Psychology Ass

Contents 1.1.

The major theoretical approaches................................................................................1

1.2.

The contribution of a scientific approach to investigating workplace behaviour.......3

1.3. Strength and limitations of quantitative and qualitative approaches to understanding workplace behaviour..............................................................................................................4 3.1.

Use theory to explain human reactions to change.......................................................6

3.2.

Make justified recommendations for implementing change in a selected work group 10

3.3. Make justified recommendations for achieving attitude change amongst a group of stakeholders in a selected organization................................................................................12 Bibliography.............................................................................................................................12

1.1. The major theoretical approaches There are five areas of basic psychology all contribute ideas and techniques to work psychology: psychoanalytic tradition, trait tradition, phenomenological tradition, behaviourist tradition, social cognitive tradition. In this report, we can understand more about five major theoretical approaches through analysis them. a) The psychoanalytic tradition Psychoanalytic tradition (psychodynamic) developed by Sigmund Freud. It is a new approach to human nature which has had influence on many areas of pure and applied social science, literature and the arts. Freud had proposed that psychological functioning is managed by instinctive forces (such as sex and aggression), and many of which exert effect outside consciousness. Psychodynamic has three facets: The id, the ego, and the superego. The id The id is the seat of desire and instinct, the source of instinctual energy (especially sex and aggression). The id can easy understand as people act with true human instinct, do anything that their body want. The id operated based on pleasure principle: there are no inhibitions no distinguish between reality and fantasy; it just wants satisfaction, and wants it now.

The ego The ego had developed to mediate between the unrealistic id and the external real world, it make the decision to create personality. The ego operated based on reality principle, working out realistic ways to satisfy the id demands. The ego considers social realities, norms, etiquette, and rules in social to decide how to behave; it is developing or postponing satisfaction to avoid negative point of society. The ego also seeks pleasure and avoids pain same to the id; but the ego will try to concern with devising a realistic strategy to obtain pleasure.

The superego The superego incorporates the values and morals of society develop during childhood which learned from their parents and other people. The superego operated based on perfection principle. The superego control the id impulse, especially society forbids such as sex and aggression. It also persuades the ego to reach moralistic goals rather than simply realistic ones and to strive for perfection.

b) The trait tradition This approach is essentially concerned with measuring psychological characteristics of a person. There are five dimensions of personality, also called big five trait model included: extroversion, emotionality, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience. -

Extroversion (outgoing, sociability, reserved): person with extroversion personality often talkative, assertiveness, high sociability, and has positive emotions.

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Emotionality (sensitive, nervous, confident): person with emotionality personality is good in control the degree of emotional stability. They often keep claim, and secure. - Agreeableness (friendly, helpful to others, compassionate): person with agreeableness personality often get along with others, they are generally kind, trusting and trustworthy, generous, helpful, willing to compromise their interests with other, and has an optimistic view. - Conscientiousness (careless, dutifully, persistent): person with conscientiousness personality is self-discipline, very careless, act dutifully. - Openness to experience (curiosity, outgoing, inventive, and cautious): Person with open to experience personality is curiosity, open to emotion, and usually want to try new things. They tend to be more creative and more aware of their feelings. They are also more likely to hold unconventional beliefs. c) The phenomenological tradition The phenomenological tradition focuses on the individual interpreter rather than the function and symbolic nature of the sign itself. People interpret messages and experiences by filtering the comprehension through their own values and understanding and therefore deciphering the world through this. Direct experience is therefore very important in this theory. The phenomenological tradition is also split into three schools of thought: classical phenomenology (experience is directed toward — represents or “intends” — things only through particular concepts, thoughts, ideas, images, etc.), the phenomenology of perception (the study of essences, including the essence of perception and of consciousness, method of describing the nature of our perceptual contact with the world, providing a direct description of human experience.), and hermeneutic phenomenology (focusing on subjective experience of individuals and groups. It is an attempt to unveil the world as experienced by the subject through their life world stories. To generate the best ever interpretation of a phenomenon it proposes to use the hermeneutic cycle) (sgundling.wordpress.com, 2009). In career development, phenomenological approaches are quiet effective in expressing and improving behaviour of employees. It brings them the respect with the interests and ambitions into consciousness so they will become more loyal in serving their firm. d) The behaviourist tradition Behaviourists seek to understand human nature by observing how people act and interact. While cognitive science seeks to understand the mechanics of our brains, the behaviourist tradition sees the mind as a "black box." Behaviourists understand the mind by observing its input and output, rather than by dissecting its contents. Behaviourists don't deny the existence of minds, thoughts, feelings, and mental states. They simply ignore these things in a particular scientific context - focusing instead on language, action, and outward signs of

learning - in the development of working models of human behaviour (Skinner.B.F, 2014). Skinner identified three types of responses or operant that can follow behaviour.

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Neutral operant: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease

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the probability of a behaviour being repeated. Reinforces: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a

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behaviour being repeated. Reinforces can be either positive or negative. Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a

behaviour being repeated. Punishment weakens behaviour. e) The social cognitive tradition Social psychology approaches discussing individual behaviours within the context of the individual’s environment and culture, as well as many other factors. Concepts that are integral to the study of social psychology include social perception, social influence, and social interaction. It is a view of human functioning that accords a central role to cognitive, vicarious, self-regulatory, and self-reflective processes in human adaptation and change. People are viewed as self-organizing, proactive, self-reflecting and self-regulating rather than as reactive organisms shaped and shepherded by environmental forces or driven by concealed inner impulses. Human functioning is viewed as the product of a dynamic interplay of personal, behavioural, and environmental influences. All the thoughts that affect human functioning, and standing at the very core of social cognitive theory, are self-efficacy beliefs. Self-efficacy beliefs provide the foundation for human motivation, well-being, and personal accomplishment (Pajares, 2002).  Identify the suitable approaches for chosen organisation Can take example for Apple company, the trait tradition is suitable for company. The company can consider the personality of the staff to serve them in every department in the company, its can helpful for leader in assigning appropriate job for employees and the employees can choose the suitable job for them. For example, people with extroversion personality can useful in marketing department or people with conscientiousness personality can useful in financial department.

1.2. The contribution of a scientific investigating workplace behaviour

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With purpose encourage professional and personal growth of employees, the company might apply behaviourist tradition. This approach can help the leader in motivate the psychology of the employees. The leaders can use reinforcement and punishment for the staffs. If the staffs work well and get best result, they can be rewarded with commission. However, if they are too lazy and not try at their best in work, the leader can punish them such fired. Therefore, this approach can be useful in considers who is the best employees in the company or who is the bad employees in the company

1.3. Strength and limitations of quantitative and qualitative approaches to understanding workplace behaviour a) Quantitative Quantitative methods use in research when researcher wants to focuses on numbers and frequencies. Quantitative methods included experiments, questionnaires and psychometric tests provide information which is easy to analyse statistically and fairly reliable. Quantitative methods are associated with the scientific and experimental approach. But Quantitative cannot provide an in depth description of project. It often is used to measure trends over time. This type of evidence is valuable for describing who, what, where and when. Quantitative research is concerned with data such as length, height, area, volume, weight, speed, time, temperature, humidity, sound levels, cost, members, ages, etc. Therefore, the results of quantitative research will generally be numerical form. For collect and obtain quantitative data, Survey is the main methods which often uses. 

Survey

Survey is a questionnaire which created for the target audience with purpose collects all data for find out what customer demand from company to create new strategy. Nowadays, making survey in internet can be easy and convenient. Online surveys created as web forms by some online survey tools with a database to store the answers and has statistical software to provide analytics. Many companies often use online surveys to find out their customers’ tastes and opinions about products and services. Online surveys can be used in two basic ways: to provide more specific data on customers (such as age, education level, etc.); to create a survey about a specific products, services in order to know more about how customers are reacting to it. -

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Advantages Low costs: Due to drastically lower overhead, not cost thousands of dollars to collecting data. Automation and real-time access: respondents of customers can automatically store electronically. Analysis data become easier and is available immediately. Less time: because this is tool for doing survey so it will auto collect the responds and analysis all of data. Use online survey will waste less time instead traditional methods. Convenience for respondents: Customers can answer questions on their schedule, can start a survey at one time, or stop and complete it

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Disadvantages Limited sampling and respondent availability: not all of people likely to have internet access and to respond to online questionnaires Respondents may answers perfunctory if the questionnaires take too much time to complete. The participants might misinterpret the question because questionnaires are standardized so it is not possible to explain any points in the questions.

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later. Design flexibility.

b) Qualitative Qualitative used for exploratory research. It is used to gain an understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations of customers. It provides insights into the problem, helps to develop ideas or strategies. Qualitative is also used to uncover trends in thought and opinions, and help researcher can understand deeper into the problem. Some common methods include group discussions, interviews, and participation/observations. The sample size is typically small, and respondents are selected to fulfil a given quota. (Snapsurveys.com) 

Interview

Interview is a meeting or conversation in which a writer or reporter asks questions of one or more persons. Interview has a variety of forms including: individual, face to face interviews, face to face group interview. The interview can be mediated by telephone or other electronic devices. -

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Advantages Can be more useful in obtain more information about personal feeling, opinions. Achieve a high response rate. More detailed questions would be asked. More sufficient information Interviews detailed information can be collected which enables proper analysis of a problem. Based on factors like attitudes, feeling, opinion, researcher can be successfully evaluated or analysed through interviews.

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Disadvantages Can be costly.

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Interview can be very timeconsuming: setting up, interviewing, transcribing, analysing, feedback, reporting.

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Different interviewers may understand and transcribe interviews in different ways.

c) The differences between quantitative and qualitative approach -

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Quantitative Focus on surveys, questionnaires, and review of records or documents for numeric information. Primarily deductive process used to test pre-specified concepts, constructs, and hypotheses that make

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Qualitative Focus on groups, in-depth interviews, and reviews of documents for types of themes. Primarily inductive process used to formulate theory or hypotheses. More subjective: describes a problem

up a theory. - More objective: provides observed effects (interpreted by researchers) of a program on a problem or condition. - It is less in-depth but also more breadth of information across a large number of cases. - Statistical tests are used for analysis. - Can be valid and reliable: largely depends on the measurement device or instrument used. - Waste much time for prepare on the planning phase but waste not much time on the analysis phase. - More generalizable. Source: (Orau.gov)

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or condition from the point of view of those experiencing it. It can collect more in-depth information on a few it cases. Unstructured or semi-structured response options. Can be valid and reliable: largely depends on skill and rigor of the researcher. Waste not much time for prepare on the planning end but waste much time during the analysis phase. Less generalizable

d) Identify the methods best used in chosen organisation According to what are have been explained above about 2 types of approaches that influence to the behaviour of employees in workplace, quantitative is suitable for discovering the personal thought of employees in Apple with purpose find out what is the demand of employees; after change the CEO, Tim Cook need to find out each staff demand in work; based on the survey, he can create and develop the suitable work environment for his staffs. Tim Cook may understand more clearly about his staff by making survey. It can help Tim Cook to design supporting plan for maintaining the ambition of serving for employees when he became a new CEO. Based on this method, Tim Cook can make a list of questionnaires about what his employees think about work environment, company facility to change and develop them to satisfy his employees. His employees will has best result in work, respect and admire him, they will feel comfortable when they are working in suitable work environment.

3.1. Use theory to explain human reactions to change a) John Fisher’s personal transition curve John Fisher’s personal transition curve is an excellent analysis of how individuals deal with personal change. This model is an extremely useful reference for individuals dealing with personal change and for managers and organizations helping staff to deal with personal change. In this model, there are eight stages that people follow through a change process, it’s included: anxiety, happiness, fear, threat, guilt, depression, disillusionment, hostility, denial. (Fisher) -

Anxiety: The awareness that events lie outside one's range of understanding or control. Fisher believes the problem here is that individuals are unable to adequately picture the future. They do not have enough information to allow them to anticipate

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behaving in a different way within the new organisation. They are unsure how to adequately construe acting in the new work and social situations. Happiness: The awareness that one’s viewpoint is recognised and shared by others. The impact of this is twofold. At the basic level there is a feeling of relief that something is going to change and not continue as before. Whether the past is perceived positively or negatively, there is still a feeling of anticipation and possibly excitement at the possibility of improvement. On another level, there is the satisfaction of knowing that some of your thoughts about the old system were correct (generally no matter how well we like the status quo there is something that is unsatisfactory about it) and that something is going to be done about. Fear: The awareness of an imminent incidental change in one's core behavioural system. People will need to act in a different manner and this will have an impact on both their self-perception and on how others externally see them. However, in the main, they see little change in their normal interactions and believe they will be operating in much the same way, merely choosing a more appropriate, but new, action. Threat: The awareness of an imminent comprehensive change in one's core behavioural structures. Here people perceive a major change on what they believe to be their core identity or sense of self. The realisation that change that will have a fundamental impact on who we are, how we see ourselves and what is key in our personality to us as individuals. This is the shock of suddenly discovering you're not who you thought you were! It is a radical alteration to our future choices and other people's perception of them as individuals. Their old choices are no longer ones that will work. Guilt: An awareness of a dislodgement of our self from our core self-perception. We are not who we thought we were! Once the individual begins exploring their selfperception, how they acted/reacted in the past and looking at alternative interpretations they begin to re-define their sense of self. This, generally, involves identifying what are their core beliefs and how closely they have been to meeting them. Recognition of the inappropriateness of their previous actions and the implications for them as people can cause guilt as they realise the impact of their behaviour. Depression: The awareness that our past actions, behaviours and beliefs are incompatible with our core construct of our identity. The belief that our past actions mean we're not a very nice person after all! This phase is characterised by a general lack of motivation and confusion. Individuals are uncertain as to what the future holds and how they can fit into the future 'world'. Their representations are inappropriate and the resultant undermining of their core sense of self leaves them adrift with no sense of identity and no clear vision of how to operate. Disillusionment: The awareness that your values, beliefs and goals are incompatible with those of the organisation. The pitfalls associated with this phase are that the employee becomes unmotivated, unfocused and increasingly dissatisfied and gradually withdraws their labour, either mentally (by just 'going through the motions',

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doing the bare minimum, actively undermining the change by criticising/complaining) or physically by resigning. Hostility: The continued effort to validate social predictions that have already proved to be a failure. The problem here is that individual's continue to operate processes that have repeatedly failed to achieve a successful outcome and are no longer part of the new process or are surplus to the new way of working. The new processes are ignored at best and actively undermined at worst. Denial: This stage is defined by a lack of acceptance of any change and denies that there will be any impact on the individual. People keep acting as if the change has not happened, using old practices and processes and ignoring evidence or information contrary to their belief systems.

Before change the CEO of Apple, Fisher model might be use for analyses and represents psychological factors of employees. This model will help to present the psychological processes of the employee during the period of stability and volatility. All of employees in Apple was familiar with work and follow the Steve Jobs lead in many years when Steve Jobs was a CEO. Because of his “manipulative” behaviour, his leadership style is considered by some of his employees as autocratic. His behaviour in meetings for instance is described as being rude, authoritative and obnoxious; his staffs still working with best result but they was working with stress, worry (anxiety), have fear feeling about fired if they did not do their best. When staffs heard about the new CEO change with difference leadership style compare to Steve Jobs, they are so confuse about new CEO leadership will influence to their work performance. For the mention above, Tim Cooks has a difference leadership style, he seem to more gentle with his employees. Therefore, the employees will feel comfortable while working instead working with high tension when they worked with Steve Jobs. b) Kotter 8 steps There are 8 steps in Kotter model: -

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Establish a sense of urgency: This step will help the organisation examine market and competitive realities. It also identifies and discusses crises, potential crises or opportunities, and creates the catalyst for change. Form a powerful coalition: This step help to assemble a group with enough power to lead the change effort. It is helpful in develop strategies for achieving new vision. Create a vision: This step will help the organisation create a vision to help direct the change effort. Communicating the vision: Using every channel and vehicle of communication possible to communicate the new vision and strategies. Empowering others to act on the vision: Removing obstacles to change, changing systems or structures that seriously undermine the vision. This step also encourages risk taking and non-traditional ideas, activities and actions. Planning for and creating short term wins: Planning for visible performance improvement, recognising and rewarding employees involved in these improvements. Consolidating improvements and producing still more change: This step using for increased credibility to change systems, structures and policies that do not fit the

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vision. Also hire, promote, and develop employees who can implement the vision; reinvigorating the processes with new projects, themes and change agents. Institutionalising new approaches: This final step create the connections between new behaviours and corporate successes – developing channels to ensure leadership development and succession.

When the change happens, Kotter 8 steps model use for analysis the change of the company Establish a sense of urgency: Tim Cooks has changed the work that’s behaviourist regulation; He tried more exposure for employees to listen to their wishes about the work environment in the company, create a free work environment for employees that make them feel more comfortable. Almost staffs thought that the change was unavoidable and they would have to change to adapt with the situation and protect their jobs and money, but Tim Cook leader behaviour can make people feel more comfortable instead of working for Steve Job. Form a powerful coalition: Tim Cooks motivate employees work together as a group in the company. He wants all of staffs work together to archive a best result in work performance. Tim Cooks also create some new rules to employees; make them adapt his leadership style. Create a new vision: With the new rules, the new vision will keep the situation of the staffs stable and with the strategies were popularized the new rules to staffs, stabilize the psychology, make them comfortable when working, and tell them what to do for next project of the company. Tim Cook also motivates his staffs more creative to create new strategy for company. Communicating the vision: CEO can send mail to all of staffs in the company with purpose popular new rules, new vision. Empowering other act on the vision: Tim Cook try to erase the stress of work of each employee, create comfortable work environment, and encourage staffs innovation. Planning for and creating short term wins: The plan is make every staffs should work as a team, help each other to archive goals. Tim Cook will be a reward for staff to reach high performance while working to motivate them. Consolidating improvements and producing still more change: Staffs might not adapt immediately to the new program, so they need to manage their time, carefully in working, try to observe. Institutionalising new approaches: all staffs will try to adapt new rules, new leadership style. MISA JSC would be stronger and get high profits, because they worked in the comfortable environment for a long time, then that was the time they had to accept the challenges and deal with them. c) Kubler Ross theory

Kubler-Ross describes five stages which are as relevant to the normal range of feelings people have when they are dealing with change in their own lives or in the workplace. So the "Five stages" model has been used to understand people's reactions to change for many decades: Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, and Acceptance. -

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Denial: the individuals believe the diagnosis is somehow mistaken, and cling to a false, preferable reality. Anger: the individual becomes frustrated, especially at proximate individuals. Bargaining: the hope that the individual can avoid a cause of grief. Usually, the negotiation for an extended life is made in exchange for a reformed lifestyle. People facing less serious trauma can bargain or seek compromise. Depression: the individual becomes saddened by the mathematical probability of death. Acceptance: the individuals embrace mortality or inevitable future, or that of a loved one, or other tragic event.

The leaders use this model to discuss the change after reform. When Steve Jobs stills in CEO position, his employee was working with stress. His behaviour in meetings for instance is described as being rude, authoritative and obnoxious. For some employees who have worked long years in the company will not be surprised and feel annoyed (denial) when working under the direction of Steve Jobs. But for those new employees, they will feel dissatisfaction (anger) when working in stressful environment and that will reduce the quality of work of employees. By the way, some staffs still trying to endure and become familiar with the style of leadership of Steve Jobs (bargaining). Some staffs will have negative attitude and they dose not try in work, then they will have fear of being dismissed (depressed). Therefore, they will extend to a period during which the employees renounce it and recognize (acceptance) the positive in the change. After Apple has a new CEO, Apple employees might feel more comfortable when working because the new CEO is gentle than old CEO, Tim Cook always want his staffs work in comfortable work environment, no stress, innovation. Therefore, the employees will help the company bring more profits to the company.

3.2. Make justified recommendations for implementing change in a selected work group There are two main theories in resistance to change: Individual resistance, and organisation resistance 

Individual sources of resistance is basic human characteristics included personalities, perceptions, and demands. - Habit is a list of human activities in life; as human beings, people are creatures of habit, and people will adapt to all circumstances when things change. - Security: people will try to avoid any thing that affect to their safety, it is like human instinct. - Economic factors includes another source of individual resistance is concern that changes will lower one's income. Changes in job tasks or established work routines also can arouse economic fears if people are concerned that they won't be able to

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perform the new tasks or routines to their previous standards, especially when pay is closely tied to productivity. - Selective information processing: Individuals shape their world through their perceptions. Once they have created this world, it resists change. So individuals are guilty of selectively processing information in order to keep their perceptions intact. - Fear of the unknown: People always fear some things that they did not know. Organisational resistance are conservative, it actively resist change. People have to look far to see evidence of this phenomenon. - Structural inertia: Organizations have built-in mechanisms to produce stability. - Limited focus of change: Organizations are made up of a number of interdependent subsystems; they can't change one without affecting the others. - Group inertia: Even if individuals want to change their behaviour, group norms may act as a constraint. - Threat to expertise: Changes in organizational patterns may threaten the expertise of specialized groups. - Threat to established power relationships: Any redistribution of decision-making authority can threaten long-established power relationships within the organization. The introduction of participative decision making or self-managed work teams is the kind of change that is often seen as threatening by supervisors and middle managers. - Threat to established resource allocations: Those groups in the organization that control sizable resources often see change as a threat. They tend to be content with the way things are.

There are seven methods help overcome and adapt to change: -

Participation: The staffs must be allowed to create their own decisions to overcome

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the troubles. Education and communication help the staffs learn more about the benefits of

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changing and they will accept that changing and adapting are necessary. Cooptation: it is stabilizing the employees with good news about the benefit of the

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change, but hides the terrible truth. Coercion: Forcing employees to change. Implementing change fairly try to minimize the negative influences of the change to

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employees and make employees believe that they are behaved equally. Selecting people who accept the change, leadership will create better conditions for those who support the change. They are people who think in a positive way and always try to adapt to every situation.

Recommendation -

In the Apple case, the leader would find the way to make his employees to understand and adapt to the new rules, leadership style of the new leader. Therefore, employees will probably get best result in work (Education and communication).

3.3. Make justified recommendations for achieving attitude change amongst a group of stakeholders in a selected organization. A stakeholder is any person, organization, social group, or society at large that has a stake in the business. Stakeholders can affect a business, be affected by a business, or be both affected by a business and affect a business. Stakeholders can be internal or external to the business. Internal stakeholders included employed, manager, owners; external stakeholders included suppliers, society, government, creditors, shareholders, customers. (Study.com) About Apple Company, there are the most stakeholders who were influenced most by the restructuring, its including: employees. -

Employee: The change of the leader of Apple has led the change of employees in psychological term, and working performance. Before the change, the staffs felt so uncomfortable and stress when working in uncomfortable work environment although they can get high performance in work. When restructuring, every staffs felt uncomfortable but due to the caring of the managers, they still try that to adapt to protect their jobs. And after the change, Tim Cook has different leadership style compare to Steve Jobs leadership style, he try to solve stress problems of all staffs, create comfortable work environment, and friendly to staffs. His employees feel comfortable in work, so it motivate them innovation, get more and more high performance in work.

It also influence to shareholder, it based on in each leadership style of each people to attract them to invest in the company. Nowadays, the employees of Apple still feel comfortable and do their best when working with Tim Cook. Therefore, there are no solutions for the company

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Snapsurveys.com. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.snapsurveys.com/blog/what-is-thedifference-between-qualitative-research-and-quantitative-research/ Study.com. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-a-stakeholder-inbusiness-definition-examples-quiz.html Survey.cvent.com. (n.d.). Retrieved from Advantages and disadvantages of online survey: http://survey.cvent.com/blog/market-research-design-tips-2/advantages-anddisadvantages-of-online-surveys