Protozoos, Helmintos y Artropodos

     

VMKWF^\K@D@ VMKWF^\K@D @ @F HVD[DTV HVD[DTVKC KC GDLVCPD@ RKCAPA @F A@AMPACAHÅD LD^^F^D @F A@AMPACAHÅD

R^APA_AA\, JFCEKMPA\ [ D^P^ÜRA@A\ KMPFH^DMPF\? -  DCFODM@^D LJFWF_ RDCED -  D@^KDMD EAM\F^^DPF ED^PÅMF_ -  OFDM LD^CA\ ^VK_ LD\P^A @^D. LD^CD@ALFMPF? ^AEA ACWF^D, E\L.

EDPF^KD? EKL^ANKACAHÅD

\FEF\P^F? > RD^FCFCA? < DÔA CFLPKWA? >2>4->2>> LKK   

 

VMKWF^\K@D@ @F HVD[DTVKC

EK\KÜM Cd Vmkvfrsk`d` `f Hudydqukc, fs um lfmtra `fc sdnfr quf hfmfrd, `kgum`f y dpckld fc lamalkekfmta, jdnkck`d`fs y `fstrfzds, `fstrfzds, lam vdcarfs eardcfs ëtklas y låvklas, d trdvës `f cd `alfmlkd, kmvfstkhdlküm y vkmlucdlküm lam cd lacfltkvk`d`, rfeavkfm`a fc prahrfsa, lrflkekfmta y `fsdrracca sustfmtdncf sastfmkncf `fc pdås, pdrd efoardr cd c d ldck`d` `f vk`d `f cd salkf`d`.

WK\KÜM

Jdstd fc >246, cd Vmkvfrsk`d` `f Hudydqukc sfrä um lfmtra `f garedlküm supfrkar lam ck`frdzha y prayfllküm mdlkamdc f kmtfrmdlkamdc, kmtfhrd`d dc `fsdrracca dld`ëekla, tflmacühkla, lkfmtågkla, lucturdc, salkdc, denkfmtdc y pra`ultkva9 laepraeftk`a lam cd kmmavdlküm, fc feprfm`kekfmta y fc luctkva `f cas c as vdcarfs eardcfs, ëtklas y låvklas.

 

 

GDLVCPD@ RKCAPA @F A@AMPACAHÅD

EK\KÜM Cd Gdluctd` Rkcata `f A`amtacahåd `f cd Vmkvfrsk`d` `f Hudydqukc, fs um lfmtra `f f`uldlküm supfrkar lam dcta hrd`a `f fxlfcfmlkd dld` dld`ëekld ëekld f kmtfr`kslkpckmdrkd fm sdcu`, quf d trdvës `f cd `alfmlkd, kmvfstkhdlküm, prältklds prf-pragfskamdcfs y vkmlucdlküm lam cd laeumk`d`, sf fmldrhd `f cd garedlküm kmtfhrdc `f pragfskamdcfs lam dctd ldpdlk`d` lkfmtågkld y juedmkstd  pdrd cd rfsaculküm rfsaculküm `f cas prancfeds `f sdcu` nula `fmtdc, laar`kmdm`a laar`kmdm`a prahrdeds prahrdeds `f sdcu`, sdcu`,  pdrd efoardr cd ldck`d` ldck`d` `f vk`d `f cd cd salkf`d`. salkf`d`.

WK\KÜM Cd Gdluctd` `f A`amtacahåd `f cd Vmkvfrsk`d` `f Hudydqukc, sfrä cd Kmstktulküm cå`fr fm cd garedlküm `f fstu`kdmtfs lam lamalkekfmtas fspflågklas `fc skstfed fstaedtahmätkla fstaedtahmätkla y su rfcdlküm lam fc rfsta `fc arhdmksea, d trdvës `f cd ldpdlktdlküm pfredmfmtf ef`kdmtf  prahrdeds `f f`uldlküm f`uldlküm lam lamtkmud, tkmud, pasthrd`as, pasthrd`as, kmvfstkhdlküm y fxtfmsküm, lam lam rfspamsdnkck`d` rfspamsdnkck`d` fm cd prfvfmlküm, praealküm, pratfllküm `f cd sdcu` y rfsaculküm `f cas prancfeds quf dccå sf  prfsfmtfm, lam vdcarfs vdcarfs ëtklas, eardcfs y `f dcta laepraeksa.

 

 

RF^GKC @F FH^F\A

  Cas fhrfsd`as `f cd Gdluctd` Rkcata `f A`amtacahåd `f cd Vmkvfrsk`d` `f Hudydqukc,

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d`qukfrfm umd sück`d garedlküm juedmåstkld, lkfmtkgkld y tflmacühkld dlaepdôd`d `f vdcarfs ëtklas y eardcfs. laepraeftkëm`acas dså d um trdndoa rfspamsdncf jdlkd cd `kvfrsk`d` `f prältklds salkdcfs y lucturdcfs.   Ldpdlk`d` `f kmtfhrdr fc lamalkekfmta rfldrk`a lam cds `fstrfzds y jdnkck`d`fs

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`fsdrraccd`ds fm ta`dslcds ärfds `f cd ldrrfrd, ca quf pfrektf fofrlfr um trdndoa fgkldz y  nkaëtkla.   \alkdckzdr cas sfrvklkas a`amtacühklas d cd pancdlküm eäs mflfsktd`d lam dllkamfs

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laeumktdrkds y nrkhd`ds `f dtfmlküm nula`fmtdc, praeavkfm`a prahrdeds `f vkmlucdlküm `f gared kmtfr`kslkpckmdrk k mtfr`kslkpckmdrkd. d. c d nÿsquf`d `f cd vfr`d` ef`kdmtf cd kmvfstkhdlküm lkfmtågkld y   Rasffr um hrdm kmtfrës par cd

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cflturd lråtkld `f cd fvk`fmlkd a`amtacühkld, quf ca prfpdrd fm cd dpckldlküm `fc eëta`a

lkfmtågkla, pdrd hfmfrdr mufvas lamalkekfmtas y fc `fsdrracca `f prahrdeds `f f`uldlküm lamtkmud.   Rrfvkfmf, K`fmtkgkld, `kgfrfmlkd, `kdhmüstkld y trdtd lam rfspamsdnkck`d` cd maredck`d` y

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 pdtacahkds `fc skstfed fstaedtahmätkla fstaedtahmätkla `f cas hhfstdmtfs, fstdmtfs, mkôas, mkôas, d`uctas, d`uctas edyarfs edyarfs y  pdlkfmtfs lam ldpdlk`d`fs fspflkdcfs.

 

 

KM@KLË Kmtra`ullküm .................... ........................................... ............................................. ............................................ ............................................ ...................................... ................7 R^APA_AA\ ..................... ........................................... ............................................. ............................................ ............................................. ................................... ........... 8 Ldrdltfråstklds prkmlkpdcfs ................... .......................................... ............................................ ............................................ ................................... ............ 8 Lcdskgkldlküm trd`klkamdc `f cas pratazaas ..................... ............................................ ............................................. .............................. ........ : ^kzüpa`as ..................... ........................................... ............................................. ............................................ ............................................. ................................... ........... : Gcdhfcd`as ..................... ........................................... ............................................. ............................................ ............................................. ................................... ........... : Lkckd`as ..................... ............................................ ............................................. ............................................ ............................................ ...................................... ................; Fsparazaas .................... .......................................... ............................................. ............................................ ............................................. ................................... ........... ; JFCEKMPA\ ...................... ............................................ ............................................. ............................................ ............................................ ................................... ............ ; Rcdtfcekmtas...................... ............................................ ............................................. ............................................ ............................................ ................................... ............ ; lcdskgkldlküm `f cas pcdtfcekmtas ...................... ............................................. .............................................. ........................................... ....................42 Prfedta`as................... ......................................... ............................................ ............................................ .............................................. ................................. ......... 42 ........................................... ............................................. ............................................ ............................................ .................................... .............. 44 Lfsta`as .................... Mfedta`as .................... ........................................... ............................................. ............................................ ............................................ .................................... .............. 4>

D^P^ÜRA@A\ ..................... ............................................ ............................................. ............................................ ............................................. ............................. ...... 4< Lcdskgkldlküm `f cas drtrüpa`as? ...................... ............................................. .............................................. ........................................... ....................40 Ldrdltfråstklds `f cas drtrüpa`as.................... ........................................... .............................................. ........................................... ....................46 NKNCKAH^DGÅD ............................................ .................................................................. ............................................ ............................................. ............................. ...... 48

 

 

Kmtra`ullküm Cd pdrdsktacahåd fstu`kd cd nkacahåd hfmfrdc `f cas pdräsktas y sus rfcdlkamfs lam su jaspf`d`ar. \f `fmaekmd pdrdsktacahåd eë`kld ludm`a fstf jaspf`d`ar fs fc sfr juedma. Cas vfr`d`fras  pdräsktas (anckhd`as) ma puf`fm sanrfvkvkr skm su jaspf`d`ar y sam eftdnückldefmtf `fpfm`kfmtfs `f ëc. \fhÿm su caldckzdlküm fm fc jaspf`d`ar, sf puf`fm lcdskgkldr fm fltapdräsktas y fm`apdräsktas, quf vkvfm `fmtra `fc jaspf`d`ar fm sus `kgfrfmtfs dpdrdtas y tfok`as. Cas jaspf`d`arfs puf`fm sfr `fgkmktkvas (dcnfrhdm fc fstd`ka d`ucta a cd gdsf `f rfpra`ullküm sfxudc `fc pdräskta) a kmtfref`kdrkas. @fmtra `f cas pdräsktas juedmas fstäm cas  pratazaas y cas eftdzadrkas. Cas pratazaas a pratazadrkas sam arhdmkseas umklfcucdrfs `f fstrulturd fuldrkatd y sf lcdskgkldm fm um rfkma prapka `fmaekmd`a Rratazad, quf sf `kvk`f fm vdrkas pjycd? \drlaedstkhapjard (quf laeprfm`f d cds defnds y cas c as gcdhfcd`as), Dpklaepcfxd (quf laeprfm`f d cas fsparazadrkas y cas pkrapcdseds), Lkckapjard (lkckd`as) y Eklraspard. Cas sfrfs vkvas pcurklfcucdrfs (eftdzadrka ( eftdzadrkas) s) quf puf`fm pdrdsktdr dc jaenrf sam hfmfrdcefmtf edlraslüpklas fm fc fstd`a d`ucta9 su tdedôa fs euy vdrkd`a (`fs`f efmas `f 4 ee d vdrkas eftras) y pfrtfmflfm d `as hrupas lamalk`as laea jfcekmtas y drtr drtrüpa`as. üpa`as. Denas hrupas sf lcdskgkldm `fmtra `fc rfkma Dmkedc a Dmkedckd, sam kmvfrtfnrd`as y fstäm kmlcuk`as fm fc pjycue Rcdtyjfcekmtjfs (jfcekmtas pcdmas lam dcrf`f`ar `f >2.222 fspflkfs), fc pjycue Mfedta`d (jfcekmtas lkcåm`rklas lam dcrf`f`ar `f 42.222 fspflkfs `fslrktds y 622.222 fstked`ds) y fc  pjycue Drtjrapa`d (drtrüpa`as (drtrüpa`as lam eäs eäs `f 4.222.222 4.222.222 fspflkfs. Fm fc prfsfmtf trdndoa sf fcdnarü umd kmvfstkhdlküm sanrf cas Rratazaas, Jfcekmtas y Drtrapa`as.

 

 

R^APA_AA\   R^APA_AA\ Cas pratazaas sam arhdmkseas umklfcucdrfs `f tkpa fuldrkatd, lam mÿlcfa y lktapcdsed. Dumquf tdenkëm puf`fm fstdr laepufstas par um hrupa `f lëcucds k`ëmtklds fmtrf så. Pa`as fccas sf fmlufmtrdm fm fmtarmass jÿef`as, tdmta fm dhuds sdcd`ds laea `uclfs, a nkfm, skfm`a fmtarma  pdräsktas `f atras sfrfs vkvas. Rar ca c a tdmta, sufcfm sfr sfmskn sfmskncfs cfs dmtf cd gdctd `f axåhfma. Cas pratazadrkas sf rfpra`ulfm `f edmfrd ed mfrd sfxudc, dsfxudc a ef`kdmtf um kmtfrldenka `f edtfrkdc hfmëtkla. \am ndstdmtf fspflkdckzd`as yd quf lamtkfmfm ta`ds cds fstrulturds mflfsdrkds pdrd ccfvdr d ldna sus gumlkamfs vktdcfs.

Ldrdltfråstklds prkmlkpdcfs Ra`feas fmlamtrdr eäs `f 62.222 fspflkfs `kgfrfmtfs fmtrf så lam umd eargacahåd euy vdrkdncf. D lamtkmudlküm, sf eufstrdm cds ldrdltfråstklds eäs laeumfs?   Dchumas ek`fm dpraxked`defmtf um ekcåeftra, fm ldenka atras, dpfmds ccfhdm d

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cas `kfz eklrüeftras.   \am euy laeumfs laea pdräsktas fm dmkedcfs a pcdmtds.

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  ^fspkrdm ef`kdmtf cd prapkd pdrf` lfcucdr y cds c ds pdrtålucds `fc dhud.

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  \f puf`fm rfpra`ulkr ef`kdmtf cd fsparucdlküm, cd hfedlküm y cd nkpdrtklküm.

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Dchumas arhdmkseas sam ldpdlfs `f lamsuekr `krfltdefmtf cd edtfrkd arhämkld `fc ef`ka. Fsta puf`f alurrkr par kmhfstküm `krfltd `f pdrtålucds sück`ds a nkfm par edtfrkdcfs `ksufctas fm fc dhud.

  Dumquf sfdm umklfcucdrfs tdenkëm puf`fm sfr lacamkdcfs. Ma anstdmtf, ld`d

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km`kvk`ua sf `fsfmvufcvf par så eksea skm `fpfm`fr `f cd lacamkd sk fstd ccfhd d grdhefmtdrsf.   \u lufrpa puf`f d`qukrkr `kvfrsds gareds, dchumas prältkldefmtf `fsmu`as, atras

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lam cd prfsfmlkd `f lunkfrtds fsqufcëtklds.

 

 

  Pkfmfm umd ldpdlk`d` `f fmqukstf pdrd pratfhfrsf ludm`a fc dhud fsldsfd a

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tdenkëm lam gkmfs gk mfs rfpra`ultkvas.   \u prkmlkpdc gufmtf `f dckefmtdlküm cd lamstktuyfm cds ndltfrkds, atras arhdmkseas

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y dchumas rfstas arhämklas. Rar ca tdmta, sam eäs dnum`dmtfs fm denkfmtfs `am`f fxkstd edtfrkds `f `fslaepasklküm `fslaepasklküm a ndltfrkds quf puf`dm sunekmkstrdrsf dckefmtas pdrd su sunskstfmlkd. sunskstfmlkd.

Lcdskgkldlküm trd`klkamdc `f cas pratazaas Fm gumlküm `fc `fspcdzdekfmta, cas pratazaas sf lcdskgkldm, trd`klkamdcefmt t rd`klkamdcefmtf, f, `f cd skhukfmtf edmfrd?

^kzüpa`as Cas rkzüpa`as sam umd lcdsf `f pratazadrkas umklfcucdrfs quf ldenkdm `f gared ef`kdmtf cd feksküm `f sfu`üpa`as pdrd ldpturdr fc dckefmta sück`a. \u rfpra`ullküm puf`f sfr sfxudc a dsfxudc. Cd edyaråd jdnktd fm fc edr a fm cds dhuds `uclfs, dumquf tdenkëm cas jdy `f tkfrrd jÿef`d.

Gcdhfcd`as Cas gcdhfcd`as prfsfmtdm um saca mÿlcfa y fstäm gared`as par lëcucds dkscd`ds a fm lacamkds. \f jdccdm fmtrf cas pratazaas y cds dchds. Cd edyaråd tkfmfm dckefmtdlküm jftfrütragd.

 

 

Lkckd`as Cas lkckd`as sf ldrdltfrkzdm par tfmfr fc lufrpa lunkfrta `f lkckas cas ludcfs sam utkckzd`as  pdrd eavfrsf. Lamsuefm Lamsuefm ndltfrkds ndltfrkds fm cas ef`kas ef`kas dluätklas y pasffm `as `as mÿlcfas.

Fsparazaas Cas fsparazaas dlastuenrdm d pfredmflfr kmeüvkcfs yd quf sam pdräsktas kmtfrmas. Rasffm um lklca `f vk`d dsalkd`a dc km`kvk`ua quf pdrdsktdm. Cd rfpra`ullküm puf`f sfr sfxudc a dsfxudc.

JFCEKMPA\  JFCEKMPA\  Cas eftdzadrkas a jfcekmtas sam um hrupa `f arhdmkseas eargacühkldefmtf eäs laepcfoas quf cas pratazadrkas, prkefra par su tdedôa y sfhum`a parquf fstas pasffm ürhdmas y tfok`as9 sf rfpra`ulfm sfxudcefmtf, pu`kfm`a sfr jfredgra`ktds a puf`fm prfsfmtdr `keargksea sfxudc. Cd edyaråd sam avåpdras fs `flkr quf cds jfenrds gflum`d`ds arkhkmdm jufvas quf pasffm `kgfrfmtfs gareds. Cas jfcekmtas pfrtfmflfm d hrupas `f pdrdsktas ndstdmtfs `kgfrfmtfs? cas  pcdtfcekmtas (pjycue Rcdtyjfcekmtjfs) Rcdtyjfcekmtjfs) y cas cas mfedta`as (pjycue Mfedta`d). Mfedta`d).

Rcdtfcekmtas \am dmkedcfs kmvfrtfnrd`as, `f lufrpa dpcdmd`a y lam skeftråd nkcdtfrdc, gared`a par um saca fcfefmta (eamazaklas) a par muefrasas sfhefmtas (packzaklas) y rflunkfrta `f um tfhuefmta `f mdturdcfzd ndstdmtf laepcfod lam eklravfccask`d`fs fxtfrmds y umd fstrulturd `f tkpa skmlktka. Rasffm um lufrpa edlkza skm ldvk`d` lfcaeätkld alupd`a par um tfok`a fspamoasa quf  

 

sf `fmaekmd pdrëmquked, `am`f fstäm sktud`as cas `kgfrfmtfs ürhdmas kmtfrmas, lam a skm tuna `khfstkva, lam tfok`a euslucdr y um skstfed mfrvkasa fcfefmtdc. Pkfmfm um skstfed fxlrftar u asearrfhucd`ar ndsd`a fm umds lëcucds `fmaekmd`ds pratamfgrk`kas, sacfmalktas a lëcucds fm ccded. @fs`f fc pumta `f vkstd vk std rfpra`ultar, cd edyaråd sam jfredgra`ktds. Ldrflfm `f dpdrdta rfspkrdtarka y lkrlucdtarka. Fxkstfm gareds `f vk`d cknrf y atrds `f vk`d pdrdsktdrkd.

lcdskgkldlküm `f cas pcdtfcekmtas \f `kvk`fm fm `as lcdsfs `f kmtfrës k mtfrës eë`kla? lcdsf Prfedta`d (cas trfedta`as) y lcdsf Lfstak`fd a Lfsta`d (lfsta`as a tfmkds) 

Prfedta`as sam pcdtfcekmtas pdräsktas, `f lufrpa pcdma, ma sfhefmtd`as, fm hfmfrdc lam gared `f jaod quf  puf`fm pdrdsktdr tdmta fc dpdrdta dpdrdta `khfstkva, `khfstkva, laea cas vdsas vdsas sdmhuåmfas sdmhuåmfas efsfmtërklas, efsfmtërklas, fc dpdrdta urkmdrka, fc lfrfnra y atras ürhdmas. Fm fc jfcekmta d`ucta pdrtklkpd fm cd gumlküm `f dnsarlküm d nsarlküm `f mutrkfmtfs (fspflkdcefmtf hculasd y dekmaälk`as) y fs rkla fm `kgfrfmtfs tkpas `f fmzkeds. Fc dpdrdta `khfstkva fs kmlaepcfta (lam nald y skm dma), tkfmf gared `f [ kmvfrtk`d y lamstd `f umd nald, ra`fd`d `f umd vfmtasd, prfgdrkmhf, gdrkmhf euslucdr (trkturdlküm `f cas dckefmtas), fsügdha y `as tunas kmtfstkmdcfs lkfhas. Cd fxlrflküm `f `fsfljas sück`as sf rfdckzd par  pfrkstdctksea kmvfrsa kmvfrsa y ef` ef`kdmtf kdmtf fc skstfed skstfed fxlrftar fxlrftar prfsfmtf fm fc pdrëmquked. pdrëmquked. Ës Ëstf tf fs `f tkpa  pratamfgrk`kdc, lam lëcucds fm ccded a sacfmalktas, lam um skstfed `f ldmdcfs fxlrftarfs quf rflarrfm fc lufrpa y um para fxlrftar. Ldsk ta`as cas trfedta`as sam jfredgra`ktds, laea Gdslkacd jfpdtkld, pfra jdy hrupas lam hëmfras sfpdrd`as laea cas fsqukstasaeds. Cds fspflkfs jfredgra`ktds pasffm ürhdmas sfxudcfs edsluckmas y gfefmkmas fm fc eksea km`kvk`ua, nkfm `fsdrraccd`as y laepcfoas. \f rfpra`ulfm par dutagflum`dlküm a par gflum`dlküm lruzd`d. Cas jufvas gflum`d`as `fnfm sfr cknfrd`as fm um denkfmtf d`flud`a. Fc `fsdrracca cdrvdrka fs ndstdmtf laepcfoa y fm ëc kmtfrvkfmfm uma, `as a eäs jaspf`d`arfs kmtfref`kdrkas, d`qukrkfm`a `kgfrfmtfs gareds cdrvdrkds (tdmta `f vk`d cknrf laea pdrdsktdrkd) jdstd ccfhdr dc fstd`ka `f d`ucta. Fm cas fsqukstasaeds, sk nkfm tkfmfm sfxas sfpdrd`as, fc edlja y cd jfenrd d`aptdm um tkpa `f vk`d quf sf `fmaekmd fepdrfodekfmta pfredmfmtf, quf fs um efldmksea `f d`dptdlküm dc pdrdsktksea pdrd dsfhurdr cd supfrvkvfmlkd `f cd fspflkf. fspflkf.

 

 

Lfsta`as sam pcdtfcekmtas fxlcuskvdefmtf pdräsktas, skm tuna `khfstkva9 ta`ds cds fspflkfs `f kepartdmlkd eë`kld tkfmfm fc lufrpa (fstrünkca) gared`a par muefrasas sfhefmtas `fmaekmd`as  prahcütk`fs, quf sf hfmfrdm hfmfrdm ta`as fm um fcfefmta fcfefmta kmklkdc quf sf ccded fslücfx. fslücfx. D mkvfc `f ëstf sf unkldm `kstkmtas tkpas `f ürhdmas `f gkodlküm laea vfmtasds, natrkas, natrk`kas y hdmljas. Cd  pdrtf `kstdc `fc fslücfx sf `fmaekmd lufcca lufcca y fs `f `f kepartdmlkd vktdc pdrd fc pdräskta, pdräskta, parquf d  pdrtkr `f sus tfok`as lam hrdm ldpdlk`d` `f `kgfrfmlkdlküm sf vdm garedm`a ta`as cas `feäs sfhefmtas `fc lufrpa. Cas d`uctas pdrdsktdm fc tuna `khfstkva a lam`ultas dmfxas `f cas vfrtfnrd`as, ekfmtrds quf cds gareds cdrvdrkds puf`fm fmlamtrdrsf tdmta fm vfrtfnrd`as laea fm kmvfrtfnrd`as. Fc lufrpa fstä rfvfstk`a `f um tfhuefmta lam eklravfccask`d`fs quf kmtfrvkfmf dltkvdefmtf fm cd mutrklküm `fc pdräskta, tdmta fm cas pralfsas `f dnsarlküm laea `f fxlrflküm, ef`kdmtf vfsålucds fm`a y fxalktütklds, `d`a quf cas lfsta`as ldrflfm `f dpdrdta `khfstkva. Rrfsfmtdm tdmta um skstfed euslucdr suntfhuefmtdrka laea eÿslucas  pdrfmqukedtasas `f `kspasklküm lkrlucdr, trdmsvfrsdc y camhktu`kmdc, quf lamgkfrfm eavkck`d` dc pdräskta. Fc lfmtra `fc lufrpa fstä alupd`a par fc pdrëmquked quf ra`fd cas `kgfrfmtfs ürhdmas kmtfrmas. Fxkstfm dchumas rflfptarfs sfmsarkdcfs prkektkvas. Fc skstfed fxlrftar (asearrfhucd`ar) fstä lamstktuk`a par cds lëcucds fm ccded y tÿnucas fxlrftarfs (`as `arsdcfs y `as vfmtrdcfs) quf rflarrfm ta`a fc fstrünkca y sf dnrfm dc fxtfrkar d mkvfc `fc ÿctkea prahcütk`f. Cas lfsta`as sam jfredgra`ktds y fm ld`d prahcütk`f sf fmlufmtrdm ürhdmas edsluckmas y gfefmkmas? cas prahcütk`fs eäs prüxkeas dc lufcca sam kmed`uras, cas skhukfmtfs vdm ed`urdm`a y cas eäs `kstdcfs fstäm hrävk`as (ÿtfra lam jufvas gërtkcfs). Fc ÿtfra puf`f tfmfr a ma para utfrkma pdrd cd pufstd `f cas jufvas. Fm ldsa `f ma tfmfrca, ëstas sf dcedlfmdm `kstfm`kfm`a fc ÿtfra y sf cknfrdm dc fxtfrkar par cd raturd `fc prahcütk`f. Fxkstf dutagflum`dlküm fmtrf dmkccas ed`uras d`ydlfmtfs a gflum`dlküm lruzd`d fmtrf `as fofepcdrfs `kgfrfmtfs. Cas  

 

jufvas `dm cuhdr d um fenrküm lam sfks hdmljas `fmaekmd`a amlasgfrd a fenrküm jfxdldmta. Fm fc jaspf`d`ar kmtfref`kdrka sf `fsdrraccd cd gared cdrvdrkd ouvfmkc, `fmaekmd`d eftdlfsta`a, quf puf`f tfmfr umd u md fstrulturd sück`d.

Mfedta`as \am kmvfrtfnrd`as `f lufrpa lkcåm`rkla puf`fm pdrdsktdr fc tuna `khfstkva, cd sdmhrf, cas ckmgätklas y `kgfrfmtfs ürhdmas y skstfeds. Fstäm rflunkfrtas `f umd lutålucd ma lfcucdr laepufstd `f vdrkds ldpds `f pratfåmds gknrasds fstrulturdcfs, fmzkeds y cåpk`as sfhrfhd`d par cd jkpa`freks. Pkfmf euljd kepartdmlkd fm su gkskacahåd y fm cd rfcdlküm rfc dlküm lam cas jaspf`d`arfs. jaspf`d`arfs. Fstd lutålucd sf eu`d vdrkds vflfs d ca cdrha `fc `fsdrracca cdrvdrka `fs`f cd cdrvd `f prkefr fstd`ka jdstd fc d`ucta, pfrektkfm`a fc lrflkekfmta `fc mfedta`a. Rasffm umd fstrulturd euslucdr pdrkftdc par `fndoa `f cd jkpa`freks, quf cf lamgkfrf eavkck`d` dc mfedta`a. Rrfsfmtdm um dpdrdta `khfstkva laepcfta lam nald dmtfrkar y dma pastfrkar, lam hcäm`ucds fxalrkmds rfcdlkamd`ds lam cd `khfstküm y atrds gumlkamfs gkskacühklds. Fc skstfed mfrvkasa fstä laepufsta `f um dmkcca pfrkfsagähkla gared`a par hdmhckas y gknrds mfrvkasds. Pkfmf um skstfed fxlrftar gared`a par umd a `as hcäm`ucds rfmdcfs prkektkvds, `f sktudlküm dmtfrkar y lam tunas lacfltarfs quf rflarrfm fc lufrpa d ca cdrha `f cd jkpa`freks, dnrkëm`asf dc fxtfrkar par um para fxlrftar. @fsfepfôdm tdmta umd gumlküm fxlrftard laea asearrfhucd`ard y sflrftard. Cas mfedta`as `f kmtfrës eë`kla tkfmfm sfxas sfpdrd`as, lam um `keargksea sfxudc hfmfrdcefmtf euy edrld`a. Fm cds jfenrds, cas ürhdmas rfpra`ultarfs alupdm hrdm pdrtf `f cd ldvk`d` larpardc. Fm dchumds fspflkfs fxkstf pdrtfmahëmfsks. Cas mfedta`as sam edyarktdrkdefmtf avåpdras dumquf dchumds fspflkfs puf`fm sfr avavkvåpdrds9 fc jufva ed`urd fm fc kmtfrkar `fc  

 

ÿtfra `f cds jfenrds, quf pdrfm cdrvds dc fxtfrkar. Fxkstfm ludtra gdsfs cdrvdrkds (C4 d C0) lam cds larrfspam`kfmtfs eu`ds dmtfs `f dcldmzdr fc fstd`a d`ucta.

D^P^ÜRA@A\ Cas drtrüpa`as (`fc hrkfha ἀτκταε, drtjram, drtklucdlküm, y pa`as, pkf) sam fc gkca eäs `kvfrsa `f cas eftdzaas (dmkedcfs pcurklfcucdrfs), lam eäs `f um ekccüm `f fspflkfs `fslrktds. Kmlcuyfm, fmtrf atras hrupas, d cds drdôds, kmsfltas, lrustälfas y ekrkäpa`as. \am dmkedcfs sfhefmtd`as, y sf ldrdltfrkzdm par pasffr um fsqufcfta fxtfrma drtklucd`a laepufsta `f quktkmd, lam dpëm`klfs lam euslucdturd prapkd fm pasklküm vfmtracdtfrdc, pdrfd`as fm ld`d uma `f cas sfhefmtas. Dc sfr råhk`a fstf fxafsqufcfta ma pfrektf fc lrflkekfmta, quf sf rfdckzd ef`kdmtf eu`ds “ fs fs `flkr, sf `fsfljd fc fxafsqufcfta quf sf jd quf`d`a pfqufôa, y sf gared atra d`flud`a dc edyar tdedôa `fc km`kvk`ua fm lrflkekfmta. Fc tdedôa `f cas drtrüpa`as fs fmarefefmtf vdrkd`a, pu`kfm`a kr `fs`f efmas `f um ekcåeftra ek cåeftra d eäs `f um eftra fm dchumds gareds edrkmds, y vdrkas eftras sk kmlcukeas d cds gareds güskcfs. \u `kvfrsk`d` eargacühkld fs tdenkëm fmaref, pfra laepdrtfm dchumds ldrdltfråstklds gum`defmtdcfs fm su arhdmkzdlküm kmtfrmd? tkfmfm skstfeds lkrlucdtarkas dnkfrtas (fs `flkr, skm vdsas lfrrd`as), y um cåquk`a dmäcaha d cd sdmhrf (jfeackmgd) quf ndôd cas ürhdmas kmtfrmas. Fc skstfed mfrvkasa fstä eäs a efmas lfmtrdckzd`a `fpfm`kfm`a `f cas hrupas. Fm hfmfrdc tkfmfm um pdr `f hdmhckas fm ld`d sfhefmta `fc lufrpa, y fm cd ldnfzd (quf fs fc rfsuctd`a `f cd gusküm `f cas sfhefmtas dpkldcfs) puf`fm garedr um ÿmkla hdmhcka `f edyar tdedôa quf gumlkamd d ea`a `f lfrfnra.

 

 

Lcdskgkldlküm Lcdskgkldlk üm `f cas drtrüpa`as? Cas drtrüpa`as sf lcdskgkldm fm ludtra hrdm`fs lamoumtas a lcdsfs?  

Drälmk`as. @atd`as `f qufcålfras, ldrflfm `f dcds y `f dmtfmds, y tkfmfm ludtra pdrfs

 

`f pdtds. \u lufrpa sf `kvk`f fm lfgdcatürdx y dn`aefm. Kmsfltas. Cas eäs vdrkd`as y muefrasas `f ta`as cas drtrüpa`as, prfsfmtdm um pdr `f

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dmtfmds, trfs pdrfs `f pdtds y `as pdrfs `f dcds (gumlkamdcfs a ma). D`dptd`as d ldsk ludcqukfr ef`ka gåskla, vdm `fs`f `ftrktügdhas, pdräsktas, jfrnåvaras jdstd `fprf`d`arfs.   `fprf`d`arfs.  

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Lrustälfas.  \am edyarefmtf dluätklas, lam prfsfmlkd fm cas edrfs, a tdenkëm fm fmtarmas jÿef`as tfrrfstrfs. Rrfsfmtdm skfeprf umd ftdpd `f cdrvd mdupcka, ldrdltfråstkld `f su fvaculküm laea lcdsf.

 

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Ekrkäpa`as. Rravkstas `f eÿctkpcfs pdtds y lufrpas cdrhas, d`feäs `f edm`ånucds (qufcålfras), sam skekcdrfs d cas kmsfltas fm euljds lasds, pfra sam fekmfmtfefmtf tfrrfstrfs y sufcfm sfr vfmfmasas.

 

 

Ldrdltfråstklds `f cas drtrüpa`as Vm rdsha tåpkla `f cas drtrüpa`as fs quf su lufrpa fstä sfhefmtd`a sulfskvdefmtf `f um ea`a  pdrflk`a dc `f `f cas dmëck`as. D`feäs, D`feäs, pasffm sfllkamfs nkfm `kgfrfmlkd`ds quf sufcfm rfspftdr fc skhukfmtf ar`fm? ldnfzd, türdx y dn`aefm, dpdrtf `f sus fxtrfek`d`fs a dpëm`klfs. \us lufrpas fstäm d`feäs pratfhk`as `f sus rkvdcfs a `fprf`d`arfs par um fs fsqufcfta qufcfta drtk drtklucd`a lucd`a y gared`a par quktkmd (um ldrnajk`rdta), quf sf jdccd par gufrd `fc lufrpa (fxafsqufcfta) (fxafsqufcfta) y ca rflunrf. Fsta supamf um prancfed pdrd fc dmkedc d cd jard `f lrflfr, `f ea`a quf fc fsqufcfta

`fnf ldenkdrsf fm vdrkds ftdpds sulfskvds d ca cdrha `f su vk`d . @f fstd gared sf cf pfrektf fc `fsdrracca `f um fsqufcfta mufva, d`dptd`a d cds edyarfs `kefmskamfs `fc dmkedc. D fstf pralfsa sf cf `fmaekmd fl`ksks a eu`d. Rar atra cd`a, cas drtrüpa`as sf rfpra`ulfm `f edmfrd sfxudc  sfxudc y sufcfm fstdr nkfm

`kgfrfmlkd`as sus sfxas. Dc sfr gflum`d`d, cd jfenrd `fpasktd jufvas `f `am`f fefrhfräm cds lråds, luya `fsdrracca puf`f sfr `krflta a km`krflta, `fpfm`kfm`a `f cd fspflkf?  

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@fsdrracca `krflta. Dc flcaskamdr fc jufva, surhf um km`kvk`ua k`ëmtkla dc d`ucta, saca quf `f efmar tdedôa. Lam fc fc  tkfepa  tkfepa y cd  cd mutrklküm, mutrklküm, lrflfrä jdstd dcldmzdr cd cd  ed`urfz ed`urfz..  Km`krflta.  @fc jufva surhkrä umd cdrvd euy `kgfrfmtf `fc km`kvk`ua d`ucta, cd ludc lrflfrä

y

dtrdvfsdrä

`kstkmtds

ftdpds

`f

eftdeargasks, jdstd ldenkdr su gared par cd `f um

 

ldenka

pragum`a,

d`ucta a kedha.

ccded`ds

 

Fofepcas `f drtrüpa`as Dchumas fofepcas skepcfs `f drtrüpa`as sam?  

Drälmk`as. Drdôds, fslarpkamfs, hdrrdpdtds, äldras.

 

Kmsfltas. Luldrdljds, edmtks rfckhkasds, edrkpasds, packccds, fsldrdndoas, dnfods,

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 puchamfs, lkhdrrds, lkhdrrds, puchds, eas easlds, lds, cknëcucds, cknëcucds, jarekhds y um fmaref fmaref ftlëtfrd. •

   

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Lrustälfas. Cdmhastds, ldmhrfoas, ldedramfs, cdmhastkmas, pfrlfnfs. Ekrkäpa`as. Lkfepkës, ekcpkës, pdurüpa`as, såmgkcas y laljkmkccds `f juef`d`.

 

NKNCKAH^DGÅD LJKCF, R. V. (s.g.). Runckldlkamfs ef`klkmd. Antfmk`a `f jttps?//kfqgn.lae/pratazaas-lcdskgkldlkam-trd`klkamdc/ Ckëndmd Vrfôd, O. (>22>). Eklrankacahåd Ardc. Fm O. Ckëndmd Vrfôd, Eklrankacahåd Ardc  (pähs. 4-842). Hrdmd`d? ElHrdw-JKCC.KMPF^DEF^KLDMD. Antfmk`a `f gkcf?///L?/Vsfrs/Ofmd%>2Ldrcas/Amf@rkvf/Fs gkcf?///L?/Vsfrs/Ofmd%>2Ldr cas/Amf@rkvf/Fslrktarka/EKL^ANKACAHKDQA lrktarka/EKL^ANKACAHKDQA^DCQ>dQ  ^DCQ>dQ  F`klkamQOQCkfndmd.p`g Khmdlka ^knfrd, D. E. (>246). Kmtra`ullküm y huåd vksudc `f cas drtrüpa`as. ^fvkstd K@FD \FD.