Project Report on Electronic Stethoscope

FCA_UB] 1 ni wcnfc cb ensfussbe kbenatb ausfu`tatngi aie n``ustratbe tcb ebsndi gh tcb stbtcgsfgpb. Ucb stbtcgsfgpb was ebsfrnmbe as mbnid 1= nifcbs `gid aie 1.2 nifcbs ni enakbtbr wntc a 6/3 nifc fbitra` mgrb cg`b tcrgudcgut nts `bidtc.

 Hnd 1.=< Grndnia` vbrsngi gh tcb @abiibf stbtcgsfgpb kaeb gh a turibe ebisb, hnib`y dranibe, `ndct fg`grbe wgge, fnrfa 131>.

1.= Amgut tcb prglbft< Ucb prglbft wb cavb uiebrtajbi uie brtajbi anks tg ebsndi aie snku`atb ai b`bftrginf stbtcgsfgpb wcnfc wn`` igt gi`y prgvneb us wntc a mbttbr sndia` mut fai a`sg mb nitbrhafbe wntc fgkputbrs aie gtcbr ensp`ay ebvnfbs sg tcat nt fai mb hurtcbr aia`yzbe aie stgrbe hgr huturb usbs. Tb c avb kaeb tcns ebsndi fgkprnsnid gh vbry snkp`b aie wb`` jigwi fgkpgi bits `njb knfrgpcgib, gpbratngia` akp`nhnbr, `gw  pass hn`tbr , cndc pass hn`tbr aie aia`gd tg endnta` fgivbrtbr aie sgkb `ndct bknttnid engebs. Ucb prglbft ns snku`atbe gi ku`tnsnk sghtwarb. Gur prglbft ns rba``y fgst bhhbftnvb as nt egbsi„t nivg`vbs aiy fgst`y fgkpgibits aie tcns ebsndi ns uiegumtbe`y uiegumtbe` y mbttbr tcai gtcbr afgustnf aie b`bftrginf stbtcgsfgpbs as n t  prgvnebs wntc mbttbr ignsb faifb``atngi aie prgvnebs a dgge hgrk haftgr hgr tcb sndia`.

=

FCA_UB] =< UCBG]^<

=.1 Ebhnintngi gh stbtcgsfgpb< Ucb stbtcgsfgpb  ns ai afgustnf kbenfa` afgustnf kbenfa` ebvnfb hgr ausfu`tatngi, gr ausfu`tatngi, gr `nstbinid `nstbinid tg tcb nitbria` nitbria` sguies gh a cukai mgey. Nt ns ghtbi usbe tg `nstbi tg `uid aie cbart sguies. Nt sguies. Nt ns a`sg usbe tg `nstbi tg nitbstnibs tg  nitbstnibs aie m`gge h`gw ni artbrnbs ni artbrnbs aie vbnis. aie vbnis. Ni  Ni fgkmniatngi wntc spcydkgkaigkbtbr, wntc spcydkgkaigkbtbr, nt  nt ns fgkkgi`y usbe hgr kbasurbkbits gh  m`gge  m`gge prbssurb.

=.= Aiatgky gh stbtcgsfgpb< s tbtcgsfgpb<  Hnd=.1Afgustnf Vtbtcgsfgpb

 Hnd =.= Aiatgky Aiatgky gh ai Afgustnf Afgustnf Vtbtcgsfgpb 1. Cbaesbt < Ucb cbaesbt ns tcb kbta` part gh tcb stbtcgsfgpb gitg wcnfc tcb tumnid ns hnttbe. Ucb cbaesbt ns kaeb up gh tcb twg bar tumbs, tbisngi sprnids, aie tcb bar tnps. Ucb wbarbr fai aelust tcb tbisngi tg a fgkhgrtam`b `bvb` my pu``nid tcb bar tumbs apart tg `ggsbi tcb cbaesbt gr frgssnid tcbk gvbr tg tndctbi.

6

=. Bar tnp < Vght-sba`nid bar tnps ghhbr nifrbasbe fgkhgrt, sba` aie euramn`nty, aie hbaturb a surhafb trbatkbit tcat nifrbasbs surhafb `umrnfnty aie rbeufbs `nit aie e ust aecbsngi.

6. Bar tumb < Ucb bar tumb ns tcb part tg wcnfc tcb bar tnps arb attafcbe.

5. Uuiam`b Enapcradk < A traentngia` stbtcgsfgpb fgisnsts gh a mb`` aie a enapcradk. Ucb mb`` ns usbe wntc `ndct sjni fgitaft tg cbar `gw hrbqubify sguies aie tcb enapcradk ns usbe wntc hnrk sjni fgitaft tg cbar cndc hrbqubify sguies.

2. Vtbk Ucb stbk fgiibfts tcb stbtcgsfgpb tumnid tg tcb fcbst pnbfb.

8. Uumnid Ucb tumnid fgisnsts gh twg gpbinids. Ucb tumnid gi a`` @nttkaii stbtcgsfgpbs ns kaiuhafturbe hrgk pg`yvniy` fc`grneb (_XF). Ucb tumnid egbs igt fgitani bntcbr iatura` rummbr `atbx gr ery iatura` rummbr.

4. Fcbst pnbfb Ucb fcbst pnbfb ns tcb part gh tcb stbtcgsfgpb tcat ns p`afbe gi tcb `gfatngi wcbrb tcb usbr waits tg cbar sguie.

=.6 B`bftrginf stbtcgsfgpb< 5

Ai b`bftrginf stbtcgsfgpb gvbrfgkbs tcb `gw sguie `bvb`s my b`bftrginfa``y akp`nhynid mgey sguies. Cgwbvbr, akp`nhnfatngi gh stbtcgsfgpb fgitaft artnhafts, aie fgkpgibit futghhs (hrbqubify rbspgisb tcrbscg`es gh b`bftrginf stbtcgsfgpb knfrgpcgibs, prb-akps, akps, aie spbajbrs) `nknt b`bftrginfa``y akp`nhnbe stbtcgsfgpbs' gvbra`` utn`nty my akp`nhynid kne-raidb sguies, wcn`b snku`taibgus`y attbiuatnid cndc- aie `gw- hrbqubify raidb sguies. Furrbit`y, a iukmbr gh fgkpainbs ghhbr b`bftrginf stbtcgsfgpbs. B`bftrginf stbtcgsfgpbs rbqunrb fgivbrsngi gh afgustnf sguie wavbs tg b`bftrnfa` sndia`s wcnfc fai tcbi mb akp`nhnbe aie prgfbssbe hgr gptnka` `nstbinid. Ri`njb afgustnf stbtcgsfgpbs, wcnfc arb a`` masbe gi tcb sakb pcysnfs, traiseufbrs ni b`bftrginf stbtcgsfgpbs vary wneb`y. Ucb snkp`bst aie `bast bhhbftnvb kbtcge gh sguie ebtbftngi ns afcnbvbe my p`afnid a knfrgpcgib ni tcb fcbstpnbfb. Mbfausb tcb sguies arb traisknttbe b`bftrginfa``y, ai b`bftrginf stbtcgsfgpb fai mb a wnrb`bss ebvnfb, fai mb a rbfgrenid ebvnfb, aie fai prgvneb ignsb rbeuftngi, sndia` bicaifbkbit, aie mgtc vnsua` aie aueng gutput.

 Hnd =.6 B`bftrginf Vtbtcgsfgpb

=.5 Ucb Cbart<

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Ucb cbart ns tcb pukp statngi gh tcb mgey aie ns rbspgisnm`b hgr fnrfu`atnid m`gge tcrgudcgut tcb mgey. Nt ns amgut tcb snzb gh gur f`bifcbe hnst aie snts ni tcb fcbst favnty mbtwbbi twg `uids. Nts wa``s arb kaeb up gh kusf`b tcat fai squbbzb gr pukp m`gge gut bvbry tnkb tcb grdai "mbats" gr fgitrafts. Hrbsc, gxydbi-rnfc anr ns mrgudct tg tcb `uids tcrgudc tcb trafcba gr wniepnpb bvbry tnkb wb tajb a  mrbatc. Ucb `uids arb rbspgisnm`b hgr eb`nvbrnid gxydbi tg tcb m`gge, aie tcb cbart fnrfu`atbs tcb m`gge tg tcb `uids aie enhhbrbit parts gh tcb mgey. mg ey.

=.2 Huiftnginid gh tcb Cbart< Ucb cbart ns envnebe nitg hgur fcakmbrs kaeb up gh a rndct aie a `bht uint, sbparatbe sbparatbe hrgk bafc gtcbr my a partntngi wa`` jigwi as a sbptuk. Bafc fcakmbr ns sumenvnebe nitg ai uppbr aie a `gwbr fcakmbr. Ucb uppbr fcakmbr ns jigwi as ai atrnuk wcn`b tcb `gwbr fcakmbr ns rbhbrrbe tg as a vbitrnf`b. Ucb rndct atrnuk (]A) snts gi tgp gh tcb rndct vbitrnf`b (]X) gi tcb rndct sneb gh tcb cbart wcn`b tcb `bht atrnuk (@A) snts atgp tcb `bht vbitrnf`b (@X) gi tcb `bht. Ucb rndct sneb gh tcb cbart ns rbspgisnm`b hgr sbienid m`gge tg tcb `uids, wcbrb tcb rbe m`gge fb``s pnfj up hrbsc gxydbi. Ucns gxydbiatbe m`gge ns tcbi rbturibe tg tcb `bht sneb gh tcb cbart. Hrgk cbrb tcb gxydbiatbe m`gge ns traispgrtbe tg tcb wcg`b mgey supp`ynid tcb hub` tcat tcb mgey fb``s ibbe tg huiftngi. Ucb m`gge fb``s gh tcb mgey bxtraft gr rbkgvb gxydbi hrgk tcb m`gge. Ucb gxydbi-pggr  m`gge ns rbturibe tg tcb rndct atrnuk, wcbrb tcb lguriby mbdnis. Ucns rguie trnp ns jigwi as tcb fnrfu`atngi gh m`gge.

 Hnd =.5 huiftnginid gh tcb cbart Ucb hndurb scgwi amgvb ns a sbftngi gh tcb cbart, as vnbwbe hrgk tcb hrgit. Nt ebkgistratbs tcb hgur fcakmbrs. Nt ns a`sg gmsbrvbe tcat tcbrb ns ai gpbinid mbtwbbi tcb rndct atrnuk (]A) aie tcb rndct vbitrnf`b (]X). Ucns ns aftua``y a va`vb jigwi as tcb U]NFRV_NE va`vb. Nt cas tcrbb h`bxnm`b tcni

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 parts, jigwi as `bah`bts, tcat gpbi aie scut. Ucb hndurb mb`gw scgws tcb kntra` aie trnfuspne va`vbs, as sbbi hrgk amgvb, ni tcb gpbi aie scut pgsntngi.

 Hnd =.2 Cbart Xa`vbs Tcbi scut, tcb bedb gh tcb tcrbb `bah`bts tgufc bafc gtcbr tg f`gsb tcb gpbinid aie prbvbit m`gge hrgk `bavnid tcb ]X aie dgnid mafj nitg tcb ]A. Ucus, tcb trnfuspne va`vb sbrvbs as a trapeggr va`vb tcat a``gws m`gge tg kgvb gi`y ni gib enrbftngi - hrgk ]A tg ]X. Vnkn`ar`y, tcb KNU]A@ va`vb a``gws  m`gge tg h`gw gi`y gi` y hrgk tcb `bht atrnuk tg tcb `bht vbitrnf`b. Ri`njb tcb trnfuspne va`vb, tcb kntra` va`vb cas gi`y twg `bah`bts. Ni tcb tgp enadrak, wb a`sg igtnfb tcni tcrbae `njb strufturbs attafcbe tg tcb bedbs gh tcb kntra` aie trnfuspne va`vbs. Ucbsb fcgres gr strnids arb jigwi as fcgreab tbienibab.Ucby fgiibfts tcb bedbs gh tcb trnfuspne aie kntra` va`vbs tg kusf`b maies gr papn``ary kusf`bs. Ucb papn``ary kusf`bs scgrtbi aie `bidtcbi eurnid enhhbrbit pcasbs gh tcb farenaf fyf`b aie jbbp tcb va`vb `bah`bts hrgk h`gppnid  mafj nitg tcb atrnuk. Ucb fcgres arb ebsndibe tg fgitrg` tcb kgvbkbit gh tcb va`vb `bah`bts snkn`ar tg rgpbs attafcbe tg tcb san` gh a mgat. @njb rgpbs, tcby a``gw tcb san` tg mu`db gutwares ni tcb enrbftngi gh a wnie mut prbvbit tcbk hrgk cb`p`bss`y h`appnid ni tcb mrbbzb. Tcbi tcb tcrbb `bah`bts gh tcb trnfuspne mu`db up wares eurnid fgitraftngi gr bkptynid gh tcb vbitrnf`bs, tcbnr bedbs tgufc bafc gtcbr aie f`gsb ghh mafjware h`gw tg tcb rndct atrnuk. Ucns nkpgrtait hbaturb a``gws m`gge tg h`gw tcrgudc tcb cbart ni gi`y GIB enrbftngi, aie prbvbits nt hrgk `bajnid mafjwares wcbi tcb va`vb ns scut. Ucb twg `bah`bts gh tcb kntra` va`vb huiftngis ni a snkn`ar kaiibr aie a``gws h`gw gh m`gge hrgk tcb `bht atrnuk tg tcb `bht vbitrnf`b, mut f`gsbs aie futs ghh mafjware `bajadb nitg tcb `bht atrnuk wcbi tcb `bht vbitrnf`b fgitrafts aie starts tg bkpty.

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=.8 B`bftrnfa` fgieuftngi systbk gh tcb Cbart<

B` bftrn fa` fgieuftngi systb ystbk k gh tcb cbar cbar t

Ucb igrka` b`bftrnfa` fgieuftngi gh tcb cbart a``gws b`bftrnfa` prgpadatngi tg mb traisknttbe hrgk tcb snigatrna` igeb tcrgudc mgtc atrna aie hgrware tg tcb atrngvbitrnfu`ar igeb. Igrka`/masb`nib pcysng`gdy a``gws hurtcbr prgpadatngi hrgk tcb AX igeb tg tcb _urjnilb Hnmbrs aie muie`b mraifcbs. Mgtc tcb VA aie AX igebs stnku`atb tcb kygfarenuk.  kygfarenuk.  Nt ns tcb tnkb grebrbe stnku`atngi gh tcb kygfarenuk tcat a``gws bhhnfnbit fgitraftngi gh tcb cbart, tcbrbmy a``gwnid sb`bftnvb m`gge sb`bftnvb m`gge pbrhusngi  pbrhusngi tcrgudcgut tcb mgey.

=.4 Fgieuftngi patcway< Vndia`s arnsnid ni tcb VA igeb (aie prgpadatnid tg tcb `bht atrnuk) stnku`atbs tcb atrna tg fgitraft. Ni para``b`, aftngi pgtbitna`s travb` tg tcb AX igeb vna nitbrigea`  patcways. Ahtbr a eb`ay, tcb stnku`us ns fgieuftbe tcrgudc tcb  muie`b gh Cns tg tcb muie`b mraifcbs aie tcbi tg tcb  purjnilb hnmbrs aie tcb biegfarenuk at tcb apbx gh tcb cbart, tcbi hnia``y tg tcb vbitrnfu`ar kygfarenuk.

 Hnd =.8 Nsg`atbe fgieuftngi  systbk gh tcb cbart

Knfrgsfgpnfa``y, tcb wavb gh ebpg`arnzatngi prgpadatbs tg aelafbit fb``s vna dap luiftngis `gfatbe gi tcb nitbrfa`atbe ensj. Ucb ensj. Ucb cbart ns a huiftngia` a huiftngia` syifytnuk. syifytnuk. Ni a huiftngia` syifytnuk, b`bftrnfa` nkpu`sbs prgpadatb hrbb`y mbtwbbi fb``s ni bvbry enrbftngi, sg tcat tcb kygfarenuk huiftngis as a snid`b fgitraftn`b uint. Ucns  prgpbrty a``gws rapne, syifcrgigus ebpg`arnzatngi gh tcb kygfarenuk. Tcn`b igrka``y aevaitadbgus, tcns  prgpbrty fai mb ebtrnkbita` as nt pgtbitna``y a``gws tcb  prgpadatngi gh nifgrrbft b`bftrnfa` sndia`s. Ucbsb dap  luiftngis fai f`gsb tg nsg`atb eakadbe gr eynid tnssub, as ni a kygfarena` a kygfarena` niharftngi.  Hnd =.4 Cbart: fgieuftngi systbk

=.3 B`bftrgfarengdrak (BFD gr BJD)< Ai BJD ns ai nkpgrtait part gh tcb nintna` bva`uatngi gh a patnbit wcg ns suspbftbe tg cavb a cbart rb`atbe  prgm`bk. Vka`` stnfjy b`bftrgebs arb app`nbe tg tcb patnbit's fcbst, arks aie `bds. Ucb b`bftrnfa` aftnvnty frbatbe my tcb patnbit's cbart ns prgfbssbe my tcb BJD kafcnib aie tcbi prnitbe gi a spbfna` drapc papbr. Ucns ns tcbi nitbrprbtbe my tcb pcysnfnai. Ucb BJD fai prgvneb nkpgrtait 3

nihgrkatngi amgut tcb patnbit's cbart rcytck, a prbvngus cbart attafj, nifrbasbe tcnfjibss gh cbart kusf`b, aie sndis gh ebfrbasbe gxydbi eb`nvbry tg tcb cbart, aie prgm`bks wntc fgieuftngi gh tcb b`bftrnfa` furrbit hrgk gib pgrtngi gh tcb cbart tg aigtcbr.

 Hnd =.3< Ai bxakp`b gh ai BJD gh a patnbit wntc a cbart attafj

=.> Tavbhgrk< VA igeb< _ wavb Riebr igrka` fgientngis, b`bftrnfa` aftnvnty ns spgitaibgus`y dbibratbe my tcb VA igeb, tcb  pcysng`gdnfa` pafbkajbr. Ucns b`bftrnfa` nkpu`sb ns prgpadatbe tcrgudcgut tcb rndct atrnuk, aie tcrgudc Mafckaii's muie`b tg tcb `bht atrnuk, stnku`atnid tcb kygfarenuk gh mgtc atrna tg fgitraft. Ucb fgieuftngi gh tcb b`bftrnfa` nkpu`sb tcrgudcgut tcb `bht aie rndct atrna ns sbbi gi tcb BFD as tcb _ wavb. As tcb b`bftrnfa` aftnvnty ns sprbaenid tcrgudcgut tcb atrna, nt travb`s vna spbfna`nzbe patcways, jigwi as nitbrigea` trafts, trafts, hrgk tcb VA igeb tg tcb AX igeb.

>

 Hnd =.> Ucb BFD fgkp`bx.  _ wavb, _];_] nitbrva`, _;Q]V;Q]V fgkp`bx, QU;QU nitbrva`, VU;VU sbdkbit, U;U wavb

AX igeb< _] nitbrva` Ucb AX igeb huiftngis as a frntnfa` eb`ay ni tcb fgieuftngi systbk. Tntcgut tcns eb`ay, tcb atrna aie vbitrnf`bs wgu`e fgitraft at tcb sakb tnkb, aie m`gge wgu`ei't h`gw bhhbftnvb`y hrgk tcb atrna tg tcb vbitrnf`bs. Ucb eb`ay ni tcb AX igeb hgrks kufc gh tcb _] sbdkbit gi tcb BFD. _art gh atrna` rbpg`arnzatngi fai mb rbprbsbitbe my _] sbdkbit. Ucb ensta` pgrtngi gh tcb AX igeb ns jigwi as tcb  muie`b gh Cns.

_urjnilb hnmbrs/vbitrnfu`ar kygfarenuk< kygfarenuk< Q]V fgkp`bx Ucb twg muie`b mraifcbs tapbr gut tg prgeufb iukbrgus purjnilb hnmbrs, wcnfc stnku`atb nienvneua` drgups gh kygfarena` fb``s tg fgitraft. Ucb sprbae gh b`bftrnfa` aftnvnty (ebpg`arnzatngi) tcrgudc tcb vbitrnfu`ar kygfarenuk prgeufbs tcb Q]V fgkp`bx gi tcb BFD.

Xbitrnfu`ar rbpg`arnzatngi< U wavb Ucb `ast bvbit gh tcb fyf`b ns tcb rbpg`arnzatngi gh tcb vbitrnf`bs. Ucb traistcgrafnfa``y kbasurbe _Q]V  pgrtngi gh ai b`bftrgfarengdrak ns fcnbh`y nih`ubifbe my tcb sykpatcbtnf ibrvgus systbk. Ucb systbk. Ucb U (aie gffasngia``y R) wavbs arb fcnbh`y nih`ubifbe my tcb  parasykpatcbtnf ibrvgus systbk dunebe my nitbdratbe mranistbk nitbdratbe mranistbk fgitrg` hrgk tcb vadus tcb vadus ibrvb aie tcb tcgrafnf spnia` tcgrafnf spnia` affbssgry daid`na.

1?

=.1? Cbart sguies< Ucb cbart sguies arb tcb ignsbs (sguie) dbibratbe (sguie) dbibratbe my tcb mbatnid cbart mbatnid cbart aie tcb rbsu`tait h`gw gh m`gge tcrgudc nt. Ucns ns a`sg fa``be a cbartmbat . Ni farenaf ausfu`tatngi, farenaf ausfu`tatngi, ai  ai bxaknibr usbs a stbtcgsfgpb a stbtcgsfgpb tg `nstbi hgr tcbsb sguies, wcnfc prgvneb nkpgrtait nihgrkatngi amgut tcb fgientngi gh tcb cbart. Ni cba`tcy aeu`ts, tcbrb arb twg igrka` cbart sguies ghtbi ebsfrnmbe as a `um aie `um aie a eum (gr eum (gr eup), eup), tcat gffur ni sbqubifb wntc bafc cbartmbat. Ucbsb arb tcb hnrst cbart sguie (V1) aie sbfgie cbart sguie (V=), prgeufbe my tcb f`gsnid gh tcb AX tcb AX va`vbs aie sbkn`uiar aie sbkn`uiar va`vbs rbspbftnvb`y. Ni aeentngi tg tcbsb igrka` sguies, a varnbty gh gtcbr sguies kay mb prbsbit nif`uenid cbart kurkurs, kurkurs, aevbitntngus  sguies,  sguies, aie da``gp  aie da``gp rcytcks V rcytcks V6 aie V aie V5. Cbart kurkurs arb dbibratbe my turmu`bit h`gw gh m`gge, wcnfc kay gffur nisneb gr gutsneb tcb cbart. Kurkurs kay mb  pcysng`gdnfa`   (mbindi) gr  patcg`gdnfa`   (amigrka`). Amigrka` kurkurs fai mb fausbe my stbigsns rbstrnftnid tcb gpbinid gh a cbart va`vb, rbsu`tnid ni turmu`bifb as m`gge h`gws tcrgudc nt. Amigrka` kurkurs kay a`sg gffur wntc va`vu`ar nisuhhnfnbify  nisuhhnfnbify  (gr rbdurdntatngi), rbdurdntatngi), wcnfc a``gws mafjh`gw gh m`gge wcbi tcb nifgkpbtbit va`vb f`gsbs wntc gi`y partna` bhhbftnvbibss. Enhhbrbit kurkurs arb auenm`b ni enhhbrbit parts gh tcb farenaf tcb farenaf fyf`b, ebpbienid fyf`b, ebpbienid gi tcb fausb gh tcb kurkur.

 Hnd =.1? Hrgit gh tcgrax, scgwnid surhafb rb`atngis gh mgibs, `uids (purp`b),  _`bura (m`ub) aie cbart (rbe gut`nib). Cbart va`vbs arb `amb`be wntc ‐K‛,‛U‛,‛A‛ aie ‐_‛  Hnrst cbart sguie< fausbe my AX va`vbs - Kntra` - Kntra` (K) aie  Urnfuspne  Urnfuspne (U).

11

=.1?.1 Hnrst cbart sguie (V 1)< Ucb hnrst cbart tgib, gr V1, hgrks tcb "`umm" gh "`umm-eum" gr "`umm-eup" aie ns fgkpgsbe gh fgkpgibits K1 aie U1. Igrka``y K1 prbfbebs U1 s`ndct`y. Nt ns fausbe my tcb sueebi m`gfj gh rbvbrsb  m`gge h`gw eub tg f`gsurb gh tcb atrngvbitrnfu`ar   va`vbs,  va`vbs,  n.b. kntra` n.b. kntra` aie trnfuspne, aie trnfuspne, at  at tcb mbdniinid gh vbitrnfu`ar fgitraftngi, gr  systg`b. Tcbi  systg`b. Tcbi tcb vbitrnf`bs mbdni tg fgitraft, sg eg tcb papn``ary kusf`bs ni bafc vbitrnf`b. Ucb papn``ary kusf`bs arb attafcbe tg tcb trnfuspne aie kntra` va`vbs vna fcgreab tbienibab, wcnfc mrnid tcb fusps gh tcb va`vb f`gsbe (fcgreab tbienibab a`sg prbvbit tcb va`vbs hrgk  m`gwnid nitg tcb atrna as vbitrnfu`ar prbssurb rnsbs eub tg fgitraftngi). Ucb f`gsnid gh tcb ni`bt va`vbs  prbvbits rbdurdntatngi gh m`gge hrgk tcb vbitrnf`bs mafj nitg tcb atrna. Ucb V1  sguie rbsu`ts hrgk rbvbrmbratngi wntcni tcb m`gge assgfnatbe wntc tcb sueebi m`gfj gh h`gw rbvbrsa` my tcb va`vbs. Nh U1 gffurs kgrb tcai s`ndct`y ahtbr K1, tcbi tcb patnbit `njb`y cas a eyshuiftngi gh fgieuftngi gh tcb rndct sneb gh tcb cbart sufc as a ]ndct a ]ndct muie`b mraifc m`gfj.

=.1?.= Vbfgie cbart sguie (V =)< Ucb sbfgie cbart tgib, gr V=, hgrks tcb "eum" gh "`umm-eum" gr "`umm- eup" aie ns fgkpgsbe gh fgkpgibits A= aie _=. Igrka``y A= prbfbebs _= bspbfna``y eurnid nispnratngi wcbi a sp`nt gh V= fai mb cbare. Nt ns fausbe my tcb sueebi m`gfj gh rbvbrsnid m`gge h`gw eub tg f`gsurb gh tcb agrtnf tcb agrtnf va`vb aie  pu`kgiary va`vb at tcb bie gh vbitrnfu`ar systg`b,  systg`b,  n.b. mbdniinid gh vbitrnfu`ar enastg`b.  enastg`b.  As tcb `bht vbitrnf`b bkptnbs, nts prbssurb ha``s mb`gw tcb prbssurb ni tcb agrta, tcb agrta, agrtnf  agrtnf m`gge h`gw qunfj`y rbvbrsbs  mafj tgware tcb `bht vbitrnf`b, fatfcnid tcb agrtnf va`vb `bah`bts aie ns stgppbe my m y agrtnf (gut`bt) va`vb f`gsurb. Vnkn`ar`y, as tcb prbssurb ni tcb rndct vbitrnf`b ha``s mb`gw tcb prbssurb ni tcb  pu`kgiary artbry, tcb artbry, tcb pu`kgiary (gut`bt) va`vb f`gsbs. Ucb V= sguie rbsu`ts hrgk rbvbrmbratngi wntcni tcb m`gge assgfnatbe wntc tcb sueebi m`gfj gh h`gw rbvbrsa`.

=.11 Bxtra cbart sguies< Ucb rarbr bxtra cbart sguies hgrk da``gp rcytcks aie arb cbare ni mgtc igrka` aie amigrka` sntuatngis.

=.11.1 Ucnre cbart sguie (V6) ]arb`y, tcbrb kay mb a tcnre a tcnre cbart sguie a`sg fa``be a prgtgenastg`nf da``gp gr vbitrnfu`ar da``gp . Nt gffurs at tcb mbdniinid gh enastg`b ahtbr V= aie ns `gwbr ni pntfc tcai V1 gr V= as nt ns igt gh va`vu`ar grndni. Ucb tcnre cbart sguie ns mbindi ni ygutc aie sgkb tranibe atc`btbs, mut nh nt rb-bkbrdbs `atbr ni `nhb nt kay sndia` farenaf prgm`bks `njb a han`nid `bht vbitrnf`b as ni en`atbe fgidbstnvb cbart han`urb (FCH). V6 ns tcgudct tg mb fausbe my tcb gsfn``atngi gh m`gge mafj aie hgrtc mbtwbbi tcb wa``s gh tcb vbitrnf`bs nintnatbe my niruscnid m`gge hrgk tcb atrna. Ucb rbasgi tcb tcnre cbart sguie egbs igt gffur uitn` tcb knee`b tcnre gh enastg`b ns prgmam`y mbfausb eurnid tcb bar`y part gh enastg`b, tcb vbitrnf`bs arb igt hn``be suhhnfnbit`y tg frbatb bigudc tbisngi hgr rbvbrmbratngi.. Ni gtcbr wgres, ai V6 cbart sguie nienfatbs nifrbasbe vg`ukb gh m`gge wntcni tcb vbitrnf`b. Ai V6 cbart sguie ns mbst cbare wntc tcb mb``sneb gh tcb stbtcgsfgpb (usbe hgr `gwbr hrbqubify sguies).

1=

=.11.= Hgurtc cbart sguie (V5)< Ucb rarb hgurtc rarb hgurtc cbart sguie ns sgkbtnkbs auenm`b ni cba`tcy fcn`erbi aie adani ni tranibe atc`btbs, mut wcbi auenm`b ni ai aeu`t ns fa``be a prbsystg`nf da``gp  gr atrna` da``gp . Ucns da``gp ns prgeufbe my tcb sguie gh m`gge mbnid hgrfbe nitg a stnhh/cypbrtrgpcnf vbitrnf`b. Nt ns a sndi gh a patcg`gdnf statb, usua``y a han`nid `bht vbitrnf`b, mut fai a`sg mb cbare ni gtcbr fgientngis sufc as rbstrnftnvb farengkygpatcy. Ucb sguie gffurs lust ahtbr atrna` fgitraftngi ("atrna` jnfj") at tcb bie gh enastg`b aie nkkbenatb`y nkkbenatb`y  mbhgrb V1, prgeufnid a rcytck sgkbtnkbs rbhbrrbe tg as tcb "Ubiibssbb" da``gp "Ubiibssbb" da``gp wcbrb V5 rbprbsbits tcb "tbii-" sy``am`b. Nt ns mbst cbare at tcb farenaf apbx wntc tcb patnbit ni tcb `bht `atbra` ebfumntus  pgsntngi aie cg`enid cns mrbatc. Ucb fgkmnibe prbsbifb gh V6 aie V5 ns a quaerup`b da``gp . At rapne cbart ratbs, V6 aie V5 kay kbrdb tg prgeufb a sukkatngi da``gp .

=.1= Kurkurs<  Cbart kurkurs arb prgeufbe as a rbsu`t gh turmu`bit h`gw gh m`gge, turmu`bifb suhhnfnbit tg prgeufb auenm`b ignsb. Ucby arb usua``y cbare as a wcggscnid sguie. Ucb tbrk kurkur gi`y rbhbrs tg a sguie  mb`nbvbe tg grndniatb wntcni m`gge h`gw tcrgudc gr ibar tcb cbart: cba rt: rapne m`gge vb`gfnty ns ibfbssary tg  prgeufb a kurkur. ^bt kgst cbart prgm`bks eg igt prgeufb aiy kurkur aie kgst va`vb prgm`bks a`sg eg igt prgeufb ai auenm`b kurkur.

 Hnd =.11 Kurkurs _rgeufbe my tcb Cbart Ucb hg``gwnid paradrapcs gvbrvnbw tcb kurkurs kgst fgkkgi`y cbare ni aeu`ts wcg eg igt cavb kalgr fgidbinta` cbart amigrka`ntnbs.

16

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









]bdurdntatngi tcrgudc tcb kntra` va`vb ns my har tcb kgst fgkkgi`y cbare kurkur, sgkbtnkbs hanr`y `gue tg a praftnfbe bar, bvbi tcgudc tcb vg`ukb gh rbdurdntait m`gge h`gw kay mb quntb ska``. ^bt, tcgudc gmvngus usnid bfcgfarengdrapcy usnid bfcgfarengdrapcy vnsua`nzatngi, prgmam`y amgut =?% gh fasbs gh kntra` rbdurdntatngi egbs igt prgeufb ai aue nm`b kurkur. Vtbigsns gh tcb agrtnf va`vb ns typnfa``y tcb ibxt kgst fgkkgi cbart kurkur, a systg`nf blbftngi kurkur. Ucns ns kgrb fgkkgi ni g`ebr aeu`ts gr ni tcgsb nienvneua`s cavnid a twg, igt a tcrbb `bah`bt agrtnf va`vb. ]bdurdntatngi tcrgudc tcb agrtnf va`vb, nh karjbe, ns sgkbtnkbs auenm`b tg a praftnfbe praftnfbe bar wntc a cndc qua`nty, bspbfna``y b`bftrginfa``y akp`nhnbe, stbtcgsfgpb. Dbibra``y, tcns ns a vbry rarb`y cbare kurkur, bvbi tcgudc agrtnf va`vb rbdurdntatngi ns igt sg rarb. Agrtnf rbdurdntatngi, tcgudc gmvngus usnid bfcgfarengdrapcy vnsua`nzatngi, usua``y egbs igt prgeufb ai auenm`b kurkur. Vtbigsns gh tcb kntra` va`vb, nh sbvbrb, a`sg rarb`y prgeufbs ai auenm`b, `gw hrbqubify sght rukm`nid kurkur, mbst rbfgdinzbe my a praftnfbe bar usnid a cndc qua`nty, bspbfna``y b`bftrginfa``y akp`nhnbe, stbtcgsfgpb. Bntcbr rbdurdntatngi tcrgudc, gr stbigsns gh, tcb trnfuspne gr pu`kgiary va`vbs bssbitna``y ibvbr  prgeufbs auenm`b kurkurs. Gtcbr auenm`b kurkurs arb assgfnatbe wntc amigrka` gpbinids mbtwbbi tcb `bht vbitrnf`b aie rndct cbart gr hrgk tcb agrtnf gr pu`kgiary artbrnbs mafj nitg a `gwbr prbssurb cbart fcakmbr.

Draeatngis gh Kurkurs Draeb

Draeb 1 Draeb = Draeb 6 Draeb 5 Draeb 2 Draeb 8

(Ebhnibe masbe gi usb gh ai afgustnf, igt a cndc-hneb`nty akp`nhnbe b`bftrginf stbtcgsfgpb Ebsfrnptngi Xbry hanit, cbare gi`y ahtbr `nstbibr cas "tuibe ni": kay igt mb cbare ni a`` pgsntngis. Qunbt, mut cbare nkkbenatb`y ahtbr p`afnid tcb stbtcgsfgpb gi tcb fcbst. Kgebratb`y `gue. @gue, wntc pa`pam`b tcrn`` (n.b., a trbkgr gr vnmratngi hb`t gi  pa`patngi) Xbry `gue, wntc tcrn``. Kay mb cbare wcbi stbtcgsfgpb ns part`y ghh tcb fcbst. Xbry `gue, wntc tcrn``. Kay mb cbare wntc stbtcgsfgpb bitnrb`y ghh tcb fcbst.

Uam`b =.1 Ebsfrnptngi gh Kurkurs

15

FCA_UB] 6< BS_B]NKBIUA@ VBUR_ Ucb prglbft bifgkpassbs tcb nkp`bkbitatngi aie vbrnhnfatngi gh a hu``y huiftngia` b`bftrginf masbe stbtcgsfgpb tcat autgkatnfa``y nebitnhnbs tcb hgur sguies gh tcb cbart aie systg`nf aie enastg`nf kurkurs rb`atbe tg va`vu`ar nisuhhnfnbify aie stbigsns. Ug start wntc, a rgudc f`assnhnfatngi gh tcb hnrst aie sbfgie cbart sguie ns ibbebe. Ucbsb arb masbe gi tcb haft tcat tcb grndni gh cbart sguies aie kurkurs arb enhhbrbit: cbart sguies grndniatbs hrgk tcb f`gsnid gh tcb v a`vbs wcn`b tcb kurkurs arb dbibratbe hrgk a turmu`bit m`gge h`gw tcrgudc tcb va`vbs ni rbspgisb tg patcg`gdnbs ni tcb va`vb. Ucus tcb kurkurs arb kgrb fcagtnf tcai tcb cbart sguies. B`bftrginf stbtcgsfgpbs rbqunrb fgivbrsngi gh afgustnf sguie wavbs tg tg b`bftrnfa` sndia`s sndia`s wcnfc fai tcbi mb akp`nhnbe aie prgfbssbe hgr gptnka` `nstbinid. Cbart sguies, rbspnratgry sguies aie kurkurs arb cbare `gue aie f`bar. Ucb hanit kurkur gr amigrka`ntnbs tcat arb ghtbi knssbe my tcb rbdu`ar stbtcgsfgpbs arb basn`y ebtbftbe wntc tcns stbtcgsfgpb. Nt gvbrfgkbs tcb `gw sguie `bvb`s my b`bftrginfa``y akp`nhynid mgey sguies. Ni tcb prglbft uiebrtajbi my us wb cavb usbe a stbtcgsfgpb cbae tg afqunrb tcb cbart sndia` aie gib bie gh ai afgustnfa``y nisu`atbe tumb ns nisbrtbe. Ni tcns cbae tcb afqunrbe sndia` ns passbe tg traiseufbr  prbsbit ni tcb tumb at aigtcbr bie. Ucns traiseufbr fgivbrts tcb cbart sguie sndia` tg b`bftrnfa` sndia` sg tcat nt fai mb nitbrhafbe tg a fgkputbr. Tb wn`` rbqunrb ai aia`gd tg endnta` fgivbrtbr (AEF) tg fcaidb tcns aia`gd sndia` nitg endnta` sndia`. Mut hgr farrynid gut tcns fgivbrsngi, hnrst`y tcb sndia` ibbes tg mb akp`nhnbe aie a `bvb` scnhtbr ns a`sg rbqunrbe hgr `bvb` scnhtnid tcns sndia` as tcb AEF gpbratbs wntc tcb  pgsntnvb part gh tcb sndia`. Ucb endnta` eata ns traishbrrbe tg a fgkputbr tcrgudc RVM pgrt. As tcb traiseufbr wn`` a`sg pnfj up tcb surrguienid ignsbs a ignsb faifb``atngi tbfcinqub wcnfc dnvbs 4?% ignsb rbeuftngi ns usbe. Ucns ebsndi prgvnebs a `gw prnfb b`bftrginf stbtcgsfgpb.

6.1 Vbqubifb gh tcb prglbft< Ucb prglbft wn`` mb affgkp`nscbe ni tcb hg``gwnid stadbs< Vtadb 1< Carewarb Nkp`bkbitatngi. Vtadb =< Vghtwarb Nkp`bkbitatngi.

12

FCA_UB] 5 Carewarb nkp`bkbitatngi< nkp`bkbitatngi< Carewarb nkp`bkbitatngi cas mbbi egib gi a sg`ebr `bss mrbaemgare utn`nznid tcb hg``gwnid fgkpgibits wcnfc arb ebsfrnmbe as hg``gws.

5.1 Mrbaemgare< A mrbaemgare ns usbe tg mun`e aie tbst fnrfunts qunfj`y mbhgrb hnia`nznid aiy fnrfunt ebsndi. Ucb mrbaemgare cas kaiy cg`bs nitg wcnfc fnrfunt fgkpgibits `njb NFs aie rbsnstgrs fai mb nisbrtbe. A typnfa` mrbaemgare ns scgwi mb`gw<

Hnd 5.1 Mrbaemgare Ucb mrbae mgare cas strnps gh kbta` kbta` wcnfc rui uiebribatc tcb mgare aie fgiibft tcb cg`bs gi tcb tgp gh tcb mgare. Ucb kbta` strnps arb `ane gut as scgwi mb`gw. Igtb tcat tcb tgp aie mgttgk rgws gh cg`bs arb fgiibftbe cgrnzgita``y wcn`b tcb rbkaninid cg`bs arb fgiibftbe vbrtnfa``y. Ug usb tcb mrbae mgare, tcb `bds gh fgkpgibits arb p`afbe ni tcb cg`bs. Bafc sbt gh cg`bs fgiibftbe my a kbta` strnp uiebribatc hgrks a igeb. igeb. A igeb ns a pgnit ni a fnrfunt wcbrb twg fgkpgibits arb fgiibftbe. Fgiibftngis mbtwbbi enhhbrbit fgkpgibits arb hgrkbe my puttnid tcbnr `bds ni a fgkkgi igeb. Ucb `gid tgp aie mgttgk rgw gh cg`bs arb usua``y usbe hgr pgwbr supp`y fgiibftngis. Ucb rbst gh tcb fnrfunt ns mun`t my p`afnid fgkpgibits aie fgiibftnid tcbk tgdbtcbr wntc lukpbr wnrbs. NFs arb p`afbe ni tcb knee`b gh tcb mgare sg tcat ca`h gh tcb `bds arb gi gib sneb gh tcb knee`b `nib aie ca`h gi tcb gtcbr.

5.= Dbibra` ebsfrnptngi< ebsfrnptngi< Ucb masnf fnrfunt enadrak nkp`bkbitbe ns as scgwi<

18

 Hnd 5.= Dbibra` M`gfj Enadrak

Fgkpgibits

Ugta` quaitnty

Ebsfrnptngi

R=, R6,R4

6

R1

1

(@K451FI) gpbratngia` akp`nhnbr  (?3?5) AEF

F1,F6

=

(?.2²H) fapafntgr 

F=,F5

=

(?.54²H) fapafntgr 

]1,]3,]5.]8

6

(66ℨj ) rbsnstgr 

]=,]4

=

(28ℨj) rbsnstgr 

]2,]6

=

(18?ℨj) rbsnstgr 

]>

1

(54ℨj) rbsnstgr 

14

]11

1

(=.=ℨj) rbsnstgr 

S@X1

1

Knfrgpcgib

SVF1

1

F]G

S@X5

1

Vndia` Aia`yzbr 

Uam`b 6.1 @nst gh Fgkpgibits Rsbe

5.6 Gpbratngia` akp`nhnbr< Ai gpbratngia` akp`nhnbr , wcnfc ns ghtbi fa``be ai gp-akp, ns a EF-fgup`be EF-fgup`be cndc-dani cndc-dani b`bftrginf vg`tadb akp`nhnbr vg`tadb akp`nhnbr wntc a enhhbrbitna` niput aie, usua``y, a snid`b-biebe gutput. Ai gp-akp prgeufbs ai gutput vg`tadb tcat ns typnfa``y kn``ngis gh tnkbs `ardbr tcai tcb vg`tadb enhhbrbifb  enhhbrbifb  mbtwbbi nts niput tbrknia`s.

 Hnd 5.6 Xarngus gp-akp NFs gp-akp NFs ni bndct-pni eua` bndct-pni eua` ni-`nib pafjadbs ("EN_s") Uypnfa``y tcb gp-akp's vbry `ardb dani ns fgitrg``be my ibdatnvb hbbemafj, wcnfc hbbemafj, wcnfc `ardb`y ebtbrknibs tcb kadintueb gh nts gutput ("f`gsbe-`ggp") vg`tadb dani ni akp`nhnbr app`nfatngis, gr tcb traishbr huiftngi rbqunrbe (ni aia`gd fgkputbrs). fgkputbrs). Tntcgut ibdatnvb hbbemafj, aie pbrcaps wntc  pgsntnvb hbbemafj hgr rbdbibratngi,  rbdbibratngi,  ai gp-akp bssbitna``y afts as a  a  fgkparatgr.  fgkparatgr.  Cndc niput nkpbeaifb at tcb niput tbrknia`s (neba``y nihnintb) aie `gw gutput nkpbeaifb at tcb gutput tbrknia`(s) (neba``y zbrg) arb nkpgrtait typnfa` fcaraftbrnstnfs. Gp-akps arb akgid tcb kgst wneb`y usbe b`bftrginf ebvnfbs tgeay, mbnid usbe ni a vast array gh fgisukbr, nieustrna`, aie sfnbitnhnf ebvnfbs.

13

5.6.1 Fnrfunt igtatngi< igtatngi< Ucb fnrfunt sykmg` hgr ai gp-akp ns scgwi, wcbrb<     

 Hnd 5.5 Fnrfunt enadrak sykmg` hgr ai gp-akp

X+< igi-nivbrtnid niput X-< nivbrtnid niput Xgut< gutput Xs+< pgsntnvb pgwbr supp`y Xs-< ibdatnvb pgwbr supp`y

5.6.= Gpbratngi<  Hnd 5.2 Gp-Akp as a Vwntfc Ucb akp`nhnbr's enhhbrbitna` niputs fgisnst gh a niput aie a niput, aie neba``y tcb gp-akp akp`nhnbs gi`y tcb enhhbrbifb ni vg`tadb mbtwbbi tcb twg, wcnfc ns fa``be tcb enhhbrbitna` niput vg`tadb. vg`tadb. Ucb gutput vg`tadb gh tcb gp-akp ns dnvbi dnvbi  my tcb bquatngi,

wcbrb ns tcb vg`tadb at tcb igi-nivbrtnid tbrknia`, ns tcb vg`tadb at tcb nivbrtnid tbrknia` aie Dgpbi-`ggp  ns tcb gpbi-`ggp dani gh tcb akp`nhnbr. (Ucb tbrk gpbi-`ggp rbhbrs tg tcb amsbifb gh a hbbemafj `ggp hrgk tcb gutput tg tcb niput.) Ucb kadintueb gh Dgpbi-`ggp  ns typnfa``y vbry `ardb ― sb`egk sb`egk `bss tcai a kn``ngi ― aie aie tcbrbhgrb bvbi a quntb ska`` enhhbrbifb mbtwbbi aie (a hbw knfrgvg`ts gr `bss) wn`` rbsu`t ni akp`nhnbr saturatngi, wcbrb tcb gutput vg`tadb dgbs tg bntcbr tcb bxtrbkb kaxnkuk gr kninkuk bie gh nts raidb, wcnfc ns sbt apprgxnkatb`y my tcb pgwbr supp`y vg`tadbs. Hni`by's vg`tadbs. Hni`by's `aw statbs tcat "Tcbi tcb nivbrtnid aie igi-nivbrtnid niputs gh ai gp-akp arb igt bqua`, nts gutput ns ni saturatngi." Aeentngia``y, tcb prbfnsb kadintueb gh Dgpbi-`ggp ns igt wb`` fgitrg``be my tcb kaiuhafturnid prgfbss, 1>

Tntc ig ibdatnvb hbbemafj, tcb gp-akp afts as a swntfc. Ucb nivbrtnid niput ns cb`e at drguie (? X) my tcb rbsnstgr, sg nh tcb Xni app`nbe tg tcb igi-nivbrtnid niput ns pgsntnvb, tcb gutput wn`` mb kaxnkuk  pgsntnvb, aie nh Xni ns ibdatnvb, tcb gutput wn`` mb kaxnkuk ibdatnvb. Vnifb tcbrb ns ig hbbemafj hrgk tcb gutput tg bntcbr niput, tcns ns ai gpbi ai gpbi `ggp fnrfunt.

 Hnd 5.8 Gp-Akp wntc hbbemafj Aeenid ibdatnvb hbbemafj vna ] h h rbeufbs   tcb dani. Bqun`nmrnuk wn`` mb bstam`nscbe wcbi Xgut ns lust suhhnfnbit tg rbafc arguie aie pu`` tcb nivbrtnid niput tg tcb sakb vg`tadb as Xni. As a snkp`b bxakp`b, nh Xni ; 1 X aie ] h h ;   ] d, Xgut wn`` mb = X, tcb akguit rbqunrbe tg jbbp j bbp X ‖  at 1 X. Mbfausb gh tcb hbbemafj  prgvnebe my ] h h,  tcns ns a f`gsbe `ggp fnrfunt. Nts gvbr-a`` dani Xgut / Xni ns fa``be tcb f`gsbe-`ggp dani D dani Df`gsbe-`ggp.

aie sg nt ns nkpraftnfa` tg usb ai gpbratngia` akp`nhnbr as a staie-a`gib enhhbrbitna` staie-a`gib enhhbrbitna` akp`nhnbr. Nh akp`nhnbr.  Nh `nibar gpbratngi ns ebsnrbe, ibdatnvb hbbemafj kust mb usbe, usua``y afcnbvbe my app`ynid a pgrtngi gh tcb gutput vg`tadb tg tcb nivbrtnid niput. Ucb hbbemafj biam`bs tcb gutput gh tcb akp`nhnbr tg jbbp tcb niputs at gr ibar tcb sakb vg`tadb sg tcat saturatngi egbs igt gffur. Aigtcbr mbibhnt ns tcat nh kufc ibdatnvb hbbemafj ns usbe, tcb fnrfunt's gvbra`` dani aie gtcbr parakbtbrs mbfgkb ebtbrknibe kgrb my tcb hbbemafj ibtwgrj tcai my tcb gp-akp ntsb`h. Nh tcb hbbemafj ibtwgrj ns kaeb gh fgkpgibits wntc rb`atnvb`y fgistait, prbenftam`b, va`ubs sufc as rbsnstgrs, fapafntgrs aie nieuftgrs, tcb uiprbenftamn`nty aie nifgistaify gh tcb gp-akp's parakbtbrs (typnfa` gh sbknfgieuftgr ebvnfbs) eg igt sbrngus`y sbrngus`y ahhbft tcb fnrfunt's pbrhgrkaifb. Nh ig ibdatnvb hbbemafj ns usbe, tcb gp-akp huiftngis as a swntfc gr fgkparatgr. _gsntnvb hbbemafj kay mb usbe tg nitrgeufb cystbrbsns nitrgeufb cystbrbsns gr gsfn``atngi. ]bturinid tg a fgisnebratngi gh `nibar (ibdatnvb hbbemafj) gpbratngi, tcb cndc gpbi-`ggp dani aie `gw niput `bajadb furrbit gh tcb gp-akp nkp`y twg "dg`ebi ru`bs" tcat arb cndc`y usbhu` ni aia`ysnid `nibar gp-akp fnrfunts.

5.6.6 Dg`ebi ru`bs gh gp-akp ibdatnvb hbbemafj< Nh tcbrb ns ibdatnvb hbbemafj aie nh tcb gutput ns igt saturatbe, 1. Mgtc niputs arb at tcb sakb vg`tadb. =.  Ig furrbit h`gws ni gr gut gh bntcbr niput. Ucbsb ru`bs arb trub gh tcb neba` gp-akp aie hgr praftnfa` purpgsbs arb trub gh rba` gp-akps ui`bss vbry cndc-spbbe gr cndc-prbfnsngi pbrhgrkaifb ns mbnid fgitbkp`atbe (ni wcnfc fasb affguit kust mb tajbi gh tcnids sufc as niput fapafntaifb, niput mnas furrbits aie vg`tadbs, hnintb spbbe, aie gtcbr   gp-akp nkpbrhbftngis) As a fgisbqubifb gh tcb hnrst ru`b, tcb niput tcb niput nkpbeaifb gh tcb twg niputs wn`` mb ibar`y nihnintb. Ucat ns, bvbi nh tcb gpbi-`ggp nkpbeaifb mbtwbbi tcb twg niputs ns `gw, tcb f`gsbe-`ggp niput nkpbeaifb wn`` mb cndc mbfausb tcb niputs wn`` mb cb`e at ibar`y tcb sakb vg`tadb. Ucns nkpbeaifb ns fgisnebrbe as nihnintb hgr ai neba` gp-akp aie ns amgut gib kbdagck gib kbdagck ni praftnfb.

5.6.5 Neba` aie rba` gp-akps< Ai neba` gp-akp ns usua``y fgisnebrbe tg cavb tcb hg``gwnid prgpbrtnbs, aie tcby arb fgisnebrbe tg cg`e hgr a`` niput vg`tadbs< 





Nihnintb gpbi-`ggp dani (wcbi egnid tcbgrbtnfa` aia`ysns, a `nknt kay mb tajbi as gpbi `ggp dani D dgbs tg nihninty) Nihnintb vg`tadb raidb avan`am`b at tcb gutput (v (vgut) (ni praftnfb tcb vg`tadbs avan`am`b hrgk tcb gutput arb `nkntbe my tcb supp`y vg`tadbs aie ) Nihnintb maiewnetc Nihnintb maiewnetc (n.b., tcb hrbqubify kadintueb rbspgisb ns fgisnebrbe tg mb h`at bvbrywcbrb wntc zbrg pcasb zbrg pcasb scnht). scnht). =?

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 

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  

Nihnintb niput Nihnintb niput nkpbeaifb (sg, ni tcb enadrak, , aie zbrg furrbit h`gws hrgk tg ) \brg niput furrbit (n.b., tcbrb ns assukbe tg mb ig `bajadb ig `bajadb gr  mnas  mnas furrbit nitg tcb ebvnfb) \brg niput \brg niput ghhsbt vg`tadb (n.b., wc wcbi tc tcb ni niput tb tbrknia`s ar arb sc scgrtbe sg sg tc tcat , tc tcb gu gutput ns a vnrtua` a vnrtua` drguie gr vgut ; ?). Nihnintb s`bw ratb (n.b., tcb ratb gh fcaidb gh tcb gutput vg`tadb ns uimguiebe) aie pgwbr  maiewnetc (hu`` gutput vg`tadb aie furrbit avan`am`b at a`` hrbqubifnbs). \brg gutput nkpbeaifb (n.b.,  ]gut  ; ?, sg tcat gutput vg`tadb egbs igt vary wntc gutput furrbit) \brg ignsb \brg ignsb Nihnintb Fgkkgi-kgeb Nihnintb Fgkkgi-kgeb rblbftngi ratng (FK]]) Nihnintb _gwbr supp`y rblbftngi ratng hgr mgtc pgwbr supp`y ran`s.

Ni praftnfb, igib gh tcbsb neba`s fai mb rba`nzbe, aie varngus scgrtfgknids aie fgkprgknsbs cavb tg mb affbptbe. Ebpbienid gi tcb parakbtbrs gh nitbrbst, a rba` gp-akp kay  mb kgeb`be tg tajb affguit gh sgkb gh tcb igi -nihnintb gr igizbrg parakbtbrs usnid bqunva`bit rbsnstgrs aie fapafntgrs ni tcb gp-akp kgeb`. Ucb ebsndibr fai tcbi nif`ueb tcb bhhbfts gh tcbsb uiebsnram`b, mut rba`, bhhbfts nitg tcb gvbra``  pbrhgrkaifb gh tcb hnia` fnrfunt. Vgkb parakbtbrs kay turi gut tg cavb  cavb  ibd`ndnm`b bhhbft gi tcb hnia` ebsndi wcn`b gtcbrs rbprbsbit aftua` `nkntatngis gh tcb hnia` pbrhgrkaifb tcat kust  mb bva`uatbe.

 Hnd 5.4 Ai bqunva`bit fnrfunt gh ai gpbratngia` akp`nhnbr tcat kgeb`s sgkb rbsnstnvb igineba` parakbtbrs.

5.6.2 Gpbratngia` Gpbratngia` akp`nhnbr akp`nhnbr NF (@K451FI)< Tb cavb usbe NF @K451FI gpbratngia` akp`nhnbr ni gur prglbft.

5.6.2.1 Dbibra` Ebsfrnptngi< Ucb @K451 sbrnbs arb dbibra` purpgsb gpbratngia` akp`nhnbrs wcnfc hbaturb nkprgvbe pbrhgrkaifb gvbr nieustry staieares `njb tcb @K4?>. Ucby arb enrbft, p`ud-ni rbp`afbkbits hgr tcb 4?>F, @K=?1, KF156> aie 453 ni kgst app`nfatngis. Ucb akp`nhnbrs ghhbr kaiy hbaturbs< Gvbr`gae prgtbftngi gi tcb niput aie gutput,  Ig `atfc-up wcbi tcb fgkkgi kgeb raidb ns bxfbbebe Hrbbegk hrgk gsfn``atngis. Ucb @K451F ns nebitnfa` tg tcb @K451/@K451A bxfbpt tcat tcb @K451F cas tcbnr pbrhgrkaifb duaraitbbe gvbr a ?¿F tg +4?¿F +4? ¿F tbkpbraturb raidb, nistbae gh ∝22¿F tg +1= 2¿F.   

=1

5.6.2.= Nitbria` fnrfuntry gh 451 typb gp-akp< Ucgudc ebsndis vary mbtwbbi prgeufts aie kaiuhafturbrs, a`` gp-akps cavb masnfa``y tcb sakb nitbria` strufturb, wcnfc fgisnsts gh tcrbb stadbs< 1. Enhhbrbitna` akp`nhnbr ‖  akp`nhnbr ‖   prgvnebs `gw ignsb akp`nhnfatngi, cndc niput nkpbeaifb, usua``y a enhhbrbitna` gutput. =. Xg`tadb akp`nhnbr ‖  akp`nhnbr ‖  prgvnebs  prgvnebs cndc vg`tadb dani, a snid`b-pg`b hrbqubify rg``-ghh, hrbqubify rg``-ghh, usua``y  usua``y snid`bbiebe gutput. 6. Gutput akp`nhnbr ‖  akp`nhnbr ‖   prgvnebs cndc furrbit ernvnid fapamn`nty, `gw gutput nkpbeaifb,  nkpbeaifb,  furrbit `nkntnid aie scgrt fnrfunt prgtbftngi fnrfuntry.

 Hnd 5.3 A fgkpgibit `bvb` enadrak gh tcb fgkkgi 451 gp-akp. Egttbe `nibs gut`nib furrbit knrrgr wn`` eraw furrbit away hrgk tcb masbs gh Q6 aie Q5, wcnfc rbeufbs tcb niput stadb furrbit, aie vnfb vbrsa. Ucb hbbemafj `ggp a`sg nsg`atbs tcb rbst gh tcb fnrfunt hrgk fgkkgi-kgeb hrgk  fgkkgi-kgeb sndia`s my sndia`s  my kajnid tcb masb vg`tadb gh Q6/Q5 hg``gw tndct`y =X  =X mb mb mb`gw tcb cndcbr gh tcb twg niput vg`tadbs.

5.6.2.5 Enhhbrbitna` akp`nhnbr< Ucb m`ub gut`nibe sbftngi ns a enhhbrbitna` akp`nhnbr.  akp`nhnbr.  Q1 aie Q= arb niput bknttbr hg``gwbrs aie tgdbtcbr wntc tcb fgkkgi tcb fgkkgi masb panr masb  panr Q6 aie Q5 hgrk tcb enhhbrbitna` niput stadb. Ni aeentngi, Q6 aie Q5 a`sg aft as `bvb` scnhtbrs aie prgvneb vg`tadb dani tg ernvb tcb f`ass A akp`nhnbr. Ucby a`sg cb`p tg nifrbasb tcb rbvbrsb X  mb  ratnid gi tcb niput traisnstgrs (tcb bknttbr-masb luiftngis gh tcb I_I traisnstgrs Q1 aie Q= mrbaj egwi at arguie 4 X mut tcb _I_ traisnstgrs Q6 aie Q5 cavb mrbajegwi vg`tadbs arguie 2? X. Ucb enhhbrbitna` akp`nhnbr hgrkbe my Q1 ‖ Q5 Q5 ernvbs a furrbit knrrgr  aftnvb   aftnvb `gae hgrkbe my traisnstgrs Q2 ‖ Q4 Q4 (aftua``y, Q8 ns tcb vbry aftnvb `gae). Q4 nifrbasbs tcb affurafy gh tcb furrbit knrrgr my ebfrbasnid tcb akguit gh sndia` furrbit rbqunrbe hrgk Q6 tg ernvb tcb masbs gh Q2 aie Q8. Ucns fgihnduratngi prgvnebs enhhbrbitna` tg snid`b biebe fgivbrsngi as hg``gws< Ucb sndia` furrbit gh Q6 ns tcb niput tg tcb furrbit knrrgr wcn`b tcb gutput gh tcb knrrgr (tcb fg``bftgr gh Q8) ns fgiibftbe tg tcb fg``bftgr gh Q5. Cbrb, tcb sndia` furrbits gh Q6 aie Q5 arb sukkbe. Hgr enhhbrbitna` niput sndia`s, tcb sndia` furrbits gh Q6 aie Q5 arb bqua` aie gppgsntb. Ucus, tcb suk ns twnfb tcb nienvneua` sndia` furrbits. Ucns fgkp`btbs tcb enhhbrbitna` tg snid`b biebe fgivbrsngi. Ucb gpbi fnrfunt sndia` vg`tadb appbarnid at tcns pgnit ns dnvbi my tcb prgeuft gh tcb sukkbe sndia` furrbits aie tcb para``b`be fg``bftgr rbsnstaifbs gh Q5 aie Q8. Vnifb tcb fg``bftgrs gh Q5 aie Q8 appbar as cndc rbsnstaifbs tg tcb sndia` furrbit, tcb gpbi fnrfunt vg`tadb dani gh tcns stadb ns vbry cndc. Ucb masb furrbit at tcb niputs ns igt zbrg aie tcb bhhbftnvb (enhhbrbitna`) niput nkpbeaifb gh a 451 ns amgut = Kή. Ucb "ghhsbt iu``" pnis kay mb usbe tg p`afb bxtbria` rbsnstgrs ni para``b` wntc tcb twg 1 jή rbsnstgrs (typnfa``y ni tcb hgrk gh tcb tcb twg bies gh a pgtbitngkbtbr) tg aelust tcb ma`aifnid gh tcb Q2/Q8 furrbit knrrgr aie tcus nienrbft`y fgitrg` tcb gutput gh tcb gp-akp wcbi zbrg sndia` ns app`nbe  mbtwbbi tcb niputs. =6

5.6.2.2 F`ass A dani stadb< Ucb sbftngi gut`nibe ni kadbita ns tcb f`ass A dani stadb. Ucb tgp-rndct furrbit knrrgr Q1=/Q16 supp`nbs tcns stadb my a fgistait furrbit `gae, vna tcb fg``bftgr gh Q16 tcat ns `ardb`y niebpbiebit gh tcb gutput vg`tadb. Ucb stadb fgisnsts gh twg I_I traisnstgrs ni a Ear`nidtgi fgihnduratngi aie usbs tcb gutput sneb gh a furrbit knrrgr as nts fg``bftgr `gae tg afcnbvb cndc dani. cndc dani. Ucb  Ucb 6? pH fapafntgr prgvnebs fapafntgr prgvnebs hrbqubify sb`bftnvb ibdatnvb hbbemafj arguie tcb f`ass A dani stadb as a kbais gh hrbqubify fgkpbisatngi tg stamn`nsb tcb akp`nhnbr ni hbbemafj fgihnduratngis. Ucns tbfcinqub ns fa``be Kn``br fgkpbisatngi aie huiftngis ni a snkn`ar kaiibr tg ai gp-akp nitbdratgr fnrfunt. Nt ns a`sg jigwi as 'egkniait  'egkniait  pg`b fgkpbisatngi' mbfausb nt nitrgeufbs a egkniait pg`b (gib wcnfc kasjs tcb bhhbfts gh gtcbr pg`bs) nitg tcb gpbi tcb gpbi `ggp hrbqubify rbspgisb. Ucns pg`b fai mb as `gw as 1? Cz ni a 451 akp`nhnbr aie nt nitrgeufbs a ∝6 eM `gss nitg tcb gpbi `ggp rbspgisb at tcns hrbqubify. Ucns nitbria` fgkpbisatngi ns prgvnebe tg afcnbvb uifgientngia` stamn`nty gh tcb akp`nhnbr ni ibdatnvb hbbemafj fgihnduratngis wcbrb tcb hbbemafj ibtwgrj ns igi-rbaftnvb aie tcb f`gsbe tcb f`gsbe `ggp dani ns uinty ns uinty gr cndcbr. Cbifb, tcb usb gh tcb gpbratngia` akp`nhnbr ns snkp`nhnbe mbfausb ig bxtbria` fgkpbisatngi ns rbqunrbe hgr uinty dani stamn`nty: akp`nhnbrs wntcgut tcns nitbria` fgkpbisatngi kay rbqunrb bxtbria` fgkpbisatngi gr f`gsbe `ggp danis sndinhnfait`y cndcbr tcai uinty.

5.6.2.8 Gutput mnas fnrfuntry< Ucb drbbi gut`nibe sbftngi (masbe gi Q18) ns a vg`tadb `bvb` scnhtbr gr rummbr engeb (n.b., a X MB MB ku`tnp`nbr): a typb gh   vg`tadb sgurfb.  sgurfb.  Ni tcb fnrfunt as scgwi, Q18 prgvnebs a fgistait vg`tadb ergp  mbtwbbi nts fg``bftgr aie bknttbr rbdare`bss gh tcb furrbit tcrgudc tcb fnrfunt. Nh tcb masb furrbit tg tcb traisnstgr ns assukbe tg mb zbrg, aie tcb vg`tadb mbtwbbi masb aie bknttbr (aie afrgss tcb 4.2 jή rbsnstgr) ns ?.8=2 X (a typnfa` va`ub hgr a MLU ni tcb aftnvb rbdngi), tcbi tcb furrbit tcrgudc tcb 5.2 jή rbsnstgr wn`` mb tcb sakb as tcat tcrgudc tcb 4.2 jή, aie wn`` prgeufb a vg`tadb gh ?.642 X afrgss nt. Ucns jbbps tcb vg`tadb afrgss tcb traisnstgr, aie tcb twg rbsnstgrs at ?.8=2 + ?.642 ; 1 X. Ucns sbrvbs tg  mnas tcb twg gutput traisnstgrs s`ndct`y nitg fgieuftngi rbeufnid frgssgvbr rbeufnid frgssgvbr enstgrtngi. Ni enstgrtngi. Ni sgkb ensfrbtb fgkpgibit akp`nhnbrs tcns huiftngi ns afcnbvbe wntc (usua``y twg) sn`nfgi engebs.

5.6.2.4 Gutput stadb< Ucb gutput stadb (gut`nibe ni fyai) ni fyai) ns  ns a F`ass a F`ass AM pusc-pu`` AM pusc-pu`` bknttbr hg``gwbr (Q15, Q=?) akp`nhnbr wntc tcb mnas sbt my tcb X mb mb  ku`tnp`nbr vg`tadb sgurfb Q18 aie nts masb rbsnstgrs. Ucns stadb ns bhhbftnvb`y ernvbi my tcb fg``bftgrs gh Q16 aie Q1>. Xarnatngis ni tcb mnas wntc tbkpbraturb, gr mbtwbbi parts wntc tcb sakb typb iukmbr, arb fgkkgi sg frgssgvbr sg frgssgvbr enstgrtngi aie qunbsfbit aie qunbsfbit furrbit kay mb sumlbft tg sndinhnfait varnatngi. Ucb gutput raidb gh tcb akp`nhnbr ns amgut gib vg`t `bss tcai tcb supp`y vg`tadb, gwnid ni part tg X mb mb gh tcb gutput traisnstgrs Q15 aie Q=?. Ucb =2 ή rbsnstgr ni tcb gutput stadb afts as a furrbit sbisb tg prgvneb tcb gutput furrbit-`nkntnid furrbit -`nkntnid huiftngi wcnfc `nknts tcb furrbit ni tcb bknttbr hg``gwbr Q15 tg amgut =2 kA hgr tcb 451. Furrbit `nkntnid hgr tcb ibdatnvb gutput ns egib my sbisnid tcb vg`tadb afrgss Q1>'s bknttbr rbsnstgr aie usnid tcns tg rbeufb tcb ernvb nitg Q12's masb. @atbr vbrsngis gh tcns akp`nhnbr sfcbkatnf kay scgw a s`ndct`y enhhbrbit kbtcge gh gutput furrbit `nkntnid. Ucb gutput rbsnstaifb ns igt zbrg, as nt wgu`e mb ni ai neba` gp-akp, mut wntc ibdatnvb hbbemafj nt apprgafcbs zbrg at `gw hrbqubifnbs.

=5

Ucb "451" cas fgkb tg ghtbi kbai a dbibrnf gp-akp NF (sufc as uA451, @K6?1, 223, @K6=5, UMA==1 - gr a kgrb kgebri rbp`afbkbit sufc as tcb U@?41). Ucb ebsfrnptngi gh tcb 451 gutput stadb ns qua`ntatnvb`y snkn`ar hgr kaiy gtcbr ebsndis (tcat kay cavb quntb enhhbrbit niput stadbs), bxfbpt< Vgkb ebvnfbs (uA453, @K6?1, @K6?3) arb igt nitbria``y fgkpbisatbe (rbqunrb ai bxtbria` fapafntgr hrgk gutput tg sgkb pgnit wntcni tcb gpbratngia` akp`nhnbr, nh usbe ni `gw f`gsbe-`ggp dani app`nfatngis). Vgkb kgebri ebvnfbs cavb ran`-tg-ran` gutput fapamn`nty (gutput fai mb tajbi tg pgsntnvb gr ibdatnvb pgwbr supp`y ran` wntcni a hbw kn``nvg`ts). 

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5.6.2.3 Amsg`utb Kaxnkuk ]atnids (451F)< Vupp`y Xg`tadb

±13X

_gwbr Enssnpatngi

2?? kT

Enhhbrbitna` Niput Xg`tadb

±6?X

Niput Xg`tadb

±12X

Gutput Vcgrt Fnrfunt Euratngi

Fgitniugus Fgitniugus

Gpbratnid Ubkpbraturb ]aidb

?¿F tg +4?¿F

Vtgradb Ubkpbraturb ]aidb

∝82¿F tg +12?¿F

Luiftngi Ubkpbraturb

1??¿F

Vg`ebrnid Nihgrkatngi  I-_afjadb (1? sbfgies) L- gr C-_afjadb (1? sbfgies) K-_afjadb Xapgr _casb (8? sbfgies) Nihrarbe (12 sbfgies)

=8?¿F 6??¿F =12¿F =12¿F

Uam`b 5.= Kaxnkuk ]atnids gh NF @K 451F

5.5 Aia`gd-tg-endnta` Aia`gd-tg-endnta` fgivbrtbr< Ai aia`gd-tg-endnta` fgivbrtbr   (ammrbvnatbe AEF, A/E gr A tg E) ns a ebvnfb wcnfc fgivbrts fgitniugus sndia`s fgitniugus sndia`s tg ensfrbtb tg ensfrbtb endnta`  endnta` iukmbrs. Uypnfa``y, ai AEF ns ai b`bftrginf ai b`bftrginf ebvnfb tcat fgivbrts ai niput aia`gd vg`tadb aia`gd vg`tadb (gr  furrbit) tg  furrbit) tg a endnta` a endnta` iukmbr prgpgrtngia` tg tcb kadintueb gh tcb vg`tadb gr furrbit. Cgwbvbr, sgkb igi-b`bftrginf gr gi`y  partna``y b`bftrginf ebvnfbs, sufc as rgtary bifgebrs, fai bifgebrs, fai a`sg mb fgisnebrbe AEFs. Ucb endnta` gutput kay usb enhhbrbit fgenid sfcbkbs, sufc as mniary, as mniary, Dray  Dray fgeb gr  twg's  twg's fgkp`bkbit mniary. fgkp`bkbit mniary. =2

5.5.1 B`bftrnfa` Vykmg`

 Hnd 5.> B`bftrnfa` Vykmg` gh AEF

5.5.= AEF strufturbs< Ucb kgst fgkkgi ways gh nkp`bkbitnid ai b`bftrginf AEF arb < A enrbft fgivbrsngi AEF gr h`asc AEF cas a maij gh fgkparatgrs sakp`nid tcb niput sndia` ni  para``b`, bafc hnrnid hgr tcbnr ebfgebe vg`tadb raidb. Ucb fgkparatgr maij hbbes a `gdnf fnrfunt tcat dbibratbs a fgeb hgr bafc vg`tadb raidb. Enrbft fgivbrsngi ns vbry hast, fapam`b gh  dndacbrtz   dndacbrtz sakp`nid  I ratbs, mut usua``y cas gi`y 3 mnts gh rbsg`utngi gr hbwbr, snifb tcb iukmbr gh fgkparatgrs ibbebe, =  1, egum`bs wntc bafc aeentngia` mnt, rbqunrnid a `ardb bxpbisnvb fnrfunt. A suffbssnvb-apprgxnkatngi AEF usbs a fgkparatgr tg rblbft raidbs gh vg`tadbs, bvbitua``y sbtt`nid gi a hnia` vg`tadb raidb. Vuffbssnvb apprgxnkatngi wgrjs my fgistait`y fgkparnid tcb niput vg`tadb tg tcb gutput gh ai nitbria` endnta` tg aia`gd fgivbrtbr (EAF, hbe my tcb furrbit va`ub gh tcb apprgxnkatngi) uitn` tcb mbst apprgxnkatngi ns afcnbvbe. At bafc stbp ni tcns prgfbss, a mniary va`ub gh tcb apprgxnkatngi ns stgrbe ni a suffbssnvb apprgxnkatngi rbdnstbr (VA]). Ucb VA] usbs a rbhbrbifb vg`tadb (wcnfc ns tcb `ardbst sndia` tcb AEF ns tg fgivbrt) hgr fgkparnsgis. Hgr bxakp`b nh tcb niput vg`tadb ns 8? X aie tcb rbhbrbifb vg`tadb ns 1?? X, ni tcb 1st f`gfj fyf`b, 8? X ns fgkparbe tg 2? X (tcb rbhbrbifb, envnebe my twg. Ucns ns tcb vg`tadb at tcb gutput gh tcb nitbria` EAF wcbi tcb niput ns a '1' hg``gwbe my zbrgs), aie tcb vg`tadb hrgk tcb fgkparatgr ns pgsntnvb (gr '1') (mbfausb 8? X ns drbatbr tcai 2? X). At tcns pgnit tcb hnrst mniary endnt (KVM) ns (KVM) ns sbt tg a '1'. Ni tcb =ie f`gfj fyf`b tcb niput vg`tadb ns fgkparbe tg 42 X (mbnid ca`hway mbtwbbi 1?? aie 2? X< Ucns ns tcb gutput gh tcb nitbria` EAF wcbi nts niput ns '11' hg``gwbe my zbrgs) mbfausb 8? X ns `bss tcai 42 X, tcb fgkparatgr gutput ns igw ibdatnvb (gr '?'). Ucb sbfgie mniary endnt ns tcbrbhgrb sbt tg a '?'. Ni tcb 6re f`gfj fyf`b, tcb niput vg`tadb ns fgkparbe wntc 8=.2 X (ca`hway mbtwbbi 2? X aie 42 X< Ucns ns tcb gutput gh tcb nitbria` EAF wcbi nts niput ns '1?1' hg``gwbe my zbrgs). Ucb gutput gh tcb fgkparatgr ns ibdatnvb gr '?' (mbfausb 8? X ns `bss tcai 8=.2 X) sg tcb tcnre mniary endnt ns sbt tg a ?. Ucb hgurtc f`gfj fyf`b snkn`ar`y rbsu`ts ni tcb hgurtc endnt mbnid a '1' (8? X ns drbatbr tcai 28.=2 X, tcb EAF gutput hgr '1??1' hg``gwbe my zbrgs). Ucb rbsu`t gh tcns wgu`e mb ni tcb mniary hgrk 1??1. Ucns ns a`sg fa``be mntwbndctnid fgivbrsngi, fgivbrsngi, aie ns snkn`ar tg a  mniary sbarfc. Ucb sbarfc. Ucb aia`gdub va`ub ns rguiebe tg tcb ibarbst  mniary va`ub mb`gw, kbainid tcns fgivbrtbr typb ns kne-rnsb. Mbfausb tcb apprgxnkatngis arb suffbssnvb (igt snku`taibgus), tcb fgivbrsngi tajbs gib f`gfj-fyf`b hgr bafc mnt gh rbsg`utngi ebsnrbe. Ucb f`gfj hrbqubify kust mb bqua` tg tcb sakp`nid hrbqubify ku`tnp`nbe my tcb iukmbr gh mnts gh rbsg`utngi ebsnrbe. =8

A rakp-fgkparb AEF   prgeufbs a saw-tggtc sndia` tcat rakps up gr egwi tcbi qunfj`y rbturis tg zbrg. Tcbi tcb rakp starts, a tnkbr starts fguitnid. Tcbi tcb rakp vg`tadb katfcbs tcb niput, a fgkparatgr hnrbs, aie tcb tnkbr's va`ub ns rbfgrebe. Unkbe rakp fgivbrtbrs rbqunrb tcb `bast iukmbr gh traisnstgrs. Ucb traisnstgrs. Ucb rakp tnkb ns sbisntnvb tg tbkpbraturb mbfausb tcb fnrfunt dbibratnid tcb rakp ns ghtbi  lust sgkb snkp`b gsfn``atgr.  gsfn``atgr.  A spbfna` aevaitadb gh tcb rakp-fgkparb systbk ns tcat fgkparnid a sbfgie sndia` lust rbqunrbs aigtcbr fgkparatgr, aie aigtcbr rbdnstbr tg stgrb tcb vg`tadb va`ub. A vbry snkp`b (igi-`nibar) rakp-fgivbrtbr fai mb nkp`bkbitbe wntc a knfrgfgitrg``br aie gib rbsnstgr aie fapafntgr Ucb Tn`jnisgi AEF was ebsndibe my E. C. Tn`jnisgi ni 1>2?. Ucb Tn`jnisgi AEF ns masbe gi tcb fgkparnsgi gh ai niput vg`tadb wntc tcat prgeufbe my a fcardnid fapafntgr. Ucb fapafntgr ns a``gwbe tg fcardb uitn` nts vg`tadb ns bqua` tg tcb akp`ntueb gh tcb niput pu`sb. (A fgkparatgr ebtbrknibs wcbi tcns fgientngi cas mbbi rbafcbe.) Ucbi, tcb fapafntgr ns a``gwbe tg ensfcardb `nibar`y, wcnfc prgeufbs a rakp vg`tadb. At tcb pgnit wcbi tcb fapafntgr mbdnis tg ensfcardb, a datb pu`sb ns nintnatbe. Ucb datb  pu`sb rbkanis gi uitn` tcb fapafntgr ns fgkp`btb`y ensfcardbe. Ucus tcb euratngi gh tcb datb pu`sb ns enrbft`y prgpgrtngia` tg tcb akp`ntueb gh tcb niput pu`sb. Ucns datb pu`sb gpbratbs a `nibar datb wcnfc rbfbnvbs pu`sbs hrgk a cndc-hrbqubify gsfn``atgr f`gfj. Tcn`b tcb datb ns gpbi, a ensfrbtb iukmbr gh f`gfj pu`sbs pass tcrgudc tcb `nibar datb aie arb fguitbe my tcb aeerbss rbdnstbr. Ucb tnkb tcb `nibar datb ns gpbi ns prgpgrtngia` tg tcb akp`ntueb gh tcb niput pu`sb, tcus tcb iukmbr gh f`gfj pu`sbs rbfgrebe ni tcb aeerbss rbdnstbr ns prgpgrtngia` a`sg. A`tbriatnvb`y, tcb fcardnid gh tcb fapafntgr fgu`e  mb kgintgrbe, ratcbr tcai tcb ensfcardb Ai nitbdratnid AEF (a`sg eua`-s`gpb gr ku`tn-s`gpb  AEF) app`nbs tcb uijigwi niput vg`tadb tg tcb niput gh ai nitbdratgr ai nitbdratgr aie a``gws tcb vg`tadb tg rakp hgr a hnxbe tnkb pbrnge (tcb rui-up pbrnge). Ucbi a jigwi rbhbrbifb vg`tadb gh gppgsntb pg`arnty ns app`nbe tg tcb nitbdratgr aie ns a``gwbe tg rakp uitn` tcb nitbdratgr gutput rbturis tg zbrg (tcb rui-egwi pbrnge). Ucb niput vg`tadb ns fgkputbe as a huiftngi gh tcb rbhbrbifb vg`tadb, tcb fgistait rui-up tnkb pbrnge, aie tcb kbasurbe rui-egwi tnkb pbrnge. Ucb rui-egwi tnkb kbasurbkbit ns usua``y kaeb ni uints gh tcb fgivbrtbr's f`gfj, sg `gidbr nitbdratngi tnkbs a``gw hgr cndcbr rbsg`utngis. @njbwnsb, tcb spbbe gh tcb fgivbrtbr fai mb nkprgvbe my safrnhnfnid rbsg`utngi. Fgivbrtbrs gh tcns typb arb usbe ni kgst endnta` vg`tkbtbrs endnta` vg`tkbtbrs hgr tcbnr `nibarnty aie h`bxnmn`nty. A eb`ta-bifgebe AEF   gr Fguitbr-rakp cas ai up-egwi fguitbr tcat hbbes a endnta` tg aia`gd fgivbrtbr (EAF). Ucb niput sndia` aie tcb EAF mgtc dg tg a fgkparatgr. Ucb fgkparatgr fgitrg`s tcb fguitbr. Ucb fnrfunt usbs ibdatnvb hbbemafj ibdatnvb hbbemafj hrgk tcb fgkparatgr tg aelust tcb fguitbr uitn` tcb EAF's gutput ns f`gsb bigudc tg tcb niput sndia`. Ucb iukmbr ns rbae hrgk tcb fguitbr. Eb`ta fgivbrtbrs cavb vbry wneb raidbs, aie cndc rbsg`utngi, mut tcb fgivbrsngi tnkb ns ebpbiebit gi tcb niput sndia` `bvb`, tcgudc nt wn`` a`ways cavb a duaraitbbe wgrst-fasb. Eb`ta fgivbrtbrs arb ghtbi vbry dgge fcgnfbs tg rbae rba`-wgr`e sndia`s. Kgst sndia`s hrgk pcysnfa` systbks eg igt fcaidb amrupt`y. Vgkb fgivbrtbrs fgkmnib tcb eb`ta aie suffbssnvb apprgxnkatngi apprgafcbs: tcns wgrjs bspbfna``y wb`` wcbi cndc hrbqubifnbs arb jigwi tg mb ska`` ni kadintueb.

5.5.6 AEF ?3?5 Tb cavb usbe NF AEF?3?5 ni gur prglbft< =4

 Hnd 5.1? NF AEF ?3?5

5.5.6.1 Hbaturbs<         

Fgkpatnm`b wntc 3?3? Knfrgprgfbssgrs Basy nitbrhafb tg a`` knfrgprgfbssgrs, gr gpbratbs 'staie a`gib' Enhhbrbitna` aia`gd vg`tadb niputs @gdnf niputs aie gutputs kbbt mgtc KGV aie UU@ vg`tadb `bvb` spbfnhnfatngis Tgrjs wntc =.2X (@K668) Xg`tadb ]bhbrbifb  I-fcnp f`gfj dbibratgr ?X tg 2X aia`gd niput vg`tadb raidb wntc snid`b 2X supp`y  Ig zbrg aelust rbqunrbe Gpbratbs ratngkbtrnfa``y gr wntc 2 Xef, =.2Xef, gr aia`g d spai aelustbe vg`tadb rbhbrbifb

5.5.6.= _ni @aygut<

=3

 Hnd 5.11 _ni @aygut gh AEF ?3?5

5.5.6.6 _ni Ebsfrnptngi< _ni Iukmbr 

Ebsfrnptngi

1

FV - Fcnp Vb`bft (Aftnvb @gw)

=

]E - ]bae (Aftnvb @gw)

6

T] - Trntb (Aftnvb @gw)

5

F@J NI - F`gfj NI

2

NIU] - Nitbrrupt (Aftnvb @gw)

8

Xni+ - Aia`gd Xg`tadb Niput

4

Xni- - Aia`gd Xg`tadb Niput

3

ADIE - Aia`gd Drguie

>

Xrbh/= - Xg`tadb ]bhbrbifb / =

1?

EDIE - Endnta` Drguie

11

EM4 - Eata Mnt 4 (KVM)

1=

EM8 - Eata Mnt 8

16

EM2 - Eata Mnt 2

=>

15

EM5 - Eata Mnt 5

12

EM6 - Eata Mnt 6

18

EM= - Eata Mnt =

14

EM1 - Eata Mnt 1

13

EM? - Eata Mnt ? (@VM)

1>

F@J] - F`gfj ]bsbt

=?

Xff - _gsntnvb Vupp`y gr Xrbh 

Uam`b 5.6 Ebsfrnptngi gh _nis gh AEF ?3?5

5.5.6.5 _ni fgihnduratngi gh AEF ?3?5<

 Hnd 5.1= pni fgihnduratngi gh AEF ?3?5

5.5.6.2 Ebsfrnptngi Gh pnis gh AEF <

6?

















FV(fcnp sb`bft).26

61

=.?

? tg 5

5/=22 ; 12.8=

1.2

? tg 6

6/=28 ; 11.41

1.=3

? tg =.28

=.28/=28 ; 1?

Uam`b 5.5 Xrbh/= rb`atngi tg Xni raidb (AEF ?3?5) 

E? tg E4< Ucbsb arb tcb endnta` eata gutput pnis snifb AEF ?3?5 ns a para``b` AEF fcnp. Ucbsb arb trn statb muhhbrbe aie tcb fgivbrtbe eata ns affbse gi`y wcbi FV ;? aie ns hgrfbe `gw. Ug fa`fu`atb tcb gutput vg`tadb usb tcb hg``gwnid hgrku`a

Egut ; Xni/ stbp snzb Tcbrb, Egut ; endnta` eata gutput ni ebfnka` Xni ; aia`gd niput vg`tadb Vtbp snzb (rbsg`utngi) ; ska``bst fcaidb wcnfc (=* Xrbh/=)/=28 hgr AEF ? 3?5.

Amsg`utb Kaxnkuk ]atnids Ucbrka` Nihgrkatngi< Vupp`y Xg`tadb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2X Xg`tadb at Aiy Niput. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -?.6X tg (X+ +?.6X)

Gpbratnid Fgientngis< Ubkpbraturb ]aidb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?gF tg 4?gF

Ucbrka` Nihgrkatngi< Nihgrkatngi< Ucbrka` ]bsnstaifb (Uypnfa`, Igtb 1) γLA (F/T) _EN_ _afjadb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3? Kaxnkuk Luiftngi Ubkpbraturb _`astnf _afjadb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12?gF Kaxnkuk Vtgradb Ubkpbraturb ]aidb. . . . . . . . . . -82gF tg 12?gF Kaxnkuk @bae Ubkpbraturb (Vg`ebrnid, 1?s). . . . . . . . . . . . .6??gF

5.5.6.8 Unknid Enadraks<

6=

 Hnd 5.16< Vtart fgivbrsngi

 Hnd 5.15< Gutput biam`b aie rbsbt NIU]

Ucb amgvb tnknid enadraks arb hrgk AEF?3?5 eatascbbt. Ucb hnrst enadrak (hndurb 5.16) scgws cgw tg start a fgivbrsngi. Tb fai a`sg sbb wcnfc sndia`s arb tg mb assbrtbe aie at wcat tnkb tg start a fgivbrsngi. Vg `ggjnid nitg tcb tnknid enadrak gh hndurb 5.16. Tb igtb egwi tcb stbps gr say tcb grebr ni wcnfc sndia`s arb tg mb assbrtbe tg start a fgivbrsngi gh AEF. As wb cavb ebfnebe tg kajb Fcnp sb`bft pni as `gw sg wb ibbe igt mgtcbr amgut tcb FV sndia` ni tcb tnknid enadrak. Vtbps hgr startnid ai AEF fgivbrsngi arb< Kajb fcnp sb`bft (FV) sndia` `gw. Kajb wrntb (T]) sndia` `gw. Kajb fcnp sb`bft (FV) cndc. Tant hgr NIU] pni tg dg `gw (kbais fgivbrsngi fgiv brsngi bies). Gifb tcb fgivbrsngi ni AEF ns ns egib, tcb eata ns avan`am`b avan`am`b ni tcb gutput `atfc gh tcb AEF. Hndurb 5.15 scgws tcb tnknid enadrak gh cgw tg rbae tcb fgivbrtbe va`ub hrgk tcb gutput `atfc gh tcb AEF. Eata gh tcb ibw fgivbrsngi ns gi`y avan`am`b hgr rbaenid ahtbr AEF?3?5 kaeb NIU] pni `gw gr say wcbi tcb fgivbrsngi ns gvbr. Ucb stbps tg rbae gutput hrgk tcb AEF?3?5 arb< Kajb fcnp sb`bft (FV) pni `gw.    



66

   

Kajb rbae (]E) sndia` `gw. ]bae tcb eata hrgk pgrt wcbrb AEF ns fgiibftbe. Kajb rbae (]E) sndia` cndc. Kajb fcnp sb`bft (FV) cndc.

5.2 Knfrgpcgib< A knfrgpcgib  knfrgpcgib  ns ai afgustnf-tg-b`bftrnf traiseufbr gr sbisgr tcat fgivbrts sguie nitg ai b`bftrnfa` sndia`.  sndia`.  Ni 1348, Bkn`b Mbr`nibr nivbitbe tcb hnrst knfrgpcgib usbe as a tb`bpcgib vgnfb traisknttbr. Knfrgpcgibs arb usbe ni kaiy app`nfatngis sufc as tb`bpcgibs, tapb rbfgrebrs, jaragjb systbks, cbarnid anes, kgtngi pnfturb  prgeuftngi, `nvb aie rbfgrebe aueng bidnibbrnid, H]V raengs, kbdapcgibs, ni raeng aie tb`bvnsngi  mrgaefastnid aie ni fgkputbrs hgr rbfgrenid vgnfb, spbbfc rbfgdintngi, XgN_, rbfgdintngi, XgN_, aie  aie hgr igi-afgustnf purpgsbs sufc as u`trasginf fcbfjnid gr  jigfj  jigfj sbisgrs. Kgst knfrgpcgibs tgeay usb b`bftrgkadibtnf nieuftngi (eyiaknf knfrgpcgib), fapafntaifb fcaidb (fgiebisbr knfrgpcgib, pnfturbe rndct), pnbzgb`bftrnf dbibratngi, gr kgeu`atngi tg prgeufb ai b`bftrnfa` vg`tadb sndia` hrgk kbfcainfa` vnmratngi.

`ndct

5.2.1 Gkinenrbftngia`< Gkinenrbftngia`< Ai gkinenrbftngia` (gr igienrbftngia`) knfrgpcgib's rbspgisb ns dbibra``y fgisnebrbe tg mb a pbrhbft spcbrb ni tcrbb enkbisngis. Ni tcb rba` wgr`e, tcns ns igt tcb fasb. As wntc enrbftngia` knfrgpcgibs, tcb pg`ar pattbri hgr ai Hnd 5.12 A Ibukaii A Ibukaii R34 "gkinenrbftngia`" knfrgpcgib ns a huiftngi gh fgiebisbr knfrgpcgib hrbqubify. Ucb mgey gh tcb knfrgpcgib ns igt nihnintb`y ska`` wntc scgfj wntc scgfj kguit. aie, as a fgisbqubifb, nt tbies tg dbt ni nts gwi way wntc rbspbft tg sguies arrnvnid hrgk tcb rbar, fausnid a s`ndct h`attbinid gh tcb pg`ar rbspgisb. Ucns h`attbinid nifrbasbs as tcb enakbtbr gh tcb knfrgpcgib (assuknid nt's fy`niernfa`) rbafcbs tcb wavb`bidtc gh tcb hrbqubify ni qubstngi. Ucbrbhgrb, tcb ska``bst enakbtbr knfrgpcgib dnvbs tcb mbst gkinenrbftngia` fcaraftbrnstnfs at cndc hrbqubifnbs. Ucb wavb`bidtc gh sguie at 1? jCz ns `ntt`b gvbr ai nifc (6.5 fk) sg tcb ska``bst kbasurnid knfrgpcgibs arb ghtbi 1/5" (8 kk) ni enakbtbr, wcnfc praftnfa``y b`nkniatbs enrbftngia`nty bvbi up tg tcb cndcbst hrbqubifnbs. Gkinenrbftngia` knfrgpcgibs, ui`njb farengnes, eg igt bkp`gy rbsgiait favntnbs as eb`ays, aie sg fai mb fgisnebrbe tcb "purbst" knfrgpcgibs ni tbrks gh `gw fg`gratngi: tcby aee vbry `ntt`b tg tcb grndnia` sguie. Mbnid prbssurb-sbisntnvb tcby fai a`sg cavb a vbry h`at `gw-

65

hrbqubify rbspgisb egwi tg =? Cz gr mb`gw. _rbssurb-sbisntnvb knfrgpcgibs a`sg rbspgie kufc `bss tg wnie ignsb tcai enrbftngia` (vb`gfnty sbisntnvb) knfrgpcgibs. Ai bxakp`b gh a igienrbftngia` knfrgpcgib ns tcb rguie m`afj bndct ma`` .

5.2.= Rinenrbftngia` Rinenrbftngia` A uinenrbftngia` knfrgpcgib ns sbisntnvb tg sguies hrgk gi`y gib enrbftngi.Ucb sguie nitbisnty hgr a  partnfu`ar hrbqubify ns p`gttbe hgr aid`bs raena``y hrgk ? tg 68?¿.

5.2.6 Fgiebisbr/Fapafntgr gr B`bftrgstatnf Knfrgpcgib< Tb cavb usbe a fgiebisbr typb gh knfrgpcgib ni gur prglbft. Ni a fgiebisbr knfrgpcgib a`sg fa``be a fapafntgr gr b`bftrgstatnf knfrgpcgib, tcb  tcb  enapcradk afts as gib p`atb gh a fapafntgr, a fapafntgr, aie  aie tcb vnmratngis prgeufb fcaidbs ni tcb enstaifb mbtwbbi tcb p`atbs. Ucbrb arb twg kbtcges gh bxtraftnid ai aueng gutput hrgk tcb traiseufbr tcus hgrkbe< EF-mnasbe aie raeng hrbqubify (]H) gr cndc hrbqubify (CH) fgiebisbr knfrgpcgibs. Tntc a EF-mnasbe knfrgpcgib, tcb  p`atbs arb mnasbe arb  mnasbe wntc a hnxbe fcardb (Q (Q). Ucb vg`tadb Ucb vg`tadb kanitanibe afrgss tcb fapafntgr p`atbs fcaidbs wntc tcb vnmratngis ni tcb anr, affgrenid tg tcb fapafntaifb bquatngi (F ; Q / X), wcbrb Q ; fcardb ni fgu`gkms,  fgu`gkms,  F ; fapafntaifb ni haraes aie X ; pgtbitna` enhhbrbifb ni vg`ts.  vg`ts.  Ucb fapafntaifb gh tcb  p`atbs ns nivbrsb`y prgpgrtngia` tg tcb enstaifb mbtwbbi tcbk hgr a para``b`-p`atb fapafntgr.

 Hnd 5.18 Fgiebisbr Knfrgpcgib

5.2.6.1 _rnifnp`b< Vguie prbssurb fcaidbs tcb spafnid mbtwbbi a tcni kbta``nf kbkmraib aie tcb statngiary mafj p`atb. Ucb p`atbs arb fcardbe tg a tgta` fcardb

62

Tcbrb F ns tcb  tcb  fapafntaifb, X fapafntaifb, X tcb  tcb  vg`tadb gh tcb mnasnid mattbry, A tcb arba gh bafc p`atb aie e tcb sbparatngi gh tcb p`atbs.

5.2.6.= Aevaitadbs< 

Mbst gvbra`` hrbqubify rbspgisb kajbs tcns tcb knfrgpcgib gh fcgnfb hgr kaiy rbfgrenid app`nfatngis.

5.2.6.6 Ensaevaitadbs< Ensaevaitadbs<   

Bxpbisnvb Kay pgp aie frafj wcbi f`gsb knjbe ]bqunrbs a mattbry gr bxtbria` pgwbr supp`y supp` y tg mnas tcb p`atbs.

5.2.6.5 Fgiebisbr Knfrgpcgib Vndia`<

Hnd 5.14 Fgiebisbr Knfrgpcgib Vndia` Ucb h`at, hantchu` hrbqubify rbspgisb gh tcb fgiebisbr knfrgpcgib arnsbs hrgk nts kbfcainsk. Ucb fcardb gi tcb kbkmraib ebpbies gi`y upgi tcb spafnid aie scgws ig apprbfnam`b rbsgiaifbs tg sjbw tcb hrbqubify rbspgisb. Ucb fapafntaifb Ucb fapafntaifb gh tcb para``b` tcb para``b` p`atb kbkmraib strufturb ns dnvbi my 68

Tcbi tcb spafnid fcaidbs, tcb fcardb fcaidbs, dnvnid ai b`bftrnf furrbit tcrgudc tcb rbsnstgr ].

Ucb vg`tadb kbasurbe afrgss tcb rbsnstgr tcb rbsnstgr ns ai b`bftrnfa` nkadb gh tcb sguie prbssurb wcnfc kgvbs tcb kbkmraib. Mbfausb tcb sbisnid b`bkbit gh a fgiebisbr knfrgpcgib ns a `ndct kbkmraib, nt ns fapam`b gh bxfb``bit traisnbit rbspgisb. Ucb haft tcat tcb fgiebisbr cas bxfb``bit cndc hrbqubify rbspgisb nkp`nbs dgge traisnbit rbspgisb, snifb scarp traisnbits cavb kgrb cndc hrbqubify fgitbit tcai tcb sustanibe sguies wcnfc hg``gw tcbk. Mbfausb tcb fgiebisbr knfrgpcgib kust cavb a fgitniugus, stam`b EF vg`tadb tg mnas tcb kbkmraib, nt ns fgkkgi praftnfb tg supp`y tcat vg`tadb hrgk tcb sguie knxnid mgare. Ucb vg`tadb ns app`nbe vna gib gh tcb knfrgpcgib `baes, typnfa``y 53 vg`ts, aie ns fgkkgi`y rbhbrrbe tg as "pcaitgk pgwbr". Vnifb tcb a`tbriatnvb ns a mattbry supp`nbe mnas, wntc tcb rnsj tcat a mattbry fai dg gut ni kne  pbrhgrkaifb, tcb pcaitgk pgwbr prgvnsngi hrgk knxnid mgares ns usbhu`.

5.8 @gw-_ass Hn`tbrs< A `gw-pass hn`tbr  ns a hn`tbr a hn`tbr tcat passbs `gw-hrbqubify `gw-hrbqubify sndia`s  sndia`s mut  mut attbiuatbs  attbiuatbs (rbeufbs tcb akp`ntueb tcb akp`ntueb gh) sndia`s wntc hrbqubifnbs cndcbr tcai tcb futghh hrbqubify. Ucb hrbqubify. Ucb aftua` akguit gh attbiuatngi hgr bafc hrbqubify varnbs hrgk hn`tbr tg hn`tbr. Nt ns sgkbtnkbs fa``be a cndc-fut hn`tbr, gr trbm`b fut hn`tbr  wcbi usbe ni aueng app`nfatngis. A `gw-pass hn`tbr ns tcb gppgsntb gh a cndc-pass a cndc-pass hn`tbr, aie hn`tbr, aie a maie-pass a maie-pass hn`tbr ns a fgkmniatngi gh a `gw-pass aie a cndc-pass. Ucb fgifbpt gh a `gw-pass hn`tbr bxnsts ni kaiy enhhbrbit hgrks, nif`uenid b`bftrginf fnrfunts (`njb a cnss  hn`tbr  usbe  usbe ni aueng ni aueng)), endnta` a`dgrntcks endnta` a`dgrntcks hgr skggtcnid sbts gh eata, afgustnf marrnbrs, m`urrnid gh nkadbs, aie sg gi. @gw-pass hn`tbrs p`ay tcb sakb rg`b ni sndia` ni  sndia` prgfbssnid tcat kgvnid tcat kgvnid avbradbs eg ni sgkb gtcbr hnb`es, sufc as hniaifb: mgtc tgg`s prgvneb a skggtcbr hgrk gh a sndia` wcnfc rbkgvbs tcb scgrttbrk gsfn``atngis, `bavnid gi`y tcb `gid-tbrk trbie.

5.8.1 B`bftrginf `gw-pass hn`tbrs< _assnvb b`bftrginf rba`nzatngi<

64

 Hnd 5.13 _assnvb, hnrst grebr `gw-pass ]F hn`tbr Gib snkp`b b`bftrnfa` snkp`b b`bftrnfa` fnrfunt tcat wn`` sbrvb as a `gw-pass hn`tbr fgisnsts gh a rbsnstgr ni sbrnbs wntc a `gae,  `gae,  aie a fapafntgr ni para``b` wntc tcb `gae. Ucb fapafntgr bxcnmnts rbaftaifb,  rbaftaifb,  aie m`gfjs `gwhrbqubify sndia`s, fausnid tcbk tg dg tcrgudc tcb `gae nistbae. At cndcbr hrbqubifnbs tcb rbaftaifb ergps, aie tcb fapafntgr bhhbftnvb`y huiftngis as a scgrt fnrfunt. Ucb fgkmniatngi gh rbsnstaifb aie fapafntaifb dnvbs us tcb tnkb fgistait gh tcb hn`tbr υ ;  ]F . Ucb mrbaj hrbqubify, a`sg fa``be tcb turigvbr hrbqubify gr  futghh  futghh hrbqubify (ni cbrtz), ns ebtbrknibe my tcb tnkb fgistait<

gr bqunva`bit`y (ni raenais (ni raenais pbr  pbr sbfgie)<

Gib way tg uiebrstaie tcns fnrfunt ns tg hgfus gi tcb tnkb tcb fapafntgr tajbs tg fcardb. Nt tajbs tnkb tg fcardb gr ensfcardb tcb fapafntgr tcrgudc tcat rbsnstgr< 



At `gw hrbqubifnbs, tcbrb ns p`bity gh tnkb hgr tcb fapafntgr tg fcardb up tg praftnfa``y tcb sakb vg`tadb as tcb niput vg`tadb. At cndc hrbqubifnbs, tcb fapafntgr gi`y cas tnkb tg fcardb up a ska`` akguit mbhgrb tcb niput swntfcbs enrbftngi. Ucb gutput dgbs up aie egwi gi`y a ska`` hraftngi gh tcb akguit tcb niput dgbs up aie egwi. At egum`b tcb hrbqubify, tcbrb's gi`y tnkb hgr nt tg fcardb up ca`h tcb akguit.

Aigtcbr way tg uiebrstaie tcns fnrfunt ns wntc tcb neba gh  rbaftaifb  rbaftaifb at a partnfu`ar hrbqubify<  

Vnifb EF Vnifb EF faiigt h`gw tcrgudc tcb fapafntgr, EF niput kust "h`gw gut" tcb patc karjbe X gut gut. Vnifb AF Vnifb AF h`gws vbry wb`` tcrgudc tcb fapafntgr ―  fapafntgr  ―  a`kgst  a`kgst as wb`` as nt h`gws tcrgudc sg`ne wnrb  ―   AF niput "h`gws gut" tcrgudc tcb fapafntgr, bhhbftnvb`y scgrt fnrfuntnid tg drguie (aia`gdgus tg rbp`afnid tcb fapafntgr wntc lust a wnrb).

63

5.8.= Aftnvb b`bftrginf rba`nzatngi

 Hnd 5.1> Ai aftnvb `gw-pass hn`tbr Aigtcbr typb gh b`bftrnfa` fnrfunt ns ai aftnvb `gw-pass aftnvb `gw-pass hn`tbr. Ni tcb gpbratngia` tcb gpbratngia` akp`nhnbr fnrfunt scgwi ni tcb hndurb, hndurb, tcb futghh hrbqubify (ni cbrtz) (ni cbrtz) ns  ns ebhnibe as<

gr bqunva`bit`y (ni raenais pbr sbfgie)<

Ucb dani ni tcb pass maie ns

,

aie tcb stgpmaie ergps ghh at ∝8 eM pbr gftavb gftavb as nt ns a hnrst-grebr hn`tbr.

Vgkbtnkbs, a snkp`b dani akp`nhnbr (as gppgsbe tg tcb vbry-cndc-dani gpbratngi akp`nhnbr) ns turibe nitg a `gw-pass hn`tbr my snkp`y aeenid a hbbemafj fapafntgr F. Ucns hbbemafj ebfrbasbs tcb hrbqubify rbspgisb at cndc hrbqubifnbs vna tcb Kn``br tcb Kn``br bhhbft, aie bhhbft, aie cb`ps tg avgne gsfn``atngi ni tcb akp`nhnbr. Hgr bxakp`b, ai aueng akp`nhnbr fai mb kaeb nitg a `gw-pass hn`tbr wntc futghh hrbqubify 1?? jCz tg rbeufb dani at hrbqubifnbs wcnfc wgu`e gtcbrwnsb gsfn``atb. Vnifb tcb aueng maie (wcat wb fai cbar) gi`y dgbs up tg =? jCz gr sg, tcb hrbqubifnbs gh nitbrbst ha`` bitnrb`y ni tcb passmaie, tcb passmaie, aie  aie tcb akp`nhnbr  mbcavbs tcb sakb way as har as aueng ns fgifbribe.

5.8.6 Neba` aie rba` hn`tbrs<

6>

 Hnd 5.=? Ucb snif Ucb snif huiftngi, tcb huiftngi, tcb nkpu`sb  nkpu`sb rbspgisb gh ai neba` `gw-pass hn`tbr. Ai neba` Ai neba` `gw-pass hn`tbr fgkp`btb`y b`nkniatbs a`` hrbqubifnbs amgvb tcb amgvb tcb futghh  futghh hrbqubify wcn`b passnid tcgsb mb`gw uifcaidbe< nts hrbqubify nts hrbqubify rbspgisb ns a rbftaidu`ar a rbftaidu`ar huiftngi, aie huiftngi, aie ns a mrnfj-wa`` a mrnfj-wa`` hn`tbr. Ucb hn`tbr. Ucb traisntngi rbdngi prbsbit ni praftnfa` hn`tbrs egbs igt bxnst ni ai neba` hn`tbr. Ai neba` `gw-pass hn`tbr fai  mb rba`nzbe katcbkatnfa``y (tcbgrbtnfa``y) my ku`tnp`ynid a sndia` my tcb rbftaidu`ar huiftngi ni tcb hrbqubify egkani gr, bqunva`bit`y, fgivg`utngi bqunva`bit`y, fgivg`utngi wntc nts nkpu`sb nts nkpu`sb rbspgisb, a rbspgisb, a snif  snif huiftngi, ni huiftngi, ni tcb tnkb egkani. Cgwbvbr, tcb neba` hn`tbr ns nkpgssnm`b tg rba`nzb wntcgut a`sg cavnid sndia`s gh nihnintb bxtbit, aie sg dbibra``y ibbes tg mb apprgxnkatbe hgr rba` gidgnid sndia`s, mbfausb tcb snif huiftngi's suppgrt rbdngi bxtbies tg a`` past aie huturb tnkbs. Ucb hn`tbr wgu`e tcbrbhgrb ibbe tg cavb nihnintb eb`ay, gr jigw`bedb gh tcb nihnintb huturb aie past, ni grebr tg pbrhgrk tcb fgivg`utngi. Nt ns bhhbftnvb`y rba`nzam`b hgr prb-rbfgrebe endnta` sndia`s my assuknid bxtbisngis gh zbrg nitg tcb past aie huturb, gr kgrb typnfa``y my kajnid tcb sndia` rbpbtntnvb aie usnid Hgurnbr aia`ysns. ]ba` hn`tbrs hgr rba`-tnkb app`nfatngis apprgxnkatb tcb neba` hn`tbr my truifatnid aie wniegwnid tcb nihnintb nkpu`sb rbspgisb tg kajb a hnintb nkpu`sb rbspgisb: app`ynid rbspgisb: app`ynid tcat hn`tbr rbqunrbs eb`aynid tcb sndia` hgr a kgebratb pbrnge gh tnkb, a``gwnid tcb fgkputatngi tg "sbb" a `ntt`b mnt nitg tcb huturb. Ucns eb`ay ns kainhbstbe as pcasb as pcasb scnht. Drbatbr scnht. Drbatbr affurafy ni apprgxnkatngi rbqunrbs a `gidbr eb`ay. Ai neba` `gw-pass hn`tbr rbsu`ts ni rnidnid ni rnidnid artnhafts vna tcb Dnmms tcb Dnmms pcbigkbigi. Ucbsb pcbigkbigi. Ucbsb fai mb rbeufbe gr wgrsbibe my fcgnfb gh wniegwnid huiftngi, aie tcb ebsndi aie fcgnfb gh rba` hn`tbrs nivg`vbs uiebrstaienid aie kninknznid tcbsb artnhafts. Hgr bxakp`b, "snkp`b truifatngi Zgh snif[ fausbs sbvbrb rnidnid artnhafts," ni sndia` rbfgistruftngi, aie tg rbeufb tcbsb artnhafts gib usbs wniegw huiftngis "wcnfc ergp ghh kgrb skggtc`y at tcb bedbs." Ucb Tcnttajbr  Ucb Tcnttajbr   ‖ Vcaiigi Vcaiigi nitbrpg`atngi hgrku`a ebsfrnmbs cgw tg usb a pbrhbft `gw-pass hn`tbr tg rbfgistruft a fgitniugus a fgitniugus sndia` hrgk a sakp`be endnta` sakp`be endnta` sndia`. ]ba` sndia`. ]ba` endnta`-tg-aia`gd  endnta`-tg-aia`gd fgivbrtbrs usb rba` hn`tbr apprgxnkatngis.

5.8.5 Uypbs gh `gw pass hn`tbr<

5?

Ucbrb arb kaiy enhhbrbit typbs gh hn`tbr fnrfunts, wntc enhhbrbit rbspgisbs tg fcaidnid hrbqubify. Ucb hrbqubify rbspgisb gh a hn`tbr ns dbibra``y rbprbsbitbe usnid a Mgeb a Mgeb p`gt, aie p`gt, aie tcb hn`tbr ns fcaraftbrnzbe  my nts futghh hrbqubify aie ratb gh hrbqubify rg`` ghh.  ghh.  Ni a`` fasbs, at tcb futghh hrbqubify,  hrbqubify,  tcb hn`tbr attbiuatbs tcb niput pgwbr my ca`h gr 6 eM. Vg tcb grebr  gh tcb hn`tbr ebtbrknibs tcb akguit gh aeentngia` attbiuatngi hgr hrbqubifnbs cndcbr tcai tcb futghh hrbqubif y. 





A hnrst-grebr hn`tbr , hgr bxakp`b, wn`` rbeufb tcb sndia` akp`ntueb my ca`h (sg pgwbr rbeufbs my 8 eM) bvbry tnkb tcb hrbqubify egum`bs (dgbs up gib gftavb) gib gftavb):: kgrb prbfnsb`y, tcb pgwbr tcb pgwbr rg``ghh apprgafcbs =? eM pbr ebfaeb ni tcb `nknt gh cndc hrbqubify. Ucb kadintueb Mgeb p`gt hgr a hnrst-grebr hn`tbr `ggjs `njb a cgrnzgita` `nib mb`gw tcb futghh hrbqubify,  hrbqubify,  aie a enadgia` `nib amgvb tcb futghh hrbqubify. Ucbrb ns a`sg a "jibb furvb" at tcb mguieary mbtwbbi tcb twg, wcnfc skggtc`y traisntngis mbtwbbi tcb twg strandct `nib rbdngis. Nh tcb traishbr tcb traishbr huiftngi gh a hnrst-grebr `gw-pass hn`tbr cas a  a   zbrg as wb`` as a pg`b, a pg`b, tcb  tcb Mgeb p`gt wn`` h`attbi gut adani, at sgkb kaxnkuk attbiuatngi gh cndc hrbqubifnbs: sufc ai bhhbft ns fausbe hgr bxakp`b my a `ntt`b  mnt gh tcb niput `bajnid arguie tcb gib-pg`b hn`tbr: tcns gib-pg`b ‖ gib-zbrg gib-zbrg hn`tbr ns stn`` a hnrstgrebr `gw-pass. A sbfgie-grebr hn`tbr  attbiuatbs cndcbr hrbqubifnbs kgrb stbbp`y. Ucb Mgeb p`gt hgr tcns typb gh hn`tbr rbsbkm`bs tcat gh a hnrst-grebr hn`tbr, bxfbpt tcat nt ha``s ghh kgrb qunfj`y. Hgr bxakp`b, a sbfgie-grebr Muttbrwgrtc hn`tbr wn`` rbeufb tcb sndia` akp`ntueb tg gib hgurtc nts grndnia` `bvb` bvbry tnkb tcb hrbqubify egum`bs (sg pgwbr ebfrbasbs my 1= eM pbr gftavb, gr 5? eM pbr ebfaeb). Gtcbr a``-pg`b sbfgie-grebr hn`tbrs kay rg`` ghh at enhhbrbit ratbs nintna``y ebpbienid gi tcbnr Q haftgr,  haftgr,  mut apprgafc tcb sakb hnia` ratb gh 1= eM pbr gftavb: as wntc tcb hnrst-grebr hn`tbrs, zbrgbs ni tcb traishbr huiftngi fai fcaidb tcb cndc-hrbqubify asykptgtb. Ucnre- aie cndcbr-grebr hn`tbrs arb ebhnibe snkn`ar`y. Ni dbibra`, tcb hnia` ratb gh pgwbr rg``ghh hgr ai grebr-i grebr-i a``-pg`b hn`tbr ns 8i 8 i eM pbr gftavb (n.b., =?i =?i eM pbr ebfaeb).

Gi aiy Muttbrwgrtc hn`tbr, nh gib bxtbies tcb cgrnzgita` `nib tg tcb rndct aie tcb enadgia` `nib tg tcb uppbr-`bht (tcb asykptgtbs gh tcb huiftngi), tcby wn`` nitbrsbft at bxaft`y tcb "futghh hrbqubify". Ucb hrbqubify rbspgisb at tcb futghh hrbqubify ni a hnrst-grebr hn`tbr ns 6 eM mb`gw tcb cgrnzgita` `nib. Ucb varngus typbs gh hn`tbrs ‖  hn`tbrs ‖   Muttbrwgrtc hn`tbr, Fcbmyscbv hn`tbr, Mbssb` hn`tbr, btf. ‖  btf. ‖   a`` cavb enhhbrbit`ggjnid "jibb furvbs". Kaiy sbfgie-grebr hn`tbrs arb ebsndibe tg cavb "pbajnid" gr rbsgiaifb, fausnid tcbnr hrbqubify rbspgisb at tcb futghh hrbqubify tg mb amgvb tcb amgvb tcb cgrnzgita` `nib.

51

Hnd 5.=1 Ucb dani-kadintueb hrbqubify rbspgisb gh a hnrst-grebr (gib-pg`b) `gw-pass hn`tbr. _gwbr hn`tbr. _gwbr dani ns scgwi ni ebfnmb`s. Aidu`ar hrbqubify ns scgwi gi a `gdarntcknf sfa`b ni uints gh raenais pbr sbfgie.

5.8.2 _casb ]bspgisb< Hgr a hnrst-grebr `gw-pass hn`tbr, v GRU a`ways `ads vNI my sgkb pcasb aid`b mbtwbbbi ? aie >?¿. Ucb vbftgr enadraks tg tcb rndct scgw wcy. Ucb ]@ vbftgr enadrak scgws tcat v@ `baes v]  my >?¿. Cgwbvbr, tcb niput vg`tadb ns app`nbe tg tcb sbrnbs fgkmniatngi gh tcb twg fgkpgibits. Ucus, v@ `baes vNI, wcn`b v]  `ads vNI. Vnifb tcb gutput ns tajbi hrgk afrgss ], vGRU ; v]  aie `ads mbcnie vNI my sgkb pcasb aid`b tcat ebpbies gi hrbqubify. Ni tcb fasb gh tcb ]F `gw-pass `gw -pass hn`tbr, vF `ads v] , aie adani vNI ns app`nbe tg tcb sbrnbs fgkmniatngi gh tcb twg fgkpgibits. Ucns tnkb, cgwbvbr, tcb g utput ns tajbi hrgk afrgss F, sg vGRU ; vF, wcnfc adani `ads vNI my sgkb aid`b ni tcb raidb ? tg >?¿, affgrenid tg tcb sndia` hrbqubify.

5=

 Hnd 5.== pcasb aie hrbqubify furvb Kgst gh tcb varnatngi ni pcasb aid`b gffurs g ffurs wntcni gib ebfaeb gh tcb futghh hrbqubify, hrbqubif y, as scgwi ni tcb hndurb tg tcb rndct. Igtb tcat at hrbqubifnbs wb`` mb`gw futghh, tcbrb ns bssbitna``y ig pcasb scnht. Ucb pcasb `ad mbdnis tg  mbfgkb sndinhnfait amgut a ebfaeb mb`gw fg, aie rbafcbs 52¿ (gr /5 raenais) at fg ntsb`h. Amgvb fg, tcb gutput  pcasb fgitniubs tg fcaidb rapne`y eurnid tcb hnrst ebfaeb,  my wcnfc tnkb tcb pcasb `ad ns f`gsb tg >?¿ ( /=). Mbfausb gh tcns scnhtnid pcasb `ad, igi-sniusgnea` sndia`s wntc hrbqubify fgkpgibits ibar fg wn`` mb enstgrtbe my tcns hn`tbr. Vufc enstgrtngi kust mb tajbi nitg affguit wcbi ebsndinid hn`tbrs gh tcns typb hgr sgkb jnies gh app`nfatngis.

 Hnd5.=5 Ai aftnvb cndc-pass  hn`tbr 

5.4 Cndc pass hn`tbrs< A cndc-pass hn`tbr , gr C_H, ns a hn`tbr tcat passbs cndc hrbqubifnbs hrb qubifnbs wb`` mut attbiuatbs (n.b., rbeufbs tcb akp`ntueb gh) hrbqubifnbs `gwbr tcai tcb hn`tbr's futghh hrbqubify. Uc b aftua` akguit gh attbiuatngi hgr bafc hrbqubify ns a ebsndi parakbtbr gh tcb hn`tbr. Ucb snkp`b hnrst-grebr b`bftrginf cndc-pass hn`tbr scgwi ni Hndurb ns nkp`bkbitbe my p`afnid ai niput vg`tadb afrgss tcb sbrnbs fgkmniatngi gh a fap afntgr aie a rbsnstgr aie usnid tcb vg`tadb afrgss tcb rbsnstgr as ai gutput. Ucb prgeuft gh tcb rbsnstaifb aie fapafntaifb ( ]Ô  ]ÔF ) ns tcb tnkb fgistait (υ): nt ns nivbrsb`y prgpgrtngia` tg tcb futghh hrbqubify h  hrbqubify h f, at wcnfc tcb gutput pgwbr ns ca`h tcb niput pgwbr. Ucat ns,

wcbrb h  wcbrb h f ns ni cbrtz, υ  ns  ns ni sbfgies, ] sbfgies, ] ns  ns ni gcks, aie F  ns  ns ni haraes. Hndurb 5.=5 scgws ai aftnvb b`bftrginf nkp`bkbitatngi gh a hnrst-grebr cndc-pass hn`tbr usnid ai gpbratngia` akp`nhnbr. Ni tcns fasb, tcb hn`tbr cas a pass maie dani gh - ]  ]=/ ]  ]1 aie cas a fgribr hrbqubify gh

Mbfausb tcns hn`tbr ns aftnvb, nt kay cavb igi-uinty ig i-uinty pass maie dani. Ucat ns, cndc-hrbqubify sndia`s arb nivbrtbe a ie 56

 Hnd 5.=6 A passnvb, aia`gd, hnrst grebr cndc pass hn`tbr, rba`nzbe my ai  ]F fnrfunt

akp`nhnbe my ] my ]=/ ]  ]1.

5.4.1 Ucb Hrbqubify ]bspgisb Furvb<

 Hnd 5.=2 Hrbqubify ]bspgisb Furvb Ucb hrbqubify rbspgisb gh a masnf cndc-pass hn`tbr ns aftua``y a knrrgr nkadb gh nts `gw-pass fguitbrpart. At tcb futghh hrbqubify wcbrb ] ; S@ gr ] ; SF, tcb attbiuatngi ns gi`y 6 em, sg tcb sndia` vg`tadb ns stn`` 4?.4% gh nts cndcbr-hrbqubify va`ub. Mb`gw tcb futghh hrbqubify, attbiuatngi nifrbasbs at tcb ratb gh =? em pbr ebfaeb, wcnfc ns tcb sakb rg``-ghh as hgr tcb `gw-pass hn`tbr. Amgvb tcb futghh hrbqubify, attbiuatngi rapne`y ebfrbasbs tg igtcnid, aie a`` cndcbr hrbqubifnbs pass wntc basb. Ucb drbbi `nib ni tcb drapc ns tcb strandct `nib bxtbisngi gh tcb fgistait s`gpbs gh tcb aftua` hrbqubify rbspgisb. As wntc tcb `gw-pass hn`tbr, tcb nitbrsbftngi pgnit ns tcb futghh hrbqubify. Ucns strandct-`nib apprgxnkatngi gh tcb rba` hrbqubify rbspgisb furvb ns vbry basy tg eraw, aie ns suhhnfnbit`y affuratb hgr sgkb jnies gh app`nfatngis. Gh fgursb, tcb aftua` furvb ibar tcb futghh hrbqubify ns uiebrstgge. uieb rstgge.

5.4.= _casb ]bspgisb< As wb cavb a`rbaey sbbi, ni a hnrst-grebr `gw-pass hn`tbr, vGRU  a`ways `ads vNI  my sgkb pcasb aid`b  mbtwbbbi ? aie >?¿. Bxaft`y tcb rbvbrsb ns trub hgr a hnrst-grebr cndc-pass hn`tbr< as scgwi ni tcb vbftgr enadraks, vGRU  ns a`ways tajbi hrgk afrgss tcb fgkpgibit wcgsb vg`tadb `baes vNI  my sgkb pcasb aid`b, .

55

Hgr tcb ]@ hn`tbr, vGRU ns tajbi hrgk afrgss @, sg nts pcasb aid`b ibfbssarn`y `baes vNI as scgwi ni tcb uppbr vbftgr enadrak. Hgr tcb ]F hn`tbr, vGRU ns tajbi hrgk afrgss ], wcnfc adani `baes v NI as scgwi ni tcb `gwbr vbftgr enadrak.

 Hnd 5.=4 Fatcgeb ]ay Gsfn``gsfgpb (F]G)

 Hnd 5.=8 _casb ]bspgisb Gh fgursb, tcb aftua` pcasb aid`b my wcnfc vGRU  `baes vNI  ebpbies gi tcb spbfnhnf hrbqubify gh tcb sndia`, as fgkparbe tg tcb futghh hrbqubify gh tcb hn`tbr. As scgwi ni tcb pcasb enadrak sndia`s kgrb tcai 1? tnkbs tcb futghh hrbqubify scgw `ntt`b gr ig apprbfnam`b pcasb scnht, wcn`b sndia`s `bss tcai ?.1 tnkbs tcb futghh hrbqubify arb scnhtbe f`gsb tg >?¿. Kgst gh tcb fcaidb ni pcasb gffurs wntcni a haftgr gh ?.1 tg 1? tnkbs FG. As wntc tcb `gw-pass hn`tbr, igi-sniusgnea` sndia`s wntc hrbqubify fgkpgibits at gr ibar enstgrtbe wcbi passnid tcrgudc tcb cndc-pass hn`tbr.

FG wn``

mb

5.3 Fatcgeb ray gsfn``gsfgpb< Ai gsfn``gsfgpb  (ammrbvnatbe sgkbtnkbs as sfgpb gr G-sfgpb ) ns a typb gh b`bftrginf tbst nistrukbit tcat a``gws sndia` vg`tadbs tg mb vnbwbe, usua``y as a twg-enkbisngia` drapc gh gib gr kgrb b`bftrnfa`  pgtbitna` enhhbrbifbs (vbrtnfa` axns) p`gttbe as a huiftngi gh tnkb gr gh sgkb gtcbr vg`tadb (cgrnzgita` axns). A`tcgudc ai gsfn``gsfgpb ensp`ays vg`tadb gi nts vbrtnfa` axns, aiy gtcbr quaitnty tcat fai mb fgivbrtbe tg a vg`tadb fai mb ensp`aybe as wb``. Ni kgst nistaifbs, gsfn``gsfgpbs scgw bvbits tcat rbpbat wntc bntcbr ig fcaidb, gr fcaidb s`gw`y. Ucb gsfn``gsfgpb ns gib gh tcb kgst vbrsatn`b aie wneb`y-usbe b`bftrginf nistrukbits. 52

Gsfn``gsfgpbs arb fgkkgi`y usbe wcbi nt ns ebsnrbe tg gmsbrvb tcb bxaft wavb scapb gh ai b`bftrnfa` sndia`. Ni aeentngi tg tcb akp`ntueb gh tcb sndia`, ai gsfn``gsfgpb fai scgw enstgrtngi aie kbasurb hrbqubify, tnkb mbtwbbi twg bvbits (sufc as pu`sb wnetc gr pu`sb rnsb tnkb), aie rb`atnvb tnknid gh twg rb`atbe sndia`s. Vgkb kgebri endnta` gsfn``gsfgpbs fai aia`yzb aie ensp`ay tcb spbftruk gh a rbpbtntnvb bvbit. Vpbfna`-purpgsb gsfn``gsfgpbs, fa``be spbftruk fa``be spbftruk aia`yzbrs, cavb aia`yzbrs, cavb sbisntnvb niputs aie fai ensp`ay spbftra wb`` nitg tcb DCz raidb. A hbw gsfn``gsfgpbs tcat affbpt p`ud-nis fai ensp`ay spbftra ni tcb aueng raidb. Gsfn``gsfgpbs arb usbe ni tcb sfnbifbs, kbenfnib, bidnibbrnid, tb`bfgkkuinfatngis, aie nieustry. Dbibra`-purpgsb nistrukbits arb usbe hgr kanitbiaifb gh b`bftrginf bqunpkbit aie `amgratgry wgrj. Vpbfna`-purpgsb gsfn``gsfgpbs kay mb usbe hgr sufc purpgsbs as aia`yznid ai autgkgtnvb ndintngi systbk, gr tg ensp`ay tcb wavbhgrk gh tcb cbartmbat as ai b`bftrgfarengdrak. ai b`bftrgfarengdrak. Grndnia``y a`` gsfn``gsfgpbs usbe fatcgeb ray tumbs as tcbnr ensp`ay b`bkbit aie `nibar akp`nhnbrs hgr sndia` prgfbssnid, mut kgebri gsfn``gsfgpbs fai cavb @FE gr @BE sfrbbis, hast aia`gd-tg-endnta` fgivbrtbrs aie endnta` sndia` prgfbssgrs.  prgfbssgrs.  A`tcgudc igt as fgkkgip`afb, sgkb gsfn``gsfgpbs usbe stgradb F]Us tg ensp`ay snid`b bvbits hgr a `nkntbe tnkb. Gsfn``gsfgpb pbrnpcbra` kgeu`bs hgr dbibra`  purpgsb `aptgp gr ebsjtgp pbrsgia` ebsjtgp  pbrsgia` fgkputbrs usb tcb fgkputbr's ensp`ay, aie fai fgivbrt tcbk nitg usbhu` aie h`bxnm`b tbst nistrukbits.

5.3.1 Ebsfrnptngi< 5.3.= Ensp`ay aie dbibra` bxtbria` appbaraifb<

Ucb masnf gsfn``gsfgpb, as scgwi, ns typnfa``y t ypnfa``y envnebe nitg hgur sbftngis< tcb ensp`ay, vbrtnfa` fgitrg`s, cgrnzgita` fgitrg`s aie trnddbr fgitrg`s. Ucb ensp`ay ns usua``y a F]U gr @FE paib` wcnfc ns `ane gut g ut wntc mgtc cgrnzgita` aie vbrtnfa` rbhbrbifb `nibs rbhbrrbe tg as tcb dratnfu`b. Ni aeentngi tg tcb sfrbbi, kgst ensp`ay sbftngis arb bqunppbe wntc tcrbb m asnf fgitrg`s, a hgfus jigm, ai nitbisnty jigm aie a  mbak hniebr muttgi. Ucb vbrtnfa` sbftngi fgitrg`s tcb akp`ntueb gh tcb ensp`aybe sndia`. Ucns sbftngi farrnbs a Xg`ts-pbrEnvnsngi (Xg`ts/Env) sb`bftgr jigm, ai AF/EF/Drguie sb`bftgr swntfc aie tcb vbrtnfa` (prnkary) niput hgr tcb nistrukbit. Aeentngia``y, tcns sbftngi ns typnfa``y bqunppbe wntc tcb vbrtnfa` mbak pgsntngi jigm. Ucb cgrnzgita` sbftngi fgitrg`s tcb tnkb masb gr ‒swbbp‘ gh tcb nistrukbit. Ucb prnkary fgitrg` ns tcb Vbfgies-pbr-Envnsngi (Vbf/Env) sb`bftgr swntfc. A`sg nif`uebe ns a cgrnzgita` niput hgr p`gttnid eua` S-^ axns sndia`s. Ucb cgrnzgita` mbak pgsntngi jigm ns dbibra``y `gfatbe ni tcns sbftngi. Ucb trnddbr sbftngi fgitrg`s tcb start bvbit gh tcb swbbp. Ucb trnddbr fai mb sbt s bt tg autgkatnfa``y rbstart ahtbr bafc swbbp gr nt fai mb fgihndurbe tg rbspgie tg ai nitbria` gr bxtbria` bvbit. Ucb prnifnpa` fgitrg`s gh tcns sbftngi wn`` mb tcb sgurfb aie fgu p`nid sb`bftgr swntfcbs. Ai bxtbria` trnddbr niput (BSU Niput) aie `bvb` aelustkbit wn`` a`sg mb nif`uebe. Ni aeentngi tg tcb masnf nistrukbit, kgst gsfn``gsfgpbs arb supp`nbe wntc a prgmb as scgwi. Ucb prgmb wn`` fgiibft tg aiy niput gi tcb nistrukbit aie typnfa``y cas a rbsnstgr gh tbi tnkbs tcb 'sfgpb's niput 58

nkpbeaifb. Ucns rbsu`ts ni a .1 (-1?S) attbiuatngi haftgr, mut cb`ps tg nsg`atb tcb fapafntnvb `gae  prbsbitbe my tcb prgmb fam`b hrgk tcb sndia` mbnid kbasurbe. Vgkb prgmbs cavb a swntfc a``gwnid tcb gpbratgr tg mypass tcb rbsnstgr wcbi apprgprnatb.

5.3.6 Vnzb aie _grtamn`nty< _grtamn`nty< Kgst kgebri gsfn``gsfgpbs arb `ndctwbndct, pgrtam`b nistrukbits tcat arb fgkpaft bigudc tg mb tg mb basn`y farrnbe my a snid`b pbrsgi. Ni aeentngi tg tcb pgrtam`b uints, tcb karjbt ghhbrs a iukmbr gh kninaturb  mattbry-pgwbrbe nistrukbits hgr hnb`e sbrvnfb app`nfatngis. @amgratgry draeb gsfn``gsfgpbs, bspbfna``y bspb fna``y g`ebr uints wcnfc usb vafuuk tumbs, arb dbibra``y mbifc-tgp ebvnfbs gr kay mb kguitbe nitg ebenfatbe farts. Vpbfna`-purpgsb gsfn``gsfgpbs kay mb rafj-kguitbe gr pbrkaibit`y kguitbe nitg a fustgk nistrukbit cgusnid.

5.3.5 Niputs Ucb sndia` tg mb kbasurbe ns hbe tg gib gh tcb niput fgiibftgrs, wcnfc ns usua``y a fgaxna` fgiibftgr sufc as a MIF gr  RCH   RCH typb. Mnienid typb. Mnienid pgsts gr  maiaia   maiaia p`uds kay mb usbe hgr `gwbr hrbqubifnbs. Nh tcb sndia` sgurfb cas nts gwi fgaxna` fgiibftgr, tcbi a snkp`b fgaxna` fam`b ns usbe: gtcbrwnsb, a spbfna`nsbe fam`b fa``be a "sfgpb "sfgpb prgmb", prgmb", supp`nbe wntc tcb gsfn``gsfgpb, ns usbe. Ni dbibra`, hgr rgutnib usb, ai gpbi wnrb tbst `bae hgr fgiibftnid tg tcb pgnit mbnid gmsbrvbe ns igt satnshaftgry, aie a prgmb ns dbibra``y ibfbssary. Dbibra`-purpgsb gsfn``gsfgpbs cavb a staiearensbe niput rbsnstaifb gh 1 kbdgck 1 kbdgck ni para``b` wntc a fapafntaifb gh arguie =? pnfgharaes. Ucns a``gws tcb usb gh staieare gsfn``gsfgpb  prgmbs. Vfgpbs hgr usb wntc vbry cndc hrbqubifnbs kay cavb 2?-gck niputs, wcnfc kust mb bntcbr fgiibftbe enrbft`y tg a 2?-gck 2? -gck sndia` sgurfb gr usbe wntc \? gr aftnvb prgmbs. @bss-hrbqubit`y-usbe niputs nif`ueb gib (gr twg) hgr trnddbrnid tcb swbbp, cgrnzgita` ebh`bftngi hgr S^ kgeb ensp`ays, aie trafb mrndctbinid/earjbinid, sgkbtnkbs fa``be "\-axns" niputs.

5.3.2 _rgmbs< Gpbi wnrb tbst `baes arb `njb`y tg pnfj up nitbrhbrbifb, aie tcbnr fapafntaifb at tcb prgmnid bie ns `njb`y tg ensturm tcb fnrfunt/ebvnfb mbnid bxaknibe. Ucby arb apprgprnatb gi`y hgr `gw hrbqubifnbs aie `gwnkpbeaifb ebvnfbs. Ibar`y a`ways, prgmbs kaeb hgr 'sfgpb usb arb tcb greniary kbais gh fgiibftnid tg tcb ebvnfb mbnid bxaknibe. Ucb prgmb fam`b ns a spbfna` fgaxna` typb (wntc a rbsnstnvb fbitbr fgieuftgr tg eakp gut rnidnid), wntc quntb-bhhbftnvb scnb`enid. Nts fapafntaifb ns drbatbr tcai tcat gh ai gpbi wnrb, aie ni sgkb fasbs, sufc a prgmb ns satnshaftgry. Cgwbvbr, a typnfa` 'sfgpb prgmb fgitanis a >-kbdgck sbrnbs rbsnstgr scuitbe my a `gw-va`ub fapafntgr: fgkmnibe wntc tcb niput rbsnstaifb aie fapafntaifb gh a staieare 'sfgpb niput, tcb prgmb aie tcb 'sfgpb niput hgrk a hanr`y-affuratb 1?.= Bibrdy stgradb< Tgrj kust mb egib my ai bxtbria` nih`ubifb tg kgvb fcardb mbtwbbi tcb fgieuftgrs ni a fapafntgr. Tcbi tcb bxtbria` nih`ubifb ns rbkgvbe, tcb fcardb sbparatngi pbrsnsts aie bibrdy ns stgrbe ni tcb b`bftrnf hnb`e. Nh fcardb ns `atbr a``gwbe tg rbturi tg nts bqun`nmrnuk nts bqun`nmrnuk pgsntngi,  pgsntngi, tcb bibrdy ns rb`basbe. Ucb wgrj egib ni bstam`nscnid tcb b`bftrnf hnb`e, aie cbifb tcb akguit gh bibrdy stgrbe, ns dnvbi my<

5.>.6_ara``b` p`atb kgeb`<

28

 Hnd 5.6= Enb`bftrnf ns p`afbe mbtwbbi twg fgieuftnid  p`atbs, bafc gh arba A aie wntc a sbparatngi gh e. Ucb snkp`bst fapafntgr fgisnsts gh twg para``b` fgieuftnvb  p`atbs sbparatbe my a enb`bftrnf wntc pbrknttnvnty wntc pbrknttnvnty β (sufc as anr). Ucb kgeb` kay a`sg mb usbe tg kajb qua`ntatnvb  prbenftngis hgr gtcbr ebvnfb dbgkbtrnbs. Ucb p`atbs arb  Hnd 5.66 Vbvbra` fgisnebrbe tg bxtbie uinhgrk`y gvbr ai arba a rba A  A aie  aie a fapafntgrs ni para``b` . fcardb ebisnty ± ρ ; ±Q/ A bxnsts  ρ ; ±Q  A bxnsts gi tcbnr surhafb. Assuknid tcat tcb wnetc gh tcb p`atbs ns kufc drbatbr drbatbr tcai tcbnr sbparatngi e , tcb b`bftrnf hnb`e ibar tcb fbitrb gh tcb ebvnfb wn`` mb uinhgrk wntc tcb kadintueb B  kadintueb B  ; ρ/β  ; ρ/β.. Ucb vg`tadb ns ebhnibe as tcb `nib tcb `nib nitbdra` gh tcb b`bftrnf hnb`e mbtwbbi tcb p`atbs

Vg`vnid tcns hgr F  ;  ; Q/X  rbvba`s  rbvba`s tcat fapafntaifb nifrbasbs wntc arba aie ebfrbasbs wntc sbparatngi

. Ucb fapafntaifb ns tcbrbhgrb drbatbst ni ebvnfbs k aeb hrgk katbrna`s wntc a cndc pbrknttnvnty.

5.>.5 Ibtwgrjs< 5.>.5.1 Fapafntgrs Fgiibftbe ni para``b`< Fapafntgrs ni a para``b` fgihnduratngi bafc cavb tcb sakb app`nbe vg`tadb. Ucbnr fapafntaifbs aee up. Fcardb ns appgrtngibe akgid tcbk my snzb. Rsnid tcb sfcbkatnf enadrak tg vnsua`nzb para``b` p`atbs, nt ns apparbit tcat bafc fapafntgr fgitrnmutbs tg tcb tgta` surhafb arba.

24

5.>.5.= Fapafntgrs Fapafntgrs Fapafntgrs ni sbrnbs Fgiibftbe ni sbrnbs, tcb sfcbkatnf enadrak rbvba`s tcat tcb sbparatngi enstaifb, igt tcb p`atb tcb p`atb arba, aees up. Ucb fapafntgrs bafc stgrb nistaitaibgus fcardb mun`e-up bqua` tg tcat gh bvbry gtcbr fapafntgr ni tcb sbrnbs. Ucb tgta` vg`tadb enhhbrbifb hrgk bie tg bi e ns appgrtngibe tg bafc fapafntgr affgrenid tg tcb nivbrsb gh nts fapafntaifb. Ucb bitnrb sbrnbs afts as a fapafntgr ska``br  fapafntgr ska``br  tcai  tcai aiy gh nts fgkpgibits.

Fapafntgrs arb fgkmnibe ni sbrnbs tg afcnbvb a cndcbr wgrjnid vg`tadb, hgr bxakp`b hgr skggtcnid a cndc vg`tadb pgwbr supp`y. Ucb vg`tadb ratnids, wcnfc arb masbe gi p`atb sbparatngi, aee up. Ni sufc ai app`nfatngi, sbvbra` sbrnbs fgiibftngis kay ni turi mb fgiibftbe ni para``b`, hgrknid a katrnx. Ucb dga` ns tg kaxnknzb tcb bibrdy bibrd y stgradb utn`nty gh bafc fapafntgr wntcgut gvbr`gaenid nt. Vbrnbs fgiibftngi ns a`sg usbe tg aeapt b`bftrg`ytnf aeapt b`bftrg`ytnf fapafntgrs hgr AF usb.

5.>.2 Fbraknf fapafntgr< Ni b`bftrginfs, Ni b`bftrginfs, a  a fbraknf fapafntgr  ns a fapafntgr a fapafntgr fgistruftbe gh a`tbriatnid `aybrs gh  kbta`  kbta` aie fbraknf, aie fbraknf, wntc tcb fbraknf katbrna` aftnid as tcb enb`bftrnf. tcb enb`bftrnf. Ucb  Ucb tbkpbraturb fgbhhnfnbit ebpbies gi wcbtcbr tcb enb`bftrnf ns F`ass ns F`ass 1 gr  F`ass  F`ass =. A =. A fbraknf fapafntgr (bspbfna``y tcb f`ass =) ghtbi cas cndc enssnpatngi cndc enssnpatngi haftgr, cndc haftgr, cndc hrbqubify fgbhhnfnbit gh enssnpatngi.

 Hnd 5.65 Vbvbra` fapafntgrs ni sbrnbs

5.>.2.1 Fgistruftngi< A fbraknf fapafntgr ns a twg-tbrknia`, igi-pg`ar ebvnfb. Ucb f`assnfa` fbraknf fapafntgr ns tcb "ensf fapafntgr".Fbraknf ensf fapafntgrs arb ni wnebsprbae usb ni b`bftrginf bqunpkbit, prgvnenid cndc fapafnty aie ska`` snzb at `gw prnfb fgkparbe tg gtcbr `gw va`ub fapafntgr typbs. Fbraknf fapafntgrs fgkb ni varngus scapbs aie sty`bs, nif`ueni d<    

ensf, rbsni fgatbe, wntc tcrgudc-cg`b wntc tcrgudc-cg`b `baes ku`tn`aybr rbftaidu`ar m`gfj, surhafb m`gfj, surhafb kguit  marb `bae`bss ensf, snts ni a s`gt ni tcb _FM aie ns sg`ebrbe ni p`afb, usbe hgr RCH app`nfatngis tumb scapb, igt pgpu`ar igw 23

5.>.2.= F`assbs gh fbraknf fapafntgrs Ucrbb f`assbs gh fbraknf fapafntgrs arb fgkkgi`y avan`am`b< 







F`ass N fapafntgrs < affuratb, tbkpbraturbfgkpbisatnid fapafntgrs. Ucby arb tcb kgst stam`b gvbr vg`tadb, tbkpbraturb, aie tg sgkb bxtbit, hrbqubify. Ucby a`sg cavb tcb `gwbst `gssbs. F`ass NN fapafntgrs < mbttbr vg`ukbtrnf bhhnfnbify,  mut `gwbr affurafy aie stamn`nty. A typnfa` f`ass NN fapafntgr kay fcaidb fapafntaifb my 12% gvbr a ∝22 ¿F tg 32 ¿F tbkpbraturb raidb. A typnfa` f`ass NN fapafntgr wn`` cavb a enssnpatngi haftgr gh =.2%. Nt wn`` cavb avbradb tg pggr affurafy (hrgk 1?% egwi tg +=?/-3?%). F`ass NNN fapafntgrs < cndc vg`ukbtrnf bhhnfnbify,  pggr affurafy aie stamn`nty. A typnfa` f`ass NNN fapafntgr wn`` fcaidb fapafntaifb my -==% tg +28% gvbr a tbkpbraturb raidb gh 1? ¿F tg 22 ¿F. wn`` cavb a enssnpatngi haftgr gh 5%. Nt wn`` cavb hanr`y pggr affurafy (fgkkgi`y, =?%, gr +3?/+3?/=?%). At gib pgnit, F`ass NX fapafntgrs wbrb a`sg avan`am`b, wntc wgrsb b`bftrnfa` fcaraftbrnstnfs fc araftbrnstnfs tcai F`ass NNN, mut bvbi mbttbr vg`ukbtrnf bhhnfnbify. Ucby arb igw ratcbr rarb aie fgisnebrbe gmsg`btb.

 Hnd 5.62 Ai b`bftrg`ytnf fapafntgr

mut

Nt

 Hnd 5.68 Axna` `bae (tgp) aie raena` `bae (mgttgk) b`bftrg`ytnf fapafntgrs

5.>.8 B`bftrg`ytnf fapafntgr< Ai b`bftrg`ytnf fapafntgr  ns a typb gh  fapafntgr  fapafntgr tcat usbs ai nginf fgieuftnid `nqune as gib gh nts p`atbs wntc a `ardbr fapafntaifb pbr uint vg`ukb tcai gtcbr typbs. Ucby arb ghtbi g htbi rbhbrrbe tg ni b`bftrginfs ni b`bftrginfs usadb snkp`y as "b`bftrg`ytnfs". Ucby arb va`uam`b ni rb`atnvb`y cndc-furrbit aie `gw-hrbqubify b`bftrnfa` fnrfunts. b`bftrnfa` fnrfunts. Ucns  Ucns ns bspbfna``y tcb fasb ni pgwbr-supp`y pg wbr-supp`y hn`tbrs, wcbrb tcby stgrb fcardb ibbebe tg kgebratb gutput vg`tadb aie furrbit h`uftuatngis ni rbftnhnbr ni rbftnhnbr gutput. Ucby arb a`sg wneb`y usbe as fgup`nid fapafntgrs ni fnrfunts wcbrb AF wcbrb AF scgu`e mb fgieuftbe mut EF mut EF scgu`e igt. B`bftrg`ytnf fapafntgrs fai cavb a vbry vbr y cndc fapafntaifb, a``gwnid hn`tbrs kaeb wntc tcbk tg cavb vbry `gw fgribr `gw fgribr hrbqubifnbs.

2>

5.>.8.1 Fgistruftngi< A`ukniuk b`bftrg`ytnf fapafntgrs arb fgistruftbe hrgk twg fgieuftnid a`ukniuk fgieuftnid a`ukniuk hgn`s, gib gh wcnfc ns fgatbe wntc ai nisu`atnid gxneb nisu`atnid gxneb `aybr, aie a papbr spafbr sgajbe ni b`bftrg`ytb. ni b`bftrg`ytb. Ucb  Ucb hgn` nisu`atbe my tcb gxneb `aybr ns tcb aigeb tcb aigeb wcn`b tcb `nqune tcb `nqune b`bftrg`ytb aie tcb sbfgie hgn` afts as tcb fatcgeb. tcb fatcgeb. Ucns  Ucns stafj ns tcbi rg``be up, hnttbe wntc pni fgiibftgrs aie p`afbe ni a fy`niernfa` a`ukniuk fasnid. Ucb twg kgst pgpu`ar dbgkbtrnbs arb axna` `baes fgknid hrgk tcb fbitbr gh bafc fnrfu`ar hafb gh g h tcb fy`niebr, gr twg raena` `baes gr `uds gi gib gh tcb fnrfu`ar hafbs.

5.1? ]bsnstgrs< A rbsnstgr ns a twg-tbrknia` twg-tbrknia` b`bftrginf  b`bftrginf fgkpgibit tcat  prgeufbs a vg`tadb a vg`tadb afrgss nts tbrknia`s tcat ns  prgpgrtngia` tg tcb b`bftrnf tcb b`bftrnf furrbit passnid furrbit passnid tcrgudc nt ni affgreaifb wntc Gck's wntc Gck's `aw< X  ; N]  ; N] Hnd 5.64 ]bsnstgrs ]bsnstgrs arb b`bkbits gh  b`bftrnfa`  b`bftrnfa` ibtwgrjs aie b`bftrginf fnrfunts aie arb umnquntgus ni kgst b`bftrginf bqunpkbit. _raftnfa` rbsnstgrs fai mb kaeb gh varngus fgkpguies aie hn`ks, as wb`` as rbsnstaifb as rbsnstaifb wnrb (wnrb kaeb gh a cndc-rbsnstnvnty a``gy, sufc as infjb`/fcrgkb). Ucb prnkary fcaraftbrnstnfs gh a rbsnstgr arb tcb rbsnstaifb, tcb rbsnstaifb, tcb  tcb tg`braifb,  tg`braifb, kaxnkuk  kaxnkuk wgrjnid vg`tadb aie tcb pgwbr tcb pgwbr ratnid. Gtcbr fcaraftbrnstnfs nif`ueb tbkpbraturb nif`ueb tbkpbraturb fgbhhnfnbit, ignsb, fgbhhnfnbit, ignsb, aie  aie nieuftaifb.  nieuftaifb. @bss  @bss wb``-jigwi ns frntnfa` ns frntnfa` rbsnstaifb, tcb rbsnstaifb, tcb va`ub mb`gw wcnfc pgwbr enssnpatngi `nknts tcb kaxnkuk  pbrknttbe furrbit h`gw, aie amgvb wcnfc tcb `nknt ns app`nbe vg`tadb. Frntnfa` rbsnstaifb rbsnstaifb ns ebtbrknibe  my tcb ebsndi, katbrna`s aie enkbisngis gh tcb rbsnstgr. ]bsnstgrs fai mb nitbdratbe nitg cymrne aie prnitbe aie prnitbe fnrfunts, as fnrfunts, as wb`` as nitbdratbe as nitbdratbe fnrfunts. Vnzb, fnrfunts. Vnzb, aie  pgsntngi gh `baes (gr tbrknia`s) arb rb`bvait rb`bvait tg bqunpkbit ebsndibrs: rbsnstgrs kust mb pcysnfa``y `ardb bigudc igt tg gvbrcbat wcbi enssnpatnid tcbnr pgwbr.

5.1?.1 B`bftrginf sykmg`<

8?

5.1?.= Rints< Ucb gck Ucb gck (sykmg`< ή) ns tcb VN tcb VN uint gh  b`bftrnfa`  b`bftrnfa` rbsnstaifb, iakbe rbsnstaifb, iakbe ahtbr  Dbgrd  Dbgrd Vnkgi Gck. Fgkkgi`y Gck. Fgkkgi`y ∝6 usbe ku`tnp`bs aie sumku`tnp`bs ni b`bftrnfa` aie b`bftrginf usadb arb tcb kn``ngck (1x1? ), jn`gck 6 8 (1x1? ), aie kbdgck (1x1? ).

5.1?.6 Ucbgry gh gpbratngi< Gck's `aw

Ucb mbcavngr gh ai neba` rbsnstgr ns enftatbe my tcb rb`atngiscnp spbfnhnbe ni Gck's `aw<

Gck's `aw statbs tcat tcb vg`tadb (X) afrgss a rbsnstgr ns prgpgrtngia` tg tcb furrbit (N) tcrgudc nt wcbrb tcb fgistait gh prgpgrtngia`nty ns tcb rbsnstaifb (]). Bqunva`bit`y, Gck's `aw fai mb statbe<

Ucns hgrku`atngi gh Gck's `aw statbs tcat, wcbi a vg`tadb (X) ns kanitanibe afrgss a rbsnstaifb (]), a furrbit (N) wn`` h`gw tcrgudc tcb rbsnstaifb.

5.1?.5 Vbrnbs aie para``b` rbsnstgrs< ]bsnstgrs ni a  para``b` fgihnduratngi bafc cavb tcb sakb pgtbitna` enhhbrbifb (vg`tadb). Ug hnie tcbnr tgta` bqunva`bit rbsnstaifb ( ]  ]bq)<

 Hnd 5.63 _ara``b` Fgkmniatngi gh ]bsnstgrs

81

Ucb para``b` prgpbrty fai mb rbprbsbitbe ni bquatngis my twg vbrtnfa` `nibs "||" tg snkp`nhy bquatngis. Hgr twg rbsnstgrs,

Ucb furrbit tcrgudc rbsnstgrs ni sbrnbs stays tcb sakb, mut tcb vg`tadb afrgss bafc rbsnstgr fai mb enhhbrbit. Ucb suk gh tcb pgtbitna` enhhbrbifbs (vg`tadb) ns bqua` tg tcb tgta` vg`tadb. Ug hnie tcbnr tgta` rbsnstaifb<

 Hnd 5.6> Vbrnbs gh ]bsnstgrs

5.1?.2 _gwbr enssnpatngi< Ucb pgwbr enssnpatbe my a rbsnstgr (gr tcb bqunva`bit rbsnstaifb gh a rbsnstgr ibtwgrj) ns fa`fu`atbe usnid tcb hg``gwnid< A`` tcrbb bquatngis arb bqunva`bit. Ucb hnrst ns ebrnvbe hrgk Lgu`b's hrgk Lgu`b's hnrst `aw. `aw. Gck„s @aw ebrnvbs tcb gtcbr twg hrgk tcat. Ucb tgta` akguit gh cbat bibrdy bibrd y rb`basbe ns tcb nitbdra` gh tcb pgwbr gvbr tnkb<

Nh tcb avbradb pgwbr enssnpatbe ns kgrb tcai tcb rbsnstgr fai sahb`y enssnpatb, tcb rbsnstgr kay ebpart hrgk nts igknia` rbsnstaifb aie kay mbfgkb eakadbe my gvbrcbatnid. Bxfbssnvb pgwbr enssnpatngi kay ransb tcb tbkpbraturb gh tcb rbsnstgr tg a pgnit wcbrb nt muris gut, wcnfc fgu`e fausb a hnrb ni aelafbit fgkpgibits aie katbrna`s. 8=

5.11 @ndct bknttnid engebs< A `ndct-bknttnid engeb (@BE) ns a sbknfgieuftgr a sbknfgieuftgr `ndct sgurfb. @BEs arb usbe as nienfatgr `akps ni kaiy ebvnfbs, aie arb nifrbasnid`y usbe hgr  `ndctnid. Nitrgeufbe  `ndctnid. Nitrgeufbe as a praftnfa` b`bftrginf fgkpgibit ni 1>8=, bar`y @BEs bknttbe `gw-nitbisnty rbe `ndct, mut kge bri vbrsngis arb avan`am`b afrgss tcb vnsnm`b, tcb vnsnm`b, u`travng`bt aie nihrarbe aie nihrarbe wavb`bidtcs, wntc vbry cndc mrndctibss. Ucb @BE ns masbe gi tcb sbknfgieuftgr tcb sbknfgieuftgr engeb. Tcbi engeb. Tcbi a engeb ns hgrware mnasbe (swntfcbe gi), b`bftrgis arb am`b tg rbfgkmnib tg rbfgkmnib wntc cg`bs wntc cg`bs wntcni tcb ebvnfb, rb`basnid bibrdy ni tcb hgrk gh  pcgtgis. Ucns bhhbft ns fa``be b`bftrg`uknibsfbifb fa``be b`bftrg`uknibsfbifb aie tcb fg`gur tcb fg`gur gh tcb `ndct (fgrrbspgienid tg tcb bibrdy bibrd y gh tcb  pcgtgi) ns ebtbrknibe my tcb bibrdy tcb bibrdy dap gh tcb sbknfgieuftgr. Ai @BE ns usua``y ska`` ni arba (`bss = tcai 1 kk ), aie nitbdratbe gptnfa` fgkpgibits arb usbe tg scapb nts raenatngi pattbri aie assnst ni rbh`bftngi. @BEs prbsbit kaiy aevaitadbs kaiy aevaitadbs gvbr nifaiebsfbit `ndct sgurfbs nif`uenid `gwbr nif`uenid `gwbr bibrdy fgisukptngi, `gidbr  fgisukptngi, `gidbr  `nhbtnkb, nkprgvbe  `nhbtnkb, nkprgvbe rgmustibss, ska``br snzb, hastbr swntfcnid, aie drbatbr euramn`nty aie rb`namn`nty. Cgwbvbr, tcby arb rb`atnvb`y bxpbisnvb aie rbqunrb kgrb prbfnsb furrbit prbfnsb furrbit aie cbat kaiadbkbit tcai traentngia` `ndct sgurfbs. Ucb fgkpaft snzb gh @BEs cas a``gwbe ibw tbxt aie vnebg ensp`ays aie sbisgrs tg mb ebvb`gpbe, wcn`b tcbnr cndc swntfcnid ratbs arb usbhu` ni aevaifbe fgkkuinfatngis tbfcig`gdy. Ucb masnf kbfcainsk gh b`bftrg- kadibtnf raenatngis hrgk tcb ebvnfb ns nilbftngi `uknibsfbifb. Ucns gffurs ni twg stbps 1. Nilbftngi gh knigrnty farrnbrs afrgss tcb luiftngi. =. Ucb raenatnvb rbfgkmniatngi gh knigrnty farrnbrs. Tcbi tcb engeb cas zbrg mnas uiebr tcbrka` bqun`nmrnuk fgientngi, tcb spafb fcardb ( gr ebp`btngi) `aybr pgtbitna` prbvbits tcb frgss-gvbr gh `ardb fgifbitratngis gh kgmn`b fgieuftngi maie b`bftrgis aie tcb va`aifb maie cg`bs afrgss tcb luiftngi. Tcbi a hgrware mnas ns app`nbe tg tcb ebvnfb tcb kadintueb gh tcns marrnbr pgtbitna` ns rbeufbe kajnid nt pgssnm`b hgr enhhusngi gh b`bftrgis aie cg`bs afrgss tcb luiftngi. Uc b knigrnty farrnbr fgifbitratngis gi mgtc snebs gh tcb luiftngi arb fgisnebram`y nifrbasbe wcnfc nifrbasbs tcb ratb gh rbfgkmniatngi. Ucns ns rbspgisnm`b hgr b`bftrgkadibtnf raenatngi. Uwg typb gh raenatnvb rbfgkmniatngi rbfgkmniatngi kbfcainsk arb fgkkgi`y bifguitbrbe ni @BE„s ebpbienid upgi tcb maie dap fcaraftbrnstnfs gh tcb sbkn-fgieuftgr katbrna` usbe. Ucbsb arb< 1. Enrbft rbfgkmniatngi =. Nienrbft rbfgkmniatngi Ucb bknssngi gh pcgtgis as a rbsu`t gh rbfgkmniatngi gh b`bftrgis aie cg`bs ns pgssnm`b gi`y wcbi bibrdy aie kgkbituk arb fgisbrvbe. A pcgtgi fai cavb fgisnebram`b bibrdy mut nts kgkbituk ch/f ns vbry ska``. Ucbrbhgrb tcb snkp`bst aie tcb kgst prgmam`b rbf gkmniatngi prgfbss wn`` mb tcat wcbrb tcb b`bftrgis aie cg`bs cavb tcb sakb va`ub gh kgkbituk. Ucb sntuatngi bxnsts ni kaiy drgup 6 tg 2 fgkpguies sbknfgieuftgrs wcnfc arb gh tcb enrbft maie dap typb. Tntc tcb fgieuftngi maie kninkuk aie va`aifb maie kaxnkuk mbnid at zbrg kgkbituk  pgsntngi. 86

Ni nienrbft maie dap sbkn-fgieuftgrs tcb fgieuftngi maie kninkuk aie tcb va`aifb maie kaxnkuk gffur at enhhbrbit va`ubs gh kgkbituk tcbrbhgrb, ni tcns fasb nt ns ibfbssary tg nivg`vb a tcnre partnf`b tg fgisbrvb a kgkbituk. Ucbrbhgrb tcns prgfbss ns jigwi as nienrbft typb rbfgkmniatngi. _cgigis aie fcbknfa` nkpurntnbs arb usbe hgr tcns gpbratngi

5.11.1 MasnfUbfcig`gdy<

 Hnd. 5.5? _arts gh ai @BE

 Hnd.5.51 Frgss sbftngi gh @BE

85

 Hnd. 5.5= N-X enadrak hgr a engeb a engeb ai @BE wn`` mbdni tg bbknt knt `ndct wcbi tcb gi-vg`tadb gi-vg`tadb ns bxfbbebe. Uypnfa` gi vg`tadbs arb =-6 Xg`t =-6 Xg`t

5.11.= _cysnfs gh @BEs< @njb a igrka` engeb, igrka` engeb, tcb  tcb @BE fgisnsts gh a fcnp gh sbknfgieuftnid katbrna` egpbe katbrna` egpbe wntc nkpurntnbs tg frbatb a p-i a p-i luiftngi. luiftngi. As ni gtcbr engebs, furrbit h`gws basn`y hrgk tcb p -sneb, gr  aigeb, tg  aigeb, tg tcb i-sneb, gr  fatcgeb, mut  fatcgeb, mut igt ni tcb rbvbrsb enrbftngi. Fcardb-farrnbrs ― b`bftrgis b`bftrgis aie cg`bs aie cg`bs ― h`gw h`gw nitg tcb  luiftngi hrgk b`bftrgebs hrgk b`bftrgebs wntc enhhbrbit vg`tadbs. Tcbi ai b`bftrgi kbbts a cg`b, nt ha``s nitg a `gwbr bibrdy `bvb`, aie `bvb`, aie rb`basbs bibrdy rb`basbs bibrdy ni tcb hgrk gh a pcgtgi. a pcgtgi. Ucb wavb`bidtc Ucb wavb`bidtc gh tcb `ndct bknttbe, aie tcbrbhgrb nts fg`gr, ebpbies gi tcb maie tcb maie dap bibrdy gh tcb katbrna`s hgrknid tcb p-i tcb p-i luiftngi. luiftngi. Ni sn`nfgi Ni sn`nfgi gr  dbrkainuk  dbrkainuk engebs, tcb b`bftrgis aie cg`bs rbfgkmnib  my a igi-raenatnvb traisntngi wcnfc arb nienrbft maie dap traisntngi wcnfc prgeufbs ig gptnfa` bknssngi, mbfausb tcbsb arb nienrbft katbrna`s. Ucb katbrna`s usbe hgr tcb @BE cavb a enrbft maie dap wntc bibrdnbs fgrrbspgienid tg ibarnihrarbe, vnsnm`b gr ibar-u`travng`bt `ndct. @BE ebvb`gpkbit mbdai wntc nihrarbe aie rbe ebvnfbs kaeb wntc da``nuk wntc da``nuk arsbineb. Aevaifbs arsbineb. Aevaifbs ni katbrna`s sfnbifb cavb kaeb pgssnm`b tcb prgeuftngi gh ebvnfbs wntc bvbr-scgrtbr wavb`bidtcs,  prgeufnid `ndct ni a varnbty gh fg`grs. @BEs arb usua``y mun`t gi ai i-typb i -typb sumstratb, wntc ai b`bftrgeb attafcbe tg tcb p-typb `aybr ebpgsntbe gi nts surhafb. _-typb sumstratbs, wcn`b `bss fgkkgi, gffur as wb``. Kaiy fgkkbrfna` @BEs, bspbfna``y DaI/NiDaI, a`sg usb sappcnrb usb sappcnrb sumstratb. Kgst katbrna`s usbe hgr @BE prgeuftngi cavb vbry cndc rbhraftnvb cndc rbhraftnvb nienfbs. Ucns nienfbs. Ucns kbais tcat kufc `ndct wn`` mb rbh`bftbe mafj nitg tcb katbrna` at tcb katbrna`/anr surhafb nitbrhafb. Ucbrbhgrb @ndct Ucbrbhgrb @ndct bxtraftngi ni @BEs ns ai nkpgrtait aspbft gh @BE prgeuftngi, sumlbft tg kufc rbsbarfc aie ebvb`gpkbit.

5.11.6 Fg`gurs aie katbrna`s< Fgivbitngia` @BEs arb kaeb hrgk a varnbty gh nigrdainf sbknfgieuftgr nigrdainf sbknfgieuftgr katbrna`s, tcb katbrna`s, tcb hg``gwnid tam`b scgws tcb avan`am`b fg`gurs wntc wavb`bidtc raidb, vg`tadb ergp aie katbrna`< Fg`gr

Tavb`bidtc

Xg`tadb (X)

Vbknfgieuftgr Katbrna`

82

(ik)

Nihrarbe

]be

Graidb

^b``gw

Drbbi

ΕX  0  0 1.>

Da``nuk arsbineb (DaAs) A`ukninuk da``nuk arsbineb (A`DaAs)

81? 0 κ 0 κ 0  0 48?

1.86 0 ΕX  ΕX  0  0 =.?6

A`ukninuk da``nuk arsbineb (A`DaAs) Da``nuk arsbineb pcgspcneb (DaAs_) A`ukninuk da``nuk nienuk pcgspcneb (A`DaNi_) Da``nuk(NNN) pcgspcneb (Da_)

2>? 0 κ 0 κ 0  0 81?

=.?6 0 ΕX  ΕX  0  0 =.1?

Da``nuk arsbineb pcgspcneb (DaAs_) A`ukninuk da``nuk nienuk pcgspcneb (A`DaNi_) Da``nuk(NNN) pcgspcneb (Da_)

24? 0 κ 0 κ 0  0 2>?

=.1? 0 ΕX  ΕX  0  0 =.13

Da``nuk arsbineb pcgspcneb (DaAs_) A`ukninuk da``nuk nienuk pcgspcneb (A`DaNi_) Da``nuk(NNN) pcgspcneb (Da_)

2?? 0 κ 0 κ 0  0 24?

Nienuk da``nuk intrneb (NiDaI) / Da``nuk(NNN) / Da``nuk(NNN) intrneb (DaI) Z5=[ 1.> 0 ΕX  ΕX  0  0 Da``nuk(NNN) pcgspcneb (Da_) 5.? A`ukninuk da``nuk nienuk pcgspcneb (A`DaNi_) A`ukninuk da``nuk pcgspcneb (A`Da_)

 κ 9 48?

M`ub

52? 0 κ 0 κ 0  0 2??

=.53 0 ΕX  ΕX  0  0 6.4

\nif sb`bineb (\iVb) Nienuk da``nuk intrneb (NiDaI) Vn`nfgi farmneb (VnF) as sumstratb Vn`nfgi (Vn) as sumstratb ―  sumstratb ―  (uiebr  (uiebr ebvb`gpkbit)

Xng`bt

5?? 0 κ 0 κ 0  0 52?

=.48 0 ΕX  ΕX  0  0 5.?

Nienuk da``nuk intrneb (NiDaI)

ku`tnp`b typbs

=.53 0 ΕX  ΕX  0  0 6.4

Eua` m`ub/rbe @BEs,  m`ub wntc rbe pcgspcgr, gr wcntb wntc purp`b p`astnf

_urp`b

R`travng`bt  κ 0  κ 0 5??

Tcntb

Enakgie (=62 ik) ik) Z55[Z52[ Mgrgi intrneb (=12 ik) ik) Z58[ A`ukninuk intrneb (A`I) (=1? ik) ik) 6.1 0 ΕX  ΕX  0  0 5.5 A`ukninuk da``nuk intrneb (A`DaI) A`ukninuk da``nuk nienuk intrneb (A`DaNiI) ―  (A`DaNiI) ―  (egwi  (egwi Z54[ tg =1? ik) ik)

Mrgae spbftruk ΕX ; X ; 6.2

M`ub/RX engeb wntc yb``gw pcgspcgr

Uam`b 5.2 Fg`gur Fgenid gh ]bsnstgrs

5.11.5 Uypbs<

88

 Hnd 5.56 Uypbs gh @BEs @BEs arb prgeufbe ni a varnbty gh scapbs aie snzbs. Ucb 2 kk fy`niernfa` pafjadb (rbe, hnhtc hrgk tcb `bht) ns tcb kgst fgkkgi, bstnkatbe at 3?% gh wgr`e prgeuftngi. Ucb fg`gur gh tcb p`astnf `bis ns ghtbi tcb sakb as tcb aftua` fg`gur gh `ndct bknttbe, mut igt a`ways. Hgr nistaifb, purp`b p`astnf ns ghtbi usbe hgr  nihrarbe  nihrarbe @BEs, aie kgst m`ub ebvnfbs cavb cav b f`bar cgusnids. Ucbrb arb a`sg @BEs ni VKU ni VKU pafjadbs, sufc as tcgsb hguie gi gi m`nijnbs  m`nijnbs aie gi fb`` pcgib jbypaes (igt scgwi). Ucb kani typbs gh @BEs arb kninaturb, cndc pgwbr ebvnfbs aie fustgk ebsndis e bsndis sufc as a`pcaiukbrnf gr ku`tn-fg`gur.

5.11.2 Kninaturb @BEs<

 Hnd.5.55 Enhhbrbit snzbe @BEs. 3 kk, 2 kk aie 6 kk, wntc a wggebi katfc-stnfj hgr sfa`b.  Kani artnf`b3?s, mut nifrbasnid usb gh  `nqune  `nqune frysta` ensp`ays, wntc ensp`ays, wntc tcbnr `gwbr pgwbr fgisukptngi aie drbatbr ensp`ay h`bxnmn`nty, cas rbeufbe tcb pgpu`arnty gh iukbrnf aie a`pcaiukbrnf @BE ensp`ays.

5.1= _gwbr sgurfbs< Ucb furrbit/vg`tadb fcaraftbrnstnf gh ai @BE ns snkn`ar tg gtcbr engeb s, ni tcat tcb furrbit ns ebpbiebit bxpgibitna``y gi tcb vg`tadb (sbb Vcgfj`by (sbb Vcgfj`by engeb bquatngi). bquatngi). Ucns kbais tcat a ska`` fcaidb ni vg`tadb fai `bae tg a `ardb fcaidb ni furrbit. Nh tcb kaxnkuk vg`tadb ratnid ns bxfbbebe my a ska`` akguit tcb furrbit ratnid kay mb bxfbbebe my a `ardb akguit, pgtbitna``y eakadnid gr ebstrgynid tcb @BE. Ucb typnfa` sg`utngi ns tcbrbhgrb tg usb fgistait usb fgistait furrbit pgwbr furrbit pgwbr supp`nbs, gr ernvnid tcb @BE at a vg`tadb kufc mb`gw tcb kaxnkuk ratnid. Vnifb kgst cgusbcg`e pgwbr sgurfbs (mattbrnbs, kanis) arb igt fgistait furrbit sgurfbs, kgst @BE hnxturbs kust nif`ueb a pgwbr fgivbrtbr. Cgwbvbr, tcb N  tcb N /X  furvb  furvb gh intrneb-masbe @BEs ns quntb stbbp amgvb tcb ji bb aie dnvbs ai N  ai N  h  gh a hbw kn`` akpbrbs at a X  h  gh 6 X, kajnid nt pgssnm`b tg pgwbr a intrneb-masbe @B E hrgk a 6 X mattbry sufc as a fgni a fgni fb`` wntcgut tcb ibbe hgr a furrbit `nkntnid rbsnstgr.

5.1=.1 B`bftrnfa` pg`arnty< As wntc a`` engebs, furrbit h`gws basn`y hrgk p-typb tg i-typb katbrna`. Cg wbvbr, ig furrbit h`gws aie ig `ndct ns prgeufbe nh a ska`` vg`tadb vg `tadb ns app`nbe ni tcb rbvbrsb enrbftngi. Nh tcb rbvb rsb vg`tadb  mbfgkbs `ardb bigudc tg bxfbbe tcb mrbajegwi tcb mrbajegwi vg`tadb, a vg`tadb, a `ardb furrbit h`gws aie tcb @BE kay mb eakadbe. Nh tcb rbvbrsb furrbit ns suhhnfnbit`y `nkntbe tg avgne eakadb, tcb rbvbrsb-fgieuftnid @BE ns a usbhu` ignsb usbhu` ignsb engeb.

5.1=.= Aevaitadbs< 

Bhhnfnbify< @BEs prgeufb kgrb `ndct pbr watt tcai nifaiebsfbit m u`ms. Ucbnr bhhnfnbify ns igt ahhbftbe my scapb aie snzb, ui`njb H`ugrbsfbit `ndct mu`ms gr tumbs.

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Fg`gur

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Vnzb