Programs for the treatment of Dyslexia

rythalamus(Bravo,2000).Acurrentneuropsychologicaltheoryofdyslexiaisba sedonexperimentalevidenceisthatproposedbyBakker,whosaysdyslexiawould srcinateinadisturbanceintheprocessoflateralizationofthecerebralhem ispheres, which would determine the predominance of some cognitive processes dur inglearningofreading.(1992.InBravo,2000)"TheCourtfindsthatlearningo ccursininteractionbetweenthecognitivestrategiesthatchildrenusetolearn withpreferentialactivationofonehemisphere.Normallearningchildrenwould processatanearlystage,visualandspatialinformationofthelettersandwor ds(HD),inordertorecognizeitsverbalmeaning(HI).Innormalreadersofthis transfer 8 cgnitiva-activity from the HD to HI - occurs between six and eight years of age andcoincideswiththelearningofreading.Indyslexics,thissequenceisalter edleadingtothedevelopmentofhemisphericstrategiesforreadingwronginone case,withthepersistenceofspatialprocessinginthedecoding(perceptualdy slexia,P),andtheotherwithaprematureapplicationverbalstrategiesd(ling uisticdyslexia,L)"(Bakker,1992citedinBravo,2000)."ThedyslexicPputmo reattentioninthevisualperceptualanalysisofwords,resultinginaslowrea ding,formallyexact,butlowunderstanding.Theyarecalledhiperanalíticosin decoding.WhiledyslexicsL,applyearlyverbalstrategiestotrytounderstand thetext,withoutpayingattentiontoallthegraphicinformation,whichresults indecodingerrors."(Bakker,1992citedinBravo,2000).Therefore,canconcl udefromneuropsychologicalstudiesthatthebrainsofdyslexicshaveananatomi calsubstratewithaperformancedifferentfromnormalreadersinsomeareasass ociatedwithvisualandauditoryprocessingoflanguage.Inaddition,theyhave lessandlessanatomicsubstrateneuronalactivationinareasthatarenecessary forthedecodingofthelanguage,whichisdeterminantinthespeedtoprocess The processes involved learning and reading dyslexia information received whilein trying toread, which inturnfailure affectsin retention ofinformation. Asthelearningdisorderdyslexiaspecificreading,itsflawscanbefoundatdi fferentlevelsofdevelopmentofliteracy.Todescribetheselevels,werelyon themodelproposedbyFirth(1985,citedinArtigas,2003).a)Stadiumlogograph ic"istheglobalrecognitionofwordfromitsform,whichidentifiesthechild forhavingbeentaughtbyhimattimesandrelateittotheirmeaning.Atthiss tagethewrittenwordisprocessedinthesamewaythatidentifiesadrawing"(Artigas, 2003). 9 b) phonological Stadium / alphabetic or decoding process Phono: As the child has toincreasetheirrepertoireofwords,theycannolongerbereadbythesamem echanism,sincethevariationsbetweenwordsandothersarenotsoapparent.Thu s, one must develop phonemic awareness (Artigas, 2003). This involves taking con scientiousauditorydifferencesbetweenthewordsforthedeterminationofitsm eaning,andisaprerequisitetoteachingreading.Itdependsonthepossibility ofcorrectpronunciation,andsoyoucanunderstanditsmeaning.Notenoughto recognizevisuallygraphicsigns,andyoualsohavetoassociatewiththeaudito rymemoryofhispronunciation.Inthiscase,thedecodingofgraphicsequences doesnotleadtothelexiconordictionaryinside"thereader(Bravo,2000).The rulinginphonologicalprocessingcorrespondstothetypeofdyslexiaorphonol ogicaldisfonéticaandcloselyapproximatesthetypeLandarticulatoriografomot or(Artigas,2003).Itconsistsinthefailuretoassociateloudgraphicsignsw ithphonologicalsequenceandcannotinwordscorrectlyunciawithoutalteratio nsfonoarticulatorias(Bravo,2000).Inthesecases,thedecisionessentiallysa ys reader reading uncommon words or no words, since the orthographic pathway cou

ld be an alternative that is not enough to offset the difficulty (Artigas). c) S tagespellingordecodingprocessunderstanding:Totheextentthatautomatesth e decoding phonographic can develop comprehensive decoding process, with access tomeaning.(Bravo,2000).Thisprocessallowsustoidentifythewordwithoutt heneedforaphonologicalanalysis.(Artigas,2003),andistounderstandthem eaningofbothwordsasthetext(Bravo).Itisbasedontherapididentificatio nofsequenceswithameaningthathasbeenstoredinthebrain(morphemes).The rulingspellingiswhatdefinesdyslexiaknownas:diseidética,perceptive,vis uoperceptivaorsuperficial.Inthesecases,themostfrequenterrorsoccurini rregularwords,whicharereadstrictlybasedonphonologicalrules(Artigas)." Itcanrecognizewordsdirectly,butcanunderstandthemusingtheletter-sound relationships,thatis,thewordcanbeunderstoodifpronounced"(Kolb,B.&Wh ishaw,I.,2003/2006,p.512-513.)However,recallingthefirstspellingintheSpanish language, 10 where there is a correspondence between grapheme and phoneme always regular, the phenomenonislessapparent(Artigas).Asmentionedabove,thisisthecauseof adifferenceindeterminingtheprevalenceofdyslexiaindifferentcountries. Importantly,betweenthesecondandthirdstagethereiscontinuityandinteract ion with each other, and can be considered semi-autonomous processes. The key to integrationbetweenthetwoiswhenchildrenlearntosethearingandspeaking thesequencesina"phonologicalgestalt,"whichallowshimtorecognizewhathe issayingoutloud,likeawordwithmeaning.(Bravo,2000)Theformsofjoint failurereferstocasesinwhichthereisnopattern"phonological"or"spelling "clearlydefined(Artigas,2003).Usuallycalledphonologicalprocessingtoone thatintegratesboththephonologicalandtheorthographicstage.Bravo(2005, p.127)definesthisprocessas"theabilityofapersontoknowinglyoperateon phonemes, discriminating, segmenting and integrating oral language acoustic unit sthathaverelevancetothemeaningofwrittenwords(Bravo,2005,p.127).Acc ordingtoBravo,thisprocessingisabridgebetweenthevisualperceptionofwo rdsandthemeaningsattributedtothem,becauseitintegratesvisualinformatio nwithinformationspellingphonemicimplicitinthespokenlanguage.d)Atala In tothe shortcomings inthevarious levelsabstraction ofthelearning teraddition stage,are activated superiordescribed verbalprocesses, memory, andcate process ofreading, therearethe other morespecific cognitivedeficitsofdyslexia gorization that determine degree of understanding. requireseparatemention:First,isthefailureoftheshort-termverbalmemory .Onthismemory-basedprocessingisakeyprocessforlearningtoread.Researc hondyslexiashowthatchildrenwiththisdelayhaveaspeedreaderinsufficien tphonologicalmemorytoevokeatimelymannerandtoassociatephonemeswithgr aphicstimuli(Bravo,2000).Jorm(1983citedinBravo)statedthatmostofthedifferences between readers 11 normalanddyslexicliesintheabilityofthechildtoencodephonologicalinfo rmationinlong-termmemoryandthespeedwithwhichitcanbeevoked.Thespeed andaccuracytomakephonologicalprocessinghasadirecteffectonthesuccess fullearningofreading.Somedyslexicchildrenusedasanalternativevisualme morytocompensatefortheirdeficitsinphonologicalmemory,buthasseenthat needmoretimetomaketherelevantassociation,whichresultsinlessunderstan dingandaslowreading.Thisisdatathatisusedtoavoidoverloadingchildren withvisualstimuliduringtherehabilitationprocess(Bravo).Ontheotherhan d,wecanfindasetofperceptualdisorders.Withrespecttoperceptualprocess es,itisnoteworthythatthefirstinvestigationsondyslexiaaimedtotestwhe therchildrenwithdyslexiahaveproblemsinvisualperceptionandspatiallette rs.Itwaslongthoughtthatchildrenwhocommiterrorsinreadingwerecausedb yadeficiencyinthatarea,affectingtherecognitionoflettersinwhichsimil arorchanges its spatialorientationas withtheletters:d,p,q,b(Bravo,20 05).Thisapproachresultedindyslexiarehabilitationprograms,someofwhicha restillpopular.TheseincludevisualperceptualtrainingbasedontheFrostig

test,psycholinguistictrainingbasedontheITPA,theperceptual-motortraining to more marginal Kehart and methods derived from the theories of Doman-Delacato .Thesemethodsarenottestedwithcontrolledexperimentalstudies(Artigas,20 00).Forexample,astudyofGeiger&Lettvin(Everatt,1999)showsthatchildre nandadultswithdyslexiawereabletolearnanewvisualstrategythatgreatly improvedtheirreadingability.Thislearningwasaresultofapplyingtheprop osedscheme,whichconsistedofamotorskillstrainingandtheformationofan ewoperatingstrategy.However,thejournalPediatricsstatesthat:"Claimsofi mprovedreadingandlearningaftervisualtraining,trainingofneurologicalorg anizationorusingtintedlensesarealmostalwaysbasedonpoorlycontrolledst udiesthattypicallyaresupportedbyanecdotalinformation.Thesemethodshave no 12 scientific validation. " (1998 in Artigas, 2000, p. 7) Continuingwithperceptualdisorderscanbesaidthatthechildcannotsymboliz eletterswhichcannotdiscriminate,produceandremember.AstudybyBreznitz, Gordon&Shaul(2003)showedthatdyslexicsofallagesprocessvisualinformat ionmoreslowlythannormalreaders.Thisdelayoccursintheearlystagesofat tention,stimulusdiscriminationanddetectionofform,bothvisualandauditory modalities,aswellasinthelaterstagesofstimulusevaluation,categorizati onandretrievalofinformationinmemoryworking,andsemanticprocessing.Here arefivealterationsofperceptionthatcanbefoundindyslexics.•Alteration ofvisualperceptionespeciallysequentialmemoryandvisualmemory."Visualpe rceptionisalearnedphenomenonthatbeginsimmediatelyafterbirthanddevelop sandrefinesto6years,atwhichtimeyoustartthereadingandwriting"(Etch epareborda,2002,p.14).Bravo(2005)arguesthatthedeficitinvisualwordpro cessing,forseveraldyslexics,especiallychildren,wouldresultfromadeficie ncyinattentionandvisualmemoryofpunctuationmarksorthedifferencesbetwe enlettersormorphemicstructures,resultedinadeficitintheawarenessofli nguisticmeaningfromthem.Soweusethetermvisual-orthographicprocessingto distinguishitfromdeficitsinvisualperceptualprocessesoftheoldmodel.T herefore,itwouldbeclosertoaprobleminphonologicalprocessing,sincethe phonologicaldomainofwrittenwordsisrequiredfortherecognitionofsignsan dvisualcues-spelling.Inaddition,someauthorsarguethattherewouldbeani nteraction between phonological processing and visual-orthographic processing th atcanhelppeoplewithdyslexiatocompensateforphonologicaldeficitsthrough spellingstrategies(2005).•visualprocessingspelling:Itistherecognition 13 ofvisualcuesspelling,asfacilitatorsofpronunciationandmeaning.Inaway ,orthographic it integratesinformation, visual discrimination itdependson and thephonological accuracyofperception processing andvisualme mory,alongwithlanguagerecognitionwithorthographicsigns(Bravo,2005).For example,visualinformationthatdistinguishesvspellofb,helpsdetermineth emeaningoftheword"goods"versus"are."Anotherexampleisthelackofaccen ts, which in this case there is a deficit in visual perception, but the use of t heirmeaning,howtoperceivethedifferencebetween"your"and"you.""Thedysl exicchildrenhaveachronicfailuretorespondselectivelyandautomaticallyto thekeysspellings.Thereisadeficitinvisualperception,buttheuseofver balmediatorsthatgivemeaningtothevisualdifferences(Etchepareborda,2002, p.14).•AuditoryProcessingDisorder:alsoplaysanimportantrole,becauseth ese children can not clearly discriminate the phonemes ear (Etchepareborda, 2002 ,p.14).•SpatialAgnosia"isaverycommonsymptominchildrenwithdyslexiaa ndcanbedetectedasearlyaskindergarten.Isalackoflocationinspace.The sechildrenconfusethenotionsoftop-down,inside-out,near-far,right-left,e tc.Thisspatialdisorientationisrelatedtothenotionintimatebody(consciou snessofhisownbody),thetemporalnotion,andsometimes,therhythm"(Etchepa reborda,2002,p.14).•Agnosiabody:"Forsixyears,anormalchildisableto

differentiatetheleft-rightpairingitself,and8-9years,inothers,placedbe forehim.Achildwhofailstheleft-rightconceptwillconfusetheoutlineofo ppositesymmetryletters(bfordypbyq)"(Etchepareborda,2002,p.14).•Agnos iatemporary"temporaryGnosismeetstwoconditions:first,theinnateabilityo fcalculatingthetimethathaselapsedand,ontheotherhand,theinfluenceof learninginrelationtothenotionsoftoday,yesterday,tomorrow,sevendaysa week,etc..Iftheconceptfailstemporarily,thechildwillmakemistakesint hesequenceofthelettersformingthewordsaswellasomissions,insertions,i nversionsandchangesintheorderofthelettersinthewords"(Etchepareborda,2002, p.14). 14 Finally,anothergroupofdisordersarefoundindyslexiamotordisorders.Dysle xicstendtobeclumsyandfalleasilybecausetheyencounterandhavepoorbala nce.Theyhavedifficultyineverydayactivitiessuchasdressing,buttoning,ty ing,takeapencilordraw.(Etchepareborda,2002).Withinthemotordisordersa re:•Dyspraxiavisuospatialconstructive,"isevidenceofthedifficultyofcop yingfigures,lackofperspectivedrawings,whenitaltersthedirectionofthe strokeordismantlesangles,orifyouhavedifficultyinhumanfiguredrawingo rrodblocksandreconstructions"(Etchepareborda,2002,p.14).•Laterality:"i sdefinedbetween4and5yearsold,andisanessentialmaturationalmilestone. Thelateralcrossorupsetzurdería,ambidexterityandlateralityofundefined beenassociatedwithagraphia,mirrorwritingandreadingdisordersandcalculat ing"(Etchepareborda,2002,p.14).•Rhythm:"Inthesensorimotororganization, therhythmisanessentialbasisinthetemporalnotiongnosicopráxicaandcoord ination.Thesenseofrhythmincludesthenotionsofslowandfast,whichmeans durationandsuccessionintime,intensity,intonation,rhythm,toneandmelody, inconjunctionwithmovement,speechandmusic.Thelackofcapacityintherhy thmperceptionofthephrasemaybethecauseofslowreading,withoutrhythmor modulation, mechanical, without understanding "(Etchepareborda, 2002, p.15). Th einabilityofspeechrhythmproducesthefollowingerrorsinreading(Etchepare borda,2002,p.15).:Errorsinthearrangementofthelettersformingthewords. Errorsinaccentuation.Inwriting,errorsintheseparationofwords.Ifthep ictureisseriouserrorsinthegrammarofthesentenceandspontaneouswriting. 15 Fromeverythingseeninthissection,wecanconcludethatthecognitivedefici ts ofdyslexia canbe foundthat inthecan different stagesofinto learning development read in s there are other deficits be classified three groups: failures er, with special phonological processing. Anddisorders. also hort-term verbalemphasis memory, on perceptual disorders and motor Diagnosis of dyslexia and cognitive neuropsychological approaches have provided asetofskillsthathaveestablishedamoresolidbasistodevelopstrategiesf ordiagnosisandtreatmentofdisordersofschoollearning(Bravo,2000).Fromt hestandpointofpsychologicaldiagnosis,isrequiredtodetermineinwhatareas haveproducedcognitivedeficitsthathinderreadcorrectly,especiallyinthe intermediaryfunctionsabove,alongwiththeapplicationofstandardmethodsof psychologicaldiagnosisforchildren,designedtoevaluateotheraspectsofinte llectualoremotionaldevelopment.Generally,thefirstmanifestationsofaltera tionsincognitiveandverbaldevelopmentareearlyonset,astheyappearinkin dergartenasamaturationallag.Theprognosisisuncertainbecauseitdependso nthetypeofseverityofthedisorders,thetimingofeducationalpsychologyan denvironmentalconditions(Bravo,2000).However,althoughthefirstsignsare intheprereadingstage,"itisneverappropriatetomakethediagnosisofdysle xiabeforetheageatwhichtheirpeerswithnormallearningtheylearn,whichs etsanagethreshold7-8years-dependingonthesocioculturalbackgroundofth efamilyandschool-tomakethisdiagnosis.Doingitbeforethatagecarriest heriskofconfusingthereaderwithadelaydyslexiabymaturationalorenviron mentalcauses"(Bravo,2000,p.798).Butthedocumentationofachildwithdysle

xiaisdifferentfromthedeploymentofpreventivemeasurestodetectthosefeat uresthatareindicativeoffuturedyslexia.AccordingtoNieto-Herrera(1995,c itedinEtchepareborda,2002,p.14),"theidealtreatmentisthedetectionofaf fectedchildrenwhentheyareinkindergarten,butatthatagetheidentificatio nmarksoftheirproblemfoundinperceptualjudgmentsorpracticeand,perhaps,the 16 moreappropriatetermisthatofpredislexia,yetbynotlearningtoread."In addition,canbediagnosedasdyslexicchildrenonlywithdifficultyinreading, whichremaininthelowerranksoflearning,foraperiodexceedingoneyear,a fterreceivingsometypeofspecialeducationalassistance.Inthisregard,cons iderthatabout10%ofchildrenwithdelaysintheinitiallearningachievenorm alperformanceafteranearlyeducationalpsychology(Bravo,2000).Finally,as mentionedpreviously,thediagnosisofdyslexiamustbemadeintheabsenceofm entalretardation.Insubjectswithlowsocioeconomicstatusshouldbetakenas lowerlimittheIC75,whereasinthesegroups,theaverageIQisabout90(Bravo, 2000). Main characteristics of dyslexia Scarborough(1991citedinBravo,2000)foundthatchildrenwhobecamedyslexic werecharacterizedat4yearsofage,a"weaknessinthelanguage,"whichwasma nifestedinlessdevelopedintheorderingofthesentences(oralsyntax),ton ominate slower and delayed phonological awareness. A retrospective study of thes egroupsnotedthatmanydyslexicchildrenshowedapersistentimpairmentinsen tence comprehension.Almost six months were also more backward than normal reade rsinthecomplexityandlengthoftheirorallanguage.However,thisdelayinl anguage development was also associated with differences in family environments betweengroupsofdyslexicsandnormalreaders,especiallytheexperiencetheyh adwiththebooksandthehabitoflisteningtostories.Thesefamilyhistoryin dicatesthat,althoughgeneticfactorsinvolvedindyslexia,thereisalsoanen vironmentalfactorthataffectstheverbaldevelopmentofpreschoolchildren(Br avo).Otherinvestigationsindicatethatpreschoollearningtoreadisassociate dwithrapidnamingspeedforletters,colorsandobjects.Coroner(1986.InBra 17 2000) also found that preschool children vo, difficultyquicklynamesomeobjectsorrememberhisnamewasenoughtopredict a long-term dyslexia. According Etchepareborda (2002, p.14), symptoms of a preve ntivenaturethatmustberecognizedinthestagesofkindergartenandpreschool are:1.Delayedspeech.2.Phonologicalimmaturity.3.Inabilitytorhymeat4 yearsofage.4.Pronouncedallergiesandseverereactionstochildhooddiseases ,moreintenselevelthanmostchildren.5.Unabletotiehisshoelaces.6.Conf usingwordsanddirectionalconcepts.7.Lackofmanualcontrol(reversetasksp erformedwiththerighthandandleft,fromonetasktoanother,orwithinit). 8.Difficultyperformingsimplegamesthattargetphonologicalawareness.9.Dif ficultylearningletternamesandsoundsofthealphabet.10.Familyhistoryof dyslexiaorattentiondeficitdisorder(ADD).Ardilaet.al.(2005)suggestchar acteristicsofdyslexiaintheareaofreadingandwriting:•Read:Readslowly. Lackoffluencyandhesitationwithpolysyllabicwordsorinfrequentuse.Phono logicalequivalenceerrors.Difficultiesinrecognizingspatialorientation.Omi ssionofwords.Additionsofwords.Uncorrectedsubstitutionsofwordsindiffer entforms:visualandderivational.Lettersubstitutionsthatleadtoanonexist • entword.Identificationofthefirstletterorsegmentwiththewordchange.Di fficulty in understanding texts. The silent reading is higher. 18

ScriptureDifficultiestoexpressinwriting.Omissionoflettersorsegmentswi thin a word. Replacements lyrics. Increased frequency of misspellings: Homophone s and homonyms. Improper handling of the separation between words. Issuestoaddressinthediagnosisofdyslexiaparalleltothedetectionofsymp tomsofapreventivenature,asEtchepareborda(2002,p.15)thediagnosisshould coverthefollowingpoints:•Theexplorationofvisualgnosis:Includesevalua tionofseveralfunctionalprocessesrelatedtovisualperceptionanditssymbol icinterpretation(figure-groundperception,whichistheabilitytodistinguish the main figure of the visual field that is). • Visual Memory: The ability to h oldvisualimagesofshapes,sizes,positions,colors,visualsequence,thewhol eanddetail,andsoon.•Thecolorgnosis:Childrenunder4yearsmustrecogni zeandspontaneouslynamefourtosevencolorsforfiveyears,seventonine,an d six years, nine to eleven. The difficulty in the identification of colors is a nearlysignofdyslexia.•visuomotorcoordination:Initsassessmentatthepr eschoollevel,isneededintherecognitionofrespectforthelawsdirectional line and its correction. If a child can not imitate simple lines at this age, in dicatingapredictivesymptomofdyslexia.•Theauditorygnosis:Includesaudit oryperception,auditorymemoryandauditivosecuencial,thedegreeofspeechint elligibilityandcomprehensionofthesentence.•Rhymesandsynthesis:Askthe childtorepeatrhymesandphrases,whichmakessynthesisofcutwordsintosyll 19 ablesandwordsspelledoutletterbyletter.Theinabilitytoperformpredictive synthesis is a symptom. • The recognition of the body schema: It is very important. At 4 years, the child shouldbeabletorecognizedifferentpartsofyourbody.At7,andmustrecogni zethebodyschemadetailssuchas:eyes,cheeks,wrists,etc.,Andalsotoreco gnizethepartsofadoll,imitatingmovementsandfinallydrawingthehumanfigure. • The spatial organization: refers to body orientation in space and in relation to thingsandpeoplearoundhim.Itisimportantthatthechildrecognizesthespa tialnotionsoftop-down,inside-out,near-far,forward-backwardandright-left. Atage4,childrenshouldrecognizetheconceptsofarribaabajoandinside-out, at5,thenotionsofnear-farandfront-back,at6,thechildshouldrecognize •the concept itself and right-left , at 8, in others and in things. The temporary gnosias: refer to the knowledge of today, yesterday and tomorrow. Atage6,thechildshouldbeabletodistinguishthedaysoftheweekandat8, themonthsoftheyear,too,therecognitionoftherhythmicsenseofmovement, speechandthesentence,theaccompaniment,forexample,eachsyllablewithaslap. •• Simultaneous and alternating movements. The buccolingual praxis, and oculomotor digitomanuales: should be possible without problems since age 6. • Consideration of the joint and the mechanics of language.

Cervera and Equal (2001, cited in Etchepareborda, 2002) propose three main objec tives when assessing children who have speech problems and may have few skills m etaphonological:1.Todeterminethesubtypeofspeechdisorder.2.Assessyour levelofphonologicalawarenessinchildrenaged5years.3.Includeaprogramo fdevelopmentofphonologicalskillsinallthecasesoffourormoreyearsify oususpectthatthespeechdisorderassociatedlearningdifficultiesreadingandwriting. 20 Todeterminethesubtypeofphonologicaldisorder,proposeasetoffourclassic testsintheevaluationofspeech:1.Therepetitionofsyllables,2.Thephono logicalanalysisofwordproduction,3.Testsofperceptionofphonemes,and4. The proof of consistency of pronunciation errors: --------phonetic cod e. Phonological processes. Perception of phonemes. Consistency test. Repetition of syllables. Phonological analysis. Phoneme discrimination test. Phoneme recogn ition test. Evidence of consistency in pronunciation. Intervention from cognitive psychology Todaywefinddifferentapproachestointervention,asinearliertimes,arear eflectionoftheexplanationsofdyslexia(Cózar,2008).However,itisimportan ttonotethat,asSawyersays(1992,TheBravo,2000),thehomelanguageenviro nmentmoreeffectivethantreatment.Whilelearningthegeneralproblemsshould besolvedwithintheframeworkofthecurrentschool,afteraproperdiagnosiso fthedifficultiespresentedbychildrenandtheirenvironment,specificdisorde rs,however,requiretheparticipationofaspecialeducationteacherorpsychol ogistwhoworkswithchildreninparallelandcoordinatedwiththeirclassroomt eacher,afterapsychologicalexaminationofcognitiveprocessesandverbaldeficits. (Bravo, 2000) 21 Thecognitivemodelofdyslexiacanserveasaframeworkforplanningstrategies fordiagnosisandrehabilitation,toimprovereadingdecodingandorganization ofverbalinformationforunderstandingthetext.Alsoprovidesgroundsforane ducationalinterventiondesignedtodeveloporganizationalstrategiesofverbal thought,whichmaycompensate,atleastpartially,theeffectofdeficitsinthe intermediateprocessestoaddressthereadingasawhole.Thiseducationalinte rventionaimstofacilitatetheprocessingofvisualstimulionverbalmeaning, andcanmakeaccesstobothgraphicstimuliandtheactivationofsomehigherve rbalprocesses(Bravo,2000)."Researchshowsthatbrainareasareaffectedint heprocessesresponsibleforperceptual,cognitiveandmetacognitivetasks.This meansthat,althoughtreatmentsattempttocorrectthedeficitlevelortrack, thebestformoftherapywillbeonethatconsidersthemultiplenatureofthed isorder "(Etchepareborda, 2002, p.15). "Some authors argue the importance of ear lyinterventionindyslexia,basedonboththepersistenceintoadulthoodproces singdeficitsasthestabilityofdiagnosisovertime.Infact,programsmetalin guisticskillstraininginearlychildhoodeducationtargetingchildrenatrisk forfilingmetalinguisticdeficitsappeartoreducetheprevalenceofdyslexiai nsecondgrade,beingmoreeffectiveprogramsthatcombinetrainingconsistentw Intervention Programs ithtraininginphonologicalcorrespondencebetweengraphemeandphoneme"(Cózar, 2008). Fromtheperspectiveofdyslexiaemergingphonologicaltreatmentsforchildreni nthreeareas.Ontheonehandthereearlypreventionprograms(developmentalor therapeutic)ofdyslexiainchildrenwithoutsymptomsoflearningdisabilities.

These consist of the methodological development of literacy, and seek to "devel op the child's sensorimotor areas, and thus acquire the elements 22 necessaryforliteracy.Thistherapyshouldbeginbeforethechildbeginstorea d,andincludesthedevelopmentofcomplexfunctionssuchasgnosis,praxis,rhy thm, visuomotor coordination, phonological decoding, among others "(Etcheparebor da, 2002). In Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian countries have been proposed preventi veearlyinterventionprograms,inorderthatthechildhasacquiredagoodabil itytoidentifywords,youneedtohaveaphonologicaldomaintodetectphonemes ,thinkaboutthemandusethemintheconstructionofwords.Theprogramsconsi stof15minutesadaytodevotetogamesthatareusedrhyming,listeningskill s,identificationofphrasesandwordsandmanipulationofsyllablesandphoneme s.Afterundergoingtheprogram,childrenarebetterskillsthanthecontrolgro upinletteridentification,phonologicalanalysisandreadingofsinglewords( Artigas,2005).Thistypeofoperationfacilitatestheprocessingofvisualstim uliinverbalcomprehension,andcanbemadefromtwoconvergingapproaches:1) Fromtheoutsideaccessofvisualandauditorystimuli(processingsystembutton -up,or"bottom")"Thepedagogicalactionshouldbetohelpchildrenlearntoor ganizeverbalvisualandauditorystimulitofacilitateitssubsequentassociati onwithmeaning.Thisorganizationinvolvestheuseofcategoriescomprisingthe stimuli, according to some parameter recognizable by them as vowels, consonants ,syllables,direct,bytheendorthebeginningofwords,rhythms,rhymes,etc. Andthen,bysemanticcharacteristics.Atthesametime,itshouldencouragema king phonemic awareness to decoding and spelling awareness to correct the visual inattention(Etchepareborda,2002,p.17)."Thispedagogicalapproachaimstoin tegratetherecognitionofkeyphonologicalandorthographicsignswithverbalm eaningssearchmorebroadly,tofacilitateunderstandingofthetext.Inotherw 23 thisistoreducetheimpactofspecificintermediariesdeficitthroughth ords, euseofcognitivestrategiesthatfocusonthesearchformeaning"(Etcheparebo second pedagogical approach totreatment isactivity toinduce children tovisualize the rda,2002, p.17).2)From insidethe processes superior verbal abstract analysis oftheirowncognitive processes, thus facilitating achievement of ionandcategorization (system oftop-down processing, orthe "from above")."This theoffset-andtorecognizeachievementdeficitsandcommittedtodecode.Tothi send,aninitialstrategyistoteachthemtowonderaboutthepossibletextme ssage,thenonthekeywordsyoushouldhaveforitsexplanation,andendwithco nfirmationinwriting.Thisapproachfavorstheapproachdedicatedtodecodinga ndcanberecommendedinthetreatmentofsubjectswithgreaterdevelopmentofv erbalthought,oncetheyhaveacquiredthephonologicalprocessingkeysandcan notaddition apply them correctly "(Etchepareborda, 2002, p.17). In to these programs, there are prevention programs for children who sh ow early signs of difficulties in learning literacy. These programs are very imp ortant because the sooner you attack the problem, will have fewer negative conse quences for the future. In a study by Korkman and Peltomaa (1993), premolars chi ldren with language difficulties found that treating these children with program s that increase their phonological awareness and grapheme-to-phoneme conversion, significantly reducing the risk of problems with literacy at the beginning of f ormal education. Finally there are programs for children who have been diagnosed with dyslexia. The important thing is that the program start as early as possib le, be intensive and long lasting. It is also important that the program is cred ible. Shaywitz (1998 in Artigas, 2000) stands out as key issues to be credited a s valid: •

Theprogramisdirectedtowardstrainingphonologicaldysfunctionalaspectwhich supportsreadingdisability."Forthepsychoeducationaltreatmentofphonologic alprocessingdeficits,itisessentialtoexercisemetaphonologicalskills,in ordertoenablethemtodevelopstrategiesofanalysisandsynthesisphoneticle tters and pronounceable phonological shapes of words." (Bravo, 2000, p.799) 24 • It should be oriented to the problem. In other words, dyslexia improvement throu gh reading-related tasks. "Although there is evidence that phonological interven tion programs areeffectiveforalldyslexics,itispossiblethatthosesubjectswithadefic itinthespeedoftheappointmentorwithtwindeficits,whichareanalogousto thesurfaceandmixed,requireamoresystematicandintensive.(...)Thelatte rmaybeusefulininterventioninthesurfacedyslexicsastheyrefertothepr oceduresforinterventioninreadingfluency,butcanbeequallyeffectiveinph onologicaldyslexia,sinceallstudentswithdyslexiaoftenhaveareadingslow, hesitant,whichrequiresmucheffort"(Cózar,2008).Withintheseproceduresin clude:theprocedureofrepeatedreadings,readingsandlecturespreexaminadasjoint or shade (Cózar, 2008). Description of some remedial programs I. ClassicTrainingProgramThisisoneofthemostbasic(Nieto-Herrera,1995cite d in Etchepareborda, 2002), and is the education of movement and perceptual educ ation.MovementEducation-Educationinthebasicbodymovements.-Controlof muscletone.-Educationrhythm.-Imitationmotor.-Rhythmaccents.-Fastmot or response. - Sequence motor. - Alternate and simultaneous movements. - Complex rhythms.-Relaxationandphrasing.-Coordinationvisuomotorandhandwriting. -Coordinationexercisesojopie.-Exercisesvisuospatial.-Activitiesmanuals.- Coordination exercises ojomano. 25 -Exercisesdigital.PerceptualEducation-stimulationoftheauditorygnosis. -Phonologicaldecoding.-Playingrhythmickey.-Stimulationofvisualgnosis. -Figure-groundexercises.-Supplementationofdrawings,lines,shapesandlet ters.-Stimulationoftactilegnosis.-Stimulationofspatialgnosis.-Stimul ationoftemporarygnosis.-Stimulationofkinestheticgnosis.-Stimulationofproprioceptive gnosis. II. Auditory-Verbal Program-Musical (VAM) (Gallardo was designed by Patrick Rubel and is intended to & Navarrete, 1991): This program rehabilitationofdyslexicchildren.Weconductedapilotstudywith6dyslexic childrenbetween8and10yearstotesttheprogramandfoundfavorableresults. Inthereadingareatherewasadequatefollow-upreading,withdiminishingsupp ort,highunderstandingofthereading,areadingefforttoachieveindividuala ndonlysawdifficultiesinthequalityofreading.Thisprogramusesmusicasa meansofovercomingthedifficultiesinreadingandwriting,tryingtofacilita tetheaccessofchildrentoreadandmaintainandincreasemotivationforreadi ng,throughmusicandrhythm.Thisprogramisphilosophicalandpsychosocial.Ph ilosophicalFoundations:Happinessfacilitatesthedevelopmentoftheperson:If

yourchildishappygoingtodothingswithjoy,regardlessofwhetherthetask isdifficultornot.Thechildisnotalonewithhisproblem:Parentsshouldshow interest and support.

Psychosocial Foundations: 26 The early self-awareness of the difficulty for the child facilitates treatment: early awareness the difficulty of making ld be reported by of people close and parents.the child be prepared mentally. Shou The pre-requisites for learning to read should be encouraged early: What will of fsethigherskills.Theproblemmustbefullyacceptedbythefamilyenvironment andchild'sschool.Theproblemshouldbecompensatedbyparallelareas:Toavo idproblemsintheself-esteem.Theprogramconsistsofthreelevels,dependingon the age and capabilities of child.LevelI:Forchildrenwhohavenoaccesstoreadingorwhohavealow-med iumreadinglevel:Itconsistsoffourunitstogetherinatextcalled"Pancho, theaphidSeaandarestoriesthattheprotagonististakingrelatedtoexperien ceswhichthechildlivesatthisage.Theyareshortstoriesthatthechildrea dshisorherreading,dependingonthecase,supportedbytheimplementationof smallunitsrhythmicmusicmadebythechildonaxylophone.Musicalnotesare representedbycirclesofdifferentcolorsdependingonthenote,producingsong s while the child interprets the music. Example 27 LevelII:Forchildrenwithaverageknowledgeofreadingandtheycanhandlemor ecomplexmusicalsymbols.Similartolevel1butwithamorecomplexmusicalst ructure,inatextcalled"Champion,thesoccershoe."Ithasadeepertheme,ac cordingtothepsychologicaldevelopmentofchildren.LevelIII:Forchildrenwi thahighreadinglevel,butwithsequelaeofthedifficultyinreadingandwrit ing,asinself-imageproblemsandadaptationtotheenvironment.Ithasatheat rical-musicalplaycalled"Braidsinthecountryofbeingtogether"withtopics relatedtotheproblemsfacingchildrenwithlearningdisabilitiesandlowtoler anceforfrustration,lowselfesteem,needtobeaccepted,andsoon.Musically ithasamorecomplexstructureinvolvingthechildandandallowsplayingani nstrumentand/orsinging.Ithasrhymes,rounds,rhythmsandsongs.Itisforchildren between 6 and 12 years. III. Treatment Bakker. Previously, in the section on the etiology of dyslexia, we referred to a model proposed by Bakker dyslexia. From this model, 28 Bakker has proposed neuropsychological treatment methods are based on stimulatio nofthecerebralhemisphereinsufficientlyactive.(Cózar,2008).Thatis,stim ulationofthelefthemisphereinchildrenwithP-typedyslexiaandtherighthe mispherestimulationinL-typedyslexics.Thishemisphericstimulationiscarrie doutintwodifferentways:a)Byspecifichemisphericstimulationthroughsigh t or touch. In the first case (light) is done by submitting letters or words on the left (type-L) or right (type-P) of the visual field. In the second (touch), subjectshavetofeeltheletters,wordsorphraseswiththelefthand(type-L)

orright(type-P).b)Byalludinghemisphericstimulation.Inthiscase,thechi ldwithdyslexia-typeLhastoreadatextwhosefonthaschangedinmanydiffer entways(home,.Dog...)tomorecomplextextsperceptively,whileP-typedysle xicsarepresenteddeletedtextswithawordtoguessbasedonthesemanticandphonetic context. IV. Program to develop knowledge in the courses metaphonological preschool program h as been designed by Cervera and Equal (2001 cited in Etchepareborda,2002).Itisdesignedtoworksyllabicawarenessinchildrenwit hphonologicaldisorders,4and5whoareathighriskforlearningdifficulties inreadingandwriting(Etchepareborda).Typicallythehigherspeedoflearning aspectsofphonologicalprocessingoccursbetween2to4years.Between4and6 yearsfullphonologicalcode.Attheageof6yearsallchildrenshouldhaveth e three skills we have mentioned (Etchepareborda, 2002). Metaphonological knowle dgeisknowledgethatwehavealanguagespeakersaboutthesignifiersofwords. Metaphonologicalknowledgealsoknowthenumberofsyllablesinaword,thenum berofphonemesandspelling(Etchepareborda,2002)."Toacquirethisknowledgeis necessary 29 considerabledegreeofabstraction:thinkingaboutthesignificantofthewordw ithoutregardtoitsmeaning.Itisalsonecessaryoperationsofsynthesisanda nalysisofmaterialstoredinverbalworkingmemory(Etchepareborda,p.18)."Thi sknowledgedoesnotdevelopnaturally.Illiterateadultsarealmostentirelyon him.Syllabicatecoststhemevenseparatewords,andcertainlycannotseparate inasimplemonosyllablephones(Etchepareborda,2002,p.18)"Inchildren,the metaphonologicalreasoningabilitydevelopswiththeacquisitionofreadingwrit ing. However, the paradox that psychologists believe that knowledge metaphonolog icalneedtolearntoreadandwritewell.Itseemsthattheseabilitiesliedor mantinthenormalchildandmakingexplicitthefirstcontactswithliteracy"( Etchepareborda, 2002, p18). "We now know that to develop the knowledge metaphono logicalisoneoftheimportantvariablestoensuregoodreaders.Introducingth esepracticesinpreschoolisessentialandpositiveforallchildren,especiall yforthosewhosensethattheirteachersmayhavegreaterdifficultylearningt oreadandwriteorforchildrenwhohavesufferedadelayinlanguageacquisiti on.Itisnotdisplacingothertypesofinstructionsandskills"(Etchepareborda ,2002,p.18).Asmentionedtwicebefore,considerthatourlanguageshaveaspe lling system based on phoneme-grapheme relationship, called the top checker. Und erstandingthisprincipleisessentialtoconductanormalreadingandthedevel opmentofmetafonologíadirectimpactontheunderstandingoftheprinciplespel ling (Etchepareborda, 2002). Knowledge development metaphonological According Et chepareborda,"itispossibletodevelopawarenesssyllabicphonemicawareness. [The proposal] istodevelop awareness inkindergarten syllabic, andphonemic aw a) syllabic structure ofspeech. -Synthesis syllable.-Analysis syllable. b)I areness inPrimary 1,when theybeginformal inreadingand dentification ofsyllables. -Depending onyourinstruction location.-Depending onwriting. theirn "ature. (2002,c)p.18) Bywayofillustration, we-show belowthe outlineforthe initial courses: 30 Comparison of syllables. Depending onprogram your location. -Dependingontheirnature.d)phonologicalrecombination.-Omissionoffinal syllable. - Omission of initial syllable. - Failure of central syllable. - Inves tmentofdisyllabic.-Additionoffinalsyllable.-Additionofinitialsyllable. "The overall objective of the program is to promote knowledge metaphonological. Specifically, developing awareness as a precursor syllable understanding of the

'alphabeticprinciple'.Theorderofthepointsofthisprogramcoincideswitht hedegreeofdifficultyandtheevolutionaryapproachtoacquisition"(Etchepare borda, 2002, p.18). CONCLUSION Throughout this seminar we were able to deepen va riousaspectsofdyslexia,whichhasbeenunderstoodasaspecificdisorderatt hereception,understandingand/orexpressionofwrittencommunication,manife stedindifficultiesrepeatedandpersistenttolearntoread.Itischaracteriz ed by lower than expected reading achievement for mental age, socioeconomic stat usandgrade,isintheprocessofdecoding,readingcomprehensionandwrittene xpression."Wehaveseenthatthedisorderisrootedinadisturbanceinthebr ain,leadingtovariouspossibleneuropsychologicalabnormalitiesevidentthroug hscientificexperimentation.Theseabnormalitiesinturnhavetheircorrelation inthecognitiveprocessesthattakeplaceduringthelearningprocessofreadi ngandwriting,someofwhichmaylieatdifferentlevelsofitsdevelopment,wh ileothers relatetocognitivedeficits thatcutacross thedifferentlevels.In thisanalysis,wecouldsubstantiatetheimportanceofphonologicalprocessing, 31 the alteration is the basis of dyslexia. Ontheotherhand,wehavedemonstratedtheimportanceofearlydiagnosisofdys lexia,alongwiththemainfeaturesthatallowit.Finally,wedelvedintothev arioustypesofprogramsexisttointerveneinthedyslexicgroup,givingfoure xamplesofthem.Nodoubtthefundamentalimportanceofthetreatmentofdyslexi a,givenitsprofoundimpactonthedevelopmentofpeople,theirchancesofinte gration into society, even going to affect their IQ. REFERENCESArdila,A.,Roselli,M.,MatuteVillasenor,E.,&RamosTejeda,M.M. (2005). Neuropsychology of learning disorders. Mexico: Manual Moderno. Artigas, J.(2003).Fifteenbasicquestionsaboutdyslexia.RetrievedMay25,2008Websi te: http://comunidades.kzgunea.net/Dislebi/ES/Documentos/Conferencia+Josep+Ar ti gas.htmArtigas,J.Cognitivedysfunctionindyslexia.IVirtualCongressofPsy chiatry,February1-March15,2000[cited:May25,2008];Conference19-CI-B: [29 screens]. Available at: http://www.psiquiatria.com/congreso/mesas/mesa19/con ferencias/19_ci_b.htm Bravo, L. (2000). Neuropsychological basis and diagnosis o flearningdisordersanddyslexia.InA.Grau&J.Meneghello(Eds),Psychiatry and psychology of childhood and adolescence. Buenos Aires: Ed Médica Panamerican a.Bravo,L.(2005)Writtenlanguageanddyslexia.Santiago:EdicionesUniversidad Católica de Chile. 32 Breznitz,Z.,Gordon,G.&Shaul,S.(2003).VisualprocessingasRevealedbyER Ps:Dyslexicandnormalreaders.InV.Crepes(Ed.),Dyslexia.DifferentBrain, DifferentBehavior.NewYork,NY:KluwerAcademy/PlenumPublishers.Cózar,J. L.(2008).Educationalinterventionindyslexia.RetrievedMay26,2008Website: http://www.psicopedagogia.com/intervencion-de-la-dislexia Etchepareborda, M. C. (2002).Earlydetectionofdyslexiaandtherapeuticapproach.JournalofNeurol ogy,34(1):13-23.Everatt,J.(1999)Readinganddyslexia.London:Routledge. Kolb, B & Wishaw, I. (2003/2006). Human Neuropsychology (5th ed.). Madrid: Edito rial Médica Panamericana. Korkman, M. & Peltomaa, K. (1993) Preventive Treatment ofdyslexiabyapreschooltrainingprogramforchildrenwithlanguageimpairme nts.Journalofclinicalchildpsychology.22(2).177-187.Navarrete,Y&Galla rdo,I.(1991)Anewalternativefordyslexicchildren:Programauditory-verbalmusical(pilotstudy).PsychologyMagazine.DepartmentofPsychology.Universidad de Chile. 1. 33