Project - Process Costing-mcom -1 (1)

 INTRODUCTION

 MEANING 1) Process :A Process means a distinct manufacturing operation or stages. In Process Industries, the raw material goes through a number of processes in a sequence before the finished product is finally produced. For example production of coconut oil involve the following distinct processes: (1) COPRA CRUSHING (2) REFINING AND (3) FINISHING. 2) Process Costing: Process costing is method of costing used to find out the cost of the product in each process. wheldon has defined process costing as “a method of costing used to ascertain the cost of the product at each stage or operation of manufacture …..”According to CIMA, London-“it is that form of operation costing where standardized goods are produced”

3) Process Cost: According to CAS – 1 when the production process is such that goods are produced from a sequence of continues or repetitive operation or processes, the cost incurred during a period is considered as process cost.

 APPLICABILITY AND NECESSITY 1

Process Costing is applicable to several mining , manufacturing and public utility industries, e.g. mines and quarries producing minerals and ores; industries producing textiles , chemicals, soap, paper, plastics, alcohol, refined oil, electricity, gas and so on. It becomes necessary to apply process costing to the Industries belonging to any of the following categories:

 ONE PRODUCT, MANY PROCESSES: A factory may produce a single

item through a number of processes or departments. it

becomes necessary to find out the cost of each process or department separately to control wastage etc.  MANY PRODUCTS, MANY CYCLES: A bakery can use the same equipments to produce either bread or cakes. it may produced only bread in one cycle and change over to production of cakes in the next cycle. each cycle is treated as a separate process so as to find out the cost of the item produced in a particular cycle or process.  MANY PRODUCTS, SAME PROCESS: an oil refinery can obtain many joint products such as refined oil, gas, steam etc. in the same process. Process Costing is employed to ascertain the individual cost of each such product.

 [A] ADVANTAGES

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(1) PERIODICAL DETERMINATION OF COSTS:Process costs can be collected and determined for even a short period like a day, a week or a month. In Job Costing, on the other hand, costs can be collected and determined only after the job is complete, which may take months or evens years. (2) SIMPLE AND CHEAP:Process costing is much simple, easy and less expensive method of costing as compared to other methods. There is no need for an elaborate system of identifying the direct costs of a job or a batch. (3) MANAGERIAL CONTROL:Being a simple system to establish and operate, process costing facilitates greater control of the management over costs, wastage etc. (4) STANDARD PROCESS AND PRODUCTS:Since the processes and products are standard, it is easy to make decisions regarding pricing, quotations, tenders etc.

 [B] DISADANTAGES

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(1) NO DETAILED ANALYSIS: Process Costing does not give a details analysis of the cost as (i) it emphasizes the period rather than the unit or the product, and (ii) it gives an average cost rather that the specific cost of the product.

(2) HISTORICAL COSTS: Process Costing gives only historical costs which are not useful for forecast of future trends etc. (3) ESTIMATES: The determination of percentages of normal loss, wastage, distribution of costs over by – products and joint products, valuation of work in progress involve estimate based on arbitrary decision of the management.

 PROCESS COSTING V/S JOB COSTING

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NO. 1.

PROCESS COSTING

JOB COSTING

It is period costing i.e. costs of all It is specific costing; i.e. cost of job processes during a period are is ascertained till it ends, whatever ascertained.

the time it takes.

2.

Cost unit is each process.

Cost unit is the job order.

3.

Direct costs are much more than Costs are directs as well as indirect. indirect.

4.

It normally involves work - in - It may not involve work - in – process.

5.

progress.

Cost of one process is transferred Cost of each job is separate. to next process.

 Costing

PROCUDER

PROCESS

5

–

SIMPLE

Accounting Procedure The accounting prouder in process costing is as follows: 1. Separate Process A/c:the entire manufacturing operation is divided in to separate stages or process. each process of production is treated as a distinct cost centre a separate process account is opened to record the cost incurred in such process.

2. Debit side of Process A/c:each process account is charged with the expenses directly incurred for that process and plus its share of the overheads. the process account is debited with the direct and indirect expenses ( material, wages and overheads) pertain to that process. a) Material:the raw material, sundry material and stores required for a process are issued directly from the stores against a material requisition slip. in addition, the cost of units transferred from the earlier process, if any , also appears on the debit side of the process account. b) Labour :wages paid to workers directly employed in a process are debited to the process account. like material, the distinction between direct and indirect labour is not important in process costing. Indirect labour expenses (e.g. manager`s salary) may, if necessary, be debited on the basis of ratio of direct wages.

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c) Expenses:the expenses directly related to the process such as repairs of machinery, power etc. are debited to the respective

process

account.

Indirect

expenses

are

apportioned over and absorbed by various processes on a suitable basis such as ratio of material costs, labour costs or prime costs. 3.Credit side of Process A/c :The Process account is credited with tha sale value of residue etc. 4. Net cost of Process: The net cost of the output of the process (total cost less sale value of residue) is transferred to the next process. the cost of each process is thus made up of (i) cost brought forward from previous process and (ii) net cost of material, labourand overheads added in the process less sale value of residue. the net cost of the last process is transferred to finished goods account. 5. Average Unit Cost: The net cost is divided by the number of units produced to determine the average cost per unit in that Process.

 PRO-FORMA PROCESS ACCOUNT

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A PRO-FORMA PROCESS ACCOUNT WOULD APPEAR AS FOLLO:

Dr.

Particular s To Transfer from (1) Earlier Process To Material To Wages

Unit Rat s e

Process Account

Particular s By Sale of Residue By Transfer to next process / finished goods

To Expenses To Overheads

8

Cr.

Unit Rat s e



WASTE AND LOSSES

MEANING A manufacturing process is likely to give rise to some waste and losses. let us first be clear about the exact meaning of these terms – viz waste and losses.

 Waste: It represents the portion of basis raw materials lost in processing having no recoverable value. Waste may be visible remnants of basis raw materials – invisible; e.g. disappearance of basic raw materials through evaporations, smoke etc. normal waste is absorbed in the cost of net output , whereas abnormal waste is transferred to the costing profit and loss account.

 Spoilage: It is the term used for materials which are badly damaged in manufacturing operations, and they cannot be rectified economically and hence taken out of process to be disposed of in some manner without further processing. Spoilage may be either normal or abnormal. Normal spoilage costs are included in costs either charging the loss due to spoilage to the production order or by

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charging it to production overhead so that it is spread over all products.

 Salvage: It signifies those units or portions of production which can be rectified and turned out as good units by the application of additional material,labour or other service. For example, some mudguards produced in a bicycle factory may have dents; or there may be duplication of page or omission some pages in a book. Defectives arise due to sub-standards materials, bad – supervision, bad – planning, poor workmanship, inadequate – equipment and careless inspection.

 Rectification: In the case of articles that have been spoiled, it is necessary to take steps to salvage/reclaim as much of the loss as possible. For this purpose : (i) all defective units should be sent to a place fixed for the purpose ;(ii) these should be dismantled ;(iii) goods and serviceable parts should be separated and taken into stock;(iv) parts which can be made serviceable by further work should separated and sent to the workshop for the purpose and taken in to stock after the defects have been removed; and (v) parts which cannot be made serviceable should be collected in one place for being melted or sold.

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 Scrap: It has been defined as the incidental residue from certain types of manufactures, usually of small amount and low value, recoverable without further processing. Scarp may be treated in cost accounts in the following ways:I.

Where the value of scrap is negligible, it may be excluded from costs. In other words, the cost of scrap is borne by good units and income scrap is treated as other income.

II.

The sale value of scrap net of selling and distribution cost is deducted from overhead to reduce the overhead rate. A variation of this method is to deductedthe net realizable value from material cost. This method is followed when scraps cannot be aggregated job or process-wise.

III.

When scrap is identifiable with a particular job or process and its value is significant, the scrap account should be charged with full cost. The credit is given to the job or process concerned. The profit or loss in the scrap account, on realization, will be transferred to the costing profit and loss account.

 CAS – 6 The provision of CAS – 6 (Material Cost) relating to scrap, waste, etc. are as follows – 11

 Scrap : Scrap means discarded material having some value in few cases and which is usually either disposed of without further treatment (other than reclamation and handling) or reintroduced into the production in place of raw material.  Waste:Waste means material los during production or storage due to various factors such as evaporation, chemical reaction, contamination, unrecoverable residue, shrinkage, etc., and discarded material which may or may not have value.  Spoilage:Spoilage means production that does not meet with dimensional or quality standards in such way that it cannot be rectified economically and sold for a disposal value.  Marketable scrap:The production

process

may

generate

marketable scrap or waste. Realized or realizable value of scrap pr waste shall be credited to the cost of production.  Reprocessed scrap:In case, scrap or waste does not have ready market and it is used for reprocessing, the scrap or waste value is taken at a rate of input cost depending upon the stage at which such scrap or waste is recycled. The expenses incurred for making the scrap suitable for reprocessing shall be deducted from value of scrap or waste.

 ACCOUNTING FOR LOSSES Actual Basis : In this case, the actual sale value of scrap, spoilage or defectives is credited to the process account. Thus amount of loss ( cost less sale value) relating to defective units is wholly charged to the process account. This means that the amount of loss is absorbed by or spread over the good units. However, losses

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are of two types, normal loss and abnormal loss. Normal loss denotes the unavoidable or uncontrollable loss .Abnormal loss on the other hand, denotes the avoidable or controllable loss.In actual basis , no distinction is made between normal and abnormal loss. Hence in this method, the cost per unit may vary from period to period. This vitiates or distorts the unit costs of process.

Normal Basis : The normal basis of scrap accounting seeks to * enable the management to control avoidable costs by distinguishing between the normal loss and the abnormal loss, and avoid variations in unit costs due to change in amounts of scrap. In this method of scrap accounting the figure of normal loss for each process is fixed on the basis of past experience or technical data. Any loss above this figure is treated as abnormal loss. Any loss below this figure is treated as abnormal gains. Normal loss is treated as normal cost of production. Normal loss is treated as normal cost of production. But cost of abnormal loss or gain is taken out from the process account. The net financial loss on account of abnormal loss is debited to the costing profit and loss account. The account of abnormal Gains is credited to the costing profit and loss account.

 Worksheet : Calculation For Normal Loss Etc.

How is it to be calculated

Steps What is to be calculated

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1.

Normal Loss

= Input x % of Normal Loss

2.

Normal Output

= Input – Normal Loss

3.

Unit Cost

Normal Cost = -----------------------Normal Output

4.

Abnormal Loss Or Abnormal Gains

5.

Cost of Output

Cost of Process – Sale Value of Normal Loss = -------------------------------------------------------------Input – Normal Loss

Actual = Normal Output – Actual Output

6. 7.

Cost of Abnormal Loss Cost of Abnormal = Unit Cost X Units of Actual Output Gains = Unit Cost X Units of Abnormal Loss

= Unit Cost X Units of Abnormal Gains

 Proforma Journal Entries

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NO.

Amount

Entry

1.

Normal Loss Account To Process….Account

Dr.

Sales Value of Normal Loss

2.

Next Process Account To Process….Account

Dr.

Cost of Good Output

3.

Abnormal Loss Account To Process….Account

Dr.

Cost of Abnormal Loss

4.

Process …….. Account Dr. To Abnormal Gains Account

Cost of Abnormal Gain

5.

Actual Sale Dr. To Normal Loss Account

Units of Normal Loss x Sale Price

6.

Cash / Debtor To Abnormal Loss Account Abnormal Gain Account Dr. To Normal Loss Account

Sale Value of Abnormal Loss

8.

Costing P & L Account Dr. To Abnormal Loss Account

Cost – Sale Value of Abnormal Loss

9.

Abnormal Gain Account Dr. To Costing P & L Account

Cost of Abnormal Gains – Sale Value of Abnormal Gains

7.

 Proforma Process { NORMAL BASIS } 15

Sale Value of Abnormal Gain

Accounts

Process A Accounts ( Normal Loss ) Dr. Cr. Particulars

Units

Rate

To Material b/f

Particulars

Units

Rate

By Normal Loss A/c

To Direct Material

By Transfer to next process

To Direct Wages To DirectExpenses To Overheads

Process B Accounts ( Abnormal Loss ) Dr. Cr. Particulars To Material To DirectMaterial To Direct Wages

Units

Rate

Particulars

By Normal Loss A/c By Transfer to next process

To Direct Expenses To Overheads

Process C Accounts ( AbnormalGain )

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Units

Rate

Dr. Cr. Particulars

Units

Rate

To Transfer from (1) Earlier Process

Particulars

Units

Rate

By Normal Loss A/c

To Direct Material

By Transfer to next process

To Direct Wages To Direct Expenses To Overheads

Normal Loss Accounts Dr. Cr. Particulars To Process A/c A To Process A/c B To Process A/c C

Units

Rate

Particulars

By Actual Sale A By Actual Sale B By Actual Sale C By Abnormal Gain A/c

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Units

Rate

Abnormal Gain Account Dr. Cr. Particulars

Units

Rate

Particulars

To Normal Loss A/c

Units

Rate

By Process A/c C

To Costing Profit & Loss A/c

Abnormal Loss Account Dr. Cr. Particulars

Units

Rate

Particulars

To Process B ( Cost )

By Actual Sale B By Costing Profit & Loss A/c

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Units

Rate

Notes: 1.Quantity Reconciliation Process A

Process B

Process C

xx

xx

Xx

xx

xx

xx

Xx

xx

xx

xx

xx

xx

-

xx

-

Particulars

Input

(i)

Less : Normal Loss = Normal Production (ii) Actual Production Abnormal Loss

xx

Abnormal Gain Sale of Scrap (i – ii)

Normal Cost 2.Unit Cost = ---------------------Normal Output Cost of Process – Scrap Value of Normal Loss 2.Unit Cost = -----------------------------------------------------------------Input - Normal Loss

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 VALUATION OF WORK –IN-PROCESS EQUIVALENT UNITS We have studies earlier how work - in-progress is valued in case of Units Costing or Contract Costing. Let us now study how work-in-process is valid in case of process costing. In the process industries there is likely to be partly competed units at the end of accounting period that will be carried to the next accounting period. Such units of unfinished work are in different stages of completion .Hence they cannot be taken as full units for the purpose of calculation of units costs. Let us consider the following example: Dr. Particulars To Material To Labour To Overhead

PROCESS Units Rs. 40,000 50,000

Cr. Particular By Transferred to Process B

Units 30,00 0

Completion 100%

Rs.

10,000 By Closing 10,000 Work-in-process

50% 10,00 0 40,00 0

40,000 70,000

70,000

The problem now is-how to compute the units cost of the output ? If we simply divided Rs.70,000 by 40,000,we get Rs. 1.75 per unit. But we value both the completed units at the same rate. Therefore , the unfinished units should be converted into completed units. In the above examples, 10,000 partly finished units on which 50% of the work has been completed are equivalent to 5,000 fully completed units. on which Such incomplete units

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so computed in term of completed units are knows as equivalent units. The total output or production in terms of completed units is 30,000 + 5,000 = 35,000. Now we can divided the input cost Rs.70,000 by Produced units 35,000 to get the Units cost of Rs. 2.the output transferred to process B can be valued at Rs. 60,000 (30,000 x 2). The work-in-process can be valued at Rs. 10,000 (5,000 x 2).

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 STEPS IN CALULATION OF EQUIVALENT UNITS AND UNIT COST The calculation of the equivalent units and cost of output transferred to process B will be worked out as follows: Step 1 : Reconcile Input and Output We should consider the physical flow of production – the units of input and output. In the above example, Input is 40,000 units and output is (i) 30,000 units transferred to process B and (ii) 10,000 units of closing work –in – process. The total output of 40,000units agrees with the total input of 40,000 units. However, the output is not all of fully competed units. To make the output and input comparable, we must convert the production into Equivalent Units. Step 2 : Calculate Equivalent Units. Completed units

= 30,000

Work-in-process units = 10,000 at 50%competion

= 5,000

Equivalent Units

= 35,000

Step 3 : Calculate Total Cost of Material, Labour and Overhead 50,000 + 10,000 + 10,000 = Rs.70,000

Step 4 : Calculate Cost of each Equivalent Unit Cost per Equivalent Units Rs.70,000 / 35,000 = Rs. 2.

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Step 5 : Calculate Cost of production and cost of Work –in-process Cost of production transferred = 30,000 x Rs.2

= Rs.60,000

Cost of work-in-process = 10,000 x 50% x Rs.2

= Rs.10,000 =Rs.70,000

This cost of output (Rs.70,000) agrees with the total input cost (Rs.70,000).

Illustration 5 : (Work- Sheet Format : Only Closing Stock of WIP) The above steps can be presented in a more refined format as shows below which can be used by the students for problem involving only closing workin-process. Solution: [A] EQUVIVALENT UNITS (EU) Particular

Qty.Reconciliation Input

1. Fresh Units Introduced 2. Fresh Units Completed 3. Closing WIP Total Units of [A]

Equivalent Units [EU]

Output

Material[M] % EU

Labour[L] % EU

Overheads[O] % EU

40,000 30,000 10,000 40,000

100 50

40,000

30,000 5,000

100 50

35,000

30,000 5,000 35,000

100 50

30,000 5,000 35,000

[B] COST PER EU [CPEU] Particulars 1.Cost incurred during the process 2.Less: Sale of Normal Scrap Total Cost [B] Equivalent Units [A] Cost Per EU[C =B + A]

Material 50,000 -50,000 35,000 1.43

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Labour 10,000 -10,000 35,000 0.29

Overheads 10,000 -10,000 35,000 0.29

Total 70,000 -70,000 2.00

[C] COST APPORTIONMENT Particulars 1.Finished Units Tfd.to Process 2.Closing Work-in-process - Material - Labour - Overheads Total Cost [B] Apportioned

Next

EU

CPU

30,000

2.00

5,000 5,000 5,000 70,000

1.43 0.29 0.29

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Rs.

Total (Rs.) 60,000

7,143 1,429 1,428

10,000

 FLOW OF COST – AVERAGE OR FIFO When there are no opening W-I-P units as in the example above, valuation of closing W-I-P is simple (see Para 6.3 below). In such cases, the entire closing W-I-P comes out of the current cost and is valued accordingly, However, when there is opening stock of work -in-process, the production completed during the period comes out of(i) units completed out of the opening stock of WIP; and (ii) units started and completed in the process in the current period. The cost of units completed out of the opening stock of WIP will include partly the cost carried over from the previous period .Since the input have different costs, the problem arises of which rate to use for valuation of the output. The unit cost such situation, may be calculated under either of the two method, viz, (i) the weighted average cost method or (ii) the first -in, first out (FIFO) method.  AVERAGE METHOD Under the Average Method, Total cost in the process is divided by the Total equivalent units produced by the process to ascertain the cost per equivalent unit. Total costs of the process mean the total of the current production costs and the cost of the opening work-in-process. Total Equivalent Units produced by the process mean the total of the units completed during the period and Equivalent Units of work performed on the opening and closing work-in-process. According to the Average Method (or, more accurately, the Weighted Average Method), the cost of the opening work –in-process is added to the cost incurred in the current period and average cost worked out. It should be noted

that in the calculating the equivalent units under the

weighted average method, the work done in the past is treated as if done in

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the current period. The closing WIP under this method is made of the average costs of opening WIP and current production.

 FIFO MEHTOD The method is based on the assumption that the materials in process moves on a first-in, first-out basis. FIFO method assumes that the work on the opening stock is before the materials put into the process during the current period are taken up. The units completed during the process being usually more than the opening stock, it is assumed that no units from the opening work-in-process will be left incomplete and so none of them will find place in the closing work –in-process. Under the FIFO method, the cost of work completed in a period are worked out in two parts. i.e. separately for (a) opening work-in-process competed, and (b) units started and completed in the period. Under the FIFO method, cost of closing WIP is based on the cost of the current production only. In the FIFO method, the procedure of calculation of equivalent units is different as the units competed from opening work-in-process and from current production have to be accounted for separately.

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 ILLUSTRATIONS Let us consider the following example to understand the procedure of valuation under these two methods. Illustration 6: (Average) Process A

Period

:

September, 2003 Opening Stock (work-in-process) 10,000 units, competed, Rs.10,000 Units brought into process- 50,000. Cost incurred - Material Rs. 60,000 - LabourRs. 25,000 - Overheads Rs. 15,000 Transfer to process: 40,000 Competed units (entirely competed production) Closing Stock (work-in-process) -20,000 units, 75% compete. Calculate the value of closing W-I-P. Solution: Step 1: Quantity Reconciliation: Particulars Opening work-in-process(40%) Units started

Units 10,000 50,000 60,000

Particulars Units completed Closing work-inprocess(75%)

Units 40,000 20,000 60,000

Step 2: Computation of equivalent units: Particulars Units competed Closing work-in-process (75%) Equivalent Units

Units 40,000 15,000 55,000 27

It should be noted that in calculating the equivalent units under the weighted average method, the work done in the past is taken to have been done in the current period. Step 3: Total Cost = Rs.10,000 + Rs. 60,000 + Rs. 15,000 = Rs. 1,10,000. Step 4: Cost per equivalent unit = Rs. 1,10,000 ÷ 55,000 = Rs. 2 Step 5: Cost competed units transferred to process = 40,000×Rs.2 = Rs. 80,000 Cost of closing work-in-process = 20,000 × 75% × Rs.2

=

Rs.

30,000 Rs. 1, 10,000

[Average Method]

[A] EQUVIVALENT UNITS (EU) Particular

1. 2. 3. 4.

Opening Work-in-Process Fresh Units Introduced Units Tfd. to Next Process Closing Work-in-Process Total Units of [A]

Qty.Reconciliatio n Input Output

Equivalent Units [EU] Material[M] % EU

Labour[L] % EU

Overheads[O] % EU

10,000 50,000

60,000

40,000 20,000 60,000

100 75

28

40,000 15,000 55,000

100 75

40,000 15,000 55,000

100 75

40,000 15,000 55,000

[B] COST PER EU [CPEU] Particulars Material 1.Cost of Opening WIP 10,000 2.Cost incurred during the 60,000 process Total Cost [B] 70,000 Equivalent Units [A] Cost Per EU[C =B + A] 55,000 1.27

Labour -25,000

Overheads -15,000

25,000

15,000

55,000 0.45

55,000 0.27

Total 10,00 0 1,00,00 0 1,10,00 0 2.00

[C] COST APPORTIONMENT Particulars 1.Finished Units Tfd.to Next Process 2.Work-in-process Closing Stock - Material - Labour - Overheads Total Cost [B] Apportioned

EU

CPU

40,000

2.00

15,000 15,000 15,000

1.27 0.45 0.27

Rs.

Total (Rs.) 80,000

19,091 6,818 4,091

30,000 1,10,000

The Process Account will be shown as follows: Dr.

Process A Account

Particulars Work-inprocess(b/f) Material Labour Overhead

Units

%

10,00 40% 0 50,00 0

Cr. Rs.

Particulars Transferred to 10,000 Process B 60,000 Work-in25,000 process(c/f) 15,000

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Units

%

40,00 100% 0 75% 20,00 0

Rs. 80,000 30,000

60,00 0

1,10,000

60,00 0

1,10,000

 ELEMENT – WISE COST OF WIP Normally, It may be necessary to work out the unit process cost for each element of cost separately because material, labour and overhead may be in different stage of completion in the work-in-process inventory. All materials are usually you issued input and into the process in the beginning itself. Therefore, the closing work-in-process in generally taken as 100% compete in so far as the materials elements is concerned. For materials added at the end of the process, the percentage of completion will be zero.

 EVALUATION OF METHOD [1] Average Method: (1) The weighted average method is simpler of the two and is widely used in practice (2) But, Average method mixes up the costs in different period and does not correctly reflect the extent of change of costs from period to period. [2] FIFO Method: (1) FIFO method is more suitable from the point of view of control as the past and current costs are separated.

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(2)FIFO method is,however,complicated and tracing out the costs in to two parts from process to process become tedious, particularly when the number of processes in many. (3) FIFO system is neither suitable nor rational when spoiled units are involved because apportionment of such units between the opening the inventory and current production is not possible. [3] When choice Becomes Unnecessary The difference in the result obtained by the two method would not be signification or would disappear all together If : (1) There is no opinion inventory, and so the question of first –in, first-out does not arise at all. (2) Opening inventory very small, compared to the fresh units introduce in the process. (3) The stage of completion of opening inventory is not sufficiently advance so that the previous costs have practically no effect on current costs. (4) There is not much difference in costs from period to period.

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 PROCESS LOSSES/ GAINS (1) Meaning: In many process, the physical quantity of output is found to be less than that of the input, the difference being attributable to wastage, spoilage, shrinkage, evaporation etc. occurring in course of manufacture. In order to compute connect cost per unit. The units entering a process must be reconciled with the output coming out of the process, and the loss units, as they are called, must be analyzed to determine the factor leading to the loss. If a product passes through several processes, the lost units will have an effect not only on the unit cost of the process in which they arise but also on the cost of the subsequent processed on the cumulative unit cost of the final output. (2) Normal Loss: Units may be lost at beginning of a process, during a process, or at the end of a process. The treatment of normal spoilage costs in process accounts depends upon the stage at which the spoilage (rejection or loss) is assumed to occur. (i) At Beginning: When normal spoilage occurs at the beginning of a process, it is assumed that the lost units never entered in the process. In the Computation of equivalent units, the normal spoilage units are ignored with in the result that the cost of spoilage in charged to the production units

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competed and to abnormal spoilage, if any , as well as the to the closing work-in-process. (ii) At End:If the normal spoilage occurs at the end of a process, as is more common, the spoiled units are taken into account for computing equivalent units so that to cost of normal spoilage in charged only to the good units produced as well as to abnormal spoilage, if any, but no amount is charged to the closing work-in-process. The usual practice is to determined the cost of normal spoilage separately add it back to the cost of good units produced. If the spoiled units can be sold scrap, the scrap value is credited to the process account as the cost of the spoilage or loss. (3) Abnormal Loss: Abnormal spoilage of defective work may arise in a process due to unforeseen factors. The cost of such abnormal loss in not include in the cost of the process but the average cost of the lost units is charge to an Abnormal Loss Account which is credited with the scrap and closed by transfer to the Profit and Loss Account. Thus, in computing the value of abnormal loss, scrap value of the abnormal lost units will be ignored but in working out the loss for charging to Profit and Loss Account, this will be taken into consideration. (4) Abnormal Gains:Sometime, when the actual loss in process is less than the anticipated loss, the difference between the two is considered to be abnormal gain. The value of the abnormal gain is calculated in the same way as described above for abnormal loss and is credited to an Abnormal Gain Account which is ultimately closed by transfer to the Profit and Loss Accounts. The scrap value of the normal anticipated loss in the process where abnormal gain occurs is credited to the process account with the result

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that the net debit to the process is the cost of abnormal gains less the value of scrap for the normal loss.

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 Case study VOX is a company that assembles camcorders from components bought in from suppliers. A camcorder component kit is issued from stores to the assembly line when another camcorder has to be assembled. There are partially completed camcorders (WIP) at the end of each month. Incomplete camcorders are assembled in order of completeness, ie the one closest to completion is finished first, the second closest to completion next, etc. The following data was obtained for June:  Opening WIP: 25 component kits - GBP2,000 (100% complete – all components issued to factory); assembly work done in the previous month - GBP1,800 (60% complete); total value of opening WIP: GBP3,800  Costs incurred: 100 components kits - GBP8,200; assembly line GBP10,450  Output: 95 camcorders  Closing WIP: 30 component kits - 100% complete; assembly work 50% complete. The value of WIP is determined in relation to the components issued to the factory and the extent to which a camcorder has been assembled. All components required to make a camcorder are issued to the factory at the start of the assembly process. So opening and closing WIP are 100% complete in terms of components. 35

However, opening WIP is only 60% complete in terms of assembly and closing WIP is 50% complete. The figures relating to the completion percentages for assembly will be an average since some items may be 40% complete and others 80% complete. The cost for component kits is the actual cost (GBP8,200) of the 100 component kits issued to the factory in June. The cost for assembly work is the actual cost (GBP10,450) of the work undertaken by the factory in June. The first step is to calculate how many camcorders were started and completed in June. Table 1 shows that 70 camcorders fall into this category since 25 of the completed camcorders were started in May.

Table 1: started and completed in current period Total

output

95

Opening WIP

25

Started and completed in June

70

The next step is to calculate the number of equivalent units for components. The figure for opening WIP is 0, since no more components were issued to these partially completed products. A figure of 70 is included for the 70 camcorders started and completed in June; 30 is included for closing WIP since all the components required to assemble these camcorders were issued in June. The total equivalent units for components is 100 (table 2). The calculation of equivalent units for assembly is not as simple since the assembly work is not 100% for opening and closing WIP. A figure of 10 is 36

included for opening WIP since this represents the remaining work (40%) that had to be done in June ie 25 x (100% - 60%); 70 is included for the camcorders started and completed in June; 15 (30 x 50%) is included for the assembly work undertaken in June in relation to the closing WIP. The total equivalent units for assembly work is 95 (table 2).

Table 2: equivalent units Components

Assembly

0

10

Started and completed in June

70

70

Output

70

80

Closing WIP

30

15

Opening

WIP

100 95 The cost of an equivalent unit for components and assembly for June is:  Component kits: GBP8,200 / 100 ie GBP82 per equivalent unit  Assembly: GBP10,450 / 95 ie GBP110 per equivalent unit. The value of output is obtained by multiplying the equivalent units by the cost per equivalent unit for components and assembly then adding these figures to opening WIP:  Output: GBP3,800 + (10 x GBP110) + (70 x GBP82) + (70 x GBP110) ie GBP18,340 (Table 3). The value of closing WIP is obtained by multiplying the equivalent units by the cost per equivalent unit for components and assembly:  Closing work: (30 x GBP82) + (15 x GBP110) ie GBP4,110 (Table 3). Table 3: Valuation of output and closing WIP

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Total

Component

Assembly

s Opening

WIP

GBP3,800

Work to complete opening WIP

GBP1,100

GBP0

GBP1,10

Started and completed in June

GBP13,44

GBP5,740

0

0

GBP7,70 0

June output

GBP18,34 0

Closing WIP

GBP4,110

GBP2,460

GBP1,65

0 The above figures are then used to prepare the process account for June (Table 4). Table 4: Process account June process account Opening

WIP

GBP3,800

Output

GBP18,340

Components

GBP8,200

Closing WIP

GBP4,110

Assembly costs

GBP10,450

GBP22,450 GBP22,450 Process costing uses actual costs to value output and closing WIP. It consequently provides little information about performance since it doesn’t compare actual performance against a benchmark, ie standard cost. An analysis must be undertaken to gain an insight into performance. The analysis for June revealed: Average cost of a component kit has increased from GBP80 (Opening WIP: GBP2,000 / 25) to GBP82 38

Cost of an equivalent unit of assembly work has decreased from GBP120 (Opening WIP: GBP1,800 / 25 / 0.6) to GBP110. While this analysis is useful, it only highlights trends since it does not compare performance against a standard. A company must operate a standard costing system to obtain control information.

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