Pseudo Methodius

Pseudo-Methodius

The crown of Eastern Christian apocalyptic literature literature is the treatise attributed to Methodius of Patara, a th martyr bishop who died in the early 4 century (ca. 313). After the Book of Daniel and the Revelation of  John it was among the most widespread of medieval apocalyptic texts. The creation and diffusion of the work display the kind of complications we have come to take for granted in the case of major apocalyptic texts. Despite the hesitations of earlier scholars, M. Kmosko showed that the work was originally written in Syriac. There is still some dispute over the date and the  place of composition composition;; though it‟s generally generally thought of as a 7 th-8th century text. Kmosko thought that the author was a Syrian Melchite who had left eastern Syria for Palestine in the wake of the conquests of  Heraclius. P.J. Alexander thinks that the author was a Monophysite and wrote in Arab-controlled Mesopotamia near the ancient city of Singara. In any case, through the Pseudo-Methodius the traditions of Syria, and even in Persia, once again were to fertilize Western apocalypticism. The Revelations of the Pseudo-Methodius Pseudo-Methodius is the earliest surviving witness to the legend of t he Last World Emperor. It is evident that the abdication scene on Golgotha is deeply rooted in the eschatological, theological, and ideological conceptions of Byzantine Christianity, and hence presupposes a more advanced and integrated imperial ideology than that available in the fourth century. The Methodian picture of the Last Emperor directs our attention to the main lines of imperial Byzantine apocalypticism. Byzantium had just become the new Rome, Daniel‟s fourth kingdom, identified with that force which restrained the coming of the Antichrist. Any general theory of history, such as that found in Pseudo-Methodius, Pseudo-Methodius, must explain how the empire was to come to an end so that the Antichrist might be released. Paradoxically, it was a Syrian author who provided the most convincing explanation of the end of the empire, and the situation in late 7 th century Syria explains why. Many of the author‟s compatriots had been long opposed to the anti-Monophysite theology of the emperors and hence had welcomed the Muslim liberation from the Byzantine yoke. Such eschatological hopes as they had seem to have been placed in the Monophysite ruler of Ethiopia. The response of Pseudo-Methodius to these brethren was to show that the text from Psalm 68:31 on which they based their claims (“...let Ethiopia hasten to stretch out her hands to God”) would be fulfilled in a Byzantine ruler, the descendent of the legendary marriage between Philip of Macedonia and Chuseth, the daughter of the king of Ethiopia. Like many great apocalypses, the Pseudo-Methodius was born in the midst of crisis. In the  Revelations for the first time a foe worthy of the f ully formed imperial apocalyptic myth steps upon the scene. The sudden onslaught and remarkable success of the Islamic conquests which almost overnight deprived the Christian empire of the land of its birth and many of the proudest monuments monuments of its early history had cast into question the easy optimism of many of the traditional schemes of history. The P seudo-Methodius offered hope in this dark hour. His vision of a coming Emperor who would defeat the Ishmaelites, the enemies of Christ, and restore Roman glory incorporated the rise of Islam, the most important historical event since the conversion of the empire, into the Christian apocalyptic scheme of history. Not only did the Pseudo-Methodius provide a meaning for the Islamic threat, but by a unique stroke of  luck the text also could be used to explain the apocalyptic significance of enemies that seemed even more

terrible than these, Gog and Mag og and the 22 nations who were to burst the barrier of Alexander‟s Gate at the end of time to harass the world. These, too, however, were to be defeated (by direct divine intervention) before the Last Emperor would proceed to Jerusalem to give over his crown to God and usher in the time of the Antichrist. Through the inclusion of this element from the Alexander Romance th (originally probably related to the incursions of the Huns in the 5 century), the Methodian scheme of  history could be used at later times as a consolatory prophecy at the time of the Mongol invasions of the th 13 century. No wonder the Pseudo-Methodius was so widely read. Its vision of history not only gave hope for the future but, in a significant reversal of most earlier apocalyptic literature, it at least implicitly encouraged active resistance against the forces of e vil. To fight for any Byzantine, and later Western emperor could  be seen as as fighting for God‟s chosen chosen vessel vessel of glory of the last last days. Though Though the Methodian Methodian scheme scheme of  history, like all apocalyptic literature, is in the last analysis pessimistic pessimistic about the course of history, the negative moment of the last act, (i.e. the brief and unoriginal account of the c areer of the Antichrist) is outshone by the dramatic picture of the epic struggle between God‟s chosen emperor and the forces of  evil. We should not be surprised that in 1683, a thousand years after its origin, excerpts from the PseudoMethodius printed on broadsheets were used to encourage the Christian defenders during the la st siege of  Vienna. The Syriac original of the  Revelations was soon translated into Greek. The existence of later translations in Russian, Armenian, Arabic, and Old Slavonic testify to its importance in early Christianity. By the beginning of the 8th century the text had been translated into Latin under the lengthy title, “A Sermon on the Kingdom of God and Sure Demonstration of the Last Times.” The influence of the Pseudo-Methodius in the West is immense. The text itself was later translated into a number of the vernacular literatures, including Middle English, and was printed early and often. Although the question is still disputed, it is possible that Adso was fa miliar with the  Revelations. The use of the text th th in the 12 and 13 centuries, not only in the service of imperial propaganda, but also in connection with the legend of the ten lost tribes of Israel (sometimes identified with the nations cast out by Alexander), the confrontation with Islam, and the threat of the Mongol invasions gives sufficient evidence of its paramount importance. The Alexander Legend Hear now then in true fashion how these four empires were joined, the Ethiopian with the Macedonian and the Greek with the Roman. They are the four winds that move the great sea (Dan. 7:2). Philip the Macedonian was the father of Alexander and took to wife Chuseth, the daughter of King Phol of Ethiopia. From her was born Alexander, who was made ruler of the Greeks. He founded Alexandria the Great and reigned nineteen years. He went to the East and killed Darius, king of the Medes. He was the ruler of  many regions and cities and he destroyed the earth. He even went as far as the sea which is called the region of the sun where he beheld unclean races of horrible appearance...He gave orders and gathered them all together with their women and children and all their villages. Leading them away from the East, he restrained them with threats until they entered the northern lands where there is no way in or out from East to West to visit them. Alexander prayed to God without interruption and He heard his prayer. The Lord gave a command to the two mountains which are called the “Breasts of the North,” and they came

together to within twelve cubits. Alexander built bronze gates and covered them openly by steel or to melt them with fire, he would be able to do either, but immediately every fire would be extinguished... Who are the nations and kings that Alexander concealed in the North? Gog and Magog, Anog and Ageg, Achenaz, Dephar, and the Potinei, the Libii, Eunii, Pharizei, Declemi, Zarmatae, Theblei, Zamartiani, Chaconii, Amarzarthae, Agrimardii, the Anuphagii (who are called Cynocephali), the Tharbei, Alanes, Phisolonici, Arcnei, and the Asalturii. These twenty-two kings lived enclosed within the gates that Alexander made. (Translated from the edition of E. Sackur, Sibyllinische Texte und Forschungen, pp. 72-75) The Muslim Crisis In the final seventh millennium the Persian empire will be wiped out. In this seventh millennium the seed of Ishmael will begin to go forth from the desert of Ethribus. When they have gone forth, they will all assemble at the great Gaboath and there will be completed the saying of Ezekiel the prophet: “Son of  man,” he said, “call the beasts of the field and the birds of the air and exhort them saying, „Gather  yourselves together and come since I will give you a great sacrifice, to eat the flesh of strong men and drink the blood of the mighty‟” (Ezek. 39:17)...And 39:17)...And so the Lord God will give them (i.e. the sons of  Ishmael) the power to conquer the land of the Christians, not because he loves them, but because of the sin and iniquity committed by the Christians. Such sins have not nor shall be committed for all generations. Men will get themselves up as false women wearing prostitutes‟ clothes. Standing in the streets and squares of the cities c ities openly before all they will be adorned like women; they will exchange natural sex for that which is against nature. As the blessed and holy Apostle says, “men have acted like women” (Rom. 1:26 -7). A father, his son, his brothers, and all the relatives will be seen to unite with one woman... For this reason they will be given over by God into the hands of the barbarians from whom they will sink  into all uncleanness and stink of pollution. Their women will be c ontaminated by filthy barbarians and the sons of Ishmael will cast lots for their sons and daughters. The land of the Persians is handed over to corruption and destruction, its inhabitants led away to captivity and death. They also attack Armenia and those who dwell there fall into captivity by the sword...The land of Syria will be empty and reduced; those dwelling in her will perish by the sword...Egypt and the East and Syria will be under the yoke and hemmed in by great tribulations. They will be constrained without mercy; weight of gold and silver beyond their strength will be eagerly desired of them. The inhabitants of Egypt and Syria will be in trouble and affliction, seven times the greater for those in captivity. The Land of Promise will be filled with men from the four winds under heaven. (Translated from E. Sackur, Sibyllinische Texte, pp. 80-83). The Last World Emperor ...Then suddenly tribulation and distress will arise against them. The king of the Greeks, i.e. the Romans, will come out against them in great anger, roused as from a drunken stupor like one whom men had thought dead and worthless (Ps. 77:65). He will go forth against them from the Ethiopian sea and will send the sword and desolation into Ethribus their homeland, capturing their women and children living in the Land of Promise. The sons of the king will come down with the sword and cut them off from the

earth. Fear and trembling will rush upon them and their wives and their children from all sides. They will mourn their offspring, weeping over them and all the villages in the lands of their fathers. By the sword they will be given over into the hands of the king of the Romans — to to captivity, death, and decay. The king of the Romans will impose his yoke upon them seven times as much as their yoke weighed upon the earth. Great distress will seize them; tribulation will bring them hunger and thirst. They, their wives, and their children will be slaves and serve those who used to serve them, and their slavery will be a hundred times more bitter and hard. The earth which they destitute will then be at peace; each man will return to his own land and to the inheritance of his fathers — Armenia, Armenia, Cilicia, Isauria, Africa, Greece, Sicily. Every man who was left captive will return to the things that were his and his fathers‟, and men will multiply upon the once desolated earth like locusts. Egypt will be desolated, Arabia burned with fire, the land of Ausania burned, and the sea provinces pacified. The whole indignation and fury of the king of  the Romans will blaze forth against those who deny the Lord Jesus Christ. Then the earth will sit in peace and there will be great peace and tranquility upon the earth such as has never been nor ever will be anymore, since it is the final peace at the End of time...

Then the “Gates of the North” will be opened and the strength of those nations which Alexander shut up there will go forth. The whole earth will be terrified at the sight of them; men will be afraid and flee in terror to hide themselves in mountains and caves and graves. They will die of fright and very many will be wasted with fear. There will be no one to bury the bodies. The tribes which will go forth from the North will eat the flesh of men and will drink the blood of beasts like water. They will eat unclean serpents, scorpions, and every kind of filthy and abominable beast and reptile which crawls the earth. They will consume the dead bodies of beasts of burden and even women‟s abortions. They will slay the young and take them away from their mothers and eat them. They will corrupt the earth and contaminate it. No one will be able to stand against them. After a week of years, when they have already captured the city of Joppa, the Lord will send one of the princes of his host and strike them down in a moment. After this the king of the Romans will go down and live in Jerusalem for seven and half-seven times, i.e. years. When the ten and a half years are completed the Son of Perdition will appear. He will be born in Chorazaim, nourished in Bethsaida, and reign in Capharnaum. Chorazaim will rejoice because he was born in her, and Capharnaum because he will have reigned in her. For this reason in the third Gospel the Lord gave the following statement: “Woe to you Chorazaim, woe to you Bethsaida, and to you Capharnaum — if if you have risen up to heaven, you will des cend even to hell” (Luke 10:13 -15). When the Son of Perdition has arisen, the king of the Romans will ascend Golgotha upon which the wood of the Holy Cross is fixed, in the place where the Lord underwent death for us. The king will take the crown from his head and place it on the cross and stretching out his hands to heaven will hand over the kingdom of the Christians to the Father. The cross and the crown of the king will be taken up together to heaven. This is because the Cross on which our Lord Jesus Christ hung for the common salvation of all will begin to appear before him at his coming to convict the lack of faith of unbelievers. The prophecy of  David which says, “In the last days Ethiopia will stretch out her hand to God” (Ps. 67:32) will be fulfilled in that these last men who stretch out their hands to God are from the seed of the sons of Chuseth, the daughter of Phol, king of Ethiopia. When the Cross has been lifted up on high to heaven, the king of the

Romans will directly give up his spirit. Then every principality and power will be destroyed that the Son of Perdition may be manifest.... (Translated from E. Sackur, Sibyllinische Texte, pp. 89-94). NOTES Traditions in the Middle Ages, 1) Taken from Bernard McGinn‟s Visions of the End: Apocalyptic Traditions pp. 70-76.