Proposal - To assess the effectiveness of Training and development function in the public service Tanzania

 

  LABOUR ECONOMICS

PROPOSAL ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ To assess the effectiveness of Training and development function in the public service Tanzania   Prepared by:    MAUREEN GIDEON    June 5, 2010       

  University of Dar es salaam Business School MBA II Eve 

 

To assess the effectiveness of Training and development function in the public service Tanzania |  A Proposal Prepared by Maureen Gideon     2   

Table of Contents Background/Introduction to the study ................................................................................................... 4  1.1  Overview (Historical perspective) ................................................................................................ 4  1.2  Relational Objectives Relationship of variables ........................................................................... 4  1.3  Brief Conceptual Presentation ...................................................................................................... 5  2  Research Problem ................................................................................................................................. 5  3  Significance/Rationale of the study ...................................................................................................... 6  4  Research Questions/Hypotheses and objectives ................................................................................... 7  5  Research Objectives .............................................................................................................................. 7  5.1  General Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 7  5.2  Specific Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 7  6  Literature Review .................................................................................................................................. 8  6.1  Definition of Terms ....................................................................................................................... 8  6.1.1  Training ................................................................................................................................. 8  6.1.2  Development ......................................................................................................................... 8  6.1.3  Training and Development ................................................................................................... 8  6.1.4  Public services ...................................................................................................................... 9  6.1.5  Knowledge ............................................................................................................................. 9  6.1.6  Attitude ................................................................................................................................ 10  6.1.7  Competence ......................................................................................................................... 10  6.1.8  Skills .................................................................................................................................... 11  6.2  Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................... 12  6.2.1  Skills Theories ...................................................................................................................... 12  6.2.2  Learning Theories ............................................................................................................... 13  6.2.3  Competence based approach .............................................................................................. 14  6.2.4  How to develop soft skills .................................................................................................... 15  6.3  Conceptual Framework of the Study .......................................................................................... 16  7  Methodology ....................................................................................................................................... 17  8  Analytical Methods ............................................................................................................................. 17  9  References ........................................................................................................................................... 18  9.1  Journals ....................................................................................................................................... 20  10  Time Scale ...................................................................................................................................... 22  11  Budget and Resources ..................................................................................................................... 22 

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A Proposal Prepared by Maureen Gideon     3   

1

Background/Introduction to the study

1.1 Overview (Historical perspective) Over the past years, the Government of Tanzania redefined its roles and functions, taking a longer term perspective in recognition of the fact that the transformation of the public service would require a decade of sustained reforms to fully realize a public service that is responsive to citizens needs in terms of delivering effective and efficient services. One of the critical challenges being faced by the Government in implementing this sector‐wide reform is the Competency Framework. This study will establish that, depending on the type of business they are in, departments (public service) need a certain array/set of knowledge, skills and attitudes (competencies) among their staff to operate effectively and achieve results. Many organizations across the world have, therefore, taken measures to identify the range/sets of competencies they need, determine current competency levels of their staff and take measures to address the gaps. In recognition of the above, as part of measures to improve the performance of the public service, within the framework of the Public Service Reform Programme initial efforts should be focused on running training programmes, which should be well structured in order to have the desired impact. The study will employ case study research strategy using semi structured interviews, organization based documents and some non participant observation in order to reach the desired conclusion and confirm whether Human resources training and development will bring efficient and effectiveness in the public service. 1.2

Relational Objectives Relationship of variables

It then followed to look at the skills of organisations in further depth, studying the skills of their representatives, and how the training and developing of soft skills could add to this relationship. Literature states that the evaluation of training is neglected, although it must be noted that there is no universal method that can be employed. Evaluation of training is a subjective area, with various factors that impinge on the successful transfer of new skills. Numerous organisations were contacted, but the response level was low, therefore it was decided to review soft skills within three organisations, as an interaction with both colleagues and ultimately customers. The three organisations that were chosen are all in different industry sections and in different stages of the life cycle. The first organization agreed to the research, but then became reluctant to disclosure further information. The organisations felt that the economic position they were in would not be helped by a report written into the possible causes, although, it was stressed this was not the purpose of the paper. It was agreed to keep the organization anonymous, but meant that their accounts could not be discussed in relation to training.

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To maintain neutrality throughout the paper all three organisations would study in the same method. This focused the paper on utilization of soft skills, the amount of training invested in them and the ultimate benefit to the organization. The paper concludes individually on all three organisations. Assessing their levels of commitment to skills training, the value they place in this, and the culture that encourages the transfer of skills. The main conclusions are drawn from this section. 1.3

Brief Conceptual Presentation

The conceptualisation by Gupta (2007) highlights the scope of an effective training programme. Through careful follow up of provided steps, an organisation will provide required training to required employees. This will enhance the ability of employees to execute their daily activities in working place. Likewise public service management department can only perform well if its training programmes have clear scope and objectives; improve capability of an individual employee; and be role-specific and involve practice. The public service management department should also develop a programme that involves careful planning in terms of training materials, learning duration, and instructors without forgetting proper mechanism of evaluation. As a point of departure the following section examine training and development function in public service management in order to see how it fits in this framework.

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Research Problem

A concern in the Government ministries and departments and agencies is that the selection, training, supervision and evaluation of human resources be the finest it can be given the excellent resources available from conservative scholars on the subject. In this regard, developing programs, current programs and proposed programs for human resources development need to be evaluated according to well thought-out theology and practicality. The study is intended to answer one central question: To what extent human resources training and development function is effective in public service in Tanzania? This study will look at these areas to determine any possible changes that would improve the overall performance in the public service. The research and conclusions will suggest applications for Training and Development in the public service and other areas. The evidence for other people work shows that there is need for further research on this area. The purpose of this study also is to examine and assess factors that can affect the effectiveness of training in the public sector include lack of support from top management and peers, employees’ individual attitudes, job-related factors and also the deficiencies in training practice. Information obtained could be practical when management decides to analyze the evaluation and transfer of training elements that has been addressed in this study as to get management support and to create conducive environment to apply related skill and knowledge on the job.

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3

Significance/Rationale of the study

In Tanzania, the importance of providing training and development is seen through the various policies implemented by the government and the large amount of money invested. In relation to the public sector, the government policy is to provide raining to all its employees according to the needs assessment The importance of training and development • •

• • • • • • • • • • • • •

Optimum Utilization of Human Resources – Training and Development helps in optimizing the utilization of human resource that further helps the employee to achieve the organizational goals as well as their individual goals. Development of Human Resources – Training and Development helps to provide an opportunity and broad structure for the development of human resources’ technical and behavioral skills in an organization. It also helps the employees in attaining personal growth. Development of skills of employees – Training and Development helps in increasing the job knowledge and skills of employees at each level. It helps to expand the horizons of human intellect and an overall personality of the employees. Productivity – Training and Development helps in increasing the productivity of the employees that helps the organization further to achieve its long-term goal. Team spirit – Training and Development helps in inculcating the sense of team work, team spirit, and inter-team collaborations. It helps in inculcating the zeal to learn within the employees. Organization Culture – Training and Development helps to develop and improve the organizational health culture and effectiveness. It helps in creating the learning culture within the organization. Organization Climate – Training and Development helps building the positive perception and feeling about the organization. The employees get these feelings from leaders, subordinates, and peers. Quality – Training and Development helps in improving upon the quality of work and work-life. Healthy work environment – Training and Development helps in creating the healthy working environment. It helps to build good employee, relationship so that individual goals aligns with organizational goal. Health and Safety – Training and Development helps in improving the health and safety of the organization thus preventing obsolescence. Morale – Training and Development helps in improving the morale of the work force. Image – Training and Development helps in creating a better corporate image. Profitability – Training and Development leads to improved profitability and more positive attitudes towards profit orientation. Training and Development aids in organizational development i.e. Organization gets more effective decision making and problem solving. It helps in understanding and carrying out organizational policies Training and Development helps in developing leadership skills, motivation, loyalty, better attitudes, and other aspects that successful workers and managers usually display. A Proposal Prepared by Maureen Gideon     6 

 

4

Research Questions/Hypotheses and objectives

For effective training and learning evaluation, the principal questions will be: Open ended questions • • • •

To what extent were the identified training needs objectives achieved by the programme? To what extent were the learners' objectives achieved? What specifically did the learners learn or be usefully reminded of? What commitment have the learners made about the learning they are going to implement on their return to work?

• • •

How successful were the trainees in implementing their action plans? To what extent were they supported in this by their line managers? To what extent has the action listed above achieved a Return on Investment (ROI) for the organization, either in terms of identified objectives satisfaction or, where possible, a monetary assessment.

Closed ended questions • •

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The HR department and trainers, do not have sufficient time to do so, and/or The HR department does not have sufficient resources - people and money - to do so.

Research Objectives

5.1 General Objectives To assess the effectiveness of Training and development function in the public service Tanzania

5.2 Specific Objectives • • •

•

To investigate to what extent were the learners' objectives achieved and supported by their line managers during the course. To investigate the extent were the identified training needs objectives achieved by the programme; To examine what specifically did the learners learn or be usefully reminded of and commitment they have made about the learning they are going to implement on their return to work; To investigate how successful were the trainees in implementing their action plans and to explain the extent that the action listed above achieved a Return on Investment (ROI) for the organization, either in terms of identified objectives satisfaction or, where possible, a monetary assessment.

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6

Literature Review

6.1 Definition of Terms 6.1.1

Training

Training can be defined as a learning process in which people acquire knowledge (K), skills (S), experience (E), and attitudes (A) that they need in order to perform their jobs well for the achievement of organisational goals (Mathis and Jackson, 1998). A survey of the literature shows that T&D are variously defined in a narrow as well as in a broad sense. For example Jackson and Schuler (2000) refers to training as the act of improving competencies needed today or in the future while development refers to improving competencies over the long term. Matthews, et.al., (2004) argues that training is concerned with providing an individual with the opportunity to learn what he/she needs in order to do their job more effectively. Also management training is considered to be a process of enhancing an employee’s capacity to handle greater responsibilities successfully (Singh and Vinnicombe, 2003). 6.1.2

Development

Before we begin our study of the assessment of the effectiveness of hr training and development in public service, it is important to understand exactly what we mean when we say development: Development describes the growth of humans throughout the lifespan, from conception to death. The scientific study of human development seeks to understand and explain how and why people change throughout life. This includes all aspects of human growth, including physical, emotional, intellectual, social, perceptual, and personality development. The scientific study of development is important not only to psychology, but also to sociology, education, and health care. Development does not just involve the biological and physical aspects of growth, but also the cognitive and social aspects associated with development throughout life. 6.1.3

Training and Development

Training and development is the field concerned with organizational activity aimed at bettering the performance of individuals and groups in organizational settings. It has been known by several names, including employee development, human resource development, and learning and development. Harrison observes that the name was endlessly debated by the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development during its review of professional standards in 1999/2000. "Employee Development" was seen as too evocative of the master-slave relationship between employer and employee for those who refer to their employees as "partners" or "associates" to be comfortable with. "Human Resource Development" was rejected by academics, who objected to the idea that people were "resources" — an idea that they felt to be demeaning to the individual. Eventually, the CIPD settled upon "Learning and Development", although that was itself not free from problems, "learning" being an over general and ambiguous name. Moreover, the field is still widely known by the other names. A Proposal Prepared by Maureen Gideon     8   

6.1.4

Public services

This is a term usually used to mean services provided by government to its citizens, either directly (through the public sector) or by financing private provision of services. The term is associated with a social consensus (usually expressed through democratic elections) that certain services should be available to all, regardless of income. Even where public services are neither publicly provided nor publicly financed, for social and political reasons they are usually subject to regulation going beyond that applying to most economic sectors. Public services is also a course that can be studied at college and/or university. These courses can lead entry in to the: police, ambulance and fire services. It is also an alternative term for civil service. Public service tend to be those considered so essential to modern life that for moral reasons their universal provision should be guaranteed, and they may be associated with fundamental human rights (such as the right to water). An example of a service which is not generally considered an essential public service is hairdressing. The Volunteer Fire Dept. and Ambulance Corps. are institutions with the mission of servicing the community. A service is helping others with a specific need or want. Service ranges from a doctor curing an illness, to a repair man, to even a food pantry. All of these services are important in people's lives. 6.1.5

Knowledge

Knowledge is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as (i) expertise, and skills acquired by a person through experience or education; the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject; (ii) what is known in a particular field or in total; facts and information; or (iii) awareness or familiarity gained by experience of a fact or situation. Philosophical debates in general start with Plato's formulation of knowledge as "justified true belief." There is however no single agreed definition of knowledge presently, nor any prospect of one, and there remain numerous competing theories. Knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive processes: perception, learning, communication, association and reasoning. The term knowledge is also used to mean the confident understanding of a subject with the ability to use it for a specific purpose if appropriate. See knowledge management for additional details on that discipline. “ We suppose ourselves to possess unqualified scientific knowledge of a thing, as opposed to knowing it in the accidental way in which the sophist knows, when we think that we know the cause on which the fact depends, as the cause of that fact and of no other, and, further, that the fact could not be other than it is. Now that scientific knowing is something of this sort is evident - witness both those who falsely claim it and those who actually possess it, since the former merely imagine themselves to be, while the latter are also actually, in the condition described. Consequently the proper object of unqualified scientific knowledge is something which cannot be other than it is. ” - Aristotle, Posterior Analytics (Book 1 Part 2) A Proposal Prepared by Maureen Gideon     9   

6.1.6

Attitude

An attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individual's degree of like or dislike for an item. Attitudes are generally positive or negative views of a person, place, thing, or event-this is often referred to as the attitude object. People can also be conflicted or ambivalent toward an object, meaning that they simultaneously possess both positive and negative attitudes toward the item in question. Attitudes are judgments. They develop on the ABC model (affect, behavior, and cognition). The affective response is an emotional response that expresses an individual's degree of preference for an entity. The behavioral intention is a verbal indication or typical behavioral tendency of an individual. The cognitive response is a cognitive evaluation of the entity that constitutes an individual's beliefs about the object. Most attitudes are the result of either direct experience or observational learning from the environment. An attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individual's degree of like or dislike for an item. Attitudes are generally positive or negative views of a person, place, thing, or event-this is often referred to as the attitude object. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_(psychology) In heraldry, an attitude is the position in which an animal, fictional beast, mythical creature, human or human-like being is emblazoned as a charge, supporter or crest. Many attitudes apply only to predatory beasts and are exemplified by the beast most frequently found in heraldry — the lion. ... en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_(heraldry) 6.1.7

Competence

Definitions of competence on the Web: • •

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•

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the quality of being adequately or well qualified physically and intellectually wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn In American law, competence concerns the mental capacity of an individual to participate in legal proceedings. Defendants that do not possess sufficient "competence" are usually excluded from criminal prosecution, while witnesses found not to possess requisite competence cannot testify. ... en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competence_(law) Competence is a standardized requirement for an individual to properly perform a specific job. It encompasses a combination of knowledge, skills and behavior utilized to improve performance. ... en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competence_(human_resources) The quality or state of being competent, i.e. able or suitable for a general role; The quality or state of being able or suitable for a particular task; the quality or state of being competent for a particular task; A sustainable income; In law, the legal authority to deal with a matter en.wiktionary.org/wiki/competence competent - properly or sufficiently qualified or capable or efficient; "a competent typist" A Proposal Prepared by Maureen Gideon     10 

 

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competent - adequate for the purpose; "a competent performance" wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn

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competent - Having sufficient skill, knowledge, ability, or qualifications; Having jurisdiction or authority over a particular issue or question en.wiktionary.org/wiki/competent

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The individual's demonstrated capacity to perform, ie, the possession of knowledge, skills and personal characteristics needed to satisfy the special demands or requirements of a particular situation is referred to as competence. www.sbctc.edu/College/_e-assessglossary.aspx

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is the possession of the requisite knowledge, abilities, and qualities to be a physical therapist. [30]www.wcpt.org/node/29562

6.1.8

Skills

Definitions of Skills on the Web: •

A skill is the learned capacity to carry out pre-determined results often with the minimum outlay of time, energy, or both. Skills can often be divided into domain-general and domainspecific skills. ... en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skills

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Skills is a San Francisco-based event promoter that promotes parties and concerts in San Francisco and the SF Bay Area. It is known for being one of the most popular and largest electronic music promoters in California and the United States. ... en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skills_(company)

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Antwon Charles Taylor is a former recurring and now regular character on the CW television series One Tree Hill, played by Antwon Tanner. He is best friend to Lucas Scott and was Bevin Mirskey's boyfriend in senior year. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skills_(One_Tree_Hill_character)

•

skill - an ability that has been acquired by training

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skill - ability to produce solutions in some problem domain; "the skill of a well-trained boxer"; "the sweet science of pugilism" wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn

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Skill is a measure of a worker's expertise, specialization, wages, and supervisory capacity. Skilled workers are generally more trained, higher paid, and have more responsibilities than unskilled workers. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skill_(labor)

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skill - capacity to do something well; technique, ability. Skills are usually acquired or learned, as opposed to abilities, which are often thought of as innate en.wiktionary.org/wiki/skill

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Strong interpersonal skills. operations.undp.am/recruitment/upload/5793.doc

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performance of mental or physical tasks. www.edo.ca/certification/about-certification/glossary

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The ability to apply knowledge and use know-how to complete tasks and solve problems . . . skills are described as cognitive (involving the use of logical, intuitive and creative thinking) or practical (involving manual dexterity and the use of methods, materials, tools and instruments' (Annex I ... www.eqf-reference-nqf.net/terms.aspx

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Area of proficiency. In a typical role playing game, a character will have a number of 'skills', namely things they are especially good (or especially not good) at. For example “hide”, “discover hidden things”, “hit with a sword”, etc. ... rpg.geekdo.com/wiki/page/RPG_Glossary

6.2

Theoretical Framework

This paper will discuss training and development of employees and focus on skills. This will compare the literature with case studies and conclude on the benefits of training in organisations. 6.2.1

Skills Theories 

Skills of employees are broken down into two main headings, hard (technical) that allow them to perform the tasks that make up the role, and soft skills that encourage interactions, with colleagues, peers and customers. This paper has concluded that both skills need to be present to gain the most from the customer relationship, although soft skills will increase the benefit of hard skills, they allow the communication of technical skills. Soft skills are the interaction between individuals, which includes communication and empowerment, autonomy and decision making. Soft skills are discussed as the last competitive edge organisations can posses, that add value. This skills are difficult to assess, many are already present in employees, but not nurtured. The theorist during the early 1990’s discussed soft skills from a management perspective; it was discussed as the hidden value (or skill) that organisations could offer. This perspective has now changed, to one of marketing theory, discussed in areas such as relationship marketing and customer value. This is opinion by marketers is that by encouraging soft skills in employees it will add value to the product. Marketing theory discusses that customer loyalty can offer the organisation repeat business; this is valuable as it utilises economies of scale, lowering marketing and production A Proposal Prepared by Maureen Gideon     12   

costs. This is a cost effective method to maintain and increase business, leading to a higher level of revenue, but it requires the organisation understanding what the customer requires from this relationship. Laurie Bassi measured how well employees are trained and developed (Delahoussaye, et al., 2002). She writes that organizations that make large investments in people typically have lower employee turnover, which is associated with higher customer satisfaction, which in turn is a driver of profitability (p22). A second driver is manager proficiency -- good managers determine if people stay or go, and this is also influenced by training and development. She further writes that the education and training variable is the most significant predictor of an organization's success as compared to price-to-earning ratios, price-to-book statistics, and measures of risk and volatility. Bassi puts her theories to the test -- her and a fellow partner launched an investment firm that buys stocks in companies, such as CDW, that invest heavily in employee training. It has returned 24 percent a year over the past two years, topping the S&P by four percentage points. Companies that fail to invest in employees jeopardize their own success and even survival. In part, this practice has lingered for lack of alternatives. Until recently, there simply were not robust methods for measuring the bottom-line contributions of investments in human capital management (HCM) - things like leadership development, job design, and knowledge sharing. That's changed. - Bassi & McMurrer (2007). In the Human Equation, Jeffery Pfeffer writes that "Virtually all descriptions of high performance management practices emphasize training, and the amount of training provided by commitment as opposed to control-orientated management is substantial" (p85). Yet companies seem to be very short-sighted as on the next page he writes that in times of economic stringency, many U.S. organizations reduce training to make profit goals. 6.2.2

Learning Theories

Organisations have an economic need for all employees to be flexible within the workplace. The culture should encourage them to use their own initiative and apply the knowledge to undertake a variety of tasks. Cognitive learning lets the workforce learn strategies, and then transfer the learning to be able to solve problems. Lewin (1958) broke the learning down into three key stages. The first stage is the disposal of the old level (unfreezing), second stage is to implement the new structures and processes (moving) and the final stage involves stabilising the company with its new structure (refreezing). This technique was used so the organisation and the employees would be able to understand and implement improvements to their methods of working. Problems that arise from organisational change, which it is not flexible and cannot adapt swiftly to situations such as economic recession (Lewin (1958) cited in Buchanan, D and Hucczynski, A 1991). Wilson (1999) summarised on three main adult learning theories. Behaviourist theories of learning recognise learning as a response to external stimuli. Maintenance of the new behaviour is enforced by positive and negative reinforcement, a system of punishment and reward. Cognitivist theories of learning emphasise the proactive nature of development This school of A Proposal Prepared by Maureen Gideon     13   

thought perceives human beings as seekers of knowledge in an attempt to understand our own identities and positionality. Humanist theories believe that learning occurs as a result of our natural inclination towards it. People learn because in an environment of “warmth, care and understanding” (Wilson, 1999:197) we cannot help it. In this sense education is learner-centred; the student initiates the development environment and needs assessment. People continue to learn throughout their life, whether this is formally taught or just experienced. The process of life long learning requires continuous adaptation. This is gained from increased knowledge and improved skills, which aid the individual to adapt to or change the environment. This allows for new possibilities and outcomes from situations that they face. These changes can raise the individuals self esteem and confidence. Therefore the learning can generate far reaching changes in both the individual and the environment (Beardwell I et al 2004) Reinforcing learning within in an organisations, requires what Hawkins (1994) called "a change at the heart” this change is in “the understanding of learning, a shift from viewing learning as being abrupt facts to learning as a more multi-faceted and dynamic process". As Hawkins suggests, it is not that we are learning any differently than before but "our understanding of how we learn has begun to catch up with what happens in practice" (Hawkins, 1994:9). The learning process has been challenged to create a culture that allows continual learning throughout the organisation. As knowledge is what matters, organisations and individuals alike must become continuous learners (Hawkins, 1994). Unlike most traditional methods of instruction, role-playing has proven effective in many training settings. With the traditional methods of training, the tacit belief is that trainees are made to learn too much by cramming and too little by understanding. In most cases, concepts learned are soon forgotten because they are often taught in isolation of direct practice. This is so, especially with such traditional or conventional training methods as lectures, reading, writing, and workshops. In contrast, role-playing accelerates acquisition of knowledge, skills (both hard and soft.), and attitudes, and offers educators, trainers, and learners the opportunity to observe growth and progress in both teaching and learning transactions in a more practical way (Sogunro, O 2004). Many programs for leaders, administrators, managers, supervisors, teachers, counsellors, and social workers among others, often lack the rationale of actively engaging learners in the process. Rather, they are predisposed to too much theory and less practical application. Evidence suggests that participate actively in a learning activity are more likely to demonstrate greater cognitive and skill understanding of concepts learned than many traditional educational forms of instruction. Role-playing encourages practice and direct experience in specific activities similar to real-life situations. With direct experience through role-playing, much is learned by understanding and comprehension of the learning activity (Sogunro, O 2004). 6.2.3

Competence based approach

The competence based HRD approach is not constrained with definition, identification or classification, it is not linked to knowledge but it is "a combination of knowing and being able to do." Webster (1994) put forward a definition that it is "the state or quality of being capable or competent; skill; ability" (Webster (1994) cited in Civelli, F 1997:249). A Proposal Prepared by Maureen Gideon     14   

There are three main approaches to competencies. (1) The US approach: it is strictly linked with David McClelland's approach. This author sees "competence" as an "underlying characteristic causally related to superior performance". In this approach strong emphasis is on top performers in managerial people. This approach is defined as "behavioural competence". (2) French approach: Claude Levy-Leboyer, highlights a competence approach which is oriented to consider this as a resultant of several psychological elements of a person and with a basis in "self-image". Levy-Leboyer points out an approach of competence related to aptitudes, personality traits, and acquired knowledge. (3) UK approach: this development of the competence-based approach has in part been due to activities of the MCI (Management Charter Initiative) and of NCVQ (National Council for Vocational Qualifications) ... and is much more geared to certification and accreditation. Occupational competence is defined as the ability to perform activities within an occupation to the standards expected in employment. The element of competence identifies a required function which the competent individual should be capable of carrying out (Civelli, F 1997). Some aspects of identifying competencies are linked to the recognising it, communicating it, in a defined social context, and obtaining it as a differential output of behaviours, of actions and ultimately performances. Lanzara (1994) discussed that to "learn a competence means to become an insider, the social actor has to learn to act as a member of what it is a social community in itself.... A competence has a crucial, social value and it grants identity or social visibility" (Lanzara (1994) cited in Civelli, F 1997:250). The competences approach cannot be viewed only as a rational approach. It requires an interpersonal and communicational dynamics. We can recognise actions, behaviours, in an understandable form of communication. It is important to remember that the competences that we can identify can be particular to an organisation. Human resource management and development departments are highly involved (Civelli, F 1997). 6.2.4

How to develop soft skills

Organisations use many avenues to create strategic development plans that address current and future capability needs. The Human resource a function as strategic business partners to the organisation are prepared to help assure that employees have the required proficiency in soft skills. Data is gathered using both informal and formal methods ranging from interviews with managers, observations of employees at work, use of surveys, and review of job requirements. Although a lack of soft skills can be identified by a pattern of employee complaints, i.e. unfair treatment, ineffective management practices, or strained co-worker relationships. Organisations can utilise their job evaluation or job classification systems to define the essential functions of a given job or group of jobs. Those evaluations typically list required knowledge, skills and abilities, and the preferred qualifications. Most evaluation systems assess the number, complexity, and hierarchical level of individuals with whom a focal individual must interact to get the job done. Designing soft skills development requires paying close attention to the organisation's mission, ethical stance and strategic vision (Muir, C. 2004) The future of organizational initiatives increasingly spans the organizational boundaries, with the need for collaboration, understanding of diverse perspectives, and for integration of knowledge A Proposal Prepared by Maureen Gideon     15   

work. This can only be successful if soft skills capability in every participant is an important issue (Muir, C. 2004) 6.3 Conceptual Framework of the Study The first part of the study framework is based on Kirkpatrick model, in which employees’ reaction, learning, behaviors, results and return on investment (ROI) will be examined. The second part of the study will examined the transfer of training but only to the context of after training; to explore the effectiveness of training and development by looking at how is transfer of training applied after training. The final part of the study will examine other factors that can influence the effectiveness of training and development. Bassi et al. (1996) discovered that 96% of companies surveyed used some form of the Kirkpatrick framework to evaluate training and development programs. McMurrer et al. (2000) surveyed the American Society for Training and Development Benchmarking Forum to determine what percentage each of Kirkpatrick's four levels are used in organizations: Figure 1: Conceptual Framework Evaluation Evaluation  • Level 1 ‐ Reaction  • Level 2 ‐ Learning  • Level 3 ‐ Behaviors  • Level 4 ‐ Results  • Level 5 ‐ ROI 

Transfer of Training  (After attending a  course) 

Effectiveness of Training  and  Development 

Other Factors  affecting Training 

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In order to conceptualise the scope of training, Gupta (2007) considers the following as characteristics of an ideal training and development function. First, it should be designed with clear scope and objectives. In this case the training needs assessment (TNA) exercise should be conducted to establish skill gap and performance standards. Second, it should have proper reinforcements to continuously improve the performance capability of an individual employee; this is supported by Skinner’s behavioural modification model which stipulates that ‘when behaviour is repeatedly rewarded, it becomes permanent part of one’s personality. Third, it should be role-specific and involve practice; it helps employees do their present jobs better and skills that are practiced often are better learned and less easily forgotten. Fourth, an effective T&D function should be carefully planned in terms of reading materials, learning duration, and instructors. Their proper organization enhances training effectiveness. Fifth, it should be transparentto all employees at all levels. Employees should be aware of selection criteria of trainees and trainers, preparation of relevant teaching materials, training room and accommodation of courses and actual conduction of courses. They feel responsive to training programmes when they are well informed. Lastly, it should be evaluated. Training consumes both organisation’s time and money, therefore it is important to determine how well it was conducted (i.e. trainees feedback). Evaluation reports establish whether the organisation has derived more-or-less the same value from the amount of money and time invested in the programme. The conceptualisation by Gupta (2007) highlights the scope of an effective training programme. Through careful follow up of provided steps, an organisation will provide required training to required employees. This will enhance the ability of employees to execute their daily activities in working place. Likewise public service management department can only perform well if its training programmes have clear scope and objectives; improve capability of an individual employee; and be role-specific and involve practice. The public service management department should also develop a programme that involves careful planning in terms of training materials, learning duration, and instructors without forgetting proper mechanism of evaluation. As a point of departure the following section examine training and development function in public service management in order to see how it fits in this framework.

7

Methodology

The aim of this study is to examine the effectiveness of training and development in the public sector using training evaluation framework and transfer of training elements. Quantitative method through questionnaire survey will be used for data collection in which questionnaires will be distributed to respondents in various Ministries and departments in the Tanzania. The findings of this study will show that public service employees will be evaluated at all levels of evaluation namely, the reaction, learning, behavior change, results and transfer of training levels.

8

Analytical Methods

A quantitative approach was adopted and a survey was chosen as the method of enquiry. The development of the survey instrument, a questionnaire, was guided by the research questions and was based on the literature reviewed. The questionnaire assessed the five level of evaluation, namely, the reaction, learning, behavior change, results and transfer of training levels. A total of A Proposal Prepared by Maureen Gideon     17   

120 questionnaires will be distributed to respondents with expectation of a response rate of 50%. Respondents will be choosen from various Ministries and departments in Tanzania using simple random sampling. The data will be analyzed through SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences).

9

References

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Abdi, A.I. (2005). “Tanzania’s Economic Transformation: Recent Successes and Remaining Challenges.” ESRF Quarterly Economic Review, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 17-23. Braathen, E. Chaligha, A. and Fjeldstad, O.H. (2005), “Local Governance, Finance and Service Delivery in Tanznaia” Norwegian Institute for Urban and Regional Research, Oslo, Norway. Fjeldstad, O., Lange, S. , Morten Jerve, A. and Nygaard, Knut (2002). NORAD Project completed in 2002. Retrieved in March 8, 2009 from http://www.cmi.no/research/project/?488=localgovernmentreform-in-tanzania-phase-1 Gupta, C.B. (2007). Human Resources Management, Sultan Chand & Sons, New Delhi pp. 9 -18. Jackson, S.E. and Schuler, R.S. (2000). “Managing Human Resources: A Partnership Perspective” South Western College Publishing, USA. Mathis, R.L. and Jackson, J.H. (1998). Personnel/Human Resources Management, Web Publishing Co., New York, USA. Matthews, J. J., Megginson, D. and Surtees M. (2004). Human Resource Development, 3rd Edition; Kogan Page Publishers, New York - USA, 309p. Rugumyamheto, J.A. (2004). “Innovative Approaches to Reforming Public Services in Tanzania” Public Administration and Development Vol. 24, 437-446. Samuel M. Wangwe, Brian Van Arkadie (Eds.) (2000). Overcoming Constraints on Tanzanian Growth: Policy Challenges Facing the Third Government Phase, Mkuki na Nyota Publishers and ESRF. Singh, V. and Vinnicombe, S. (2003). “Women-only Management Training: an Essential Part of Women’s Leadership Development”, Journal of Change Management, 3 (4), 294-306. Skinner, B.F (1974). About Behaviourism, Vintage Books, New York, USA., U.R.T (1998). Education and Training Policy, TWEC (1998). Dar Es Salaam. UNDP (2005). International Cooperation at Crossroads, Human Development Report 2005. Retrieved March 6, 2009 from http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/hdr05_summary.pdf.

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URT, (2003) Report of the Top Management Trainers Workshop conducted 22nd February, 2003 at ESAMI, Arusha, March 8. URT, (2004). Education and Training Policy, Ministry of Education and Culture, Dar es Salaam. Rosemary Harrison (2005). Learning and Development. CIPD Publishing. pp. 5. ISBN 1843980509. Patrick J. Montana and Bruce H. Charnov (2000). "Training and Development". Management. Barron's Educational Series. pp. 225. ISBN 0764112767. Thomas N. Garavan, Pat Costine, and Noreen Heraty (1995). "Training and Development: Concepts, Attitudes, and Issues". Training and Development in Ireland. Cengage Learning EMEA. pp. 1. ISBN 1872853927. Derek Torrington, Laura Hall, and Stephen Taylor (2004). Human Resource Management. Pearson Education. pp. 363. ISBN 0273687131. John Hoover, PhD "How to Work for an Idiot: Survive and Thrive Without Killing Your Boss" (Career Press ISBN 1564147045/ISBN 978-1564147042). Beardwell, I. & Holden, L. (1994) Human Resource Management. Pitman Publishing, London. Beardwell, I. et al. (2004) (4th Ed) Human Resource Management a Contemporary Approach Prentice Hall, Harlow. Blackwood T, (1995) Accounting for Business Business education Publishers Limited, Sunderland Buchanan D, and Hucczynski A,(1991) Organisational Behaviour Prentice Hall, Padstow Field, L. and Ford, B. (1995) Managing Organisational Learning from Rhetoric to Reality Longman Publishing Melbourne Garrick (1999) Informal Learning in the Workplace: Unmasking human resource development, Routledge Press, London. Guirdham, M. (1995) Interpersonal Skills at Work Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Harrison, R. (1993) Human Resource Management. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Wokingham, England Harrison, R. (1997) Employee Development Cromwell Press, Wiltshire, Harrison, R (2002) (3rd Edition) Learning and Development: CIPD Publishing, London Hawkins, P. (1994), The changing view of learning in Burgoyne, J., Pedler, M. and Boydell, T., Towards the Learning Company: Concepts and Practices, McGraw Hill, London. Hollinshead, G. and Lear, M. (1995) Human Resource Management, an International and Comparative Perspective Pitman Publishing. London, Keep, E. (1989). Corporate training: the vital component?’ New Perspectives on Human Resource Management. Routledge Press. London Legge, K. (1995) Human Resource Management, Rhetoric’s and Realities, MacMillan Press, Basingstoke. A Proposal Prepared by Maureen Gideon     19 

 

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Kotler, P (2003) (11th ed.) Marketing Management Prentice Hall/Pearson Education, NJ Marchington, M. & Wilkinson, A. (1996) Core Personnel and Development IPD Publishing London. Mullins, L.(1996) (4th Ed) Management and Organisational Behaviour Pitman publishing, London. Mullins, L (2005) (7th Ed) Management and Organisational Behaviour Prentice Hall, Pearson Education, Edinburgh Mumford,A (1997) (3rd Ed)Management Development IPD Publishing, Great Britain. Oppenheim, A. (1996) Questionnaire Design And Attitude Measurement Pinter publishing Ltd, London, Reader A, Strategic Human Resource Management (1998) Sage Publications, Pitman, London Reid, M.and Barrington, H. (1997). (5th Ed) Training Interventions: Managing Employee Development IPD Publishing, London. Saunders, M. Et al (1997) Research Methods For Business Students Pitman Publishing. London. Storey, J. (1989) New Perspectives on Human Resource Management Routledge Press, London. Thompson, P. and McHugh, D. (1995) Work Organisations a Critical Introduction, Macmillan Press, Aldershot Walton, J (1999), Strategic Human Resource Development, Prentice Hall Padstow Wilson, J. (1999) Human Resource Development: Learning & Training for Individuals & Organisations Kogan Page London Wass, VJ and Wells P. (1994) Principles And Practice In Business And Management Research Pitman Publishing. London.

9.1 Journals  • • • • •

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Bell, J (1993) (2nd Edition) Doing Your Research Project Open University Press, Buckingham Bryans, P. & Smith, R. (2000) Beyond Training: Re-conceptualising Learning at Work Journal of Workplace Learning 2000.Vol.12 Buzan, T. (1995) (Rev ed) Use Your Head. BBC Books, London Civelli, F. (1997) New competences, new organisations Industrial and Commercial Training, Guilsborough,1997Vol.29, Iss. 7; Connell, J. (1998).Soft skills: the neglected factor in workplace participation? Labour & Industry, August 1998 v9 Crosbie, R. (2005) Learning the soft skills of leadership Industrial & Commercial Training; Vol. 37, Issue 1, Davies, L. (1990), Experience Based Learning within the Curriculum — A Synthesis Study, Council for National Academic Awards, London. A Proposal Prepared by Maureen Gideon     20 

 

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DeFillippi, R. (2002) Organisational Models For Collaboration In The New Economy. Human Resource Planning, Dec 2002 v25 Dervaraj, S. et al (2001) Product and service quality: The antecedents of customer loyalty in the automotive industry Production and Operations Management, Winter 2001Vol.10, Iss. 4; Guest, D (1999) Human Resource Management—The Workers’ Verdict Human Resource Management Journal, London, 1999.Vol.9, Iss. 3; Gustafsson, A. and Johnson, M (2002) Measuring and managing the satisfaction-loyaltyperformance links at Volvo Journal of Targeting, Measurement and Analysis for Marketing. London: Mar 2002Vol.10, Iss. Harvey, L., Moon, S., Geall, V. and Bower, R. (1997), Graduates’ Work: Organisational Change and Students’ Attributes Centre for Research into Quality, University of Central England, Birmingham. Huber, F and Herrmann, A (2001) Achieving brand and dealer loyalty: Int. Rev. of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Research 11:2 April 2001 Falconer, S and Pettigrew, M (2003)Developing added value skills within an academic programme through work-based learning International Journal of Manpower, Bradford: 2003.Vol.24, Iss. 1; Kotler, P. (1992) Marketing’s New Paradigm: What’s Really Happening Out There?. Planning Review Dayton: Sep/Oct 1992.Vol.20, Iss. 5; Liljander, V. and Roos, I. (2002) Customer-Relationship Levels, From Spurious to True RelationshipsThe Journal of Services Marketing. Santa Barbara: 2002Vol.16, Iss. 7; Muir, C. (2004) Learning soft skills at work: Business Communication Quarterly, March 2004 v67 i1 Nixon, B. (2004) Creating a cultural revolution: the 21st century challenge for HRD Training Journal. Ely: Oct 2004 Paauwe, J & Boselie, P. (2003) Challenging ‘Strategic HRM’ And The Relevance Of The Institutional Setting Human Resource Management Journal 2003Vol.13, Reade, Q (2004) Boost for budgets as firms take action on skills gaps Personnel Today. Sutton: Apr 20th 2004 Rogers, S. (2004) Power To The People Managers People Management London: Sep 2004. Vol. 10 Santos, A and Stuart M (2003) Employee perceptions and their influence on training effectiveness. Human Resource Management Journal, London: 2003Vol.13 Sinha, I and DeSarbo, W. (1998) An Integrated Approach Toward The Spatial Modelling Of Perceived Customer Value Journal of Marketing Research. Chicago: May 1998.Vol.35, Iss. 2 Sloman, M (2004) Evaluation and evolution People Management. London: Jul 15th 2004.Vol.10 Sogunro, O.(2004) Efficacy of Role-Playing Pedagogy in Training Leaders: Some Reflections The Journal of Management Development Bradford 2004Vol.23, Iss. 3/4 Sparrow, S (2004) The home-grown philosophy Personnel Today. Sutton: Apr 20th 2004 Stalinski, S. (2004) Organisational Intelligence: A Systems Perspective Organisation Development Journal: Summer 2004.Vol.22 Stoneall, L (1992) The case for more flexible objectives Training & Development, August 1992 v46 A Proposal Prepared by Maureen Gideon     21 

 

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Taylor, S. et al (2004) The importance of brand equity to customer loyalty The Journal of Product and Brand Management, Santa Barbara: 2004.Vol.13, Iss. 4/5

10 Time Scale Target date Start May

Duration 1 week

Mid May

1 week

Mid May

1 week

End May

1 week

End May

2 days

June End June – early July Middle July End July

3 weeks 2 weeks 1 week 1 week

Task to be achieved Choose research topic and finalize the objectives Read and write the literature (including CIT method) Primary data collect methods selection Analyze the data which linked to methodology/research literature Revise the draft and submit proposal Data collection Data analysis Report writing Presentation and final submission of report

11 Budget and Resources We will use the SPSS software for data analysis. Moreover, in order to interview the respondents, we will prepare some gifts to respondents. Our group has agreed to pay all incidental costs as part of our project.

Item Research Assistants (2) Stationeries and printing Computer hiring Data Analysts (2) Research Supervisors (1) Transport and lunch allowance Other (research incentives) TOTAL BUDGET  

STUDY BUDGET May 2010- July, 2010 Description Graduate @ $800/month @ 2 month $400 $50@ week $500@ month $1000@month $ 1000 $300.00 sum items listed above

Amount $3,200.00 $400.00 $400.00 $1,000.00 $3,000.00 $1,000.00 $300.00 $9,300.00

A Proposal Prepared by Maureen Gideon     22