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Commercial Antacids It is my foremost duty to express my deep regards & gratitude to my Chemistry teacher MRS. GAURI MASHRU under whose guidance & supervision I am able to undertake this project. It is her who has been my primary source of inspiration and who motivated, guided and encouraged me at different stages to make this project. I am also thankful for the help rendered by the lab assistant who made available the various apparatus and chemicals needed for the experiments, else it would have been a difficult task to perform this project successfully. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

(i)

v ANTACIDS

1

v ACTION MECHANISM

1

v INDICATIONS

1

v SIDE EFFECTS

1–2

v SOME MORE SIDE EFFECTS

2–3

v HYPERACIDITY v SOME FAMOUS ANTACID BRANDS

3–4 4–5

v DRUG NAMES v SOME COMMONLY USED ANTACIDS     

ALUMINIUM HYDROXIDE MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE CALCIUM CARBONATE SODIUM BICARBONATE BISMUTH SUBSALICYLATE v INVESTIGATORY EXPERIMENT

v BIBLOGRAPHY

5 6 6 -7 8–9 10 – 13 14 – 16 17 –18 19 – 21 (ii)

ANTACIDS

An Antacid is any substance, generally a base o r basic salt, which neutralizes stomach acidity. They are used to relieve acid indigestion, upset stomach, sour stomach, and heartburn. ACTION MECHANISM

Antacids perform a neutralization reaction, i.e. they buffer gastric acid, raising the pH to reduce acidity in the stomach. When gastric hydrochlori c acid reaches the nerves in the gastrointestinal mucosa, they signal pain to the central nervous system. This happens when these nerves are exposed, as in peptic ulcers. The gastric acid may also reach ulcers in the esophagus or the duodenum. Other mechanisms may contribute, such as the effect of aluminium ions inhibiting smooth muscle cell contraction and delaying gastric emptying. INDICATIONS

Antacids are taken by mouth to relieve heartburn, the major symptom of gastro esophageal reflux disease, or acid indigestion. Treatment with antacids alone is symptomatic and only justified for minor symptoms. Peptic ulcers may require H2-receptor antagonists or proton pump inhibitors. The utility of many combinations of antacids is not clear, although the combination of magnesium and aluminium salts may prevent alteration of bowel habits. SIDE EFFECTS

Excess calcium from supplements, fortified food and high-calcium diets, can cause the milk-alkali syndrome, which has serious toxicity and can be fatal. In 1915, Bertram Sippy introduced the ―Sippy regimen‖ of hourly ingestion of mil k and cream, the gradual addition of eggs and cooked cereal, for 10 days, combined with alkaline powders, which provided symptomatic relief for peptic ulcer disease. Over the next several decades, the Sippy regimen resulted in renal failure, alkalosis, and hypercalemia, mostly in men with pept ic ulcer disease. These adverse effects were reversed when the regimen stopped, but it was fatal in some patients with protracted vomiting. Milk alkali syndrome declined in men after effective treatments were developed for peptic ulcer disease. But during the past 15 years, it has been reported in women taking calcium supplements above the recommended range of 1200 to 1500 mg daily, for prevention and treatment of osteoporosis, and is exacerbated by dehydration. Calcium has been added to over-the-counter products, which contributes to inadvertent excessive intake. The New England Journal of Medicine reported a typical case of a woman who arrived in the emergency department vomiting and altered mental status, writhing in pain. She had consumed large quantities of chewable antacid tablets containing calcium carbonate (Tums). She gradually recovered.[1] Compounds containing calcium may also increase calcium output in the urine, which might be associated with kidney stones. [2] Calcium salts may cause constipation. Other adverse effects from antacids include: 1. 1. Carbonate : Regular high doses may cause alkalosis, which in turn may result in altered excretion of other drugs, and kidney stones. A chemical reaction between the carbonate and hydrochloric acid may produce carbon dioxide gas. This causes gastric distension which may not be well tolerated. Carbon dioxide formation can also lead to headaches and decreased muscle flexibility. 2. 2. Aluminum hydroxide : May lead to the formation of insoluble aluminium-phosphate-complexes, with a risk for hypophosphatemia and osteomalacia. Although aluminium has a low gastrointestinal absorption, accumulation may occur in the presence of renal insufficiency. Aluminium-containing drugs may cause constipation. 3. 3. Magnesium hydroxide : Has laxative properties. Magnesium may accumulate in patients with renal failure leading to hypermagnesemia, with cardiovascular and neurological complications. See Milk of magnesia. 4. 4. Sodium : Increased intake of sodium may be deleterious for arterial hypertension, heart failure and many renal diseases. SOME MORE SIDE EFFECTS Fortunately, because acid reflux is such a common problem, antacids are among the medicines available and free of side effects for most people. Side effects from antacids vary depending on individual and other medications they may be taking at the time. Those who experience side effects most commonly suffer from changes in bowel functions, such as diarrhea, constipation, or flatulence. Although reactions to any drug may vary from person to person, generally those medications that contain aluminum or calcium are the l ikeliest to cause constipation, those that contain magnesium are

the likeliest to cause diarrhea. Some p roducts combine these ingredients, which essentially cancels them out, to forestall unpleasant side effects. In general, people with kidney problems should probably not take antacids as this can sometimes cause a condition known as alkalosis. In other people, side effects may occur if substances such as salt, sugar, or aspirin, are added to a particular medication. As with all medications, always carefully read the product label on the package and check with your doctor or pharmacist if you have any question about potential drug interactions or side effects. Some side effects, such as constipation and diarrhea, are fairly obvious. Other more serious side effects, such as stomach or intestinal; bleeding, can be more difficult to recognize. In general, any sign of blood in the stool or the presence of vomiting is a danger sign and should be brought to the immediate attention of a physician. If your symptoms persist for more than 10 days to two weeks while you are using the medication, you should stop taking it and consult your doctor. Persistent symptoms may indicate that you have more a serious problem than occasional acid reflux. Pregnant or nursing baby should always consult your doctor before taking this medication. Generally, you should not give these medications to children under the age of 12 unless under the advice and supervision of your doctor or the package label has indicated that the product is safe for young children. Constant use of antacids leads to a condition called acid rebound where the stomach begins to over secrete acid in order to make up for the quantity that is being neutralized. HYPERACIDITY, CAUSE FOR INTAKE OF ANTACIDS

Hyperacidity or acid dyspepsia simply means increase of acidity in the stomach. The human stomach secretes hydrochloric acid which is necessary for the digestion of food. When the stomach contains an excessive amount of hydrochloric acid, then the condition is called as hyperacidity or acid dyspepsia. Sometimes, hyperacidity is confused for a simple bellyache. This is because people with hyperacidity usually generally get pains in their stomachs with similar symptoms as bellyaches. This confusion is more rampant in children who cannot differentiate between different kinds of stomach ailments. However, hyperacidity can be found out with the sour belching and aftertaste of the already eaten food in the mouth. The prime medical factors of hyperacidity or acid dyspepsia are as follows : (i) Stomach Ulcers: Ulcers in the stomach are one of the prime causes of 

hyperacidity. Once this is diagnosed, the treatment will be done by the surgical removal of the stomach ulcers. (ii) Acid Reflux Disease: Some people have a gastric disorder called as the acid reflux disease. In this condition, the acids of the stomach, i.e. gastric acids or hydrochloric acid, get refluxed up to the food pipe, which is biologically called as the esophagus. When this happens, it builds up the level of  acidity in the stomach. (iii) Stomach Cancers: Stomach cancers can also cause hyperacidity as one of their symptoms. This is a very rare case, but the mortality rate is quite high. Hence, a hyperacidity that lasts more than two weeks must be immediately shown to the doctor and got checked for any cancer. A timely diagnosis can enable complete treatment of the disease. SYMPTOMS OF HYPERACIDITY

Hyperacidity symptoms are observed a couple of hours after eating, when the food has been digested and still excess acids are left within the stomach. At this stage, the following symptoms are seen:-

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

1. A typical feeling of restlessness 2. Feeling of nausea (wanting to throw up) and actual vomiting 3. Sour belching with an aftertaste of the already-eaten food 4. Stiffness in the stomach, which is called as atonic dyspepsia 5. Lack of desire for any other type of food 6. Indigestion 7. Constipation INTERACTIONS

Altered pH or complex formation may alter the bioavailability of other drugs, such as tetracycline. Urinary excretion of certain drugs may also be affected. PROBLEMS WITH REDUCED STOMACH ACIDITY

Reduced stomach acidity may result in an impaired ability to digest and absorb certain nutrients, such as iron and the B vitamins. Since the low pH of the stomach normally kills ingested bacteria, antacids increase the vulnerability to infection. It could also result in reduced bioavailability of some drugs. For example, the bioavailability of ketoconazole (antifungal) is reduced at high intragastric pH (low acid content). SOME FAMOUS ANTACID BRANDS

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

1. Alka-Seltzer – NaHCO3 and/or KHCO3 2. Equate – Al(OH)3 and Mg(OH)2 3. Gaviscon – Al(OH)3 4. Maalox (liquid) – Al(OH)3 and Mg(OH)2 5. Maalox (tablet) – CaCO3 6. Milk of Magnesia – Mg(OH)2 7. Pepto-Bismol – HOC6H4COO 8. Pepto-Bismol Children’s – CaCO3 9. Rolaids – CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2 10. Tums – CaCO3 11. Mylanta DRUG NAMES

Some drugs used as antacids are : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

1. Aluminium hydroxide 2. Magnesium hydroxide 3. Calcium carbonate 4. Sodium bicarbonate 5. Bismuth subsalicylate 6. Histamine 7. Cimetidine 8. Ranitidine 9. Omeprazole 10. Lansoprazole SOME IMPORTANT COMMONLY USED ANTACIDS 1.ALUMINIUM HYDROXIDE

Aluminium hydroxide , Al(OH)3, Alum, is the most stable form of aluminium in normal conditions. It is found in nature as the mineral gibbsite (also known as hydrargillite) and its three, much more rare, polymorphs: bayerite, doyleite and nordstrandite. Closely related are aluminium oxide hydroxide, AlO(OH), and aluminium oxide, Al2O3, differing only by loss of water. These compounds together are the major components of the aluminium ore bauxite. Freshly precipitated aluminium hydroxide forms gels, which is the basis for application of aluminium salts as flocculants in water purification. This gel crystallizes with time. Aluminium hydroxide gels can be dehydrated (e.g., with the utility of watermiscible non-aqueous solvents like ethanol) to form an amorphous aluminium hydroxide powder, which is readily soluble in acids. Heat-dried aluminium hydroxide powder is known as activated alumina and is used in gas purification, as a catalyst support and an abrasive. PRODUCTION

Bauxites are heated in pressure vessels with sodium hydroxide solution at 150 –200 °C through which aluminium is dissolved as aluminate (Bayer process). After separation of ferruginous residue (red mud) by filtering, pure gibbsite is precipitated when the liquid is cooled and seeded with fine grained aluminium hydroxide. The aluminium hydroxide is further calcined to give alumina, which may be smelted in the Hall-Héroult process in order to produce aluminium. CHEMISTRY

Gibbsite has a typical metal hydroxide structure with hydrogen bonds. It is built up of double layers of  hydroxyl groups with aluminium ions occupying two-thirds of the octahedral holes between the two layers. Aluminium hydroxide is amphoteric. It dissolves in acid, forming Al(H2O)63+(hexaaquaaluminate) or its hydrolysis products. It also dissolves in strong alkali, forming Al(OH) 4- (tetrahydroxoaluminate). PHARMACOLOGY

Pharmacologically, this compound is used as an antacid under names such as Alu-Cap, Aludrox or Pepsamar. The hydroxide reacts with excess acid in the stomach, reducing its acidi ty. This decrease of  acidity of the contents of the stomach may in turn help to relieve the symptoms of ulcers, heartburn or dyspepsia. It can also cause constipation and is therefore often used with magnesium hydroxide or magnesium carbonate, which have counterbalancing laxative effects. This compound is also used to control phosphate (phosphorus) levels in the blood of people suffering from kidney failure. Aluminium hydroxide, alum, is included as an adjuvant in some vaccines (e.g., Alhydrogel, Anthrax Vaccine), since it appears to contribute to induction of a good antibody (Th2) response. Its pharmacological action is not known. However, it has little capacity to stimulate cellular (Th1) immune responses, important for protection against many pathogens. Because the brain lesions found in Alzheimer’s disease some times contain traces of aluminium, there is concern that consumption of excess aluminium compounds may cause or contribute to the development of this and other neurodegenerative diseases. However, multiple epidemiological studies have found no connection between exposure to aluminium and neurological disorders.

In addition, elevated aluminium levels in blood, resulting from kidney dialysis with well water containing high aluminium, may result in dementia that is similar to but probably different from that of  Alzheimer’s disease. However, this hypothesis is controversial. In 2007, tests with mice of the anthrax vaccine using aluminium hydroxide adjuvant were reported as resulting in adverse neuropathy symptoms. USE AS A FIRE RETARDANT

Aluminium hydroxide also finds use as a fire retardant filler for polymer applications in a similar way to magnesium hydroxide and hydromagnesite. It decomposes at about 180 °C giving off water vapour. 2.MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE Magnesium hydroxide is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula Mg(OH) 2. As a suspension in water, it is often called milk of magnesia because of its milk-like appearance. The solid mineral form of magnesium hydroxide is known as brucite.

Magnesium hydroxide is common component of antacids and laxatives; it interferes with the absorption of folic acid and iron. Magnesium hydroxide has low solubility in water, with a Kspof  1.5×10−11; all of magnesium hydroxide that does dissolve does dissociate. Since the dissociation of  this small amount of dissolved magnesium hydroxide is complete, magnesium hydroxide is considered a strong base. HISTORY

In 1829, Sir James Murray used a fluid magnesia preparation of his own design to treat the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, the Marquis of Anglesey. This was so successful (advertised in Australia and approved by the Royal College of Surgeons in 1838) that he was appointed resident physician to Anglesey and two subsequent Lords Lieutenants, and knighted. His fluid magnesia product was patented two years after his death in 1873. The term milk of magnesia was first used for a white-colored, aqueous, mildly alkaline suspension of  magnesium hydroxide formulated at about 8%w/v by Charles Henry Phillips in 1880 and sold under the brand name Phillips’ Milk of Magnesia for medicinal usage. Although the name may at some point have been owned by GlaxoSmithKline, USPTO registrations show ―Milk of Magnesia‖ to be registered to Bayer, and ―Phillips’ Milk of Magnesia‖ to Sterling Drug. In the UK, the non- brand (generic) name of ―Milk of Magnesia‖ and ―Phillips’ Milk of Magnesia‖ is ―Cream of Magnesia‖ (Magnesium Hydroxide Mixture, BP). PREPARATION

Magnesium hydroxide can be precipitated by the metathesis reaction between magnesium salts and sodium, potassium, or ammonium hydroxide: Mg2+ (aq.) + 2 OH− (aq.)

→

Mg(OH)2 (s)

USES

Suspensions of magnesium hydroxide in water (milk of magnesia) are used as an antacid to neutralize stomach acid, and a laxative. The diarrhea caused by magnesium hydroxide carries away much of the body’s supply of potassium, and failure to take extra potassium may lead to muscle cramps. Magnesium hydroxide is also used as an antiperspirant armpit deodorant. Milk of magnesia is useful against canker sores (aphthous ulcer) when used topically. Milk of magnesia is sold for medical use as chewable tablets, capsules, and as liquids having various added flavors. It is used as an antacid, though more modern formulations combine the antimotility effects of equal concentrations of aluminum hydroxide to avoid unwanted laxative effects. Magnesium hydroxide powder is used industrially as a non-hazardous alkali to neutralise acidic wastewaters. It also takes part in the Biorock method of building artificial reefs. Solid magnesium hydroxide has also smoke suppressing and fire retarding properties. This is due to the endothermic decomposition it undergoes at 332 °C (630 °F) :

Mg(OH)2

→

MgO + H2O

BIOLOGICAL METABOLISM

When the patient drinks the milk of magnesia, the suspension enters the stomach. Depending on how much was taken, one of two possible outcomes will occur. As an antacid, milk of magnesia is dosed at approximately 0.5 –1.5g in adults and works by simple neutralization, where the hydroxide ions from the Mg(OH) 2 combine with acidic H+ ions produced in the form of hydrochloric acid by parietal cells in the stomach to produce water. Only a small amount of the magnesium from milk of magnesia is usually absorbed from a person’s intestine (unless the person is deficient in magnesium). However, magnesium is mainly excreted by the kidneys so longterm, daily consumption of milk of magnesia by someone suffering from renal failure could lead in theory to hypermagnesemia. 3.CALCIUM CARBONATE Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula CaCO 3. It is a common substance found in rock in all parts of the world, and is the main component of shells of marine organisms, snails, pearls, and eggshells. Calcium carbonate is the active ingredient in agricultural lime, and is usually the principal cause of hard water. It is commonly used medicinally as a calcium supplement or as an antacid, but excessive consumption can be hazardous. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Calcium carbonate shares the typical properties of other carbonates. Notably: 

it reacts with strong acids, releasing carbon dioxide: CaCO3(s) + 2 HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) →



it releases carbon dioxide on heating (to above 840 °C in the case of CaCO3), to form calcium oxide, commonly called quicklime, with reaction enthalpy 178 kJ / mole: CaCO3 CaO + CO2 →

Calcium carbonate will react with water that is saturated with carbon dioxide to form the soluble calcium bicarbonate. CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O

→

Ca(HCO3)2

This reaction is important in the erosion of carbonate rocks, forming caverns, and leads to hard water in many regions. PREPARATION

The vast majority of calcium carbonate used in industry is extracted by mining or quarrying. Pure calcium carbonate (e.g. for food or pharmaceutical use), can be produced from a pure quarried source (usually marble). Alternatively, calcium oxide is prepared by calcining crude calcium carbonate. Water is added to give calcium hydroxide, and carbon dioxide is passed through this solution to precipitate the desired calcium carbonate, referred to in the industry as precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC): CaCO3

→

CaO + CO2

CaO + H2O

→

Ca(OH)2

Ca(OH)2 + CO2

→

CaCO3 + H2O

GEOLOGY

Carbonate is found frequently in geologic settings. It is found as a polymorph. A polymorph is a mineral with the same chemical formula but different chemical structure. Aragonite, calcite, limestone, chalk, marble, travertine, tufa, and others all have CaCO3 as their formula but each has a slightly different chemical structure. Calcite, as calcium carbonate is commonly referred to in geology is commonly talked about in marine settings. Calcite is typically found around the warm tropic environments. This is due to its chemistry and properties. Calcite is able to precipitate in warmer shallow environments than it do es under colder environments because warmer environments do not favour the dissolution of CO2. This is analogous to CO2 being dissolved in soda. When you take the cap off of a soda bottle, the CO2 rushes out. As the soda warms up, carbon dioxide is released. This same principle can be applied to calcite in the ocean. Cold water carbonates do exist at higher latitudes but have a very slow growth rate. In tropic settings, the waters are warm and clear. Consequently, you will see many more coral in this environment than you would towards the poles where the waters are cold. Calcium carbonate contributors such as corals, algae, and microorganisms are typically found in shallow water environments because as filter feeders they require sunlight to produce calcium carbonate. USES Industrial applications

The main use of calcium carbonate is in the construction industry, either as a building material in its own right (e.g. marble) or limestone aggregate for roadbuilding or as an ingredient of cement or as the starting material for the preparation of builder’s lime by burning in a kiln. Calcium carbonate is also used in the purification of iron from iron ore in a blast furnace. Calcium carbonate is calcined in situ to give calcium oxide, which forms a slag with various impurities present, and separates from the purified iron. Calcium carbonate is widely used as an extender in paints, in particular matte emulsion paint where typically 30% by weight of the paint is either chalk or marble. Calcium carbonate is also widely used as a filler in plastics. Some typical examples include around 15 to 20% loading of chalk in unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC) drain pipe, 5 to 15% loading of  stearate coated chalk or marble in uPVC window profile. PVC cables can use calcium carbonate at loadings of up to 70 phr (parts per hundred parts of resin) to improve mechanical properties (tensile strength and elongation) and electrical properties (volume resistivity). Polypropylene compounds are often filled with calcium carbonate to increase rigidity, a requirement that becomes important at high use temperatures. It also routinely used as a filler in thermosetting resins (Sheet and Bulk moulding compounds) and has also been mixed with ABS, and other ingredients, to form some types of  compression molded ―clay‖ Poker chips. Fine ground calcium carbonate is an essential ingredient in t he microporous film used in babies’  diapers and some building films as the pores are nucleated around the calcium carbonate particles during the manufacture of the film by biaxial stretching.

Calcium carbonate is known as whiting in ceramics/glazing applications, where it is used as a common ingredient for many glazes in its white powdered form. When a glaze containing this material is fired in a kiln, the whiting acts as a flux material in the glaze. It is used in swimming pools as a pH corrector for maintaining alkalinity ―buffer‖ to offset the acidic properties of the disinfectant agent.

It is commonly called chalk as it has traditionally been a major component of blackboard chalk. Modern manufactured chalk is now mostly gypsum, hydrated calcium sulfate CaSO4·2H2O. HEALTH AND DIETARY APPLICATIONS

Calcium carbonate is widely used medicinally as an inexpensive dietary calcium supplement or antacid. It may be used as a phosphate binder for the treatment of hyperphosphatemia (primarily in patients with chronic renal failure). It is also used in the pharmaceutical industry as an inert filler for tablets and other pharmaceuticals. Calcium carbonate is used in the production of toothpaste and is also used in homeopathy as one of  the constitutional remedies. Also, it has seen a resurgence as a food preservative and color retainer, when used in or with products such as organic apples or food. Excess calcium from supplements, fortified food and high-calcium diets, can cause the ―milk alkali syndrome,‖ which has serious toxicity and can be fatal. In 1915, Bertram Sippy introduced the ―Sippy regimen‖ of hourly ingestion of mil k and cream, and the gradual addition of eggs and cooked cereal, for 10 days, combined with alkaline powders, which provided symptomatic relief for peptic ulcer disease. Over the next several decades, the Sippy regimen resulted in renal failure, alkalosis, and hypercalemia, mostly in men with pept ic ulcer disease. These adverse effects were reversed when the regimen stopped, but it was fatal in some patients with protracted vomiting. Milk alkali syndrome declined in men after effective treatments for peptic ulcer disease. A form of food additive is designated as E170. It is used in some soy milk products as a source of  dietary calcium; one study suggests that calcium carbonate might be as bioavailable as the calcium in cow’s milk. 4.SODIUM BICARBONATE Sodium bicarbonate or sodium hydrogen carbonate is the chemical compound with the for mula NaHCO3. Sodium bicarbonate is a white solid that is crystalline but often appears as a fine powder. It can be used to experiment and is not very dangerous. It has a slight alkaline taste resembling that of  washing soda (sodium carbonate). It is a component of the mineral natron and is found dissolved in many mineral springs. The natural mineral form is known asnahcolite. It is found in its dissolved form in bile, where it serves to neutralize the acidity of the hydrochloric acid produced by the stomach, and is excreted into the duodenum of the small intestine via the bile duct. It is also produced artificially.

Since it has long been known and is widely used, the salt has many related names such as baking soda, bread soda, cooking soda, bicarbonate of soda . Colloquially, its name is shortened to sodium bicarb, bicarb soda , or simply bicarb. The word saleratus, from Latin sal æratus meaning ―aerated salt‖, was widely used in the 19th century fo r both sodium bicarbonate and potassium bicarbonate. The term has now fallen out of common usage. HISTORY

The ancient Egyptians used natural deposits of natron, a mixture consisting mostly of sodium carbonate decahydrate and sodium bicarbonate. The natron was used as a cleansing agent like soap. In 1791, a French chemist, Nicolas Leblanc, produced sodium bicarbonate as we know it today. In 1846 two New York bakers, John Dwight and Austin Church, established the first factory to develop baking soda from sodium carbonate and carbon dioxide. PRODUCTION

NaHCO3 is mainly prepared by the Solvay process, which is the reaction of calcium carbonate, sodium chloride, ammonia, and carbon dioxide in water. It is produced on the scale of about 100,000 ton/year (as of 2001).[2] NaHCO3 may be obtained by the reaction of carbon dioxide with an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide. The initial reaction produces sodium carbonate: CO2 + 2 NaOH

→

Na2CO3 + H2O

Further addition of carbon dioxide produces sodium bicarbonate, which at sufficiently high concentration will precipitate out of solution: Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O

→

2 NaHCO3

Commercial quantities of baking soda are also produced by a similar method: soda ash, mined in the form of the ore trona, is dissolved in water and treated with carbon dioxide. Sodium bicarbonate precipitates as a solid from this method: Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O

→

2 NaHCO3

CHEMISTRY

Sodium bicarbonate is an amphoteric compound. Aqueous solutions are mildly alkaline due to the formation of carbonic acid and hydroxide ion: HCO−3 + H2O

→

H2CO3 + OH−

Sodium bicarbonate can be used as a wash to remove any acidic impurities from a ―crude‖ liquid, producing a purer sample. Reaction of sodium bicarbonate and an acid to give a salt and carbonic acid, which readily decomposes to carbon dioxide and water:

NaHCO3 + HCl H2CO3

→

→

NaCl + H2CO3

H2O + CO2 (g)

Sodium bicarbonate reacts with acetic acid (CH3COOH) to form sodium acetate: NaHCO3 + CH3COOH

→

CH3COONa + H2O + CO2 (g)

Sodium bicarbonate reacts with bases such as sodium hydroxide to form carbonates: NaHCO3 + NaOH

→

Na2CO3 + H2O

Sodium bicarbonate reacts with carboxyl groups in proteins to give a brisk effervescence from the formation of CO2. This reaction is used to test for the presence of carboxylic groups in protein. APPLICATIONS

Sodium bicarbonate is primarily used in cooking (baking) where it reacts with other components to release carbon dioxide, that helps dough ―rise‖. The acidic compounds that induce this reaction include phosphates, cream of tartar, lemon juice, yogurt, buttermilk, cocoa, vinegar, etc. Sodium bicarbonate can be substituted for baking powder provided sufficient acid reagent is also added to the recipe.[3] Many forms of baking powder contain sodium bicarbonate combined with one or more acidic phosphates (especially good) or cream of tartar. It can also be used for softening peas ( ⅛ tsp. per pint of water and bring to boil for one hour) Many laboratories keep a bottle of sodium bicarbonate powder within easy reach, because sodium bicarbonate is amphoteric, reacting with acids and bases. Furthermore, as it is relatively innocuous in

most situations, there is no harm in using excess sodium bicarbonate. Lastly, sodium bicarbonate powder may be used to smother a small fire. Sodium bicarbonate is used in an aqueous solution as an antacid taken orally to treat acid indigestion and heartburn. It may also be used in an oral form to treat chronic forms of metabolic acidosis such as chronic renal failure and renal tubular acidosis. Sodium bicarbonate may also be useful in urinary alkalinization for the treatment of aspirin overdose and uric acid renal stones. Sodium bicarbonate can be used to extinguish small grease or electrical fires by being poured or dumped over the fire. However, it should not be poured or dumped onto fires in deep fryers as it may cause the grease to splatter. Sodium bicarbonate is used in BC dry chemical fire extinguishers as an alternative to the more corrosive ammonium phosphate in ABC extinguishers. The alkali nature of  sodium bicarbonate makes it the only dry chemical agent, besides Purple-K, that was used in large scale fire suppression systems installed in commercial kitchens. Because it can act as an alkali, the agent has a mild saponification effect on hot grease, which forms a smothering soapy foam. Dry chemicals have since fallen out of favor for kitchen fires as they have no cooling effect compared to the extremely effective wet chemical agents specifically designed for such hazards. 5.BISMUTH SUBSALICYLATE Bismuth subsalicylate , with a chemical formula C7H5BiO4, is a drug used to treat nausea, heartburn, indigestion, upset stomach, diarrhea, and other temporary discomforts of the stomach and gastrointestinal tract. Commonly known as pink bismuth , it is the active ingredient in popular medications such as Pepto-Bismol and modern (since 2003) Kaopectate. PHARMACOLOGY

As a derivative of salicylic acid, bismuth salicylate displays anti-inflammatory action and also acts as an antacid. ADVERSE EFFECTS AND CONTRAINDICATION CONTRAINDICATIONS S

There are some adverse effects. It can cause a black tongue and black stools stool s in some users of the drug, when it combines with trace amounts of sulfur in saliva and the gastrointestinal tract. This discoloration is temporary and harmless. Some of the risks of salicylism can apply to the use of bismuth subsalicylate. Children should not take medication with bismuth subsalicylate while recovering from influenza or chicken pox, as epidemiologic evidence points to an association between the use of salicylatecontaining medications during certain viral infections and the onset of Reye’s syndrome. For the same reason, it is typically recommended that nursing mothers not use medication containing bismuth subsalicylate (such as Pepto-Bismol) because small amounts of the medicatio n are excreted in breast milk and pose a theoretical risk of Reye’s syndrome to nursing children. RADIOACTIVITY

While bismuth is technically radioactive, its half life is so long, on the order of hundreds of billions of  years, that its radioactivity presents absolutely no threat under all medical and other ordinary purposes. DECOMPOSITION

Bismuth subsalicyclate is the only active ingredient in an over the counter medication that will actually leave a shiny metal slag behind. INVESTIGATORY EXPERIMENT

OBJECTIVE :

To analyse the given samples of commercial antacids by determining the amount of hydrochloric acid they can neutralize. REQUIREMENTS :

Burettes, pipettes, titration flasks, measuring flasks, beakers, weight box, fractional weights, sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, hydrochloric acid, phenolphthalein. PROCEDURE :

ml of the concentrated acid for one 1. Prepare 1 litre of approximately HCl solution by diluting 10 ml litre. 2. Similarly, make 1 litre of approximately NaOH solution by dissolving4.0g of NaOH to prepare one litre of solution. 3. Prepare Na2CO3 solution by weighing exactly 1.325 g of anhydrous sodium carbonate and then dissolving it in water to prepare exactly 0.25 litres (250 ml) of solution. 4. Standardize the HCl solution by titrating it against the standard Na2CO3 solution using methyl orange as indicator. 5. Similarly, standardize NaOH solution by titrating it against standardized HCl solution using phenolphthalein as indicator. 6. Powder the various samples of antacid tablets and weigh 1.0 g of each. 7. Add a specific volume of standardised HCl to each of the weighed sample is taken in conical flasks. The acid should be in slight excess, so that it can neutralize all the alkaline component of the tablet. 8. Add 2 drops of phenolphthalein and warm the flask till most of powder dissolves. Filter off the insoluble material.

1. 9. Titrate this solution against the standardised NaOH solution, till a permanent pinkish tinge is obtained. Repeat this experiment with different antacids. OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS : Standardisation of HCl solution : Volume of Na2CO3 solution taken = 20.0 ml S No. of  obs.

Burette readings

Volume of acid used

Initial Final

Concordant volume = 15.0 ml Applying normality equation, N1V1 = N2V2

1.

0 ml

15.0 ml

15.0 ml

2.

0 ml

15.1 ml

15.1 ml

3.

0 ml

15.0 ml

15.0 ml

4.

0 ml

15.0 ml

15.0 ml

5.

0 ml

15.0ml

15.0 ml

S No. of

Burette readings

Volume of acid

N1 * 15.0 = * 20 Normality of HCl, N1= = 0.133 N Standardisation of NaOH solution : Volume of the given NaOH solution taken = 20.0 ml

obs.

Initial Final

used

Concordant volume = 26.6 ml Applying normality equation, =

1.

0 ml

26.5 ml

26.5 ml

2.

0 ml

26.8 ml

26.8 ml

0.133 * 26.6 =

3.

0 ml

26.6 ml

26.6 ml

Normality of NaOH, 2= = 0.176 N

4.

0 ml

26.6 ml

26.6 ml

Analysis of antacid tablet :

5.

0 ml

26.6ml

26.6 ml

Weight of antacid tablet powder = 1.0 g

11

22 2

* 20

Volume of HCl solution added = 20.0 ml Antacid

Vol. Of NaOH soln. Used to neutralise unused HCl

Vol. Of HCl soln. Used to neutralise 1.0 g of antacid matter

1. Gelusil

12.1 ml

12.0 ml

2. Digene

16.0 ml

16.2 ml

3. Aludrox

19.3 ml

18.9 ml

4. Logas

24.3 ml

24.4 ml

5. Ranitidine

21.4 ml

21.7 ml

6. Ocid 20

22.7 ml

21.9 ml

CONCLUSION :

The antacid which has maximum volume of HCl is used for neutralizing i.e. OCID 20 is more effective.

Formation Of Biodiesel Chemistry Investigatory Project  Acknowledgement   Acknowledg ement  It gives me great pleasure to express my gratitude towards our chemistry teacher Mrs._______ for  her guidance, support support and encouragement throughout throughout the duration of the project. project. Without her  motivation and help the successful completion of this project would not have been possible. CERTIFICATE  This is to certify that Punit Gaur of class XII has completed the chemistry project entitled  ‘

’   

FORMATION OF BIO DIESEL

Himself and under my guidance. The progress of the project has been continuously reported and has been in my knowledge consistently. SUBJECT INCHARGE ::Mrs. _________ 

Contents         

Acknowledgement Certificate What is Biodiesel? Uses of Biodiesel Preparation of Biodiesel Reactions involved Biodiesel fuel features Disadvantages of Biodiesel Bibliography What is Biodiesel? Biodiesel refers to a non-petroleum-based diesel fuel consisting of short chain alkyl (methyl or ethyl) esters, made by transesterification of vegetable oil or animal fat (tallow), which can be used (alone, or blended with conventional petrol diesel) in unmodified diesel-engine vehicles. Biodiesel is distinguished from the straight-vegetable oil (SVO) (sometimes referred to as ―waste vegetable oil‖   ―WVO‖ ―used vegetable oil‖ ―UVO‖ ―pure plant oil‖, ―PPO‖) used(alone, used(alone, or blended) as fuels in some converted diesel vehicles.‖Biodiesel‖ is standardized as mono-alkyl ester and other kinds of dieselgrade fuels of biological origin are not included. Uses of biodiesel







 



Biodiesel fuel is a renewable energy source that can be made from soy beans grown for fuel, or from cooking oils recycled from restaurants. This means it is a renewable resource unlike petroleum-based diesel. There is an excess production of soybeans in the United States; therefore biodiesel is an economic way to utilize this surplus. Biodiesel is less polluting than petroleum diesel. Compared to petroleum diesel, biodiesel produces less soot (particulate matter), carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and sulfur dioxide. The absence of sulfur in 100% biodiesel should extend the life of catalytic converters. Biodiesel fuel can also be used in combination with heating oil to heat residential and industrial buildings. This can reduce dependence on non-renewable and increasingly expensive heating oil. Biodiesel burns cleaner & is made of non-toxic chemicals so it does not give out poisonous fumes, unlike the ordinary fuel. Instructions to Prepare Bio Diesel Requirements:

         

Vegetable oil Antifreeze (Methanol) Lye (NaOH) Blender Scales Plastic containers Funnels Plastic bottle with lid Duct tape Thermometer Steps Involved: Step 1:

Measure out 200 ml of antifreeze and put it in one plastic container.

Step 2:

Add in lye so that the antifreeze is absorbed. Step 3:

Cover container and mix well by shaking it. It is mixed when it starts to feel warm and is foamy. The mixture has now become sodium methoxide. Step 4:

Blend 1 liter of vegetable oil with the sodium methoxide in a blender for 20 minutes. Step 5:

Pour mixture into a bottle and wait 8 hours until the byproduct, glycerin, separates form the biodiesel. The glycerin will be on the solid on the bottom. Step 6:

Separate out the biodiesel by pouring into a glass bottle. Step 7:

Prepare a wash bottle by poking a small hole in the corner of the bottle and covering it with duct tape. Step 8:

Wash the biodiesel by pouring it into the wash bottle and adding in ½ a liter of water. Roll the bottle around to mix it and then remove the duct tape and drain the water. Step 9:

Repeat the washing process until the biodiesel is clear. This may need to be done numerous times over the course of a week to complete the process. Store the biodiesel in a glass container until ready to use. Reactions involved Transesterification:

Animal & plant fats & oils are typically made of triglycerides which are esters of free fatty acids with the trihydric alcohol, glycerol. In the transesterification process, the alcohol is deprotonated with a base to make it a stronger nucleophile. Commonly, ethanol or methanol is used. As can be seen, the reaction has no other inputs than the triglyceride & the alcohol. Normally, this reaction will precede either exceedingly slowly or not at all. Heat, as well as an acid or base are used to help the reaction more quickly. Biodiesel is a much cleaner fuel than conventional fossil-fuel petroleum diesel  

  

Biodiesel burns up to 75% cleaner than petroleum diesel fuel. Biodiesel reduces unburned hydrocarbons (93% less), carbon monoxide (50% less) & particulate matter (30% less) in exhaust fumes, as well as cancer-causing PAH (80% less). Sulphur dioxide emissions are eliminated (biodiesel contains no Sulphur). Biodiesel is a plant-based & using it adds no extra CO2 greenhouse gas to the atmosphere. The ozone-forming (smog) potential of biodiesel emissions is nearly 50% less than petrol-diesel emissions.



  

Nitrogen oxide emissions may increase or decrease with biodiesel but can be reduced to well below petrol-diesel fuel levels. Biodiesel exhaust is not offensive & doesn’t cause eye irritation. Biodiesel can be mixed with petrol-diesel in any proportion, with no need for a mixing additive. With slight variations depending on the vehicle, performance & fuel economy with biodiesel is the same as with petrol-diesel. Biodiesel’s fuel features Power: One of the major advantages is the fact that it can be used in exiting engines & fuel injection equipment (no modification required) without negative impact to operating performance. Fuel availability/econ availability/economy: omy: Virtually the same MPG rating as petrol-diesel & the only alternative fuel for heavyweight vehicles requiring no special dispensing & storage equipment. Production/Refining: Can be done at home (wasted veggie oil) & farms (virgin oils from seeds), being the only alternative fuel that can boost of a zero total emissions production facility. By selling the simultaneously produced glycerol, the cost of BD is basically the same cost of the oil used to make it. Storage: Readily blends & stays blended with petrol-diesel so it can be stored & dispensed wherever diesel is stored or sold. Combustibility/Safety: Biodiesel has a very high flash point (300 ⁰F) making it one of the safest of  all alternative fuels. Lubricity: The only alternative fuel that can actually extend engine life because of its superior lubricating & cleaning properties. The pr esent ―low sulphur‖ diesel fuel is badly wearing the i njection pumps of not protected diesel engine. Usage: Biodiesel fuel can generally be used in existing oil heating systems and diesel engines without modification, and it can be distributed through existing diesel fuel pumps. This is an advantage over other alternative fuels, which can be expensive to use initially due to high cost of equipment modifications or new purchases. Biodiesel pr ovides almost the same energy per gallon as petroleum diesel. Environment Impact: The only renewable alternative diesel fuel that actually reduces major greenhouse gas components in the atmosphere. The use of biodiesel will also reduce the following emissions: carbon monoxide, ozone-forming-hydrocarbons, hazardous diesel particulate, acid raincausing sulphur dioxide, lifecycle carbon dioxide.

Disadvantages of Biodiesel 







Biodiesel is currently about one and a half times more expensive than petroleum diesel fuel. Part of  this cost is because the most common source of oil is the soybean, which only is only 20% oil. However, the costs of biodiesel can be reduced by making biodiesel from recycled cooking oils rather than from new soy beans, or by making it from plant matter with higher oil content. It takes energy to produce biodiesel fuel from soy crops, including the energy of sowing, fertilizing and harvesting. Biodiesel fuel can damage rubber hoses in some engines, particularly in cars built before 1994. You should check with the manufacturer before using biodiesel to see if you need to replace any hoses or rubber seals. Biodiesel cleans the dirt from the engine. This dirt then collects in the fuel filter, which can clog it. Clogging occurs most often when biodiesel is first used after a period of operation with petroleum diesel, so filters should be changed after the first several hours of biodiesel use.

Bibliography

All the information in the project has been gathered from internet. Websites used:        

Google Free encyclopedia on biodiesel Biodiesel uses iCBSE Transesterification chemistry for preparing biodiesel Biodiesel features Making your own biodiesel Fact file of biodiesel

Presence of Insecticides & Pesticides in Fruits & Vegetables Toc H (RESIDENTIAL) PUBLIC SCHOOL PUNALUR  CHEMISTRY PROJECT REPORT 2009-2010 STUDY THE PRESENCE OF INSECTICIDES AND PESTICIDES IB FRUITS AND VEGETABLES Name : Class

:

Reg. No

:

Examiner

Teacher-in charge.

CERTIFICATE  This is to certify that the project was done by …………………………… Reg. No ……………….. Is in partial fulfillment of Chemistry Practical Examinations AISSCE 2008. I certify that this project is done by him/ her with his/her own effort with guidance of the teacher. Teacher in charge

Head of the institute

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT   ACKNOWLEDGEME NT   I place my sincere sincere thanks to my chemistry teacher SUSAN SUSAN JACOB for her guidance guidance and  advices to complete my work successfully. I also t hank our principal Mr. GEORGE. P  .GEORGE for providing me all the facilities to finish the project on time.

 I also take this opportunity to place on record my deep gratitude to LORD ALMIGHTY for the the countless blessings showered showered on me while doing the work and to complete it. Last but not least I thank my parents for their encouragement and support in my humble venture. CONTENTS  1. INTRODUCTION ……………………………… ………………………………… … 2. AIM ………………………………… …………………………………………. ………. 3. MATERIALS REQUIRED…………………. 4. PRECEDURE………………… PRECEDURE……………………………….. …………….. 5. OBSERVATIONS……… OBSERVATIONS…………………………… …………………… 6. BIBLIOGRAPHY……………… BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………… ……………  INTRODUCTION 

In the past decade there has been a tremendous increase in the yields of  various crops to meet the demand of overgrowing population, achieved by using pesticides and insecticides. These are chemicals that are sprayed over crop to protect it from pests. For example, DDT, BHC, zinc phosphide, Mercuric chloride, dinitrophenol, etc. All pesticides are poisonous chemicals and are used in small quantities with care. Pesticides are proven to be effective against variety of insects, weeds and fungi and are respectively called insecticides, herbicides and fungicides. Most of the pesticides are non-biodegradable and remain penetrated as such into plants, fruits and vegetables . From plants they transfer to animals , birds and human beings who eat these polluted fruits and vegetables. Inside the body they get accumulated and cause serious health problems. These days preference is given to biodegradable insecticides like malathion. The presence of  Insecticides residues in even raw samples of wheat, fish, meat , butter etc. have aroused the concern of agricultural administrators, scientists and health officials all over the world to put a check over the use of insecticides and to search for non insecticidal means of pest control.  AIM  To study the presence of insecticides or pesticides (nitrogen containing) i n various fruits and  vegetables. MATERIALS REQUIRED

Mortar and pestle , beakers, funnel , glass rod , filter paper china dish , water bath, tripod stand, fusion tube, knife, test tube. Samples of various fruits and vegetables, alcohol, sodium metal, ferric chloride, ferrous sulphate crystals, distilled water and dil. Sulphuric acid. PROCEDURE

Take different types of fruits and vegetables and cut them into small pieces separately. Transfer the cut pieces of various fruits and vegetables into it separately and crush them . Take different kinds for each kind of fruits and vegetables and place the crushed fruits and vegetables in these beakers and add 100 ml of alcohol to each of these . Stir well and filter. Collect the filtrate in separate china dishes, Evaporate the alcohol by heating the china dishes one by one over a water bath and let the residue dry in the oven . Heat a small piece of sodium in a fusion tube , till it melts. Then add one of the above residues from the china dish to this fusion tube and heat it till red hot. Drop the hot fusion tube in a china dish containing about 10 ml of distilled water. Break the tube and boil the contents of the china dish for about 5 minutes . Cool and filter the solution. Collect the filtrate . To the filtrate add 1 ml of freshly prepared ferrous sulphate solution and warm the contents. Then add 2-3 drops of ferric chloride solution and acidify with dilute HCl. If a blue or green ppt. or colouration is obtained it indicates the presence of  nitrogen containing insecticides. Repeat the test of nitrogen for residues obtained from other fruits and vegetables and record the observation. OBSERVATIONS S.no

Name of the fruit or

Test for the presence

Presence of insecticide

vegetable

Of nitrogen

Or pesticide residues

(positive or negative) 1.

Apple

positive

yes

2.

Grapes

positive

yes

3.

Brinjal

positive

yes

4.

tomato

positive

yes

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Modern’s abc of practical chemistry -XII 1. Comprehensive practical chemistry – XII 1. NCERT chemistry -XII

Green Chemistry Bio diesel and Bio petrol also study extraction process of Bio diesal SUBMITTED BY : ABHYODAYA SIDDHARTHA GUIDED BY : CLASS : XII PCM YEAR : 2010-2011 ROLL NO. :___________  SCHOOL : NEW WAY SENIOR SECONDRY SCHOOL Certified to be the bonafide work done by

Master. Abhyodaya siddhartha of class XII – B in the CHEMISTRY LAB during the year 2010-2011 Date _____________. Submitted for CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDRY EDUCATION Examination held in CHEMISTRY LAB at NEW WAY SENIOR SECONDRY SCHOOL. EXAMINER  DATE : ___________  SEAL

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my chemistry mentor Miss. , for her vital support, guidance and encouragement – without which this project would not have come forth. I would also like to express my gratitude to my old chemistry teacher Mr.DINESH SHUKLA for his support during the making of this project. INDEX S.No.

Contents

Pg.No.

I

Objective

5

II

Introduction to green chemistry

6

III

Principals of green chemistry

7

IV

BIODIESEL: Using renewable

resorces

10

V

ACTIVITY 1: Making biodiesel

12

VI

ACTIVITY 2: Testing biodiesel

14

VII

ACTIVITY 3: Potential for biofuels

16

VIII

Biopetrol

23

IX

Conclution

30

X

Bibliography

31

The Objective of this project is to study GREEN CHEMISTRY- Bio diesel and Bio petrol also study extraction process of Bio desial. INTRODUCTION TO GREEN CHEMISTY

. Green chemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with developing processes and products to reduce or eliminate hazardous substances. One of the goals of green chemistry is to prevent pollution at its source, as opposed to dealing with pollution after it has occurred. Principles of Green Chemistry 1. Prevention

It is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after it has been created. 2. Atom Economy

Synthetic methods should be designed to maximize the incorporation of all materials used in the process into the final product. 3. Less Hazardous Chemical Syntheses

Wherever practicable, synthetic methods should be designed to use and generate substances that possess little or no toxicity to human health and the environment. 4. Designing Safer Chemicals

Chemical products should be designed to effect their desired function while minimizing their toxicity. 5. Safer Solvents and Auxiliaries

The use of auxiliary substances (e.g., solvents, separation agents, etc.) should be made unnecessary wherever possible and innocuous when used.

6. Design for Energy Efficiency

Energy requirements of chemical processes should be recog nized for their environmental and economic impacts and should be minimized. If possible, synthetic methods should be conducted at ambient temperature and pressure. 7. Use of Renewable Feedstocks

A raw material or feedstock should be renewable rather than depleting whenever technically and economically practicable. 8. Reduce Derivatives

Unnecessary derivatization (use of blocking groups, protection/ deprotection,temporary modification of physical/chemical processes ) should be minimized or avoided if possible, because such steps require additional reagents and can generate waste. 9. Catalysis

Catalytic reagents (as selective as possible) are superior to stoichiometric reagents. 10. Design for Degradation

Chemical products should be designed so that at the end of their function they break down into innocuous degradation products and do not persist in the environment. 11. Real-time analysis for Pollution Prevention

Analytical methodologies need to be further developed to allow for real-time, inprocess monitoring and control prior to the formation of hazardous substances. 12. Inherently Safer Chemistry for Accident Prevention

Substances and the form of a substance used in a chemical process should be chosen to minimize the potential for chemical accidents, including rel eases,explosions, and fires. Biodiesel: using renewable resources

Introduction Bio-diesel is an eco-friendly, alternative diesel fuel prepared from domestic renewable resources i.e. vegetable oils (edible or non- edible oil) and animal fats. These natural oils and fats are made up mainly of triglycerides. These triglycerides when rea w striking similarity to petroleum derived diesel and are called ―Bio-diesel‖. As India is deficient in edible oils, non -edible oil may be material of choice for producing bio diesel . For this purpose Jatropha curcas considered as

most potential source for it. Bio diesel is produced by transesterification of oil obtains from the plant. Jatropha Curcas has been identified for India as the most suitable Tree Borne Oilseed (TBO) for production of bio-diesel both in view of the non-edible oil available from it and its presence throughout the country. The capacity of Jatropha Curcas to rehabilitate degraded or dry lands, from which the poor mostly derive their sustenance, by improving land’s water retention capacity, makes it additionally suitable for up-gradation of land resources. Presently, in some Indian villages, farmers are extracting oil from Jatropha and after settling and decanting it they are mixing the filtered oil with diesel fuel. Although, so far the farmers have not observed any damage to their machinery, yet this remains to be tested and PCRA is working on it. The fact remains that this oil needs to be converted to bio-diesel through a chemical reaction – transesterification. This reaction is relatively simple and does not require any exotic material. IOC (R&D) has been using a laboratory scale plant of 100 kg/day capacity for trans-esterification; designing of larger capacity plants is in the offing. These large plants are useful for centralized production of bio-diesel. Production of bio-diesel in smaller plants of capacity e.g. 5 to 20 kg/day may also be started at decentralized level. Activity 1: Making biodiesel Biodiesel is a mixture of methyl esters of fatty acids (long chain carboxylic acids). It has similar properties to the diesel fuel made from crude oil that is used to fuel many vehicles. It can be made easily from vegetable cooking oil that contains compounds of fatty acids. Enough fuel can be produced in this activity to burn in a later activity, although it is not pure enough to actually be used as fuel in a car or lorry. The synthesis is a simple chemical reaction that produces biodiesel and propane-1,2,3triol (glycerol). Cooking oil is mixed with methanol and potassium hydroxide is added as a catalyst. The products separate into two layers, with the biodiesel on the top. The biodiesel is separated and washed, and is then ready for further experimentation.

What you will need Eye protection Access to a top pan balance One 250 cm3 conical flask Two 100 cm3 beakers One 100 cm3 measuring cylinder Five plastic teat pipettes Distilled or deionised water 100 cm3 vegetable-based cooking oil 15 cm3 methanol (highly flammable, toxic by inhalation, if swallowed, and by skin absorption) 1 cm3 potassium hydroxide solution 50% (corrosive).

Safety Wear eye protection. Methanol is flammable and poisonous.

Potassium hydroxide is corrosive.

What to do 3

1. Measure 100 cm of vegetable oil into the 250 cm3 flask. Weigh the flask before and after to determine the mass of oil you used. 2. Carefully add 15 cm3 of methanol. 3. Slowly add 1 cm3 of 50% potassium hydroxide. 4. Stir or swirl the mixture for 10 minutes. 5. Allow the mixture to stand until it separates into two layers. 6. Carefully remove the top layer (this is impure biodiesel) using a teat pipette. 7. Wash the product by shaking it with 10 cm3 of distilled or deionised water. 8. Allow the mixture to stand until it separates into two layers. 9. Carefully remove the top layer of biodiesel using a teat pipette. 10. Weigh the amount of biodiesel you have collected and compare it to the amount of vegetable oil you started with.

Apparatus for testing biodiesel Activity 2: Testing biodiesel How does biodiesel compare to other fuels? Just because we can produce a fuel from an alternative source, does that mean it is a good idea? There are many factors that go into the decision to use alternative fuels. Ideally the physical properties of an alternative fuel should should equal or exceed those of  the traditional product. But how are fuels evaluated in the first place. In this activity, biodiesel and some other fuels are tested and compared for sootiness and acidity.

What you will need Eye protection Small glass funnel (approximately 7 cm diameter) One 250 cm3 flask Two boiling tubes One two-hole stopper to fit the boiling tubes Filter pump A piece of wide bore glass tubing approximately 10 cm long with two one-hole stoppers to fit A piece of vacuum tubing approximately 35 cm long Two short pieces of glass tubing to fit the one-hole stoppers 5 cm glass bend to fit the two-hole stopper 90o glass bend to fit the two-hole stopper (one leg to extend to bottom of flask) Two stands and clamps Two small metal sample dishes A little sodium hydroxide solution 0.1 mol dm-3 (irritant) Universal indicator solution A little mineral wool.

Safety Wear eye protection. Take care if you have to insert glass tubing into the stoppers yourself. Make sure that your teacher shows you the correct technique.

What to do 3

1. Pour 125 cm of distilled water into the 250 cm3 flask and add 10 cm3 of universal indicator. Add one drop of 0.1 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution and gently swirl the flask so that the colour of the solution is violet or at the most basic end of the universal indicator colour range. 2. Place 10 cm3 of this solution into the boiling tube. 3. Assemble the apparatus illustrated in Figure 1, attaching it to the filter pump with the vacuum tubing. 4. Place 2 cm3 of biodiesel onto a wad of mineral wool in the metal sample cup. 5. Turn on the water tap so the filter pump pulls air through the flask and ignite the biodiesel. Position the funnel directly over the burning fuel, so so as to capture the fumes from the burning fuel. Mark or note the position of the tap handle so you can run the pump at the same flow rate later in the experiment. 6. Allow the experiment to run until the universal indicator turns yellow and time how long this takes. 7. Record what happens in the funnel and in the glass tube containing the second piece of mineral wool. 8. Clean the apparatus, and repeat the experiment using 2 cm3 of kerosene (this is very similar to diesel fuel).

Activity 3: Potential for biofuels 1.Technical Feasibility

Can be blended in any ratio with petro-diesel Existing storage facilities and infrastructure for petro-diesel can be used with minor alteration. From environment and emissions point of view it is superior to petro-diesel. It can provide energy security to remote and rural areas. It has good potential for employment generation 2.Sources of Bio-diesel

All Tree Bearing Oil (TBO) seeds – edible and non edible Edible: Soya-bean, Sun-flower, Mustard Oil etc. Non-edible: Jatropha Curcas, Pongemia Pinnata, Neem etc.

Edible seeds can’t be used for bio -diesel production in our country, as its indigenous production does not meet our current demand. Among non-edible TBO, Jatropha Curcas has been identified as the most suitable seed for India.

3.Advantages of Jatropha

Jatropha Curcas is a widely occurring variety of TBO It grows practically all over India under a variety of agro climatic conditions. Can be grown in arid zones (20 cm rainfall) as well as in higher rainfall zones and even on the land with thin soil cover. Its plantation can be taken up as a quick yielding plant even in adverse land situations viz. degraded and barren lands under forest and non-forest use, dry and drought prone areas, marginal lands, even on alkaline soils and as agro-forestry crops. It grows as a tree up to the height of 3 – 5 mt. It is a good plantation for Eco-restoration in all types wasteland. 4.Agro Practices (as per NOVOD, Ministry of Agriculture, GOI) Nursery raising

Nurseries may be raised in poly-bags filled with mixture of soil and farm yard manure in the ratio of 4:1. Two seeds are sown in each bag. Plantation

30 cm x 30 cm x 30 cm pits are dug Farm yard manure (2-3 kg), 20 gm urea, 12 gm Single Super Phosphate (SSP) & 16 gm Mono Phosphate (MP) Planting density

2500 plants / ha at 2m x 2m Transplantation

It should be done during rainy reason. Fertilizer

From second year in the ratio of 40:60:20 Nitrogen Phosphorous and Potassium (NPK) kg/ha

Irrigation

It is required only for the first two years Pruning

During first year when branches reach a height of 40-60 cms Pest & Disease control

No disease or insects noticed to be harmful Flowering and fruiting

Flowering: Sept.- Dec. & March- April Fruiting

After 2 months of flowering. 5.State-wise area undertaken by NOVOD for Jatropha Plantation

State

Area (ha)

Andhra Pradesh

44

Bihar

10

Chhatisgarh

190

Gujarat

240

Haryana

140

Karnataka

80

Madhya Pradesh

260

Maharashtra

150

Mizoram

20

Rajasthan

275

Tamil Nadu

60

Uttaranchal

50

Uttar Pradesh

200

Economics (as per Planning Commission Commission Report on Bio-fuels, 2003)

Activities

Rate(Rs. / Kg)

Quantity(Kg)

Cost(Rs.)

Seed

5.00

3.28

16.40

Cost of collection & oil extraction

2.36

1.05

2.48

Less cake produced

1.00

2.23

(-) 2.23

Trans-esterification

6.67

1.00

6.67

Less cost of glycerin produced

40 to 60

0.095

(-) 3.8 to 5.7

Cost of Bio-diesel per kg

19.52 to 17.62

Cost of Bio-diesel per litre (Sp.

16.59 to 14.98

Gravity 0.85)

7. Employment potential (as per Planning Commission report on bio-fuels, 2003))

Likely demand of petro diesel by 2006-07 will be 52 MMT and by 2011-12 it will increase to 67 MMT. 5% blend of Bio-diesel with petro diesel will require 2.6 MMT of Bio-diesel in 2006-07 By 2011-12, for 20% blend with Petro-diesel, the likely demand will be 13.4 MMT. To meet the requirement of 2.6 MMT of bio-diesel, plantation of Jatropha should be done on 2.2 – 2.6 million ha area. 11.2 – 13.4 million ha of land should be covered by 2011 – 12 for 20% bio-diesel blending

It will generate following no. of jobs in following areas.

Year

No. of jobs in plantation

In maintenance

Operation of BD units

2006-07

2.5 million

0.75 million

0.10 million

2011-12

13.0 million

3.9 million

0.30 million

Oil content

35% to 40% Collection and processing

Ripe fruits collected from trees. 8. Efforts of National Oilseed and Vegetable Oil Development Board (NOVOD)

Systematic state/region wise survey for identification of superior trees and superior seeds. Maintenance of record on seeds/trees. Samples of high yield to be sent to National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) for accession and cryo-preservation. NOVOD has developed improved Jatropha seeds, which have oil contents up t o 1.5 times of ordinary seeds.

However, being in short supply, initially these improved Jatropha seeds would be supplied only to Agricultural Universities for multiplication and development. After multiplication these would be supplied to different states for further cultivation. This program is likely to take 3 – 4 years. It is also working for development of multi-purpose post-harvest technology tools like decorticator and de-huller, which would further improve oil recovery. 9. Trans-esterification Process

Vegetable Oil

Alcohol

Catalyst(Sodium or Potassiu

Glycerin(Used for

Bio-

m Hydroxide)

medicinal value)

diesel

100 gm

12 gm

1 gm

11 gm

95 gm

It is the displacement of alcohol from an ester by another alcohol in a similar process to hydrolysis. Vegetable Oil i.e. the triglyceride can be easily trans-esterified in the presence of alkaline catalyst at atmospheric pressure and at temperature of approximately 60 to 70oC with an excess of methanol. If 100 gm of vegetable oil is taken, 1 gm of the alkaline catalyst (Potassium Hydroxide), and 12 gm of Methanol would be required As a first step, the alkaline catalyst is mixed with methanol and the mixture is stirred for half an hour for its homogenization. This mixture is mixed with vegetable oil and the resultant mixture is made to pass through reflux condensation at 65oC. The mixture at the end is allowed to settle. The lower layer will be of glycerin and it is drain off. The upper layer of bio-diesel (a methyl ester) is washed to remove entrained glycerin. The excess methanol recycled by distillation. This reaction works well with high quality oil. If the oil contains 1% Free Fatty Acid (FFA), then difficulty arises because of soap formation. If FFA content is more than 2% the reaction becomes unworkable. Methanol is inflammable and Potassium Hydroxide is caustic, hence proper and safe handling of  these chemicals are must. 10. Agencies & Institutes working in the field of bio-diesel

National Oil seeds and Vegetable Oil Board, Gurgaon PCRA – Petroleum Conservation Research Association (MOP&NG) IOC (R&D) Centre, Faridabad Delhi College of Engineering IIT, Delhi

IIP, Dehradun Downstream National Oil Companies Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad CSIR Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources Central Pollution Control Board Bureau of Indian Standards Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency States, which have made some lead Uttranchal:

Uttaranchal Bio-fuel Board (UBB) has been constituted as a nodal agency for bio-diesel promotion in the state. Has undertaken Jatropha plantation in an area of 1 lakh hectare. UBB has established Jatropha Gene Bank to preserve high yielding seed varieties. vari eties. Has ambitious plan to produce 100 million liters of bio-diesel. Andhra Pradesh:

Govt. of AP (GoAP) to encourage Jatropha plantation in 10 rain shadow districts of AP Task force for it has been constituted at district and state level GoAP proposed Jatropha cultivation in 15 lakh acres in next 4 years Initial target is 2 lakh acres Irrigation to be dovetailed with Jatropha cultivation 90% drip subsidy is proposed Jatropha cultivation to be taken up only in cultivable lands with existing farmers.

Crop and yield insurance is proposed Chhattisgarh:

6 lakh saplings of Jatropha have been planted with the involvement of State’s Forest, Agriculture, Panchayat and Rural Development Departments As per the Deputy Chairman, State Planning Board, the state has the target to cover 1 million ha of land under Jatropha plantation Ten reputed bio-diesel companies, including the UK-based D1 Oils, have offered to set up Jatropha oil-extraction units or to buy the produce from farmers in Chhattisgarh. Companies like Indian Oil, Indian Railways and Hindustan Petroleum have each deposited Rs 10 lakh as security for future MoUs with the state government. 11. Farmers’ Initiatives in Haryana

Farmers in Haryana have formed NGOs and cooperatives for promotion of Jatropha plantation. These NGOs and cooperatives are raising nurseries for Jatropha plantation and supplying saplings to others for further cultivation. They have been blending directly Jatropha Oil into diesel fuel and successfully using this blend in their tractors and diesel engines without any problems. These NGOs and cooperatives are also organizing the practical demonstration of this usage in their demonstration workshops. They are organizing local seminars, workshops and conferences etc. to promote the usage of  Jatropha oil. NGOs have also printed some booklets on Jatropha plantation. 12. Current usages of bio-diesel / Trials & testing of bio-diesel

Usages of bio-diesel are similar to that of petro-diesel Shatabadi Express was run on 5% blend of bio-diesel from Delhi to Amritsar on 31st Dec. 2002 in association with IOC. Field trials of 10% bio-diesel blend were also done on Lucknow-Allahabad Jan Shatabdi Express also through association with IOC. HPCL is also carrying out field trials in association with BEST

Bio-Diesel blend from IOC (R&D) is being used in buses in Mumbai as well as in Rewari, in Haryana on trial basis . CSIR and Daimler Chrysler have jointly undertaken a successful 5000 km trial run of Mercedes cars using bio-diesel as fuel. NOVOD has initiated test run by blending 10% bio diesel in collaboration with IIT, Delhi in Tata Sumo & Swaraj Mazda vehicles. BIO-PETROL

Introduction Measures to be implemented to resolve the problem of sewage sludge that contain a high degree of  organic matter could primarily aim at recycling it through a thermo chemical pyrolysis process in order to recover hydrocarbons that make up the structure of sewage sludge. Pyrolysis of sewage sludge produces oil, gas and char products. The pyrolysis oils have also been shown to contain valuable chemicals in significant concentrations and hence may have the potential to be used as chemical feedstock. The production of a liquid product increases the ease of handling, storage and transport. The technology, improved by BioPetrol Ltd. (patent pending) is capable of processing carbon wastes, other than sewage sludge, including agri-wastes, bagasse, pulp and paper residues, tannery sludge and other end-of-life products such as plastics, tires and the organics in municipal solid waste.The process of low temperature thermochemical conversion of municipal sewage sludge to oil is a new technology in developed countries. The amount of investment is still less than the amount invested in the sewage sludge incineration process, and the operational economy of the process is obviously superior to incineration. The BioPetrol, Ltd. integrated thermochemical process (patent pending) recovers about 1,100,000 Kcal from each 283 kg of sewage sludge 90% D.S. after the thermal evaporating of 717kg water from each dewatered ton (1,000 kg) of sewage sludge 26% D.S. The BioPetrol process begins with sewage sludge at 90% D.S. Sewage sludge drying equipment is used commonly for the evaporative removal of interstitial water from the sludge. Numerous drying technologies exist on the market. Market Analysis and Strategy

Three potential products/services: 1. Disposal of Sewage Sludge – Disposal of sewage sludge comprises over 30% of wastewater treatment plants’ budget. Customers of this service are l ocal communities. They are willing to pay top dollar for the disposal of their sludge. For example: Holland $50-$90 per ton, U.S., Canada and Australia, up to $150 per ton. The US produces 25 million tons of sludge annually (2001). 2. Synthetic Crude Oil – Excess crude oil, beyond what is being recirculated to run equipment A+B is about 30 kg per 1 ton sewage sludge 90% D.S. Oil energy = 8,900 Kcal/kg same as diesel oil used in heavy industry. There are references in professional literature to numerous valuable chemicals in significant concentration that are present in pyrolysis oils. BioPetrol Ltd has on board, as a shareholder, an internationally renowned scientist-academician to address this issue.

3. Selling the Technology – With the completion of the development of the process and equipment for its operation, BioPetrol. Ltd. will have the technology to sell to world markets. Potential markets are water authorities, municipalities, wastewater treatment plants, entrepreneurs, sewage sludge disposal contractors, sludge drying operators. BioPetrol, ltd. has been awarded a grant of $300,000 for a period of 2 years by Israel’s Office of the Chief Scientist to conduct advanced R&D. The company has concluded and proved the viability of the process and is now on the verge of constructing a demonstration pilot for a continuous process.

BioPetrol is seeking an investment of US$400,000 for the completion of the demonstration pilot. A business plan is available for further details. Technology

The technological processes at issue in the Bio-Petrol project belong to the sphere of liquefying carbon-rich solid fuels. The liquefaction processes common today comprise two stages: 1. Thermal breakdown of the molecular structure to create radical fractions different in size. 2. Stabilization of the radicals by recombining themselves or by redistribution of hydrogen from the raw material itself or by hydrogen that is introduced from outside (molecular hydrogen or from hydrogen-donor matter). Bio-Petrol Company has carried out R&D work which has resulted in the formulation of a suitable process for producing synthetic oil from sewage sludge with larger output than that obtained from the common process-i.e. pyrolysis. By integrating familiar liquefaction methods the company developed a process of high utilization of the organic matter that is in the sewage sludge that produces oil and gas in larger quantities and of better quality. What is Ethanol?

Ethanol is part of a category of molecules called alcohols. The simplest alcohol is called methanol and is very similar to a compound called methane. Methane is a molecule composed of one carbon atom surrounded by 4 hydrogen atoms. In methanol, one of these hydrogen atoms is replaced with an oxygen atom with a hydrogen atom attached to it. This two atom group, oxygen attached to a hydrogen, is called an alcohol group. Any molecule that has an alcohol group attached to it can be called an alcohol. To make it easier to talk about, chemists add an ―ol‖ on the end of a chemicals name to indicate that it has an alcohol group. Therefore, methane with an alcohol group attached is called methanol. For ethanol, it is an ethane molecule –two carbon atoms, with six hydrogen atoms surrounding them— with one hydrogen replaced by an alcohol group. Then, the name ethane is changed to ethanol, to indicate that it is an alcohol. How Ethanol is Made

Ethanol has been used by humans for thousands of years, in part because it is easy to make. In fact, nature can make it for us in a process called fermentation. Fermentation is a biochemical process carried out by microscopic organisms called yeast. Yeast are anaerobic, meaning they can live and eat without needing oxygen. Many living things eat sugar, and yeast eat sugar too. When there is no oxygen, yeast chow down on sugar, but they can’t get all of the energy that is available in sugar out of it. Instead they use it to get some energy, and in the process of digesting it, convert it into ethanol and carbon dioxide Petrol.

Yeast are even used to make bread. When making bread, bakers use the yeasts ability to make carbon dioxide Petrol to make the bread rise, making it thicker. If it were not for yeast, pizza dough would be flatter than a pancake. Scientists have also invented ways to make ethanol synthetically, withou t utilizing nature’s help. The process converts a byproduct of making Petrololine into ethanol. Although this process is used, more than 90% of the ethanol produced per year is made using yeast. Replacing Petrololine with Corn?

Yeast only consume simple sugars, so only certain foods are good for putting them to work making ethanol. Bakers use the sugar that you can find in your kitchen. But it takes a lot of kitchen sugar to fill the tank of your car with ethanol. Some countries, such as Brazil, that grow a lot of sugar use it to make ethanol for cars. Brazil has been producing ethanol fuels for decades. The United States does not have enough sugar cane plants to do this. Instead, the U.S. has focused on using corn. Corn has less sugar in it than sugar cane, requiring scientists to develop ways to convert corn’s more complex sugars into simple sugars. Critics of using corn for fuel say that it takes more energy to make ethanol from corn than it takes to make regular Petrololine. However, a recent review of many different studies in the American Chemical Society journal, Environmental Science and Technology, suggests that i n most cases, using corn would stil l save us from using as much fossil fuels as we would if we just used Petrololine. Sticks, husks, and grass to Ethanol?

A new method is being developed that may be even more promising than using corn or sugar cane as yeast food. All plants make a complex sugar called cellulose and it is one of the most abundant plant materials on earth. Cotton is almost all cellulose, and some forms of cellulose can be found in many of  the foods that we eat. Trees have i t. Grass has it. Even corn stalks. But yeast don’t eat cellulose. Recently several groups of researchers have developed enzymes, which are complex molecules that operate like little machines, to break apart cellulose into simple sugars that the yeast can eat. What makes this very interesting is that farms and other industries already produce tons and tons of  waste materials that contain cellulose. Just imagine, all the sticks and grass clippings from your yard or playground could be turned into fuel for your car. Farms can also grow plants for making ethanol. President George W. Bush mentioned one of these, switch grass, in the 2006 State of the Union address. Therefore, farms or timber companies can convert their waste into ethanol. There is also one additional benefit, and challenge to processing cellulose. Cellulose is often stuck together with another plant compound called lignin. Lignins are compounds that make plants strong, and they trap cellulose. Lignins are one of the waste products of papermaking. But, lignin materials extracted from waste materials used for making ethanol can be burned to power the process, saving more fossil fuels. It’s not a question of if we will stop using oil but when. Soon, we will all have to replace oil with a different, renewable source and ethanol may be the answer.

****THE END**** BIBLIOGRAPHY www.google.co.in www.chemistry.org

www.ott.doe.gov/biofuels/environment.html www.pcra.org PETROLIAM CONSERVATION RESEARCH

ASSOSIATION (PCRA) national bio fuel center.