cost of one dozen pens? How many hours will it take a train to travel 100 kilometres if it is travelling at 10 kilometres per hour?

Coding A kind of code substitution test for which symbols are paired with digits by following a key. The person has a limited amount of time to fill in as many symbols as they can under the numbers on the answer sheet provided. Designed to assess visual motor coordination and mental speed.

1

2

<



3

4



Processing Speed Symbol Search Identification of the presence or absence of an unusual symbol within a group of symbols. Designed to assess visual perception and visual processing speed.

>

Yes

No

Yes

No

Fill in the symbols 2

4

3

1

4

1

2

1

3

2

1

4

BOX 11.6 Tests of Gardner s multiple intelligences Howard Gardner (1999) believes that it is impossible to create a test or set of tests to measure any of the different intelligences he has described. He also believes that the intelligences cannot be accurately measured using the traditional approaches, such as the Stanford Binet or the Wechsler tests. Gardner has also expressed concerns about the labelling and stigmatisation that intelligence testing can lead to.

Despite Gardner s views about the inaccuracies and inappropriateness of tests of multiple intelligences, some tests which claim to assess Gardner s different intelligences have been developed. Use the multiple intelligences tests weblinks in your eBookPLUS to view some examples. See box 12.11 on page 558 for information about the validity and reliability of online tests. eBook plus Weblink

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test of Gardner s intelligences

BOX 11.7 Sternberg s test of intelligence In 1992, Robert Sternberg published the Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test (STAT). This test is used to measure the three parts of intelligence Sternberg called analytical intelligence, creative intelligence and practical intelligence. The STAT is divided into nine different levels, with each level designed for use with individuals (or groups) in different age groups, ranging from preschoolers to adults. There are 12 different subtests for each level. The subtests are designed to assess different aspects of analytical, creative and practical intelligence. A separate score can be obtained for each of these parts of intelligence. Furthermore, the three scores can be combined into a total score. Some examples of the kinds of items in the STAT used to measure creative and practical intelligence are shown below. The tests for analytical intelligence have items like those used in traditional intelligence tests, such as the Stanford Binet and Wechsler tests. Creative 1. Suppose you are the student representative to a committee that has the power and the money to reform your school system. Describe your ideal school system, including buildings, teachers, curriculum and any other aspects you feel are important. (Test-takers are given up to 15 minutes and up to 2 A4 pages.) 2. Each question has a pretend statement. You must assume that this statement is true. Decide which word goes with the third underlined word in the same way that the first two underlined words go together. Pretend statement: Colours are audible. flavour is to tongue as shade is to______ A. ear. B. light. C. sound. D. hue. 3. First, read how the operation is defined. Then, decide what is the correct answer to the question. There is a new mathematical operation called flix. It is defined as follows: A flix = A + B, if A > B but A flix = A × B, if A < B and A flix = A/B, if A = B How much is 4 flix 7? A. 28. B. 15. C. 3. D. −11. Practical 1. Think of a problem that you are currently experiencing in real life. Briefly describe the problem, including how

iQ and its calculation German psychologist William Stern developed the concept of IQ and published his description of it in 1914. An IQ, or intelligence quotient, is a numerical score on an intelligence test. It shows how much someone s intelligence, as measured by an intelligence test, compares with that of other people of the same age. In sum, if you do an intelligence test, your performance can be summarised and expressed as a number.

long it has been present and who else is involved (if anyone). Then describe three different practical things you could do to try to solve the problem. (Test-takers are given up to 15 minutes and up to 2 A4 pages.) 2. Choose the answer that provides the best solution, given the specific situation and desired outcome. John s family moved to Queensland from Melbourne during his first year in high school. He enrolled as a new student in the local high school two months ago but still has not made friends and feels bored and lonely. One of his favourite activities is writing stories. What is likely to be the most effective solution to this problem? A. Volunteer to work on the school newspaper staff. B. Spend more time at home writing columns for the school newsletter. C. Try to convince his parents to move back to Melbourne. D. Invite a friend from Melbourne to visit during the Christmas break. 3. This question asks you to use information about everyday things. Read the question carefully and choose the best answer. D: $5 (Rows 31 100) C: $10 (Rows 21 30) B: $15 (Rows 11 20) A: $20 (Rows 1 10) FIELD

Mike wants to buy two seats together and is told there are pairs of seats available only in Rows 8, 12, 49 and 95 100. Which of the following is not one of his choices for the total price of the two tickets? A. $10. B. $20. C. $30. D. $40. Answers can be found at the back of the book. (Source: Bernstein, D. A. & Nash, P. W. (2002). Essentials of Psychology (2nd ed.). Boston, Massachussets: Houghton Mifflin.)

IQ was originally calculated in a relatively simple manner. Suppose, for example, that your chronological age (CA) is 16 years and six months. If you took an intelligence test and were correct on items on which the average person aged 16 years and six months is successful, then you would be assigned a mental age (MA) of 16 years and six months. To determine your IQ, the MA is divided by the CA. The result is then multiplied by 100 to get rid of decimal points created by the months. (In actual calculations, years are converted to months so C h a p t e r 1 1 Intelligence

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that a precise figure can be obtained. For instance, the IQ of a person with a chronological and mental age of 16 years and six months would be described in terms of 198 months.) The formula is: IQ = MA × 100 CA 1 In this example, IQ would be calculated as: 198 (MA) × 100 = IQ of 100 198 (CA) 1 A score of 100 would indicate that, on the basis of the intelligence test taken, the person s intelligence is the same as that of the average person of the same age. IQs that are over 100 indicate that the individual is more intelligent than the average (MA is greater than CA). For example, if your CA is 14 years and six months (174 months) and you achieved an MA score of 16 years and six months (198 months), then your IQ would be: 198 (MA) × 100 = IQ of 114 174 (CA) 1 This would indicate that your intelligence is above average . Conversely, IQs less than 100 indicate that an individual is less intelligent than the average person. For example, if your CA is 14 years and six months (198 months) and you achieved an MA score of 12 years and six months then your IQ would be 150 (MA) × 100 = IQ of 86 174 (CA) 1 These kinds of calculations provide a convenient way to represent a child s or an adolescent s intelligence; however, this system makes little sense for adults. The problem is that mental age does not continue to increase with chronological age into old age, but levels off during adulthood. An average 10-yearold may be two MA years ahead of the average eightyear-old, but the same can t be said for someone who is 30 rather than 28, or 40 rather than 38. When you consider specific examples, you can see that results are absurd. For instance, if at 16 you get the same score as an average 32-year-old, your IQ would be 200, yet if at 32 you get the same score as an average 16-yearold, your IQ would be 50. Consequently, when testing adults, IQ scores are no longer calculated by dividing mental age by chronological age (Kassin, 1995). Intelligence tests such as the Stanford Binet and the Wechsler scales, produce an overall score based on the test-taker s performance compared to the average performance of others the same age. The average or mean overall score obtained by people at each age level is assigned (given) the value of 100. Other overall scores are assigned values that reflect how far each score deviates from (is above or below) that average. If you do better on the test than the average person in your age group (based on a national sample), you will receive an overall score above the mean score of 100. 482

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How far above 100 your score is will depend on how much better than average you score on the test. Similarly, a person scoring below the mean score for their age group will have an overall score below 100. This procedure is based on an assumption about all kinds of characteristics, and it is supported by empirical research evidence. The assumption is that most people s scores will tend to fall in the middle of the range of all the possible scores, creating a normal distribution curve, as shown in figure 11.20. The score on an intelligence test no longer has to be calculated. It is read directly from tables for age groups that accompany the test. Neither is the overall score on most contemporary intelligence tests called an intelligence quotient, or IQ. This is because of the many misinterpretations associated with it. Instead terms such as index, composite and standardised age score are often used. However, the term IQ still tends to be part of everyday language and is used by many people when referring to an overall score on an intelligence test.

Does iQ = intelligence? While an IQ score gives a measure of intelligence, care must be taken not to equate IQ with intelligence. Nor does an IQ score show the amount of intelligence someone has. For instance, someone with an IQ of 100 does not have 100 units of intelligence. IQ should be regarded as no more than a number that tells us how a person performed on a particular test as compared with others in the same age bracket. It is also important to appreciate that any individual s IQ score depends on many factors, including the type of test taken (different tests may test different mental abilities), the conditions of testing (how, when and where the test is taken), and the personal characteristics of the test-taker (personality, motivation, mood, socio-cultural background and so on).

99.74% 95.44% 68.26%

Fre uency (percentage of the population)

Mean

0.13%

2.14% 55 3

13.59% 70 2

34.13% 85 1

34.13% 100 Mean

13.59% 115 1

0.13%

2.14% 130 2

145 3

score SD

Figure 11.20 The frequency distribution of intelligence test scores in the general population is shown by the symmetrical normal distribution curve. The mean IQ score is set at 100. Using this mean score enables comparisons of scores to be made. Standard deviations (SD) are used to describe the spread of scores in relation to the mean.

learning activity 11.17

learning activity 11.18

review questions

essay comparing theories of intelligence

1. Consider the intelligence test and sample items developed by one of the theorists discussed in this chapter. On the basis of this information: (a) Explain what an intelligence test is. (b) Comment on Boring s (1923) view that Intelligence is what intelligence tests measure . 2. (a) Define the terms mental age and chronological age. (b) How were MA and CA used in determining IQ? 3. (a) What does the term IQ mean? (b) What is the average IQ score? Explain your answer. (c) Calculate an approximate IQ score for someone with an MA of 16 years and nine months and a CA of 15 years and six months. (d) Why is IQ no longer calculated by dividing MA by CA? (e) How is an overall score on an intelligence test now obtained? 4. What conclusions can be made and not be made about someone s intelligence on the basis of their overall score on an intelligence test? Explain your answer.

Write an essay of approximately 500 600 words in which you compare two different theories of intelligence. Although the CHC model is not a theory, this model may be selected. In your essay, ensure that you: • discuss similarities and differences between the two theories (or model), both of a general nature (e.g. description of intelligence) and specific nature (e.g. kinds of intelligence or cognitive abilities) • accurately define and explain all key terms • use appropriate examples to demonstrate your understanding of key terms and ideas • structure the information in a logical way • explain your information in a clear and concise way • accurately cite and reference all material. References may be used in obtaining information for your essay.

Assesment task and criteria C h a p t e r 1 1 Intelligence

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learning activity 11.19 Oral presentation comparing theories of intelligence Prepare a presentation that compares two different theories of intelligence. Although the CHC model is not a theory, this model may be selected. In your presentation, ensure that you • use two or more data types, for example, still or moving images, written text and sound • address similarties and differences between the two theories (or models), both of a general nature (e.g. description of intelligence) and specific nature (e.g. kinds of intelligences or cognitive abilities) • accurately define and explain all key terms • use appropriate examples to demonstrate your understanding of key terms and concepts • organise the information in a logical way • express your information in a clear or concise way References may be used in obtaining information for your presentation. Assesment task and criteria

variability of intelligence test scores The variability, or spread, of intelligence test scores in the general population is represented by the normal distribution curve shown in figure 11.20. A characteristic of the spread of intelligence test scores is that the same proportion of scores always falls between particular points of the distribution. For example, the mean IQ score is set at 100 and the majority of scores occur around this central point of the distribution. Furthermore, because the normal distribution curve is symmetrical that is, made up of two identical halves 50% of all scores fall above the mean and 50% of all scores fall below the mean. In a normal distribution, standard deviations are used to indicate the spread of the scores in relation to the mean. As shown in figure 11.20, about 68% of individuals achieve an IQ score that falls within one standard deviation either side of the mean. IQ scores within one standard deviation fall between 85 (a standard deviation of 1) and 115 (a standard deviation of +1). About 95% of individuals achieve a score that falls within two standard deviations either side of the mean. IQ scores within two standard deviations fall between 70 (a standard deviation of 2) and 130 (a standard deviation of +2). Only about 2% of the general population achieve an IQ score more than two standard deviations below the mean (an IQ score below 70). Similarly, only about 2% of the population achieve an IQ score more than two standard deviations above the mean (above 130). 484

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Representing the variability of intelligence test scores in a normal distribution curve is based on an assumption that scores in the general population are distributed in this way. For example, it is assumed that if the test were given to a very large sample of people and the scores were plotted as a frequency distribution, then a normal distribution curve would be obtained. This assumption is well-supported by research evidence and is also applied to many other human abilities and personal characteristics. In any actual sample of people, however, the distribution will vary somewhat from the theoretical ideal shape represented by the curve; that is, such a perfectly symmetrical curve is unlikely to be obtained. Descriptive classifications are sometimes used for individuals whose scores on an intelligence test are above or below a certain point. For example, the Wechsler scales traditionally described normal intelligence in terms of IQ scores that fall within the range of 90 109. As shown in table 11.3, 50% of the population achieve a score within this average range (which is less than one standard deviation from the mean). Scores of up to 10 either side of the average range are considered to be either high average or low average , depending on whether they are higher or lower than the average range. Scores at the extremes of the distribution which are more than two standard deviations from the mean and are achieved by only a very small percentage (2.2%) of the population are described as very superior or extremely low . table 11.3 Descriptive (qualitative) classifications of test scores

Score

Classification

Percentage included

130 and above

Very superior

2.2

120 129

Superior

6.7

110 119

High average

16.1

90 109

Average

50.0

80 89

Low average

16.1

70 79

Borderline

6.7

69 and below

Extremely low

2.2

Source: Weschler Adult Intelligence Scales, Third Edition (WAIS III). © 1997 NCS Pearson, Inc. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved.

Psychologists are cautious with their use of classifications or labels such as those shown above. Many psychologists do not agree with these types of descriptive labels and the majority avoid using them. Such strict cut off scores and classifications of intelligence ignores the fact that an individual s score may vary by several points from one testing to another, and that intelligence tests can have biases which favour certain socio-cultural groups over others.

BOX 11.8 Differences in intelligence The left end of the normal distribution curve of intelligence test scores consists of a small percentage of individuals (about 2%) whose IQ scores are considerably below the mean score of 100. The right end consists of an equally small percentage of individuals (about 2%) who have a very high IQ score. Individuals who obtain scores within these extreme ranges are referred to as intellectually disabled and intellectually gifted respectively. Intellectually disabled People with an intelligence quotient (IQ) well below the mean (that is, less than 70) are generally regarded as being intellectually disabled. Intellectually disabled people tend to have limited personal skills, and have more difficulty caring for themselves and communicating, when compared with other people of the same age and culture. People with intellectual disabilities vary enormously in their abilities and limitations. Some intellectually disabled people are able to lead independent and productive lives. However, people with severe intellectual disabilities may need constant care. Intellectually disabled people generally want the same from life as people without an intellectual disability social contact and relationships, employment and to feel positive about themselves. Like everyone else, intellectually disabled people can also be hurt by teasing and rejection. Intellectually gifted At the other end of the normal distribution curve of intelligence test scores is an equally small percentage of people who have very high IQs. Psychologists do not agree on a name for this group, but individuals with IQs around 130 or higher are often referred to as intellectually gifted. The term genius (though hardly ever used by Australian psychologists) usually refers to those with an IQ of 150 or higher. Longitudinal studies have provided a great deal of information about characteristics of individuals with high IQs. The best known study of this kind was started by American psychologist Lewis Terman. In the early 1920s, Terman and his associates selected about 1500 children

intellectually disabled and intellectually gifted with IQs of 140 or more. They were mostly children between the ages of eight and 12. The study followed their progress from their early school years through adult life. Terman s research participants were evaluated every five to 10 years until they were in their sixties. Even though Terman died in 1956, follow-up studies have been undertaken by other psychologists. The findings of Terman s first evaluation of his research participants do not support the stereotype of children with high IQs being physical weaklings , odd-balls and social misfits . When compared with a control group of children with average IQs, Terman s participants were superior physically as well as intellectually. On average, they were taller, physically healthier and stronger. They weighed more at birth than the average infant, and they talked and walked earlier. They read on a wider range of topics, and they achieved much higher grades for schoolwork. They also tended to show higher leadership ability and better social skills. As a group, the children with high IQs went on to live productive and successful lives in adulthood. About 70% of them attained tertiary degrees, and many became doctors, lawyers, professors or authors. Most earned good incomes. On the whole, they were socially well-adjusted members of their communities. However, there were exceptions. Some failed tertiary courses, some could not hold a job, others committed a crime. Clearly, having a high IQ does not necessarily guarantee success in life. Likewise, having a low IQ does not necessarily mean that an unsuccessful life is inevitable. Importantly, within the groups at the extremities on the normal distribution curve of IQ scores, and those in between, are individuals. These individuals may be alike in IQ, but they may be very different in the many other characteristics which contribute to the quality of life.

learnin g activit y 11. 20 review questions 1. (a) What does the normal distribution of intelligence test scores show? (b) What interpretations are made about scores around the middle of the distribution? To the right? To the left? (c) Does the distribution provide evidence that individuals are more similar in intelligence than they are different? Explain your answer. 2. What do standard deviations indicate about the distribution of scores?

3. Why is the mean score set at 100 in the normal distribution? 4. Michaela was tested by a developmental and educational psychologist in her first year of secondary school at age 12 years and six months. Her IQ was assessed at 80. How might this score be interpreted in terms of Michaela s ability to cope with the demands of the different subjects in which she is enrolled? 5. If all Aboriginal people in Australia aged 17 years or older were given a WAIS IV and their scores plotted in a frequency distribution, what shape might the curve have?

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learning activity 11.21 Data analysis

iQ scores

Content validity

Construct two graphs to show the frequency distribution of each of the following sets of scores on an intelligence test completed by the same group of participants. The tests were downloaded from different Test your own IQ websites on the internet. Test 2 IQ scores

Test 1 IQ scores IQ score

Frequency

IQ score

Frequency

130 and above

5

130 and above

0

120 129

10

120 129

1

110 119

11

110 119

3

90 109

8

90 109

10

80 89

3

80 89

12

70 79

1

70 79

15

69 and below

2

69 and below

9

1. Name the type of distribution represented by each set of scores (refer to page 306). 2. Describe how each distribution differs from that shown by the normal distribution curve. 3. Suggest a reason to explain why the distributions of scores for the group differ for each test and from the normal distribution of intelligence test scores.

test validity and test reliability If you wanted to measure the length of this page with a ruler, you would not ask how good rulers are for measuring length. For the purpose you are using it, a ruler is a good measuring instrument. For something that can be defined in many different ways, such as intelligence, it makes good sense to question the accuracy of the measuring instrument. Validity and reliability are two of the essential characteristics that an intelligence test (or any test) must have before it can be accepted as a useful measuring instrument of intelligence.

test validity To be useful, an intelligence test must be valid; that is, it must actually measure what it is supposed to measure. For instance, it must measure intelligence or cognitive abilities involving intelligence and not some other characteristics. There are different types of test validity, including content validity, criterion-related validity 486

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and construct validity. Each type provides different evidence of the validity of a test.

Content validity means that the content of the test, including all its subtests and items, adequately measures what it is designed to measure. For example, a test of fluid intelligence should contain items which match a widely accepted definition of fluid intelligence and all the abilities associated with fluid intelligence. Similarly, in order to have content validity, a chapter test in this textbook should have a range of questions which adequately represent the chapter s content. If a chapter test includes items on information that was not covered in the chapter, or anywhere else in the book, then the test would be lacking content validity. A commonly used method of establishing the content validity of an intelligence test is to involve a panel of experts to check the items against the test design specifications. More specifically, the panel evaluates all the items for each subtest to ensure that they cover a representative sample of the cognitive ability that is being assessed.

Criterion-related validity Criterion-related validity means that the test can adequately predict performance on other tasks that most people agree require intelligence. For most intelligence tests, this typically involves academic achievement. For example, we might expect an intelligence test to be a good predictor of success in school. Therefore, we could estimate the predictive validity of an intelligence test by looking at the correlation between a score on the intelligence test and school performance. If the correlation was high (strong) and positive (those who scored high on the intelligence test also achieved high grades in school, and vice versa), the predictive value of the intelligence test would be high. Many research studies have found that intelligence tests tend not to have a very high level of predictability of success in school. This indicates that many factors besides intelligence, or the ability(s) measured by a particular IQ test, contribute to school performance. For example, school performance also depends on a student s motivation, interest and distractibility as well as the quality of teaching. School performance tends to focus on the ability to reproduce the material taught, whereas intelligence tests tend not to emphasise this type of rote learning ability. Nevertheless, intelligence test scores are better predictors of school performance than any other measures that psychologists or educators currently use. Another way of obtaining evidence of criterion validity for an intelligence test is by comparing the results

of the test with one or more tests that have already been recognised as valid for measuring intelligence. The score it gives should be highly comparable to scores obtained in the test known to be valid. This sub-type of criterion-related validity is called concurrent validity. The CHC model s psychometric data are a commonly used source for testing the concurrent validity of other intelligence tests.

Construct validity Construct validity means that the test provides a good reflection of the theory on which it is based and that there is empirical evidence supporting the theory. For example, if an intelligence test is based on a theory that intelligence is biologically based and therefore inherited, then scores on a large, representative sample who are given the test would show a normal distribution if graphed in a frequency distribution. A research study to establish construct validity in this way would also provide the required empirical evidence for construct validity if a normal distribution was obtained.

There are several ways to establish reliability of an intelligence test. These include test retest reliability, parallel-forms reliability, split-half reliability, internal consistency and inter-rater reliability.

Test retest reliability Test retest reliability involves giving the intelligence test to the same group of people on two different occasions and then comparing the two sets of scores. If the test is reliable, then each person should achieve similar scores on the subtests and the test overall each time they do it. One problem with this procedure is that test-takers may benefit from test practice effects and perform better on the test when re-tested because of their prior experience with the test. For example, individuals may remember questions and/or responses and this can affect their test performance when re-tested. This can occur even when the period of time between the first test and the re-testing is one or two months. There are two ways of estimating reliability without the problem of practice effects, These involve using the methods called parallel-forms reliability, and split-half reliability.

Parallel-forms reliability Also called alternate forms reliability, parallel-forms reliability involves giving another version of the same test instead of using exactly the same test twice. If scores on the two tests are similar, it suggests that they measure the same thing. Most test developers construct two similar versions (i.e. parallel ) of the same test ( form ) when first developing their tests to enable the parallel-forms reliability procedure to be undertaken.

Split-half reliability Figure 11.21 Some intelligence tests are specially designed to be completed by a large group of people, all at the same time. They are paper and pencil tests and are useful when large numbers of people have to be tested. These tests are required to be valid and reliable in the same way as individual tests are.

test reliability An intelligence test must also be reliable. In relation to tests, reliability refers to the ability of a test to consistently measure what it is supposed to measure each time it is given. A test would not be reliable and would therefore be useless if it measured your intelligence at a high level on one occasion and at a low level on another. This is no different from your expectations of the reliability and usefulness of your bathroom scales. If the scale showed dramatic fluctuations in your weight for no good reason when you weighed yourself each morning, you would probably consider the scale unreliable and useless.

Split-half reliability involves dividing the original test into halves and examining the correlation between scores on each half. For example, scores on the oddnumbered items might be compared with scores on the even numbered items. If the halves of the test are composed of items with levels of difficulty that are alike, each individual should have similar scores on the halves, if the test is reliable. The split-half reliability method is a way of establishing the internal reliability of a test. Another way of establishing the internal reliability of a test is to check the internal consistency of all items across the entire test.

Internal consistency Internal consistency involves using correlations between different items in the same test to determine whether the items produce similar scores. For example, if a test has 10 items of about the same difficulty to measure a specific cognitive ability that all 10 items have been C h a p t e r 1 1 Intelligence

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designed to assess, then a test-taker should achieve similar scores on the items. Achieving similar scores (or responding in a similar way) on all ten items would indicate that the test is internally consistent .

Inter-rater reliability Inter-rater reliability involves checking that different test administrators (i.e. those rating the test-taker s performance) get similar results from it. For example, two similarly qualified and experienced psychologists should be able to administer the same test to the same individuals at different times and get consistent scores from them. If this occurs, then the test has inter-rater reliability. Alternatively, if one of the psychologists administers the test to a person and assesses their IQ at 80 and the other psychologist administers the test to the same person and assesses their IQ score at 120, then the test would not have inter-rater reliability.

test standardisation and test norms If scores on an intelligence test are to have meaning, the test must have been standardised. That is, it must first be administered to a large sample who are representative of the population (larger group, for whom the test is developed). For example, the sample for an intelligence test intended for children should represent children of different ages, sex, family backgrounds, cultural backgrounds, and so on in the same proportions they occur in the population. If in the population there are equal numbers of males and females, the sample should also consist of equal (or close to equal) numbers of males and females. The sample used is called the standardisation sample and is the basis for developing test norms. Test norms show the mean score on the test by particular groups of people. They allow a valid comparison for anyone taking the test. For example, a standardisation sample that did not contain Aboriginal children could not be validly used to evaluate intelligence of young Aborigines. Most intelligence tests published in popular magazines or available on the internet are not standardised. Therefore scores obtained are of little value (other than entertainment). For IQ scores to remain accurate indicators of levels of intelligence, intelligence tests must be restandardised at periodic intervals. Changes in a society (and its cultural groups) over time may alter the amount or type of knowledge expected at different ages. For example, television has significantly increased the amount of knowledge available to preschoolers, and young people are staying on at school longer and going on to tertiary education at much higher rates than in the 488

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past. Consequently, young children and adolescents may be more knowledgeable than their peers tested a few decades ago. Restandardisation is also necessary because particular test items may become more or less difficult with time. For instance, consider the question, What is a computer? . At one time this would have been considered a relatively difficult item, but with over 75% of Australian homes now having a computer, many very young children are likely to know enough about computers to give the correct answer (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2009).

Standardised testing procedures Since intelligence tests are designed to compare the performance of one person with others, the test must be given in the same way to every person. This is essential so that any difference between the performance of individuals can be attributed to differences in testtakers abilities rather than to the testing procedures. Intelligence tests used by psychologists have manuals containing detailed instructions on how to administer the test to each person in the same standardised way. Instructions go so far as to describe exact words to be used by the test administrator at various points throughout its administration. Psychologists undertake extensive training to develop the expertise required to correctly administer an intelligence test. If standardised testing procedures are not used, the results will not be valid and reliable.

learning activity 11.22 review questions 1. (a) What does the term validity mean when applied to intelligence tests? (b) Name and describe two ways in which test developers can ensure the validity of their tests. 2. (a) What does the term reliability mean when applied to intelligence tests? (b) Name and describe two ways in which test developers can ensure the reliability of their tests. 3. If a test is lacking in validity and/or reliability, then what conclusions can be made from the results of people who have completed such tests? 4. Distinguish between test standardisation and standardised testing procedures. 5. Why is it important for intelligence tests to be re-standardised at periodic intervals? Explain with reference to test norms, validity and reliability.

learnin g activit y 11. 23

Culture-fair tests attempt to provide items that will not disadvantage or penalise a test-taker on the basis of their cultural or ethnic background. Examples of the kinds of items used in a culture-fair test of intelligence are shown in box 11.9. These items require use of mental abilities but depend very little on language, social factors (e.g. sex, socio-economic status) and learning experiences associated with any particular culture. To reduce the impact of previous experience, test-takers are often given practice questions that are similar to the test items. In some cases, someone of the same cultural background as the person taking the test administers the test in a familiar setting, using the testtaker s first, or natural , language. One of the goals of the most recent revision of the WAIS was to make it more culture fair . This was achieved by excluding some tests and including new tests requiring completion of items like those in box 11.9. Although efforts have been made to develop culturefair tests, the results are not completely satisfactory. Some psychologists have even argued that a culturefair test is theoretically impossible to develop (Lopez, 1995). For example, the cultural background of the people designing the test will always affect what is included in the test and therefore impact on the testtaker s results. Furthermore, an individual s performance will always be affected by cultural background regardless of the nature of the test (Sternberg, 2004b).

Media response validity and reliability of intelligence in the popular media Popular magazines sometimes include test items for a do-it-yourself assessment of intelligence or various kinds of mental abilities. There are also many examples of self-assessments of intelligence on the internet. Locate an example of a test and review its test administration procedures and items. Doing the test may be useful. What criticisms can you make of these types of tests in terms of each of the following? (1) validity (2) reliability (3) test standardisation proceedures (4) standardised testing procedures

culture-biased and culture-fair tests In psychological testing, cultural bias refers to the tendency of a test to give a lower score to a person from a culture different from that on which the test was standardised. For many years, psychologists have worked on developing tests that do not discriminate against particular cultural or ethnic groups. These measurement devices are called culture-fair tests.

BOX 11.9 Examples of culture-fair items 1. Classifications Which one of these is different from the remaining four?

2. Series Which of the five figures on the right would properly continue the three on the left?

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

3. Matrices Which of the figures on the right should go into the square on the left to make it look correct?

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

Figure 11.22 These sample items are similar to those used in a culture-fair test developed by Raymond Cattell (1987).

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BOX 11.10 Cultural bias in intelligence tests As a group, Australian Aborigines achieve lower mean scores on standard intelligence tests than do white Australians. What possible explanation could there be for this? Research by Australian psychologist Dr Judith Kearins indicates that cultural factors probably account for the difference in scores. One such factor is the cultural bias in tasks traditionally used in intelligence tests. In one experiment, Kearins (1976) compared the performance of Aboriginal Australians living in remote communities and Australians of Anglo-Saxon origin on a visual spatial memory task. Objects were set out on a tray marked out in squares. The display was presented for 30 seconds, then the objects were heaped together. Participants were then required to put each object back in its original square on the grid. The participants were 44 Aboriginal adolescents from Australia s Western desert region and 44 Anglo-Australian adolescents from a school in an outer suburb of Perth. Under various experimental conditions the tray contained either 12 or 20 objects. In one condition, natural objects (for example, a twig and a feather), with which Aborigines were more familiar, were used. In another condition, manufactured objects (such as a matchbox and an eraser), with which Anglo-Saxon adolescents were more familiar, were used. In two other conditions, all the objects were of the same kind (for example,

an Australian study

small bottles or small rocks). In every condition, the Aboriginal group markedly outperformed the Anglo-Saxon group. One of the conclusions drawn by Kearins is that . . . attempts to examine thinking from the viewpoints of other cultures, rather than by way of the Western view, are likely to reveal unsuspected ability and to raise new questions about Western skills and practices . What does this conclusion suggest about the kinds of tasks typically used in IQ tests?

Figure 11.23 Traditional intelligence tests tend to be culturally biased against Aboriginal people. Options and variations

BOX 11.11 Koori IQ Test The Koori IQ Test is an example of a deliberately constructed culturally biased test. It was devised for use with non-Indigenous university students and is not designed for school children or Indigenous university students. According to James Wilson-Miller (2009), who developed the test, the term Koori IQ Test is a contrived name that means the Knowledge Of Operative Reflective Intelligence . This is an intended send-up of academic educational jargon. Koori does refer to the term Koori , which some Indigenous Australian people use to identify themselves. However, it is nothing to do with measuring the intelligence of Koori or other Indigenous Australian people. It is an example of what such an IQ Test might be if it were designed by Koori people assuming Koori people were to support to such testing. The main purpose of the Koori IQ test is to show nonIndigenous people two things: how the value of knowledge is culturally constructed; and what it s like to be assessed and graded on the basis of alien criteria. For generations, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children have been assessed, graded and placed into classes of low achievement because of culturally biased testing principles commonly known as IQ testing. The intelligence one needs is based on knowledge of how to reflectively operate in a social system pre-determined by a society s decision makers.

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The Koori IQ Test was first developed in 1982 and revised by Wilson-Miller in 1996, 2001 and 2003 to give people an idea of just one of the unequal components of special treatment Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children have experienced for decades. When using this test with non-Indigenous people they gain some understanding of the impact of culturally biased tests. According to Wilson-Miller, the 19 questions within this test, would be known by the majority of Indigenous people in NSW over the age of 20. The majority of non-Indigenous people would flounder. However, it is important to be aware that many non-Indigenous people have had contact and have worked in Indigenous communities in NSW for quite some time. They will score higher than people who have not had this experience. Guidelines for delivery include: • only giving the test to non-Indigenous adults it is not designed for children; • giving the test to only non-Indigenous people as it is designed to inform non-Indigenous people of the impact of culturally biased tests on Indigenous people; • giving the test in a humorous way it is not designed to be serious; and • understanding that the test is meant to highlight cultural bias not cultural racism .

1. The late Mac Silva was famous for playing what? (a) flute (b) tennis (c) drums (d) golf 2. If someone referred to you as Binghi , would it mean . . . (a) you re white (b) like a brother (c) you re a baker (d) you ve got dough 3. If you saw a gungibal, would you be looking at a . . . (a) soldier (b) policeman (c) centrelink officer (d) gunsmith 4. Dr Ruby Langford Ginibi is . . . (a) a Koori anthropologist (b) a film producer (c) a newspaper editor (d) an author 5. If you were called a Gubba, would it mean you were a . . . (a) white person (b) brother (c) Koori Elder (d) government official 6. Narwan is . . . (a) a narwhal (b) a political party (c) a football team (d) a mythical being 7. Which is the odd one out? (a) Wiradjuri (b) Thungutti (c) Womboin (d) Gomilaroi 8. A Koori s meat is . . . (a) a get together (b) a leg of lamb (c) sex appeal (d) a totem 9. Where does Nathan Blacklock come from originally? (a) Moree (b) Boggabilla (c) Tingha (d) Guyra 10. From what language does the word Munyarl come from? (a) Yuin (b) Wonnarua (c) Bundjalung (d) Thungutti

11. Who is Michael O Loughlin? (a) A NSL player (b) A NRL footballer (c) An AFL player (d) A NBL player 12. If you were playing coon-can , would you be playing (a) a card game (b) the spoons (c) a children s game (d) a musical instrument made out of cans 13. What are munyas? (a) money (b) scabies (c) head lice (d) swollen feet 14. Deb Mailman is . . . (a) a postal worker (b) an athlete (c) a news reader (d) an actor 15. Which colour is not on the Koori flag? (a) red (b) green (c) yellow (d) black 16. If a wharki caught you, what would have you? (a) an old man (b) a policeman (c) an evil spirit (d) a welfare officer 17. What would you do with a Wilcannia boomerang? (a) throw it (b) hang it on your wall (c) tackle it (d) paint it 18. Linda Burney is . . . (a) Chairperson of ATSIC (b) President of NSW AECG Inc. (c) Chairperson of NACCHO (d) State Member for Canterbury 19. Where is Dodge City? (a) near Singleton (b) near Texas, Queensland (c) near Brewarrina (d) near Wallaga Lake ©2003 James Wilson-Miller

The answers are on page 571.

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learning a ctivity 11.24 review questions 1. What do the terms culture bias and culture-fair mean when applied to intelligence tests? Explain with reference to examples. 2. What do culture bias and culture-fairness suggest about the way intelligence test scores should be interpreted and applied? 3. Comment on the view that culture-fair test items are theoretically impossible to develop . 4. Consider the examples of culture fair items in box 11.9. Consider also research findings on the influence of cultural background on the use of visual perception principles described in chapter 3. On the basis of these research findings, are the

learnin g activit y 11. 25 Developing culture-fair test items Working individually or in a small group, develop a test item which you believe is culture-fair. Your teacher may collect a copy of your item along with those developed by other students in your class. These items can be pooled to form a basic culture-fair test. When you are given a copy of the test, you should analyse each item and try to identify any social or cultural group(s) in Australian society which may be advantaged or disadvantaged by the item. Give a reason for your decision on each item.

learnin g a ctivity 11. 26 evaluation of research Kearins (1976) Prepare a flow chart that summarises the main features of the Kearins (1976) experiment described in box 11.10. You should: • state a possible aim of the experiment • construct a possible operational hypothesis • identify the IV(s) and DV(s) • identify the experimental and control conditions • briefly state the results obtained • indicate whether the results support the hypothesis • suggest whether the results are still relevant, giving a reason for your answer.

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culture fair items truly culture fair? Explain your answer. 5. Suppose that you are a psychologist in Alice Springs and wish to measure the intelligence of adult Aborigines living in a remote outback region. (a) Would this group have the same opportunity to do equally well on the WAIS as a group of people with an English-speaking background who live in the Melbourne suburbs (assuming both groups have similar intellectual ability)? (b) Is the language used in the test or any other feature of the test a potential source of cultural bias which may favour one group? Explain your answer. (c) What is another possible source of bias? Explain your answer.

Strengths and limitations of intelligence tests and iQ scores In Australia, intelligence tests are mainly used to help diagnose specific learning difficulties of individuals and to recommend special assistance to help overcome these difficulties. For instance, an individual s pattern of responses for tests in the Wechsler scales can help a psychologist to identify particular strengths and weaknesses in the cognitive abilities which are assessed. The individual might be a student who is having difficulty coping with schoolwork generally, a particular course, a specific task such as reading, or a combination of these. The Wechsler scales can also be a useful diagnostic tool to assist in guiding a student s choices of courses with respect to VCE or tertiary studies choice/ courses. In most cases, intelligence tests are not the only source of information or measure used to make a diagnosis. Psychologists use information from a variety of sources, including results of other relevant tests. In a school situation, an evaluation of a student s intelligence test performance will usually involve talking with the student about their learning concerns and consulting with parents, teachers and other relevant individuals, and may lead to further testing designed to assess specific abilities, such as reading and verbal or spatial reasoning abilities. By consulting relevant people and using various tests, psychologists are able to more accurately identify relative strengths and weaknesses and devise individualised strategies or programs to help the student maximise their learning potential.

Intelligence tests are useful diagnostic devices when used in conjunction with other relevant information and tests designed to assess specific abilities. When used independently, they can provide useful information about an individual s mental abilities, but they should not be the sole basis for a judgement about intellectual functioning. As we have seen, intelligence tests measure only some of the abilities thought to be associated with intelligent behaviour. Therefore, unless they are used carefully, the results could misrepresent the intellectual capability of an individual. In particular, care must be taken to avoid misrepresenting the intellectual capacity of individuals in certain ethnic or cultural groups.

in accelerated learning classes. Many psychologists argue that this practice ignores the limitations of intelligence tests, particularly when used in isolation of other information. Many factors other than IQ score can influence school achievement. Importantly, being labelled with a specific IQ can stigmatise and affect the way individuals perceive themselves, and the way others perceive them. This may in turn affect an individual s life experiences and opportunities. Furthermore, a score on an intelligence test provides only a snapshot of the person s intelligence and the score can vary according to the way in which intelligence has been described by the test developer. Care must be taken in placing too much emphasis on one result.

learning activ ity 11.27 review questions 1. Construct a table which briefly summarises ways in which intelligence tests can be used and misused. 2. What are three main limitations of intelligence tests and results obtained from intelligence tests? 3. Should people be told their IQ score on an intelligence test? Why or why not? 4. Suggest a possible way in which our society may benefit if we understood thoroughly all the factors and processes involved in intelligence.

ethical standards for intelligence testing

Figure 11.24 Scores on an intelligence test should not be used as the sole indicator of school success.

Finally, caution must also be shown when using intelligence tests to predict an individual s potential. For example, many school systems in the United States routinely administer group intelligence tests to assess students academic potential. The IQ scores alone are then used as the basis for assigning students to special schools or particular education programs. Those who score low may be placed in classes for slow learners , and those who score high may be placed

Standardised intelligence tests can be obtained and administered only by registered psychologists. This helps ensure that intelligence testing is undertaken and the results are used in ethically appropriate ways. Psychologists also follow specific ethical standards when testing intelligence. The main purpose of these ethical standards is to protect the wellbeing and rights of test-takers. In particular, the standards help ensure that the test-taker s participation in the testing procedure is informed, voluntary and confidential. They also help ensure the results are used appropriately and are not misused. The Australian Psychological Society s Code of Ethics (2007) includes the following ethical standards when intelligence testing. • The test must be chosen, administered, and interpreted appropriately and accurately by the psychologist. This standard helps ensure that the intelligence test used by the psychologist is carefully selected to ensure that it is suitable for the test-taker (for example, C h a p t e r 1 1 Intelligence

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appropriate to the age of the test-taker). It also helps ensure that the test is given in accordance with the instructions in the manual accompanying the test and that the test-taker s answers to the various questions and tasks in the test are interpreted in the correct way (as specified in the manual). • The test-taker must be fully informed about the nature and purpose of the testing procedures to be used (including the limitations), and be fully informed of the results of the assessment. When providing the test-taker (or their parent or legal guardian) with information about the test and results, the psychologist must use language that the test-taker can understand (for example, plain English rather than psychological jargon ) and help them understand

the information by using appropriate examples. The psychologist must also clearly indicate the limitations of the test and limitations to the usefulness of the results. • The psychologist must support the proper use of intelligence tests in the community by not allowing them to be misused by people who are unauthorised or unqualified to use these tests. For example, giving a lot of information about the contents of a test to a person not authorised or qualified to use the test may leave the test open to misuse. This includes not publishing actual items from an intelligence test in a textbook such as this one, in case a student misuses the items or draws false conclusions about intelligence tests and testing.

BOX 11.12 Aptitude and achievement tests Intelligence tests are one type of mental ability test. They are classified as an achievement test. There are also other types of tests that may be used to assess achievement in specific or general ability areas. Some tests have also been designed to assess aptitude. An aptitude test is designed to assess a person s potential to do or learn something. The test may cover a specific area (such as finger dexterity or mental calculation) or a general area (for example, successfully completing a university degree or undertaking the duties of a particular occupation such as motor mechanics or computer programming). An achievement test assesses a person s current level of knowledge or skill in particular subject area. Tests and exams given in schools or colleges are usually achievement tests in specific topic or subject areas. For example, a VCE Psychology exam is an achievement test that assesses a student s knowledge of and skill in psychology (but not their capacity or potential to learn at some time in the future). The GAT is a General Achievement Test that covers knowledge or skill in several subject areas that include English ( literacy ) and mathematics ( numeracy ). The same test may be used for either aptitude or achievement purposes, depending on the individual s experiences before the test. For example, aptitude and achievement tests are sometimes used for job selection. If an organisation puts the applicants through a training program, and then tests them for the job, the test is being used as an achievement test because the applicants were given the test after they had all had an opportunity to learn the information through the training program. If the test was given at the beginning of the application process and people were chosen for the job on the basis of the results of the test, the test would be classified as an aptitude test. This means that the applicants developed this aptitude in an unknown way. They may have had a similar job before, have had certain relevant training or experiences, or have a natural ability for the job (Krumm, 2001).

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Which man carries more weight? (If equal, mark C.)

Which letter shows the seat where a passenger will get the smoothest ride? Figure 11.25 Sample items from a mechanical aptitude test (Source: Bennett Mechanical Comprehension Test (BMCT). © 1994, 1968, 1967, 1942. 1940. Copyright renewed 1970, 1967, 1968 NCS Pearson. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved.)

learnin g activit y 11. 28 review questions 1. Why are there specific ethical standards for intelligence testing? 2. Which ethical standards do you believe are most important? Give reasons for your answers. 3. Explain whether or not it would be ethically permissible for a psychologist to undertake each of the following activities: (a) disguise the purpose of an intelligence test to give a false impression of what that test is testing (b) use an intelligence test to screen a job applicant for intelligence on behalf of an employer who views intelligence as an important prerequisite for the job (c) provide access to a few actual intelligence test items to help a person overcome their anxiety about taking the test at a later time (d) publish a book about intelligence tests and testing 4. A great deal of research on intelligence testing, including research to revise an intelligence test, requires participants to do an intelligence test. Which ethical standards listed on pages 81 4 should apply or not apply to research of this kind? Are there any other ethical issues that are relevant to this research situation? if so, give an example. Figure 11.26 Is it ethically permissible for a psychologist to authorise publication of this photo showing an actual item from an intelligence test?

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE INTELLIGENCE

interaction of genetic and environmental factors

There are many factors that influence intelligence and performance on intelligence tests. For example, it is clear that intelligence is influenced by age-related factors. This has been considered in the development of intelligence tests. It is also clear that cultural background can significantly affect performance on an intelligence test. Furthermore, intelligence and intelligent behaviour depend on how they might be defined or viewed by a cultural group. Psychologists are now much more aware of the influence of cultural factors and have endeavoured to address them in the design and construction of intelligence tests. However, there is still considerable disagreement among psychologists on how well this has been achieved. Another controversial issue about intelligence has involved the nature nurture debate; that is, which of the two factors has the greater influence on intelligence heredity or environment.

It is impossible to completely separate the effects of heredity and environment on intelligence, since they interact constantly from the time of conception throughout the entire lifespan. Psychologists believe that variations in intelligence can be attributed to both hereditary and environmental factors, but which has the greater influence is very difficult to judge. There is general agreement that inherited genes probably set the upper and lower limits of an individual s intellectual capabilities and environmental factors play a significant role in determining whether an individual will reach their genetically determined potential. The effect of the interaction between heredity and environment on intelligence has been compared to what happens when a mixture of seeds is planted in different kinds of soil (Lewontin, 1976). Since the seeds contain various combinations of genes, they can reach a fairly wide range of differences in height under any growing conditions. When planted in fertile soil, C h a p t e r 1 1 Intelligence

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Figure 11.27 How much will heredity and environment influence this young girl s intellectual development?

as shown in box 11.13, they may vary from, say, 300 to 500 centimetres in height. However, in poor soil they may grow only as high as about 200 to 400 centimetres. If the two groups of plants are compared, there will be a difference in the average height of each group. This difference could be entirely due to environmental differences in the growing conditions. Psychologists have studied the roles of inheritance and environment in human intelligence by examining the IQ scores of people who are genetically related to each other in varying degrees. They have also examined the similarity of IQ scores of people who share genes but not experiences, who share experiences but not genes, or both. These studies have involved correlational research. Figure 11.29 shows different kinds of relationships between people on the X (horizontal) axis and the correlation coefficients for IQ scores on the Y (vertical) axis. The graph, which is based on the results of 111 correlational studies, shows that there is a very high positive correlation (0.86) between identical twins reared

together (that is, two genetically identical people raised in the same home) and IQ score. In the case of two individuals who are so closely related in terms of their genetic inheritance and environment (that is, reared together), it can be said that if one such identical twin has a high IQ score, then the other twin is likely to have a high IQ score too. Similarly, if one twin has a low IQ score, then the other is also likely to have a low IQ score. Note that the correlation co-efficients in figure 11.29 are all positive but some are not as strong as others. For example, cousins (that is, the least genetically related family members) have a low, or weak, correlation of 0.15 which is close to zero. Furthermore, as the genetic relatedness of people becomes more remote, the strength of the correlation between genetic relatedness and IQ score decreases. This suggests that the more closely related two people are in terms of their genetic inheritance, then the more alike their IQ scores will be. This provides strong evidence for the role of heredity as an important factor which influences intelligence (as measured by an IQ test).

BOX 11.13 The tomato plant analogy Figure 11.28 Even if differences among tomato plants within each pot are due entirely to genetic differences of seeds, the average difference between groups of tomatoes may be entirely due to the environment. The same principle can be applied to people; for example, individual differences within a group (such as people of the same race or ethnic background) and differences between groups (such as differences between people of two different races or ethnic backgrounds) (Lewontin, 1976).

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scores

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Relations ip bet een people Figure 11.29 Correlations of IQ scores and genetic relatedness

Importantly, the correlational data also provide evidence for the role of the environment, such as where and how the children are raised. This is evident in the different correlation coefficients for identical twins reared together (0.86) and identical twins reared apart (0.72). It seems that this difference could be due to the role of environmental factors, such as where they are reared. More recent correlational studies have obtained similar results (Plomin & Spinath, 2004). Research findings have established that the environment in which we are raised has a very significant effect on intelligence. For example, there is little doubt that formal education such as schooling impacts on

Source: Adapted from Bouchard and McGrae (1981).

intellectual development and IQ scores. Generally, the longer a child remains in school, the higher their IQ will be (Gazzaniga & Heatherton, 2006; Neisser, 1998). The Flynn effect also provides very strong evidence for the impact of environment on intelligence. The Flynn effect is a research finding that IQ scores have risen over time by about 15 points (or 1 standard deviation). The Flynn effect is named after James Flynn, a New Zealand sociologist who first described the effect in 1981. Flynn obtained this finding by studying the IQ scores of large groups of people on the same intelligence tests over a 50-year period. As shown in figure 11.30, when people from four different nations were

105 100 Belgium 95 Norway

90 85

Netherlands 80 75

Great Britain

70 0 1942

1952

1962

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Figure 11.30 The Flynn effect increases in IQ over time are shown in this graph of four nations. (The scale on the vertical axis has been adjusted to enable comparisons.) Source: Adapted from Flynn (1999). C h a p t e r 1 1 Intelligence

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studied, a rise in IQ scores was evident in each nation (Flynn, 1999). Flynn and other researchers have obtained similar results from other studies conducted in many other countries. Since genes are unlikely to have changed much during this 50 year period, the increase in IQ scores is probably due to environmental

factors. Some possible explanations for the Flynn effect include students staying at school for more years, improved educational methods, smaller families with more intensive parenting, increased exposure to technology and computers, and better nutrition and health care (Gazzaniga & Heatherton, 2006).

learnin g a ctivity 11. 29 Data analysis

iQ scores and genetic relatedness

Consider the data in figure 11.31 below showing correlations of IQ scores and genetic relatedness. The data are derived from a study in 1993. Compare these data with similar data from 1981 in figure 11.29 on page 497 and answer the following questions. Identical twins reared together Identical twins reared apart

Relations ip bet een people

Fraternal twins reared together Siblings reared together Siblings reared apart Biological parent and child, lived together Biological parent and child, lived apart Adoptive parent and child, lived together Adoptive siblings, reared together Cousins reared apart 0

.10 .20 .30 .40 .50 .60 .70 Mean correlation coefficients for

.80 .90 1.00 scores

Figure 11.31 Correlations of IQ scores and genetic relatedness

1. What similarities and/or differences are there when both sets of data are compared and contrasted in relation to: (a) samples? (b) mean correlation coefficients? 2. Which data in the 1993 study provide evidence for: (a) a genetic influence in intelligence? (b) an environmental influence on intelligence? Explain each answer. 3. Is it reasonable to expect significant differences in the results of two similar correlational studies conducted 12 years apart? Explain your answer. 4. Which set of data, figure 11.29 or figure 11.31, is more useful for drawing conclusions about the relative roles of heredity and environment on intelligence? Explain your answer with reference to the data.

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BOX 11.14 The brain and intelligence Dolphins, whales and elephants have larger brains than humans. However, relative to body size, the human brain is proportionally bigger than the brain of any other animal. As a species, humans are more intelligent than all other animals. Does it follow that bigger is better ; that a bigger brain means greater intelligence? Research studies have used brain scanning such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to measure the brain size of participants who were required to complete an intelligence test. These studies have found moderate correlations between brain size (adjusted for body size) and intelligence test scores. For example, in one study, researchers found that IQ scores on the WAIS correlated with brain size at 0.61 in men and 0.35 in women. The correlation coefficient for both sexes combined was 0.51 (Willerman & others, 1991). Other researchers have obtained similar results (Rushton & Ankney, 1996; Andreasen & others, 1993). However, when Einstein s brain was measured, it was found to be no larger (or heavier) than the average-sized adult brain. Rather than focusing on brain size, most of the research on the brain and intelligence has focused on brain functioning. For example, Is a faster brain more intelligent? and Does a smart brain work harder? Research evidence indicates that people with higher IQs tend to solve problems faster than people with lower IQs. A standard experimental procedure to test this involves flashing images such as those in figure 11.32 onto a computer screen. Participants must examine each image quickly and decide, for example, which of two lines is longer. The results show that the higher a participant s IQ score, the more likely they are to solve the problem and the quicker they solve it. Even when presented with complex problems, people with higher IQ scores tend to solve them faster (Jensen, 1998). Research evidence also indicates that areas of the brain involved in problem solving are less active in people with high IQ scores than in people with low IQ scores when given the same problemsolving task. This has been demonstrated using another kind of brain scanning called positron emission tomography (PET). PET measures brain activity by recording the amount of glucose used in different parts of the brain. A more active part of the brain uses more glucose (and therefore energy) than a less active part. Haier and his colleagues (1995, 1988) recorded lower amounts of glucose used by the more intelligent participants when solving pattern recognition problems and higher amounts of glucose used by the less intelligent participants when solving the same problems. The lower activity (and energy) in the brains of more intelligent participants suggests that the brains of more intelligent people are less active and do not work as hard as those of less intelligent people when solving problems believed to be associated with intelligence.

(a) (b) Figure 11.32 Examples of the images used by

Jensen (1998) to test IQ

Figure 11.33 These PET scans show the activity levels in the brains of two individuals while performing problem-solving tasks. The two scans on the right are from a person with a high IQ score; those on the left are from someone with a low IQ. The scans show that brain activity (indicated by the red and yellow areas) is actually greater in the brains of people with low IQs. (Source: Adapted from Huffman, K. (1992). Psychology in Action (6th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.)

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BOX 11.15 Sex differences and intelligence Assuming that intelligence tests measure intelligence, there is no clear evidence of differences between females and males in overall intelligence. This should not be surprising since tests of intelligence are deliberately designed to ensure that females and males perform equally well. When standardising an intelligence test, any item on which one sex does better than the other is rejected. Alternatively, an item favouring one sex can be balanced by including an item that favours the other. There is, however, some evidence of sex differences in certain cognitive abilities.

As a group, females tend to perform better than males on verbal tasks (such as using words ) and, as a group, males tend to perform better than females on numerical (such as using numbers ) and visual spatial thinking tasks (such as reading maps). It is important to keep in mind, however, that the average differences in these abilities are between groups, not between individuals. There are many females who are numerically and spatially more able than the average male. Similarly, there are many males who are verbally more able than the average female.

Standard

Responses

1

a

b

c

2

a

b

c

Figure 11.34 Examples of Mental Rotation Test items for visual spatial ability. Individuals are required to identify which of the responses (a, b or c) is the same as the stimulus (1 and 2) except for the rotation.

learnin g activit y 11. 30 research investigation Sex differences in visual motor coordination and mental speed This investigation enables you to study sex differences in visual motor coordination and mental speed. Participants are required to complete a coding activity, like one in many intelligence tests. You will not be able to compare the abilities of males and females in the same way you would if the coding test was valid and reliable. Nor do you have any standardised scores with which you can compare your results. However, the investigations will provide data from which comparisons can still be made. You should read the procedure described below then construct an operational hypothesis. Generally, theory and research findings suggest that females perform better on the coding task than males. In order to conduct the investigation, you will need copies of the coding test (figure 11.35 and downloadable from your eBook) a stopwatch and a pen.

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You can test your participants individually or in a group(s). There should be a relatively equal number of female and male participants, all about the same age. Ensure you follow all ethical standards and practices when planning and conducting the investigation. The following instructions should be read to each participant (or group) when they are ready to sit the test. I am going to give you a coding test. The test is used to estimate visual motor coordination. Look at the symbols at the top of your page. You will see that above each number there is a symbol. Now look further down the page. Here there is a series of numbers with blank boxes above them. When I say. Start , you are to write the correct symbol in the blank box above each digit. First you will have five practice trials. After the practice trials, you will have 60 seconds to fill in as many boxes as possible. Start with the first box on the left, and move from left to right only. Do not skip any box. Work as rapidly and accurately as you can. Do you have any questions?

5. If a sex diffference is apparent in the results, how can this be explained? 6. Would students with well-developed keyboard skills have an advantage in competing in the test? 7. What variables other than the IV may have influenced performance on the test? 8. Do the results provide evidence for a sex difference in visual motor coordination and/or mental speed?

You should answer any questions, then ask the participants to complete the five practice trials. Check to see that the participant(s) is working correctly. If necessary, correct any errors and explain in more detail how to do the task. When each participant is ready, begin the test by saying Start . Allow the participant exactly 60 seconds. If a participant is writing a symbol when the time is up, permit them to finish that symbol only. For each participant, count the number of correct symbols completed. Make a record of their score and whether they are female or male. Do not identify the participant in any other way.

Report Prepare a report on the investigation using the reporting conventions described on pages 317 20. Answers to the analysis and interpretation questions should be considered when writing your report. Your report should include the following sections: 1. introduction (including a brief discussion on sex differences in visual motor coordination and mental speed, the aim and hypnothesis. 2. method (including participants, participant selection, apparatus and procedures) 3. results 4. discussion 5. reference list 6. other information requested by your teacher.

Analysis and interpretation Calculate the percentage of correctly coded symbols for each participant. Combine your individual data with that collected by other class members. 1. Summarise the class data in an appropriate table. The table should include mean percentage scores for females, males and all participants. 2. Construct an appropriate graph to describe the data and enable comparisons to be made. 3. Identify independent and dependent variables. 4. Do the results support the hypothesis?

Symbols #

$

%

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)

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Figure 11.35 Coding test Source: Adapted from Grivas, J. and Lawrie, P. (1991). Psychology: Experiments and Activities. Marrickville, NSW: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, pp. 52 54.

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learning activit y 11.31

learning activ ity 11.33

Media response environment

essay

heredity and

© 2003 Leo Cullum from cartoonbank.com. All rights reserved.

Consider the cartoon above and briefly describe how heredity and environment, separately and in combination, can influence intelligence throughout the lifespan. 1. Explain the meaning of the cartoon with reference to one or more examples of hereditary and environmental factors. 2. Does this cartoon accurately reflect the influence of heridity and environment on intelligence? Explain with reference to research findings, particularly from correlational studies.

measuring intelligence

Write an essay of about 500 600 words in which you compare two different methods used to measure intelligence and/or cognitive abilities believed to be components of intelligence. For example, you may compare the WAIS and SB-5 tests and/or different tests within the WAIS. In your essay, ensure that you: • define intelligence with reference to different theories • describe a range of cognitive abilities measured by intelligence tests • compare two different tests (or sub-tests ), with reference to specific abilities that are measured • describe advantages and limitations of intelligence testing • describe factors that influence intelligence and its measurement • accurately define and explain all concepts and key terms • use appropriate examples to demonstrate your understanding of concepts and key terms • structure the information in a logical way • express your information in a clear and concise way • accurately cite and reference all material. References may be used in obtaining information for your essay.

Assesment task and criteria

learnin g activit y 11. 32 visual presentation influence of heredity and environment on intelligence The tomato plant diagram and analogy in box 11.13 are used to illustrate the interaction between heredity and environment on intelligence. Devise another kind of diagram which also illustrates the interaction of heredity and the environment, as applied to human intelligence. Alternatively, you may construct a concept map to show the interaction of hereditary and environmental factors. An example of a concept map can be seen on page 160. You may find it helpful to follow these steps in constructing your concept map. 1. Make a list of as many potential factors as possible which you think may influence intelligence. 2. Beside each factor, write H if you think it is mainly influenced by heredity, E if you think it is mainly influenced by environment, or H and E if you think the factor is influenced by both heredity and the environment.

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3. Write each factor (including its H, E or H and E label) on a separate small piece of paper such as a Post It note. This will allow you to move the factors around as you think about the ways in which they interact in influencing intelligence. 4. Construct the diagram of the factors by arranging the pieces of paper in a layout which you believe best shows their relationship. (a) Write the term intelligence in the middle of an A3 size sheet of paper. (b) Place linked factors close to each other and nonlinked ones further apart. (c) Rearrange the influences until you are satisfied with their placement. (There is no one correct answer .) 5. Stick the pieces of paper down or transcribe the arrangement onto the paper. 6. Rule lines between linked (related) factors and write on each line what the relationship is. You can use words such as influences , determines , impacts upon , can lead to , affects , contributes to and assists .

learnin g a ctivity 11. 34

true/Fa lse Qui z

Oral presentation intelligence

Indicate whether each statement is true or false by writing T or F in the blank space next to each item.

measuring

Prepare a presentation in which you compare two different methods used to measure intelligence and/or cognitive abilities believed to be components of intelligence. For example, you may compare the WAIS and SB-5 tests and/or different tests within the WAIS. In your presentation, ensure that you: • define intelligence with reference to different theories • describe a range of cognitive abilities measured by intelligence tests • compare two different tests (or sub-tests ), with reference to specific abilities that are measured • describe advantages and limitations of intelligence testing • describe factors that influence intelligence and its measurement • accurately define and explain all concepts and key terms • use appropriate examples to demonstrate your understanding of concepts and key terms • organise the information in a logical way • express your information in a clear and concise way. Your presentation must use two or more data types, for example still or moving images, written text and sound. PowerPoint is a suitable medium for the presentation. References may be used in obtaining information for your essay.

1. _____

The Wechsler adult scales measure intelligence in terms of age-related cognitive abilities.

2. _____

Gardner s theory describes eight different intelligences and proposes that there may be more.

3. _____

Sternberg s theory distinguishes between analytical, careful and practical intelligence.

4. _____

The CHC model describes psychometric abilities in a hierarchical structure.

5. _____

Salovey and Mayer describe emotional intelligence as comprising three abilities, all of which involve cognition.

6. _____

Binet measured intelligence by comparing a person s mental age in relation to their chronological age.

7. _____

IQ = intelligence

8. _____

Test validity refers to the ability of a test to consistently measure what it is supposed to measure each time it is given.

9. _____

Culture-fair test items tend to be dependent on language.

Assesment task and criteria

10. _____

Intelligence has a genetic component.

The answers to the true/false questions are in the answer section at the back of this book and in eBookPLUS.

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C H A PT E R TES T SectiOn a

Multiple-choice questions

Choose the response that is correct or that best answers the question. A correct answer scores 1, an incorrect answer scores 0. Marks will not be deducted for incorrect answers. No marks will be given if more than one answer is completed for any question. 1. Many psychologists believe that measured differences in average intelligence test scores between different cultural groups are due to A. the deliberate construction and use of biased tests. B. the use of culture-fair tests. C. inherited factors. D. life experiences.

6. In relation to intelligence testing, mental age can be described as A. the actual age of someone, including both years and months. B. the number of correct answers minus incorrect answers. C. the relationship to actual age when divided by 100. D. an individual s score compared with the mean score of others in the same age group.

2. When using an intelligence test, it would not be ethically permissible to A. fully inform the test-taker about the nature and purpose of the testing procedure. B. fully inform the test-taker about their results. C. force the test-taker to complete the entire test. D. allow a trainee psychologist to administer the test while being supervised.

7. In the normal distribution curve of intelligence test scores, the mean IQ score is set at A. 110. B. 100. C. 90. D. what most people score.

3. One limitation of traditional intelligence tests is that they A. need to be used with certain ethnic or cultural groups. B. measure only some of the cognitive abilities believed to be associated with intelligent behaviour. C. can identify only particular strengths in cognitive abilities tested. D. can be used only for diagnostic purposes.

8. In relation to the development of intelligence, the results of twin studies indicate that A. genetic factors are more important than environmental factors. B. environmental factors are more important than genetic factors. C. neither genetic nor environmental fcators are important. D. both genetic and environmental factors are important.

4. An individual s total score on a traditional intelligence test indicates A. how they performed compared with the average person in their age group. B. how intelligent they are. C. the validity and reliability of the test. D. how well they perform in all their different subjects at school (or other situations in which intelligence is required).

9. If it is demonstrated that an intelligence test discriminates against certain ethnic groups, then it can be said that the test A. is reliable. B. has used a standardisation sample. C. is valid. D. has culture bias.

5. Approximately what percentage of the population has an IQ within one standard deviation of the mean score? A. 70% B. 50% C. 30% D. 5% 504

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10. One key claim of Gardner s theory of intelligence is that A. physical abilities cannot be viewed as intelligence. B. intelligence is actually a talent. C. people in different cultures hold the same views on intelligent behaviour. D. different intelligences are independent of one another.

11. If an intelligence test measures consistently what it is supposed to be measuring each time it is used, then it is said that the test is A. based on a normal distribution. B. standardised. C. valid. D. reliable.

16. Wechsler suggested four conditions that should be present for a behaviour to be described as intelligent. Three of these conditions are A. goal-directed, worthwhile and rational. B. goal-directed, worthwhile and non-verbal. C. unintentional, worthwhile and rational. D. constructive, worthwhile and useful.

12. The CHC model describes intelligence as broad cognitive abilities comprising which are made up of narrow abilities. A. 10; 76 B. 8; 69 C. 10; 69 D. 8; 76

17. According to Sternberg, intelligence is A. made up of three different independent intelligences. B. a single, general underlying ability. C. made up of eight or more independent mental abilities. D. a single, specific ability which cannot be measured by traditional intelligence tests.

13. Binet viewed intelligence as A. many specific abilities that are independent of one another and affect how well a child learns at school. B. a combination of general and specific abilities for which mental age affects test performance at specific chronological ages. C. a general ability associated with specific, but related, mental functions. D. a general ability that is not age-related. 14. Wechsler viewed intelligence as A. culturally biased. B. present in some, but not all, people. C. a single, specific ability. D. a global or general ability. 15. The WAIS-IV provides scores for components of intelligence A. 3 B. 4 C. 5 D. 6

different

18. Intelligence tests are mainly used to A. place school children in special classes. B. identify IQ. C. identify cultural bias. D. dignose problems with cognitive functioning. 19. The standardisation sample for an intelligence test must be A. normed. B. selective. C. representative. D. non-stratified. 20. If an intelligence test reflects the theory on which it is based and has supportive empirical evidence, then the test can be said to have validity. A. construct. B. criterion-related. C. content. D. external

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SectiOn B

Short-answer questions

Answer all questions in the spaces provided. Question 1 State one way in which the reliability of an intelligence test can be established. 1 mark

Question 2 Explain the meaning of the term psychometric ability.

1 mark

Question 3 Name and describe one of the components of intelligence proposed in Sternberg s triarchic theory.

2 marks

Question 4 Distinguish between fluid and crystallised intelligence.

2 marks

Question 5 Briefly describe the four emotional intelligence abilities proposed in Salovey and Mayer s model.

4 marks

eBook plus The answers to the multiple-choice questions are in the answer section at the back of this book and in eBookPLUS. The answers to the short-answer questions are in eBookPLUS. Note that you can complete Section A of the chapter test online through eBookPLUS and get automatic feedback.

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PERSONALITY Ways of describing personality............. 508 Theories of personality ............................. 510 Psychodynamic theories of personality ............................................... 511 Trait theories of personality............. 523 Humanistic theories of personality ............................................... 535 Influence of genetic and environmental factors................................. 539 Longitudinal studies.............................. 539 Twin studies ................................................. 540 Adoption studies ...................................... 542 Neurobiological factors and personality ............................................... 542 Measuring personality ................................ 547 Personality tests......................................... 547 Use of personality and aptitude inventories in vocational selections .................................................. 550 Projective tests ........................................... 559 Validity and reliability of personality tests............................................... 562 Test validity................................................... 562 Test reliability ............................................. 563 Ethical guidelines for personality testing ..................................................................... 565

WayS of deSCribing PerSonality Like intelligence, our personality is not directly observable. However, in everyday life, we often make assumptions and judgements about the underlying personality characteristics of our friends, family members and others with whom we interact, on the basis of observations of their behaviour. For example, repeatedly observing that one of your friends enthusiastically and confidently engages in conversation with both familiar people and people he meets for the first time may lead you to describe him as outgoing . Likewise, the observation that whenever he receives results for an assignment or test he checks them against yours, and his determined, sometimes aggressive, behaviour while playing sport may lead you to also describe him as competitive . These characteristics describe aspects of personality, but how is personality defined ? Psychologists have defined personality in many ways over time. Most current definitions refer to personality as an individual s unique pattern of thoughts, feelings and behaviour that are relatively stable over time and across situations. Essentially, this means that personality is your unique way of thinking, feeling and behaving in a wide range of situations throughout most of your lifetime. Furthermore, it incorporates your individual

attitudes, values, morals, motivations, wishes, loves, fears and so on which make up you . With more than 6.75 billion people in the world, it is hard to believe that there are not at least two individuals who are identical in every way. Yet, this is the case each person, including an identical twin, is a unique individual who has their own distinct mix of physical appearance, personality characteristics, biological make-up, ways of thinking, range of emotions, personal experiences and so on. All these factors combined provide each of us with the distinctive qualities which make us unique. Of all the factors which make us different from one another, personality is, for many people, the most intriguing, but also the most difficult to explain. We frequently comment on the personality of others with statements such as, She has a great personality , or All my friends think my mum is great, but they don t know what she s really like . Or we describe someone as being selfish , friendly or shy . You may have even heard someone talk about another person as having no personality ! But everyone has a personality and it cannot be defined or described simply in one or two words. Personality is a complex combination of characteristics and the challenge, in trying to understand another person, lies in identifying the unique combination of that individual s personality characteristics.

Figure 12.1 Personality is an individual s unique pattern of thoughts, feelings and behaviour that are relatively stable over time and across situations. 508

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BOX 12.1 Personality is not . . . People sometimes use the term personality interchangeably with other words such as character, temperament and mood. These terms are all ways of describing people, but they have specific meanings in psychology. The term character is considered to be one aspect of personality. Character refers to the aspect of your personality on which others judge you as being right or wrong as an individual, and as a social being. Describing someone s character usually involves some kind of evaluation or judgement attached to the description. For example, someone s character may be described as helpful, sensitive and good, but there may be other aspects of their personality such as outgoing and aggressive which would not be included in a description of their character. Temperament is different from both personality and character. Temperament is observable at birth and is assumed by some psychologists to be inherited. Temperament is often described as our tendency to emotionally respond or react to people and events; for example, how easily you become upset and how sensitive you are to different types of stimulation. Some psychologists believe that our personality evolves from temperament as we develop and mature emotionally. They liken temperament to the foundations of a house, while personality is the completed house, fully decorated. Mood is described as something different from both personality and temperament. Mood is considered to be an emotional state that colours our perceptions of the world and influences the way in which we interact with others. For example, a person may feel excited because they have just won a prize in Tattslotto, but they may have been feeling very sad earlier because they split up with their long-time partner. A mood may last for a relatively short period of time or a long period of time.

Figure 12.2 Do animals have personality? Some psychologists believe there are some species of animals that demonstrate reliable personality characteristics similar to those often associated with human personality. However, care must be taken when generalising human characteristics to animals.

learn in g a cTiviTy 12.1 Describing personality 1. From the list of descriptive words below, write an M beside any word which you think describes yourself, and an O beside any word which you think another person, such as a close friend, would use to describe you. Some words may be marked with both M and O while others may not be marked at all. Keep in mind that this is not a personality test . Rather, it is an activity to start you thinking about some aspects of personality. aggressive ambitious assertive creative trustworthy organised calm pessimistic jealous honest conscientious warm cautious sensitive fun loving

shy emotional sociable clever witty romantic dominant energetic risk-taker fearful kind-hearted curious obedient friendly generous

rebellious serious helpful impulsive irritable reliable anxious trusting open thoughtful uninhibited responsible volatile loving

2. Develop a description of your personality using the words you have identified from the list. Your description can be written either from your own perspective, or as you believe others see you.

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tHeorieS of PerSonality Imagine the following scene. It is recess time and you and three friends are going to the canteen. On the way you see a large group of students gathering around two year 9 boys Steve and Matthew. The boys are pushing each other and yelling abuse at each other. You and your friends decide to stop to see what is happening and you move over to where the crowd is gathering. In the process, the three of you become separated, but all witness the fight from different positions in the circle of onlookers. One of your friends is standing next to Steve s girlfriend, and she explains to your friend her version of why the fight occurred. You are standing near Matthew s best mate and overhear a conversation he has about why the fight started. Your other two friends are in different positions and only hear people cheering for one or the other of the boys. The fight breaks up when a teacher appears. The teacher asks you and your friends independently to give your accounts of what has happened. The result is that you each give different versions of the same incident! Why? Different people can interpret the same event in different ways because we pay attention to different aspects of the same scene during the visual perception process. And, as you are aware, different factors influence visual perception, including past experience, expectations, motivations and other personal characteristics. All of these factors can influence our perspective when making an interpretation. Similarly, psychologists who study personality approach their study from different perspectives. Consequently, a variety of theories have been developed to describe and explain how personality develops, why personalities differ and how personality is best measured or assessed. Similarly, models have been developed to mainly describe the structure of personality and the elements that make up personality. Models differ from theories in that they tend to be less comprehensive. A personality theory is an approach to describing and explaining the origins and development of personality, focusing on how people are similar, how they differ and why every individual is unique. Each theory is developed in an attempt to understand, explain and interpret the perplexing and often complicated pattern of people s thoughts, feelings and behaviour. Psychodynamic theories of personality were first developed by Sigmund Freud. He proposed that personality develops from conflicts between an individual s attempts to satisfy their basic instinctive needs and the demands of the outside world. He also emphasised the importance of unconscious thought processes below the level of conscious awareness, and the influence of early childhood experiences in personality development. 510

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In contrast, trait theories of personality describe personality in terms of clusters ( sets ) of specific personality traits or characteristics. Various trait theorists have emphasised different traits or combinations of traits as being influential in determining personality. American psychologist Gordon Allport (1897 1967) developed the trait approach to personality. He identified thousands of words that could be used to describe personality traits. British-born psychologist Raymond Cattell (1905 98), who co-developed the Gf Gc theory of intelligence, also developed a trait theory of personality. Cattell revised Allport s long list of traits and reduced it to 16 sets of traits. British psychologist Hans Eysenck (1916 97) reduced the list even further to three broad traits. More recently, American psychologists Paul Costa and Robert McCrae have developed an influential model of traits which proposes that there are five broad personality traits. In our study of personality theories, we will consider all of these trait theories and models. Another approach to personality, called the humanistic approach, is based on the notion that all people are born good and that, throughout their life, each individual strives to reach their full potential as a human being. Humanistic theorists believe that personality develops as we strive to overcome the various hurdles we confront in our attempts to reach our full potential. One of the best known of the humanistic theorists is American psychologist, Carl Rogers. Psychodynamic theories Humanistic theories

Trait theories and models

Figure 12.3 Different theories of personality provide different approaches to describing and explaining personality.

Each of these approaches to personality is based on a different set of assumptions and concepts. Few psychologists believe that any one theory provides a complete or entirely satisfactory explanation of personality.

Each theory or model focuses on one or more aspects of human functioning and it is unlikely that any single theory or model of personality is adequate on its own to explain all aspects of personality. Consequently, some psychologists tend to adopt an eclectic approach to explain personality; that is, combining parts from different theories and models to form an overall approach they find most useful.

It not only describes and explains how personality develops , but also describes and explains the development of personality throughout the entire lifespan.

learnin g acTiviT y 12. 2 review questions 1. (a) How is personality defined in psychology? (b) In what ways does the psychological definition differ from the kinds of definitions used in the wider community? 2. (a) What is meant by the expression that everyone has a personality ? (b) Considering the definition of personality commonly used in psychology, is it possible for someone to have no personality or little personality ? Explain your answer. 3. Give examples of factors which you believe contribute to the unique nature of an individual s personality. 4. Why do psychologists emphasise the importance of characteristics being consistent to be considered a part of personality? 5. (a) What is the meaning of the term personality theory ? (b) What is the main difference between a theory and a model of personality?

Psychodynamic theories of personality The underlying belief of psychodynamic theories of personality is that personality is a result of unconscious psychological conflicts and how effectively these are resolved by the individual. These conflicts have their origins in childhood experiences during which an individual s instinctive urges and society s view of what is acceptable behaviour often clash. The Austrian medical practitioner and psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud developed the psychodynamic approach to describing and explaining personality. The psychodynamic approach is also called the psychoanalytic approach. Freud s observations of the patients who came to see him about their psychological problems, observations of his family and his reflections on his own personal thoughts, feelings and behaviours provided the basis of his theory. Freud s psychodynamic theory is considered to be the first developmental theory of personality in psychology.

Figure 12.4 Sigmund Freud (1856 1939) eLesson: Freud s theory of personality

Freud s theory Underlying Freud s theory of personality is his belief that the mind is very much like an iceberg most of it is beneath the surface, hidden from the world and, in particular, hidden from ourselves (see figure 12.5). Most of the time, we experience only the tip of the iceberg . According to Freud, the human mind is organised on three different levels the conscious level, the preconscious level and the unconscious level. The conscious level is everything we are thinking, remembering, feeling, sensing or aware of at this particular moment. For example, your conscious awareness right now may be the words you are reading, what is for dinner tonight or how tired you feel. Ideas and thoughts are constantly flowing in and out of the conscious mind. The preconscious level of awareness lies just below the conscious level or surface of the iceberg . The preconscious contains much of the information which we often say is at the back of our mind and it can easily be brought into our conscious mind by simply thinking about it. By performing the following exercise you will move thoughts from your preconscious to your conscious level of awareness. Think of each C h a p t e r 1 2 Personality

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Current thoughts, perceptions, feelings, sensations

Conscious Yest expe erday s rien ces

Preconscious

Aware of this information at any time

nprotected information Last week s s This morning feelings, id es nc eas experie

Easily accessible information in the ‘back of the mind’, but not currently aware of it

Protected information Embarr assing fears

Unfulfilled wishes, desires

Traumatic events

Hidden and not immediately available

Unconscious

ble cepta Unac lings fee

Im Emotionally harmful thoughts

pu lse

s

Figure 12.5 Freud compared the mind to an iceberg and proposed that it consists of three different levels. Information from the conscious level is readily available as we are currently aware of it. Information from the preconscious level is easily brought to the conscious level by simply thinking about it, but information from the unconscious level is more difficult to access.

of the following: the last class you had; when you last cleaned your teeth; to whom you last spoke; what you had for lunch yesterday; and an event which made you feel very pleased with yourself. The conscious and preconscious are merely the tip and upper part of the iceberg of the mind . The bulk of the iceberg is made up of the unconscious. According to Freud, the unconscious is a storage place for all the information about ourselves that is not acceptable to the conscious mind. It is not, however, a storage place for all the information in our memory. It can be thought of as the skeletons in the closet part of the mind where all the unacceptable thoughts, feelings, experiences, images, impulses, motives and ideas are buried. Freud believed the unconscious contains all the memories of experiences which may be emotionally painful, extremely frightening and very difficult for us to bring into our conscious minds. Although you are not directly aware of your unconscious thoughts and feelings, Freud believed they still have a considerable influence over your conscious thoughts and behaviour.

The structure of personality Freud believed that an individual s personality is fully formed by about five or six years of age and that what happens for the rest of their life is an expansion and refinement of this basic structure. According to Freud, 512

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personality consists of three basic parts, each pulling the individual in a different direction. The conflict between these parts and the way in which each conflict is resolved determines almost all of our behaviour and shapes personality. Freud used the terms id, ego and superego to describe the three parts, or systems, that make up personality. At times, these operate cooperatively but most times they are in conflict within each of us. Like many other concepts in psychology, though, they are not directly observable. However, they are, as Freud explained, useful aids to understanding personality which assist in describing the structure of personality and why we think, feel and behave as we do. According to Freud, the id represents innate, biological needs which all of us are born with those needs which help us survive. These include such needs as hunger, thirst, sleep and sex. There is no part of our brain which we can point to and identify as the id. It is a construct, or a concept, described as a force, which represents the demanding, impulsive, illogical, irrational and extremely selfish part of our personality. The id operates on the pleasure principle ; it must have its needs met immediately to increase pleasure and to avoid pain to reduce tension caused when the body is in a state of need. The id seeks immediate satisfaction, regardless of society s rules or the rights or feelings of others. If our behaviour was completely controlled by the id, we would demand to have our own way all the time.

Figure 12.6 According to Freud, the conflict between the id, ego and superego shapes our personality and determines our behaviour.

The way in which the id operates may be observed in the behaviour of a newborn baby. According to Freud, a newborn s behaviour is dominated completely by the id. Whenever the infant needs to be fed, is in pain, experiences discomfort or wants to be comforted, it cries immediately the need is experienced. The infant has no consideration for the fact that it may be difficult for the caregiver ver to ing to leave whatever they are doing satisfy its needs at that moment. oment. The behaviour of most young children is driven primarily by the id they want everything g immediately, are unable to wait and demand to have their needs met.

BOX 12.2 A biography of Freud Sigmund Freud was born in Freiberg, Austria, in 1856 and moved to Vienna with his family when he was four years old. At the age of 17 he entered Vienna University to study medicine, graduating after eight years. The following year, in 1882, he became engaged to Martha Bernays, whom he married four years later. During this time he was working in hospitals, specialising in hysteria (severe emotional reactions) which, at this time, were considered to be nervous diseases . In 1885, he moved to Paris to work and further his understanding of hysteria. It was while he was working in Paris that he became interested in hypnosis as a means of helping patients with nervous diseases . After his marriage in 1886, he established a private practice in Vienna where his work focused on cerebral palsies in children. There, his specific interests expanded to include what is today known as mental illnesses or mental disorders. By the mid-1890s, Freud was regularly practising hypnosis, but was beginning to experiment with other therapeutic techniques such as free association. In free association, a client says whatever comes into their mind, regardless of whether or not they believe it is relevant to their problems. In 1895, the last of Freud s six children was born. In 1896, after his father s death, Freud practised self-analysis which led him to a greater understanding of the effect of childhood experiences on personality development. During the following 20 years, through treating his patients and observing his own family, Freud accumulated a wealth of knowledge (but from a limited range of sources) about the workings of the mind. He proposed many radical explanations of behaviour and personality development.

Initially his suggestions were ridiculed, but his unique ideas about how the mind develops and functions provided the impetus for others to further investigate the workings of the human mind. In 1923, at the age of 67, Freud was diagnosed with cancer of the mouth and jaw, having smoked cigars for much of his adult life. He continued to work, producing numerous books and papers describing his findings and theories. However, in 1933, when Hitler came to power in Germany, Freud s books and articles were publicly burned in Berlin. Not to be deterred, he continued writing and publishing his works until Hitler invaded Austria in 1938. Freud then left Vienna for London, where he died one year later on 23 September 1939, aged 83 years. Freud s London home and study can still be visited they are now open for tourists to view.

Figure 12.7 Freud is shown here with his wife Martha and youngest daughter Anna, who became a psychoanalyst.

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The ego develops gradually as the infant moves into childhood and begins to understand more about how the real world operates; that is, needs cannot always be satisfied immediately or, sometimes, at all. The ego operates on the reality principle it tries to ensure the needs of the id are met, but in a socially acceptable way and at appropriate times. On the basis of the reality principle, the ego considers real-life restrictions in dealing with id demands. Imagine what would happen if people expressed their sexual impulses whenever they popped into their mind , regardless of where they were!

Figure 12.8 According to Freud, infants frequently use impulsive urges to get what they want because the id is not yet controlled by the ego or superego. They are therefore unable to control or channel their impulses in socially acceptable ways.

The ego is the part of our personality which is realistic, logical and orderly. The following example explains the relationship between the id and the ego more clearly. Suppose that you have decided you will complete a Psychology assessment task tonight because it is due tomorrow. At 8.30 pm, you still have about an hour s work left to complete the task. A movie you really want to watch is just about to start on television. If the id is dominant, it will demand that you stop working, relax and watch the movie. If the ego is dominant, it will reason with the id that you should finish the assessment task, then relax, or should look for another solution, 514

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perhaps suggesting thatt you record the movie to watch on another night. The ego therefore develops elops not to stop the impulses of the id and prevent its satisfaction, but rather to help control id impulses until they can be satisfied in socially appropriate opriate ways. The ego plays a mediating role. It has to cope not only with id demands, but also with the he demands of the superego. According to Freud, the superego is our conscience, always ways looking over us, judging our thoughts, feelings and actions according rding to the morals and ideals of the he society in which we live. It operates by the moral principle, providing us with our ideas of what is right and wrong. The superego responsible for our feelings of guilt when we is respons something wrong and our sense of pride do some when we do something right. Our personal understanding of right and wrong sona usually called a conscience . The is u superego always aims for perfection and is not satisfied with anything less than that. It develops as parents pass on to their child what they consider to be important values and standards of behaviour for different situations. The main functions of the superego are to block the urges of the id, to persuade the ego to be moralistic rather than realistic, and to strive for perfection when thoughts, feelings or actions don t meet the superego s ideal standards. It is a harsh judge and id punishment is dealt out in the form of pu guilt. Freud believed that id, ego and F superego forces are constantly in conflict within us and almost all our behaviour is a result of the interaction b between them. The most serious and frequent internal conflict is between the self-satisfying urges of the id and the moral expectations of the superego. The ego often plays the role of the mediator trying to find a way to satisfy the id without upsetting the morals of the superego, within the limitations of the real world. In summary, the id is the instinctive and impulsive part of our personality; the ego is realistic and sensible, and the superego is the idealistic and judgemental part of our personality.

According to Freud, a balanced personality can develop only if there is a balance between the id, ego and superego, and if one is not more dominant than another. If the id is stronger and wins more of the conflicts than the ego or the superego, then the developing personality will be self-centred, demanding, sulky and childish. If the ego is more powerful than the id or the superego, the personality expressed will be logical and practical but not very spontaneous or playful. A person whose superego is overdeveloped compared to the id and the ego will be strict, moralistic, judgemental, have constant feelings of guilt and will not be very sociable.

Figure 12.9 You need to pay for this before you can have it is one of our society s rules that children must learn. Learning rules such as this is one of the ways in which the superego develops.

learnin g acTiviT y 12. 3 review questions 1. According to psychodynamic theory, when does personality mainly develop? 2. Distinguish between the conscious, preconscious and unconscious levels of the mind. Give an example of each level. 3. (a) Define the terms id, ego and superego and describe the way in which they interact. (b) According to Freud, what role do the id, ego and superego play in the development of personality? 4. Suggest how the id, ego and superego might respond if they were dominant in each of the following situations.

(a) You are desperate to go to a friend s party, but your parents have grounded you because you came home late from the last party you went to. (b) You are desperate to go to a friend s party but have promised another friend that you will help them study for a test. (c) You are shopping and see new bathers that will be a perfect replacement for the bathers you have outgrown. You have planned to go to the beach tomorrow with friends and don t have enough money to buy the new bathers. You know that when you wake up tomorrow morning, you are unlikely to want to go the beach wearing your old bathers. 5. According to Freud s theory, how does a healthy personality develop?

learnin g acTiviT y 12. 4 role play superego

id, ego and

For each of the scenarios outlined below, identify how the id, ego and superego might respond. After you have answered the questions individually, join with two or three other class members and (a) compare and contrast your responses with those of the others in your group. (b) reach an agreement on the answers. (c) prepare a two- to three-minute role play on one of the scenarios. (d) present your role play to the rest of the class. 1. Ryan is overweight. He puts himself on a strict diet. Some close friends invite him to go with them to his favourite restaurant that specialises in fancy ice-cream dishes. (a) What might the id, ego and superego say to his friends? (b) If Ryan went to the restaurant, how might the id, ego and superego react during the meal? (c) If Ryan went to the restaurant, how might the id, ego and the superego feel after they return home?

2. Rebecca and her friend Yin arranged to go to the movies on Saturday night. On Friday at school, a boy who Yin really likes invites her to his birthday party. (a) What might Yin s id, ego and superego say in this situation? (b) Assuming Yin goes to the party, how might the id, ego and superego feel throughout the night? (c) If Yin goes to the party, how might the id, ego and superego feel when they see Rebecca after the weekend? 3. Goren meets a girl at a party. They spend most of the evening together talking and laughing. Goren plans to ask the girl out to the football the next day. Then another boy arrives and the girl makes plans to leave the party with him and to see him the next day. (a) How might Goren s id, ego and superego feel in this situation? (b) What might the id, ego and superego say to the boy when Goren next sees him? (c) What might the id, ego and the superego say to the girl when Goren next sees her?

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learning a cTiviTy 12.5 Media response

identifying id, ego and superego

1. Explain how the id, ego and superego might each respond to the following advertisements.

2. Identify whether the id, ego and/or superego are involved in each speech bubble of the following cartoon.

Defence mechanisms According to Freud, the id is forever pushing to have its needs met and the superego is constantly trying to punish. The ego plays the role of trying to mediate between them. It tries to keep the individual in touch with reality, demonstrating behaviours which are socially acceptable. There are many instances in our lives, however, when the conflict within us is not effectively resolved and it is this, according to Freud, which results in individuals experiencing anxiety. In psychodynamic theory, anxiety is described as an uncomfortable or unpleasant psychological feeling that often 516

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arises from the fear that our instincts will make us do something we will be punished for. According to Freud, an important role of the ego is to protect itself against anxiety. Freud used the term defence mechanism to describe the unconscious process by which the ego defends or protects itself against anxiety arising from unresolved internal conflicts. Freud proposed that defence mechanisms reduce anxiety by denying, falsifying or distorting reality at an unconscious level; that is, the ego interprets events in a way which denies or changes reality so that we can believe there is no need to feel anxious or psychologically uneasy . This usually happens without us being

aware that we are actually doing it. According to Freud, it is our way of protecting ourselves from psychological harm. But it is not as if we say, I m feeling anxious. I had better project my hostile feelings onto someone else and reduce my anxiety! Defence mechanisms usually would not reduce anxiety if we recognised we were actively trying to cover up.

According to Freud, people develop many defence mechanisms to reduce anxiety. Although the use of defence mechanisms is a common, normal way of coping with psychological conflicts and maintaining psychological stability, excessive use is considered abnormal. Some of the defence mechanisms described by Freud are summarised in table 12.1.

Table 12.1 Defence mechanisms used to protect against anxiety

Defence mechanisms Description

Example

Denial

Refusing to believe whatever it is that would cause anxiety

You have not studied for a final exam that is being held tomorrow, but tell yourself that it is not actually that important and there is no good reason why you should not go to a movie tonight

Repression

Preventing unacceptable thoughts or feelings from entering conscious awareness, therefore preventing anxiety

A bank teller does not recognise the armed robber in a line-up even though she saw his face clearly at the time of the robbery

Reaction formation

Thinking, feeling or behaving in a manner which is opposite to how you really think, feel or behave

Being excessively kind to someone you really dislike

Regression

Going back to a younger, child-like, immature, way A six-year-old wanting a dummy after the birth of a of behaving sibling

Projection

Shifting our unwanted thoughts, feelings or personal shortcomings onto someone else

Saying that you hit another person because the person hates you, when it is you who detests that person

Rationalisation

Making up a socially acceptable explanation to justify unacceptable thoughts, feelings or behaviour

Saying you did not play well in an important sports match because you felt sick when you actually weren t sick

Compensation

Attempting to cover up a real or imagined weakness by emphasising something in which you excel

A very shy person overcompensates for their social difficulties by spending many hours in the gym trying to perfect their physical condition

Sublimation

Channelling unacceptable thoughts, impulses or wishes in a socially acceptable way

Becoming a photographer of nude models to be able to look at nude bodies without feeling guilty

Intellectualisation

Ignoring emotions and feelings by talking about an Talking about the death of someone close as if it had emotionally painful event in a cold , unemotional happened to a stranger way

Fantasy

Fulfilling unconscious wishes or impulses by imagining them in activities

A student in your class constantly humiliates you in front of your peers. You fantasise about being appointed to a job at some time in the future where you are their boss and are able to instantly sack them.

Displacement

Directing an emotion away from the object or person that caused it to a substitute object or person that is less threatening

Angered by a hurtful remark from someone at school, you become angry with your sister when she accidentally spills a drink.

learnin g acTiviT y 12. 6 review questions 1. What is a defence mechanism? 2. To what extent are we aware of our defence mechanisms? 3. Can you recall a time when you became aware of your use of a defence mechanism after it was used? If so, was it really a defence mechanism? Explain your answer.

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learning a cTiviTy 12.7 case study analysis For each of the following case studies, refer to table 12.1 and state which defence mechanism has been used. Explain each of your answers. Case 1: Students are waiting outside the examination room before an exam which will determine whether or not they successfully complete their nursing course and can be employed as fully qualified nurses. Stephen, who has just scraped through all of his previous exams during the last three years, is overheard saying to one of the other students that he is extremely confident of achieving distinctions in this exam. Case 2: Melanie and Karim have split up after going out together for nine months. Every Friday night Melanie used to ring Karim to organise their weekend s activities. Even though they have not been going out together for two months now, Melanie continues to ring Karim every Friday night. Case 3: Imelda is trying to convince her basketball coach that she should be in the starting line-up for the upcoming grand final. Her coach has told her that her goal shooting is not accurate enough to include her in the starting five. Imelda responds by arguing that she has much better defensive skills than anyone else in the team. Case 4: After Soula did not accept Jack s invitation to go to the deb ball, Jack told his mates that he did not think Soula was anything special and he didn t really like her at all. Case 5: Hamish did not study as hard as he knows he should and finds out that he has failed a test. He knows his parents will not be pleased. During lunchtime, soon after he found out his result, Hamish is queuing at the canteen and angrily shoves aside a year 7 student who accidentally bumped into him.

learning a cTiviTy 12.8 role play defence mechanisms In a small group, select one of the defence mechanisms described in table 12.1. Prepare a two to three minute roleplay which demonstrates how this defence mechanism might be used in real life. Present the roleplay to the rest of the class. When each group is presenting their role play, the remainder of the class should try to determine which defence mechanism is being portrayed.

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Development of personality According to Freud, our personality is virtually fully formed by the time we are about five or six years of age and our experiences up until this time play an important part in the development of our personality. Freud believed that personality development was sequential and progressed through a series of five stages which he called psychosexual stages. In defining these stages, Freud used the term sex very broadly to refer to something which was physically pleasurable rather than something specifically sexual. He believed that as we progress through the stages, different parts of the body become the focus of our attention and pleasure. According to Freud, each stage has a crucial developmental conflict that must be successfully resolved in order to move on to the next stage. One of the more controversial aspects of Freud s theory was his belief that many of the psychological problems experienced in adulthood are a direct result of childhood experiences and of how well the child can progress through each of the psychosexual stages. If the child experiences difficulty dealing with a crucial developmental conflict, they may become either frustrated because their needs are not being met fully, or overindulged if needs are met to a greater extent than is required. When this happens, it can result in what Freud called a fixation in that stage. If a person is fixated (or stuck ) in one stage, they are unlikely to be able to deal with other emotional crises they confront in the later developmental stages. According to Freud, fixations prevent the development of a normal personality and can be the basis of personality and behavioural problems in later life.

Oral stage The first of Freud s psychosexual stages is the oral stage which occurs from birth to about age two years. During the oral stage, pleasure for the infant centres around its mouth, through sucking, biting and chewing. An infant could develop an oral fixation if it found the experience of being fed too frustrating or too pleasurable. An oral fixation may show up in behaviour characteristics later in life in the form of cigarette smoking, nail biting, chewing on ends of pens, chewing gum, overeating or in becoming an alcoholic. Freud proposed that the focus on oral stimulation later in life may arise from needs not having been met during the oral stage. Alternatively, if an infant is overindulged during the oral stage, the result may be that, as an adult, they may constantly need to have something in their mouth. According to Freud, if the infant becomes frustrated during the oral stage, particularly when teeth come through, this may lead to aggressive personality characteristics later in life such as sarcasm,

verbal aggression or cynicism. The personality characteristics often associated with a fixation at the oral stage are gullibility (being easily led), passivity, the need for lots of attention, dependence on others and a need to be looked after and cared for (like a baby). According to Freud, the parents are the main sources of gratification for the infant and the ways in which they meet the infant s needs are critical in shaping personality later in life.

Figure 12.11 During the anal stage, the focus of pleasure is the anus, and there is a power struggle with parents during toilet training.

Phallic stage

Anal stage

The phallic stage, which a child passes through at the age of about four to five years, is the stage when the child s attention is often focused on the sex organs. At this time the child is said to seek genital stimulation and develop an unconsicous attraction to the parent of the opposite sex, while at the same time developing unconscious feelings of jealousy and hatred toward the parent of the same sex. In girls, Freud calls this the Electra complex, when the girl loves her father and competes with her mother for the father s affection and attention. In boys, this is called the Oedipus complex, when the boy is attracted to his mother and envies his father.

From about two to three years of age the young child goes through the anal stage, when the focus of pleasure relates to the anus, particularly when passing stools. During toilet training, for the first time in its life, the child can exercise some power over the parents to either gain approval or displeasure by letting go or holding in from the bowel. According to Freud, the way in which toilet training occurs is crucial. Personality characteristics which develop from an anal fixation (if toilet training is harsh, it begins too early or too late, or if passing stools is excessively pleasurable) fall into two categories. Anal-retentive ( holding in ) personality characterstics include being excessively clean, orderly, organised, a hoarder, stubborn and stingy. These people are often said to resent others who do not demonstrate similar characteristics. Anal-expulsive (special pleasure from letting go ) personality characteristics include untidiness, impulsivity, destructiveness, disorderliness and cruelty.

Figure 12.12 During the phallic stage, the child develops an unconscious attraction to the parent of the opposite sex and considers the other parent a rival.

Figure 12.10 During the oral stage, the centre of pleasure is the mouth.

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For Freud, and others who strictly followed his psychodynamic theory of personality, successfully resolving the conflicts caused by these developmental problems is crucial to healthy psychosexual development. Those individuals not able to resolve the conflicts may develop long-lasting psychological problems. For a boy, resolving the Oedipus complex will lead to controlling his envy and hostility towards his father and trying to be like him. For a girl, resolving the Electra complex and ultimately developing normally means overcoming her attraction towards her father, identifying with her mother and finally looking for a male to take the place of her father. It is important to note that this aspect of Freud s theory has been criticised for its heterosexual bias and for the proposal that a girl needs a male figure in her life (either her father or a substitute). These points are perhaps best understood by putting them in the context of the time when the theory was developed over 100 years ago in Victorian Europe, at a time when society was male dominated and homosexuality was illegal.

Figure 12.14 When children go through the latency stage, their focus is on developing close relationships with others of the same sex.

Genital stage The final stage of psychosexual development according to Freud s theory is the genital stage which begins at puberty and continues through adolescence to early adulthood. During the genital stage, sexual energies are focused on the genitals as they mature and the ability to reproduce occurs. This stage is characterised by the growing need for mature social and sexual relationships with others. Freud did not identify this stage as causing problems in the development of a normal personality as much as he did for the oral, anal and phallic stages. However, this depended on the way in which the individual had dealt with crucial developmental conflicts of previous stages and whether they had developed fixations.

Figure 12.13 According to Freud, this four-year-old girl may be thinking, at an unconscious level, When I grow up I want to marry daddy .

Latency stage According to Freud, from about age six to puberty, the child goes through the latency stage. During the latency stage, attention is focused away from the bodily zones and pleasure seeking. It is a period or time when psychosexual development is dormant ( on hold ). Previous sexual feelings are forgotten and the child focuses on developing close relationships with others of the same sex. Freud viewed this as a relatively quiet and stable time in development in which the child is preoccupied with developing their social skills. 520

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Figure 12.15 Freud identified the genital stage as being the period when the young person experiences a need for mature social and sexual relationships.

BOX 12.3 Slips of the tongue Imagine arriving at your Psychology class 10 minutes after the first bell on a Monday morning and saying, Sorry, Miss. I m late because my auntie lied. Oh! I mean died . The teacher replies, saying, That s okay, we have only just begun to discuss Fraud s theory of personality . What would your teacher think about your reason for being late and what might you presume about your teacher s view on Freud? Unintentional remarks like these are called slips of the tongue or Freudian slips after Freud, who first proposed why these slips occurred. Freud believed these slips displayed our hidden desires, thoughts and anxieties. He believed they were not meaningless mistakes and that they provided an insight into the unconscious mind. If you complimented a friend on her new outfit, saying, I like your new mess, I mean dress , Freud would have been interested in what this says about your hidden views. Slips of the tongue are more likely to occur when speaking in front of a crowd, when being interviewed or when in other uncomfortable situations where you are communicating with others. Researchers have studied slips of the tongue in order to establish if they reflect our unconscious mind as Freud suggested. They are also interested in exploring other ideas such as: whether they occur because of competition between similar words; as a result of a lapse in attention; or whether we do not have ulterior motives at all and they are just a simple mistake. There has been some support for each of these explanations but there is no clear-cut answer as to why slips of the tongue occur.

Strengths and Iimitations of psychodynamic theories While some of Freud s ideas can be hard to believe, his theory is important because psychology has gained some useful insights into personality development from some of his proposals. Freud s psychodynamic theory describes and explains how personality develops throughout the lifespan. The development of human personality tends to be overlooked by many other approaches to describing personality. Many psychologists agree with Freud s idea that adult personality is significantly influenced by experiences early in life, but not necessarily in the specific ways described by Freud. Some also agree that feeding, toilet training and early sexual feelings are significant events in children s lives and that they can therefore affect personality development. This is more likely if the events are psychologically traumatic to the child in some way. There is also research evidence supporting our use of defence mechanisms, although contemporary researchers have suggested that these mechanisms may have a function of protecting our self-esteem rather than protecting us from anxiety arising from unresolved comflicts (Baumeister, Dale & Sommers, 1998). Furthermore, there is widespread acceptance that mental processes can occur below the level of conscious awareness. Relatively few contemporary psychologists believe that personality development proceeds in age-related stages. Most psychologists also have a view that personality development continues throughout the entire lifespan, and does not stop or slow down at five or six years of age, as suggested by Freud. Importantly, Freud s theory lacks scientific research evidence. Not only is his theory based substantially on personal observations of patients who presented to him with psychological problems, it is also based on many ideas that are extremely difficult to test using the methods of science.

Figure 12.16 Freud s consulting room. His patients lay on this couch and told Freud their thoughts, wherever those thoughts led. C h a p t e r 1 2 Personality

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Freud s theory was the first psychodynamic theory, but not the only theory based on this approach. Other psychologists (and psychiatrists) developed their own versions of a psychodynamic theory of personality. For example, Carl Jung (see box 12.4), Alfred Adler and Karen Horney each developed a well-known psychodynamic theory. Generally, they developed their own versions because they disagreed with certain aspects of Freud s theory. These neo-Freudian theorists, as they came to be known, disagreed with such aspects as Freud s focus on the role of sexual forces, his lack of attention to the importance of social interactions throughout life, his lack of attention to socio-cultural influences, whether there is any latency period of development, and whether Oedipal and Electra conflicts actually occur. Generally, most contemporary psychologists do not support Freud s theory of personality development or any of the other psychodynamic theories.

learning acTiviTy 12.9 review questions 1. Construct a table which summarises Freud s five psychosexual stages of personality development. Ensure that you refer to different parts of the body that become the focus of attention and pleasure in each stage and the crucial developmental conflict in each stage. 2. Define the term fixation as described by Freud. Give an example of a fixation. 3. Distinguish between anal-retentive and analexpulsive personality characteristics. 4. Distinguish between the Electra complex and the Oedipus complex. 5. Read Jung s theory in box 12.4 and outline three differences between this theory and Freud s. 6. Describe three strengths and limitations of Freud s psychodynamic theory.

BOX 12.4 Jung s psychodynamic theory of psychological types Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung (1875 1961) was a friend and colleague of Sigmund Freud but disagreed with some of Freud s descriptions and explanations of personality. For example, unlike Freud, Jung believed that the unconscious mind did not consist only of sexual and aggressive impulses and driving forces that motivate our behaviour and shape the development of our personality. Jung believed that the unconscious also contained positive and spiritual forces that motivate the individual to fulfil their lives. Furthermore, Jung did not agree with Freud s stage-based theory of psychosexual development. Instead, Jung believed that personality development was a lifelong process during which each individual is continually developing and learning new skills, and moving towards self-realisation . Jung also did not accept Freud s view that personality was relatively fixed by the end of the early childhood period. Instead, Jung developed a theory of personality in which he proposed that people could be described in terms of psychological types. In his theory of psychological types, Jung (1923) proposed that we all gradually develop two attitudes towards life which influence our perception of the world and therefore how we experience the world. Jung called the attitudes extraversion and introversion. People with the attitude of extraversion prefer the external world of things, people and activities. People with the attitude of introversion prefer their internal world of thoughts, feelings, fantasies, dreams and so on. According to Jung, everyone has both extraverted and introverted aspects of their personality. However, either extraversion or introversion becomes dominant. Once an attitude becomes dominant, the person s consciousness and behaviour are largely ruled by it.

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Figure 12.17 Carl Jung (1875 1961)

Jung also proposed that we all adopt different functions, or psychological processes, in order to make sense of the experiences which are based on or influenced by our dominant attitude. Basically, the functions are ways in which we perceive our external world of reality and our internal personal world. Jung identified four functions which he called thinking, feeling, sensing and intuiting. According to Jung, thinking and feeling are rational functions as they both involve making evaluations, or judgements, about experiences. Thinking involves a judgement about whether something is true or false, whereas feeling involves a judgement about whether we like or dislike something. Sensing and intuiting are irrational functions because they do not involve any reasoning. Sensing involves experiencing the internal or external world as accurately as possible through the senses. Intuiting involves experiencing the world in ways that do not rely on our senses, such as when we have a hunch that something has happened or is about to happen. According to Jung, we all have these functions but, as with the two attitudes, one is dominant. The dominant function is called a superior function, because it is the most well-developed function and we prefer to use it. We also have a secondary function, which we are aware of and use in support of our superior function; a tertiary function, which is slightly less developed; and an inferior function, which is poorly developed and beyond the reach of conscious awareness. According to Jung, combinations of the two attitudes and four functions create eight possible psychological types. For example, an extraverted person can be a thinking feeling, sensing or intuitive type. Similarly, an introverted person can

Trait theories of personality Think about one of your friends or a member of your family and write down eight words that describe their personality. For example, are they reserved or outgoing, passive or assertive, trusting or suspicious, cautious or adventurous, and so on? In describing this person, you may have identified some of their personality traits. A personality trait is a personality characteristic that endures (lasts) over time and across different situations. Trait theories of personality focus on measuring, identifying and describing individual differences in personality in terms of traits. By focusing on individual differences, the trait approach differs from many of the other theoretical approaches to personality as these tend to only emphasise the similarities among people in terms of how personality is structured. Trait theories are also used to predict behaviour on the basis of an individual s traits. Many of the personality tests used by psychologists are based on the trait approach and these tests are often used for predictive purposes. The trait approach to personality is based on four main assumptions. First, that personality traits are

also be any of these four types. Jung described a distinctive and predictable pattern of behaviour associated with each of the eight types of personality. Jung s theory of psychological types is not as well-known as Freud s psychosexual theory of personality development. However, his ideas and explanations influenced many psychologists. For example, almost all of the widely recognised contemporary trait theories of personality have adopted the attitudes of extraversion and introversion and developed them further. Furthermore, a personality assessment device called the Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI ) is based on Jung s type theory. The MBTI can be used for a variety of purposes. It is most commonly used in the workplace for purposes such as self-development of individual staff members, team building, management training and career development (see page 551).

T

I S

Figure 12.18 Jung s four functions thinking, intuiting, feeling and sensing

F relatively stable and therefore predictable over time. Thus, an outgoing individual tends to be that way day after day and year after year. Second, personality traits are relatively stable across different situations. Therefore, a person who is fiercely competitive at school is likely to also be competitive when they play sport and in social situations. Third, trait theories take into account that personality consists of a number of different traits, and that some people have more or less of each trait than others. No two people are exactly alike on all traits. For example, some individuals are more or less aggressive than others, some are more or less outgoing, or more or less optimistic. Finally, some traits are more closely interrelated than other traits and tend to occur together. Statistical procedures based on correlations can be used to identify co-relationships between traits. These sets, or clusters, of traits which are identified as being co-related in a significant way are called dimensions or factors. A dimension is like a container that holds a set of traits that tend to occur together. As with individual traits, people vary in terms of having more or less of each dimension. C h a p t e r 1 2 Personality

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Trait theorists typically describe each personality trait or dimension on a continuum, or scale, which shows the trait or dimension in terms of its two extremities, or opposites . For example, on the trait of confidence, at one extreme of the continuum a person could be described as self-assured and at the other extreme as apprehensive, or they could be described as being somewhere in between, such as cautious. Apprehensive

Cautious

Self-assured

Figure 12.19 Trait theorists typically describe a trait on a continuum which shows the two extremes of the trait.

On most personality traits, or dimensions, the majority of people fall somewhere around the middle of the two opposities (e.g., average confidence or cautious), while fewer people are classified as being at an extremity (either extremely confident or self-assured, or completely lacking in confidence or apprehensive). Many different trait theories have been proposed throughout the history of psychology. Generally, the main difference between the various trait theories is in the names and numbers of dimensions (factors) and traits that are identified and described as collectively forming personality. One of the most influential trait theorists was the American psychologist Gordon Allport, who is widely regarded as having first developed the trait approach to describing personality.

learning acTiviTy 12.10 review questions 1. Explain the meaning of the phrase trait theory of personality . 2. What are two goals or uses of trait theories? 3. Outline the key assumptions on which trait theories are based. 4. (a) Construct a psychological definition of a trait dimension. (b) Suggest three or four traits which may be so closely interrelated that they could make up a dimension. Give your dimension a name.

allport s hierarchy of traits Gordon Allport (1897 1967) spent over 30 years searching for the traits which combine to form human personality. His approach to identifying traits laid the foundation for research on personality traits by other psychologists, including contemporary psychologists. Allport started his search by compiling a list of all the words that could be used to describe personality. He did this using a technique which is now referred to as the lexical approach because it is based on the words used for language. With the assistance of his American colleague H. S. Odbert, Allport systematically checked every word of the Webster s New Unabridged International Dictionary

Figure 12.20 Trait theories assume that these two well-known people have more or less of the same set of traits. What do you think? 524

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(1925). Allport and Odbert identified 17 953 words that were relevant to personality in some way. However, they noticed that many of these words often referred to a similar characteristic. For example, nasty, horrible, mean, awful and spiteful all have a similar meaning and refer to the same type of characteristic. Allport and Odbert therefore eliminated synonyms. They also eliminated words that were rarely used in everyday language, such as chrematistic, stultiloquent and therstical. This left about 4500 words which they considered to be suitable descriptors of personality traits (Allport & Odbert, 1936).

a person would not only strive to attain a position of power within their society, but they would also interact with other people in a similar way. This person would probably try to dominate their partner and is likely to try desperately to win a game of table tennis with their five-year-old daughter. A casual conversation with a neighbour could lead to a bitter struggle on their part to win on some trivial point such as whether the mail has ever been delivered before lunchtime (Ryckman, 1982). Cardinal traits are very dominant but so rare that few people possess them. However, they are not necessarily negative traits. For example, Mother Theresa, a nun who spent most of her life helping the poor and sick in the slums of Calcutta in India, may have had the cardinal trait of altruism since so much of her behaviour revolved around doing things for others with little or no concern for herself.

Figure 12.21 Gordon Allport (1897 1967)

Allport (1961) organised these trait words into three groups which he called cardinal traits, central traits and secondary traits. He also arranged the three groups into a three-level hierarchy, with the traits which he believed most influence behaviour at the top level and those that least influence behaviour at the bottom. As shown in figure 12.22, cardinal traits are at the highest level and secondary traits are at the lowest level. According to Allport, a cardinal trait is a personality trait which is a motivator (driving force) and determinant of behaviour. For example, a person may have an overwhelming need to be powerful and this need for power can be seen in virtually all their behaviour. Such

Figure 12.23 Did Hitler possess one of Allport s rare cardinal traits? If so, how would you describe this trait?

A central trait is a personality trait which is present in varying degrees in all people within a culture or society. Examples of central traits include independence, trustworthiness, competitiveness, possessiveness, generosity, kindness, sensitivity and fearfulness. According to Allport, central traits are the building blocks of our personality and influence our behaviour in many situations. When you describe someone s behaviour, you

Cardinal Central Secondary Figure 12.22 Allport s three-tiered hierarchy of traits C h a p t e r 1 2 Personality

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would tend to use central traits. Similarly, someone writing a job reference for you would probably describe a number of your central traits. Although central traits do not control all of our behaviour, they influence our behaviour in many situations. A secondary trait is a personality trait which is present in varying degrees in all people. It can influence behaviour, but is dependent on the specific situation in which a person finds themself. Examples of secondary traits include liking a style of clothing , disliking crowds , liking a type of music and disliking a kind of food . Secondary traits are like preferences which can change depending on where we are and what we are doing or thinking about doing. Consequently, they are superficial or peripheral traits. They control far less behaviour than central and cardinal traits and affect behaviour in fewer situations. Using Allport s hierarchy and descriptions of the trait types, an individual s personality profile may resemble the following: Name: Martin Maloney Age: 16 Cardinal trait: To be accepted by others Central traits: Self-centred, possessive, outgoing, sociable, conformist, ambitious Secondary traits: Dresses in the latest fashion, loves classical music, prides himself on his physical fitness

learnin g acTiviT y 12. 11 Developing a personality profile Using Allport s trait theory and based on the example of Martin Maloney above, write a personality profile for yourself or someone you know.

learnin g acTiviT y 12. 12 review questions 1. Suggest why Allport s theory is sometimes referred to as the three-tiered hierarchy of traits theory . 2. Distinguish between cardinal, central and secondary traits. 3. Give an example of a cardinal trait that could be attributed to a well-known person, other than Mother Teresa or Hitler. Suggest a name for the trait and explain why you believe that it could be a cardinal trait. 4. Create a psychological definition for Allport s lexical approach. 5. Suggest a name of a trait or dimension that may be appropriate for the words nasty, horrible, mean, awful and spiteful.

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learning acTiviTy 12.13 visual presentation traits

allport s

Locate a photo of a well-known person, such as an historical figure, international diplomat, religious leader, politician, rock star or movie star. Make a copy of the photo and paste it on a sheet of paper. Use the photo as the basis of defining and distinguishing between Allport s trait types. Ensure you give examples of the different trait types and that you logically arrange your written information.

cattell s 16 personality factor model Raymond Cattell (1905 95) also set out to identify personality traits but was dissatisfied with the qualitative method used by Allport and approached the task differently. He doubted that personality would have thousands of traits and believed that personality could be more accurately measured and described. Using statistical procedures, Cattell (1965) developed a model of personality with a method that has since been adopted by many other personality theorists and researchers. His method has also been adopted in the study of abilities believed to be involved in intelligence. Cattell reduced Allport s list of traits using a data reduction method called factor analysis. Factor analysis is a statistical procedure which clusters, or groups together, items of information that correlate more highly with each other than with other items. These groups are then identified as factors . For example, words in Allport s list such as outgoing, talkative, friendly, gregarious and happy may correlate more highly with each other than with other words, such as conservative, rigid, anxious and disciplined. These five words would then form a factor that could be called or labelled extraversion . Extraverted people would be assumed to be outgoing, talkative, friendly, gregarious and happy. Therefore, an individual s personality could be described in terms of their level of extraversion, rather than the five different words that make up the factor. Similarly, the different words that refer to temperament, such as moody, irritable, cranky and touchy would be statistically grouped together. In this way, temperament would be identified as another factor. (In Cattell s model, the term dimension is used interchangeably with factor.) Through factor analysis, Cattell identified 16 personality factors (or dimensions). As shown in figure 12.25, one of these factors is intelligence. Many of the others were given unusual names to avoid confusion with the everyday use of the terms.

Cattell s research also enabled him traits or personality factors which to identify two levels of traits which he form the structure of personality. An called surface traits and source traits. example of Cattell s explanation can A surface trait is a trait that lies on be seen with Sophie, who is described the surface of personality and can as being detached, critical, aloof and be observed indirectly through the uninvolved. According to Cattell, behaviour of a person. According to these surface traits could be said to Cattell (1950), a surface trait is coreflect Sophie s more general underrelated with similar type traits which lying source trait of reserved. obviously go together in many difCattell also developed a personality ferent individuals and circumstances . test to measure the 16 factors through A set of surface traits combine to 185 yes/no questions. Each item on Figure 12.24 Raymond Cattell form a single source trait. A source the test provides information on one (1905 98) trait is an underlying trait that can be of the factors. Cattell s test, called the observed in behaviour through the set of surface Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (commonly traits which reflect it. Each source trait is a factor or referred to as the 16PF) can produce a useful persondimension of personality. In all, there are 16 source ality profile of an individual. As shown in figure 12.25, Score Factors

Low score description

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eserved, detached, critical, aloof, stiff, uninvolved

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igh score description utgoing, warmhearted, easygoing, participating More intelligent, abstractthinking, bright motionally stable, mature, faces reality, calm ssertive, aggressive, stubborn, competitive

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pedient, disregards rules

Conscientious, persistent, moralistic, staid

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Shy, timid, threat-sensitive

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Tough-minded, self-reliant, realistic, no nonsense

enturesome, uninhibited, socially bold, spontaneous Tender-minded, sensitive, clinging, overprotected

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Trusting, adaptable, free of jealousy Practical, down-to-earth , careful, proper

Suspicious, hard-to-fool, self-opinionated Imaginative, bohemian, absentminded, careless of practical ideas

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Forthright, unpretentious, genuine but socially clumsy

Shrewd, polished, worldly, calculating

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Self-assured, secure, complacent, serene, confident

pprehensive, self-reproaching, insecure, worrying, troubled

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Conservative, respecting traditional ideas

perimenting, liberal, free-thinking

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Group-dependent, a joiner and follower Undisciplined, lax, follows own urges, careless of social rules ela ed, tranquil, unfrustrated, composed

Self-sufficient, resourceful, prefers own decisions Controlled, exacting will power, socially precise, self-disciplined Tense, frustrated, driven, overwrought

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Figure 12.25 These personality profiles are developed from responses to Cattell s 16PF. They show the average scores of groups of criminals, creative artists, Australian managers and neurotics. The extremes for each factor are labelled with trait names which are shown at the left and right of the graph. C h a p t e r 1 2 Personality

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this profile can provide an overall picture of an individual s personality and it can be used to make comparisons between the personalities of two or more individuals. The terms in bold type are the factors (source traits). Note that each factor is shown on a continuum, with opposites, such as reserved and outgoing at each extremity.

learnin g acTiviT y 12. 14 review questions 1. Explain why Cattell s description of personality is referred to as the 16 personality factor model . 2. Explain the meaning of factor analysis with reference to an example not used in the text. 3. What type of correlation, positive or negative, would be required for two words to be considered as belonging to the same factor? Give a reason for your answer. 4. What is your opinion about the inclusion of intelligence as a personality factor? Explain your answer with reference to a widely accepted definition of intelligence. 5. (a) Distinguish between surface and source traits. (b) Describe the relationship between source and surface traits. 6. Does identifying 16 personality factors provide a basis for explaining personality? Give a reason for your answer.

eysenck s Pen model Hans Eysenck (1916 97) used factor analysis to reduce Cattell s 16 personality factors to three. However, he preferred to call the factors dimensions of personality . Eysenck initially identified two dimensions of personality, which were like two of Cattell s factors. Eysenck called the first dimension introversion extraversion, with introversion at one end of a continuum and extraversion at the other end. People who are identified on this dimension as closer to the extraversion end of the continuum tend to be sociable, outgoing and talkative, and enjoy interacting with others and other social activities. They also tend to take risks, love excitement, enjoy change, and need external stimulation. People at the introversion end of the continuum tend to be quiet, thoughtful and reserved. They also tend to prefer doing things on their own and avoid excitement and social contact. Eysenck s description of the first dimension was like Cattell s description of the reserved outgoing factor.

learnin g acTiviT y 12. 15 Debate

personality

The class will be organised into teams of three or four students. Each team will debate one of the following topics. All topics will be randomly allocated by the teacher. Topic 1: Intelligence is not a personality factor. It means something else which has little or nothing to do with personality. Topic 2: Traits and dimensions provide complete descriptions and explanations of personality. Topic 3: Any trait theory which describes a trait or dimension as being so rare that it may not occur often in personality is a useless theory of personality. Topic 4: Personality is far too complex and unique to individuals to be able to be accurately described in terms of predetermined sets of traits. Topic 5: Freud s psychodynamic theory is more useful than trait theories as it describes and explains both personality and the development of personality.

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Figure 12.26 Hans Eysenck (1916 97)

Eysenck called the second dimension of personality neuroticism emotional stability. On this dimension, neuroticism refers to a person s tendency to worry and to be emotional, anxious, moody, tense and restless. A person at the other end of this dimension is typically

and neuroticism emotional stability, psychoticism is not a dimension with an opposite. Instead, according to Eysenck, psychoticism is present in some degree in all individuals. His identification of this dimension was controversial among psychologists because of the close association between psychoticism and various types of mental illness involving loss of contact with reality.

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calm, even-tempered, relaxed and therefore high in emotional stability. This dimension is very similar to the factor Cattell described as affected by feelings emotionally stable. Eysenck proposed that people could be classified into four basic personality types by combining these two dimensions. The various combinations are called introverted neurotic, introverted stable, extraverted neurotic and extraverted stable. Each personality type is associated with a different combination of underlying, lowerlevel personality traits, as shown in figure 12.28.

traverted

Sociable Outgoing Careful motionally Talkative Thoughtful stable Responsive Peaceful Easygoing Controlled Lively Reliable rte Carefree Even-tempered d v Sta t ra Leadership Calm

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Figure 12.28 Eysenck initially proposed four personality types, each of which is a combination of two personality dimensions. Each personality type is associated with a different combination of personality dimensions.

Figure 12.27 Is this busker likely to be at the introversion or extraversion end of a continuum?

In 1976, following further research on his two dimensions, Eysenck identified a third dimension which he called psychoticism. This led some psychologists to refer to Eysenck s theory as the PEN model each of the three letters of the word PEN is the first letter of each dimension described by Eysenck. The psychoticism dimension encompasses lower-level traits such as aggressive, cold, egocentric, impulsive, impersonal, anti-social, unempathetic and tough-minded. Unlike the dimensions of extraversion introversion

Eysenck believed that individual differences in personality could be explained on the basis of two related factors our genetic make-up and the functioning of our brain and nervous system; that is, our central nervous system. According to Eysenck, we inherit a tendency to be high or low on each of the three dimensions. To support his argument, Eysenck referred to research studies that demonstrated this. For example, studies with identical twins (who have an identical genetic make-up) tend to obtain very similar scores on a personality test that has been designed to assess psychoticism, extraversion and neuroticism. To measure each dimension of personality, Eysenck developed the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ). The questionnaire was revised in 1991 and is now known as the EPQ-R. The EPQ-R is designed to evaluate the personality of individuals aged over 18 years. It takes 10 15 minutes to complete and consists of 160 self-report items that measure the three dimensions extraversion introversion, neuroticism emotional stability and psychoticism. The questions are specifically designed to measure the nine traits that underlie each dimension (see figure 12.29). Scores are obtained on the basis of answers given to each C h a p t e r 1 2 Personality

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question. The scores indicate how much or little a person has of each dimension and a personality profile is developed. Examples of questions like those in the EPQ-R are shown in table 12.2.

BOX 12.5 Introversion, extraversion and study habits Do introverts and extraverts prefer different study environments? Psychologists John Campbell and Charles Hawley (1982) conducted a research study in which they found that extraverted students tended to study in a relatively noisy, open area of a university library, where there were many opportunities for socialising with other students. Introverted students preferred to study in a quiet section of the library where individuals could sit separately from others on small, individual tables and carrels. As predicted by Eysenck, the introverts preferred studying in areas that minimised stimulation while the extraverts preferred studying in areas that provided stimulation. Where do you prefer to sit in the library? Do you think this is an indication of your level of extraversion introversion? (Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2003)

Table 12.2 Sample questions from Eysenck s Personality Questionnaire

Personality dimensions

Sample questions

Extraversion introversion

• Do you like going out a lot? • Do you usually take the initiative in making new friends? • Are you able to get some life into a boring party?

Neuroticism emotional stability

• Do you blush more often than most people? • Are your feelings easily hurt? • Does your mood often go up and down?

Psychoticism

• Do you like it when other people are afraid of you? • Would you describe yourself as an ambitious person? • Do you prefer to do your own thing rather than follow the rules? eBook plus

Figure 12.30 According to Campbell and Hawley (1982), a student who prefers this kind of study environment is likely to be an introvert.

Weblink to online EPQ test

traversion

Active

Sociable

Risk-taking

Impulsive

Expressiveness

Irresponsible

Lack of reflection

Sensationseeking

Dominant

Neuroticism

Low self-esteem

Depressed

Anxious

Obsessive

Lack of autonomy

Hypochondriac

Guilt feelings

Tense

Moody

Psychoticism

Aggressive

Assertive

Achievementoriented

Manipulative

Egocentric

Dogmatic

Figure 12.29 Personality traits underlying the dimensions in Eysenck s PEN model 530

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Masculine

Unsympathetic

Tough-minded

learnin g acTiviT y 12. 16 review questions 1. Name and briefly describe each of the three dimensions in Eysenck s PEN model. 2. Explain why the PEN model is a hierarchical description of personality.

learnin g acTiviT y 12. 17 applying eysenck s Pen dimensions Consider the following description of personality. MM is a 16-year-old male. He is considered by his friends to be a party animal . He loves a challenge, tends to be impulsive and is always the first person to have a go at something new. While he can be tough-minded and moody at times, and get anxious before doing something that is important to him, such as speaking in front of his year level or doing an exam, he is generally relaxed and easy-going. He is very popular among his peers, considerate of the feelings of others and works well in any group situation. His mates think he is a man s man and often try to model his masculinity. Based on this personality description, indicate by marking each continuum below with an X , where you think MM would fall on each dimension of personality. Compare your ratings to those of others. How could you account for any differences in your ratings? extraversion

introversion

neuroticism

emotional stability

high

psychoticism

low

learnin g acTiviT y 12. 18

3. According to Eysenck, what is the basis for individual differences in personality? 4. Eysenck used factor analysis to reduce the number of source traits in Cattell s 16 PF model. Suggest a reason to explain why this was done.

costa and Mccrae Five-Factor Model A number of five factor models have been developed by trait theorists. Each of these models use factor analysis to identify five groups of traits that statistically go together . Paul Costa and Robert McCrae s Five-Factor Model was also developed in this way. As indicated by the name, their Five-Factor Model describes five factors, or broad dimensions, of personality traits. The five factors are: 1. openness to experience (sometimes called intellect or intellect/imagination stability): includes traits such as imaginative, curious, artistic, excitable, insightful and unconventional, and traits associated with having wide interests 2. conscientiousness: includes traits such as organised, thorough, efficient, competent, reliable, selfdisciplined (not lazy), dutiful (not careless) and deliberate (not impulsive) 3. extraversion (sometimes called surgency): includes more specific traits such as outgoing, sociable, talkative, energetic, assertive and adventurous 4. agreeableness: includes traits such as cooperative, compliance (not stubborn), sympathetic, kind, affectionate, forgiving, modest (not a show off) and straightforwardness (not demanding) 5. neuroticism (sometimes reversed and called emotional stability): includes traits such as tense, anxious, moody, irritable, impulsive, self-conscious and vulnerability (not self-confident).

role play eysenck s personality types Working in a small group, prepare a role play on two of Eysenck s personality types. The role plays will be randomly allocated by the teacher. Examples of role play topics include: • an extraverted neurotic person meets an introverted neurotic person in the waiting room at a railway station. • an extraverted neurotic person meets an extraverted stable person at a party Your role play should • be two to three minutes in duration • be accurately based on traits associated with each type • enable the rest of the class to determine which personality types were portrayed.

Openess Openesstoto experience experience

Neuroticism Neurotism Conscientiousness

Conscientiousness

Agreeableness

Agreeableness

Extraversion

Extraversion

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Costa and McCrae s five factors are sometimes referred to by the acronym OCEAN, which is a word formed using the first letter of each factor. Psychologists tend to refer to them as the Big 5 . The term Big 5 was chosen not to reflect greatness , but to emphasise that each of the five factors is extremely broad and summarises a large number of more specific, distinct personality characteristics (McCrae & Costa, 1996). Costa and McCrae drew on the work of other trait theorists and researchers in developing their Five-Factor Model. The five factors were identified using Allport s language-based, lexical approach and Cattell s statistical approach involving factor analysis. The two approaches were combined in research studies to identify which traits tend to occur together in the natural language ; that is, words people use to describe themselves and others. Because factor analysis was used, the model is based on correlational data. This means that traits do not always go together. For example, talkativeness and assertiveness are both traits that strongly correlate with extraversion. However, some people may be assertive and not talkative, such as the strong, silent type . Despite this, many studies indicate that people who are talkative are usually also assertive (and vice versa), which is why they go together under the broader extraversion factor (Srivastava, 2009; McCrae & Costa, 2001). Costa and McCrae s Five-Factor Model was developed to show the structure of personality and to describe personality. It does not explain personality. The five factors are extremely useful for distinguishing between aspects of personality, but of limited use in predicting behaviour. However, Costa and McCrae have also developed a theory of personality. Their theory, called Five-Factor Theory, describes and explains the development of personality across the entire lifespan (McCrae & Costa, 2001; John & Srivesta, 1999). Costa and McCrae s Five-Factor Model is widely recognised as the most accurate identification and description of human personality traits in contemporary psychology. Many other research studies using factor analysis with trait words have identified OCEAN factors, but not always all five. Extraversion and neuroticism are included in almost every contemporary theory or model of personality, but there is less agreement on the other three factors. Most disagreements tend to be about the best word (adjective) to describe the other factors. The original research studies which identified the five factors were conducted mostly with American and Western European adult participants. Researchers are still studying the extent to which the five factors apply to people of other cultures. A number of research 532

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studies conducted in non-Western cultures, such as in Japan, the Phillipines and Western Samoa, show some support for the five factors being cross-cultural. However, there has been little research with participants aged less than 18 years, so the extent to which this model can be extended into adolescence is still to be determined (Srivastava, 2009; John & Srivesta, 1999; McCrae & Costa, 1996).

BOX 12.6 The Big Five personality traits 1. Openness to experience Conventional ................. versus ......................Original Down-to-earth.............. versus ......................Imaginative Uncreative ..................... versus ......................Creative Narrow interests ......... versus ......................Broad interests Unadventurous............. versus ......................Daring 2. Conscientiousness Negligent ....................... versus ......................Conscientious Careless ......................... versus ......................Careful Unreliable ...................... versus ......................Reliable Lazy ................................. versus ......................Hardworking Disorganised................. versus ......................Well organised 3. Extraversion Retiring ........................... versus ......................Sociable Sober .............................. versus ......................Fun loving Reserved........................ versus ......................Affectionate Quiet................................ versus ......................Talkative Loner............................... versus ......................Joiner 4. Agreeableness Irritable........................... versus ......................Good-natured Ruthless ......................... versus ......................Soft-hearted Selfish............................. versus ......................Selfless Callous............................ versus ......................Sympathetic Vengeful ......................... versus ......................Forgiving 5. Neuroticism Calm ................................ versus ......................Worrying At-ease........................... versus ......................Nervous Relaxed .......................... versus ......................Highly strung Secure ............................ versus ......................Insecure Comfortable .................. versus ......................Self-conscious

BOX 12.7 Sample items for assessing the OCEAN factors Openness to experience • I have a good imagination. • I always have plenty of ideas. • I avoid doing things I might get wrong. • I am open-minded. • I prefer variety to routine. Conscientiousness • I am well-organised. • I don’t like plans and schedules. • I like to get chores done right away. • I am often messy. • I work hard. Extraversion • I don’t like talking about myself. • I don’t mind being the centre of attention. • I am quiet around people I don’t know. • I start conversations. • I like meeting new people.

Figure 12.31 Can the personalities of individuals with different cultural backgrounds be accurately described using the same set of traits?

Costa and MacRae have developed two personality tests to assess their five factors. These tests are called the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R) and the NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO FFI). The NEO-FFI is a shortened version of the NEO PI-R. Both tests are widely used for vocational selection purposes. For example, the NEO PI-R is a part of the recruit selection testing procedure used by many emergency service agencies throughout Australia.

Agreeableness • I am interested in other people’s problems. • I am not often cooperative. • I can feel other people’s emotions. • I can always see the best in other people. • I am not easy to please. Neuroticism • I often feel down. • I change my mood a lot. • I am easily intimidated. • I am not easily upset. • I worry about things.

eBook plus Online Big Five Personality Test

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BOX 12.8 Important personality traits in long-term partners In one research study, men and women throughout the world were surveyed to find out the personality traits they considered to be the most important in a potential long-term partner. The findings of this research study are shown in table 12.3. The lower the number, the more important a trait was considered to be (Buss & others, 1990). Table 12.3 The importance of various personality traits in a long-term partner

Men s ranking of various traits 1. Mutual attraction

Women s ranking of various traits 1. Mutual attraction

love

love

2. Dependable character

2. Dependable character

3. Emotional stability and maturity

3. Emotional stability and maturity

4. Pleasing disposition

4. Pleasing disposition

5. Good health

5. Education and intelligence

6. Education and intelligence

6. Sociability

7. Sociability

7. Good health

8. Desire for home and children

8. Desire for home and children

9. Refinement, neatness

9. Ambition and industriousness

10. Good looks

10. Refinement, neatness

11. Ambition and industriousness

11. Similar education

12. Good cook and housekeeper

12. Good financial prospects

13. Good financial prospects

13. Good looks

14. Similar education

14. Favourable social status or rating

15. Favourable social status or rating

15. Good cook and housekeeper

16. Chastity (no previous experience in sexual intercourse)

16. Similar religious background

17. Similar religious background 18. Similar political background

17. Similar political background 18. Chastity (no previous experience in sexual intercourse)

(Source: Huffman, K. (2002). Psychology in action (6th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons, p. 457.)

Strengths and limitations of trait theories Trait theories and models provide useful descriptions of personality and its structure. They have also provided the foundation for the development of valid and reliable personality assessment devices which can be used for a variety of purposes, ranging from vocational selection to diagnostic testing for personality or neuropsychological disorders. The theories and associated tests are based on why we develop the traits we have, how we come to have the combinations of traits that each of us are said to possess, why we each have more or less of any given trait, and why they are stable and enduring across different situations in everyday life. 534

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A potential weakness of trait theories is that they can lead people to accept and use oversimplified classifications and descriptions of people; for example, as having a specific type of personality described by a single label. Human personality is too complex to be described by simple labels. Trait theories also tend to underestimate the way(s) in which specific situations and socio-cultural factors can influence human behaviour. Similarly, they tend to underestimate the uniqueness of each individual. It needs to be noted that trait theories involve identification of personality traits and dimensions through statistical procedures. Although these procedures are mathematically very sound, the generalisations made from the results do not always correspond to the behaviour of individuals.

learnin g acTiviT y 12. 19 review questions 1. What is the Five-Factor Model? 2. Briefly describe how the Costa and McCrae model was developed. 3. Why do Costa and McCrae not consider their model to be a theory ? 4. Should it be expected that the Five-Factor Model will have cross-cultural relevance? Explain your answer. 5. Create a character for a film or novel using all of the OCEAN personality factors. Ensure that you can justify the presence of each factor in your character description. 6. Suggest a reason why two trait theories or models can have different views on the kind and number of traits that form personality. 7. Outline two key strengths and two limitations of trait theories.

learnin g acTiviT y 12. 20 visual presentation comparing trait theories Construct a visual organiser in which you summarise the key features of the different trait theories and models. Your presentation should enable the trait approaches to be compared and contrasted on the basis of similarities and differences, including references to methodologies used, such as the lexical approach and factor analysis. Include a summary, in a dot point format, listing key similarities and differences. Ensure that you organise the information in a logical way and express all information clearly and concisely. References may be used to obtain information for your presentation.

Assesment task and criteria

Humanistic theories of personality The humanistic approach to describing and explaining personality emerged in America during the 1950s. Humanistic theories of personality emphasise the uniqueness of each individual and the positive qualities and potential of all human beings to fulfil their lives. They are based on the assumption that all people are born good and that all individuals strive to reach their full potential throughout their lives. According to humanistic theories, a healthy personality is the result of a person achieving their full potential, however

small or great this may be. Furthermore, an individual s personality is viewed as the total of all experiences they have had up to any specific point in time. It is the result of an ongoing process of psychological growth. However, to understand someone s personality fully, you must try to understand the dilemmas and choices they have made in their lives from their perspective; that is, you need to establish a concept of what is real or true for that person. One of the best-known humanistic theories was described by American psychologist Carl Rogers (1902 87). Rogers believed that all people are born good, with considerable potential, and that each person has the ability to achieve their full potential as an individual if not for a series of hurdles which may prevent them from doing so. Rogers (1961) also emphasised the importance of free will; that is, we are all individuals who freely choose to behave in whatever way we desire, and we act according to that choice. This means that we also control our own destinies. Rogers belief that the individual person has a central role in their own personality development led him to call his theory of personality a person-centred theory.

rogers person-centred theory Carl Rogers person-centred theory was developed from clinical work with his clients. Rogers became increasingly aware of the frequency with which many of his clients would reflect on who they really were. According to Rogers: As I follow the experience of many clients in the therapeutic relationship which we endeavour to create for them, it seems to me that each one is raising the same question. Below the level of the problem situation about which the individual is complaining behind the trouble with studies or wife or employer, or with his own uncontrollable or bizarre behaviour, or with his frightening feelings lies one central search. It seems to me that at the bottom each person is asking Who am I, really? How can I get in touch with this real self, underlying all my surface behaviour? How can I become myself? (Rogers, 1967, p. 108) In describing the development of personality, Rogers (1967) likened each person to the seed of an enormous tree. He believed that each of us contains within ourselves an enormous potential to grow and develop for the rest of our lives, unless something in the environment prevents this from happening. For example, a traumatic personal experience over which we have no control, such as the death of someone close to us, could block our growth. However, this can often be overcome with some support and guidance. According to Rogers, whether or not an individual achieves their full potential that is, whether or not they self-actualise C h a p t e r 1 2 Personality

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depends on three key factors: (1) the way others treat them (that is, whether they are accepted or rejected by other people); (2) how they view themself (that is, their self-concept); and (3) how effectively they can deal with negative influences in their life that cause them anxiety or conflict. Central to Rogers theory is each individual s selfconcept. Self-concept refers to all the perceptions and beliefs an individual has about themself including their nature, unique qualities and their typical behaviour. Rogers believed that childhood is a critical time for the development of personality and that the social relationships a child experiences during that time have lasting effects on the development of their selfconcept. The idea we develop of who we are is built up, over time, from childhood, through our interactions with others and our environment. According to Rogers (1967), the role of other people in our attempts to self-actualise and develop a positive self-concept is very significant. People who are important to us can assist our self-actualising in three important ways: first, by being genuine ; that is, by being honest and open with their feelings towards us; second, by being accepting; that is, by valuing us for what we are, regardless of our shortcomings so that we experience unconditional positive regard; third, by encouraging our blossoming by being empathetic ; that is, being able to put themselves in our position and fully understand, from our point of view, how we feel. According to Rogers, if we experience genuineness, acceptance and empathy from significant people in our lives, we have the right environmental conditions in which to grow and be fulfilled as human beings and therefore to self-actualise. Rogers believed that a well-adjusted and happy individual is someone whose self-image (the person ealthy, well-ad usted personality

you think you are), ideal self (the person you want to be) and true self (the person you actually are) are all congruent (match), or are fairly similar across many aspects of our view of self. For example, if it is important to you to be generous (ideal self), you believe you are generous (self-image), and you behave in a generous manner (true self), then by Rogers theory it could be said that you would be fairly content and happy with yourself. However, if the self-image, true self and ideal self are different, then you are likely to experience anxiety or unhappiness. For example, if you would like to be generous (ideal self), and you think you are generous (self-image) but you behave possessively (true self), then you are likely to experience negative feedback from others, causing confusion and dissatisfaction within yourself. According to Rogers (1967) there is a close connection between a person s mental health and the extent to which their ideal self, true self and self-image match. Someone who experiences a mismatch between their ideal self, true self and self-image is likely to have problems with personality development. For example, differences may develop between the true self and the self-image; that is, if we think we are different from who we really are. When this mismatch occurs, we tend to unconsciously block out any of the harmful or negative ideas we have about ourselves. This results in the self-image becoming more and more unrealistic. A mentally healthy, well-adjusted, fully functioning person has a flexible, constantly evolving self-concept. They are open to new experiences, are realistic and capable of changing their responses as required in different situations. Their sense of self is consistent with their feelings and experiences. Rogers believed that the fully functioning person is likely to be creative, spontaneous and to have good relationships with others. Unhealthy, poorly ad usted personality

Ideal self

Ideal self Self-image True self

Figure 12.32 According to Rogers, a well-adjusted personality is the result of an individual holding similar views of their ideal self, self-image and true self. A poorly adjusted personality results from mismatch between the self-image, ideal self and true self, causing self-esteem to suffer, and anxiety and defensiveness to develop. 536

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Self-image

True self

with guidance from the therapist. Consequently, the client is given the responsibility to help themself. Rogers believed that if a therapist provided warmth, a gentle guiding hand and an environment of uncritical acceptance, or unconditional positive regard , clients would eventually be able to solve their own problems and be healthy, happy and fulfilled.

Strengths and limitations of humanistic theories

Figure 12.33 Carl Rogers (1902 87)

Rogers and other humanistic theorists believe that you cannot score or rate personality, nor can you accurately measure personality in order to develop a personality profile. Humanistic theorists have, however, developed a test called the Q-sort. The Q-sort test is used mainly during therapy to examine the self-concept, and the extent to which the true self and the ideal self match (or are mismatched), and to study changes in the client s perception of self during the course of treatment (Malim & Birch, 1998). For a Q-sort test, you are given a large number of cards containing self-descriptive statements such as, I am afraid of what other people may think of me or Success is important to me . You are required to arrange the cards in nine piles. In one pile (representing one extreme end of the continuum) would be all the cards with descriptions that you consider to be most like you, and in another pile (representing the other extremity of the continuum) would be the cards with statements that are least like you. You would also have seven other piles containing the cards with statements that are somewhere in between the two extremes of most like and least like . Once a profile of the client s perception of self has been obtained, the cards are re-sorted and the procedure is repeated for your ideal self, that is, what you would like to be. The greater the degree of overlap between the profiles created from the two sets of card piles, the greater the match between the true self and the ideal self, and the more mentally healthy and welladjusted the person is considered to be. Based on his understanding of the important features in the development of a healthy personality, Rogers (1951) developed an approach to the treatment of psychological problems which he called clientcentred therapy. Client-centred therapy is non-directive in that therapists do not provide specific advice on how to solve problems. Instead, the client is viewed as having the power and motivation to help themself,

The humanistic theories, and in particular Rogers theory, are viewed as having made an important contribution to psychology s understanding of personality. In contrast to other kinds of personality theories, they have focused on the positive dimensions of personality. The humanistic theories give a complete (but not necessarily accurate) picture of how the healthy personality develops and provide an explanation for the development of an unhealthy personality. Humanistic theories are often criticised, however, for their simplistic, idealistic and vague ideas about personality, few of which can be tested scientifically. They have also been criticised on the grounds that they encourage the individual to focus on their own self-fulfilment or other ideals which may not be realistic or even appropriate in contemporary society. For example, some psychologists claim that if parents used a humanistic approach as the only model for their children s personality development, then all children would develop into self-indulgent and self-centred people. The humanistic approach is also often criticised for being unrealistic in its view of the world in that it does not recognise human beings capacity for pessimism or evil. For example, Rogers humanistic theory does not provide an explanation for aggressive behaviour such as assault or murder. Another criticism of humanistic theories is their subjective ( personalised ) and non-scientific basis. For example, thoughts, feelings and behaviour said to be associated with theoretical ideas, such as self actualisation and unconditional positive regard are difficult to operationalise and scientifically test through research studies. Consequently, relatively few studies have been conducted on any of the humanistic theories. This has led most psychologists to disregard the humanistic theories. Despite these criticisms, some of the ideas described by Rogers and other humanistic theorists have become a part of different approaches to counselling used by many contemporary psychologists. For example, most counselling psychologists adopt an approach of helping a client to help themself. This fundamental aspect of counselling is based on the humanistic approach. C h a p t e r 1 2 Personality

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learning acTiviTy 12.22 essay comparing different theories of personality Write an essay of about 500 600 words in which you compare two different theories (or models) of personality. Only one of the theories may be a trait theory or model. In your essay, ensure that you: • discuss similarities and differences between the two theories or models, both generally (e.g. description of personality) and specifically (e.g. kinds of traits) • accurately define and explain all key terms and ideas • use appropriate examples to demonstrate your understanding of key terms and ideas • structure the information in a logical way • express your information in a clear and concise way • accurately cite and reference all material. References may be used to obtain information for your essay.

Assesment task and criteria

learning acTiviTy 12.23

Figure 12.34 How would a humanistic theory explain this behaviour?

learning a cTiviTy 12.21 review questions 1. Briefly describe the humanistic approach to describing and explaining personality. 2. Explain how a self-image, true self and ideal self could be in conflict in relation to honesty. 3. How does Rogers explain the development of: (a) a well-adjusted personality? (b) an unhealthy, poorly adjusted personality? 4. Outline two strengths and two limitations of humanistic theories. 5. Explain how each of the following factors influence personality development according to Rogers: (a) self-concept (b) significant people in one s life. 6. How would Rogers explain the development of each of the following characteristics? • selfishness • low self-esteem • cold-heartedness • high self-esteem • sociability • indecisiveness

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visual presentation comparing different theories of personality Prepare a visual presentation in which you compare two different theories (or models) of personality. Only one of the theories (or models) may be a trait theory. In your presentation, ensure that you • use two or more data types; for example, still or moving images, written text and sound • address similarities and differences between the two theories (or models), both generally (e.g. description of personality) and specifically (e.g. kinds of traits) • accurately define and explain all key terms and ideas • use appropriate examples to demonstrate your understanding of key terms and ideas (diagrams may be used) • organise the information in a logical way • express your information in a clear and concise way. References may be used in obtaining information for your presentation.

Assesment task and criteria

influenCe of genetiC and enVironMental faCtorS It is well established in psychology that both genetic and environmental factors affect the nature and development of all psychological abilities and characteristics. As with intelligence, few psychologists would disagree that our biological inheritance and experiences throughout our lifespan interact in shaping the development of our personality the combination of thoughts, feelings and behaviours that characterise our individuality. For example, there is considerable evidence that a traumatic experience can alter the course of personality development or change a healthy personality to one that is dominated by emotional disturbance. What is less clear is the extent to which genetic factors influence personality and how they actually do so. Psychologists have approached the study of genetic and environmental influences on personality in much the same way as they have studied their influences on intelligence and other psychological characteristics. We consider evidence from three research methods longitudinal studies, twin studies and adoption studies. We also consider evidence on links between neurobiological factors and personality because the structure and function of our brain and nervous system are genetically determined.

throughout our lifespan (Gazzaniga & Heatherton, 2006; Buss, 1999). The findings of longitudinal studies on differences in temperament among newborns suggest that these differences tend to persist throughout childhood into later years. For example, newborns who are cheerful and relaxed, and adapt easily to new routines, food and people, tend to have these characteristics throughout childhood, and even in adolescence and adulthood. Similarly, individuals who are intense, fussy and less adaptable as newborns continue to be intense, fussy and inflexible throughout their life (Caspi, 2000; Pedlow & others, 1993; Thomas & Chess, 1991; Thomas, Chess & Birch, 1970). What accounts for these possible personality-related differences?

longitudinal studies Some psychologists have investigated influences on personality through longitudinal or long-term studies. For example, a researcher may investigate one or more personality characteristics of newborn infants shortly after birth, before they can begin to be influenced by the external environment in any significant way. These same characteristics are then measured again at different times throughout infancy, adolescence and adulthood. If a specific pattern is evident at birth and persists in subsequent years, an inference, or assumption , is made that the continuity of this characteristic reflects significant hereditary influence and that environment is likely to have played a lesser part. Many studies of temperament have been based on this principle. Temperament is our tendency to emotionally respond in certain ways; for example, how easily we become aroused or upset; whether we are moody; how sensitive we are to different types of stimulation; and whether we are intense and fidgety or reserved, quiet and placid. Some psychologists believe temperament is a broad personality trait which is biologically inherited and therefore present at birth, and that it provides the basis of personality development

Figure 12.35 Longitudinal studies have shown that differences in temperament among newborns tend to persist in later years.

Differences may be explained by both heredity and environment. Although the differences are present shortly after birth, which puts forward a strong case for heredity, the role of environment cannot be underestimated. For instance, the newborn s behaviour associated with temperament could be a result of experiences in the intra-uterine environment, or experiences during birth. Furthermore, we cannot ignore the way in which newborns with certain temperaments can affect how parents respond to them. For example, a placid, easy-going , smiling baby may get a different response from parents than a continually crying, irritable baby who resists cuddling. Parental responses may also strengthen infants responses, thereby contributing to the persistence of infants behaviours. While environmental influences play a part in personality development, it is probable that we inherit a genetic predisposition for a particular temperament. Twin studies provide additional evidence on the role of genes in personality. C h a p t e r 1 2 Personality

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Twin studies

and therefore separated for many years, were like those of identical twins reared together. This was despite the fact that the identical twins reared apart were raised in entirely different family and home environments.

Identical twins have the same genetic make-up. If personality is entirely inherited, identical twins should have very similar personalities, regardless of whether they grow up in the same or different environments. Non-identical, or fraternal, twins are on average only 50 per cent alike genetically. So, given the same environment, they may not grow up to be very similar if genes are the only determinant of personality. By comparing the correlations between personality characteristics for identical twins reared together and apart, with those for fraternal twins reared together or apart, evidence can be obtained on the extent to which genetic and environmental factors influence the personality characteristics. The procedure of comparing personality traits of twins reared together and reared apart indicates that almost all personality traits have a genetic component (Plomin & Caspi, 1999). One of the earliest research studies to provide evidence of this is the Minnesota Twin Study. The study was named after the American state in which it was conducted. The Minnesota Twin Study assessed 10 personality traits of 402 adult sets of twins who had an average age of 22 years. There were 217 sets of identical twins and 114 sets of non-identical twins who had been reared together and 44 sets of identical twins and 27 sets of non-identical twins who had been reared apart. As shown in table 12.4, when identical twins and non-identical twins are compared, identical twins have higher correlations on almost every personality trait, regardless of whether they were reared together or reared apart. Furthermore, about half of the correlations of identical twins who had been reared apart,

Figure 12.36 Two participants in the Minnesota Twin Study

Table 12.4 Correlations between Minnesota twins reared together and different personality traits

Reared apart Traits

Reared together

Identical

Non-identical

Identical

Non-identical

Wellbeing

.48

.18

.58

.23

Achievement

.36

.07

.51

.13

Social closeness

.29

.30

.57

.24

Stress reaction

.61

.27

.52

.24

Alienation

.48

.18

.55

.38

Aggression

.46

.06

.43

.14

Traditionalism

.53

.39

.50

.47

Positive emotionality

.34

−.07

.63

.18

Negative emotionality

.61

.29

.54

.41

Constraint

.57

.04

.58

.25

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More recent twin studies have been conducted using the NEO-PI-R Five-Factor Inventory to assess the OCEAN personality factors. For example, figure 12.37 shows the results of a Canadian twin study which compared 123 sets of identical twins and 127 sets of fraternal twins on openness to experiences, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism. The correlations for the identical twins were higher on all five factors (Gazzaniga & Heatherton, 2006). Another researcher who reviewed the results of studies involving more than 24 000 sets of twins found that there is a genetic component in all five OCEAN factors (Loehlin, 1992). The researcher used a statistical procedure to combine the results and estimate the extent to which differences between identical and non-identical twins on the five factors are probably due to genetic factors. A simplified version of these estimates is shown in table 12.5. Other studies have obtained even higher estimates. In sum, there is considerable research evidence from twin studies suggesting that genetic factors do have a

considerable influence over personality. The more genes you have in common with someone, the more similar your personalities are likely to be. However, the same research studies provide equally important evidence for the influence of environmental factors. For example, having the same genes as someone else does not mean that you will have exactly the same personality as that person. It is likely that environmental factors account for the differences. Table 12.5 Estimates of genetic influence on each of the five OCEAN factors

Factor

Estimate

Openness to experience

45%

Conscientiousness

38%

Extraversion

49%

Agreeableness

35%

Neuroticism

41%

0.9 Identical twins (Monozygotic) Correlation between twin pairs

0.8 Non-identical twins (Dizygotic)

0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

Neuroticism

Extraversion

Openness

Agreeableness

Conscientiousness

Factor Figure 12.37 Correlations on the OCEAN factors in twins obtained from a Canadian study. The correlations for identical twins are higher on all five factors.

learnin g acTiviT y 12. 24 Data analysis Refer to the data in table 12.5 and answer the following questions. 1. Name the type of data shown in the table. 2. Which traits are likely to be linked to OCEAN factors? Name each trait and the associated factor. Give a brief reason for each of your pairings. 3. (a) Which specific data shows the strongest correlation? (b) What does this data suggest?

4. (a) Which specific data shows the weakest correlation? (b) What does this data suggest? 5. Which specific data provide the strongest evidence for genetic influence on personality? Explain your answer. 6. Which specific data provide the strongest evidence for environmental influence on personality? Explain your answer. 7. Overall, what do the data suggest about the influence of genetic and environmental factors on personality?

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adoption studies Adoption studies are used to investigate the degree to which an adopted person s personality characteristics resemble those of both their biological parents and their adoptive parents. If the person is more similar to their biological parents, then this is considered evidence for a genetic component in personality. If the person is more similar to their adoptive parents, then the resemblance is considered to be more influenced by environmental factors. Adoption studies also sometimes compare adopted children with those of siblings with whom they grow up in the same home. Generally, the results of adoption studies have obtained similar results to those of twin studies, but the results are not as strong. Studies typically find only very small correlations in personality characteristics between children and their biological parents and small correlations between the personality characteristics of biological siblings. For example, Plomin and Daniels (1987) found the average correlation between adopted siblings was .04, and the correlation with their adoptive parents was .05. Similarly, Loehlin (1992) found positive correlations close to zero on the five OCEAN factors. Research findings also indicate that adopted children s personalities tend to resemble the personalities of their biological parents and siblings more than those of the families in which they are raised (Plomin & others, 1998). Why are children raised together in the same family who are not identical twins so different in personality? The answer involves environmental factors. Each sibling in a family has different experiences within the family and outside of it, and these unshared experiences can be important in shaping personality. Plomin and Daniels (1987) identify what they believe are key environmental differences encountered by different children in the same family. These differences include birth order; age gaps between siblings; treatment by parents; the changing economic situation of the family; differences in peer groups, teachers and friends; differences in hobbies and other recreational interests; and significant injuries or accidents. All these factors contribute to differences in personalities found between children within the same family (Westen, Burton & Kowalski, 2009). Furthermore, the fact that our personalities do not tend to closely resemble those of our parents suggests that initial differences between our personalities and those of our parents become magnified as we grow older and increasingly interact with others and the world. Although the small correlations in personality between siblings, and between siblings and their parents might suggest that the ways in which our parents raise us (i.e. parenting style) have little effect, there are reasons 542

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Figure 12.38 Environmental factors help explain personality differences between parents and their children.

to believe that caregivers matter a great deal. American psychologist David Lykken (2000), a leading behavioural genetics researcher, has argued that children who are raised with inadequate parenting, such as those raised in poverty by an alcoholic single parent, are not socialised properly and are therefore much more likely to engage in antisocial behaviour or even commit crimes and become a juvenile offender. Thus, a minimum level of good parenting is crucial, but the particular style of parenting does not appear to have a major impact on shaping personality (Gazzaniga & Heatherton, 2006).

neurobiological factors and personality Most of the research studies on neurobiological factors that may be involved in personality have focussed on the extraversion--introversion dimension. Hans Eysenck, who identified the extraversion introversion dimension in his early theory of personality, is considered to be the pioneer of contemporary research on the neurobiological basis of personality. Eysenck proposed that we each inherit a unique brain and nervous system, and individual differences in personality are linked to this neurobiological factor. Furthermore, the brains of introverts and extraverts tend to be different in their functioning and this underlies differences in behaviours associated with personality. For instance, the brains of introverts have a brain structure called the reticular activation system that is more sensitive to stimulation. Consequently, their brain is highly active and they seek to lower their levels of arousal and excitement by avoiding external sources of excitement and social contact. In contrast, the brains of extraverts function at a lower level of activity, which leads them to seek out higher levels of excitement and social stimulation. The findings of several research studies support

this view. For example, in one study, introverts were found to be more easily aroused by caffeine and other stimulant drugs ( uppers ) and were less easily relaxed by alcohol and depressant drugs known to slow down the functioning of this part of the brain (Stelmack, 1990). Eysenck also proposed that we are each born with brain structures and chemistry that make us more likely to either love or hate large crowds, bright lights, loud music, fast cars, spicy foods, scary rides and other social stimulants. He suggested that temperament is also biologically determined and involves brain chemistry that we inherit via our genes. According to Eysenck, some infants are born with a temperament that predisposes them to be easily aroused by even mildly stressful events (Eysenck, 1992). Neurobiological studies by other researchers have found differences between extraverts and introverts in the amount of a specific neurotransmitter called dopamine that is present in their brains. For example, extraverts tend to have higher levels of dopamine in their brain when asked to perform tasks in experiments requiring self-confidence, excitement, novelty seeking and other outgoing and energetic types of responses (Lucas & others, 2000, Depue & Collins, 1999).

Figure 12.39 Neuroimaging techniques enable researchers to explore links between neurobiology and personality.

Although psychologists now have an understanding of the relationship between neurobiology and personality, there is still a great deal more research that needs to be undertaken to develop a better understanding. The recent advances in neuroimaging technology enable such research. Combining brain imaging and gene data from the Genome project may lead to new insights and a better understanding of neurobiological factors that may be involved in personality.

BOX 12.9 Birth order and personality There are many factors which shape the development of our personality. Some psychologists believe that our siblings (brothers and sisters) and parents have an important influence on our personality development. Even though brothers and sisters are all born into the same family, they are each raised in a different family environment for some part of their lives. This is due to their ordinal position; that is, the order in which they are born into the family. However, it is not so much the actual birth order which is believed to make the difference to personality development, but rather the way in which the individual perceives their position. First borns According to birth order theory, when first borns enter the world they tend to be showered with love and attention from parents, as there is no competition from a brother or sister. First borns also tend to be more heavily disciplined by enthusiastic yet inexperienced parents. In addition they are protected more than later-born children are. It has been suggested that all this parental attention means that a first-born child may develop the feeling that they are particularly important. First borns tend to be more conscientious, cautious, responsible and attend school longer than later borns. Furthermore, they are more likely to achieve greater success at school because they try harder than their younger siblings. Parents often expect more of the first born than they do of later borns. First borns tend to have higher scores on

intelligence tests and related to this is the advantage of being able to reinforce their knowledge by passing it on to siblings. When a second child arrives, the parents attention is divided and shared between the children. Consequently, the first-born child may feel angry, abandoned and jealous towards the new baby, perhaps becoming very competitive. Alternatively, the first born may decide to take on the role of the protector with the new baby. This is believed to lead to the development of leadership skills in the first born. Often first borns take their responsibilities too seriously and forget how to have fun. This responsible attitude can also make them ambitious.

Figure 12.40 Does birth order affect personality? (continued)

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Later borns Later-born children are said to quickly learn that they cannot compete with their older siblings. Consequently, they will often try to be everything the older child is not. Parents, relatives and teachers will often comment on the differences between two children from the same family. As other children enter the family, it is suggested that they must learn to fit in with other family members. Consequently, they tend to be diplomatic and good at negotiating and sorting out problems. They benefit from their parents being more relaxed and less demanding than they were with the first born. Later-born children are also often more sociable and good at maintaining relationships later in life. They may be more involved in lots of activities and clubs outside the home, such as drama and sports teams, than first borns. Later-born children always have someone to attend to their needs so they are often said to be spoilt. They do not have the same responsibilities as the first borns and are often followers rather than leaders and, because other members of the family are more powerful than they are, they tend to be good at compromising in conflict situations. It is said that later borns learn to get what they want by being charming and humorous. They are often good companions, being both playful and light-hearted. They use humour and can be show-offs. Later borns are more open to new ideas than first borns (who tend to be conservative). SIZING UP SIBLINGS First Born Conscientious, courteous, responsible, ambitious, leadership skills

Ian Chappell Former Australian test cricket captain; scored 5345 runs in 75 test matches; a good leader and successful cricketer

544

U n i t 2 Self and others

Only children Only children are descibed as being like first borns who continually have their parents attention. They tend to like their parents more than children from larger families. Only children seem more self-confident and this is said to be a result of their having no competition. They are more comfortable with adults when they are young but, because they have not had the experience of competing, negotiating and cooperating with siblings, their social skills may not be as good as others who have siblings. Only children often do not have a wide circle of friends, rather, a few very close ones. They are often unconcerned about the lack of friends and are quite self-reliant and independent. Spending so much time with adults often results in only children having high ambitions. They tend to be good students who achieve their goals and are often well organised and reliable, as well as perfectionists. Only children also tend to have higher IQs than children who come from larger families. Some psychologists believe that this occurs because only children have more verbal interaction with their parents and, therefore, develop a greater ability to use and understand language. While other factors such as the sex of the family members, the size of the family, the age gap between children, the parents reactions to children and cultural factors are also important, birth order may also be a factor which can influence development of personality. However, a considerable amount of research evidence indicates that its influence is minimal.

Middle Sociable, likely to have many friends, good interpersonal skills, openness, good negotiator

Youngest Sociable, outgoing, charming, diplomatic, likely to be a risk-taker, playful, light-hearted

Greg Chappell Former Australian test cricket captain; 7110 runs in 87 Tests; a good leader and one of the best batsmen to play for Australia

Trevor Chappell Former Australian test cricketer; 75 runs in three Tests; not as successful as his brothers

learnin g acTiviT y 12. 25 Practical activity

birth order and personality Your report should include: 1. a statement of the aim of this activity 2. answers to the following questions. (a) Describe any differences in personality traits between first borns, later borns and only children as indicated by the class results. (b) Describe any similarities in personality traits across the different birth order positions. Give a possible reason for any similarities. (c) Do the class results support research findings and theory described in box 12.9 on personality and birth order? Explain with reference to the findings and theory. (d) Based on the research described in box 12.9, list three further traits that could have been tested. Describe the expected results for first borns, later borns and only children on these traits. (e) Does this practical activity have external validity? Briefly explain your answer. (f) Identify any extraneous or confounding variables, other than birth order, which may have affected the results of this investigation.

Researchers have investigated whether aspects of personality are related to birth order, with varying results. The purpose of this activity is to test a hypothesis on the relationship between birth order and personality by rating six people whom you know well on various personality traits. In selecting your sample, you need to take into consideration the individuals ordinal positions in their families; that is, whether they are first born, later born or only children. You should try to have similar numbers of participants in each group. Furthermore, in conducting this activity, you need to consider relevant ethical issues such as confidentiality. For each participant, note the ordinal position, then rate them on a scale of 1 to 5 on each of the four traits shown in figure 12.41. Try to avoid rating participants in the middle for a trait. Combine your individual data with the data obtained by other class members before drawing some tentative conclusions about personality type and birth order. Report Prepare a brief report on the practical activity to include in your folio of practical activities. 1. Self-confidence 1

2

lacking in selfconfidence 2. Sociability 1

4

moderately selfconfident

2

independent, withdrawn, loner 3. Conscientiousness 1

3

3

very self-confident

4

moderately sociable

2

careless, pays little attention to detail

3

5

5

very sociable, confident

4

moderately conscientious

5

extremely conscientious

4. Leadership 1

2

follower

3

reluctant leader

4

5

strong leadership skills

Figure 12.41 Personality rating scales

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learning a cTiviTy 12.26 review questions 1. Briefly explain the rationale ( reasoning ) behind the use of each of the following research methods for studying genetic and environmental influences on personality: • longitudinal studies • twin studies • adoption studies. 2. To what extent is personality inherited? Briefly justify your answer. 3. How do neurobiological factors influence personality?

learning a cTiviTy 12.27 applying a personality theory Read the case study below, then complete the following tasks. Debbie is 21 years old. She lives in a small rural town. Her intellectual ability is high: her IQ is 136. Her family is in the middle-income level. She had a younger brother who died in infancy (when she was three years old). When she was five, her mother died. Since her father could not stay at home to take care of her, an aunt looked after her for several years. In university Debbie achieved good grades in difficult subjects. She had planned to become a nurse, but changed her mind after realising she found it difficult, stating that she could not stand to see other people suffer. After graduating from university she returned home. She has no present plans for work. Debbie says that she cannot seem to find work that suits her special talents and interests. Since early childhood, she has been considered a spoiled brat . Even now, when she sees something that she wants, she tries to talk her father into buying it for her. Sometimes she goes to car dealers to look at new cars. She tells each salesperson My father is thinking about buying me a new car . Her father has never told her that he would buy her a car. Debbie quite often acts childishly and plays practical jokes on people. This drives people away from her. To keep people around, she buys things for them. For example, she treats others to movies, gives them presents for no special occasion and has many parties. At social gatherings she tries to be the life of the party. She talks loudly and interrupts others when they are talking. She is often heard telling others that they should be having as good a time as she is. Debbie is rarely invited on a date and when she does go out, she usually does not see the same person more than twice. She gives as her reason I just don t seem to be able to find a man who appreciates what I want out of life . Debbie is in good physical health, having had three physical examinations in the past year. However, she complains

about having headaches and a sore back, especially when asked to do any household duties. Lately she has become increasingly isolated from others. She stays at home by herself more and more. She reads book after book, especially on philosophy and on the lives of famous people like Churchill, Napoleon and Roosevelt. Tasks Select any one personality theory (or model). Then apply the ideas, terms and principles of the theory you have selected to this case study. For example, suppose you choose Freud s theory. What ideas proposed by Freud would explain Debbie s particular behaviours as described in this case study? Make a list of specific terms and principles of the personality theory (or model) you have selected that apply to Debbie. Next to each of these, write the specific behaviour that relates to each of these terms or principles. Underneath each such pairing, explain in your own words the connection between the two. Answer the following questions. 1. How easy or difficult was it to explain the behaviour of Debbie in terms of the personality theory (or model) you selected? How accurate do you think your explanation is? 2. How did you account for behaviour for which there were no appropriate ideas in the theory you selected? For example, if you selected Freud, how would you account for Debbie not learning that she was driving her friends away? 3. Did you find some behaviours in the case study that seemed to contradict one another? If so, which ones? Does your theory allow for such contradictions? 4. What other information would you like to have about Debbie that would help you in understanding her personality? Source: Based on Grivas, J. & Lawrie, P. (1991), Psychology: Experiments and Activities, Marrickville, NSW: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Options and variations 546

U n i t 2 Self and others

MeaSuring PerSonality The measurement, or assessment, of personality provides useful information about an individual s personality. Psychologists measure and interpret the results of personality assessment devices for a variety of reasons. For example, • Organisational psychologists may assess personality to determine an individual s suitability for a particular position in the workplace either for recruitment or for promotion. • Educational and developmental psychologists may use a personality assessment in conjunction with an intelligence test to assist them in determining whether a student is suitably placed in either a mainstream school or a special school. • Clinical psychologists often assess personality to assist in the diagnosis of a mental illness and to monitor progress during treatment. • Forensic psychologists may use personality assessments to provide information to a court about the personality characteristics or possible mental illness of an offender. • Sport psychologists may use personality assessments to understand more about the personality of their clients. This, in turn, may assist them to develop strategies to enable their clients to maximise their sporting performance. • Researchers may use personality assessments for a research study on a topic of interest or for test development purposes; for example, to check the validity and reliability of a test, to update a test or to develop a new test.

In most cases, psychologists use personality assessments for diagnostic purposes. When doing so, they have access to a range of assessment devices. The specific device or method they used depends on the purpose of the assessment, type of information required, the amount of time they have and which one, or combination, of the devices they believe will provide them with the most accurate and useful information. Although interviews and behavioural observations can also provide some useful insight into personality, the most frequently used assessment devices to gather information about personality are personality tests.

Personality tests A personality test is an assessment device used to evaluate or measure aspects of personality, such as factors (dimensions) and specific traits. The 16PF, EPQ and NEO-PI-R are all examples of personality tests. However, there are also other types of personality tests which we consider. Personality tests were first developed in America with the onset of World War I when there were many thousands of people enlisting in the armed forces. With such huge numbers, a problem the authorities faced was how to identify any applicants who were emotionally unsuitable to be military recruits. A measure of emotional functioning was needed to screen the applicants. This provided the stimulus for developing personality tests that could be easily administered to large groups of people at one time. Today, personality tests are more commonly administered individually. Psychologists have considerable choice in the personality test they administer. The various theoretical approaches to personality propose different ways of evaluating or measuring personality. Consequently, many different personality tests are available. Generally, there are two different kinds or types of personality tests personality inventories and projective tests.

inventories

Figure 12.42 In 2008, the Sydney Swans footballer Barry Hall violently struck opposition player Ben Staker for no apparent reason. In addition to his lengthy suspension by the AFL, the Sydney Swans required Hall to undergo a personality assessment before allowing him to resume playing.

Personality inventories are the most commonly used of the personality assessment devices. A personality inventory is a self-report, paper and pencil or online test which has a list of questions designed to assess various aspects of personality. The 16PF, EPQ and NEO-PI-R are all examples of personality inventories. Personality inventories are considered to be objective tests because the person administering the test does not subjectively (personally) interpret what the test-taker means by their response to each question. The answers given are compared with the answers of other individuals with known personality traits who have taken C h a p t e r 1 2 Personality

547

the test. These are provided in a manual that comes with the inventory. Thus the assessment and classification of the individual s personality is objectively determined. When completing a personality inventory, an individual is typically required to answer many questions linked to various personality traits and dimensions. The questions cover such things as their interests, emotional functioning, sociability, agreeableness, openness to experience, conscientiousness, attitudes and values. The individual responds to the questions in a simple way, such as yes/no, or in terms of whether they like/ dislike or agree/disagree with a statement about themself or someone else. Alternatively, there may be a rating scale on which the individual indicates how much they like/dislike or agree/disagree with a statement. Each item of the inventory provides information about one of the traits or dimensions being measured. By comparing the individual s response to average scores for a large, representative sample of previously tested individuals (that is, norms), a personality profile can be compiled. A personality profile is an overall pictorial representation and summary of personality, based on an individual s responses to specific questions. Another example of an objective personality inventory is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), which was originally developed in the 1930s. The MMPI is used mainly by clinical psychologists to assist in the diagnosis of mental illnesses. It may also be used for recruitment of staff. For example, Victoria Police uses the MMPI as a part of its recruit selection Hillside strangler 30

5 5

T score

5 55 5 45 4 35 3

40 35

35

25

35 30

20

30

procedures. The MMPI includes statements such as those in table 12.6. The current version of the MMPI is called the MMPI-2. This was published in 1989 by the University of Minnesota Press, and is a version of the original MMPI (which was originally published in 1943). The MMPI-2 is a very long inventory with 567 items that usually takes between one and two hours to complete. The MMPI2-RF is a restructured version of the MMPI-2, and is much shorter, with 338 items. There is also a version that was designed for adolescents (MMPI-A). The MMPI items are true/false questions. The testtaker has the choice of responding with either true , false or cannot say to each test item. Each item relates to one of the 10 dimensions of personality (called clinical scales) which is being assessed (table 12.6). As shown in figure 12.43, a personality profile can then be compiled based on comparisons to a set of norms. A score of 50 on the clinical scales is considered average. Two-thirds of the normal population score between 40 and 60, and scores above 65 indicate that the person s responses on that scale are more extreme than 95 per cent of the population and therefore clinically significant . Such scores can suggest a serious mental health problem. The MMPI can also be used to assess the usefulness of psychological treatment or therapy used with a client. For example, this can be achieved by comparing the personality profile of an individual at the beginning and again during or at the completion of a treatment program (see figure 12.44). Person X 45

45

20

30

25 20

15

35

35

30

Hypochondriasis

10

Depression

10

25

35

45 40 25

35

30

30

25

25

20

20

20

15

15

15

10

25

20

15 15

5

30

25 20

10

50

30 40

25 15

55

45 40

40

60

50

15

20 20 5

10

Hysteria

Psychopathic Deviate

Masculinity/ Femininity

Paranoia

Psychasthenia

Schizophrenia

Hypomania

15 10

Social introversion

Clinical scales MMPI -2 (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory -2) Manual for Administration, Scoring, and Interpretation, Revised Edition. Copyright © 2001 by the Regents of the University of Minnesota. All rights reserved. Used by permission of the University of Minnesota Press. MMPI-2 and Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 are trademarks owned by the Regents of the University of Minnesota.

Figure 12.43 MMPI profiles for two men. The purple line is the profile of a serial killer called the Hillside Strangler , who murdered 13 women in the late 1970s. His profile would be interpreted as characteristic of a shallow person with poor self-control and little self-understanding, who is sexually preoccupied and unable to reveal himself to others. The orange line is the profile of a more normal man. It shows someone who is self-centred, passive, unwilling to accept personal responsibility for his behaviour and, when under stress, complains of physical symptoms that may not be real (Bernstein & others, 1997). 548

U n i t 2 Self and others

While the MMPI is primarily designed to identify characteristic patterns of responses associated with abnormal personality, there are many personality inventories which have been designed to measure personality dimensions or traits in normal populations, such as the NEO-PI-R, the 16PF, the EPQ and the

Californian Personality Inventory (CPI). The NEO-PI-R is often used as a part of the selection process in assessing the suitability of prospective employees. A personality profile, like that shown in table 12.7 (p. 557), can provide useful information about the suitability of a person for a particular job.

Table 12.6 MMPI clinical scales

Clinical scales

Descriptions

Sample items

1. Hypochondriasis

Excessive concern about self and physical health, fatigue, a pattern of complaining

There is usually something wrong with my health.

2. Depression

Low morale, pessimistic about the future, passive, hopelessness, unhappy and sluggish

Other people seem to be happier than me at most times.

3. Hysteria

Use of physical or mental symptoms to gain attention from others or avoid problems

I have sometimes fainted in the presence of others.

4. Psychopathic Deviate Disregard for social rules and authority, impulsive, unreliable, self-centred, has shallow relationships

I don t worry too much about rules if they would stop me from doing something I really want to do.

5. Masculinity Femininity

Identification with masculine and/or feminine sex roles

Females are better at kitchen chores and males are better at backyard chores.

6. Paranoia

Feelings of persecution and/or grandeur (importance), I often get caught up in things that go wrong suspiciousness, overly sensitive, use of blame which are not my fault.

7. Psychasthenia

Anxiousness as demonstrated through fears, selfdoubt, worries, guilt, obsessions and compulsions

I tend to worry a lot.

8. Schizophrenia

Feelings of social isolation, aloofness, confusion and disorientation, bizarre thoughts and perceptions

I often think that what happens around me is not real.

9. Hypomaina

Hyperactivity, excitement, impulsiveness, elation, euphoria and excessive optimism

I often find it difficult to sit still for very long in the same place.

Withdrawal from social contact, insecure, shyness, a reserved, inhibited, self-effacing style

I tend to prefer to be alone rather than with others.

10. Social Introversion

(Source: Adapted from Kassin, S. (2004), Psychology (4th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. p. 592, table 15.4.)

80 Clinically significant range

Before treatment (anxious, depressed and displaying deviant behaviour)

70

T score

60 50 40 fter treatment (scores not in the clinically significant range)

30

Hypochondriasis

Depression

Hysteria

Psychopathic Deviancy

Masculinity/ Femininity

Paranoia

Psychasthenia Schizophrenia

Mania

Social Introversion

Clinical scales Figure 12.44 Personality profiles of a depressed and anxious adolescent male before treatment (purple line) and after treatment (orange line) C h a p t e r 1 2 Personality

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learning a cTiviTy 12.28 review questions 1. (a) What is a personality inventory ? (b) In what ways are personality inventories objective ? 2. Describe two uses of personality inventories. 3. What is a personality profile? 4. (a) What is the main use of the MMPI ? (b) Draw an MMPI-type personality profile for a person classified as having no psychological disorder, with scores in the average range on all 10 clinical scales. (c) On the same chart used for (b), draw another personality profile of a highly anxious, depressed person who is socially withdrawn and insecure, showing characteristics within the normal range on the other seven scales. 5. In what ways could a personality inventory be considered culturally biased ?

learning a cTiviTy 12.29 Data analysts assessing personality traits A football coach was puzzled about the performance of his team. The club had high expectations of the team at the start of the season and expected that the team would make the grand final. The 22 individuals in the team were all acclaimed for their exceptional skills, yet midway through the season they were on the bottom of the ladder. The coach was at a loss to explain why. He brought in a sport psychologist who gave each team member a personality inventory. The sport psychologist was particularly interested in the scores of the 22 team members on the 10-point competitiveness scale, with 1 meaning not at all competitive and 10, extremely competitive. The results of the team members on this scale were: 10, 2, 3, 9, 9, 3, 4, 8, 8, 9, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 3, 5, 7, 9, 4, 10, 6 1. Graph the individual data as a frequency distribution. 2. Name the type of curve represented by the data (refer to chapter 7). 3. Use the graph to suggest a possible reason to explain why the team may have been underperforming.

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Use of personality and aptitude inventories in vocational selections Suppose that you have successfully completed your VCE and achieved an ENTER score high enough to get into a university, TAFE or another course that was in your top preferences. You are thrilled because you can now take another step towards achieving your career ambition. You then successfully complete your course and apply for a position with the organisation where you have always wanted to work. You have done some research on the organisation s recruit selection process. There are minimum entry requirements and a series of steps. Each step involves a task that must be successfully accomplished in order to progress through the selection process. You know that you can meet the minimum entry requirements. You have a driver s licence and passing a police criminal history check will not be a problem. There are no educational prerequisites, but you wanted to successfully complete the course you studied in order to keep your options open. Two of the steps require you to successfully complete a mechanical reasoning aptitude test and a test which the organisation describes as a psychological profile questionnaire. You think back to your study of VCE psychology and realise that a psychological profile questionnaire is likely to be a personality inventory of some kind. You are not sure which one it would be because you also recall learning that there are many from which the organisation could choose. Your recollection of what an aptitude test assesses is a bit fuzzy, so you find an old copy of this textbook, flip through the pages and come across the definition on page 494. The definition states that an aptitude test is designed to assess a person s potential to do or learn something . The organisation s aptitude test is on mechanical reasoning. When you reflect on the types of jobs your career may involve, you start to appreciate the relevance of having this ability, or at least having the potential to learn about how to operate various mechanical instruments and devices. When you reflect on why you are required to pass a personality test, your thinking is also a bit fuzzy. You recall that the NEO-PI-R has a factor on neuroticism and that this has something to do with emotional stability instability. When you apply this to your career of interest, you realise that a personality inventory which measures this factor would be appropriate. You want to be a firefighter and appreciate that firefighters need to be emotionally stable in an emergency where their own life and the lives of others may be at risk.

In the past 20 years or so there has been an increasing tendency for all types of organisations and workplaces to use personality and aptitude inventories for vocational selections. This is mainly done to assess the suitability of people for specific vocations within the organisation or workplace. A vocation is an occupation, or position within an organisation, for which a person is suited, trained or qualified. For example, firefighting, working on an assembly line, accounting, carpentry, engineering, computer programming, teaching, nursing and train driving are occupations. Any occupation involves a job. The term job refers to performing a particular role within an organisation. For example, your job as a firefighter would be all the tasks associated with being a firefighter at your workplace. Most of the tasks you perform as a firefighter will focus around responding to fire and other emergencies. Many of the specific tasks required of a firefighter, however, vary depending on whether you are employed as a firefighter with the Country Fire Authority, the Metropolitan Fire and Emergency Services Board, the Australian Defence Force, or an organisation that operates a particular airport.

Figure 12.45 Personality and aptitude inventories are commonly used in the recruit selection process for firefighters and other emergency services personnel.

The term career is used to refer to the sequence of occupational positions and jobs a person holds and performs during the course of their working life. For example, in a firefighting career, you may progress from a position in a fire station which primarily involves jobs such as attending fires and other emergencies, to a position as the officer-in-charge of the station, to a position as the commander of a zone consisting of many fire stations. You may also change your career path and progress to an administrative, training or human resources position. Alternatively, you may change your career by leaving fire fighting and obtaining employment in some other occupation for which you may be suited, trained or qualified.

Myers Briggs Type indicator The Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI ) is a personality inventory which categorises an individual into one of 16 personality types depending on their preferences for how they perceive the world and make decisions. The inventory is based on the psychodynamic personality theory that was developed by the Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung (The Myers & Briggs Foundation, 2009). In his theory of psychological types, Jung proposed that people could be described in terms of psychological types. According to Jung, we all have a dominant attitude of either extraversion (outward looking) or introversion (inward looking). Our attitude influences our perception of the world and therefore how we experience the world. In order to make sense of what we perceive, we use one of four functions , or psychological processes, which may predominantly involve thinking, feeling, sensing or intuiting. Various combinations of the two attitudes and four functions create eight possible psychological types. For example, an extraverted person can be a thinking, feeling, sensing or intuitive type. Similarly, an introverted person can be any of these four types too. Each of the eight types has a distinctive and predictable pattern of behaviour associated with personality. It is actually possible to create 16 types but Jung decided to focus on eight. Jung s theory is described in more detail in box 12.4 on page 522. In the 1940s, an American called Katherine Briggs become interested in Jung s type theory after reading his book Psychological Types (1923). Isabel Briggs Myers shared her mother s interest in Jung s type theory. They had many discussions about his theory and its applications in everyday life. Myers believed that Jung s theory showed how different personality types could be suited to particular vocations and that personality type could influence job performance. So, the mother and daughter team created the MBTI C h a p t e r 1 2 Personality

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as a test to be used for personnel selection purposes. Neither was a psychologist or had any qualifications in developing psychological tests. Myers and Briggs were basically two people who had been inspired by Jung s ideas. They wanted to help people understand themselves and each other so that they might choose to work in vocations that matched their personality types. In doing so, they believed people would be happier with their lives and the world would consequently be a better place (Saunders, 1991). The current version of the MBTI is a paper and pencil test with about 100 questions. On the basis of answers given, the test-taker is classified on each of four different dimensions: • Extraversion (E) Introversion (I): whether your energy is directed outward towards the world of activity, people and other things (E), or whether your energy is directed inward to your own thoughts and ideas (I) • Sensing (S) Intuition (N): whether you prefer to take in information from the five senses (S), or whether you prefer to receive information from the unconscious (N) • Thinking (T) Feeling (F): whether you make decisions with your head using logic and impersonal reasoning (T), or whether you decide with your heart using personal feelings and evaluations (F) • Judging ( J) Perceiving (P): whether you prefer to approach your life in a planned, orderly and organised way ( J), or whether you approach life more flexibly, being spontaneous and open to options (P). The various combinations of the letters in each scale create 16 distinctive personality types, each of which is different from the others. For example, if you score higher on the questions linked to extraversion (E) as compared with introversion, then you are classified as an E on the Extraversion (E) Introversion (I) dimension, and so on. Your whole type is then identified using four letters, such as ENFJ and INFP. Furthermore, ENFJ and INFP are different personality types. Extraversion (E)

Introversion (I)

Sensing (S)

Intuition (I)

Thinking (T)

Feeling (F)

Judging (J)

Perceiving (P)

Figure 12.46 The four dimensions of the MBTI which combine to create 16 distinctive personality types 552

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Box 12.10 includes a description of each Myers Briggs type. The MBTI refers to the 16 types as preferences . For example, scoring high on thinking means that you prefer thinking. There is no feedback on the strength of a preference (for example, whether you strongly prefer thinking), or on your competence in relation to a preference (for example, whether you are good at thinking). None of the types is very negative or overly positive, and none of the types is better than the others. However, some types are more common than others. It is also possible for your type to change over time as you can develop the abilities of your opposite in any of the dimensions. For example, an introverted team leader in a workplace who needs to make staff presentations and is uncomfortable when doing so, could undertake a training course to improve their public speaking skills and in time become more extraverted. The MBTI is used in many workplace settings throughout the world. The Myers & Briggs Foundation (2009) claims that more than two million people take the questionnaire each year. The Foundation also claims that knowing your personality type, as measured through the MBTI , can help you with career planning at every stage; for instance, when choosing subjects at school, when choosing a course for tertiary study, when choosing your first career, and when advancing in your organisation or changing careers . Furthermore, within an organisation, the MBTI can be used to support many different functions and situations including managing others, development of leadership skills, organising tasks, creation and management of teams, training for management and staff, conflict resolution, motivation, executive coaching, diversity, recognition and rewards, and change management . Few psychologists use the MBTI to assess personality or for vocational selection purposes. The main reason is that it is lacking in validity, reliability and scientific research evidence. There is also concern that individuals without a background in psychology can attend a short course to be certified to use the MBTI in organisations. This means that the test is open to misuse by organisations; for example, a nonpsychologist is more likely to misrepresent or overstate its relevance and usefulness. The MBTI is also based on a simplistic view of Jung s theory, a theory which is not widely regarded by contemporary psychologists. Despite these criticisms, the MBTI may be useful in opening up aspects of personality for exploration, reflection and discussion by those who complete the test. eBook plus Weblink

MBTI test

BOX 12.10 The 16 Myers Briggs types ENFJ: these people are confident speakers. They show genuine concern for the feelings of others. They are sociable and popular and respond well to praise and criticism. They make good counsellors, teachers, executives and salespeople. ENFP: these people love novelty and surprises. They are big on emotions and expression. They are susceptible to muscle tension and tend to be hyperalert. They tend to feel self-conscious. They are good at sales, advertising, politics and acting. ENTJ: in charge at home, they expect a lot from spouses and kids. They like organisation and structure and tend to make good executives and administrators. ENTP: these are lively people, not humdrum or orderly. As mates, they are a little dangerous, especially economically. They are good at analysis and make good entrepreneurs. They do tend to play at one-up-manship. ESFJ: these people like harmony. They tend to have strong shoulds and should-nots. They may be dependent, first on parents and later on spouses. They wear their hearts on their sleeves and excel in service occupations involving personal contact. ESFP: very generous and impulsive, they have a low tolerance for anxiety. They make good performers, they like public relations and they love the phone. They should avoid scholarly pursuits, especially science. ESTJ: these are responsible mates and parents, and are loyal to the workplace. They are realistic, down-to-earth, orderly, and love tradition. They often find themselves joining voluntary clubs and organisations in the community such as Neighbourhood Watch and Meals on Wheels! ESTP: these are action-oriented people, often sophisticated, sometimes ruthless our James Bonds . As mates, they are exciting and charming, but they have trouble with commitment. They make good promoters, entrepreneurs and con artists.

INFJ: these are serious students and workers who really want to contribute. They are private and easily hurt. They make good spouses, but tend to be physically reserved. People often think they are psychic. They make good therapists, general practitioners, ministers and so on. INFP: these people are idealistic, self-sacrificing and somewhat cool or reserved. They are very family and home oriented, but don t relax well. You find them in psychology, architecture and religion, but never in business. INTJ: these are the most independent of all types. They love logic and ideas, and are drawn to scientific research. They can be rather single-minded, though. INTP: faithful, preoccupied and forgetful, these are the bookworms. They tend to be very precise in their use of language. They are good at logic and maths, and make good philosophers and theoretical scientists, but not writers or salespeople. ISFJ: these people are service and work oriented. They may suffer from fatigue and tend to be attracted to troublemakers. They are good nurses, teachers, secretaries, general practitioners, librarians, middle managers and housekeepers. ISFP: they are shy and retiring, are not talkative, but like sensuous action. They like painting, drawing, sculpting, composing, dancing the arts generally and they like nature. They are not big on commitment. ISTJ: these are dependable pillars of strength. They often try to reform their mates and other people. They make good bank tellers, auditors, accountants, tax officers, supervisors in libraries and hospitals, business, physical education teachers, and boy or girl scouts! ISTP: these people are action-oriented and fearless, and crave excitement. They are impulsive and dangerous to stop. They often like tools, instruments and weapons, and often become technical experts. They are not interested in communications and are often incorrectly diagnosed as dyslexic or hyperactive. They tend to do badly in school.

learnin g acTiviT y 12. 30 review questions 1. What is the MBTI ? 2. Consider the description of Jung s personality theory in box 12.4. How well is the MBTI based on this theory? Explain your answer. 3. Which MBTI dimensions might correlate with the OCEAN factors? Name each dimension and the associated factor. Give a brief reason for each of your pairings. 4. Which MBTI type(s) do you believe you most resemble? Ask someone sitting near you who knows

you reasonably well to suggest which type they believe you most closely resemble. Do the same for them. Exchange your ratings and compare with your selfrating. How well do the ratings match? 5. To what extent do the MBTI type descriptions in box 12.10 match astrological personality descriptions? 6. Suppose you applied for a job and the MBTI is used as the basis for selecting the successful applicant. How well do you believe the MBTI would assess and represent your personality? Explain your answer. 7. Describe key criticisms that have been made of the MBTI .

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Holland s Self-Directed Search Holland s Self-Directed Search (SDS) is a career counselling inventory which enables a person to identify their personality type and match it with career preferences which suit their personality type. It is used extensively by psychologists and careers counsellors in Australia and throughout the world to help people make career choices. The SDS was developed by American psychologist John Holland (1919 2008) and is based on his theory of careers (1973, 1997). According to Holland (2008), his research shows that personalities seek out and flourish in career environments they fit and that occupations and career environments are classifiable by the personalities that flourish in them . Essentially, Holland believed that our career success and satisfaction depend on how similar our personality type is to the environment in which the work is performed. We also choose careers and vocations that match our personality because we like to be around others who have similar personalities. A positive outcome of this is that people of the same personality type working together in the same occupation usually create a work environment that suits their type. For example, when creative people work together in the same workplace, they tend to create a work environment which encourages and rewards creative thinking and behaviour. Furthermore, creative people are more likely to be successful and satisfied if they choose a job that has a creative environment because a creative environment is likely to have a workplace culture where creative abilities and expression are highly valued. You

Career

Your personality type:

Compatible work environment:

Realistic Investigative Artistic Social Enterprising Conventional

Matched with

Realistic Investigative Artistic Social Enterprising Conventional

Will likely lead to success and satisfaction

Figure 12.47 Matching a personality type with a compatible work environment will usually lead to success and satisfaction in the workplace. The Career KeyTM

According to Holland (1997), all people fit into one or more of six personality types. He called these realistic (R), investigative (I), artistic (A), social (S), enterprising (E) and conventional (C). A combination of the first letter of each type forms the acronym RIASEC, which is why Holland s theory of careers is sometimes referred to as the RIASEC theory. 554

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The characteristics of each personality type include the following: Realistic (R): • tends to be shy, conforming, honest, straightforward,

practical, self-reliant, persistent and thrifty • is good at and prefers hands-on activities such

as using tools and machines; is not good at and prefers to avoid activities involving interactions with others, like teaching and helping or healing • has good skills in working with tools, mechanical or electrical drawings, machines, or plants and animals; often has athletic abilities • is attracted to careers such as mechanic, carpenter, electrician, air traffic controller, cook, surveyor and gardener.

Investigative (I): • tends to be intellectual, analytical, curious, critical, precise, methodical, cautious and modest • is good at and prefers learning by reading, studying or investigation, and solving maths or science problems; is not good at and prefers to avoid activities involving leading, selling, or persuading people • attracted to careers such as mathematician, biologist, veterinarian, surgeon, laboratory assistant, engineer, computer programmer and systems analyst.

Artistic (A): • tends to be imaginative, intuitive, original, impulsive, independent, open, disorderly, unconventional, emotional and expressive • is good at and prefers to do creative activities such as art, drama, crafts, dance, music, or creative writing; is not good at and prefers to avoid highly ordered or repetitive, routine-type activities such as clerical work • is attracted to careers such as musician, composer, photographer, dancer, journalist, writer, architect, actor, stage director and interior designer.

Enterprising (E): • tends to be domineering, argumentative, energetic, self-confident, sociable, pleasure-seeking, energetic, exhibitionistic and optimistic • is good at and prefers to lead and persuade people, and to sell ideas and things; is not good at and prefers to avoid activities that require complicated scientific and systematic thinking • is attracted to careers such as management, lawyer, salesperson, politician, travel agent, town planner, television production, financial planner and sports promoter.

Social (S): • tends to be helpful, cooperative, friendly, idealistic, empathetic, generous, persuasive, responsible and tactful • has a concern for social problems and good interpersonal skills • is good at and prefers to do things to help people such as teaching, providing information and giving first aid; is not good at and prefers to avoid using machines and tools to achieve a goal • is attracted to careers such as nursing, teaching, speech therapy, occupational therapy, welfare work, religious work, police officer, personnel manager and specialist areas of psychology that involve counselling.

Conventional (C): • tends to be conforming, conscientious, inflexible, obedient, persistent, practical, calm and selfcontrolled • is good at and prefers to work with numbers, written records, or business machines in a set, planned and orderly way; is not good at and prefers to avoid ambiguous, unstructured activities that do not have clear directions • attracted to careers such as accountant, book keeper, postal officer, bank teller, administrative officer, payroll clerk, building inspector, secretary, radio despatcher, switch board operator, checkout operator and website editor.

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The SDS questionnaire is designed to assess these personality types. It is self-administered, self-scored and self-interpreted. After completing the SDS, the testtaker adds up all their positive responses and arrives at a three-letter code. Each letter in the code represents one of the six personality types. For example, IES refers to investigative, enterprising and social. The three letters indicate the top three types because a person often resembles several types, not just one. The first letter of the code shows the personality type most closely resembled by the test-taker, the second letter shows the type next most closely resembled and so on. Holland s theory uses a hexagon to show the similarities and differences between each personality type (see figure 12.48). The personality types closest to each other in the hexagon are more alike than those farther away. Types that are next to each other tend to be the most similar. For example, realistic and investigative types tend to be most similar, but realistic and social types tend to be most different. Conventional types are most similar to enterprising and realistic types, somewhat less similar to social and investigative types, but most different from artistic types and so on. Holland s hexagon can be used to estimate the extent to which a person s type and an occupation, a work environment or a field of study are compatible, match, or fit. For example, a social type in a social occupation (and therefore work environment) is a good match, whereas a social type in an investigative or conventional occupation is not a particularly good match. A social type in a realistic occupation is the least compatible match. More precise estimates of compatibility involve using the second and third letter of the SDS code. The SDS results can also be used to check a list of occupations, fields of study and leisure activities that are consistent with the code. This information is intended to support the test-taker in career exploration, planning, development and decision-making. The SDS results are not intended to provide firm instruction or advice on a career or course of study that must or should be followed by the test-taker. Instead, it provides a list of career options that should be theoretically appropriate and therefore might be considered and explored further, preferably with a vocational counsellor. Generally, counselling psychologists find the SDS very useful as one of a number of assessment tools that can be used in the vocational counselling process. Holland s theory of careers which describes the interrelationship between personality types, job satisfaction and work environments is also relatively simple and easy for SDS users to understand. 556

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Realistic

Conventional

Investigative

Artistic

Enterprising

Social Figure 12.48 The Holland hexagon. The shorter the distance between each personality type the more similar they are and vice versa. The hexagon can also be used to ensure personality types and work environments are matched.

Research studies conducted by psychologists to test different aspects of Holland s theory of careers have obtained results that tend to support the theory. Most correlation studies find some co-relationship between Holland s RIASEC personality types and job satisfaction. The correlations, however, tend to be low; for example, on average about .2 (Tokar, Fischer & Subich, 1998; Tokar & Subich, 1997). Research studies have also found overlap between Holland s types and the five OCEAN factors of personality. For example, Holland s enterprising and social types tend to be positively correlated with the extraversion factor, the artistic and investigative types tend to be positively correlated with the openness factor, and the conventional type tends to be positively correlated with the conscientiousness factor. However, these correlations also tend to be relatively low. Most contemporary psychologists prefer the five OCEAN factors, as providing the most appropriate description of personality, to Holland s RIASEC types. In addition, most contemporary psychologists believe that describing personality in terms of types is inadequate and outdated. For instance, like other type theories of personality, Holland s theory lacks explanation of how people develop their personality and why people develop into certain types. Type theories of personality tend to be viewed as too simplistic and inappropriate for describing human personality. Most psychologists now believe that it is impossible to explain the diversity of human personality with a small number of broadly described personality types.

For example, it is believed that type theories essentially ignore individual differences and simply classify people according to their general or most dominant personality characteristics or interests. Type theories usually also provide a very limited number of categories in which to classify the many different types of personalities observed in the many different cultures throughout the world. Thus, type theories of personality are not widely supported in contemporary psychology. Other aspects of Holland s theory may also be outdated. For example, his theory does not take account of the increase in part-time and casual employment in recent times, and whether or not people can pursue career success and satisfaction in a sequence of shortterm, unstable jobs which may quickly disappear with an economic downturn. Researchers have also found that Holland s system of categorising individuals into specific types may be biased. For instance, females most commonly tend to be classified in combinations of the artistic, social and conventional types. However, Holland suggests that this is because our society channels women into female-dominated occupations . His theory has also been criticised on the grounds that it overlooks too many other factors that impact on career choice and development. For example, factors other than personality type and work environment

that can influence an individual s career choice may include the political and economic climate at the time career or occupational choice is being made; economic factors such as an individual s need for financial security; geographic factors such as where a person lives in relation to career possibilities; personal health factors such as an illness or disability they may prevent someone from undertaking work which they would find satisfying; and an individual s lack of educational or training qualifications preventing them from applying for or performing jobs which they would find most satisfying.

learning acTiviTy 12.31 complete the SDS Holland s SDS is designed for independent use by individuals aged 14+. Copies are usually available in most schools and many public libraries of careers resource centres. Access a copy of the various booklets and inspect the materials. If you have not recently completed the SDS, your teacher may be able to arrange its completion by the class.

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Table 12.7 A personality profile developed from responses to the NEO-PI-R

Compared with the responses of other people, your responses suggest that you can be described as: Sensitive, emotional, and prone to experience feelings that are upsetting.

X Generally calm and able to deal with stress, but you sometimes experience feelings of guilt, anger, or sadness.

Secure, hardy and generally relaxed even under stressful conditions.

Extraverted, outgoing, active and high-spirited. You prefer to be around people most of the time.

Moderate in activity and enthusiasm. You enjoy the company of others, but you also value privacy.

X Introverted, reserved and serious. You prefer to be alone or with a few close friends.

Open to new experiences. You have broad interests and are very imaginative.

Practical but willing to consider new ways of doing things. You seek a balance between the old and the new.

X Down-to-earth, practical, traditional and pretty much set in your ways.

Compassionate, good-natured, and eager to cooperate and avoid conflict. X Conscientious and well-organised. You have high standards and always strive to achieve your goals.

X Generally warm, trusting and agreeable, but you can sometimes be stubborn and competitive. Dependable and moderately wellorganised. You generally have clear goals but are able to set your work aside.

Hardheaded, sceptical, proud and competitive. You tend to express your anger directly. Easygoing, not very well-organised and sometimes careless. You prefer not to make plans.

(Source: Bernstein, D. A. (2000). Psychology (5th ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin.)

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BOX 12.11 Internet tests can be harmful A vast number of personality, career (and intelligence) tests are currently available on the internet for self-assessment. They use a variety of names such as test, quiz, selector, sorter, survey and finder of some type of characteristic. Some are free; others require payment of a fee. Some are available through reputable organisations; others are provided through organisations that should not be trusted to provide valid information. Some of the tests are valid and reliable, but, overall, most of the internet tests are neither valid nor reliable. Internet assessments are potentially harmful and should be taken with considerable caution. They sometimes present you with information about yourself that is incorrect or misleading. For example, an internet-based test which claims to accurately assess your vocational aptitudes and preferences can provide you with feedback that is not accurate. You might even be matched to an occupation, course or training program that does not suit you. For example, a vocational selection test which claims to be an SDS type assessment might report that your highest score is for the enterprising personality type when actually it is artistic. These two types are opposites! Valid and reliable psychological or vocational type tests are developed by psychometricians on the basis of scientific test development standards and research. All of these tests come with professionally prepared manuals which include normative data. All the test materials have been trialled and carefully reviewed by panels of expert psychologists. Psychologists emphasise validity, reliability and peer review to ensure that the tests actually measure what they claim to measure and that they do so consistently. Most of the tests available through the internet focus on profit though payment of a test-taker fee and/or from advertising. If you are interested in sitting an internet test, the first thing you should do is check to find out whether there is a manual that has been developed for the test. If there is no manual, then avoid this test. If there is a manual, it may

Strengths and limitations of inventories Generally, inventories have the advantage of being quick to administer and can also be administered to large numbers of people in a relatively short period of time compared with other assessment devices. Most inventories use computer scoring, which is efficient and provides an easy way of comparing an individual s response with the average in the population. Many are now available online where scoring is automatic. A further strength of inventories is that they can measure a single trait, type, or multiple traits (dimensions or factors) simultaneously. The main limitation of inventories is that their purpose is obvious and some respondents manipulate 558

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not be the kind that meets professional standards. In either case, it would be wise to check with a teacher or someone who you believe can provide authoritative advice. You should also be wary of endorsements by professional organisations such as the Australian Psychological Society, the American Psychological Association, a community or government career resource centre, a university or TAFE, and so on. Such endorsements are often untrue. The endorsing organisations are named on an assumption that most people will not check with the organisation. This assumption is accurate because most people do not bother checking. It would be wise to make the effort and check with the organisation. Always keep in mind that an internet test is unlikely to be valid or reliable and therefore the profile it provides you with may be incorrect and misleading. You should also keep in mind that one thing any test cannot do is to tell you what to do! Taking an internet test or quiz can be fun. If you take a test or quiz, do not take the results seriously unless you have taken the test under the supervision of a qualified professional.

Figure 12.49 Care should be exercised when taking an internet test or quiz.

their answers to reflect a particular pattern of personal characteristics they want to portray. For example, a prospective employee may respond to the statement Winning is important to me , in the way they think reflects what the employer wants either to be competitive or non-competitive regardless of whether it is a true expression of how competitive they really are. To check for this, the personality inventories most widely used by psychologists have a set of questions spread throughout the test specifically designed to assess whether the test-taker is likely to have lied during the test. A lie scale score is calculated using the responses to these questions and the test administrator considers this score along with the other test results. However, some test-takers still seem to be able to beat the lie scale.

Another limitation is that, because individuals can give only one of a range of specified responses, the amount of information they can provide is limited and there is no opportunity for individuals to clarify or explain what they mean by their responses. In addition, many inventories have been criticised because of their cultural bias. As with intelligence tests, cultural bias in a personality test refers to the tendency of the test to provide an inaccurate profile of a person from a culture different from that on which the test was standardised. An individual s response to a statement can be influenced by their cultural traits as well as their personality traits. Therefore, if a test is biased towards a particular cultural group, the personality profiles of people with different cultural backgrounds may not accurately reflect their true personality. For example, in many cultures, answering true to the statement (included in the MMPI) evil spirits possess me at times would be considered abnormal. However, in many indigenous cultures, it would not be considered abnormal to agree with this statement.

learning acTiviTy 12.32 review questions 1. What is the SDS? 2. List three underlying assumptions on which Holland s theory of careers is based. 3. Which RIASEC types correlate with OCEAN factors? 4. What do the low correlations between the RIASEC types and OCEAN factors suggest about the usefulness of Holland s personality theory for nonvocational selection purposes? 5. Suppose you applied for a position and the SDS is used as the basis of selecting the successful applicant. How well do you believe the SDS would assess and represent your personality? Explain your answer. 6. Briefly outline three criticisms of Holland s theory. 7. Describe two strengths and two limitations of inventories.

ambiguous stimulus. The stimulus may be inkblots or pictures that can be interpreted in more than one way. Because test-takers have to describe their perceptions of the stimulus, the assumption is that they will draw on their personal experiences in doing this and thus aspects of their personality will be revealed in the interpretation. Projective tests can provide much more detailed information than objective tests. Because respondents are not restricted by answering yes/no, like/dislike and so on, it is believed that they can project detailed information about aspects of themselves into the stimulus. The two most widely used projective tests are the Rorschach inkblot test and the Thematic Apperception Test.

rorschach inkblot test The Rorschach inkblot test is named after the man who developed it, Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach (1884 1922). The first version of the test was published in 1921 and was subsequently used to help identify individuals who had mental health problems. The Roschach inkblot test consists of 10 stimulus cards, initially constructed by dropping ink onto a piece of paper and then folding the paper in half. Each card is distinctly different and is composed of a variety of colours. Some cards are black and grey, others black, grey and red and others a combination of pastel colours (see figure 12.50).

Projective tests Projective tests provide an approach to the assessment of personality that is different from inventories. Rather than requiring the individual to provide a response from a range of options as with personality inventories, for a projective test, the test-taker is presented with visual material for which they provide an interpretation. A projective test attempts to uncover an individual s unconscious wishes, desires, fears, thoughts, needs and other hidden aspects of personality by asking them to describe what they see or to make up a story from an

Figure 12.50 An example of a Rorschach test item

The Rorschach test is seldom used in contemporary psychology. When used, it is administered individually and test-takers are asked to describe what they see on each stimulus card. No restriction is placed on the type of response made and no clues are given regarding the type of response expected. If the test-taker asks C h a p t e r 1 2 Personality

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for guidance or clarification, the test administrator is required to answer in a non-specific way to give as little information as possible so that they do not influence the test-taker s answers.

Figure 12.51 Hermann Rorschach (1884 1922)

Scoring the responses is detailed, and involves making subjective (personal) interpretations based on assessment criteria. The test administrator must take into account such things as where on the inkblot the test-taker focused; what determined the response; what the test-taker s perception actually was; how often, compared to norms, that response occurs; and to what extent the response matched the features of the inkblot. Computer-generated interpretations of Rorschach stimulus cards are now available, making the interpretation of responses more objective.

TaT The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was first introduced in 1935 by American psychologists Christina Morgan and Henry Murray and was adopted by other psychologists as a means of assessing personality. Unlike the Rorschach inkblot test, it was not designed to diagnose mental illnesses. Instead, it was based on a theory about needs for achievement; that is, we all have needs and having these needs met influences our behaviour in everyday life. The TAT consists of 30 stimulus cards which contain drawings of various situations. Usually only about 10 of these cards are used in assessing someone s personality. Each card is designed to generate its own themes, needs and conflicts. Some are specifically designed for males, others are specifically designed for females and still others are designed to be used with either sex. Some cards are particularly designed for older people, others for younger people and a few are appropriate for all people. The TAT is administered individually and the test-taker is asked to tell a story about each picture by describing the background to what the characters are thinking or feeling and what the outcome will be. The test-taker s response is recorded word for word. It is assumed that in creating these stories, individuals reveal the conflicts, moods or themes which dominate their lives and underlie their personality. For example, a person who sees a picture of a teenage girl looking at mannequins in a shop window might create a story with angry references to the girl s parents. The test aministrator might interpret from this that the person taking the test has hidden resentments towards their own parents (Davison & Neale, 2001). When interpreting the stories, the test administrator takes into account the reaction time between presenting the stimulus cards and the test-taker s first response because this can indicate a particular mental

learnin g acTiviT y 12. 33 evaluation of the rorschach test 1. Look at the inkblot in figure 12.49. You may examine it from any angle. Write a description of what you see in the stimulus. 2. Compare your perception of the inkblot with those of other members of the class by completing a table similar to the one at right, then consider these questions: (a) What was the most frequent perception? (b) What was the most creative perception? (c) How many different perceptions were there? (d) What conclusions can be drawn about individual differences from this exercise?

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Participant (P)

Description of stimulus

P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 3. What difficulties might be experienced in using the Rorschach test to assess personality?

health problem. For example, if the reaction time is significantly slower for all cards involving heterosexual relationships, this may suggest to the test administrator that the test-taker may be experiencing problems in this area.

learning acTiviTy 12.35 interpreting TaT responses

learning acTiviTy 12.34 TaT in practice 1. Carefully view figure 12.52. Write a description which outlines: (a) what led up to the situation shown in the picture (b) what is happening in the picture (c) what the characters in the picture are thinking and feeling (d) what the outcome will be. 2. You may like to share one or more of your descriptions of the pictures with the rest of the class to highlight individual differences. 3. What difficulties might be experienced in using the TAT to assess personality?

Figure 12.53 An example of a picture like those used in the TAT

The following responses to the picture in figure 12.53 were provided by two males. Person As response: The story told by a 21-year-old male. She has prepared this room because she is expecting her son home. She is glancing over the room for the last time before his arrival. He has been away for a long time, and she wants the room to look the way it was when he left. She has been a very overpowering mother and has controlled her son s life. She is going to try to take over again as soon as he returns. Her son is completely dominated by his mother, and he will fall back into abiding by her well-ordered way of life. He will go through life following the paths she sets for him. This represents her complete domination of his life until she dies.

Figure 12.52 An example of a TAT item (Reprinted by permission of the publishers from Henry A. Murray. Thematic Apperception Test, Plate 12F, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Harvard University Press. © 1943 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. © 1971 by Henry A. Murray.)

Person B s response: The story told by a 35-year-old male. This lady has an elderly mother who lives with her. Her mother often has difficulty sleeping and stays up late watching TV. The lady is curious as to whether her mother is still up and checks the lounge room to see if her mother is still there and that she is okay. She finds the lounge room empty, but the light is still on, and she assumes her mother has gone to bed. She will check that her mother is in bed before she goes to bed herself. 1. What comments can you make about the personality of persons A and B based on their responses to the TAT-like card? 2. What reservations would you have about drawing conclusions about personality based on the responses to the TAT stimuli?

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Strengths and limitations of projective tests One advantage of projective tests is that because there are no right or wrong answers and the purpose and scoring of the test is not obvious, individuals may be less likely to manipulate or fake their responses to the stimuli. Furthermore, individuals are not restricted in the responses they provide to the stimuli. They can provide as much or as little information as they choose. A further strength of projective tests is that they provide psychologists with rich, personalised qualitative data about a person stated in their own words. Finally, responses to items in projective tests can be used by psychologists to discuss situations that may be causing difficulties for their client. Some of the strengths of projective tests are also their limitations. For example, having no correct answer makes them difficult to interpret, and makes the interpretations subjective and more prone to inaccuracies. Therefore, it is possible that two psychologists independently assessing the same response may produce quite different interpretations. In addition, an individual may not be able to provide a response to a particular stimulus. Furthermore, it is assumed that in providing a response, an individual will reveal information about their underlying personality. This may or may not be the case. Thus, projective tests may not actually be testing what they intend to test and are therefore considered to have relatively low validity. Finally, because projective tests must be administered individually, they are time consuming and expensive and cannot be used simultaneously with large numbers of people.

learning acTiviTy 12.36 review questions 1. (a) What is a projective test? (b) In what main ways do projective tests differ from objective tests such as inventories? 2. How is personality assessed by the Rorschach inkblot test? 3. How is personality measured by the TAT? 4. Briefly describe two advantages and two limitations of projective tests. 5. Briefly explain why projective tests are considered to have both low validity and low reliability. 6. If your personality were to be assessed by one personality assessment device, which one would you select and why?

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Validity and reliability of PerSonality teStS We are constantly confronted with psychological tests in magazines and on the internet, such as, Are you a Type X personality? , Are you emotionally stable? , Are you a party animal? and Ten questions to assess whether your relationship will survive . Many of these tests are no more than entertainment although they include questions that, on the surface, seem to make sense. People tend to be interested in these tests because they believe the test results will give them a better understanding of themselves and others. In reality, virtually all of these publicly available tests tell us little about ourselves. In contrast, the tests used by psychologists to assess personality must meet strict quality controls. They are usually current, have standardised test administration procedures and have been standardised with a representative sample and base norms against which the test-taker s results are compared. All of these features help ensure the tests are valid and reliable.

Test validity To be useful, a personality test must be valid; that is, it must actually measure what it is supposed to measure. For instance, it must measure those traits, factors (dimensions) or other aspects of personality it has been designed to measure and not some other characteristics. The importance of validity can be seen in the example of Tran who has been experiencing symptoms of depression and has even contemplated suicide. Suppose that Tran visits a psychologist who, after administering a personality test, indicates that a period of hospitalisation, until the depression is controlled, would be beneficial to Tran. The same day, Tran arrives at the hospital to be assessed for admission. A different personality test is administered and it indicates that Tran is within a normal range on the depression scale and does not require hospitalisation, so he is sent home. Which personality test has correctly assessed Tran s depression? In this case, either one or both of them may not be valid. If Tran subsequently committed suicide, it would suggest that the first test is a valid measure of depression, but the second test is not. If Tran experienced no more suicidal thoughts and was able to conduct his life without any further debilitating depressive thoughts, then perhaps the second test is more valid than the first. As with intelligence tests, evidence for validity can be obtained in several ways, including content validity, criterion-related validity and construct validity. We briefly re-consider each of these with reference to personality tests.

Content validity means that the content of the test, including all its subtests and items, adequately measures what it is designed to measure. For example, a test for extraversion introversion should contain items which match a widely accepted description of this dimension and all of its specific traits. Criterion-related validity means that the test can adequately predict certain personality traits and dimensions (or factors) from answers given by the test-taker. For example, an individual who gives the answers typically given by individuals who score high on introversion should be identified as high on the introversion dimension. This is referred to as predictive validity. For example, suppose people diagnosed with the mental illness schizophrenia tended to answer true to the statement in a personality test, I have never been in love with anyone . Whether or not people who suffer from schizophrenia do experience love is not so important as far as the test is concerned. However, if people with a certain mental illness tend, as a group, to answer a specific group of questions in a similar way, this pattern of answers may then predict others who have the disorder. Thus, what the question actually asks is not as important as what the answers predict. A test that has predictive validity would consistently be able to identify people with similar personality traits and dimensions. Construct validity means that the test provides a good reflection of the personality theory or model on which it is based and that there is empirical evidence supporting the theory or model. For example, if a personality test is based on a theory that personality is biologically based and therefore inherited, then scores on a large, representative sample who are given the test would show a normal distribution if graphed in a frequency distribution. A research study to establish construct validity in this way would also provide the required empirical evidence for construct validity if a normal distribution was obtained.

Test reliability A personality test must also be reliable. Reliability refers to the ability of a test to consistently measure what it is supposed to measure each time it is given. A personality test is not reliable if it does not consistently produce similar personality profiles when the same test is given to the same individual on different occasions. For example, consider the following case. Sophie visits a counselling psychologist because she is bored and dissatisfied with her career pathway. She asks for an assessment to give her some indication of personal strengths and weaknesses. She is also keen to gain some advice on the range of career options open

to her, with the view to making a career change. The personality test she completes suggests she copes well with stress and anxiety, and one of the career options presented to her by the psychologist is working in management. On the basis of this, Sophie applies for a new job in the management area. The organisational psychologist working in the Human Resources department asks Sophie to complete a personality test as part of a set of tests to establish her suitability to the position. The personality test she completes is the same one she completed with the counselling psychologist, but this time her profile suggests she is easily stressed and does not deal effectively with anxiety. Clearly, the results of the second test were inconsistent with the earlier test results, suggesting that the test did not reliably measure the anxiety trait. Psychologists, therefore, need to be sure that the tests they use are reliable before placing too much emphasis on their results; otherwise people s lives could be severely affected. In Sophie s case, if the issue of effective management of stress was an important criterion in the selection of the manager s position, then Sophie may not be considered for the position. Which test result was correct? This highlights the importance of using reliable tests, as results can be misleading if tests are not reliable. As with intelligence tests, there are several ways to establish reliability of a personality test. These include test-retest reliability, parallel-forms reliability, split-half reliability, internal consistency and interrater reliability. Test-retest reliability involves giving the personality test to the same group of people on two different occasions and then comparing the two sets of scores. If the test is reliable, then each person should achieve similar scores on the test each time they do it. One problem with this procedure is that all individuals may benefit from test practice effects and perform better on the test when re-tested because of their prior experience with the test. There are two ways of estimating reliability that take practice effects into account and overcome the problem. One way is to use the method called parallel-forms reliability. Parallel-forms reliability, also called alternate forms reliability, involves giving another version of the same test instead of using exactly the same test twice. If scores on the two tests are similar, it suggests that they measure the same thing. Another way of overcoming practice effects is to use the method called split-half reliability. Split-half reliability involves dividing the original test into two halves and examining the relationship between scores on each half. For example, scores on the odd numbered items might be compared with scores on the even numbered items. If the two halves of the test are C h a p t e r 1 2 Personality

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composed of items that measure the same personality traits, each individual should have similar scores on the two halves, if the test is reliable. The split-half reliability method is a way of establishing the internal reliability of a test. Another way of establishing the internal reliability of a test is to check the internal consistency of all items across the entire test. Internal consistency involves using correlations between different items in the same test to determine whether the items produce similar results. For example, if a test has 10 items to measure a specific personality trait, then a test-taker should achieve similar results on each item. Achieving similar results (or responding in a similar way) on all items would indicate that the test is internally consistent. Inter-rater reliability involves checking that different test administrators (i.e. those rating the test-taker s performance) get similar results from it. For example, imagine how irritated you would be if you had a persistent pain in your knee and you went to four different doctors, received four different diagnoses and four different, perhaps even conflicting, treatments. The diagnoses would be considered unreliable because two or more people rating or assessing the symptoms did not agree on the cause. It is also expected that psychologists use reliable assessment and classification tools. A personality test has a high inter-rater reliability if different judges independently agree on the score and how to interpret it. True/false and multiple-choice tests give consistent scores, regardless of who evaluates them. However, tests that require the judge to interpret or evaluate them, such as projective tests, may not be as reliable. For example, if a person was asked to draw a picture describing their inner thoughts and feelings, different psychologists judging the drawing may interpret or rate it differently. It is important to have both reliable and valid tests when individuals lives are involved. It is clear that psychologists must use personality tests carefully and consider their reliability and validity before placing too much emphasis on their results. This provides an important explanation as to why only qualified and registered psychologists can administer and interpret personality tests.

learning a cTiviTy 12.37 review questions 1. Explain the meaning of the term validity with reference to personality tests. 2. Explain the meaning of the term reliability with reference to personality tests.

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Figure 12.54 Two judges of a diving competition rate the same dive differently. The low inter-rater reliability may reflect bias from the judge or inconsistency in the scoring process.

learning acTiviTy 12.38 Media response analysing an internet test of personality or careers interests Working by yourself or with a partner, undertake internet research and locate an example of a personality or vocational assessment that should be considered with caution (see box 12.11, page 558). Print a copy of the home page, describing the test and any other additional information. You do not have to actually take the test, but you should look for information referred to in box 12.11. Prepare a brief report on the test in which you outline: • what the test claims to assess • what the test involves • whether there is a professional manual • whether there is any professional endorsement and, if so, by which individual or organisation • whether there is any link to another site and, if so, which site and its relevance • whether there is any fee involved. Comment on the usefulness of the test with reference to: • any psychological theory on which the test is based • test validity and reliability (see page 558) • the potential benefits and/or harm of taking the test • anything else which you believe is of relevance and should be reported. Present your report to the class. Ensure you give others in the class an opportunity to ask questions. It does not matter if another person(s) investigates and reports on the same test. It will be useful to compare the different perspectives and evaluations.

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internet tests

3. Why is it important for personality tests to be valid and reliable? 4. Would you trust the results of a personality test published in a popular magazine? Explain your answer with reference to test validity and test reliability.

etHiCal guidelineS for PerSonality teSting Most standardised personality tests can be obtained and used only by registered psychologists; that is, they are not available for purchase by unqualified people. This helps ensure that personality testing is undertaken in an ethically appropriate way. The code of ethics that applies to psychologists includes specific ethical guidelines that must be considered and strictly followed when testing personality. The main purpose of these ethical guidelines is to safeguard the wellbeing and rights of test-takers. In particular, the guidelines help ensure that the test-taker s participation in the testing procedure is informed, voluntary and confidential. They also help ensure the results are used appropriately and not misused. The Australian Psychological Society s code of ethics includes the following ethical guidelines or precautions when personality tests are being conducted: • The test must be chosen, administered and interpreted appropriately and accurately by the psychologist. This helps ensure that the personality test used by the psychologist is carefully selected to ensure that it is suitable for the test-taker; for example, pitched at the right age level and suitable for the purpose of gathering the particular information required. It also helps ensure that the test is given in accordance with the instructions in the manual

that accompanies the test and that the test-taker s answers to the various questions and tasks in the test are interpreted correctly (as specified in the manual). • The test-taker must be fully informed about the nature and purpose of the testing procedures to be used, and be fully informed of the results of the assessment. When providing the test-taker (or their parent or legal guardian) with information about the test and results, the psychologist must use language that the test-taker can understand (plain English rather than psychological jargon ) and help them understand the information by using appropriate examples. • The psychologist must not interpret or use the test results in an inappropriate way. Furthermore, the psychologist must not encourage or support the inappropriate use or interpretation of test results; for example, they must not provide an employee s results to their employer for the purpose of filing the results for future reference . • The psychologist must support the proper use of personality tests in the community by not allowing them to be misused by people who are unauthorised or unqualified to use these tests. For example, giving a lot of information about the contents of a test to a person not authorised or qualified to use the test may leave the test open to misuse. This includes publishing the complete set of test items from a personality test in a textbook such as this one, in case a student misuses the items or draws false conclusions about personality tests and testing.

Figure 12.55 Is it ethically permissible for a psychologist to authorise publication of this photo taken during an actual assessment? C h a p t e r 1 2 Personality

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• An individual s test results obtained for one purpose, may

subsequently be used for another purpose only with the informed written consent of that individual. This does not apply to the subsequent use of the results for research purposes, provided that the anonymity and interests of the individual are maintained and safeguarded. • The psychologist must not permit, encourage or promote the use of personality testing by inappropriately trained or otherwise unqualified persons. For example, when training another psychologist or student in how to give a test, the psychologist must not allow the psychologist or trainee to give a test to someone until they have been properly trained.

learning acTiviTy 12.39 review questions 1. Why do psychologists have a code of ethics for personality testing? 2. Which three ethical guidelines for personality testing do you believe are most important? Give reasons for your answer. 3. Explain whether or not it would be ethically permissible for a psychologist to undertake each of the following activities: (a) disguise the purpose of a personality test to give a false impression of what that test is testing (b) use a personality test to screen a job applicant for personality on behalf of an employer who views certain aspects of personality as an important prerequisite for the job (c) provide access to a few actual personality test items to help a person overcome their anxiety about taking the test at a later time (d) publish a book about personality tests and testing.

learning acTiviTy 12.41 visual presentation comparing methods of measuring personality Prepare a presentation to compare two different methods of measuring personality, the theories on which each method is based and the strengths and limitations of each method. In your presentation, ensure that you: • use two or more data types; for example, still or moving images, written text and sound • briefly describe personality in terms of the theory (or model) • describe the key concepts of each theory (or model) of personality • include examples of personality characteristics described by the theory • describe two methods of measuring personality • explain the strengths and limitations of each methodology, including reliability and validity • describe the ethics associated with measuring personality • accurately define and explain all concepts and key terms • use appropriate examples to demonstrate your understanding of concepts and key terms • organise the information in a logical way • express your information in a clear and concise way. References may be used in obtaining information for your presentation.

Assesment task and criteria

learnin g acTiviT y 12. 40 essay comparing methods of measuring personality Write an essay of about 500 600 words in which you describe and compare two different methods of measuring personality, the theories (or models) on which each method is based, and the strengths and limitations of each method. In your essay, ensure that you: • define personality • briefly describe the key concepts of each theory (or model) of personality • include examples of personality characteristics described by the theory

• describe two different methods of measuring personality • explain the strengths and limitations of the methodologies, including reliability and validity • describe the ethics associated with measuring personality • accurately define and explain all concepts and key terms • use appropriate examples to demonstrate your understanding of concepts and key terms • structure your information in a logical way • express your information in a clear and concise way • accurately cite and reference all material. References may be used in obtaining information for your essay.

Assesment task and criteria 566

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TrU e/FalS e Q UiZ Indicate whether each item is true or false by writing T or F in the blank space next to each item. 1. _____

Cattell s model describes 16 personality factors.

2. _____

Allport developed the lexical method for studying personality traits.

3. _____

According to Freud, the ego operates on the moral principle.

4. _____

An underlying belief of psychodynamic theories is that all people strive to reach their full potential.

5. _____

Eysenck was the first trait theorist to identify the introversion extraversion dimension.

6. _____

According to Allport, a central trait is the motivator and determinant of all human behaviour.

7. _____

Trait theories tend to describe personality along dimensions.

8. _____

Twin studies suggest that personality has a genetic component.

9. _____

Holland s SDS is a personality inventory.

10. _____

If a personality test is internally consistent, then this provides some evidence of its reliability.

The answers to the true/false questions are in the answer section at the back of this book and in eBookPLUS.

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C H A PT E R TES T SecTiOn a

Multiple-choice questions

Choose the response that is correct or that best answers the question. A correct answer scores 1, an incorrect answer scores 0. Marks will not be deducted for incorrect answers. No marks will be given if more than one answer is completed for any question. 1. Personality is best described as A. a set of thoughts which occur at an unconscious level and cannot be seen. B. a set of feelings which occur at an unconscious level and cannot be seen. C. a set of characteristics which determines our thoughts, feelings and behaviour in a variety of situations. D. a set of thoughts and feelings observed in a limited range of situations. 2. A personality theory is best described as A. the results of a research study on personality. B. a profile of any individual s personality that is supported by empirical evidence. C. an approach to testing a hypothesis about personality. D. an approach to describing and explaining personality. 3. A personality assessment device which requires someone to answer written questions with a simple response such as agree or disagree is called a/an A. valid test. B. reliable test. C. projective test. D. inventory. 4. Two psychologists administer the same personality test to the same person on two separate occasions. The results are similar. This suggests that A. the test is reliable. B. the test is valid. C. the individual s personality is simple. D. the individual s personality is complex. 5. According to trait theories of personality A. all people either have or do not have a particular trait. B. we all have the same traits. C. an individual can have more or less of a particular trait. D. traits are not stable. 568

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6. The three dimensions of personality described by Eysenck in his PEN model are A. psychoticism, extraversion neuroticism and neuroticism emotional stability. B. psychoticism tendermindedness, extraversion neuroticism and neuroticism emotional stability. C. psychoticism, extraversion introversion and neuroticism emotional stability. D. psychoticism, emotional stability emotional instability and neuroticism extraversion. 7. Which of the following is an example of the inappropriate use of a personality assessment device? A. assessing someone s personality to determine whether they are suited to a particular occupation which requires sensitivity and teamwork B. assessing someone s personality to diagnose if they have a mental health problem C. assessing someone s personality out of curiosity D. assessing someone s personality for an empirical research study on personality 8. According to Freud, development of the occurs as parents pass on society s values and standards of behaviour to their children. A. reality principle B. id C. ego D. superego 9. Suppose that a person cannot recall a very traumatic experience which happened in childhood. According to Freud, this is an example of the defence mechanism called A. projection. B. represssion. C. regression. D. reaction-formation.

10. Gordon Allport described A. traits in terms of 16 factors. B. a three-dimensional model of traits. C. clusters of traits using factor analysis. D. a three-tiered hierarchy of traits. 11. According to Cattell s model A. source traits underlie surface traits. B. surface traits underlie source traits. C. each surface trait is a factor . D. each factor is a cluster of source traits. 12. Eysenck proposed that A. people can be classified into one of eight basic personality types. B. people cannot be classified into personality types. C. personality is influenced by neurobiological factors. D. personality is not influenced by neurobiological factors. 13. Which of the following statements best describes the Costa and McCrae Five-Factor Model? A. The Five-Factor Model is a humanistic theory of personality. B. Costa and McCrae drew on the work of other researchers in developing their Five-Factor Model. C. Costa and McCrae originally identified their Five-Factor Model using evidence from crosscultural research studies. D. Costa and McCrae were the first trait theorists to describe personality in terms of five factors. 14. According to Rogers, a healthy personality develops when A. there is a mismatch between the ideal self, the true self and the self-image. B. there is congruence between the ideal self, the true self and the self-image. C. there is a mismatch between the self-concept and self-esteem. D. our self-concept is challenged by significant others. 15. Ethical guidelines for assessment of personality help ensure A. psychologists accurately score the answers. B. the wellbeing and rights of test-takers are protected. C. unqualified people can interpret test results. D. online personality tests are valid assessment tools.

16. A basic assumption of humanistic theories of personality is that A. all people are born good and individuals strive to reach their full potential as human beings. B. all people have the same potential to excel in life but some individuals lack a self-concept and therefore don t achieve their potential. C. personality develops from birth until adulthood then becomes relatively fixed and unchanging. D. individuals do not have the capability of understanding their own personality and factors that have influenced its development. 17. Which of the following statements about the influence of genetic and environmental factors on personality is correct? A. Personality is not influenced by genetic factors. B. Environmental factors dominate the influence of genetic factors. C. Siblings inherit very similar personalities, suggesting genetic and environmental factors interact in influencing personality. D. Environmental factors can modify the influence of some genetic factors. 18. On which personality theory is the MBTI loosely based? A. Freud s B. Jung s C. Eysenck s D. Cattell s 19. The personality theorist John Holland is best known for A. clarifying the difference between a vocation, job, career and occupation. B. developing an aptitude test to support career choice. C. identifying personality types that match career types. D. using a hexagon to describe similarities and differences between occupations. 20. A personality assessment device for which individuals may answer in any way they want is the A. Rorschach test. B. MBTI. C. EPQ. D. Holland s SDS. C h a p t e r 1 2 Personality

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SecTiOn B

Short-answer questions

Answer all questions in the spaces provided. Question 1 Name the five factors in the Costa and McCrae Five Factor Model.

1 mark

Question 2 Define the conscious, preconscious and unconscious as described by Freud s psychodynamic theory.

3 marks

Question 3 Distinguish between extraversion and introversion.

2 marks

Question 4 Distinguish between the lexical method and factor analysis.

2 marks

Question 5 Outline two key differences between psychodynamic and humanistic theories of personality.

2 marks

eBook plus The answers to the multiple-choice questions are in the answer section at the back of this book and in eBookPLUS. The answers to the short-answer questions are in eBookPLUS. Note that you can complete Section A of the chapter test online through eBookPLUS and get automatic feedback.

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A NSWE RS CHAPT ER 1

CHAPTER 5

Learning activity 1.18: Scientific research findings indicate that each statement is false.

True/False Quiz

True/False Quiz

1. T

2. F

3. F

4. F

5. T

6. F

7. T

8. T

9. T

10. F

Multiple-choice

1. T

2. F

3. T

4. F

5. F

6. T

7. T

8. F

9. F

10. T

Multiple-choice

1. D

2. B

3. B

4. A

5. A

6. A

7. C

8. B

9. A

10. A

1. D

2. C

3. B

4. A

5. D

11. D

12. B

13. C

14. C

15. D

6. A

7. B

8. D

9. D

10. B

16. B

17. D

18. B

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CHAPTER 7

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CHAPTER 8

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G L OSSA RY abstract thinking a way of thinking that does not rely on being able to see or visualise something in order to understand it accommodation in visual perception, a depth cue involving the automatic focusing of the lens in the eye to adjust shape in response to changes in the distance of view from an object; in cognitive development, the mental process of changing an existing idea in order to fit new information adolescence developmental stage that begins at around 10 to 12 years of age and continues until approximately 20 to 24 years of age affordances the perceived and actual properties of something in the environment that suggest how it should be used Ames room illusion a visual illusion involving a trapezium-shaped room in which there is a misinterpretation of the size of objects within when viewed with one eye through a peephole at the front anal stage in Freud’s theory, the stage of personality development when the focus of pleasure relates to the anus analytical intelligence one of the three components of intelligence in Sternberg’s triarchic theory involving the ability to complete academic, problem-solving tasks animism in cognitive development, the belief that everything that exists has some kind of consciousness or awareness anorexia nervosa an eating disorder that involves the persistent refusal to maintain body weight at or above a normal level, intense fear of weight gain, a distorted perception of body image, the absence of menstruation (in females) and extreme concern with body shape and weight anxiety a state of emotional arousal associated with feelings of apprehension, worry or uneasiness that something is wrong or something bad is about to happen anxiety disorder a mental disorder characterised by chronic (persistent) feelings of tension, distress, nervousness and apprehension or fear about the future applied psychology the study of psychological topics that can be applied in a practical and relevant way. See basic psychology.

assimilation in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the mental process of taking in new information and fitting it into and making it part of an existing mental idea about objects or the world attachment in psychology, the tendency of an infant to form an emotional bond with another person, usually their main caregiver Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) a mental disorder characterised by inattention and hyperactive and impulsive behaviour that is more frequent and severe than in others of the same age attribution the process of trying to explain observed behaviour in terms of a particular cause autism a mental disorder that usually begins in infancy and is characterised by extreme unresponsiveness to others, poor communication skills and highly repetitive, routine-type behaviours autonomy in Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, an individual’s sense of being able to act independently and the feelings of self-control, self-confidence, self-reliance and competence which accompany this basic psychology the study of psychological topics in order to seek knowledge for its own sake rather than for its practical application or use; typically involves research without a focus on applying the research findings in a practical way. See applied psychology. behaviour any observable action made by a living person (or animal) behavioural perspective a perspective (‘view’) or approach in psychology that focuses on understanding and explaining how behaviour is learned and moulded by experience. Also called behaviourism. behaviourism a perspective (‘view’) or approach in psychology that focuses on understanding and explaining how behaviour is learned and moulded by experience. See behavioural perspective. bimodal in a frequency distribution graph, when the distribution shows two particular scores which occur equally often (that is, where there are two modes) binocular depth cue a depth (or distance) perception cue requiring the use of both eyes Glossary

573

biological perspective a contemporary perspective (‘view’) or approach in psychology that focuses on the biological (physiological) influences on behaviour and mental processes, including the brain and the rest of the nervous system, the endocrine system, the immune system and genetics brightness constancy the tendency to perceive an object as maintaining its level of brightness in relation to its surroundings, despite changes in the amount of light being reflected from the object to the retina cardinal trait in Allport’s theory, a dominant personality trait which is a motivator and determinant of behaviour career the sequence of occupational positions and jobs a person holds and performs during the course of their working life case study an intensive, in-depth investigation of some behaviour or event of interest in a particular individual or small group situation central trait according to Allport, a personality trait which is a building block of personality and influences an individual’s behaviour in many situations centration in cognitive development, focusing on only one quality or feature of an object at a time childhood developmental stage that extends from approximately two to 10 years of age chronological age (CA) actual age since birth (in years, months, weeks or days) classical conditioning a simple form of learning which occurs through repeated association of two different stimuli (events) classification in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the mental ability to organise information (things or events) into categories based on common features that sets them apart from other classes or groups (categories) clinical neuropsychology a specialist area of psychology concerned with the assessment of changes in behaviour and mental processes that may arise from brain damage or irregularities in brain function clinical psychology a specialist area of psychology concerned with the assessment, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of mental health problems clique a small group of adolescent friends of similar age and generally of the same sex closure the perceptual tendency to mentally ‘close up’, fill in or ignore gaps in a visual image and to perceive objects as complete 574

Glossary

code of ethics a set of ethical standards or guidelines which must be followed when working with people or animals in research cognitive development how and when we develop and use mental abilities, and changes that occur in mental abilities throughout the lifespan cognitive perspective a contemporary perspective (‘view’) or approach in psychology that focuses on how we acquire, process, remember and use information about ourselves and the world around us community psychology a specialist area of psychology concerned with community issues and helping people to achieve their goals in areas such as community health and welfare compensate in Baltes’ theory of successful ageing, making up for any losses experienced in one’s abilities by developing new strategies to ‘substitute’ for each of these losses conclusion a judgement about what the results of an investigation mean concrete operational stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the stage from about seven to 12 years when thinking revolves around what is known and can be experienced through the senses; that is, what is concrete cones photoreceptors in the retina of the eye that respond to high levels of light and are primarily responsible for night vision, colour vision and detecting fine details conformity the tendency to adjust one’s thoughts, feelings or behaviour in ways that are in agreement with those of a particular individual or group, or with accepted standards about how one should behave in certain situations confounding variable a variable other than the IV that has had an unwanted effect on the DV, making it impossible to determine which of the variables (i.e. the confounding variable or the IV) has produced the predicted change in the DV conscious level of awareness that includes everything we are thinking, remembering, feeling, sensing or notice at any particular moment conservation in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, understanding that an object does not change its weight, mass, volume or area when the object changes its shape or appearance construct validity how well a test reflects the theory and empirical evidence on which it is based content validity how well the content of a test, including all its subtests and items, measures what it is designed to measure

context the setting, situation or environment in which an event occurs; in visual perception, the setting in which a perception is made

culture-fair test a test that attempts to provide items that will not penalise a test taker on the basis of their cultural (or ethnic) background

continuous development a gradual and ongoing developmental change, with behaviour in an earlier stage providing the basis of skills and abilities required for a later stage

data information collected in research

control group the group in an experiment who is not exposed to the independent variable; used for comparison with the experimental group

deindividuation the loss of individuality, or the sense of anonymity, that can occur in a group situation

conventional level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, the stage from about nine to 15 years during which individuals are able to consider the thoughts and feelings of others, have internalised many moral values, and seek to obey rules in order to gain the approval of others convergence a visual perception depth cue involving the inward turning of the eyes to focus on nearby objects cornea a transparent, convex-shaped covering which protects the eye and helps to focus light rays onto the retina

defence mechanisms in Freud’s theory, psychological processes used to protect against anxiety arising from psychological conflicts

dementia a physical and mental disorder or illness characterised by the progressive deterioration of the functioning of neurons in the brain, resulting in memory impairment, a decline in intellectual ability, poor judgement and, sometimes, personality changes dependent variable (DV) the variable in an experiment the researcher chooses to measure in order to assess the effect(s) of the independent variable(s)

correlation a term used to identify and describe how two variables are ‘co-related’

depth cues sources of information from the environment (external cues) or from within our body (internal cues) that help us to perceive how far away objects are and therefore to perceive depth; often classified as binocular or monocular

correlation coefficient a decimal number which describes the strength and direction of a correlation and can range from +1.00 to −1.00

depth perception the ability to accurately estimate the distance of objects and therefore perceive the world in three dimensions

correlational study a non-experimental research method used to investigate the ‘co-relationship’ between two or more variables

descriptive research a research method that focuses on studying and describing one or more aspects of thoughts, feelings or behaviour as they occur at a given time and place without necessarily explaining causation

creative intelligence one of the three components of intelligence in Sternberg’s triarchic theory involving the ability to successfully deal with new and unusual situations by drawing on existing knowledge and skills

despair in Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, an individual’s sense that their life has been meaningless and empty

criterion-related validity how well a test predicts performance on other tasks that correlate with the ability(s) or characteristic(s) it measures

differentiation in Gibson’s theory, the ability to selectively perceive differences between things in the environment

cross-sectional study a research method which uses a group(s) of participants of different ages who are studied over a relatively short period of time

discontinuous development a developmental change that occurs in distinct and separate stages throughout the lifespan, with development of certain abilities having an identifiable start and end point

crystallised intelligence a kind of intelligence that involves the use of knowledge and skills acquired through experience in everyday life, including all the knowledge and skills learned through formal and informal education in one’s socio-cultural environment cultural bias in a test, the tendency of the test to give a lower score to a person from a culture different from that on which the test was standardised culture the way of life of a particular group of people

dizygotic twins two genetically non-identical individuals who develop when the female produces two separate ova which are independently fertilised by two different sperm cells. Also called fraternal twins. doubt in Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, an individual’s lack of belief in their capabilities to do something well, to control themselves and the world in which they live Glossary

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early adulthood the developmental stage that extends from about 20 to 40 years of age eating disorder a general term used to describe a mental disorder or illness involving a severe disturbance in eating behaviour eclectic perspective a perspective (‘view’) or approach in psychology that draws on theories, ideas and research methods from different perspectives; like a ‘mix’ of perspectives made up of what is believed to be the ‘best of’ from other perspectives ego in Freud’s theory, the realistic and logical part of personality, often playing the role of mediator between id and superego conflicts egocentrism in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, having difficulty seeing or being unable to see things from another person’s point of view emotional development relatively permanent agerelated changes in how an individual experiences different feelings and how these feelings are expressed, interpreted and dealt with emotional intelligence an ability to recognise the meanings of emotions and their relationships, and to reason and solve problems on the basis of emotions emotional state how an individual is feeling at a point in time empirical evidence data collected directly by observation, or more frequently in psychology, through experimentation environment generally, the physical context or situation in which an event occurs; in relation to the nature–nurture debate, all the experiences, objects and events to which we are exposed throughout our entire lifetime. Also referred to as nurture. ethics standards that guide individuals in distinguishing between right and wrong behaviour experiment a controlled research study in which a researcher tests whether one variable(s) influences or causes a change to another variable(s) experimental group the group in an experiment who is exposed to the independent variable experimenter variable in relation to extraneous variables, a variable associated with the personal characteristics of the experimenter or the experimenter’s behaviour during the experiment which may affect the DV or the results of an experiment in an unwanted way 576

Glossary

extraneous variable any variable, apart from the independent variable, that can cause a change in the dependent variable and therefore affect the results of an experiment in an unwanted way figure–ground in visual perception, organising visual information by perceptually dividing a visual scene into a ‘figure’, which stands out from the ‘ground’, which is its surroundings Five-Factor Model a description of personality and its structure in terms of five broad dimensions called openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism (OCEAN) fluid intelligence a kind of intelligence that involves the use of reasoning for problem solving, particularly to solve new or unusual problems Flynn effect a research finding that IQ scores have risen over time by about 15 points (or one standard deviation) formal operational stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the stage from about 12 years of age when complex thought processes become evident and thinking becomes increasingly sophisticated frequency distribution a way of organising data to show how often (frequently) a value or measure (a score) occurs in a set of data frequency polygon a specific type of line graph that shows the frequency distribution of data functionalism an early perspective (‘view’) or approach in psychology that focused on studying the functions or purposes that mental processes serve in enabling people to behave as they do and adapt to their environment fundamental attribution error the tendency to overestimate the influence of personal characteristics and underestimate the influence of the specific situation or social context when explaining a person’s behaviour generalisation a judgement about how widely the findings of a research study can be applied generativity in Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, an individual’s concern with others beyond their immediate family, specifically, future generations, and the nature of the society and world in which those generations will live genital stage in Freud’s theory, the stage when sexual energies are focused on the genitals Gestalt principle of visual perception organising the features of a visual scene to perceive a whole, complete form

goal-directed behaviour behaviour that is carried out with a particular purpose in mind graph a pictorial representation of data guilt in Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, a negative feeling formed by an individual when something they have done or want to do is considered ‘wrong’ height in the visual field the perceptual tendency to visually perceive objects located closer to the horizon as being more distant than objects located further from the horizon heredity the transmission of characteristics from the biological parents to their offspring via genes at the time of conception. Also referred to as nature. high variability when scores are widely spread from the mean histogram a graph showing the frequency with which data occurs; unlike a bar graph, the bars touch humanism a perspective (‘view’) or approach in psychology that focuses on the uniqueness of each individual person and the positive qualities and potential of all human beings to fulfil their lives humanistic theory of personality an approach to describing and explaining personality which emphasises the uniqueness of each individual and the positive qualities and potential of all human beings to fulfil their lives hypothesis in research, a testable prediction of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics id in Freud’s theory, the innate, biological needs which all individuals are said to be born with identity in Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, the general picture an individual has of themself independent variable (IV) the variable in an experiment which the researcher manipulates (or changes) in order to assess its effects on participants’ responses (DV) industry in Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, the sense of being busy, productive and a competent worker infancy the developmental stage that extends from birth to approximately two years of age inferiority in Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, an individual’s feelings of being less adequate than others in their achievements, skills and abilities informational influence when conformity results from a need for direction and information on how to respond

ingroup any group to which an individual belongs or with which an individual identifies initiative in Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, an individual’s ability to plan, think for themself and carry out various kinds of activities with purpose integrity in Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, an individual’s sense of satisfaction with their achievements in life and a belief that the experiences and events in one’s life have been useful, valuable, meaningful and worthwhile intelligence a term used to refer to such mental abilities as thinking, reasoning, problem solving and adapting effectively to one’s environment; often described with reference to different kinds of intelligences intelligence quotient (IQ) a numerical score on an intelligence test, showing how much someone’s intelligence, as measured by an intelligence test, compares with that of other people of the same age inter-rater reliability a measure of test reliability based on the extent to which different test administrators obtain similar results when giving the test internal consistency a measure of test reliability which involves using correlations between different items in the same test to determine whether the items produce similar scores interposition a visual perception depth cue based on the principle that an object which partially covers another is closer than the object it covers and the covered object is further away. Also called overlap. interpretation in visual perception, the process of assigning meaning to visual information so that we can understand what we are looking at intimacy in Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, an individual’s ability to share with and care about another person without fear of losing themselves in the process iris the coloured part of the eye consisting of a ring of muscles that expand or contract to change the size of the pupil and control the amount of light entering the eye isolation in Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, an individual’s sense of being alone without anyone to share one’s life with or care for job the role performed in a vocation or occupation just world hypothesis the tendency for an individual to believe that they live in a world where people generally get what they deserve and deserve what they get Glossary

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labelling the process of classifying and naming a mental disorder or illness following diagnosis latency stage in Freud’s theory, the period when psychosexual development is dormant and the child focuses on developing close relationships with others of the same sex

mental illness a psychological dysfunction usually associated with distress, impairment in the ability to cope with everyday life, and thoughts, feelings and/or behaviour that are not typical of the person or appropriate within their culture. Also called mental disorder.

lens a transparent, flexible eye structure located immediately behind the pupil which plays a major role in focusing light onto the retina

mental processes thoughts and feelings that are internal, personal and cannot be directly observed

lifespan development age-related changes that occur from birth, throughout a person’s life into and during old age

mere exposure effect the increase in liking for an attitude, object, person, group, event or issue as a result of being repeatedly exposed to it

line graph a pictorial representation that indicates the relationship between two factors or two variables in an experiment

middle age developmental stage that extends from about 40 to 65 years of age

linear perspective a visual perception depth cue based on the apparent convergence (‘coming together’) of parallel lines as they recede into the distance logical thinking the mental ability to reason soundly and systematically on the basis of known information longitudinal study studying the same group of research participants over an extended period of time, taking measurements on thoughts, feelings or behaviour of interest at different times low variability when scores are tightly clustered around the mean, with very little spread of scores either side of the mean maturation the predetermined orderly and sequential developmental changes which occur in the nervous system and other bodily structures controlled by genes and which tend to occur in the same pattern for all individuals mean the arithmetical average of all the individual scores (or measures) in a set of scores measure of central tendency a descriptive statistic used to show the ‘central’ or ‘average’ value of a set of scores. See mean, mode and median. measure of variability a statistic that indicates how widely scores are spread or scattered around a central point, such as the mean. Also called measure of dispersion. median the middle score (or mid-point) of a set of scores mental age (MA) a score indicating the level of mental functioning in years, as measured by an intelligence test mental disorder See mental illness. 578

Glossary

mistrust in Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, an individual’s sense of the world as unreliable and unpredictable, which makes them anxious, insecure, fearful and suspicious mode the most frequently occurring score in a set of scores modelling a type of learning that involves observing behaviour and its consequences to guide one’s future thoughts, feelings or behaviour. Also called observational learning. monocular depth cues a depth perception cue requiring the use of only one eye monozygotic twins two genetically identical individuals who develop when a single fertilised egg splits into two in the first couple of days after conception. Also called identical twins. moral development the gradual acquisition of the concepts of right and wrong, and of a ‘conscience’, religious values, social attitudes and associated behaviours moral dilemma a social problem which has two or more solutions, each of which is ‘wrong’ in some way motivation a general term for processes within an organism which activate and maintain goal-directed behaviour Müller-Lyer illusion a visual illusion in which one of two lines of equal length, each of which has opposite shaped ends, is incorrectly perceived as being longer than the other Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI®) a personality inventory which categorises an individual into one of 16 personality types depending on their preferences for how they perceive the world and make decisions nearness the perceptual tendency to perceive parts of a visual image which are positioned close together as belonging together in a group. Also called proximity.

negative correlation when two variables vary in opposite directions; for example, as one variable increases, the other variable tends to decrease (and vice versa) negatively skewed in a frequency distribution graph, the clustering of scores towards the right end of the graph where scores are highest non-psychotic illness a mental illness or disorder during which contact with reality is maintained normal distribution a graph with a bell-shaped pattern showing the largest number of scores around the middle, tapering to very few extremely high and low scores on either side of the middle, or ‘average’, scores. Also called the normal distribution curve or a normal curve. normative influence when an individual’s response in a group situation is guided by one or more social norms, out of a desire to be liked or accepted by the group nurture See environment. obedience following the commands of someone with authority, or the rules or laws of our society object permanence in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the understanding that an object still exists even if it cannot be seen or touched observation any means by which a phenomenon (an observable event) is studied, including the data that represent a phenomenon, such as scores and spoken or written responses observational learning a type of learning that involves watching someone else’s behaviour and the consequences of their behaviour, and then modelling, or imitating, the behaviour. Also called modelling. observational study a research method that involves watching and describing behaviour as it occurs older age developmental stage that extends from about the mid to late sixties until the end of one’s life operant conditioning a kind of learning based on the assumption that we tend to repeat behaviour which has a desirable consequence or result and tend not to repeat behaviour which has an undesirable consequence or result operational hypothesis a research hypothesis that refers to how the variables being studied will be observed and measured, and to the sample from which the population has been selected optimisation in Baltes’ theory of successful ageing, how an older person seeks to get the best outcome in whatever they do by making the most of their abilities, resources and opportunities

oral stage in Freud’s theory, the stage when pleasure for the child centres around its mouth through sucking, biting and chewing organisation in visual perception, the process of assembling or arranging the features of a visual image in a meaningful way outgroup any group to which an individual does not belong or identify overlap a visual perception depth cue based on the principle that an object which partially covers another is closer than the object it covers, and the covered object is further away. Also called interposition. parallel-forms reliability a procedure for establishing test reliability by giving another version of the same test (instead of using exactly the same test twice) participant variable in relation to extraneous variables, any variable other than the IV which is associated with personal or individual characteristics of a research participant and can affect how they respond (e.g. the DV) to research procedures (e.g. manipulation of the IV) participants people who take part in research past experience personal experiences throughout an individual’s life, including everything that is learned intentionally and unintentionally through experience peer pressure social influence by peers, to think, feel or behave in a particular way percentage statistic that expresses a number as a proportion (or fraction) of 100 perception the process of organising and interpreting sensory information in a meaningful way perceptual constancy in relation to visual perception, the tendency to perceive an object as remaining stable and unchanging despite any changes that may occur to the image cast on the retina perceptual set the predisposition to perceive something in accordance with expectations of what it is personality an individual’s pattern of thoughts, feelings and behaviour that are relatively stable over time and across situations personality inventory a test consisting of written questions designed to assess personality or aspects of personality (e.g. traits) personality profile overall pictorial or diagrammatic representation of an individual’s responses in a personality test personality test an assessment device used to evaluate or measure personality or aspects of personality Glossary

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personality theory an approach to describing and explaining personality personality trait a personality characteristic that endures over time and across different situations phallic stage in Freud’s theory, the stage of personality development when the child’s attention is often focused on the sex organs photoreceptor a light-sensitive visual receptor cell in the retina at the back of the eye. See rods and cones. physical development relatively permanent agerelated changes in the body and its various systems, including the brain and nervous system, bones and muscles, motor skills and hormonal changes pictorial cue a visual perception depth cue that can be represented pictorially on a two-dimensional surface pie chart a circular diagram (graph) that shows the proportions of values or scores for different categories of data as ‘slices of a pie’ population the entire group of research interest from which a sample is drawn positive correlation when two variables vary in the same direction; for example, as one variable increases, the other variable increases, or as one variable decreases, the other variable decreases positively skewed in a frequency distribution graph, the clustering of scores towards the left end of the graph where scores are lowest post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) a mental disorder or illness involving a severe psychological reaction, lasting at least one month, to an intensely traumatic event that was harmful or life-threatening either to the person or to others postconventional level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, the stage from 16 years onwards in which true morality develops and decisions on what is morally ‘right’ are guided by one’s conscience power an individual’s (or group’s) ability to control or influence the thoughts, feelings or behaviour of another person (or group) practical intelligence one of the three components of intelligence in Sternberg’s triarchic theory involving the ability to adapt to everyday life by drawing on existing knowledge and skills preconscious in Freud’s theory, the level of awareness that contains much of the information considered to be at the ‘back of one’s mind’ but which can easily be brought into one’s conscious mind (awareness) preconventional level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, the stage of from about birth to 580

Glossary

nine years when the child has little awareness of the moral behaviour which is socially or culturally acceptable and tends to follow rules only because others, usually authority figures, tell them to pre-operational stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the stage of development from about two to seven years, when the child is increasingly able to assimilate and accommodate ideas and therefore think in more complex ways principle of readiness in developmental psychology, inability to perform a behaviour development on maturation until the necessary bodily structures are sufficiently developed proximity the perceptual tendency to perceive parts of a visual image which are positioned close together as belonging together in a group. Also called nearness. pseudoscience fake or false science psychiatrist a medically qualified professional who specialises in the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of mental illnesses psychoanalysis a perspective (‘view’) or approach in psychology that focuses on the roles of unconscious conflicts and motivations in understanding and explaining behaviour and mental processes psychodynamic theory of personality a description and explanation of personality based on the underlying belief that personality is a result of unconscious psychological conflicts psychologist someone who is professionally qualified in psychology and is registered by the appropriate state or territory authority psychology the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes in humans psychosocial crisis in Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, a social dilemma or problem an individual faces in adjusting to society involving a struggle between two opposing tendencies, one of which comes from internal personal needs and the other from the demands of society psychosocial development in Erikson’s theory, development involving both psychological processes which take place within an individual (psycho) and their experiences with other people (social) psychotic illness a mental illness or disorder that involves loss of contact with reality psychoticism one of three dimensions of personality in Eysenck’s PEN model, which encompasses lower level traits such as aggressive, cold, egocentric, impulsive, impersonal, anti-social, unempathetic and tough-minded

pupil an opening in the iris that helps control the amount of light entering the eye qualitative change in development, a change in the ‘quality’, ‘kind’ or ‘type’ of thinking, feeling or behaving that makes the individual different from the way they were before qualitative data data (information) involving the ‘qualities’ or characteristics of a participant’s experience of what is being studied qualitative research research that involves collection of non-numerical (qualitative) data quantitative change in development, a change in the quantity or ‘amount’ of thinking, feeling or behaving quantitative data data involving numerical information (‘quantity’ or amount) on what is being studied quantitative research research involving the collection of numerical (quantitative) data questionnaire a set of questions for participants to answer on a topic of research interest random allocation the process of assigning participants in an experiment to the control or experimental group, with each participant having an equal chance of being in either group. Also called random assignment. random sample a group of participants selected for research in a way that ensures that every member of the population of research interest has an equal chance of being selected in the sample range a numerical score that describes the difference between the highest and lowest score in a set of scores reception in visual perception, the process by which the eye receives incoming light by focusing it onto the retina where an image of the visual stimulus is captured relative size the perceptual tendency to visually perceive the object that produces the largest image on the retina as being closer and the object that produces the smallest image as being further away (when objects are expected to be the same size) reliability in a test, how consistently the test assesses what it is supposed to assess each time it is given

representative sample a sample that is approximately the same as the population from which it was drawn in every important participant characteristic research method a particular way of conducting a research study or investigation to collect data retina layer of neural tissue at the back of the eye that receives and absorbs light, and processes images for transmission to the brain retinal disparity a visual perception depth cue based on the difference (disparity) of the retinal images reversibility in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the mental ability to follow a line of reasoning back to its original starting point risk-taking behaviour behaviour that has potential negative consequences and can harm the individual’s psychological wellbeing and/ or physical health; may also have positive consequences rods photoreceptors in the retina that respond to very low levels of light and are primarily responsible for night vision role confusion in Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, an individual’s sense of not knowing who they are, where they belong, to whom they belong or where they are headed in life role behaviour adopted by an individual or assigned to them that influences the way in which they function or act in different situations and life in general Rorschach inkblot test a projective test used to assess personality through an individual’s responses to a series of ambiguous inkblots sample a smaller group of research participants selected from a larger group (population) of research interest sampling the process of selecting participants for a sample scatter plot a graph showing the scores (or other values) obtained by a group of individuals on two different measures (or variables) that are assumed to be co-related in some way schema in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, a mental idea, or organised mental representation, of what something is and how to deal with it

replication repeating a study to establish whether the results obtained are reliable and able to be applied in other situations

schizophrenia a mental illness characterised by distorted perceptions, bizarre thoughts, disorganised speech, disturbed emotions and difficulty in coping with everyday life

reporting conventions well established and widely recognised standards that govern how a research report is written and presented

scientific method systematic approach for planning, conducting and reporting research that involves collecting empirical evidence Glossary

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secondary trait in Allport’s theory, a superficial personality trait which can influence behaviour, but is dependent on the specific situation in which an individual finds themself selection in Baltes’ theory of successful ageing, reducing the number of goals one might seek to achieve by prioritising and working towards achieving only the most important of those goals selective breeding mating animals with desired characteristics to increase the likelihood that the offspring will have these characteristics self-concept the perceptions and beliefs an individual has about themself, including their nature, unique qualities and typical behaviour self-directed search (SDS) a career counselling inventory which enables a person to identify their personality type and match it with career preferences that suit their personality type sensation the process by which our sense organs and receptors detect and respond to sensory information that stimulates them sensitive period in development, a period of rapid change when the individual seems to be more vulnerable to influence from their environment sensorimotor stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the first stage of cognitive development that spans birth to about two years of age. In this stage, infants construct their understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with motor abilities. shame in Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, an individual’s sense of humiliation and embarrassment shape constancy the tendency to perceive an object as maintaining its shape despite any change in shape of the retinal image of the object situational variable in relation to extraneous variables, any variable other than the IV which is associated with the specific research study setting or context and can affect how participants respond (e.g. the DV) to research procedures (e.g. manipulation of the IV) size constancy recognising that an object’s actual size remains the same, even though the size of the image it casts on the retina changes social development relatively permanent age-related changes in an individual’s relationships with other people and their skills in interacting with others social influence the effects of the presence or actions of one or more others, either real or imagined, on the way in which an individual thinks, feels or behaves 582

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social loafing the tendency of an individual to make less effort when involved in a group activity than when working alone social proximity the physical closeness between two or more people socio-cultural perspective a contemporary perspective (‘view’) or approach in psychology that focuses on the roles of social and cultural influences on human behaviour and mental processes source trait in Cattell’s 16 personality factor model of personality, an underlying trait that can be observed in behaviour through the set of surface traits which reflect it. See surface trait. split-half reliability a procedure for establishing test reliability by dividing the original test into two halves and examining the relationship between scores on each half stagnation in Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, an individual’s sense of feeling bored, inactive, overly concerned with their own personal needs and comforts and their lack of personal growth standard deviation a descriptive statistic that indicates how much, on average, a score differs (‘deviates’) from the mean; shown in the same units of measurement as the original data statistics mathematical procedures to help summarise and interpret the results obtained from research status the importance or ‘standing’ of an individual within a group, as perceived by members of the group stigma a negative label associated with disapproval or rejection by others who are not labelled in that way stratified sampling a sampling procedure which involves dividing the population to be sampled into different subgroups (strata), then selecting a separate sample from each subgroup (or stratum) in the same proportions as they occur in the population of interest structuralism an early perspective (‘view’) or approach in psychology that focused on studying the structure of consciousness — the basic parts or building blocks that make up consciousness, how the parts are organised and how they are interrelated successful ageing in Baltes’ theory, maximising and attaining positive (desired) outcomes and minimising and avoiding negative (undesired) outcomes during one’s old age superego in Freud’s theory, the part of personality that judges the individual’s thoughts, feelings and actions according to the morals and ideals of the society in which they live

surface trait in Cattell’s 16 personality factor model of personality, a trait that lies on the ‘surface’ of personality and can be observed indirectly through behaviour table an orderly arrangement and display of data in columns and rows test validity how well a test measures what it is supposed to measure test–retest reliability a procedure for establishing test reliability by giving the test to the same group of people on two different occasions and then comparing the two sets of scores. See parallel-forms reliability, split-half reliability, internal consistency and inter-rater reliability. texture gradient a visual perception depth cue based on the extent to which fine detail can be perceived in a surface Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) a projective test that assesses personality through responses to a series of pictures that can be interpreted in different ways theory a set of ideas proposed to organise, describe and explain a set of observations and the relationships between them trait theory an approach to describing and explaining personality that emphasises traits (characteristics) and focuses on measuring, identifying and describing individual differences in personality transduction in visual perception, the process by which photoreceptors in the retina change electromagnetic energy (‘light’) into electrical impulses (‘signals’) which can travel along the optic nerve to the brain transformation in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, understanding that something can change from one state (form or structure) to another transmission in visual perception, the process of sending information in the form of electrical impulses (‘signals’) along the optic nerve from the retina to the brain

trust in Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, an individual’s sense of the world as a safe, caring, orderly and predictable place unanimity complete agreement among the members of a group unconscious in Freud’s theory, a storage place for all the information about a person that is not acceptable to the conscious mind validity in relation to a test, how well a test measures what it is designed to assess; in relation to a research study, whether the study has produced results that accurately measure the behaviour or event that was investigated; in relation to a conclusion, whether a specific conclusion is correct or justifiable on the basis of those variables that the study was investigating and the data or results obtained from the study variability how scattered or ‘spread out’ scores are from a central point variable something that can vary (change) in amount or kind variance a descriptive statistic that represents in a general way the spread of scores around the mean visual illusion a perceptual misinterpretation of real sensory information whenever that sensory information is viewed visual perception principle a ‘rule’ that is applied to visual information to assist organisation and interpretation of the information in a consistent and meaningful way visual perception system the complete network of physiological structures involved in vision, including all parts of the eyes, the nervous system pathways that connect the eyes and the brain, and the areas of the brain that process visual information vocation an occupation or position within an organisation for which a person is suited, trained or qualified

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I N DE X A ability-based model of emotional intelligence 473–5 abstract thinking 210 Abu Ghraib prison 382, 383 accessible attitudes 330–1 accommodation (cognitive development) 201–2 achievement tests 494 see also intelligence testing; intelligence tests adjustment disorders 255 Adle, Alfred 522 adolescence, developmental stage of 147, 149 adoption studies on development 169 on personality 542 affordance, and design 182 affordances 179–80 age-based stereotypes 356 ageing see older age; successful ageing aggregates 375 aggression alcohol and disinhibition 444 biochemical infuences 443–4 biological perspective 438, 441–4 defined 437 ethological perspective 438, 439–40 explanations of 438 genetic influences 441–2 impact of kids’ TV 447 neural influences 442–3 and observational learning 445–6 psychodynamic perspective 438–9 sex differences in aggressive behaviour 443 social learning perspective 438, 445–7 and testosterone levels 443–4 tips for managing 447 agreeableness 531, 532 AIDS, motivations of volunteer helpers 430–1 Ainsworth, Mary 189 Ajzen, Icek 331 alcohol disinhibition and aggression 444 effect on driving skills 59

Allport, Gordon 347, 524–6 ally effect 397 altruism, and pro-social behaviour 430–1 Alzheimer’s disease 282, 284 ambiguous figures 105 Ames room illusion 138–40 amygdala 442–3, 444 anal fixation 519 anal stage of psychosexual development 519 anal-expulsive personality 519 anal-retentive personality 519 analytical intelligence 467 anger, tips for managing 447 animal research attachment in rhesus monkeys 195–8 capacity of animals to think and feel 6 chimp development compared to human development 153 observational studies of chimpanzees 70 observational studies of gorillas 69 personality characteristics in animals 509 selective breeding experiments 169 Skinner’s experiments 29–30 use in psychological research 85–6, 199 animism 206 anorexia nervosa 159 causes 267–8 incidence of 267 symptoms 266–7 treatment 268–9 Anti-Racism Research Project 344 anti-social behaviour 410 and aggression 437–48 bullying 449–52 defined 417, 437 anxiety defence mechanisms against 516–17 defined 271 habits to overcome 274 anxiety disorders 255, 271–2 APA referencing style 318–20

apparent distance theory 138, 140 applied psychology 9 aptitude tests 494 Aristotle 16, 17 Aronson, Elliot 330 Asch, Solomon, experiments on conformity 394–6 Asperger’s Syndrome 260 assimilation (cognitive development) 201 astigmatism 97 astrology 42 attachment animal experiments 195–8 behaviours 189 and caregiver characteristics 193 characteristics of 184 and childcare 194 defined 184 factors influencing 193–4 how human attachments form 191–2 and imprinting 192 indicators of 188–9 infant behaviour 68 and infant characteristics 193 in monkeys 195–6 separation anxiety 191 Strange Situation Test 190–1 stranger anxiety 191 types of 189–90 attachment objects 186 attachment targets 184, 185–7 attachment theory 184–5 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) causes 264 diagnosis 264 incidence 264 symptoms 263–4 treatment 264–5 attitude formation classical conditioning 333 factors influencing 333–5 modelling 335 operant conditioning 334–5 and repeated exposure 335–6 attitude measurement advantages and limitations of measurement devices 365–6 Index

603

attitude measurement (continued) approaches 359 ethics in conducting research 366–8 observational studies 359 self-report methods 360–5 attitudes accessibility of 330–1 affective component 327, 328 and behaviour 329–32 behavioural component 327, 328 changing 332 cognitive component 327–8 and cognitive dissonance 332 defined 326 factors contributing to development of prejudice 346–8 factors that may reduce prejudice 349–57 limitations of tri-component model 329 perceived control over behaviour 331 prejudice and discrimination 340–6 social context of 330–1 stereotyping 337–9 strength of 330 towards people 337 tri-component model 327–8 attributions 348 atypical thoughts, feelings and behaviour 248–9 audience inhibition, and pro-social behaviour 434–5 Australian Psychological Society (APS) 14 Code of Ethics 82, 84, 565 Australian Research Council 82 Australian Vice-Chancellors’ Committee 82 authority figures, and obedience 388–9 autism defined 259 intellectual functioning 260 symptoms 259 autism spectrum disorder brain dysfunction 260–1 cause of 261 incidence in Australia 260 individual differences 260 portrayals in movies 261 treatment 261 autonomy, defined 227 604

Index

autonomy versus shame or doubt (psychosocial development) 227–8 avoidance and numbing symptoms 273 avoidant attachment 189, 190

B Bach family tree 170 Bagshaw, Dale 451 Baltes, Paul, selection, optimisation and compensation theory (SOC) 239–40 Bandura, Albert 445–6 bar charts 76–7 Barnum effect 42 basic psychology 9 Bateson, Daniel 425, 430 behaviour and attitudes 329–32 changing 332 defined 4 group influences on 404–11 and mental processes 5 behaviour modification 261–2, 265 behaviour therapy 31 behavioural perspective on developmental psychology 164 explained 29–31 on Müller-Lyer illusion 135 on visual perception 104 behavioural racism 345 behaviourism 22–3, 29 behavioural problems, individuals with autism 259 Berlin Aging Study (BAS) 236 biased sample 64 bimodal distributions 306–7 Binet, Alfred 459–60, 476–7 Binet–Simon intelligence test 477 binocular depth cues convergence 113 nature of 113 retinal disparity 114 biochemical influences, on aggression 443–4 biological perspective 26–9 on aggression 441–4 on developmental psychology 164 on Müller-Lyer illusion 134–5 on visual perception 104 biological psychology 12

bipolar disorder incidence in Australia 252 nature of 252 birth order, and personality 543–4 Blumer, Herbert 340 bodily-kinesthetic intelligence 461 Bowlby, John 184 brain activity and intelligence 499 and personality 542–3 brain damage, effect on visual perception 101 brain research 26, 27–9, 135 brain size, and intelligence 499 brain structure and neural influences on aggression 442–3 and personality 542–3 Briggs, Katherine 551–2 brightness constancy 123 bulimia nervosa 269 bullying in Australian schools 450 causes of 452 cyberbullying 452 defined 449–50 direct 449 indirect 449–50, 452 sex differences 451 bystander effect 421, 429 bystander intervention 431

C Californian Personality Inventory (CPI) 549 cardinal traits 525 careers 551 carpentered world hypothesis 135–6 Carroll, John 468, 469–70 case histories 66 case studies advantages and limitations 66–7 nature and use of 65–6 catatonia 276 catatonic schizophrenia 277 Cattell, Raymond 468, 469, 526–8 Cattell-Horn-Carroll model of psychometric abilities 468–72 cells 157 cerebral cortex 443 Chappell brothers 544 character 509 childcare, and attachment 194

childhood, developmental stage of 147 chimpanzees development compared to human development 153 observational studies 70 chromosomes 157 chronological age (CA) 477 ciliary muscles 96 clairvoyance 40 classical conditioning 333 classification (cognitive development) 209 client-centred therapy 24, 537 clinical neuropsychology 10 clinical observation 66 clinical psychology 10, 11, 66 cliques 404–5 closed questions 360 closure (visual perception principle) 108 Code of Ethics (APS) 82, 84, 565 coercive power 376 cognition, defined 31 cognitive abilities, three-stratum theory of 469–70 cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) 31, 268–70, 272 cognitive development 149 abstract thinking 210 accommodation 201–2 animism 206 application of Piaget’s theory in educational settings 212 assimilation 201 classification 209 concrete operational stage 208–9 conservation 208–9 criticisms of Piaget’s theory 213–14 decentring 204, 205 egocentrism 204–5 formal operational stage 210–11 goal-directed behaviour 204 key principles of Piaget’s theory 201–2 logical thinking 210 nature of 200 object permanence 203–4, 214 in older age 236 Piaget’s four stage theory 203–12 pre-operational stage 204–8 sensorimotor stage 203–4 transformation 206, 207 cognitive disorders 255

cognitive dissonance 332 cognitive interventions, to reduce prejudice 356–7 cognitive perspective on developmental psychology 164 explained 31–3 on Müller-Lyer illusion 136 on visual perception 104 cognitive psychology 12 cohort sequential method 167 cold reading 41 collectives 375 collectivist cultures 399 colour blindness 108 communication problems, individuals with autism 259 community psychology 10 compensation 239, 517 competence, and pro-social behaviour 428–9 compliance 384 concrete operational stage (cognitive development) 208–9 cones (photoreceptors) 99 confidentiality 82–3 conformity Asch’s experiments on 394–6 and culture 398–9 defined 394 and deindividuation 401–2 ethical issues in studies of 402 factors affecting 396–402 and group size 396–7 informational influence 397–8 and normative influence 398 and social loafing 400–1 and unanimity 397 confounding variables 300–1 connectivist approach 32 conscientiousness 531, 532 conscious level of mind 511 conservation (cognitive development) 208–9 construct validity IQ tests 487 personality tests 563 content validity IQ tests 486 personality tests 563 context (visual perception) 127–8 continuous development 151 contour lines 105 control conditions 58–9 control groups 58–9

conventional level (moral development) 217–18 convergence (binocular depth cues) 113 Copyright Act 1968 (Cwlth) 85 corneas 96 correlation and causation 302–3 defined 302 positive and negative 302 strength of 302 correlational studies explained 301–2 scatter plots 303–4 cost–benefit analysis, and pro-social behaviour 435 Costa, Paul 531–3 counselling psychology 12 creative intelligence 467 criterion-related validity IQ tests 486–7 personality tests 563 cross-sectional studies 166 crystallised intelligence (Gc) 469 cultural bias in intelligence testing 489 personality inventories 559 cultural differences 33–5 in beliefs about intelligent behaviour 461, 462 and conformity 398–9 in gender stereotyping 339 in stages of lifespan development 149 cultural factors, and perceptual set 129–30 culture, defined 33 culture-fair IQ tests 489–91 Cunningham Dax Collection 280 cyberbullying 452

D Darley, John 338 Darwin, Charles, on variability 311 data, types 71 data analysis, nature of 53 data collection, techniques 52–3 data interpretation 53, 74 debriefing 84 decentered thought 204, 205 deception (about purpose of study) 84 defence mechanisms 516–17 Index

605

deindividuation and anonymity in a group 401 and conformity 401–2 and shift in attention 401–2 delusions 249, 275–6 dementia causes 283 incidence 282 nature of 281–2 treatment 283–4 types 282 denial 517 dependent variables (DV) 57 depth cues 113 depth perception 113 depth principles of visual perception accommodation 115 binocular depth cues 113–14 convergence 113 cross-cultural differences in pictorial depth cues 119 height in the visual field 118 interposition 116 linear perspective 115 monocular depth cues 115–19 pictorial cues 115 relative size 117 retinal disparity 114 texture gradient 116 Descartes, René 17 descriptive research case studies 65–7 nature of 56, 65 observational studies 67–70 types of research methods 65 descriptive statistics explained 74 frequency distribution 305–7 measures of central tendency 307–10 reliability and validity in research 315–16 statistical significance and p values 316 uses 305 variability 310–14 despair 233 developmental disorders 255, 258 developmental norms 152 developmental psychology adoption studies 169 cohort sequential method 167 cross-sectional studies 166 and ethics 173 606

Index

experiments as a research method 171 from different perspectives 164–5 longitudinal studies 166 research methods 165 selective breeding experiments 169 twin studies 167–8 Devine, Patricia 357 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) 254–5 differentiation 181–2 diffusion of responsibility, influence on pro-social behaviour 432–3 direct bullying 449 direct discrimination 342 discontinuous development 151 discrimination 341–3, 345 disinhibition 444 disorganised schizophrenia 277 disorganised speech 276 dispersion 311 displacement 517 distorted perceptions 275 distress 248 disturbed emotions 276 dizygotic twins 167 DNA 157 dopamine 26 DSM-IV-TR (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) 254–5 dualism 17–18

E early adulthood, developmental stage of 147 eating disorders 255, 266–70 eccentric behaviour, using case studies 66 eclectic perspective 35, 165 ecolalia 259 educational and developmental psychology 12 Edward, John 41 ego 514 egocentrism 204–5 Electra complex 519, 520 electrodes 442 emotional development attachment theory 184–99 nature of 149–50, 184 emotional intelligence defined 473

four branch model 473 Salovey and Mayer’s ability-based model 473–5 tests for 475 emotional state, perceptual set 129 empathy, and pro-social behaviour 424–6 empirical evidence, defined 37 environment defined 155 interaction with heredity in shaping psychological development 155–60 epilepsy 27 equality of status 353–4 Erikson, Erik criticism of his theory 234–5 theory of psychosocial development 224–6 ethical guidelines 81–2 APS Code of Ethics 82, 84, 565 confidentiality 368 informed consent procedures 83–4, 367–8 for intelligence testing 493–4 participants’ rights 82–4, 366–7 for personality testing 565–6 professional conduct 84 roles and responsibilities of the experimenter 82 ethical practices and conduct, in VCE Psychology 84–5 ethics in psychological research attitude measurement 366–8 conformity studies 402 human development studies 173 obedience studies 390 pro-social behaviour studies 435–6 in Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment 81 ethological perspective, on aggression 438, 439–40 ethology 439 euthanasia 221 existential intelligence 462 experimental conditions 58–9 experimental groups 58–9 experimental research 19, 24 advantages and limitations 59–60 cause–effect relationships 55 confounding variables 300–1 control groups 58–9 correlational studies 301–4 dependent variables (DV) 57, 295 and design of experiments 56

in developmental psychology 171 experimental conditions 58–9 experimental groups 58–9 experimental settings 57 experimenter variables 58, 299–300 extraneous variables 57–8 identification of extraneous variables 297–300 independent variables (IV) 56, 295 nature of 56 operationalising the IV and DV 295–6 participant variables 58, 297 qualitative 292–3 quantitative 292 roles and responsibilities of researchers 82 sampling procedures 60–4 situational variables 298–9 experimenter effect 300 experimenter variables 58, 299–300 expert power 376 external attribution 348 external validity 315 extraneous variables, identification of 297–300 extrasensory perception (ESP) 40 extraversion 530, 531, 532 eye movement theory 134 eyes roles in visual perception 96–7 structure 96 Eysenck, Hans, PEN model of personality 528–30 Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) 529–30

F face agnosia 66 factor analysis 526 fantasy 517 Fazio, Russell 330–1 Festinger, Leon 332 figure–ground organisation 105–8 Fishbein, Martin 331 Five-Factor Model (personality traits) 531–3 Five-Factor Theory 532 fixed-response questions 360 Flanagan, Dawn 470 fluid intelligence (Gf) 469 Flynn effect 497 Flynn, James 497–8

focus groups, to measure attitudes 364–5 forensic psychology 12 formal operational stage (cognitive development) 210–11 Fossey, Dian 69 four branch model of emotional intelligence see ability-based model of emotional intelligence fraternal twins 167–8 free-response questions 360 frequency distribution bimodal distribution 306–7 defined 305 normal distribution 305–6 positively and negatively skewed distributions 306 frequency polygons 80–1 Freud, Sigmund biography 513 his consulting room 521 psychoanalytic theories 21–2 psychodynamic theory on aggression 438–9 use of case study method 65 ‘Freudian slips’ 521 Freud’s theory of personality anal stage of development 519 conscious level of mind 511 defence mechanisms against anxiety 516–17 development of personality 518–20 genital stage of development 520 latency stage of development 520 oral stage of development 518–19 outline 511–12 phallic stage of development 519–20 preconscious level of mind 511–12 psychosexual stages of personality development 518–20 strengths and limitations 521–2 structure of personality 512–15 unconscious level of mind 511–12 functional MRI scanner 28 functionalism 20–1 fundamental attribution error 348

G Gardner, Howard 461–3 Gazzaniga, Michael 27 Geller, Uri 41 gender, and pro-social behaviour gender prejudice 343

436

gender stereotypes, in other societies 339 generalised anxiety disorder 272 generativity versus stagnation (psychosocial development) 232–3 genes explained 157 influence on aggression 441–2 influence on human behaviour and mental processes 26–7 genetic inheritance 157 genital stage of psychosexual development 520 genome 26, 158 Genovese, Kitty 419, 433 geropsychologists 235 Gestalt principles of visual perception closure 108 explained 105 figure–ground organisation 105–8 proximity 109 similarity 108–9 socio-cultural research findings on use 110 Gf-Gc theory 469–70 Gibson, Eleanor 179 Gibson’s theory of perceptual development 179–83 affordances 179–80 differentiation 181–2 goal-directed behaviour 204 good boy/nice girl orientation 218 ‘good Samaritan syndrome’ 431 Goodall, Jane 70 gorillas, observational studies 69 graphs bar charts 76–7 explained 76 frequency polygons 80–1 histograms 77–8 line graphs 79–80 pie charts/graphs 78–9 and standard deviation 313 Gross, Paget 338 group pressure, and obedience 389 group size, and conformity 396–7 groups defined 374–5 influences on behaviour 404–11 role expectations 378 and social hierarchies 377–8 status and power within 376–83 types of power 376 Index

607

guilt 229 Gullone, Eleonora

409–10

H hallucinations 249, 275 happiness 160 Harlow, Harry 195–8 health psychology 12 Health Records Act 2001 (Vic) 85 Helmholtz, Hermann von 18–19 heredity defined 155 genetic inheritance 157 interaction with environment in shaping psychological development 155–60 heredity versus environment debate 1, 156 high variability 311 histograms 77–8 Holland hexagon 556 Holland, John 554 Holland’s Self-Directed Search (SDS) 554–7 Horn, John 468, 469 Horn-Cattell Gf-Gc theory 469 Horney, Karen 522 human development developmental norms 152 influences 150 language learning 162 principle of readiness 161 role of maturation 160–1 sensitive periods 161, 162 see also developmental psychology; lifespan development human genome 26 Human Genome Project (HGP) 158, 442 humanism 23–4 humanistic psychology 23 humanistic theories of personality focus and assumptions 535 Rogers’ person-centred theory 535–7 strengths and limitations 537 hyperactivity 263–4 hyperarousal symptoms 273 hyperopia 97 hypothalamus 442, 443 hypotheses 51–2

I id 512–13 identical twins 608

Index

167–8

identity defined 230 versus identity confusion (psychosocial development) 230–1 impaired functioning 248 imprinting, and attachment 192 impulse-control disorders 255 impulsiveness 264 inappropriate thoughts, feelings and behaviour 248, 249 inattention 263 independent variables (IV) 56 indirect bullying 449–50 indirect discrimination 342–3 individualist cultures 398 industry, sense of 230 industry versus inferiority (psychosocial development) 229–30 inferential statistics 74 inferiority 230 Information Privacy Act 2000 (Vic) 85 information processing approach 32 informational influence, and conformity 397–8 informational power 376 informed consent procedures 83–4, 367–8 ingroups 347 initiative, defined 228 initiative versus guilt (psychosocial development) 228–9 insanity, defined 257 integrity versus despair (psychosocial development) 233 intellectualisation 517 intellectually disabled 485 intellectually gifted 485 intelligence as an age-related set of abilities (Binet) 459–60 and the brain 499 Carroll’s three-stratum theory of cognitive abilities 469–70 Cattell-Horn-Carroll model of psychometric abilities 468–72 cultural differences 461, 462 defined 459 descriptions of 458–9 differences in 485 factors that influence 495–500 Flynn effect 497–8 Gardner’s criteria for an intelligence 463

Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences 461–3, 480 Horn-Cattell Gf-Gc theory 469–70 interaction of genetic and environmental factors 495–8 kinds of 461–2 Salovey and Mayer’s abilitybased model of emotional intelligence 473–5 sex differences 500 Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence 466–8 tomato plant analogy 496 as verbal and performance abilities (Wechsler) 460–1 Wechsler’s conditions for intelligent behaviour 460 intelligence quotient (IQ) see IQ (intelligence quotient) intelligence testing culture-biased and culture-fair tests 489–91 ethical standards 493–4 Gardner’s concerns about 480 standardisation and test norms 488 standardised testing procedures 488 strengths and limitations 492–3 test reliability 487–8 test validity 486–7 variability of scores 484 see also IQ (intelligence quotient) intelligence tests Binet–Simon intelligence test 477 Binet’s test of intelligence 476–7 on the internet 558 Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) 475 of multiple intelligences 480 Stanford–Binet test of intelligence 477–8 Sternberg’s test of intelligence 481 WAIS-IV (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) 478, 479–80 WAIS-R-NI (Wechsler Intelligence Scale – Revised as a Neuropsychological Instrument) 479 WASI (Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence) 478 Wechsler’s tests of intelligence 478–80 WISC-IV (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children) 478

WPPSI-III (Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence) 478 see also IQ (intelligence quotient) inter-rater reliability in IQ tests 488 in personality tests 564 intergroup conflict 347–8 intergroup contact mutual interdependence 351–3 and reduction and prejudice 349–54 sustained contact 349–50 internal attribution 348 internal consistency in IQ tests 487–8 in personality tests 564 internal validity 315 International Classification of Diseases (ICD) 254 internet tests 558 interpersonal intelligence 461 interposition (pictorial cues) 116 interviews 362 intimacy defined 231 versus isolation (psychosocial development) 231 intrapersonal intelligence 461 introspection 20 introversion–extraversion dimension of personality 528 intrusive symptoms 273 IQ (intelligence quotient) calculation 481–2 defined 481 descriptive classifications 484 does IQ equal intelligence 482 Flynn effect 498–9 role of inheritance and environment 496–8 strengths and limitations of scores 492–3 iris (eyes) 96 Ishihara tests for colour blindness 108 isolation, defined 231

J James, William 20–1 jobs 551 Jonestown massacre 391 Jung, Carl 522–3, 551 just world hypothesis 348

K Kaplan, Paul 451 Karau, Steven 400 Kilham, Wesley 387 Kohlberg, Lawrence criticisms of his theory 222 Heinz’s moral dilemma 216, 220 levels and stages in his theory of development 216–19 theory of moral development 215–16 Koori IQ Test 490–1 Kraepelin, Emil 254 Kraus, Stephen 330 Kraut, Robert 50

L La Piere, Richard 329 labelling 256–7 Lagerspetz, Kirsti 441 language learning 162 latency stage of psychosexual development 520 law-and-social-order-maintaining orientation 218 learning disorders 255 legal system, defence on grounds of mental impairment 257 legalistic-social-contract orientation 219 legislative compliance 85 legitimate power 376 lens (eyes) 96 lifespan development areas of 149–51 continuous versus discontinuous development 151 defining 146 developmental norms 152 individual differences in development 153 qualitative changes 152 quantitative changes 152 sequential nature of development 152 stages of 147–8 see also developmental psychology Likert scale 362–3 line graphs 79–80 linguistic intelligence 461 logical thinking 210 logical-mathematical intelligence 461 longitudinal studies 166, 539 Lorenz, Konrad 192, 439–40

lottery procedure 62 low variability 311

M McCrae, Robert 531–3 McGrew, Kevin 470, 472 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 28 Mann, Leon 387 Maslow, Abraham 24–5 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 24–5 maturation, role in development 160–1 Mayer, John 473 Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) 475 Mead, Margaret 339 mean 307–8, 309 measures of central tendency defined 307 mean 307–8 median 308–9 mode 309 when to use the mean, median and mode 309 measures of variability defined 311, 312 range 312 standard deviation 313–14 variance 312–13 median 308–9, 310 medical treatments 268 Mellor, David 345 memory, as an information system 32 mental ability tests see achievement tests; aptitude tests mental age (MA) 477 mental disorders categories described in DMS-IV-TR 255 defined 248, 254 mental health, nature of 247 mental health problems, nature of 247, 248 mental illness classifying 254–5 and consequences of labelling people 256–7 cultural differences 249 defined 248 diagnosis and treatment 254–5 DSM-IV-TR 254–5 incidence in Australia 247, 251–2 myths about 252 symptoms 248–9 Index

609

mental impairment 257 mental processes and behaviour 5 connectivist approach to 32 defined 4 information processing approach to 32 semantic network theory 33 mere exposure effect 335–6 mice, use in psychological research 85–6 middle age, developmental stage of 147 Milgram, Stanley, experiments on obedience 384–7 mind–body problem 17–18 mind–brain problem 18 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) 548–9 Minnesota Twin Study 540 mistrust, defined 226–7 MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) 548–9 mode 309 modelling see observational learning modern prejudice 341 monocular depth cues accommodation 115 cross-cultural differences in pictorial depth cues 119 height in the visual field 118 interposition 116 linear perspective 115 nature of 115 pictorial cues 115–19 relative size 117 texture gradient 116 monozygotic twins 167 mood effects on helping 427 and pro-social behaviour 426–8 mood disorders 255 moon illusion 140 Moore, Susan 409–10 moral, defined 215 moral development conventional level 217–18 criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory 222 good boy/nice girl orientation 218 Kohlberg’s theory 215–16 law-and-social-order-maintaining orientation 218 legalistic-social-contract orientation 219 naively egotistical orientation 217 610

Index

nature of 215 obedience and punishment orientation 217 postconventional level 219 preconventional level 217 universal-ethical orientation 219 moral dilemmas 215, 216, 220 Morgan, Christopher 560 motivation, perceptual set 129 Müller-Lyer, Franz 134 Müller-Lyer illusion 134–7 multiple intelligences 461–3 Murray, Henry 560 musical intelligence 461 Myers & Briggs Foundation 552 Myers, Isabel Briggs 551–2 Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) 523, 551–3 myopia 97

N naively egotistical orientation 217 National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) 82 National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research 82, 84 National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing 251 naturalistic intelligence 464 naturalistic observation 67–8, 70 nature versus nurture debate 17, 156 Nazi soldiers, defence of actions 384 negative correlation 302 negative reinforcement 30 negatively skewed distributions 306 NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEOFFI) 533 NetAlert 452 neurobiological factors, and personality 542–3 neuroimaging techniques 28–9 neuropsychologists, use of case studies 66 neuroticism 528, 530, 531, 532 neuroticism–emotional stability dimension of personality 528–9 neurotransmitters 26 non-participant observation 68 non-psychotic illness defined 249 gender differences in reported experiences 251 incidence in Australia 251 non-scientific explanations 39–42

normal distribution 305–6 normative influence, and conformity 398 Nostradamus 40 nucleus (cells) 157

O obedience in cults and sects 391 defined 384 ethical issues in studies of 390–1 factors affecting 387–90 and group pressure 389–90 and legitimacy of authority figures 388–9 Milgram’s experiments on 384–7 and social proximity 388 obedience and punishment orientation 217 object permanence 203–4, 214 observation 67 observational learning, and aggression 445–6 observational studies advantages and limitations 60 attitude measurement 359 focus 69 naturalistic observation 67–8 nature of 67 non-participant observation 68 participant observation 69 types of 67–9 observer bias 70 obsessive-compulsive disorder 272 OCEAN factors see Five-Factor Model (personality traits) Oedipus complex 519–20 old-fashioned prejudice 340–1 older age Baltes’ Selection, Optimisation and Compensation theory (SOC) 239–40 cognitive changes 236 developmental stage 147–8 psychological changes 235 psychosocial changes 237–8 successful aging 238–9 ‘very old’ subgroup 235 ‘young old’ subgroup 235 open-ended questions 360 openness to experience 531, 532 operant conditioning 29, 31, 334–5 operational hypotheses 295 optic nerve 97

optimisation 239 oral fixation 518–19 oral stage of psychosexual development 518–19 organisational psychology 12 outgroups 347

P p values, and statistical significance 316 panic disorder 272 parallel-forms reliability IQ tests 487 personality tests 563 paranoid schizophrenia 277 Parkinson’s disease 282 participant observation 69 participant variables 58 participants’ rights 82–4 past experience, perceptual set 129–30 Pederson, Anne 340–1 peer groups, characteristics 404–5 peer pressure 406–7 percentages 74–5 perception 95 perceptual constancies (visual perception principles) brightness constancy 123 nature of 120 shape constancy 121, 122 size constancy 121 perceptual development, Gibson’s theory 179–83 perceptual set context 127–8 cultural factors 129–30 emotional state 129 explained 125–6 motivation 129 past experience 129–30 and visual perception 124–5 performance abilities 460 person-centred theory of personality 23 personality defined 508 describing 508–9 measuring 547 versus character 509 personality inventories Californian Personality Inventory (CPI) 549 cultural bias 559

explained 547–9 Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) 529–30 Holland’s Self-Directed Search (SDS) 554–7 lie scale scores 558 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) 548–9 Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) 523, 551–3 NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) 533 Q-sort test 537 Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) 533, 541, 549 Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) 527–8 strengths and limitations of 558–9 use in vocational selections 550–7 personality profiles 548, 557 personality psychology 12 personality studies adoption studies 542 birth order 543–4 influence of genetic and environmental factors 539–44 longitudinal studies 539 neurobiological factors 542–3 twin studies 540–1 personality testing ethical guidelines 565–6 explained 547 on the internet 558 test reliability 563–4 test validity 562–3 types of tests 547 see also personality inventories; projective tests (personality) personality theories eclectic approach 511 explained 510–11 humanistic theories 510, 535–8 psychodynamic theories 510, 511–23, 551 trait theories 510, 523–34 personality traits agreeableness 531 cardinal traits 525 central traits 525–6 conscientiousness 531 defined 523 and extraversion 530–1 in long-term partners 534 and neuroticism 530–1

openness to experience 531 and psychoticism 530 secondary traits 526 source traits 527 surface traits 527 personality types 16 Myers–Briggs types 553 Holland’s six (RIASEC) types 554–5 phallic stage of psychosexual development 519–20 phobia 272 photoreceptors 97, 99 physical/biological development 149, 150 physiology, and psychology 18–19 Piaget, Jean 31, 65–6, 200 application of his theory in educational settings 212 criticisms of his theory 213–14 four-stage theory of cognitive develoment 203–12 key principles of his theory 201–2 Pick’s disease 282 pictorial depth cues (visual perception) cross-cultural differences 119 height in the visual field 118 interposition 116 linear perspective 115 nature of 115 relative size 117 texture gradient 116 pie charts/graphs 78–9 pituitary gland 443 Plato 16, 17 pleasure principle 512 populations (in studies), defined 60 positive correlation 302 positive reinforcement 30 positively skewed distributions 306 positron emission tomography (PET) 28 post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 272–3 postconventional level (moral development) 219 power defined 376 types 376 within groups 376 practical intelligence 467–8 pre-operational stage (cognitive development) 204–8 precognition 40 Index

611

preconscious level of mind 511–12 preconventional level (moral development) 217 prejudice and attitude formation 340–1 and attributions 348 and cognitive interventions 356–7 and discrimination 341–3 factoring contributing to development of 346–8 factors that may reduce 349–57 ingroups and outgroups 347 intergroup conflict 347–8 and status 353–4 superordinate goals 353 primacy effect 337 principle of readiness 161 Principles of Psychology 21 prisoner abuse 380–2 Prisoner’s Dilemma 354–5 Privacy Act 1988 (Cwlth) 85 privation 197 pro-social behaviour and altruism 430–1 and audience inhibition 434–5 and competence 428–9 and cost–benefit analysis 435 defined 417–18 and diffusion of responsibility 432–3 and empathy 424–6 ethical considerations in studies of 435–6 factors influencing 419–29 factors influencing reluctance to help 432–5 and gender 436 intentional nature of 418 and mood 426–8 personal factors influencing 424–9 reciprocity norm 423 situational factors 419–21 and social norms 423 social responsibility norm 423 professional conduct 84–5 projection 517 projective tests (personality) Rorschach inkblot test 559–60 strengths and limitations 562 Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) 560–1 proximity (visual perception principle) 109 pseudoscience 39 psi abilities 39–41 612

Index

psychiatrists, training, qualifications and role 7–8 psychiatry, distinguished from psychology 7–8 psychics 39–41 psychoanalysis nature of 21–2 use of case studies 65–6 psychoanalytic theories 21–2 psychodynamic perspective, on aggression 438–9 psychodynamic theories of personality assumptions 511 Jung’s theory of psychological types 522–3, 551 strengths and limitations 521–2 see also Freud’s theory of personality psychokinesis 40 psychological development interaction of hereditary and environmental factors 155–60 key aspect of 150 psychological dysfunction 248 psychological research construction of a hypothesis 51–2 data analysis 53 data collection 52–3 data interpretation 53 designing research method 52 ethics and professional conduct 81–4 identification of research problem 50–1 reporting research findings 53–4 research methods 55–6 steps in 50–4 use of animals 85–6 using scientific method 50 see also ethics in psychological research psychological therapies 268 psychological types, Jung’s theory 522–3 psychologists, training, qualifications and role 7 psychology classic perspectives and theories 19–24 contemporary perspectives and theories 26–35 defining 4–5, 20, 21, 22, 23 distinguished from psychiatry 7–8 origins of contemporary discipline 16–19 philosophical roots 16–18

and physiology 18–19 scientific nature of 37–8 scientific roots 18–19 subdisciplines 10–13 psychology as a profession areas of professional specialisation 10–13 basic and applied psychology 9 teaching school-level courses 13 see also ethical guidelines psychometric abilities, Cattell-HornCarroll model 468–72 psychometrics 468 psychosexual stages of development 518–20 psychosis 249 psychosocial crises 224–5 psychosocial development in aged people 237–8 autonomy versus shame or doubt 227–8 criticism of Erikson’s theory 234–5 Erikson’s eight psychosocial stages 225 Erikson’s theory 224–6 generativity versus stagnation 232–3 identity versus identity confusion 230–1 industry versus inferiority 229–30 initiative versus guilt 228–9 integrity versus despair 233 intimacy versus isolation 231 nature of 224 theories about 178–9 trust versus mistrust 226–7 psychotic illness 249 psychoticism defined 529 personality traits 530 punishment and attitude formation 334–5 effects on behaviour 30 pupils (eyes) 96

Q Q-sort test 537 qualitative data 72, 292, 359 qualitative descriptive research 73 qualitative research 292–4 quantitative data 72–3, 292, 359 quantitative descriptive research 73 quantitative research 292–4 questionnaires 361

R racism at the micro level 345 in Australia 345, 346 challenging 344 prejudice and discrimination 343 random allocation 63–4 random assignment 64 random sampling 62 random-stratified sample 63 random-stratified sampling 63 range 312 rating scales 362–3 rationalisation 517 rats, use in psychological research 85–6 reaction–formation 517 rebellious behaviours 410 reciprocity norm 423 reckless behaviours 410 referencing style 318–20 referent power 376 regression 517 reinforcement and attitude formation 334 principle of 30 reliability in IQ testing 487–8 in personality tests 563–4 in research 315 replication (of results) 38 reporting conventions 317–20 representative samples 61 repression 517 research method, designing 52 research problem, identification 50–1 research reports 52–4 abstracts 317 appendices 318 discussion section 318 introduction section 317 method section 317–18 references section 318 referencing style 318–20 reporting conventions 317–20 results section 318 residual schizophrenia 277 resistant attachment 189, 190 reticular activation system 542 retina (eyes) 97 retinal disparity (binocular depth cues) 114 reversibility (cognitive development) 206

reversible figures 105, 106 Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) 533, 541, 549 reward power 376 rhesus monkeys studies of attachment 195–8 use in psychological research 199 RIASEC theory 554 Rigby, Ken 451–2 Rights of Passage: Experiences of Australian-Sudanese young people 346 risk-taking behaviour 409–11 road rage, reducing 56 Robber’s Cave Experiment 351 rods (photoreceptors) 99 Rogers, Carl 23–4 person-centred theory 535–7 role confusion 230–1 roles 378 Rorschach, Hermann 559, 560 Rorschach inkblot test 559–60 Rosenhan, D.L. 256 Rubin, Edgar 105

S Salovey, Peter 473 samples nature of 60 selecting 61 sampling defined 61 types 61 sampling frame 62 sampling procedures 60–4 savant syndrome 462, 464 scatter plots 303–4 schemata 202 schizophrenia brain chemistry 278 causes 276–7 diagnosis 276 and heredity 277 incidence 276 incidence in Australia 252 nature of 255, 275 onset 276–8 portrayals in the movies 279 symptoms 275–6 treatment 278–9 types of 276, 277 scientific explanations, versus nonscientific explanations 39–42

scientific method application 38 defined 37, 50 secure attachment 189 security blankets 186 selection 239 Selection, Optimisation and Compensation theory (SOC) 239–40 self-actualisation 535–6 self-actualisation theory 24–5 self-concept 536 self-report methods advantages and limitations of measurement devices 365–6 and attitude measurement 360–1 questionnaires, surveys and interviews 361–2 rating scales 362–3 semantic differential scale 364 semantic network theory 33 sensation 95 sensitive issues 85 sensorimotor stage (cognitive development) 203–4 separation anxiety 191 seratonin 26 sex differences bullying 451 intelligence 500 sexism 343 shape constancy 121, 122 shaping 30 Sherif, Muzafer 351–2, 353, 354 similarity (visual perception principle) 108–9 situational factors bystander effect 421 influencing pro-social behaviour 419–21 interpreting the situation 420 noticing the situation 419–20 taking responsibility for helping 420–1 situational variables 289–99 Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) 527–8 size constancy 121 Skinner box 29–30 Skinner, Burrhus 29 sleep disorders 255 slips of the tongue 521 social behaviour, defined 417 social context, and attitudes 331 social development 149 Index

613

social hierarchies 377–8 social influence, defined 374 social interaction problems, individuals with autism 259, 260 social learning perspective, on aggression 438, 445–7 social loafing 34, 400–1 social norms defined 423 reciprocity norm 423 social responsibility norm 423 social proximity, and obedience 388 social psychology 12, 65 social relationships, defined 417 social responsibility norm 423 social skills training 265 social–cognitive perspective 31 social–learning perspective 31 socio-cultural perspective on developmental psychology 164 explained 33–5 on Müller-Lyer illusion 135–6 research findings on use of Gestalt principles of visual perception 110 on visual perception 104 Socrates 16, 17 somatoform disorders 255 source traits 527 spatial intelligence 461 Sperry, Roger 27 split-brain surgery 26, 27 split-half reliability IQ tests 487 personality tests 563–4 sport psychology 12, 13 stagnation 232 standard deviations 313–14, 484 Stanford–Binet test of intelligence 477–8 statistical significance, and p values 316 statistics 74 status, and prejudice 353–4 stereotypes 337 age-based 356 stereotyping 347 and attitude formation 337–9 Sternberg, Robert 466–8, 481 Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test (STAT) 481 stigmatisation 338 Strange Situation Test 190–1 stranger anxiety 191 strata 63 614

Index

stratified sampling 62–3 strong attitudes 330 Stroop effect 102–3 structuralism 19–20 study habits 530 subjective data 360 sublimation 517 substance-related disorders 255 successful ageing 238–9 successful intelligence 468 suicide bombers 402 superego 514 superordinate goals 353 surface traits 527 surveys 361

T tables 75–6 TAT (Thematic Apperception Test) 560–1 telekinesis 40 telepathy 40 temperament 539, 543 Terman, Lewis 477 test–retest reliability IQ tests 487 in personality tests 563 texture gradient (pictorial cues) 116 Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) 560–1 theories defined 178 of psychological development 178–9 stages in construction 178 theory of self-actualisation 24–5 three-stratum theory of cognitive abilities 469–70 thrill-seeking risks 410 Tiananmen Square protests 390 trait theories of personality Allport’s hierarchy of traits 524–6 assumptions 510, 523 Cattell’s 16 personality factor model 526–8 continuums 524 Costa and McCrae Five-Factor Model 531–3 Eysenck’s PEN model 528–30 introversion–extraversion dimension of personality 528 neuroticism–emotional stability dimension 528–9 psychoticism 529

strengths and limitations 534 transformation (cognitive development) 206, 207 tri-component model of attitudes explained 327–8 limitations 329 trust, defined 226 trust versus mistrust (psychosocial development) 226–7 twin studies and genetics in aggression 442 on intelligence 497 on personality studies 540–1 uses of 167–8

U unanimity, and conformity 397 unconscious level of mind 511–12 undifferentiated schizophrenia 277 universal-ethical orientation 219

V validity in research 315 variability measures of 311 nature of 310–11 variables 56–8 variance 312–13 vascular dementia 282 verbal abilities 460 verbal racism 345 Victorian Equal Opportunity and Human Rights Commission 342, 346 visual cortex 97, 100, 101 visual illusions 95 Ames room illusion 138–40 apparent distance theory 138, 140 carpentered world hypothesis 135–6 and distortion of visual perception 133–4 eye movement theory 134–5 moon illusion 140 Müller-Lyer illusion 134–7 nature of 133 types of 134 visual perception distortions by illusions 133–40 effect of brain damage 101 from different perspectives 104 and perceptual set 124–30 research on Gestalt approach 112 roles of the eye 96–7

as a visual information processing system 99 visual perception principles binocular depth cues 113–14 closure 108 depth principles 113–19 figure–ground organisation 105–8 Gestalt principles 105–12 monocular depth cues 115–19 nature of 105 perceptual constancies 120–3 proximity 109 similarity 108–9 socio-cultural research findings on use of Gestalt principles 110 visual perception system 95 characteristics 98 cones 99 interpretation 100 organisation 100

organisation and interpretation 100 photoreceptors 97, 99 reception 98–9 rods 99 transduction 99–100 transmission 100 visual problems, causes of 97 vitreous humour 97 vocations 551 voluntary helping behaviour 417, 430–1 voluntary participation 83 volunteering, social influence on 408

Walker, Iain 340–1 WASI (Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence) 478 Watson, John B. 22–3, 29 Wechsler, David 460–1, 478 Williams, Carol 330–1 Williams, Kipling 400 WISC-IV (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children) 478 withdrawal rights 83 WPPSI-III (Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence) 478 Wundt, Wilhelm 19–20

W

Z

WAIS-IV (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) 478, 479–80 WAIS-R-NI (Wechsler Intelligence Scale — Revised as a Neuropsychological Instrument) 479

Zajonc, Robert 335–6 Zimbardo, Philip 378–81, 383 Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment 378–81 zygotes 157

Index

615