Psicomotricidad y Dificultades en El Aprendizaje de La

 

]si`foftri`ikck y kidi`uhtckns nj nh cprnjkizcen kn hc hn`tfns`riturc

 

Cspn`tfs bnjnrchns 

]si`foftri`ikck5 «dc`uhtck qun pnroitn, dc`ihitc y pftnj`ic nh knscrrfhhf pnrdn`tivf dïsi`f,  psïqui`f y sf`ich knh jióf c trcvés knh ofvioinjtf¼ (Anrrnrc y Wcoïrnz, Wcoïrnz, 3990, p. 72).

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Kidi`uhtckns nj nh cprnjkizcen kn hc hn`tfns`riturc

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Acy jiófs qun sij oftivf cpcrnjtn prnsnjtcj brcvns kidi`uhtckns nj nh n h cprnjkizcen kn hc hn`turc, hc ns`riturc, hc frtfbrcdïc y nh `ãh`uhf. 

Pfrprnsc5

‑’Nh sij oftivf ofti vf chbujf’ chbujf’’’ ssfj fj chtnrc`ifjns nj hc psi`foftri`ikck.

Kishnxic

Kisbrcdï

Kisfrtfbrc

Kis`ch`uhi

c

dïc

c

 

Kishnxic @fj`nptf  

Kidi`uhtck knh acghc f hc ki``iðj [rcstfrjf nj nh cprnjkizcen kn hc hn`turc

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Kidi`uhtck pcrc hc kistij`iðj y onofrizc`iðj kn hntrcs f brupfs kn hntrcs, dchtc kn frknj y ritof nj hc `fhf`c`iðj y ochc nstru`turc`iðj kn hcs drcsns, `fjki`ifjcjkf tcjtf c hc hn`turc `fof c hc ns`riturc

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Ftrfs téroijfs utihizckfs5 hnbcstnjic, chnxic.

 

Ntifhfbïc 

Kishnxic ckquirikc (pfr uj trcuoctisof f hnsiðj `nrngrch)5 nh suentf

jf punkn hnnr ns`rigir sij dchhfs, kn acgnr c``nkikf c nstn cprnjkizcen knyofkf `frrn`tf cjtnsknspués kn hc hnsiðj. 

Kishnxic nvfhutivc (pfr kédi`its ockurctivfs)5 nh suentf tinjn kidi`uhtck pcrc cprnjknr c hnnr y ns`rigir pfr prionrc vnz. Bnjnrchonjtn, ch acghcr kn kishnxic jfs rndnriofs c hc kishnxic nvfhutivc.

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Ntifhfbïc bnjnrch5  Ijdhunj`ic dcoihicr  

Nrrfrns pnkcbðbi`fs

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Wntrcsf nj hc ockurc`iðj jnrvifsc

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Cjfochïc nj hc cuki`iðj y knh hnjbucen

 

@crc`tnrïsti`cs 

Hc kishnxic ns hc ocjidnstc`iðj nj nh `copf pnkcbðbi`f kn ujc snrin kn trcstfrjfs5

Ochc hctnrchizc`iðj

Chtnrc`ifjns kn hc

@fjf`ioinjtf

psi`foftri`ikck

kndi`injtn knh nsqunoc `frpfrch

 

Chtnrc`ifjns kn hfs prf`nsfs kn ctnj`iðj

@crc`tnrïsti`cs Knsfrinjtc`iðj nspc`iftnopfrch

[rcstfrjfs kn hc pnr`np`iðj

Kédi`it nj nh prf`nscoinjtf vnrgch

 

3. Kishnxic cukif

hijbøïsti`c Ocjidinstcj rntrcsf knh hnjbucen, trcstfrjfs

@hcsidi`c`iðj

crti`uhctfrifs (kishchics), kidi`uhtckns pcrc knjfoijcr fgentfs (cjfoics) y nrrfrns nj hc hn`tfns`riturc pfr prfghnocs nj hc `frrnspfjknj`ic `frrnspfjknj` ic brcdnoc-dfjnoc. brcdnoc-dfjnoc. Cknoãs, su `fndi`injtn ijtnhn`tuch vnrgch ns onjfr qun nh ocjipuhctivf .

7. Kishnxic

visfnspc`ich ]rnsnjtcj kidi`uhtckns kn frinjtc`iðj knrn`acizquinrkc, kidi`uhtck pcrc rn`fjf`nr fgentfs dcoihicrns pfr nh tc`tf (cbjfsic kibitch), `chikck kn hc hntrc pfgrn (kisbrcdïc) y nrrfrns kn hn`tfns`riturc qun supfjnj dchhfs nj hc `fkidi`c`iðj kn hc ijdfroc`iðj visuch, `fof, pfr nenophf, ijvnrsifjns ijvnrsifjns kn hntrcs y pchcgrcs, f hc ns`riturc ijvnrtikc f nj nspnef. C kidnrnj`ic knh brupf cjtnrifr, cjtnrifr, nh @I vnrgch ns ocyfr qun nh ocjipuhctivf.

 

@hcsidi`c`iðj kn hcs `crc`tnrïsti`cs kn hc kishnxic 

@crc`tnrïsti`cs @crc`tnrïsti` cs `fjku`tuchns `fjku`tuchns 3.

Hc cjsinkck5 punkn bnjnrcr hc cpcri`iðj kn `fjku`tcs `fjku`tcs nspn`ïdi`cs kn ntcpcs cjtnrifrns y trcstfrjfs psi`fsfoãti`fs (`fof prfghnocs kibnstivfs, kn sunóf, chnrbics…).

7.

Ijsnburikck f brcj vcjikck.

0. ;.

Kidi`uhtckns ctnj`ifjchns, kngikf ch brcj nsdunrzf qun hns supfjn supnrcr hfs  prfghnocs pnr`nptivfs Dchtc kn ijtnrés pfr nh nstukif, yc qun, drn`unjtnonjtn, su rnjkioinjtf rn jkioinjtf pfgrn y sus gcecs `chidi`c`ifjns hf hhnvcj c ns`csc oftivc`iðj y `urifsikck.

 

@hcsidi`c`iðj kn hcs `crc`tnrïsti`cs kn hc kishnxic 

@crc`tnrïsti`cs ns`fhcrns

3.

7.

Nj nh hnjbucen5 kishchics, pfgrnzc kn vf`cguhcrif, kn nxprnsiðj y `foprnjsiðj vnrgch n, ibuchonjtn, gcec nhcgfrc`iðj y nstru`turc`iðj `frrn`tc kn hcs drcsns, csï `fof pcrc hc utihizc`iðj ckn`uckc kn hfs tinopfs kn hfs vnrgfs... Nj hc hn`turc5 hnjtc, sij ritof, on`ãji`c jf `foprnjsivc, `fj ujc hn`turc kn  pchcgrcs knskn hc oitck, `fjdusifjns nj nh frknj kn hcs hntrcs (pfr nenophf5 «gcrzf¼ pfr «grczf¼), `cogif knh frknj kn hcs sïhcgcs knjtrf kn ujc pchcgrc («hfpntc¼ pfr «pnhftc¼), `fjdusifjns nj hcs hntrcs qun tinjnj `inrtc sioihituk ofrdfhðbi`c f dfjéti`c, foisiðj kn hntrcs c dijch kn pchcgrc («ãrgf¼ pfr «ãrgfh¼)…

 

@hcsidi`c`iðj kn hcs `crc`tnrïsti`cs kn hc kishnxic 

@crc`tnrïsti`cs ns`fhcrns

0.

Nj hc ns`riturc5 hnjtituk, tfrpnzc yc`ffrkijc`iðj ocjuch gcec,`fj cbcrrftcoinjtf `cjscj`if ous`uhcr, qun `fjku`nj ujc kndi`injtn `chibrcdïc, hntrcs pf`f y kidnrnj`ickcs, pf`f nhcgfrckcs y `fj kistijtf tcocóf. ]fstnrifronjtn, su frtfbrcdïc  punkn hhnbcr c snr kndn`tufsc, kndn`tufsc, c `cusc kn ujc kndi kndi`injtn `injtn pnr`np`iðj y onofri onofrizc`iðj zc`iðj visuch...

;.

Nj nh `ãh`uhf5 ijvnrsiðj kn `idrcs nj uj jõonrf («27¼ pfr «72¼), `fjdusiðj kn sfjikfs dfjéti`conjtn snonecjtns («4=¼ pfr «2=¼), ns`riturc kn jõonrfs nj nspnef...

>.

Nj ftrcs octnrics5 nj aistfric (kidi`uhtckns pcrc `cptcr ujc su`nsiðj tnopfrch), nj bnfbrcdïc (prfghnocs pcrc nstcghn`nr hfs nens kn `ffrknjckcs) y nj hc bnfontrïc (kidi`uhtckns pcrc kntnroijcr ujcs ckn`uckcs rnhc`ifjns nspc`ichns)...

 

Nvchuc`iðj

Pn `njtrc nj hc nvchuc`iðj kn hfs sibuinjtns cspn`tfs5

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Nsqunoc `frpfrch Frbcjizc`iðj nspc`ich

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Onofric visuch

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Onofric cukitivc

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Crti`uhc`iðj ]nr`np`iðj visuch

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@ffrkijc`iðj visuch

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Hctnrchikck

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Witof

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Wnnku`c`iðj kn hfs trcstfrjfs kishéxi`fs [cjtf hc nxphfrc`iðj `fof hc ijtnrvnj`iðj kngnj rnchizcrsn hf cjtns pfsighn (njtrn hfs ; y 4 cófs). Njtrn hfs kistijtfs prf`nkioinjtfs utihizckfs sn nj`unjtrcj hfs sibuinjtns5 

Nku`c`iðj ouhtisnjsfrich

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Nku`c`iðj psi`foftriz Njtrnjcoinjtf pnr`nptivf-oftriz

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Knscrrfhhf hijbøïsti`f

 

Nku`c`iðj  Nh suentf tfon `fj`inj`ic   knh psi`foftriz

nsqunoc `frpfrch, knh nspc`if, kn hc cdiroc`iðj kn hc hctnrchikck, kn hc

Nku`c`iðj [rcgcecj [rcgcec j hcnsijtnrrnhc`iðj njtrn y ouhtisnjsfrich ofkchikck ofkchikckns visuchns, cukitivcs `ijnstési`cs

kisf`ic`iðj kn ofvioinjtfs, qun  pftnj`in hc onofric onofric y hc ctnj`iðj, ctnj`iðj, csï `fof hc rnhcec`iðj. Pn`unj`ic c trcgcecr5 3) Nsqunoc `frpfrch, 7) Hctnrchizc`iðj, 0) Frinjtc`iðj nspc`if-tnopfrch. nspc`if-tnopfrch.

Njtrnjcoinjtf pnr`nptivf-oftriz ]nroitn qun nh suentf supnrn hcs kidi`uhtckns rnhc`ifjckcs `fj nh `fjtrfh visfoftfr qun, drn`unjtnonjtn,, cpcrn`nj nj chbujfs drn`unjtnonjtn `csfs kn kishnxic.

Knscrrfhhf Cgcr`c chbujf kn hfs sibuinjtns hijbøïsti`f cspn`tfs5 rn`np`iðj cukitivc< rn`np`iðj visuch< csf`ic`iðj cukitivc< csf`ic`iðj visuch< nxprnsiðj vnrgch, y nh `inrrn brcocti`ch

 

Hc kisbrcdïc 

Hc kisbrcdïc ns uj trcstfrjf kn tipf duj`ifjch (jf jnurfhðbi`f) qun cdn`tc c hc `chikck kn hc ns`riturc knh suentf, ch trczckf f c hc brcdïc.

 

Ntifhfbïc  

@cuscs kn tipf ockurctivf. Njtrn nhhcs5

 ‛ Kidi`uhtckns kn hctnrchizc`iðj, njtrn ftrcs hc cogiknxtrchikck y hc zurknrc `fjtrcrickc.  ‛ [rcstfrjfs kn ndi`inj`ic psi`foftfrc, qun punknj cbrupcrsn nj hcs `ctnbfrïcs.

 

[rcstfrjfs knh nsqunoc `frpfrch y kn hcs duj`ifjns pnr`nptivf-oftri`ns.  ‛Hfs prfghnocs kn tipf pnr`nptivf pnr`nptivf (ns`riturc `fj kidi`uhtckns nj hfs birfs, ijvnrsifjns...).  ‛Hfs trcstfrjfs kn frinjtc`iðj y nstru`turc`iðj nspc`ich, kngikfs c kidi`uhtckns kn hctnrchikck f kn ijtnrifrizc`iðj knh nsqunoc `frpfrch (ns`riturc `fj chtnrc`ifjns kn tipf tfpfhðbi`f, kn kirn``ifjchikck...). kirn``ifjchikck...).  ‛Hfs trcstfrjfs knh nsqunoc `frpfrch (pfsturc `frpfrch ij`frrn`tc, ijckn`uckf sfpfrtn knh hãpiz y uj hnjtf y dctibfsf brcdisof).

 

@cuscs `crc`tnrichns. 

Njtrn ftrcs5

 ‛ Hfs dc`tfrns kn pnrsfjchikck, kngikfs c hcs  prfpics `crc`tnrïsti`c `crc`tnrïsti`css pnrsfjchns (n (ns`riturc s`riturc ijnstcghn, `fj dchtc kn prfpfr`ifjns y `fj kndi`injtn nspc`ic`iðj n ij`hijc`iðj kn hcs hntrcs).  ‛ Hfs dc`tfrns dc`tfrns psi`fcdn`ti psi`fcdn`tivfs, vfs, prfku`t prfku`tf f kn tnjsifjns tnjsifjns nof`ifjchns (brcdisof kndn`tufsf, kidi`uhtckns  pnr`nptivcs,  pnr`nptiv cs, oftri`ns, kn hctnrchizc` hctnrchizc`iðj…). iðj…).

 

@cuscs pnkcbðbi`cs  ‛ ^jc njsnócjzc njsnócjzc rïbikc n iijdhnxighn, jdhnxighn, gc gcsckc sckc nj uj sistnoc dfroch y rituchistc qun sn cphi`c kn ocjnrc ijkis`rioijckc c tfkfs hfs jiófs, sij tnjnr nj `unjtc hcs `crc`tnrïsti`cs ijkivikuchns.

 

@cuscs oixtcs, drutf kn ujc suoc kn dc`tfrns. 

Hfs sïjtfocs oãs knstc`cghns sfj hfs sibuinjtns5

 ‛ Kfhfr nj tfkc hc nxtrnoikck supnrifr.  ‛ @rispc`iðj nj tfkf nh gr grczf czf (nspn` (nspn`ichonjtn ichonjtn nnj j hfs knkfs y nh afogrf).  ‛ Nx`nsivc hnjtituk hnjtituk nj hc nnen`u`iðj en`u`iðj k knn hc ns`riturc ns`riturc..

 

Dcsn prn`chibrãdi`c (4-1 cófs)

 

Dcsn `chibrãdi`c

 

Dcsn pfst`chibrãdi`c.

 

Chtnrc`ifjns knh `fjtrfh oftfr  ‛ Cprcxics5 ij`cpc`ikck  pcrc rnchizcr c`tfs oftfrns `fophnefs.  ‛ Ctcxic `nrngnhcr5  prfku`n ij`ffrkijc`iðj ij`ffrkijc`iðj oftfrc y ofvioinjtfs nspcsoðki`fs.  ‛ Chtnrc`ifjns nj nh tfjf ous`uhcr (aipnrtfjïc f aipftfjïc).

 

Chtnrc`ifjns nj hc frbcjizc`iðj oftriz 

`crc`tnrizckcs pfr oftri`ikck kégih, ofvioinjtfs kn  prfbrnsiðj och `ffrkijckfs, hibnrcs  pnrturgc`ifjns knh nquihigrif, tnoghfrns hibnrfs, nt`.

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Chtnrc`ifjns sfoctfnspc`ichns5

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 prfghnocs nj nh `fjf`ioinjtf y rnprnsnjtc`iðj knh `unrpf y knh nspc`if.

 

Chtnrc`ifjns nj hc pnr`np`iðj visuch5  ‛ Kis`rioijc`iðj Kis`rioijc`iðj visuch (` (`crc`tnrïsti` crc`tnrïsti`cs cs kn hcs hntrcs).  ‛ Wntrfchionjtc`iðj Wntrfchionjtc`iðj hn hnjtc jtc (ns`rign onefr `ucj `ucjkf kf jf vn hf qun ns`rign).  ‛ Kidi`uhtck pcrc pcrc pnr`ig pnr`igir ir rnhc`ifjn rnhc`ifjnss nspc`ichns (ijvnrsifjns, (ijvnrsifj ns, rftc`ifjn rftc`ifjns, s, nt`.).

 

Wnquisitfs pcrc ujc nen`u`iðj `chibrãdi`c `frrn`tc 

@cpc`ikckns psi`foftri`ns bnjnrchns

@ffrkijc`iðj duj`ifjch kn hc ocjf  Aãgitfs jnurfoftri`ns `frrn`tfs y ginj nstcghn`ikfs 

 

[ipfs   Kisbrcdïc «oftriz¼, qun cdn`tc c hc `chikck kn hc ns`riturc. Ns kngikc c prfghnocs psi`foftfrns, qun sn  phcsocrïcj nj ujfs ofvioinjtfs brãdi`fs kisf`ickfs, hnjtituk, ocjnef ij`frrn`tf knh hãpiz, trcstfrjfs nj hc dfroc, tcocóf n ij`hijc`iðj kndn`tufsc kn hcs hntrcs, kndi`injtn nspc`icoinjtf njtrn nhhcs, kidi`uhtck nj hc kirn``ifjchikck kn hfs birfs, nj hc  prnsiðj kn hc ns`riturc, nt`.

 

Kisbrcdïc «kishéxi`c¼, qun cdn`tc ch `fjtnjikf (sibjidi`ckf) kn hc ns`riturc,  prfku`iéjkfsn foisiðj, `fjdusiðj kn hntrcs `fj sfjikf snonecjtn f `fj frinjtc`iðj sioétri`c sioihcr, ijvnrsiðj f cbrnbckf kn éstcs, ujiðj y

snpcrc`iðj ijckn`uckc kn

hntrcs, sïhcgcs f pchcgrcs, nt`.  

Nvchuc`iðj  

  «Nh tnst psi`foftfr kn Fznrntsli¼,

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 kiribikc c jiófs kn ; c 34 cófs y qun tinjn `ij`f ãrncs kn nvchuc`iðj5 nquihigrif nstãti`f, nquihigrif kijãoi`f, vnhf`ikck kn ofvioinjtfs, `ffrkijc`iðj ocjuch y cusnj`ic kn sij`ijnsics.

 

Kisfrtfbrcdïc 

Hc kisfrtfbrcdïc sn punkn kndijir `fof «nh `fjeujtf kn nrrfrns kn hc ns`riturc qun cdn`tcj c hc pchcgrc y jf c su trczckf f brcdïc.

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 Jf sn `njtrc nj uj  prfghnoc kn tipf brcdfoftfr (trczckf, dfroc y kirn``ifjchikck kn hcs hntrcs)

(pchcgrcs

`fj «g¼ f

«v¼, nhhc) `fj «a¼ f sij

 

Ntifhfbïc  

@cuscs kn tipf pnr`nptivf.

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@cuscs kn tipf ijtnhn`tuch @cuscs kn tipf hijbøïsti`f.

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@cuscs kn tipf cdn`tivf-nof`ifjch (ns`csf jivnh kn

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oftivc`iðj). @cuscs kn tipf pnkcbðbi`f.

 

Nrrfrns 

 Nrrfrns kn `crã`tnr hijbøïsti`f-pnr  Nrrfrns hijbøïsti`f-pnr`nptivf. `nptivf. Nhhf `fjhhnvc sustitu`ifjns, foisifjns, cki`ifjns y/f ijvnrsifjns kn dfjnocs, sïhcgcs f pchcgrcs.

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 Nrrfrns kn `crã`tnr visfnspc  Nrrfrns visfnspc`ich  `ich . Njtrn nhhfs5 Pustitu`iðj kn hntrcs qun sn kidnrnj`icj pfr su pfsi`iðj nj nh nspc`if (k/p, p/q). Pustitu`iðj kn hntrcs sioihcrns pfr sus `crc`tnrïsti`cs visuchns (o/j, f/c, h/n).

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 Nrrfrns  Nrrfr ns rndnrikf rndnrikfss c hcs rnb rnbhcs hcs kn frtfbrcdïc (jf rnspntcr hcs rnbhcs kn pujtuc`iðj, pfr nenophf, jf pfjnr «o¼ knhcjtn kn «p¼ y «g¼…).

 

@hcsidi`c`ifj 

Bckkns kistijbun `ij`f tipfs kidnrnjtns kn kisfrtfbrcdic, snbõj nh kédi`it jnurfpsi`fhðbi`f qun hc `fjki`ifjc5

 3. ]fr kédi`it kn

7. ]fr kisduj`iðj

«hnjbucen¼. 

«visfpnr`nptivc¼.   Nj nstn `csf, sn achhc chtnrckc hc pnr`np`iðj kistijtivc kn hc iocbnj kn hfs brcdnocs, f `fjeujtfs kn brcdnocs, cpcrn`injkf, pfr tcjtf,

Pn nj`unjtrc chtnrckf nh cjãhisis `fj`nptuch, qun ns rnhnvcjtn pcrc nstcghn`nr hfs hïoitns kn hcs pchcgrcs, n ibuchonjtn nh usf kn hfs nhnonjtfs kic`rïti`fs f sibjfs frtfbrãdi`fs.

rftc`ifjns f(g/p,ijvnrsifjns nstãti`cs   nstãti`cs k/q), k/q), sustitu`ifjns kn brcdnocs `fj dfrocs pcrn`ikcs (o/j, f/c) y `fjdusiðj kn hntrcs `fj brcdïc kfghn (g/v, kfghn  (g/v, b/e).

0. ]fr prfghnocs «cukitivfs¼. 

Nh suentf ns ij`cpcz kn  pnr`igir ckn`uckconjtn cspn`tfs ckn`uckco dfjéoi`fsnjtn kn hfs hc `cknjc acghckc, `fj hc `frrnspfjkinjtn trcku``iðj dfjnoc-brcdnoc.

;. ]fr chtnrc`ifjns «oftðri`cs nxprnsivcs¼.

 Nj nstn `csf, nh kédi`it sn nj`unjtrc nj hc nxprnsiðj ns`ritc kn hcs ikncs y nj hc nstru`turc`iðj sijtã`ti`c kn hcs frc`ifjns.

>. ]fr `fogijc`iðj kn «kfs f oãs dc`tfrns¼.  Nh suentf ounstrc

oãs kn ujc kndi`inj`ic.

 

Nvchuc`iðj.  

Wnspn`tf c hc nvchuc`iðj nspn`ïdi`c kn hc frtfbrcdïc, kngnofs tnjnr nj `unjtc, ch cjchizcrhc, nh tipf, hc drn`unj`ic y nh brckf kn hfs nrrfrns frtfbrãdi`fs oãs c`usckfs knh suentf. ]crc hc vchfrc`iðj kn ki`afs cspn`tfs `cgn tcogiéj utihizcr té`ji`cs dfrochns n ijdfrochns, kn ibuch ofkf qun hcs cphi`ckcs nj hc nvchuc`iðj kn hc kisbrcdïc.

Hc nvchuc`iðj dfroch kn hc frtfbrcdïc cgcr`c prungcs tchns `fof5   

  «Nh

[N@I¼  ([nst kn ns`riturc knh `i`hf iji`ich) , qun sn punkn cphi`cr tcjtf ijkivikuch `fof

`fhn`tivconjtn, `ctnbfrizcjkf hfs nrrfrns frtfbrãdi`fs, c pcrtir kn hc jcturchnzc kn hc frtfbrcdïc (jcturch, visuch f kn rnbhcs), onkicjtn prungcs kn ns`riturc kn vf`cguhcrif gãsi`f, ki`tckf y ns`riturc nspfjtãjnc. 

«Hc prungc kn frtfbrcdïc kn hc gctnrïc 0¼ (Nvchuc`iðj kn hc hnjbuc `cstnhhcjc nj nh `i`hf onkif kn

 NBG), cphi`cghn tcogiéj kn dfroc ijkivikuch ijkivikuch f `fhn`tivc. Cgcr`c vf`cguhcrif y sfjikfs kn kidi`uh kidi`uhtck tck frtfbrãdi`c, snpcrc`iðj kn pchcgrcs, sibjfs kn pujtuc`iðj, pujtuc`iðj, pchcgrcs afoðdfjcs y pcrfjïoi`cs.

 

Nvchuc`iðj. Hc nvchuc`iðj ijdfroch kn hc frtfbrcdïc ij`huyn frtfbrcdïc ij`huyn octnrichns tchns `fof5 

«histcs kn pchcgrcs kn vf`cguhcrif gãsi`f¼, onkicjtn hcs `uchns pfknofs cvnribucr,, kn dfroc `fj`rntc, hfs nrrfrns frtfbrãdi`fs nspn`ïdi`fs, sinjkf cvnribucr  prn`isf qun nstcs histcs nstéj `fopunstcs pfr pchcgrcs kn usf drn`unjtn,

ckcptckcs c hc nkck y jivnh nku`ctivf knh suentf. 

Csioisof , «hfs tnxtfs¼ sfj uj gunj octnrich, `fophnonjtcrif ch cjtnrifr, qun  pnroitn nxcoijcr rnbhcs kn frtfbrcdïc qun jf sfj cjchizcghns cjchizcghns nj hcs histcs kn  pchcgrcs, njtrn nhhcs hcs rnbhcs kn pujtuc`iðj, nh usf kn ocyõs`uhcs f hfs nrrfrns

kn ujiðj snpcrc`iðj.  

Wnnku`c`iðj nj hc kisfrtfbrcdic.  Njtrn hcs té`ji`cs qun sn sunhnj rn`fonjkcr, rn`fonjkcr, kngnofs onj`ifjcr hcs sibuinjtns5 `fjdn``ifjcr uj ijvnjtcrif ijvnjtcrif `fj hfs nrrfrns qun rnchizc nh c) Histckfs `c`fbrãdi`fs. Nstc té`ji`c trctc kn `fjdn``ifjcr suentf. Nh chuojf kngn `fpicr nj uj `ucknrjf hfs nrrfrns frtfbrãdi`fs qun vcyc `fontinjkf ch ns`rigir. C  pcrtir kn caï sn ndn`tucrãj c`tivikckns c`tivikckns tchns tchns `fof5 onofrizc`iðj onofrizc`iðj y ki`tckf ki`tckf kn hcs pchcgrcs, dfroc`iðj dfroc`iðj kn drcsns `fj hcs pchcgrcs, `hcsidi`c`ifjns, dfroc`iðj kn dcoihics héxi`cs, nt`. g) Di`anrf `c`fbrãdi`f. Nj nstn `csf, nh chuojf kngn nhcgfrcr tcrentcs `fj pchcgrcs `fj chbujc kidi`uhtck frtfbrãdi`c, nj hcs qun `fontn nrrfrns drn`unjtnonjtn. drn`unjtnonjtn. Nj nstcs di`acs, nstcrã hc pchcgrc ns`ritc `frrn`tconjtn nj hc pcrtn knhcjtnrc, y hc `crc knh rnvés ofstrcrã hc pchcgrc ij`fophntc, pcrc qun nh suentf hc `fophntn `fj hc f hcs hntrcs `fj hc kidi`uhtck frtfbrãdi`c (pfr nenophf, `chhn/`c V n). Nj hcs di`acs, sn  punkn ij`huir uj kiguef rnhc`ifjckf rnhc`ifjckf kn `crã`tnr ojnofté`ji`f ojnofté`ji`f ch fgentf fgentf kn dcvfrn`nr hc onofrizc`iðj onofrizc`iðj kn hc frtfbrcdïc.

 

Kis`ch`uhic

 

¶Sué ns hc kis`ch`uhic6  

Ntiofhðbi`conjtn kis`ch`uhic sibjidi`c chtnrc`iðj kn hc `cpc`ikck kn `ãh`uhf, nj uj snjtikf oãs cophif ssunhn utihizcr pcrc rndnrirsn c hcs chtnrc`ifjns qun pfknofs fgsnrvcr nj nh ocjnef kn hfs

jõonrfs.   Pn `fjsiknrcj `fjku`tcs juoéri`cs nh `ãh` `ãh`uhf uhf onjtch y hc hn`turc y ns`riturc kn jõonrfs. @ckc ujc kn nhhcs cgcr`c, ibuchonjtn, kistijtfs tipfs.   c) Nh `ãh`uhf onjtch, qun sn rnchizc nj nh ijtnrifr knh suentf, ij`huyn nh rn`itckf kn ujc snrin juoéri`c, hc vnrgchizc`iðj kn jõonrfs, hc onofric juoéri`c, nh `ãh`uhf cutfoãti`f y nh `ãh`uhf rndhnxivf. Nstn õhtiof ij`huyn fpnrc`ifjns tcj kivnrscs `fof suocr vcrics `idrcs f sfhu`ifjcr uj prfghnoc kidï`ih qun rnquinrn ujc nstrctnbic onjtch.

 

g) Hc hn`turc kn jõonrfs ij`huyn hc hn`turc kn jõonrfs cishckfs f `idrcs oãs f onjfs `fophi`ckcs qun prn`iscj nstcr nj pfsnsiðj knh hnjbucen h njbucen juoéri`f n ibuchonjtn snr `cpcz kn pfknrhf cphi`cr c `inrtfs sibjfs brãdi`fs.

`) Hc ns`riturc kn jõonrfs iophi`c qun nh suentf tinjn qun trcku`ir nh hnjbucen juoéri`f nj ujc snrin kn ofvioinjtfs y prcxics nspn`ïdi`cs. Nstc fpnrc`iðj cgcr`c tcrncs tchns `fof ns`riturc kn jõonrfs nspfjtãjnc y ns`riturc kn jõonrfs `fpickfs f ki`tckfs.

 

Ntifhfbïcs kn hc kis`ch`uhic.

Hcs `cuscs qun pfkrïcj kcr hubcr c uj pnrdih tïpi`f kn jiófs kis`ch`õhi`fs pfkrïcj `frrnspfjknrsn `fj hcs sibuinjtns `crc`tnrïsti`cs5   

 Kédi`it nj hc frbcjizc`iðj frbcjizc`iðj visnspc`ich visnspc`ich n ijtnbrc`iðj vnrgch5 vnrgch5 ocjidnstckc pfr hc kidi`uhtck pcrc kistijbuir njtrn dfrocs, tcocófs, kistcj`ics, hfjbitukns, `cjtikckns, nt`. 

 ]rfghnocs `fj nh nsqunoc nsqunoc `frpfrch5 kngikfs c hc ij`cpc`ikck pcrc kiguecr hc diburc auocjc frbcjizckc, frbcjizck c, qun punkn prnsnjtcrsn `fj tfkfs hfs snbonjtfs `frpfrchns, pnrf situckfs ij`frrn`tconjtn f suprioikfs.



 ]rfghnocs kn ijtnbrc`iðj ijtnbrc`iðj visfoftfrc visfoftfrc f cprcxics5 `crc`tnrizckfs pfr ujc ij`cpc`ikck pcrc `fpicr jõonrfs `frrn`tconjtn y nj nh frknj ckn`uckf.



 ]rfghnocs kn knsfrinjtc`iðj knsf  , pukinjkf `fjdujkir tcjtf hc kirn``ifjchikck `fof su prfpic pfsi`iðj nspc`ich c `cusc kn rinjtc`iðj uj och snjtikf kn hc hctnrchikck.

 

 Kndi`inj`ics nj pnr`np`iðj sf`ich y nj ac`nr eui`ifs,  kngikf c hc nxistnj`ic kn gcecs nxpn`tctivcs sf`ichns.  Kidi`uhtckns pcrc ac`nr nstioc`ifjns kn tinopf y kistcj`ic,  pfr  pfr nenophf `ch`uhcr nh tinopf qun hn hhnvcrã ac`nr ujc c`tivikck f ir ch `fhnbif.

Hfs ijstruonjtfs (duj`ifjns) (duj`ifjns) jnurfpsi`fhðbi`fs jnurfpsi`fhðbi`fs chtnrckfs nj hcs kis`ch`uhics sfj hfs sibuinjtns5 •

Tnrgchns.

•

Nspc`ichns.

•

]rcxi`fs. @fj`nptuchns.

• •

]hcjtncoinjtf kn tftchikck

 

Pïjtfocs kn hc kis`ch`uhic Nstfs punknj snr kivnrsfs, njtrn ftrfs5 •

Hc ochdfroc`iðj nj hfs sïogfhfs juoéri`fs.

• •

Hc ijnptituk pcrc kis`rioijcr sibjfs fpnrctivfs y nophncr hïjncs kn snpcrc`iðj. Hc kidi`uhtck pcrc suocr jõonrfs.

•

Hc ns`csc onofric juoéri`c.

•

Nh ij`fjvnjinjtn qun tinjnj pcrc nstru`turcr nspc`ichonjtn hc ouhtiphi`c`iðj y hc kivisiðj.

•

Nh brcj fgstã`uhf qun supfjn hnnr `idrcs kn ou`afs jõonrfs y nh prfghnoc pcrc hhnvcr `cjtikckns kn uj sitif c ftrf.

 

 Pnbõj nh cutfr Bckkns, Bckkns, quinj rnchizf ujc `hcsidi`c`iðj ntifhðbi`c ntifhðbi`c kn hcs kis`ch`uhics nvfhutivcs, nvfhutivcs, hc kndi`inj`ic jnurfhðbi`c jnurfhðbi`c qun hcs `fjki`ifjc. `fjki`ifjc. Kidnrnj`ic trns brupfs5   3. Kis`ch`uhics kngikcs c kndi`inj`ics kn hnjbucen (cukitivfbjðsi`cs). 7. Kis`ch`uhics prfvf`ckcs pfr kédi`its kn hn`turc (visfbjðsi`c (visfbjðsi`cs). s). 0. Kis`ch`uhics `fjsn`unjtns c kndi`inj`ics kn hc iocbijnrïc nspc`ich. @fjsiknrc, ibuchonjtn, ibuchonjtn, qun nh `fj`nptf kn jõonrf jf sn ch`cjzc acstc hfs 4 f 2 cófs, nj qun nh jióf sn nj`unjtrc nj hc ntcpc kn hcs fpnrc`ifjns. Acstc nsc nkck nh jióf ns ij`cpcz, pfr nenophf, kn `hcsidi`cr ujc snrin kn vcrihhcs kn kistijtf tcocóf kn onjfr c ocyfr. ]unkn, tch vnz, ac`nr brupfs kn kfs, trns f

`uctrf vcrihhcs, pnrf jf ns `cpcz kn nj`fjtrcr uj sfhf `ritnrif kn cbrupc`iðj pcrc tfkcs.

 

Ocjidnstc`iðj nj nh `copf ns`fhcr  

Kidi`uhtckns rnhc`ifjckcs `fj hc «hn`turc¼5

 ‛ ]rfghnocs ]rfghnocs nj hc iknjtidi`c`iðj iknjtidi`c`iðj kn jõonrfs hnïkfs prnviconjtn, hnynjkf ujfs pfr ftrfs nj  gcsn c su pcrn`ikf5 pfr pfr nenophf, >/7, 4/9, 4/9, nt`. (dchhf nj hc kis`rioijc`iðj pnr`nptivc).  ‛ Nrrfr kn snric`iðj f kn chtnrc`iðj nj hc sn`unj`ic hðbi`c kn jõonrfs, ch chtnrcr nh hubcr qun f`upc hc `idrc knjtrf knh jõonrf5  pfr neophf, 70/07.    ‛ @fjdusiðj kn kn hfs sibjfs octnoãti`fs octnoãti`fs y  prfghnocs kn `foprnjsiðj `foprnjsiðj kngikfs kngikfs c kidi`uhtckns hn`tfrcs.



Kidi`uhtckns rnhc`ifjckcs `fj hc «ns`riturc¼5

 ‛ @fjdusiðj ch `fpicr jõonrfs kn dfrocs snonecjtns5 `fof 2/;, 0/1, 4/9. ]fkrïc 4/9. ]fkrïc acgnr ujc chtnrc`iðj pnr`nptivc y/f kn onofric visuch.  ‛ @fjdusiðj ch `fpicr ch ki`tckf jõonrfs `fj sfjikfs snonecjtns5 2/4. ]fkrïc acgnr ujc chtnrc`iðj pnr`nptivc y/f kn onofric cukitivc.  ‛ Nrrfrns kn ijvnrsiðj5 ns`riturc juoéri`c juoéri`c birckc 31=µ5 4, 9, f nj nspnef5 4, 9, ;, 2, 0, nt`.  ‛ Nrrfr kn snric`iðj ch rnpntir jõonrfs jõonrfs `ucjkf ns`rign ujc snrin `fjsn`utivc (07, 00, 00, 0;, nt`.) u foitir chbujfs kn hc oisoc (32, 31, 7=...). Kidi`uhtckns pcrc frknjcr hcs `cjtikckns kn ujc fpnrc`iðj kn suoc, cujqun onjtchonjtn punkn

rnchizcr hcs fpnrc`ifjns.  

  Kidi`uhtckns rnhc`ifjckcs `fj hc «`fj`nptuchizc`iðj «`fj`nptuchizc`iðj¼5 ¼5  ‛ Nrrfrns nj hc `foprnjsiðj `foprnjsiðj knh jõonrf5 jõonrf5 knjfoijcr knjfoijcr c uj brupf kn fgentfs fgentfs `fj uj jõonrf jõonrf `uchquinrc.  ‛ ]érkikc knh `crã`tnr `crã`tnr sn`unj`ich kn hfs hfs jõonrfs.  ‛ Jf rnsunhvn fpnrc`ifjns fpnrc`ifjns juoéri`cs juoéri`cs pfr tnjnr kidi`uhtckns kidi`uhtckns pcrc «hhnvcr¼. «hhnvcr¼. Jf punkn phcjtncr phcjtncr hcs kistijtcs pcrtns knh prfghnoc.  ‛ Kidi`uhtckns Kidi`uhtckns pcrc ckquirir hc jf`iðj jf`iðj kn `fjsnrvc`iðj `fjsnrvc`iðj knh jõonrf, f `foprnjsiðj `foprnjsiðj kn qun qun nh vchfr kn ujc `cjtikck jf `cogic cujqun `cogin su dfroc f kispfsi`iðj.  ‛ Kidi`uhtck pcrc rnchizcr `ãh`uhfs, kngikf kngikf c kédi`its kn onofric, onofric, kirn``ifjchikck kirn``ifjchikck f `fjdusiðj `fjdusiðj njtrn hcs fpnrc`ifjns critoéti`cs.  ‛ Kidi`uhtckns Kidi`uhtckns pcrc hc hn`turc kn hc afrc, afrc, pcrc hf `uch ns jn`nscrif ``foprnjknr foprnjknr nh `fj`nptf `fj`nptf kn afrc, oijutf y snbujkf y kidnrnj`icr njtrn kfs ocjn`ihhcs.  ‛ Kidi`uhtckns Kidi`uhtckns pcrc `foprnjknr `foprnjknr nh vchfr kn hcs ofjnkcs, ofjnkcs, knrivckcs tcogiéj tcogiéj kn uj prfghnoc prfghnoc kn `fjsnrvc`iðj knh jõonrf.  ‛ Kidi`uhtckns Kidi`uhtckns pcrc `foprnjknr `foprnjknr nh hnjbucen y sibjfs sibjfs octnoãti`fs octnoãti`fs (+, ‐, Ò, 5).

 

Nvchuc`iðj. Hc nvchuc`iðj sfgrn hcs kidi`uhtckns nj nh ãrnc kn hcs octnoãti`cs kngn crti`uhcrsn nj tfrjf c hcs sibuinjtns ãrncs5 

Jivnh kn nen`u`iðj critoéti`c c`tuch5  pcrc `foprfgcr nh jivnh qun kngnrïc tnjnr snbõj nkck y pftnj`ich.



Kntnroijcr hc kis`rnpcj`ic njtrn pftnj`ich y rnjkioinjtf5 nstn cspn`tf vcrïc nj duj`iðj kn hc nkck. Csï, ujc kis`rnpcj`ic kn ujf f kfs cófs njtrn 3.µ y 0.µ kn ]riocric sn pfkrïc `fjsiknrcr sibjidi`ctivc, oinjtrcs qun nj `ursfs supnrifrns hf snrïc si hc kis`rnpcj`ic dunrc kn kfs f oãs cófs.



Kntnroijcr hfs nrrfrns nj nh `ãh`uhf y nh rczfjcoinjtf5  pfr nenophf, `fjtcgihizcjkf `fjtcgihizcjkf nh jõonrf kn nrrfrns nj tcrncs critoéti`cs ns`ritcs y cjchizcjkf nh rczfjcoinjtf `fj prnbujtcs frchns.



ontc`fbjitivcs ns`cscs, Iknjtidi`cr hfs dc`tfrns `fjtriguynjtns5  ijstru``iðj ijckn`uckc, acgihikckns ontc`fbjitivcs ijckcptc`iðj sf`ich, trcstfrjfs nof`ifjchns, kndi`inj`ics snjsfrichns, kndi`inj`ic onjtch, nt`.