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PRINT PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES UNIT 1 LESSON 1 : TYPOGRAPHY  Language is is the dress of thought: Samual Samual Johnson Johnson Typography surrounds us: it adorns the building and the streets through which we pass, it is a component part of the ever-expanding variety of media we consume- from magazines, to television and the internet- and we even increasingly sport it on our clothing in the form of   branding and symbolic symbolic messages. messages. The typography that is a fundamental part of our lives today is the culmination of centuries of  development, as the letters that comprise the written word evolved and crystalised into the alph alphab abet etss that that ar aree in comm common on us usag age. e. Techn echnol olog ogyy ha hass pl play ayed ed a ce cent ntra rall ro role le in th this is development, affecting and changing the way that the marks we recognise as characters are made and presented. Through the development of the printing industry, industry, technology gave birth to the concept of typography typography,, the many different presentations of the same character set.

Typography (from the Greek  the Greek   words words τύπος (typos) (typos) = form and γραφή (graphe) = writing) writing) is type in order to make language visible. The First goal of  the art and technique of arranging type in typogr typ ograph aphyy wa wass rea readab dabili ility ty.. Writing riting a rep report ort may not appe appear ar to requir requiree much much de desig signn knowledge, but as soon as one chooses a certain fonts or adjusts the margins to create more white space, that person becomes a designer designer.. By learning about the differences between fonts, how the fonts “work” on the computer, and how to use the various computer font options, the “designer” can produce a report that not only contains useful information, but is easy to read, and therefore, easy to understand. Type is the means by which an idea is written and given visual form. Many typefaces in use today tod ay are bas based ed upo uponn desig designs ns create createdd in earlie earlierr his histor torica icall ep epoch ochs, s, and the ch chara aracte cters rs themselves have a linage that extends back thousands of years to the first mark-making by  primitive man, when characters characters were de devised vised to represen representt objects or concepts. concepts. Type has developed over the last 600 years as the printing process has evolved. The characters that are printed, however, have been developed over a much longer time period as language itself has developed from Egyptian hieroglyphs to the Latin letters we use today. today. 1

 

Language is not static Letters, language and indeed typography develop and change over time as the dominant  power inherits, alters, adapts and imposes it will on existing forms, the modern Latin alphabets is a result of this ongoing transition that has been performed over several millennia. For example, the modern letter ‘A’ was originally a pictogram representing an ox’s head, but as the Phoenicians wrote from right to left, the symbol was turned on its side. Under the Greek civilisation this character was turned again as the Greeks generally, wrote from left to right. Finally, Finally, the Romans turned the character full-circle, giving it the form that we recognise today.

Cuneiform tablets Cuneiform uses a wedge-shaped stylus to make impressions into a wet clay tablet and is the earliest standardised writing system, which was developed in ancient Mesopotamia, the region that is now east of the Mediterranean, from about 4,000 BC until about 100 BC. Early forms of Cuneiform were written in columns from top to bottom, but later changed to  be written in rows from left to right. With this change the cuneiform signs were turned on their sides. Cuneiform began to die out as other language systems as Aramaic spread through the region in the 7th and 6th centuries BC, and as the use of Phoenician script increased.

Hieroglyphs Hieroglyphs are a pictogrammatic writing system developed by several cultures including the ancient Egyptians and Incas. Each pictogram represents an object such as an animal, tool or   person rather vocal sounds. In Egypt, they were developed by scribes to record the  possessions of the Pharaoh, by drawing a picture of a cow or a boat for example. As more complex ideas needed to be recorded, written language became more complex as pictograms were needed. Hieroglyphs can be written from right to left, left to right, or downwards, which can be discerned by seeing which way pictures of people or animals face. The text is read towards the faces. For example, if they are facing to the left, the inscription is read from left to right.

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Ideogram-based Ideogram-base d languages Ideogrammatic languages use characters or symbols to represent an idea or concept without expressing the pronunciation of a particular word or words. Ideogrammatic languages have a one – to –one relation between a symbol and an idea that functions in a similar way to the red road sign with a horizontal white bar that means ‘no entry’. The meaning is understood but there is no indication of how this vocalised. Ideogrammatic languages, traditionally written down the page, include Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Thai.

Phoenician characters The Phoenicians lived in the eastern Mediterranean in what in modern day Lebanon. They developed the basis of the modern Latin alphabet around 1600 BC and formalised a system of  22 ‘magic signs’ or symbols that represented sounds rather than objects. The symbols could  be put together in different combinations to construct thousands of words, even though the alphabet only contained consonants and had no vowels. Phoen Pho enici ician anss wa wass wri writte ttenn hor horizo izonta ntally lly fro from m rig right ht to left left withou withoutt spaces spaces be betwe tween en words, words, although dots were sometimes used to denote word breaks. The Phoenician alphabet is the  bedrock for many subsequent writing systems including Arabic, Hebrew Hebrew,, Greek and Latin, and ultimately for the modern European alphabet that is used today.

The Greek alphabet The Greek adopted the characters of the Phoenician system, such as aleph (a) and beth (b), from which they developed their alphabet. Indeed, the word alphabet is the union of the Greek characters alpha and beta (right). By around 800 BC the Greeks had added other  characters to their alphabet, which became the basis of the modern day Hebrew and Arabic scripts. Early Greek was written in the boustrophedon style where rather than proceeding from left and right as modern English, or right to left as in Arabic, alternate lines must be read in opposite directions. Many ancient Mediterranean languages were typically written in style. The development of punctuation allowed writing to move away from the boustrophedon style towards a system that reads left to right.

The Roman alphabet The 26 letter Roman alphabet that we use today was formed from the Greek alphabet and spread through the Roman empire. Majuscules or uppercase letters derive directly from the 3

 

forms carved in stone by the Romans, which serve as the basis for many modern day typefaces, and from where we get the name Roman. Roman is now used to describe the basic letterforms, principally the minuscules (lower letters), even though the name is derived from the majuscules forms.

The Modern alphabet The Modern Latin alphabet consists of 52 upper- and lowercase letters with ten numerals and a variety of other symbols, punctuation marks and accents that are employed by various different languages. Lowercase letters developed from cursive (joined up) versions of the uppercase letters.

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LESSON 2 : TYPEFACES AND FONTS In common usage, the words typeface and font are used synonymously synonymously.. In most cases there is no harm in doing as the substitution is virtually universal and most people, including designers, would be hard pressed to state each word’ word’ss true definition.

What is a font? A font is the physical means used to create a typeface, whether it be a typewriter, a stencil, letter blocks or a piece of PostScript code.

What is a type face? A typeface is a collection of characters, letters, numerals, symbols and punctuation, which have the same distinct design. Pictured below are examples of typefaces produced using the ‘cooki ‘co okiee cutter cutters’ s’ mention mentioned ed (le (left): ft): a typ typewr ewrite iters, rs, a stenci stencil,l, a let letter terpre press ss and a piece piece of  PostScript code.

Typeface anatomy Typographical characters have an array of attributes and forms that are described through a variety of different terms, in much the same way as the different names for every part of the human body.

Relative and absolute measuremen measurements ts Typog ypogra raph phyy uses uses two two type typess of me meas asur urem emen ents ts,, ab abso solu lute te meas measur urem emen ents ts an andd re rela lativ tivee measurements. It is important to understand the differences between these to understand many of the typographic processes.

Absolute measurements measurements Absolute measurement are easy to understand as they are measurements of fixed values. For  example, a millimetre is a precisely defined defined increme increment nt of a ccentimetre. entimetre. Equally Equally,, points and and  picas, the basic typographic measurements, measurements, have fixed values. All absolute measurements measurements are expressed in finite terms that cannot be altered.

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Relative measure measurements ments In typography, many measurements, such as character spacing, are linked to type size, which means that their relationships are defined by a series of relative measurements, Ems and ens for example are relative measurements that have no prescribed, absolute size. Their size is relative to the size of type that is being set. Leading is another example of the use of relative measurement. Most desktop publishing  programs assign an automatic percentage value for functions like leading. The characters  below (far left) are 10pt, so with leading set at 120 percent, they are effectively being set on 12pts leading. As the type gets bigger, so does the leading as it is relative to the type size.

Points The point is the unit of measuremen measurementt used to measure the type size of a font, for example, 7pt Times New Roman. This measurement refers to the height of the type block, not the letter  it itse self lf as show shownn belo below w (rig (right ht). ). The The basi basicc typo typogr grap aphi hica call meas measur urem emen entt is an ab abso solu lute te measurement equivalent to 1/72 of an inch or 0.35mm and its creation is attributed to French clergyman Sebastien Truchet (1657-1729). It was further developed by Pierre Fournier and Francois Didot in the 19th century, before the British / American or Anglo Saxon point was defined as 1/72 of an inch.

Picas A pica is unit of measurement equal to 12 points that is commonly used for measuring lines of type. There are six picas (or 72 points) in an inch, which is equal to 25.4 millimetres. Type sizes traditionally bore a relationship to the 72 points inch (six picas) but with digitised PostScript typefaces, it is now easy to use irregular sizes such as 10.2pt.

Characteristic of Each Style Fonts come in many different designs. Some of these differences are subtle, while others stand out like the proverbial “sore thumb” Many references sub divide type into only two categories: serif and sans serif. However, these simplified categories are not adequate for the great variety of fonts that one might encounter on today’ today’ss computers,  

Serif  Sans Serif 6

 

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Mono-Spaced Display Script Text Dingbats

Serif

Serif fonts are the most common text or “body” copy font. They can work nicely for headline fonts, as well. “Serifs” are the little feet or arms that hang off the end of letter strokes, and typically add a think/thin look to the letter. Serif fonts are considered the easiest fonts to read and come in three sub categories: Old style, Modern, and Square Serif. 7

 

Oldstyle Oldstyle is based on classical Roman inscriptions. The letters are very open, wide, and round with pointed serifs and a pleasing contrast between the heavy and light strokes.

Modern Their name not withstanding, modern fonts are based on fonts designed over 200 years ago. They have a greater degree of mechanical perfection than Oldstyle fonts, and a greater  distinction between the heavy/light strokes, and thin/squared off serifs.

Square Serif Slab Sl ab serif serifss are are a cont contem empo pora rary ry styl stylee us used ed ma main inly ly fo forr smal smalll amou amount ntss of te text xt,, su such ch as advertising copy, subheads, and headlines. The letters have square serifs and mostly uniform strokes with little contrast.

Sans Serif As the name implies, Sans serif serif fonts are “ without serifs”, and usually have aann overall even stroke weight, which creates little contrast for the letters. Sans Serif fonts can evoke a more modern look a report, but can be harder to read than Serif fonts. Although generally used used for  small amounts of copy, sub heads, and headlines, Sans Serif can be used for larger amount of   body copy, copy, if applied with care. As the name implies, Sans Serif fonts are “without serifs,” and usually have an overall even stroke weight, which creates little contrast for the letters. letters. Sans serif fonts can evo evoke ke a more modern look for a report, but can be harder to read than Serif fonts. Display Display and Decorative fonts are designed to be used as attention-getting headline fonts. They should rarely, if ever, be used as body copy fonts.

Script

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Script fonts are designed to mimic handwriting, therefore, the letters are designed to touch one another. These fonts may be the more traditional type used for formal invitation. Script fonts should never be used in all capital letters.

Text Based on the hand-drawn letters made by early monks for religious books, Text Text fonts have an “Old-World” “Old-W orld” feel to them. They are mostly used for certificates, diplomas, and invitations. As with Script fonts, they should not be used in all capital letters.

Mono-Spaced Most fonts are proportionally spaced; that is, smaller characters take up less space than larger  ones. Example, the letter “I” is not as wide as the letter “M”. In the contrast, mono-spaced fonts, which are usually typewriter-style fonts, take up the same amount of spae regardless of  the actual letter.

Dingbats Dingbats are symbols that are small pieces of art used to enhance the design of the text or   page. While Zapf Dingbats and Wingdings Wingdings are the most common dingbats, there are hundreds, if not thousands, of different designs available.

LESSON 3 :FONT STYLES AND FAMILIES 9

 

Many display, display, script, and text fonts only come in the “plain” version, even if they appear bold or italic after styling has been appl applied. ied. T Too make the issue more confusing confusing,, some fonts only come in plain and italic versions; plain and bold versions; to plain, italic, and bold (but no  bold italic) versions. In programs, which have been around for awhile- such as Microsoft Word, QuarkXpress, PageMaker, and FrameMaker- the software does not know if a font has a bold or italic version, and will let the user make whatever style formatting he or she wishes. Whether the font styling actually exists (and will print) is another matter. The only way to be sure that a font has the correct variation is to use the font weights from the font menu, and not from the style menu or the “B” and “I” buttons on the format ruler. ruler.  Newer programs, such as InDesign, IIllustrator llustrator,, and Photoshop, allow only the styles that are currently installed on the computer computer.. So, if a bold version ooff a font is not currently installed (whether it exists or not), it is not available as a font style selection.

Font families The term “font families” refers to fonts of the same design, but with a difference in weight from one font to another. As previously mentioned, many fonts only come in one weight plain. However, However, many body-co body-copy py fonts are availa available ble in:    

Plain (or Roman) Italic (usually a Serif font) or oblique (usually Sans Serif font) Bold and Bold Italic or Bold oblique

A number of these fonts have additional weights to provide the designer an even greater  choice. Also, each one of the weights may have an italic or oblique version. Some popular  fonts may even have matching condensed and extended versions, too. Some of the weights, in order from the lightest to heaviest, include:       

Extra Light, Ultra Light, or Extra Thin Thin or Light Roman or Book Medium or Regular Demi-Bold or Semi –Bold Bold Heavy, Extra Bold, Black or Super Bold 10

 

The weights for a font are named by the font designer and follow no set rules. Some designers may consider may consider a thin font heavier than a light font, or an extra bold heavier than a black font. Even between standard fonts and condensed fonts, there could be a name difference for the same weights. For example, a font may have a “book” weight for the standard font, which may take the name ‘Medium’ in the condensed version. Again, always use the font weights from the font menu for the best results. While it is acceptable to use multiple fonts a single family, try to keep the font categories to one or two fonts.

Identifying and selecting a font Deciding what size to use can be easier with an understanding of the things that affect reada rea dabili bility ty.. The mos mostt crucia cruciall factor factor is the x-h x-heig eight ht of the lowerc lowercase ase let letter terss and their  their  relationship to the uppercase and ascender letters. The relationship between between the uppercase/a uppercase/ascender scender letters and the x-he x-height ight depends solely on the design of the font. Fo Fonts nts with a large x-height, x-height, or “tall” lowe lowerr case characters, characters, are easier  easier  to read than fonts with small x-height characters. Another critical factor between different fonts is the depth of the descenders and their shape.

Special Styles Using computers offers the opportunity to apply many special effects to type that years ago would have cost thousands of dollars from a typesetting house. Unfortunately, this ease of use also has meant abuse, making for some ha hard-to-read rd-to-read computer typography typography.. 11

 

Underlining Most programs handle underlining incorrectly; in addition, the user may not have any options to adjust the settings. If possible, the underlines should be adjusted (lowered) so they do not touch any of the characters. Underlines come in two styles: straight (complete underline) and word underline. underline. As its name implie implies, s, word unde underline rline only affects words and not the spaces  between them.

SMALL CAPS AND ALL CAPS Small Caps are good for subheads or for the first line of a paragraph, but like other options, they should not be overused. Text in all caps is harder to read and only should be used for  short headlines or subheads. All caps should never be used for long sentences for emphasis (except in e-mail on the internet, due to lack of formatting capabilities).

SPECIAL PURPOSE STYLES Many styles for making footnotes, references, and mathematical formulas exist in publishing  programs. Usually, Usually, the user can alter alter the default settings in th thee program to cha change nge the affected affected character size and and baseline sh shift ift (how far up or down the letter moves).

Text Scaling Many programs allow the user to create a pseudo-condensed or pseudo-extended font by horizontally squeezing or stretching a font. The distorts the original design of the font. If   possible, the user should select the true condensed or extended font or alter the design so it does not require the fake font. Fonts also can be vertically stretched. The only advantage to this method, rather than resizing the type, would be to keep the type technically the same size.

Outline and Shadow Perhaps the most abused styles in older desktop publishing programs are outline and shadowoverused to the point of being clichéd- avoid them if possible. Newer programs do not offer  the traditional outline or shadow setting at all, but have more advanced settings. 12

 

Font Sizes Fonts come in many different sizes and use a system of measurement called points. Computer  use 72 points to one inch; traditional typography used 72.27 points to an inch, but that measurement is hardly used anymore. Two different font designs at the same point size may actually have different physical sizes. The correct size for font depends on its usage, but is somewhat arbitrary arbitrary..

Generally, body copy should be around 9-12 points, depending on the font used, the audience, and the width of the column. Some fonts are easily read at smaller sizes, while others need to  be larger larger.. Audience age should be considered; the older the audience, the larger the type. Also, the longer the column width, the larger the body type size. A column of type usually is about 50 characters across, and no more than 65 characters. Type is too small “cram” too many letters per line and make the copy hard to read. Remember, type that is hard to read may not be read at all.

Text Scaling Many programs allow the user to create a pseudo-condensed or pseudo-extended font by horizontally squeezing or stretching a font. This distorts the original design of the font. If   possible, the user should select the true condensed or extended font or alter the design so it does not require the fake font. Fonts also can be vertically stretched. The only advantage to this method, rather than resizing the type, would be to keep the type technically the same size. 13

 

Character and Word spacing Many times, simply typing in the text and formatting the font, size, and line spacing is enough. However, depending on the program used, extra attention is needed. Larger type sizes need adjustments to the space between characters; and paragraphs need to be adjusted to eliminate “widows” and “orphans”.

Kerning Inter-characterr spacing known as kerning, creates a more pleasing look to the text. Most word Inter-characte  processors do not allow kerning adjustments and most page-layout programs apply kerning automatically; however certain letter combinations may require manual adjustments. Some of  these letter combinations include most lowercase letters, and uppercase letters; F, I, K, L, O, P, Q, T, V, W, X and Y. Kerning also is required when using all uppercase letter combinations such as VA and WA.

Tracking The adjustment of word spacing is called Tracking. It is similar to kerning but refers to the adjustment of a selection of characters, words, and spaces. Its main purpose is to make type fit a required space without altering the type size or line spacing. Tracking can be either  negative, making the words farther apart. An important use for tracking is to fix single words (or 2-3 short words) at the end of a paragraph (sometimes called orphans or danglers). Although not always avoidable, the problem usually can be solved with some minor tracking. Of course, this should be done only after all editing is complete.

TRACKING FOR EFFECT Tracking can be used as design tool. Like all design tools, it can be overused and abused. Remember the goal: readability.

Line Spacing (Leading) Leading, Lead ing, or line spacin spacing, g, refers to the amount of spac spacee between between lines of type. type. As with type size, there are no set rules for how much line spacing to use, however, there are some factors to consider: 14

 

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The font used- Some fonts require more line spacing than others to keep their 

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ascenders and descenders from touching. The line length-longer lines require more leading for easier reading. The type size- The larger the type size, the more line spacing is required. This rule

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mostly refers to body copy; headlines, which are normally set larger, may actually be set with tighter line spacing.

A bit of trivia: Leading pronounced “led-ing”, derives from the days when type was set by hand and typesetters used thin strips of lead to space apart the rows of letters. Depending on the program one is using, leading may be considered a character format (a line by-line selection, allowing multiple multiple settings in a single paragraph) or a paragraph format format (one setting for an entire paragraph). If you are using a program that supports character-based leading, select the entire paragraph to ensure a uniform setting. Because type size and line spacing are both measured in points and are inseparable, their  sizes are normally written together. They are commonly written in this manner: 10/12,  pronounced “ten over twelve”. This indicates that the type size is ten points and the line spacing is 12 points, or has two extra points of space over the type size. The designer can use computers to set line spacing by a number of methods depending on the  program used. Word Word processors commonly use multiples of line spacing, such as single line space, 1.5 line space or double line space. This method is adequate for simple reports, but ffor  or  complex formats, a higher degree of control is required. Most page –layout programs and word processors include include the ability to specify an exact line spac spacee setting.

Line Spacing for Headlines and Subheads More advanced layout programs provide additional options, including specifying line spacing  by a percentage of the type size and and by adding on a set amoun amountt to the type size. Normally, Normally, the  percentage option, or auto leading, should be avoided because it can make larger heads look  too spread out. When When in doubt, use the exact method for all line spacing spacing..

Leading and Baseline Grid Baseline grid alignment is used to ensure that text cross-aligns across columns or less importantly, across pages. The baseline settings usually are set to the body copy’s leading 15

 

under the file’s document preferences. Then, paragraph is locked to the baseline grid during formatting.

Headlines and Subheads Headline’ and subheads’ line spacing should be set in multiples of the body text’s line spacing. For example, example, if the body text is set 12/14 (12 pt. T Text ext with 14 pt. Line spacing), then a subhead could be set at 14/14 and a headline could be set at 24/28 (2 x14 pts). The point size of the type is not as important as keeping the line spacing in multiples. This creates a symmetrical look to the page, and no double column pages, it keeps the type aligned across the page. Line spacing for headlines and subheads can be combined with paragraph spacing setting for even more options.

Paragraph alignment Alignment refers to the side of the page or column with which the text is even. For example, text that is even with the left side of the page margin or column is said to be “flush left”, “aligned left”, or sometimes “rag right” since it is uneven (or ragged) on the right side. Other  options optio ns are : flush right (also called rag left), cen centred, tred, justifi justified ed (flush on both left and right sides, except for the last line, which is flush left), and forced justified (which justifies even the last line). Most body is either flush left or justified. Headlines and subheads are normally flush left or centered; however, centered text should be used with care. Flush right should only be used for design purposes, and then only for small amounts of text. Forced justified is rarely used.

Paragraph Spacing Paragraph Spacing is an automatic space between each paragraph that is applied when starting a new paragraph; once set, it can apply space either above the paragraph or below it. Paragraph spacing is more elegant way to space out paragraphs than simply double spacing return ret urnss becau because se the set settin tings gs can be adjust adjusted ed globa globally lly or fra fracti ctiona onall line line space spaces. s. More More importantly,, the space can be adjusted globally or by fractional lines spaces. importantly

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More importantly, the space is not inserted when a paragraph falls at the end of a page, whereas traditional double spacing would leave the extra paragraph return at the beginning of  the next page.

Paragraph Rules Paragraph rules, or in-line rules, are rules that move with the text as it is edited. Most  publishing programs have an option for in-line rules, and some word processors even have options for in-line boxes. The usual options include the width, style, and colour of the rule; some programs give the option of setting the rule to the width of the column or the length of  the text it is attached to. Advanced programs let the user adjust the height of the rule in relation to the sub-head. Additional paragraph spacing is almost always a requirement when using in line rules. Extra space opens up the type and allows the rule to have more impact.

LESSON 4: DESIGN AND LAYOUT LAYOUT

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Design is a visual language built on fundamental principles and elements. The elements (shape, line, and colour) are governed by principles or rules that create order and visual interest or appeal. A publication designer works with these design principles and elements and combines them with words (in the form of type) and imagery to achieve a publication’s  purpose or goal. The goal may be to inform, persuade, se sell, ll, or entertain. The designer’s designer’s role is to manage the design process in an informed way by fully understanding the publication’s goal and how it can be achieved using the principles and elements of design.

Communication and Design Design is basically giving form and visual meaning to a publication, based on its purpose. But before the design process can begin, it is necessary to have a full understanding of a  publication’ss goal, its intende  publication’ intendedd audience, and where it will be see seenn and read.

Understand the Goal Publications are conceived and developed for any number of reasons. However, However, the goal of  most publications can be broken down into four categories.

Publications exist to (1) inform, (2) persuade, (3) sell , or (4) entertain. 1. Inform: This textbook was conceived as an instructional aid for students who want to learn about publication design. Simply put, the goal of this book could be stated as “help students learn how to design publications.’’ In addition to textbooks, other publications that educate or inform include instruction manuals, newspapers, encyclopedias, dictionaries, and directories.

2. Persuade: Publications that persuade try to convince the reader to make a decision or act in a deliberate way. Examples of persuasive publications include campaign literature, travel  brochures, and other promotional literature that persuades its audience to buy or invest in a  product or service. service.

3. Sell: Sales literature is different from persuasive publications in that it serves as a sales vehicle. Publications that sell allow the reader to see merchandise, make informed choices, and then follow through with a purchase. Catalogs, for instance, allow a reader to read about, select, and order merchandise.

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4. Entertain: Entertain:  Public Publicati ations ons tha thatt entert entertain ain inc includ ludee novels novels,, comic comic books, books, or any other  other   publication that exists exists solely for the purpo purpose se of entertaining th thee reader reader.. Although some publications have just one goal, many publications have more than one goal. For instance, magazines contain useful information, provide some entertainment value, and include ads that attempt to persuade the reader to buy advertised products and services. In graphic communications, design refers to the application of proper methods to produce a  product that is both artistic and functional. A successfu successfull design requires the skillful use of  design elements and principles. Knowledge of common design techniques is critical in  producing a layout layout and evalua evaluating ting the visual quality ooff a product. It is important to know the psychological foundations of the members of the group (their   behavior,, how they think and feel and interact) before a design concept can be formed.  behavior Combining these psy Combining psycholo chological gical foundati foundations ons with stati statistic stical al information information,, or demographics, such as age, gender, ethnicity, geography, and income, forms a basis for determining what types of messages messages,, imagery, and visual approach will appeal to an audience. Research, done at the library or through the internet, can provide many opportunities for  inspir ins pirati ation. on. It can help help desig designer ner make make soc social ial and cul cultur tural al connec connectio tions, ns, and arrive arrive at appropriate colour schemes, typeface choices, and stylistic approaches that will appeal to a targeted audience. Research can also yield sources for imagery, stylistic, social, and cultural references as well as additional information on a publication’s goal and audience.

The Graphic Designer The role of the graphic designer varies greatly within the graphic communications industry. This is because of the overlapping duties that are performed throughout the process of design and layout. In some companies, the same artist who is responsible for producing artwork may also be required to perform certain layout tasks. It is very important for the design person to work closely with the printer, since the planned design could cause problems when it arrives to be printed. Limitations relating to folding,  press size, and paper capabilities could be potential problem areas. Today’ Today’ss graphic designer  19

 

might be an artist who prepares the artwork necessary for a portion of a product. Artwork  could include freehand sketches, technical art, lettering, and calligraphy. In many cases, the graphic designer has little knowledge of the processes used in graphic reproduction. But the designer may also be responsible for pasting up camera-ready copy or producing a finished  product with page layout software. This illustrates that the specific duties performed by design and layout personnel are very difficult to clearly define. In the simplest of situations, a design artist would create the art images needed by the layout  artist . Many companies, however, do not have the luxury of hiring people who only have

specific design or layout skills. The design artist, in many companies, translates ideas into art and is also involved in layout and production in various stages. Once the layout design is approved by a client or outside source, the elements are usually gathered and assembled by the same person who created the design. The design artist must initially express a visual idea. The idea becomes the foundation of the layout and is then developed into the final product. Planning and organizing the design process is essential to having an efficient operation. A small printing facility, from a financial standpoint, often cannot afford to employ one person to perform design tasks. Therefore, designing may be left to the plant personnel, who may have very little design knowledge but are required to devise and complete layouts for production. Knowledge of the fundamentals of design is required for both the design artist and the layout artist. The elements and principles of design are an accumulation of many factors that help solve the problem of producing an image that is both attractive and practical.

Elements of Design Desi De sign gn invo involv lves es the the se sele lect ctio ionn and and arra arrang ngem emen entt of vi visu sual al imag images es to make make a pl plea easi sing ng  presentation. The text and illustrations used in a design will have a tremendous impact upon the viewer; therefore, it is essential to develop a strong layout of visual materials. A successful graphic designer must apply the fundamental principles of design. The basic

elements of design are lines , shapes , mass , text te xtur uree, and colour .

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Lines

 Lines are design elements that form the shapes of an image. Lines can be used to give the  printed image a “personality “personality.” .” Lines can be loose and free or they can be straight and sharp. The repetition of lines creates patterns and adds emotional impact to the visual image. A line is a path connecting two or more points. Althoug Althoughh computer programs describe lines as  paths, a line can also be a mark made by a tool that is drawn across a surface to describe a  path. Lines can can be straight or ang angular, ular, or the theyy can meand meander er and curve. The quality or look of of a line is an aspect of the tool that makes it, and it can communicate a mood or attitude. For  instance, a line drawn with charcoal has a soft, organic quality. One drawn with pen-and-ink  is crisp and precise. Lines can also indicate direction. Horizontal lines in a composition guide a viewer’s eye from left to right. V Vertical ertical lines direct a viewer’s gaze downward and upward.

Lines can also be used as a form of “universal language” in communication. In other words, lines can be designed to create a message. Arrows and other symbols are examples of lines used as a visual form. Lines are often used to enhance or change the visual quality of styles of  type. They can appear very harsh or very delicate. Lines play a highly important role in designing a layout that communicates effectively. Liness are often implied. Alig Line Alignmen nmentt of type or shap shaped ed elem elements ents in a compositi composition on can create create implied linear relationships. Linear relationships can activate compositional space by helping to direct the viewer’s eye.

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Shapes

 Shapes are elementary forms that define specific areas of space. In many cases, a shape is defined by a line. The three basic shapes are the square, circle, and triangle. Each of the three  basic shapes is associated with a psychological meaning. The visual attitude portrayed by the triangle is one of conflict or action. The  square  projects an attitude of honesty or equality equality,, while the circle conveys a feeling of protection or infinity infinity..

Mass

 Mass is a measure of volume that adds definition to shapes in a visual presentation. The mass or solid portion of the shape provides a visual relationship with the other elements. Different shapes of varying intensities, known as weights, can be used to emphasize or de-emphasize styles of type. Physical forms are made by combining the three basic shapes.

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Texture

textur uree of a visual image is a projection of emphasized structure or weight. When The text measuring the texture of an object, the first inclination is to touch the surface. In graphic communications, texture is usually visual; there is no feeling gained through the sense of  touch. Texture appears as a design element when the visual images reflect the meaning of  lines, or when mass forms images that reflect r eflect a special technique. Te Texture xture varies and depends on the structure and weight of the individual letters, the amount of space between lines, and the amount of mass in a certain space. Actual texture for a printed image can be produced by embossing, which presses a shape or irregular surface into the substrate.

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Colour

Colo Co lour ur is an important element to be considered when planning or designing a printed  product. Colour can draw draw attention and produ produce ce a strong emotional emotional and psychologic psychological al impact. Different colours have traditional and symbolic meanings. A basic basic understanding of colour is essential to creating a good design. Colour should be used to add interest and variety to a design. A small amount of colour can heighten the visual quality of a page. Like texture, colour enhances the elements in a layout by helping to activate shapes and space and by creating emphasis and supporting hierarchy. Designers who understand how to use colour effectively can use it to create a sense of spacial depth and emphasis, and guide a viewer’s eye through a layout. Colour can also be a powerful means of communicating emotion and can be a useful unifying device in publication design.

Colour theory is limited to a brief glossary of colour-related terms to refamiliarize you with  basic colour attributes and terminology terminology.. Because a thorough uunderstanding nderstanding of colou colourr theory is an important part of any designer’s education, study other resources that will give you a more complete understanding of colour if you have not had a formal introduction to colour theory. theory.

Hue —The essence essence of name of a co colour lour (e.g., red, blue blue,, green.). Value —The darkness or lightness of a colour colour.. Colours with black added are called  shades. Tint intss are colours to which white has been added. Light colours such as yellow are called high-key. Dark colour such as violet are called low-key.

colour.. When black, white, gray gray,, or a colour’s Saturation —The brightness or dullness of a colour complement is added, a colour becomes less saturated. (Also called chroma or intensity)) 24

 

Colour moods Different colours project different moods. Y Yellow ellow,, orange, and red are considered to be warm colours and often denote aggression, excitement, and danger. Red is considered the most activ activee of the these se three three.. Blu Blue, e, gre green, en, and viole violett are cons conside idered red to be cool ool colours and are associated with nature and passivene passiveness. ss.

Colour wheel A colour wheel is a visual tool that illustrates the basics of colour. It is an arrangement of  colours that provides a means of identifying colours in a consistent manner. The wheel is  based on three  primary colours, from which all other colours can be made. The primary colours are red, yellow, and blue. Mixing any two will produce a secondary colour. The secondary colours are green, orange, and violet. Two systems of colour formation, additive and subtractive, use different primary colours. The additive primaries are red, green, and blue. The  subtractive primaries are cyan, magenta, and

yellow.. The colours that are positioned across from each other on the colour wheel are known yellow as complementary colours. Red and green, orange and blue, and yellow and violet are complementary colours.

Different shades and tints of a colour, known as values , may be obtained by adding white or   black to a colour colour.. A colour can also take on a different intensity when it is mixed with its complement. For example, when green is mixed with red, it will probably produce a brown. Striking colour effects effects may be produced not only bbyy mixing colours, but also by by arranging 25

 

colours in a layout so they have a direct effect on each other. Chapter 8 includes a detailed description of colour theory and how it relates to graphic communication communication..

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LESSON 6 : PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

In the process of designing a printed product, many different ideas are generated through the use of design elements. To ensure the images have a pleasing relationship, design principles mustt be appl mus applied ied to sor sortt out or sel selec ectt the righ rightt ide ideas. as. The basi basicc  principles of design are balance, contrast , unity, rhythm, and and  propo  proportion rtion. These principles are used by the design artist to create an image that is both visually pleasing and functional.

Balance  Balance describes the even distribution of images to create a pleasing visual effect. Balance

has one of the most importan importantt psyc psycholog hological ical influences influences on human human perceptio perception. n. Consciou Consciously sly and unconsciously, people have a basic need for balance. This principle can be illustrated by the placement of letters on a scale. Visually, a judgment can be made by the value of each image. The type of balance is symmetrical and is called formal. The type of balance is asymmetrical and is called informal.

Formal balance is achieved when all of the elements on a page are of equal weight and are  positioned symmetrically. symmetrically.  Informal balance may be achieved by changing the value, size, or  location of elements on a page. The use of various colours and colour intensities can also create informal balance. 27

 

For example, two squares of equal size but different colour values (such as pink and dark red) will appear appear to be unequal in size when placed side by side. Balance is a guiding principle of  design. The layout should be considered as a whole when positioning the elements.

Symmetrical balance can be described as having equal "weight" on equal sides of a centrally  placed fulcrum. It may also be referred to as formal balance. When the elements are arranged arran ged equally on either side of a cent central ral axis, the resu result lt is Bilateral symmetry. This axis may be horizontal or vertical. It is also possible to build formal balance by arranging elements equally around a central point , resulting in radial symmetry. There is a variant of  symmetrical balance called approximate symmetry in which equivalent but not identical forms are arranged around the fulcrum line.

Symmetrical balance, also called informal balance, is more complex and difficult to envisage. It involves placement of objects in a way that will allow objects of varying visual weight to balance one another around a fulcrum point. This can be best imagined by envisioning a literal balance scale that can represent the visual "weights" that can be imagined in a two dimensional composition. For example, it is possible to balance a heavy weight with a cluster of lighter weights on equal sides of a fulcrum; in a picture, this might be a cluster of small objects balanced by a large object. It is also possible to imagine objects of  equal weight but different mass (such as a large mass of feathers versus a small mass of  stones) on equal sides of a fulcrum. Unequal weights can even be balanced by shifting the fulcrum point on our imaginary scale.

Contrast

Contrast is the variation of elements in a printed product. When used, contrast gives meaning to a design. Lines drawn thick might have littlemeaning by themselves. Adding thin lines, however,, can enhance the design and eliminate monotony. however monotony. Styles of type can be contrasted to  produce greater legibility and design variation. Some useful contrasts are round and straight, ornate and plain, and broad and narrow. A tall tree looks much taller if it is standing on a flat  plane. The relationship between an unprinted area and a printed area of an image can also be enhanced through the use of contrast. White space, when used effectively, creates contrast in an image. 28

 

Care must be taken when combining contrasting elements so that the uniform effect of the total design remains unaffected. A page of many contrasting designs might create confusion. Balance must be maintained to ensure that one primary element dominates the layout. This  principle can be used to draw attention and keep the reader’s attention from jumping from one element to another.

Unity

Unity is the proper balance of all elements in an image so that a pleasing whole results and the image is viewed as one piece. Every element must be in proper position to create a harmonious image. A design can be moved and manipulated to create an interesting and functional combination of elements. Choosing type styles is also important to achieving unity. A unified design is the result of viewing the layout as a whole and not as separate elements. This principle is also called harmony. 29

 

Rhythm The movement of a reader’s eye is often determined by the shapes used in the image. The square reflects horizontal and vertical movement. The triangle reflects diagonal movement, and the circle circle ref reflec lects ts a cur curve. ve.  Rhythm in a design results when the elements have been  properly used to create create visual movement movement and direction.

Rhythm can also be achieved through the use of a pattern or repetition. Patterns can be used in contrast with an element to create an effective design. 30

 

Proportion

 Proportion is the relationship between elements in an image. The use of proportion helps to achieve balance and unity in a layout. All elements should be in proportion to each other. When using different type styles, it is important that they are in proportion to the other  elements on the page. Using proportion is a means of developing an aesthetically pleasing relationship between each of the elements in the layout. A basic knowledge of design elements and principles is key to understanding the guidelines used in layout. The finished layout or mechanical must exhibit sound principles of design. The process of preparing a layout sheet is often performed by the same artist responsible for  the design. Proportion is how a page is segmented. Proportional systems determine how a grid will be developed. Historically, optically pleasing arrangements have been based on proportional relati rel ations onship hipss fou found nd in nat nature ure.. The  golden mean, for instance, is based on a harmonic arrangement that has been found in plants and other life forms. It even exists in the human  body.. If you measure your body from foot to navel, then ffrom  body rom navel to the top of your head, you will find the ratio between these measurements is 1 to 1.6. This mathematic ratio can be expressed in a proportionately sectioned sectioned rectangle. The A Ancient ncient Greeks understood this ratio and applied it to the proportions of the Parthenon. Designers often apply this principle today to serve as a guid guidee for org organiz anizing ing text and visuals in a layout. Othe Otherr alignmen alignmentt principles principles commonly applied to page layouts are based on similar proportional relationships that have  been proven, over time, to be optically pleasing. The line of golden proportion, for instance, is based on dividing a page into eighths and placing a design element or single line of text at a point so it is at three-eighths from the top of a page.

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The size of type used in a design should be in proportion to the other elements.

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LESSON 7 : LAYOUT LAYOUT ELEMENTS  Layout is the arrangement of printing elements on a layout sheet. The paste-up version of the  base sheet, or mechanical, is made up of the elements ready for reproduction. Planning a layout involves choosing elements that best represent the design. The elemen elements ts of layout layout are body type, display type, illustrations, and white space. The arrangement of elements in a layout must be pleasing to the eye and easy to read. The layout artist or designer is responsible for assembling the elements to make a composition. The layout artist plays a very important role in planning each job. If the same elements were given to several artists, it is very probable that different layouts would be submitted. If each layout applies valid principles of design, it might be impossible to say one is better than another. Layouts may be judged differently by different people.The major objective of the layout is that the printed material must be clearly seen and read. The layout artist must consider each element independently and determine how each one relates to the complete product.

Body type

 Body type is the printed type that makes up the text in a layout. Body type must be chosen to reflect the intent of the message. The text must be clearly legible and must relate to the topic. Typically, a topic aimed at a contemporary audience would use a modern typeface. The  placement of type requires proper spacing or air . White space can be just as important as the type itself. Usually, the body type itself is not the focal point of the layout. The text will contain a message that expands upon the other elements. All of the elements, including type, are positioned in a logical progression of importance to meet the layout objectives. Some layout elements will be primary, while others become secondary, according to the objectives of the layout.

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Selecting a proper typeface and type size for the layout is an important part of the design process Display type

 Display type is the type that conve conveys ys the main message message of the layout. layout. It is inten intended ded to draw attention. Newspaper and magazine headlines are typical examples of display type. The display line is key to the success of a message. If the display type creates interest, the reader  will proceed to the body. The display line in an advertisement leads the reader to other  information. After reading the display material, the person must be satisfied or directed to continue reading the text.

Headlines are a form of display type. They should draw attention and create interest in the image. The style of display type is very important because it must correspond to the visual message. Some type styles can be very dramatic. In such cases, the topic and type style must be compatible. Fine-line display type, for example, is usually not appropriate when used with 34

 

heavy mass images. Some type styles are directional and lead the eye of the reader. Sometimes, the layout designer organizes the display line for an ad using hand-lettered display type. The entire layout must be looked at when choosing a display typeface. The display line must be distinctive and appropriate. To properly select a typeface, the job objective must be fully understood by the layout artist.

Type The principles that apply to the other formal design elements also apply to type. Type is a component in page and cover layout that is controlled and arranged with other elements in support of the publication’s communication goal. However, type plays a dual role in that typogr typ ograph aphic ic form formss als alsoo con contai tainn ver verbal bal mea meanin ning. g. It is as imp import ortant ant for typogr typograph aphyy to effectively communicate communicate a verbal message as well as function well in a design composition. Text, whether it is set in a rectangular format or configured to form a shape, functions as a design element in a layout. The amount of emphasis that a text-filled shape has in a layout is largely a result of its scale and the size, weight, and style of the typeface that is used. Typographic forms can be used to create shapes and harmonious figure/ground relationships in a layout. Many typographic forms, by themselves, are beautiful and appealing to the eye. The pos positi itive ve and neg negati ative ve sha shape pess that that occ occur ur betwe between en arrang arrangeme ements nts of let letter terfor forms ms an andd numerals can also yield many intriguing visual possibilities. Typographic forms can also be layered to create spatial depth. Type also performs as a linear element in a composition, helping to guide a viewer’s eye. Typographic forms can be arranged in a way that implies linear direction, or they can be configured into a straight line or a curve to direct a viewer’s gaze. Just as a block of tex textt serves as shape in a composition, the quality quality of the text within that block can lend texture to that shape. Textural effects or patterns can also be created by repeating typographic forms. Type can also be used to support support attitude or mood.

Illustrations The illustrations in a layout include the ornamentation, photographs, and artwork, such as line art. Illustrations are common in most printed materials. For example, display ads typically include illustrations of the product. The message provided by an illustration can be very revealing revealing.. The old sayin saying, g, “A pic picture ture is worth a thousand words,” words,” app applies lies to many  printed materials. Pictorial images are a very strong way of conveying a message. In I n some 35

 

cases, an illustration may convey the message by itself. Illustrations add another dimension to the layout; they can increase understanding of the product, as well as interest in the product.

White space

White space includes areas of the layout that are void of printed images. Filling up the entire design space will usually not produce good results. The utilization of white space or air can add to the visual quality of a layout. The distance between elements can be very valuable when white space is used according to sound design principles. It provides a brief period for  absorbing the printed matter. If used excessively, excessively, white space can be disorienting. When ideas are too greatly separated, flow and meaning can be lost. White space is very important and must be used properly to create flow, unity, and organization for the reader.

Developing a Layout There are a number of factors to consider in developing a layout. Five areas that must be addressed by the layout artist are the objective of the project, the message the product will send, sen d, the  style and format to be used, the layout requ requireme irements nts for production production,, and  printing  requirements. Each factor contributes to making decisions that will influence production of  the final product.

Layout objective The layout objective is a statement that describes the intent or purpose of an identifiable end  product. The objective outlines the goal of the layout artist. For example, an objective might state that the final printed piece should inform the reader, through text and illustrated material, how a piece of equipment will help in a specific production situation. The objective describes what the information on the printed page is intended to do. Knowing the purpose helps the layout artist determine which text and illustrations will be best for f or the job.

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Conveying a message The message or visual effect delivered by a printed image helps determine how the layout will be planned. Identifying the audience gives direction to the layout artist. For example, one ad might be designed for young people, while another might be aimed at the elderly. The design of each ad should be unique and must reflect the intent of the printed piece. Design of  the end product product also deter determin mines es the ton tonee or mo mood od of the message. If a light hearted or  humorous mood is intended, a dramatic photograph might not achieve the desired effect. All of the elements should reflect the message of the end product.

Style and format

 Style includes the text type, display type, and illustrations of the design. Some printed pieces will require a set style, while others do not. For instance, the style used in this textbook is quite different from the styles used in advertisements. The designer must choose the elements that will work best. Deciding how to organize the format of the printed piece is of primary importance. Will a single sheet carry the message, or will a booklet do a better job? The format will also be determined by its intended use. For example, if the printed piece is to be posted, it should not  be printed on both both sides.

Layout requirements The different methods of layout and the schedule to complete the job must be considered in  planning a layout. A layout may need to be developed as a sketch, a rough, or a comprehensive. comprehensiv e. It may be necessary to perform all three. A sketch is an idea in pictorial form with little detail. Sketches are often helpful because they provide a picture indicating possible  placement of the elements. A rough is more illus illustrativ trativee of the final product; product; it prov provides ides the style of the type as well as the position of the elements. A comprehensive is the third and final method of layout. It is the presentation of what the finished product will indeed look like. When planning a layout, the artist should decide which methods will be necessary to reach the final product in a timely manner. 37

 

An estimate of the time it will take to complete the job is essential from a planning standpoint. Most printed pieces are produced to meet a deadline and must be delivered by a specified date. The planner must decide whether the job can be completed in the time allowed.

Printing requirements The printing process that follows production has a strong influence on how a layout is developed. The size of the product, the quantity to be printed, paper requirements, colour use, and operations following the printing must all be considered. The finished dimension of a  printed piece must be determined before beginning layout. The finished size will have a  bearing on every production step. One important concern is the size of the press required to run the job. The finished size also determines the size of the paper to be used in printing. The number of pages to be printed and the number of copies required are also factors to consider   because they will help determine the printing requirements. Deciding the most economical way of printing the job is essential. The designer or editor must estimate the approximate number of pages to be printed so that final plans for printing can be made. Printing requirements include the kind of stock or paper to be used. The necessary stock must  be available at the designated time for printing. A custom stock may need to be ordered and may require additional time. Other considerations in ordering stock are the size of the order,  paper weight (thickness), (thickness), and opacity opacity..

Multicolour printing is another factor to consider when planning a layout. Different jobs require different uses of colour. Printing a one-colour or black and white job requires different layout methods than a two-colour, or four-colour job. The layout artist must decide whether to use colour when planning the layout. Once the job is printed, further finishing operations might be required, such as trimming the  job to the final size. Other finishing operations may include folding, scoring, creasing, varnishing, and binding. Knowing the operations that will be required after printing is important in planning the job.

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Layout Methods Choosing the right method to develop a layout can be very difficult and requires careful  planning and thinking by the layout artist. The design methods used in layout are thumbnail sketches, the rough layout, and the comprehensive layout. Much of the decision depends on the factors that have already been discussed. The size of the job, the objective, and use of  colour are all important considerations. The layout artist must have a vision of how to arrive at the final product. The layout can make or break the appearance of the final product. Many times, a number of layout ideas are discarded before one is chosen. Each method must be carefully analyzed to produce a strong, functional layout.

Thumbnail sketches

Thumbnail sketches are simple, simple, rapidly drawn desi designs gns for a layout. layout. Different Different approache approachess can be taken in drawing sketches. Sketching is a means of testing the visual appeal of a  printed piece. The size of a thumbnail is not important. The sketch is generally smaller than the size of the printed product. The first sketch might not be the design selected, but each one will help the artist visualize the end product. A soft pencil or felt tip pen is typically used to draw thumbnail sketches. Even though the size is not important, the general proportion is required to indicate image relationships. The purpose of the sketch is to evaluate the weight of each element. The sketch shows the basic shape and tone of the total piece.

Rough layout A rough layout is a redrawn version of a thumbnail sketch. Once a specific thumbnail has  been selected, refinement refinement is necessary. necessary. The elements in a rough layout or dummy offer a truer  visual meaning. In many cases, the dummy must be checked and approved by the designer, client, and sometimes the printer. The display lines and illustrations of a rough are very similar to the elements of the final product. The text material is located in a greeked (illegible) block or whatever form it will take in the finished product. The rough has a closer  resemblance to the intended printed piece than the thumbnail sketches. Sometimes, a refined layout may be made. Since the refined layout is close closerr to the final layout, it can be used as the final layout when time is a major factor. Special notations for type size, type style, or  colour can be made on a tissue overlay or on the layout. 39

 

Comprehensive layout A comp comprehens rehensive ive layout layout shows how the printed piece will look when finished. The layout artist is making a close version of the finished product; therefore, exact detail is essential. The  body type is usually ruled in and the display type is drawn as it will appear in the finished  piece. Any art sketched previously now has a photograph or accurate line art in its place. Special effects become a part of the comprehensive layout, and colours can also be added. Instructions, specifications, and notations are not placed directly on the comprehensive. A common practice is to attach an overlay sheet with tape at the top of the base sheet. The overlay sheet is usually translucent tissue paper so that the comprehensive can be easily viewed along with any notations. The information is written on the tissue and serves as the specifications for the final  preparation of art and copy. The comprehensive comprehensive should not be confused with the mechanical . The mechanical is pasted up and completed in the next step of production. The mechanical is the final stage of layout. It includes the body text and any other camera-ready images that are converted to film by a process camera or other means.

Specifications

 Specifications  provide the information relating to type style, type size, line or column width, colour use, page organization, and other facts pertaining to a printed product. Specifications or specs are the overall guidelines used in layout.

Directing Eye Movement After a grid or method of alignment has been decided upon, hierarchy and emphasis play an important role in guiding a viewer’s eye through a layout. The designer determines which element is most important and will be the first to catch a viewer’s attention. From there, design desi gn elements elements with seco secondar ndaryy impor importanc tancee (follo (followed wed by those with even less importanc importance) e) lead the viewer’s gaze through a layout so that the eye moves in a way that takes in all of the visual content. The positioning of elements on a page, their size, colour, and visual weight, as well as their relationship to one another all affect hierarchy. hierarchy. Here are some guidelines to keep in mind when determining what elements will be seen first and which will play a subordinate role: 40

 

• Position —In Western Western culture, we tend to read from left to right and from top to bottom. As a result, elements in a layout that are positioned at the top and to the left are likely to be seen first. • Scale —Large items in a layout tend to draw the eye. The smallest elements tend to be seen last. •  Contrast —Areas  —Areas of high contrast tend to dominate in a layout, whereas areas of low contrast tend to recede. • Implied direction —Linear elements, edges, elements in a line, or even an image such as a face in profile, can direct a viewer’s gaze.

Specifications for Graphic Communications Trim: 8-1/2 x 10-7/8 Gutter: 5p Bottom Margin: 5p Thumb Margin: 4p Top Mar Margin: gin: 3p to the base of the running head, 5p to the top of the fir first st line of text 2 column format: 20p3 x 1p6 x 20p3 4-colour process

Chapters are always to start a new right. Typefaces used: Palm Springs, Helvetica (all in roman, bold, italic and/or bold italic). Running Heads: Left hand pages, set folio flush left on left hand margin of left column. Folio sets in 10pt Helvetica Bold. On 3p indent set Book Title. Book Title sets in 10pt Helvetica. Right hand pages, set folio flush right on right hand margin of right column. Folio sets in 10pt Helvetica Bold. On 3p indent from right margin set Chapter Number and Title. Chapter number and title sets in 10pt Helvetica, flush right on indent. Allow an em space  between the number number and title.

Chapters: Are to start a new right. r ight. The chapter opener takes a drop folio, 10pt Helvetica Bold, prints black, flush left on the outside margin, 2p below the normal text bed.

Chapter Opening Graphic: Falls in the first column, and is made up of squares. Large black  square is 10p3, and sets flush left on first column. Three large squares are each 3p, second set 41

 

of squares is 1p6, and smallest set of squares is 1p3. There should be 3pt space between the various squares, follow the sample pages for general layout of graphic. The large squares should be 100% Cyan; 100% Magenta; and 100% Yellow. Secondary squares should be 100% Cyan, 100% Y Yellow; ellow; 100% Yello Yellow w, 50% Magenta; 50% Magenta, 50% Cyan. Tertiary squares should be 50% Yellow Yellow,, 100% Cyan; 100% Y Yellow ellow,, 50% Cyan; 20% Magenta, 100% Yellow; 80% Ma Magenta, genta, 100% Yellow. Yellow.

Chapter number: 190pt Arabic number, number, Helvetica Bold, 30% Black Screen, 2 digit numbers track -20, do not use the word chapter. Set so its top aligns with the top of nominal text bed, flush right. Under prints chapter title.

Chapter title: 30/30 Helvetica, Track Track -5, build down from top line, flush left, ragged right, in second column, with ascender ascender of first line aligning with the top of the nominal text bed.

Objectives: Heading sets Helvetica Bold, 14/auto, Clc, flrr x 20p3, 6p below the bottom of the chapter graphic to the ascender of the heading. 0p3 after. Opening state-

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PSYCHOLOGY OF COLOURS

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COPYFITTING Copyfitting is the process of fitting together copy and illustrations in a specific amount of  space. It can be done by altering type size, leading, line length, or letter spacing. The layout  planner or artist is heavily involved in copyfitting during various stages of production. If the amount of copy is greater than the space allocated, the total design is affected. Copyfitting also involves estimating the amount of space needed for a certain amount of text. The amount of space needed must be known by the layout artist to design a comprehensive layout. In desktop publishing, publishing, copyfitting is commonly commonly completed for layout on a computer computer screen. A desktop publishing system can be used to copyfit text and illustrations, move copy, draw line art, and finalize layout.

There are also manual counting techniques used in copyfitting. The most common method is counti cou nting ng the tot total al numb number er of cha charac racter terss in a bod bodyy of text. To determ determine ine the number number of  44

 

characters in the text, a vertical line is drawn through the printed copy at the end of the shortest line in the copy. The number of characters in a single line to the left of the vertical line is then counted. Characters include all letters, spaces, and punctuation. The number of  characters in one line is then multiplied by the number of full lines. If there is a partial line, the number of characters it contains is counted and added to the total from the preceding step. This total represents the number of characters to the left of the vertical line. Next, the number  of characters to the right of the vertical line is counted. The total number of characters from all lines on the right side is then added to the total number of characters on the left side. The number of characters in this example is 290. Once the number of characters in the text is determined, a type style and size is selected for the text. The line length and character size for the text, in picas, must then be determined. Typeface tables or catalogs showing different sizes of type and the number of characters per   pica are commonly commonly used.

Processing Proces sing Illustrations Phot Ph otog ogra raph phss and and piec pieces es of line line art art us used ed in layo layout ut ar aree co comm mmon only ly ed edit ited ed or si size zedd fo for  r  reproduction  by by the layout artist. The principles used in design  and layout must be followed when processing illustrations. The layout artist must make sure that the llustrations are sized  properly,, and that they ha  properly have ve the right contras contrast,t, unity, unity, and proportion.

Photo cropping The complete image of a photograph often cannot be used because some portion of the print is not needed. In many cases, the composition of the photo must be edited or cropped.

 Photo cropping is a method of indicating what portion of the print is to be used or  reproduced. A cropped photo separates the desired image from the unwanted areas. Crop marks border the area to be used. Marks are placed in the white margin of the print with a grease pencil or a similar marker that will not damage the photograph. Crop marks set the  photograph dimensions. dimensions. Two Two sets of marks can bbee used along the top and bottom of the ima image ge to establish width. Pairs of marks on each side of the image indicate depth or height. The final image will only use the portion of the photograph that lies within the crop marks. 45

 

Crop marks drawn along the border of a photograph show the area of the image to be used. Photo sizing In graphic production, it is often necessary to use photographs at sizes other than the original. Many times, the photo must be enlarged or reduced by a certain percentage to fit the space. For example, if a photo measures 6″ _ 6″ and the design space is only 3″_ 3″, the photo would have to be reduced to half its original size or by 50 percent. A 35 mm slide might have to be enlarged to twice its original size (200 percent) or more to provide a printed image of  the required size. A  proportional scale or “pr “propo oportio rtionn whe wheel” el” is com common monly ly used used to size size ill illust ustrat ration ionss for  enlargement or reduction. The scale can be used to determine the correct reproduction  percentage by comparing the original size of the photo with the reproduction size. The numbers along the inner portion of the scale represent the original size, and the numbers along the outer portion represent the reproduction size. When the scale is rotated to match the two sizes, the resulting percentage of enlargement or reduction is indicated by an arrow  pointing to a windowed windowed scale located located on the inner portio portionn of the proportion whee wheel.l.

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When sizing a photo, it is important to remember that the image will retain the same shape and proportion. For example, a rectangle will reproduce as a smaller or larger rectangle. The dimensions change, but the proportion remains the same. Precise reproduction percentages and often, cropping are necessary to produce the required re resu sult ltss and and fit fit the the de desi sign gn sp spac ace. e. So Some metim times es,, it mi migh ghtt be ne nece cess ssar aryy to us usee a di diff ffer eren entt  photograph or illustration illustration to meet the specific specifications ations of the job.

Photo layout Photographs are not pasted down along with the other elements on a mechanical. Usually, Usually, a space for the photo is outlined on the layout with a thin black line (called a keyline). Ablock of opaque material the exact size of the photo is sometimes used, instead of a keyline. A figure number is assigned to the space and the photo. The number indicates where to place the screened halftone of the photo when making the mechanical.

Photo markup  Photo markup involves writing directions or specifications for the visual images used in layout. Markings should be carefully placed on the border or outside the image area of   photos. Crop marks marks should appea appearr in the marg margin in or in an area that will not be reproduced. reproduced. Photographs must be handled very carefully when they are used in layout. The surface of the image can scratch very easily; never write on an overlay that is placed on top of a photo. The  pressure from a pen or pencil can indent the surface. Damage to a photo can leave an unwanted mark or reflection during reproduction r eproduction or screening.

Spaces are reserved as holes to indicate where photos are to be placed for a mechanical. 47

 

Line art

 Line art is artwork that is drawn by hand or electronically and is normally pasted up at the same size on a mechanical. If necessary, the original art can be enlarged or reduced. Then, the correctly sized line art can be pasted onto the mechanical. Sketches and drawings are marked in the same manner as photographs. They must be cropped, sized, and located. Information that is marked up on illustrations might include the  job title and number number,, location in the printed piece, a figure number if applicable, the  percentage for enlargement enlargement or reduction, the reproduction size, and the name of the layout artist. When line art and tone material are used together, the tone material is placed on an overlay. For example, if the tone material is going to be used to place colour in line art, it must be cut to the shape of the art and placed in register on the overlay. overlay.

Clip art

Clip art is preprinted artwork that is designed to be cut and pasted up on the mechanical. The artwork is normally cut from a sheet of clip art. Today, clip art is commonly available in electronic form. It can be printed out and pasted up in the traditional manner, or added directly to an electronic page layout. layout. Clip art is commonly used for seasona seasonall designs, such as Thanksgiving or Christmas newspaper ads. Pieces of clip art save the artist from having to draw Christmas trees, wreaths, turkeys, and other common images.

Clip art A

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Clip art. A—Preprinted A—Preprinted clip art is available in common designs and is ready to be pasted up. B—Electronic clip art is now widely used.

Clip art used in multicolour printing. Each image is a colour separation and can be used to make a plate for a primary colour. Clip art must have high image quality and density so that it will reproduce properly properly.. The most common form of clip art is made up of black images on a white background. Some clip art is also available as separations separations for colour printing. Four-colour clip art ca cann be very effective if  the artwork is appropriate for the layout.

Layout Materials The two most common working surfaces used in layout and design are a drawing board and light table. A drawing drawing board provides an area where the layout can be taped down for paste-

up. A T-square is used to align the mechanical on the board.

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A light table is used in layout for the placement of translucent images, such as page negatives or colour separations. Light passing through the images allows for easier alignment or  registration.

Layout base sheet A layout base sheet is the paste-up surface or board used in layout. The elements making up the layout design are pasted up on the base sheet as it is developed into a mechanical. V Various arious kinds of base sheet stock are available. Base sheets must have a surface that can accept a variety of adhesives and ink drawings. Sizes typically depend on the size of the copyboard of  the process camera used to photograph the finished mechanical. Preprinted base sheets are often used to make mechanicals mechanicals when the same type of job is done repeatedly. Artists using preprinted sheets do not align paste-up materials with a T-square. Preprinted base sheets have grids printed with non reproducing blue lines that serve as a guide for image placement.

Crop marks drawn along the border of a photograph show the area of the image to be used.

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The grid lines are often measured at intervals of one pica. Thin plastic sheets are used with  base sheets as as overlays when preparing a mechanical. Overlays are usually frosted or clear  plastic and are used used to align imag images es supporting colour colour on top of the base sheet. They They contain the elements that will print as colour or screened colour colour.. Register marks are used to align the overlay with the mechanical.

Workmarks

Workmarks are lines that guide the placement of materials on a base sheet. Corner or trim marks are always placed on the sheet. Center marks are usually positioned and are essential for colour work. Workmarks serve as guidelines for the paste-up artist as well as the mechanical stripper. A nonreproducing nonreproducing blue pencil or pen is commonly used to draw workmarks on a layout base sheet. These lines or other marks will not appear when the page is shot. Trim marks are usually drawn one-eighth one-eighth inch in length for paste-up or to designate bleeds. bleeds. A bleed is an image that extends to the end of a printed sheet. A bleed image, when printed, appears outside the trim area of the sheet and is cut away when the sheet is trimmed to the final size.

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UNIT –II LESSON 1 : PRINTING PROCESSES

The five major printing processes are distinguished by the method of image transfer and by the general type of image carrier employed. Depending upon the process, the printed image is transf tra nsferr erred ed to the sub substr strate ate eithe eitherr dir direct ectly ly or ind indire irectl ctlyy. In direc directt printi printing ng the image image is transferred directly from the image carrier to the substrate, examples of direct printing are gravure, flexography, screen-printing and letterpress printing processes. In indirect, or offset,  printing, the image is first transferred tr ansferred from the image carrier to the blanket cylinder and then to the substrate. Lithography, currently the dominant printing technology, is an indirect (offset) process.

Imag Im agee ca carr rrie iers rs (o (orr plat plates es)) can can ge gene nera rall llyy be clas classi sifi fied ed as on onee of fo four ur ty type pes: s: re reli lief ef,,  planographic, intaglio, or screen. In relief printing, the image or printing area is raised above the non-image areas. Of the five major printing processes, those relying on relief printing are letterpress and flexography. In planographic printing, the image and nonimage areas are on the same plane. The image and non-image areas are defined by differing physiochemical  properties. Lithography Lithography is a planograp planographic hic process. In the intaglio process, the nonprinting area is at a common surface level with the substrate while the printing area, consisting of minute etched or engraved wells of differing depth and/or size, is recessed. Gravure is an intaglio process. In the screen process (also known as  porous printing), the image is transferred to the substrate by pushing ink through a porous mesh, which carries the pictorial or typographic image. Each printing process can be divided into three major steps: prepress, press, and post press. Prepress operations encompass that series of steps during which the idea for a printed image is converted into an image carrier such as a plate, cylinder, or screen. Prepress operations include composition and typesetting, graphic arts photography, image assembly, and image carrier preparation. Press refers to actual printing operations. Post press primarily involves the assembly of printed materials and consists of binding and finishing operations.

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A printing process describes the method adopted by a system to transfer the image on to a substrate (material). This also means that a printing system will have a medium that carries the image in the first place before it enables the process of reproduction. Getting this printing surface prepared is dependent on the printing process. Over the years, many different ways of   putting ink on paper paper developed and the these se evolved to be th thee printing processes. processes. The mech mechanics anics adopted under different systems are so different that they cater to specific applications in the market. For a long time the printing industry recognized five major processes. These were : • Relief printing (letterpress, flexography) • Planographic printing (offset lithography) • Recess printing (gravure/intaglio) • Stencil printing (screen) • Digital printing (toner and inkjet)

 Relief printing—letterpress As the name of the process says, the image areas are in relief and the non-image areas are in recess. On application of ink, the relief areas are coated with a film of ink and the non-image areas are not. With pressure over the substrate to bring it in contact with the image area, the image is then transferred to the substrate. If you can picture how a rubber stamp transfers ink  to paper, then you understand the principle of letterpress and flexography flexography.. Relief printing was the earliest form of printing and remained dominant for a very long time. The movable types of the hot metal era were all used with letterpress. This printing process takes its name from the manner in which the process was employed, primarily for type, and later engravings. Text is made up of movable type. Types are made from an alloy of lead, antimony, antimony, and tin. A  block is made of zinc or copper, in which images that are not obtainable in movable type are etched. Logos, diagrams, and illustrations are made from engraved blocks.

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A letterpress printed product can be identified by the indentation that it creates in the paper. This is due to the mechanical pressure applied to the paper. In spite of this, letterpress  produces images that are sharp and clean. clean. It is a direct printing process, which means that ink  is transferred directly from the printing surface to the substrate. Letterpress is still used to some extent for embossing, imprinting, and special-purpose reproduction.

Letterpress Letterpre ss Printing Applications Typical products printed with letterpress printing processes include business cards, letterhead,  proofs, billheads, forms, posters, announcements, announcements, imprinting, embossing and hot-leaf  Stamping

Offset Letterpress Printing Process Overview Letterpress is the oldest method of printing with equipment and images printed by the "relief" type printing plates where the image or printing areas are raised above the nonprinting areas. The use of letterpresses is on the decline being replaced with faster and more efficient  printing presses such as the offset offset lithographic press or the flexographic press. The amount of  setup required to prepare the equipment to print a job is significant. For example, the image must be metal cast prior to print versus offset printing plates which are comparatively cheaper  and require less time to make. How letterpress works: Letter press printing exerts variable amounts of pressure on the substrate dependent on the size and image elements in the  printing. The amount of pressure per square inch or "squeeze" is greater on some highlight dots than it is on larger shadow dots. Expensive, time consuming adjustments must be made throughout the press run to make sure the impression pressure is just right. Major chemicals 54

 

used in letterpress printing, very similar to those used in lithography, include film developers and fixers, inks, and blanket and roller washes (GATF 1992b).

Image Preparation Preparation of Letterpress Letterpress Printing Plates Letterpress printing uses type that is raised r aised above (relief) the non-printing areas. In traditional letterpress work, letters were assembled into copy, explanatory cuts were placed nearby, line drawings were etched or engraved into plates, and all these were placed (composed) on a flat marble stone, within a rigid frame (chase) spaced artistically with blocks (furniture) tightened up (locked-up) with toothed angular blocks (quoins). In the construction of a letterpress "form" older methods of image making involving cast metal, plated molds, and other media have been replaced with photopolymer relief plates in those instances where letterpress equipment is still functional There are a few presses still availing themselves of old type and casts, and using ancient type-making machines (like linotype) but there are few persons alive today who know how to operate, much less keep them in functional repair. repair. The usage of cast metal type was replaced in some instances with typewriter generated "cold type", by the V Varityper, arityper, Friden Justowriter, IBM Selectric Composer and these were replaced in part by photographic and then electronic plate making. The development of photopolymer  relieff plat relie plates es began to repla replace ce all of the abov abovee when letterpre letterpress ss hit its prime, and is now the most economical plate making method available. As letterpress usage grew, it became obvious that for long runs of the same copy, duplicate  plates would save time and money. money. Stereotype, electrotype, rubber and plastic duplicate plate making thrived, but are no longer widely used for letterpress work. The more economical and faster to produce photopolymer plates are extending the life of letterpress printing to some extent. Photoengraving, at one time thought to be the last word in plate making, is still in use to a limited extent, however photopolymer plates are less expensive, quicker to make, and supply fewer chemical residues, as a result the equipment to make photopolymer plates and the plates themselves provide an undeniable cost saving without jeopardizing the quality of  the finished product. Chemical engraving has taken a back seat to mechanical and electronic computer driven engraving methods because of environmental reasons as well as cost and speed. Computers are also doing typesetting, and films, where used, are often laser generated. 55

 

Letterpress Letterpre ss Equipment Design There are three different types of letterpress printing devices in use today: platen, flatbed, and rotary presses. The two most common types of letterpress presses, the unit design perfecting rotary press and the rotary r otary letterpress typically used for magazine printing.

Platen-type Letterpress Printing A platen press is made up of two flat surfaces called the bed and the platen. The platen  provides a smooth backing for the paper or other substrate that is to be printed. The raised  plate (image to be printed) is locked onto a flat surface. The plate is inked, the substrate is then placed on another flat surface called the bed and pressed against the inked plate  producing the impression. impression. The platen and bed carry both the paper and the type form. The press then opens and closes like a clam shell. Platen printing is typically used for short runs such as invitations, name cards, and stationary. Larger platen presses are used for die-cutting and embossing. Some  platen presses are arranged with the bed and plate platenn in the vertical plan plane. e. The plate is inked with an inking roller that transfers ink from an inking plate to the image carrier. Ink is placed on the inking plate by an ink fountain roller. The platen style press has  been widely used in printing printing small-town newspapers newspapers since the late 1800s. The printing area is usually limited to a maximum of 18 inches by 24 inches. These presses are also used to print letter letterhea head, d, bil billhe lheads ads,, form forms, s, pos poster ters, s, announ announce cemen ments, ts, an andd many many other other types types of printe printedd  products, as well well as for imprinting, embos embossing, sing, and hot-leaf hot-leaf stamping.

Flat-Bed Cylinder Letterpress Printing Flat-bed cylinder presses use either vertical or horizontal beds. The plate is locked to a bed which passes over an inking roller and then against the substrate. The substrate passes around an impression cylinder on its way from the feed stack to the delivery stack. Another way of  describing this is that a single revolution of the cylinder moves over the bed while in a vertical position so that both the bed holding the substrate and cylinder move up and down in a reciprocating motion. Ink is supplied to the plate cylinder by an inking roller and an ink  fountain. The presses can print either one or two-colour impressions. Flat-bed cylinder   presses, which operate in a manner similar to the platen press, will print stock as large as 42 56

 

inches by 56 inches. Flat-bed cylinder presses operate very slowly, having a production rate of not more than 5,000 impressions per hour. As a result, much of the printing formerly done on this type of press is now done using rotary letterpress or lithography. The horizontal bed  press, the slower of the two types of flat-bed cylinder press, is no longer manufactured in the United States.

Rotary Letterpress Printing There are two type of rotary letterpresses, sheet-fed and web-fed. Sheet fed rotary presses are also declining in use; in fact these presses are no longer manufactured in the U.S. Web-fed rotary presses are the most popular type of letter press printing. Like all rotary presses, rotary letterpress requires curved image carrying plates. The most popular types of plates used are stereotype, electrotype, and molded plastic or rubber. When printing on coated papers, rotary  presses use heat-set heat-set inks and are equipped with dryers, usually the high-velocity hot air type type.. Web-fed rotary letterpress presses are used primarily for printing newspapers. These presses are designed to print both sides of the web simultaneously. Typically, they can print up to four   pages across across the web; howeve however, r, some some of the new press presses es can print up to six pages across across a 90inch web. Rotary letterpress is also used for long-run commercial, packaging, book, and magazine printing.

Flexography

This process adopts the same principle of relief printing and is therefore similar to letterpress. The printing surface is made of rubber instead of metal. The plate (the printing surface) is imaged from film or laser. Rubber plates were replaced by photopolymer plates during the 1970s as was the case with letterpress printing. Flexography is largely used in the packaging industry, where the substrates used are plastic, aluminum, foil, etc., for which the rubber   plates are more suitable, due to their being soft. Usually flexography prints rolls of paper or  foil instead of cut sheets.

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LESSON 2 : FLEXOGRAPHIC PRINTING Applications: Flexography is the major process used to print packaging materials. Flexography is used to  print corrugated containers, folding cartons, multi wall sacks, paper sacks, plastic bags, milk  and beverage cartons, disposable cups and containers, labels, adhesive tapes, envelopes, newspapers, and wrappers (candy and food). f ood). Flexographic presses are capable of producing good quality impressions on many different substr sub strate atess and is the lea least st expens expensive ive and simple simplest st of the printi printing ng proce processe ssess use usedd for  decorating and packaging printing. The use of flexographic printing presses is on the rise. There are two primary reasons for this: 1) it is a relatively simple operation; and 2) it is easily adap adapte tedd to the the us usee of wa wate terr-ba base sedd inks inks.. The The wi wide desp spre read ad us usee of wate waterr-ba base sedd in inks ks in flexographic printing means a large reduction in VOC emission compared to the heatset web or gravure printing processes. Publication flexography is used mainly in the production of newspaper, comics, directories, newspaper inserts, and catalogs. Packaging flexography is used for the production of folding cartons, labels, and packaging materials. Large quantities of inks are used during normal runs on flexographic presses; however, some printers are able to recycle a majority of their spent inks and wash waters. Major chemicals used in flexography include plate making solution, water and solvent based inks, and blanket/roller cleaning solvents. Flexography is a form of rotary web letterpress, combining features of both letterpress and rotogravure printing, using relief plates comprised of flexible rubber or photopolymer plates and fast drying, low viscosity solvent, water-based or UV curable inks fed from an "anilox" or two roller inking system. The flexible (rubber or photopolymer) plates are mounted onto the printing cylinder with double-faced adhesive. Plates are sometimes backed with thin metal sheets and attached to the cylinder with fastening straps for close register or ink  alignment. This adds additional cost to the plate and requires more make ready time, but when quality printing is critical this type of plate can make the difference.

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Process Overview In the typical flexo printing sequence, the substrate is fed into the press from a roll. The imagee is printed as subs imag substrate trate is pulle pulledd throu through gh a serie seriess of stations, stations, or print units. Each print unit is printing a single colour. As with Gravure and Lithographic printing, the various tones and shading are achieved by overlaying the 4 basic shades of ink. These are magenta, cyan, yellow and black. Magenta being the red r ed tones and cyan being the blue. The process of printing each colour on a flexo press consists of a series of four rollers:

• Ink Roller • Meter Roller • Plate Cylinder • Impression Cylinder

The first roller transfers the ink from an ink pan to the meter roller or Anilox Roll, which is the second roller. The Anilox roller meters the ink to a uniform thickness onto the plate cylinder. The substrate then moves between the plate cylinder and the impression cylinder, which is the fourth roller. The impression cylinder applies pressure to the plate cylinder, thereby transferring the image onto the substrate. The web, which by now has been printed, is fed into the overhead dryer so the ink is dry before it goes to the next print unit. After the substrate has been printed with all colours the web MAY be fed through an additional overhead tunnel dryer to remove most of the residual solvents or water. The finished product is then rewound onto a roll or is fed through the cutter.

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The major unit operations in a flexographic printing operation are: • Image preparation • Plate making • Printing • Finishing Image Preparation Image Ima ge pre prepa parat ration ion begin beginss wit withh ca camer mera-re a-ready ady (me (mecha chanic nical) al) art/co art/copy py or electr electroni onica cally lly  produced art supplied by the customer. customer. Images are captured for printing by camera, scanner  or computer. Components of the image are manually assembled and positioned in a printing flat when a camera is used. This process is called stripping. When art/copy is scanned or  digitally captured the computer with special software assembles the image. A simple proof  (brown print) is prepared to check for position and accuracy. When colour is involved, a colour proof is submitted to the customer for approval.

Flexographic Plate Making Flexographic and letterpress plates are made using the same basic technologies utilizing a relief type plate. Both technologies employ plates with raised images (relief) and only the raised images come in contact with the substrate during printing. Flexographic plates are made of a flexible material, such as plastic, rubber or UV sensitive polymer (photopolymer), so that it can be attached to a roller or cylinder for ink application. There are three primary methods of making flexographic plates; photomechanical, photochemical and laser engraved  plates.

Prepress - Plate making The photomechanical plate making method begins with making an engraving. Exposing a metal plate through a negative and processing the exposed plate in an acid bath accomplish this. The metal engraved plate is used to make a master which is molded out of Bakelite  board. The engraving is placed in a mold press. The mold is produced by applying heat &  pressure to the mold mold material (bakelite board), which can be either either plastic or glass, against the engraving under controlled temperature and pressure. The Bakelite board fills the engraving on the metal plate. When its cooled you end up with a master mold for the plastic or rubber  60

 

compound that will be pressed into the mold under pressure and elevated temperature to  produce the flexible flexible printing plate with raised areas that will transfer the the ink. The second method of flexo plate making is relief plates. This utilizes a solid or liquid  photopolymer.. The sheet of photopolymer is exposed to light through a negative. The  photopolymer unexposed areas are then washed away with solvent or water wash. This is fast becoming the most common method of making plates. The process differs depending on whether solid sheets of photopolymer or liquid photopolymer are used, though the two processes are similar  in general outline. In both processes the plates are made in ultraviolet exposure units. A negative of the job is placed between the photopolymer and the ultraviolet light source. The  photopolymer sheet or liquid is then exposed to ultraviolet light, hardening the image area. Lastly,, the plate is processed to remove Lastly r emove the unhardened non-image area. Photopolymer plates are replacing rubber plates because they offer superior quality and performance at a lower  cost. Flexographic printing plates may be made by laser engraving, which is called direct digital plate making. In this process an image is scanned or computer generated. Then a computer-guided computer-guid ed laser etches the image onto the printing plate.

Flexographic Printing Presses Presses The five types of printing presses used for flexographic printing are the stack type, central impression cylinder (CIC), in-line, newspaper unit, and dedicated 4-, 5-, or 6- colour unit commer com mercia ciall pub public licati ation on flexog flexograp raphic hic press presses. es. All five five types types employ employ a plate plate cylind cylinder er,, a metering cylinder known as the anilox roll that applies ink to the plate, and an ink pan. Some  presses use a third roller as a fountain roller and, in some cases, a doctor blade for improved ink distribution.

Flexographic Printing Press Types Stack Type The stack press is characterized by one or more stacks of printing stations arranged vertically on either side of the press frame. Each stack has its own plate cylinder which prints one colour of a multicolour impression. All stations are driven from a common gear train. Stack   presses are easy to set up and can print both sides of the web in one pass. They can be integrated with winders, unwinders, cutters, creasers, and coating equipment. They are very  popular for milk carton printing. A drawback of stack presses is their poor registration; the image position on every printed sheet is not as consistent as in many other printing processes. 61

 

Central impression cylinder (CIC) Central impression cylinder (CIC), like the common impression rotary letterpress, use a single impression cylinder mounted in the press frame. Two to eight colour printing stations surround the central impression cylinder. Each station consists of an ink pan, fountain roller, anilox roll, doctor blade, and plate cylinder. As the web enters the press it comes into contact with the impression cylinder and remains in contact until it leaves the press. The result is  precise registration which allows CIC presses to produce very good colour impressions. CIC  presses are used used extensive extensively ly for printing flexible films.

In Line In Line flexo printing is similar to a unit type rotary press or the stacked press except the  printing stations are arranged in a horizontal line. They are all driven by a common line shaft and may be coupled to folders, cutters, and other post press equipment. These presses are used for printing bags, corrugated board, folding boxes, and similar products.

Newspaper Flexographic Presses A newspaper flexographic press consists of multiple printing units, each unit consisting of  two printing stations arranged back-to-back in a common frame. The use of paired stations allows both sides of the web to be printed in one pass. Multiple printing stations are required to print the many pages that make up a typical newspaper. Single and double colour decks, stacked units, or 4-, 5-, or 6-colour units are sometimes positioned above those units where the publisher wants to provide single or multiple spot colour, spot colour for both sides of the web, or process colour colour,, respectively (Buonicore).

Commercial Publication Flexographic Presses Commercial publication flexographic presses are compact high-speed presses with wide web capability that utilize dedicated 4-, 5-, or 6-colour units. Typically, two four-colour units are  paired in one press to allow printing on both sides of the web. Publication flexographic  presses generally generally incorporate infrared ddryers ryers to ensure dryin dryingg of the waterborne ink ink after each side of the web is printed (Buonicore).

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Flexographic Inks Flexographic inks are very similar to packaging gravure printing inks in that they are fast drying and have a low viscosity viscosity.. The inks are formulated to lie on the surface of nonabsorbent substrates and solidify when solvents are removed. Solvents are removed with heat, unless U.V. curable inks are used. These inks consist of colorants, which may be pigments and soluble dyes along with a binder and various solvents. Both Solvent based and water based inks commonly contain various types alcohol as the primary solvent or drier. Alcohol rapidly dries through evaporation and contributes to VOC emissions. The inks may also contain glycol ether and/or ammonia which facilitate drying.

Types: • Water Based • Solvent Based • U.V. U.V. Curable Cura ble Water based flexo inks dry through evaporation and absorption on paper. This evaporation requires a greater amount of fuel or energy to dry the ink. Coated papers may be used to control the absorption through the paper. Due to the speed of the presses and volume of inks consumed daily a pollution control system may be necessary necessary,, especially if the printer is using solvent based inks. If the product allows, the printer may avoid pollution control equipment if  they convert to water based inks or UV curable inks. The cost of Pollution control equipment for a small Flexo or gravure printer will cost approximately $400,000 (1998 estimate) for the equipment and approximately $50,000 for testing and certification. The price increases as the size and/or volume of the operation increases. UV flexo inks are commonly used for top coats and lacquers and are responsible for many improvements in image quality of flexographic printing. The use of UV curable coloured inks is rising within the flexographic printing industry, but product concerns and equipment investment are obstacles. Note, water based or UV curable inks may not be an option for  some printers due to the substrate being printed or design of the product. Finishing After   printing, the substrate may run through a number of operations to be "finished" and ready for  shipment to the customer. Finishing may include operations such as coating, cutting, folding and binding. 63

 

Flexography features: • Printing from wrong-reading wrong-reading raised image, image, flexible plate direct to substrate

• Principal applications: almost any substrate which can go through a web press – tissue,  plastic film, corrugated board, board, metal foil, milk crates, gift wrap, wrap, folding cartons, la labels, bels, etc. • Recognition characteristics: as a relief printing method, has recognizable, but slight, ink  halo effect around letters and solid colour areas • Two categories: wide web (18 or more inches wide) and narrow web - Wide web flexo market: flexible packaging, newspapers, corrugated boxes - Narrow web market: primarily labels, high-quality process colour  - Some flexo corrugated box printing is sheetfed 

The continuous, repeated imaging capability, along the length of the web substrate makes flexography very suitable for products such as wallpaper and wrapping paper.

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LESSON 3 : PLANOGRAPHIC PRINTING—OFFSET LITHOGRAPHY Lithography is the most dominant of the printing processes. It accounts for over 60% of the  printing market. When people refer to printing, especially colour printing, they usually think  of lithography. Lithography was invented by Alois Senefelder. Lithography is a chemical  process and almost opposite to that of letterpress which is more of a mechanical process. Lithography works on the principle that oil and water do not mix. A lithographic plate is treated in such a way that the image areas on the plate are sensitized and as such are oleophilic (oil-loving); and the non-image areas are treated to be ink repelling or oleophobic. During the press run, the plate is charged twice; first by a set of dampening rollers that apply a coat of dampening solution and second by a coat of the inking rollers. During this process the image areas have been charged to accept ink and repel water during the dampening. The same happens to the non-image areas that start repelling ink as they are coated with water. (Remember the basic principle on which lithography works.)

Press Operations: Offset Lithographic Lithographic Printing Applications Lithographic printing is well suited for printing both text and illustrations in short to medium length runs of up to 1,000,000 impressions. Typical products printed with offset printing  processes include: include:

• General commercial printing Quick printing • Newspapers Books • Business Forms Financial and Legal Documents • Offset Lithographic Printing Process Overview Lithography is an "offset" printing technique. Ink is not applied directly from the printing  plate (or cylinder) to the substrate as it is in gravure, flexography and letterpress. Ink is applied to the printing plate to form the "image" (such as text or artwork to be printed) and then transferred or "offset to a rubber "blanket". The image on the blanket is then transferred to the substrate (typically paper or paperboard) to produce the printed product. 65

 

On sheet-fed presses, the substrate is fed into the press one sheet at a time at a very high speed. Web fed presses print on a continuous roll of substrate, or web, which is later cut to size.. There are a total of 3 type size typess of offset printing printing:: non-h non-heats eatset et sheet sheet fed, heatset, heatset, and nonheatset web offset. The difference between heatset and non-heatset is primarily dependent on the type of ink and how it is dried.

Offset Lithographic Printing Process Process All offset presses have three printing cylinders, as well as the inking and dampening systems. The plate cylinder, the blanket cylinder and the impression cylinder. Lithography uses a  planographic plate, a type of plate on which the image areas are neither raised nor indented (depressed) in relation to the non-image areas. Instead the image and non-image areas, both on essentially the same plane of the printing plate, are defined by deferring physiochemical  properties. Lithography is based on the principal that oil and water do not mix (hydrophilic and hydrophobic process). Lithographic plates undergo chemical treatment that render the image area of the plate oleophilic (oil-loving) and therefore ink-receptive and the nonimage area hydrophilic (water-loving). During printing, fountain (dampening) solution, which consists  primarily of water with small quantities of isopropyl alcohol and other additives to lower  surface tension and control pH, is first applied in a thin layer to the printing plate and migrates to the hydrophilic non-image areas of the printing plate. Ink is then applied to the  plate and migrates to the oleophilic image areas. Since the ink and water essentially do not mix, the fountain solution prevents ink from migrating to the non-image areas of the plate. As the plate cylinder rotates, the plate comes in contact with the dampening rollers first. The dampenin damp eningg rolle rollers rs wet the plate so the non-printing non-printing areas repel ink. Then the inking inking rollers rollers transfer ink to the dampened plate, where ink only adheres to the image areas. The inked image is transferred to the rubber blanket, and the substrate is printed as it passes between the  blanket and impression impression cylinder cylinder.. There are three basic lithographic press designs: unit-design, common impression cylinder  design, and blanket-to-blanket design. The unit-design press is a self-contained printing 66

 

station consisting of a plate cylinder, a blanket cylinder, and an impression cylinder. Two or  more stations may be joined to perform multi-colour printing. A common impression cylinder   press consists of two or more sets of plate and blanket cylinders sharing a common impression cylinder. This allows two or more colours to be printed at a single station. A  blanket-to-blanket press consists of two sets of plate and blanket cylinders without an impression cylinder. The paper is printed on both sides simultaneously as it passes between the two blanket cylinders (Field).

The major unit operations in a lithographic printing operation include: • Image preparation • Processing printing plates • Printing • Finishing • Image Preparation of Lithographic Printing Plates Image Ima ge pre prepa parat ration ion begin beginss wit withh ca camer mera-re a-ready ady (me (mecha chanic nical) al) art/co art/copy py or electr electroni onica cally lly  produced art supplied by the customer. customer. Images are captured for printing by camera, scanner  or computer. Components of the image are manually assembled and positioned in a printing flat when a camera is used. This process is called stripping. When art/copy is scanned or  digitally captured the computer with special software assembles the image. A simple proof  (brown print) is prepared to check for position and accuracy. When colour is involved, a colour proof is submitted to the customer for approval.

Processing Proces sing of Lithographic Printing Plates There are eight different types of litho plates common to the commercial printing industry: Diazos Dia zos,, Pho Photop topoly olymer mer,, Sil Silve verr Hal Halide ide,, Ele Electr ctroo pho photog tograp raphic hic (Elec (Electro trosta static tic), ), Bimeta Bimetal,l, Waterless, Thermal, and Ablation. The predominant surface plate in use today is termed a "pre-sensitized" plate. Most printers will primarily use one or two types of plates. It is highly unlikely that you would encounter a printer that could use a few of each type of plate nor is it easy for them to switch to a different type of plate due to equipment, expense and application reasons.

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Offset Lithographic Plate Making Diazos plates are coated with organic compounds and are developed with a special solvent. They have a shelf life of about one year. These are used for print runs of about 150,000 impressions. Photopolymer plates are coated with organic compounds which are very inert and abrasion resistant. This makes them last much longer than diazos plates. They are used for print runs of up to 250,000 impressions Silver halide plates use photosensitive coatings similar to photographic film, except that the silver halide emulsions are slower and for colour  reproduct repro duction ion are coat coated ed on anodized anodized alum aluminum inum.. The proce processing ssing solutions solutions contain contain silver  silver  which must be recovered with the proper equipment before being discharged to the sewer. Film based silver halide plates are used for single colour printing and metal-based silver  halide plates are used in computer-to-plate systems. systems. Electrostatic plates are based on the principle of the electrostatic copier. There are two types, inorganic photoconductors on a drum and the second is organic photo conductor on a substrate. These are used mostly in quick printing jobs of 100,000 impressions or less. Bimetal plates use pre-sensitized polymer coatings. There are two types of bimetal plates; copper plated on stainless steel or aluminum and chromium plated on copper. These are the most expensive, but rugged plates and are used for very long print runs. In fact they are capable of print runs in the millions. Wate Waterless rless plates, used on waterless presses only, consist of ink on aluminum for the printing areas and a silicone rubber for the non-image areas. These systems require special inks and high-grade paper to avoid debris accumulating on the  blanket. Ablation plates are imaged by digital data and require no che chemical mical processing. These These  plates are digitally imaged by selectively burning tiny holes in thin coatings of a polyester or  metal base. These types of plate are used on the new computer to plate imaging systems and the brand new computer to press system. The cost of equipment and materials is high and the technology is relatively new. Heat sensitive plates are exposed by infrared diodes in special image setter and processed in water based chemistry. This a relatively new technology and requires the printer to invest in new equipment that can be quite costly costly..

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Offset Lithographic Inks: • Petroleum Based • Vegetable Oil Based • UV & EB Curable • Heatset There are four common types Lithographic inks, unlike Gravure, Flexo, and Screenise very viscous to the point they are paste-like. paste-like. Litho inks are generally generally very strong in colour value to compensate for the lesser amount applied. Sheet fed litho inks are similar to oxidizing types of letterpress inks. To accelerate drying and control ink flow characteristics litho inks contain solvents (or drying oils) which result in some VOC emissions from the ink.

Offset Lithographic Inks Linseed and rapeseed (canola) oil have been added to litho inks for years, but other vegetable oils like soybean oil are more frequently being used because because of their lower VOC content, which helps eliminate smudging. Heatset Inks are completely different from nonheatset inks and cannot be interchanged between the two types of presses. Heatset inks are quick drying inks for web printing. The solvents are vaporized as they pass through resins fixed to the paper in such a way that there is no chance for the ink to spread, smear, or soak  into the paper. Heatset presses are equipped with a drier, and a chilling system to cool the heated resins and set the image. Heatset inks emit a significantly greater amount of VOC as compared to nonheatset lithographic inks. Therefore most heatset presses are also equipped with pollution control equipment such as a thermal oxidizer or after burner to destroy the high volumes of VOCs that are being emitted from these inks. Ultraviole Ultra violett (UV) and Elec Electron tron Beam (EB) curabl curablee inks are also available available for litho printing, printing,  but the press must be properly equipped to run these types of inks. The use of UV curable inks is on the rise, particularly for the t he application of overprint coatings. One advantage of low VOC content is the ability to operate presses at comparable speeds to conventional inks, versus the slow drying and slow press speeds associated with waterbased coatings. One disadvantage is equipment can be costly and is still in the development stage, and the inks and coatings may cost as much as three times the price of conventional coatings. Electron beam curing inks make a good alternative to U.V. inks because they are less costly and less reactive materials can be used. They also require less energy than U.V. curing inks. 69

 

The down side of E.B. curing inks is the capital costs to outfit a press. Additionally, EB inks, like UV inks, can be a skin irritant. The inks, if exposed to sensitive skin or left on skin, may cause dermatitis and could even cause chemical burns. Fountain Solutions & Dampening System Traditionally, isopropyl alcohol was used to control surface tension in the fountain solution, but in recent years its use has been reduced, and in many cases eliminated by using alcohol substitutes. The reason for this shift is due to the VOC emissions attributed to the evaporation of isopropyl alcohol and the level of environmental regulation this lead to. Alcohol substitutes may use glycol ethers such as butyl cellosolve (2-butoxy ethanol) or other  glycols to control surface tension.

• Direct Feed Continuous Integrated System • Direct to Plate Fountain solutions are applied to enhance the non-image areas ability to repel ink. Some newer fountain solutions have been developed with oxidizing chemicals which accelerate the setting and drying of inks and reduce the need for anti-set off sprays. Anti-Set Off Sprays are fine corn starch powders sprayed on the sheets to prevent the ink from smearing and sticking onto the back of the top sheet as the printed material is stacked. There are two common types of dampening systems; the direct feed continuous integrated system and direct to plate dampening system. Direct to plate dampening systems apply the fountain solution directly to the plate. Direct feed continuous integrations systems meter the fountain solution, which contains alcohol or an alcohol substitute, through the inking system. Direct feed can also act as a direct to plate dampening system and apply the fountain solution directly to the plate. This system generally uses less water, reduces make ready time and  paper waste at start start up. The inking system, which has several rollers, is designed to work the ink so that it will be evenly even ly distri distribute butedd acro across ss the blan blanket. ket. The rollers also aid in evaporati evaporating ng some of the water  from fro m the dampenin dampeningg sy syste stem. m. Th Thee founta fountain in sol soluti ution on ac acts ts as the water water soluti solution on for the hydrophilic process of lithographic printing. Fountain solution also helps to cool the press and facilitate the ink drying. Fountain solution is applied to the dampening roller to repel ink  in the non-image areas of the plate.

Sheet fed Offset Lithographic Printing The sheet fed offset process is used mainly for relatively short runs in the production of  commer com mercia ciall and pac packag kaging ing pro produc ducts. ts. In she sheet et fed lit lithog hograp raphy hy,, the paper paper or pa paper perboa board rd 70

 

substrate is normally delivered to the facility in sheets. If rolls are supplied, the paper or   paperboard must be sheeted (cut (cut into sheets and trimmed before printing. Major categories of chemicals used in the sheet fed offset process include film developers and fixers, inks, blanket and roller washes, and fountain solution concentrate. Isopropyl alcohol and glycol based, lower VOC, products are widely used in fountain solutions. Sheet fed lithographic inks are paste inks primarily composed of petroleum products, a portion of  vegetable oils and pigments, that dry by oxidative polymerization and adsorption into the substrate, rather than evaporation, and therefore do not generate large amounts of VOC emissions. The majority of VOC emissions come from isopropyl alcohol used in the fountain solution and cleanup solvents used to clean ink fountains (trays that hold ink), rollers,  blankets and other other press compon components. ents.

Heatset Web Offset Lithographic Printing The heatset web offset process is used primarily for long jobs at high speed (up to 40,000 impressions per hour) for the production of magazines, other periodicals, and catalogs. In heatset web lithography, the paper substrate is delivered to the facility in rolls. The paper is fed directly into the press and is termed a "Web" since it is a continuous feed of paper as opposed to individual sheets. After printing, the paper is folded and/or cut "inline" with the  printing units. Heatset web lithographic inks are paste inks that dry through evaporation of the ink oils contai con tained ned in the ink thi thiss is usu usuall allyy ac accom complis plished hed with with a re-cir re-circul culati ating ng hot air system system (normally fueled by natural gas) although direct flame impingement and infrared drying systems are in limited use (Buonicore). Ink oil evaporated and emitted through dryer stacks is a pot poten entia tially lly sig signif nifica icant nt so sourc urcee of VOC emiss emission ions. s. Bec Becaus ausee of this this many many he heats atset et web lit lithog hograp raphic hic pre presse ssess requir requiree an emi emissi ssion on con contro troll device device (such (such as a cataly catalytic tic or therma thermall oxidizer) to reduce VOC concentrations in the dryer exhaust air stream. VOC emissions also occur from isopropyl alcohol used in fountain solution and cleanup solvents used to clean ink  fountains (trays that hold ink), rollers, blankets, and other press components. Major chemicals used are quite similar to those used in sheet fed offset

Non-heatset Web Web Offset Lithographic Printing The non-heatset web offset process is a high speed process used largely in the production of  newspapers, journals, directories, and forms. In non-heatset web lithography, the paper or  71

 

 paperboard substrate is delivered to the facility in rolls. The paper is fed directly into the  press from the roll and is termed a "Web" since it is a continuous feed of paper as opposed to individual sheets. After printing, the paper is folded and/or cut "in-line" with the printing units.  Non-heatset lithographic inks are paste inks that dry by oxidative polymerization and adsorption into the substrate, rather than evaporation therefore they typically do not require mechanical, and thus, the VOC emissions generated during the use of this printing process are quite small. Dampening and inking systems (including dampening chemistry and ink  formulations) differ significantly from heatset web offset. The other major chemicals used in this process, such as fountain solution cleaning solvents, etc. Are quite similar to those used in heatset web offset.

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LESSON 4 : FINISHING After printing, the substrate may run through a number of operations to be "finished and ready for shipment to the customer. Finishing may include operations such as coating, cutting, folding, binding, stitching, embossing, and die cutting.

Plate, blanket and impression impression cylinders The lithographic process operates with three basic cylinders. They are the plate cylinder, the  blanket cylinder, and the impression cylinder cylinder.. All these are plain heavy metal cylinders. The  plate cylinder has the printing plate wound around it. This plate is the carrier of the image that needs to be printed. In other words, it is the equivalent of the types and blocks of  letterpress. The blanket cylinder has a rubber blanket wound around it. This facilitates the transfer of the image from the plate to the blanket, and thereupon to the paper (or other  substrates), when the substrate is passed between the blanket and the impression cylinder. cylinder. The  blanket provides the required resiliency to compensate for the unevenness unevenness of the substrate used. This is an advantage for the process, as even poorer quality stock can be used in offset  printing. The impression cylinder is just a bare cylinder that acts to provide the necessary  pressure to impress the image from blanket to the substrate. Pressure settings are varied  between the impression cylinder and blanket cylinder when stocks of varying thickness are used. 73

 

Image transfer The image areas accept ink and transfer them to the blanket. The orientation of the image in the plate is readable. When transferred to the blanket it becomes unreadable and in the next revolution, the image is transferred to the paper that travels between the blanket and the impression cylinder. The image is first set off from the plate to the blanket and then set off  from the blanket to the paper. For this reason, lithography is also called offset printing. Since the image and the non-image areas on the plate are both in the same plane, lithography is also called a planographic process.

Types of offset presses There are two ways in which paper can be fed to an offset printing press; either in the sheet form or in the roll form. Presses that feed paper in the cut mode are called sheet fed presses and the presses that feed paper in the roll mode are called web fed presses. Some of the  presses can print on both sides of paper and they are called perfecting presses. Many of  today’s presses have the capability to print many colours as they have been configured with the plate, blanket and impression cylinder configurations many times over. A press that has one of this set is called a single colour press, and presses that have multiple sets of the above mentioned combinations are called multicolour presses. They are usually in the two-, four-, five-, six-, eight-, and now ten-colour configurations. The plate used in lithography usually has a flat surface and is called planographic. There is no physical or mechanical separation  between image and and non-image areas. areas. The pplate late material can be ppaper aper,, plastic, or metal.

Printing unit The printing unit is the section of the press where the print is generated and applied to the substrate. On a single colour lithographic offset press, this is usually done with three cylinders called the plate, blanket, and impression or back cylinders. The plate cylinder has four primary functions: • hold the plate in register  • come into contact with dampening system • come into contact with inking system • transfer inked image to the blanket 74

 

Dampening system The purpose of the dampening system is to apply a very thin layer of water or moisture to the  plate. The water is actually a special mixture of chemicals called fountain solution. The fountain solution keeps the non-image areas of the plate desensitized and printing clean. The separation between printing image area and nonprinting area is accomplished chemically by having: • Image areas repel water and accept ink (hydrophobic) • Non-image areas accept water and repel ink (hydrophilic)

Dampening types • Contact or non-contact - Non-contact (popular on web presses) Brush (Harris) or spray (Smith) • Contact dampening Conventional or continuous -Conventional has a reciprocating ductor roller. The rollers can be fabric covered or bareback. Fabric can be a thick cotton cloth called moelleton or a thin parchment paper sleeve Continuous dampening - Continuous is also called flooding nip - Direct plate-feed - Indirect inker-feed (integrated, Dahlgren) - Some combination of both (bridge)

Perfecting Printing on both sides of a sheet of paper in a single pass through the press is called  perfecting. In office imaging, laser printing, or photocopying, this is called duplexing. Sheetfed presses usually perfect sequentially sequentially.. Webfed presses perfect simultaneously. simultaneously. In order  to perfect on a sheetfed press, the sheet of paper must be flopped or tumbled end-for-end inside the press. The tail or back edge becomes a new gripper or front edge. Any size sheet error essentially becomes doubled when done with a perfecting cylinder cylinder..

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Inking system The purpose of the inking system is to apply an accurately measured or metered amount of  ink to the plate. Each process requires a special type of ink and method to apply it to the image carrier. Some inks are thick like a heavy paste and others are fluid. Some systems continuously bathe or immerse a roller or cylinder while others intermittently supply a limited and metered amount of ink. If the ink is a thick paste, then it can be distributed by a series of soft rubber rollers. If the ink  is a fluid, it would drip off the rollers due to gravity. Fluid inks require miniature wells or  cups to transfer the ink. These wells can be part of the image carrier itself or a special type of  inking roller. The ink film thickness determines the strength or density of a colour. There are two separate controls for overall or global (sweep) and localized increases or decreases in ink  volume (keys). Here are some of the factors involved in ink distribution:

Fountain roller (ball) Fountain blade Ink keys Ductor roller Ink train Oscillating or vibrator rollers Form rollers

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What does offset mean? Offset is the method of transferring an image from the plate to the substrate through an intermediate rubber blanket. When lithography was first invented, it was not an offset  process, but a direct direct process. If desired, all of the printing processes could be “offset.” The blanket cylinder has two  primary functions: • hold the rubber blanket • transfer ink from the plate to the substrate

Waterless offset With this concept, the use of water is eliminated from the process. Image areas are in recess from the non-image areas. The problems that are associated with ink water balance, paper  expansion due to moisture content caused by water in the dampening solution, etc. Are overcome with waterless offset. This concept was developed in the late 1960s by 3M as a dryographic process, but they stopped marketing because of the poor scratch resistance and durability of the plates.

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Plates were developed by Toray Industries of Japan in 1973. Toray made positive working  plates that were more durable, had better scratch resistance, allowed longer print runs, and  produced better quality quality.. By 1978 they marketed positive working waterless plates, and by 1985 they were able to offer negative working plates. Aluminum is the base material for the  plate, and the plate is not anodized like conventional offset plates. Alight-sensitive  photopolymer coating is given to the aluminum base. Over this there is a very thin layer of  silicon, approximately 2 microns. The plate is protected by a cover sheet, which is approximately 7 microns. This cover sheet need not be removed during exposure, and does not cause an appreciable dot gain, or  undercutting during exposure.

Exposure and development The waterless plates are made from either positives or negatives, depending on the plate type used. The plate is exposed to actinic UV light. During the exposure, the bond between silicon and the photopolymer is broken. The silicon loosens its hold on the photopolymer. Thee plat Th platee is deve develo lope pedd by a chem chemic ical al proc proces esss th that at co cons nsis ists ts of ta tapp wate waterr so solu luti tion on fo for  r  lubrication and a glycol-based solution for treatment with a dye solution, which recirculates and is not discharged from the processor. These plates have the ability to hold a dot ranging from 0.5% to 99.5%. The finished plate has the image areas in its photopolymer layer and the no nonn-im imag agee ar area eass in its its si sili lico conn laye layerr. The The natu nature re of si sili lico conn to re repe pell in ink, k, su suit itss it itss ro role le wonderfully in a waterless plate system. The image areas are in a recess and are protected by silicon walls. Since the image areas are protected by this wall, individual halftone dots have less capability to grow, thereby minimizing dot gain on plate. These plates are capable of   producing very high screen frequencies, in the region of 200–300 lpi with negative working and 400–600 lpi with positive working plates.

Waterless press Any offset press that has a dampening system on it can be used for waterless offset printing. Temperature and humidity control in the press room is critical in waterless offset between 80 to 88 degrees F. This is considered the optimum temperature range for inks and ink rollers in a waterless system. Each unit of the press has a different temperature, with black needing the

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hottest, yellow the coolest and cyan and magenta in between. When printing with good stock, we can expect good results. Since the non-image areas of the plate are made of silicon, they tend to get scratched when using poorer quality stock. This is due to the fibers from the paper  scratching the silicon layer. The same problem can be caused by abrasive particles that may  be used to dry ink ink (pumice powde powder). r).

Offset lithography features • Printing from right-reading planographic (flat) plate to blanket and substrate • Basic principle: “ink and water don’t mix” • Principal applications: publications, packaging, forms, general commercial printing, labels,  books, etc. • Recognition characteristics: sharp, clear images W Waterless aterless offset • Silicone surface of non-image area on a plate—recent advances in inks, plates, and presses make this a rapidly growing process • Advantages: no fountain solution; yields cleaner, purer, more consistent colour; improved colour contrast; reduced dot gain; high gloss levels; reduced make ready, and running waste; faster job changeover times • Requires special ink and plates, adapted presses • Waterless-capable presses able to run both waterless and conventional • Strong growth projected for high-end commercial sheetfed and heatset web offset

 Sheetfed offset trends • Press Press auto automatio mationn incre increases ases competi competitive tive adva advantag ntage. e. Most automated automated features features deal with makeready, nonproductive costs, and turnaround time. • Programmable, automatic blanket and roller washing • Semiautomatic and fully automatic plate changing • Presetting systems for fast f ast format changes • Improveme Improvements nts in feed feeder er,, shee sheett trans transfer fer,, and delivery systems increas increasee runni running ng speed speed to 10,000 to 15,000 impressions per hour.

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• Dig Digita itall pre press ss contro controls ls allow allow vir virtua tually lly tot total al pre press ss su super pervis vision ion an andd co contr ntrol ol from from centra centrall workstation • De facto standard for multiple printing units on new sheetfed presses in six colour units with inline coating unit. Placement of presses with seven, eight, or more units is increasing. High Higher er nu numb mber er of prin printi ting ng unit unitss acco accomm mmod odat ates es mo more re co comp mple lexx de desi sign gn an andd co colo lour  ur  applications. • Increased demand for short run lengths. • Sheetfed Sheetfed printing sque squeeze ezedd between between efficien efficientt web offset operation operationss and by digital digital nonimpact printing processes and colour copies.

Web offset trends • Continued development of automated control systems expected for all aspects of web offset  production, from make ready through dry drying, ing, folding, stackin stacking, g, and delivery delivery.. • Press speeds of 2500-3000 feet per minute now possible. • Successfully entering into competition with sheetfed at lower run lengths, and with gravure at higher run lengths. • Waterless offset becoming more widely accepted. • Opposing trends: regionalization of printing (in some part due to increasing postal rates) may keep run lengths, press sizes down; consolidation of printing plants may drive up need for longer runs on higher speed, wide web presses. • Wider webs—54 and more inches wide—becoming more commonplace. • Average run length has dropped by as much as 25% 1990–1994. • Sh Shor ortt ru runn leng length thss (und (under er 20 20,0 ,000 00)) and and extr extrem emel elyy hi high gh ru runn le leng ngth thss (2 (200 mill millio ion) n) ar aree economically feasible, depending on circumstances, with web offset and will be typical by 2000.

 Direct imaging technology Heidelberg came out with “Direct Imaging” which they called the “system solution for  Computer To Press” (a different kind of CTP, essentially Computer to Plate on press). This technology takes the data stream from the computer that acts as its front end and images the  plate directly on the press. The spirit of offset printing is very much alive in presses that incorporate the direct imaging technology technology..

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The plate is mounted on the press, but is quite different from conventional versions. Th Thee plate is in a continuous reel form that is wrapped externally around the plate cylinder. The image is on the surface of the cylinder cylinder.. The plate has two layers, a base layer that is an ink-loving layer  and a top layer, made of silicon, that is an ink repelling layer. The laser when fired on the  plate burns the silicon silicon layer leaving the image-receptive lay layer er intact.

Digital Front End (DFE) The front end of the press is a computer that controls the digital data into the press. A RIP converts the PostScript data into a bitmap and fires the laser onto the plate, which is already mounted on the plate cylinder. The imaging head has 64 infrared laser diodes (16 diodes per  colour x 4 colours) that take the raster data and fire up the plate. The plates can be imaged in either of 1270 or 2540 dpi resolutions. Direct imaging technology uses waterless printing. When the press is in operation, the plate is in contact with the ink rollers that apply ink onto the image areas. The image is transferred to a blanket and then onto the substrate as in offset. The Quick Master-DI uses a common impression cylinder as its internal architecture for the press. This means that this press has only one impression cylinder, instead of one for each colour (cyan, magenta, yellow or   black). The impression cylinder is in the middle and all the four blanket cylinders come in contact with this common impression cylinder. The paper travels between the blanket and the impression cylinder as in a conventiona conventionall offset press.

Direct imaging The laser technology which is built into the direct imaging press from Heidelberg forms the heart of this entire technology. Heidelberg has been a long-time known leader in the printing  press arena. They have been and are a leader in the conventional offset field, but had not made a big dent in the digital work environment. However, However, they have had the insight to bring to our industry the strengths of conventional offset and combine it with the strengths of  digital technology.

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In doing so, they and their partner Presstek, harnessed the combined power of these two technologies and thus was born the technology of “direct imaging.”

Register control The satellite construction of the press ensures that the paper is gripped once preventing transfer from one unit to the other. This feature of the press minimizes the chances for  misregister. Another key issue to minimizing or practically eliminating misregister from the  press is in the basic technology of direct imaging itself. Since the plates are imaged on the  press, there is no reason that they will ever have to be moved horizontally or laterally for  register. This is very important in the economics of running a press. A vast amount of time is spent in a press during the initial make ready of the job. Time being looked looked at as money these days, any saving in time has a direct impact on savings in money. Waterless as a process helps in getting brighter ink reflectance on the paper. The advantages of direct imaging are numerous. Although the press is now available in a slightly smaller sheet size (18-3/8”x13-3/8”), which is a limiting factor factor,, the technology is a sure success. Now a new company called 74 Karat has  been started by Scitex and KBA Planeta and they have aadopted dopted the direct imaging technology technology in their press. Akey development that has been incorporated in 74 Karat is that they have built a press that is much larger that the QuickMaster-DI 46-4. Heidelberg has launched a 74 cm  press, matching matching Karat’ Karat’ss present size. This press will have five- or six-colour printing capability and images at 2540 dpi resolution. With many jobs being printed requiring more than four colours, Heidelberg’s decision to  provide the special colour unit will be welcomed by the industry. industry. This press will have an automa aut omatic tic pla plate te mou mounti nting ng mechan mechanism ism,, wit withh automa automatic tic plate plate washu washup, p, which which wil willl save save considerable time. It is called the Speedmaster 74-DI. Direct imaging is a technology that has to be watched.

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UNIT III LESSON 1 : RECESS PRINTING—GRAVURE Gravur Gra vuree is ano anothe therr dir direc ectt pri printi nting ng pro proce cess, ss, like like let letter terpre press ss wit with, h, ho howev wever er some some ma major  jor  differences. The image is directly transferred from the image carrier, which is usually a cylinder,, onto the substrate. Gravure is called intaglio because the image areas are in a sunken cylinder area and the non-image areas are in relief. This must sound like an exact opposite of the letterpress process. In a way, that is true.

Press construction A gravure press is constructed with two cylinders per unit, a printing cylinder, which carries the image and an impression cylinder like in the offset process, that applies the required  pressure to transfer the ink. Gravure cylinders are usually made of steel. This cylinder has a number of tiny cells in it, around 50,000 to a square inch. The cells are protected by walls that are in relief. The surface of the cylinder is plated with copper to hold the image. The image is transferred photographically to the electroplated copper surface. The non-image areas on the copper are chemically etched or mechanically engraved to form the cells. Each cell varies in its depth, and this enables each cell to transfer varying densities of ink to produce tones. The ink used in gravure is in a liquid form.

Doctor blade The printing cylinder rotates in a trough of liquid ink. During this motion, the inks fill the cells of the cylinder and inks the image areas. However, However, the non-image areas also get inked as they are in relief. This excess ink is wiped clean by a blade called a doctor blade. The doctor blade is  positioned at an angle over the cylinder so that when the cylinder rotates, the excess ink that was picked up by the nonimage areas are wiped clean. In the continuing motion of the cyli cylind nder er,, th thee pape paperr (or (or the the su subs bstr trat ate) e) is fed fed in be betw twee eenn th thee pr prin inti ting ng cy cyli lind nder er an andd th thee impression cylinder. By pressure, the ink in the cells is forced out onto the substrate. Since the printing image is made of copper, which is quite expensive, gravure is usually used for  very long-run jobs which it handles well because the image is placed on the cylinder directly directly,, and on copper, which is a strong metal. Traditionally gravure has been used by markets that

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have a need to produce long run and consistently good quality printing. Packaging and some long run publications therefore employ this printing process. Most gravure presses are web-fed. Some are as large as 16 feet wide. The gravure process is used for specialty products like wall paper and vinyls. Gravure presses can print at incredible speeds like 2500 feet per minute. So one can imagine that unless the job calls for huge numbers to be reproduced, in high quality, gravure as a process cannot be chosen.

Gravure features • Printing from wrong-reading recessed image cylinder direct to substrate • Three major segments: publications, packaging, and specialty product printing • Princ Principal ipal appl applicati ications: ons: packagin packaging, g, long long-run -run maga magazine ziness and newspape newspaperr inserts, inserts, cata catalogs, logs, wallpaper,, postage stamps, plastic laminates, vinyl flooring wallpaper f looring • Recognition characteristics: serrated edge to text letters, solid colour areas • Relatively short make ready times on press; high colour consistency; continuous, repeated image • Cylinders last forever, making repeat runs very economical • Cost of maki making ng cylinder cylinderss remai remains ns high, maki making ng gravure gravure expensive expensive for jobs that are not repeated or not extremely long • Trend is towa toward rd removing removing chemistry chemistry from cylinder cylinder-maki -making ng procedure procedure,, increased increased use of  water-based inks • Breakthroughs anticipated in electron-beam engraving and photopolymer-coated photopolymer-coated cylinders

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Gravuree Printing Gravur Applications: Typical gravure printed products include:

• Food packaging  • Wall paper  • Wrapping paper  • Furniture laminates • Paneling  • Greeting cards • Magazines Process Overview Gravure printing is characteristically used for long run, high quality printing producing a sharp, fine image. The number of gravure printing plants in the U.S. is significantly lower  than other printing processes. This is due, in part, to the cost of presses and components. While a lithographic press will cost in the range of $100,000 the cost of gravure press will be in the range of $1 million. Additionally a single gravure cylinder will cost around $5000 versus around $15 for a lithographic plate. Additionally, the gravure cylinder has a long service life and will yield a very large number of impressions without degradation. The gravure process has its origins in the early seventeenth century when the intaglio printing  process was developed to replace woodcuts in illustrating the best books of the time. In early intaglio printing, illustrations were etched on metal, inked, and pressed on paper. Gravure, still also known as intaglio printing, makes use of the ability of ink to adhere to a slight scratch or depression on a polished metal plate. Currently, the dominant gravure printing process, referred to as rotogravure, employs web  presses equipped equipped with a cylindrical plates (image carrier). A number number of other types of gravure  presses are currently in use. Rotary sheet-fed gravure presses are used when high quality  pictorial impressions are required. They find limited use, primarily in Europe. Intaglio plate  printing presses are are used in certain sspecialty pecialty applications applications such as printin printingg currency and in fine arts printing. Offset gravure presses are used for printing substrates with irregular surfaces or 

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on films and plastics. Today almost all gravure printing is done using engraved copper  cylinders protected from wear by the application of a thin electroplate of chromium. The cylinders (image carrier) used in rotogravure printing can be from three inches in diameter by two inch wide to three feet in diameter by 20 feet wide. Publication presses are from six to eight feet wide while presses used for printing packaging rarely exceed five feet. in width. Product gravure presses show great variation in size, ranging from presses with cylinders two inches wide, designed to print wood grain edge trim, to cylinders 20 feet wide, designed to  print paper towels. The basics of Gravure Gravure printing is a fairly simple process which consists of  a printing cylinder, a rubber covered impression roll, an ink fountain, a doctor blade, and a means of drying the ink. Gravure printing is an example of intaglio printing. It uses a depressed or sunken surface for the image. The image areas consist of honey comb shaped cells or wells that are etched or engraved into a copper cylinder. The unetched areas of the cylinder represent the non-image or unprinted areas. The cylinder rotates in a bath of ink  called the ink pan. As the cylinder turns, the excess ink is wiped off the cylinder by a flexible steel doctor blade. The ink remaining in the recessed cells forms the image by direct transfer to the substrate (paper or other material) as it passes between the plate cylinder and the impression cylinder.

The major unit operations in a gravure printing operation are:

• Image preparation • Cylinder preparation • Printing  • Finishing  Gravure Inks - Solvent Based, Water Based Gravure inks are fluid inks with a very low viscosity that allows them to be drawn into the engraved cells in the cylinder then transferred onto the substrate. In order to dry the ink and drive off the solvents or water, which essentially replaces most of the solvent, the paper is run through Gas fired or electric fired driers. The ink will dry before the paper reaches the next  printing station on the press. This is necessary because wet inks cannot be overprinted without smearing and smudging. Therefore, high volume air dryers are placed after each  printing station.

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The solvent-laden air from the dryers is passed through either a solvent recovery system or  solvent vapor incinerator. A typical recovery system uses beds of activated carbon to absorb the solvent. Saturated beds are regenerated by steam. The solvent laden steam is then condensed and the water and solvent separate by gravity. Greater than 95 percent of the ink  solvents can be recovered using this process (Buonicore). The solvents can either be reused or  destroyed by incineration. Water based inks, especially used for packaging and product gravure, require a higher temperature and longer drier exposure time in order to drive off the water and lower vapor pressure constituents. As mentioned subsequent sections, Flexo and

Grav Gr avur uree in inks ks are very similar and the constituents are essentially the same. Again, a  pollution control device device may be nee needed. ded.

Gravure Press Design and Equipment Web-fed gravure presses account for almost all publication, packaging, and product gravure  printing. These presses are generally custom manufactured machines designed for a specific range of products. The typical press is highly automated and consists of multiple print units. The printing mechanism in a rotogravure press consists of a gravure cylinder and a smaller, rubber clad impression cylinder. Other types of gravure presses in commercial use today are sheet-fed, intaglio plate, and offset gravure. These types of presses are used primarily for  special printing applications.

Web Fed Gravure There are several types of web presses used in gravure printing, including publication  presses, packaging presses, product presses, label presses, and folding carton presses. The  printing process is basically the same regardless of whic whichh press is used used..

Publication Gravure Public Pub licati ation on gra gravur vuree is use usedd primar primarily ily for very very long long press press run runss requir required ed to print print mass mass circulation periodicals, directories, inserts, and catalogs. Publication gravure maintains a competitive edge in the printing of mass-circulation magazines because the process offers high speed, high quality four colour illustrations on less expensive paper, variable cut-off \ lengths, and flexible folding equipment. These presses can have as many as ten printing

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stations stati ons - four for colo colour ur and one for mono monochrom chromee text and illustrati illustration on in each each direction direction so that both sides of the web can be printed in one non-stop operation. They can handle web widths of up to 125 inches and are equipped to print most large format publications in circulation today. Publication gravure presses can also be fitted with cylinders of differing diameters to accommodate varying page sizes. The major types of chemicals used in publication gravure include adhesives, metal plating solutions, inks, and cleaning solvents. In terms of chemicals, publication gravure differs from  packaging and product gravure primarily in its heavy reliance on toluene based ink (GATF (GATF 1992b) 199 2b).. The pub public licati ation on gra gravur vuree ind indust ustry ry has had lit little tle succe success ss wit withh water water-ba -based sed inks inks (Buonicore). The industry has found that in publication gravure where the substrate is always  paper stock, water-base water-basedd inks have not been capable of printing commercially acceptable quality productions runs of 2,000 to 3,000 feet per minute.

Packaging Gravure Packaging rotogravure presses are used for printing folding cartons as well as a variety of  other flexible packaging materials. In addition to printing, packaging gravure presses are equipped to fold, cut, and crease paper boxes in a continuous process. Packages are usually  printed on only one side, so so the number of print stations is usually usually about half that required for   publication gravure presses. However However,, in addition to printing stations for the four basic colours, packaging gravure presses may employ printing stations for the application of  metallic inks and varnishes as well as laminating stations designed to apply foils to the paper  substrate prior to printing. Packaging gravure presses are designed with the accurate cutting and creasing needs of the  packaging material in mind. However, image quality is generally less important in packaging  printing than in most other types of printing and, subsequently subsequently,, receives less emphasis. The chemicals used in packaging gravure are similar to those used in publication gravure. However, the inks used in packaging gravure are largely alcohol- and not toluene-based (GATF 1992b). Water-based inks are being successfully used for lower quality, nonprocess  printing on paper and paperboard packaging and for printing on non-absorbent packaging substrates such as plastics, aluminum, and laminates (Tyszka 1993). Use of water-based inks

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is expected expected to incre increase; ase; howeve however, r, problem problemss still limit their use at press press speeds speeds above 1,000 1,000 feet per minute (Buonicore).

Product Gravure The continuous printing surface found on gravure press cylinders provides the "repeat" required to print the continuous patterns found on textiles and a variety of other products. In the textile industry, a gravure heat transfer process using subliming dyes is used to print images on paper. These images are then transferred from the paper to a fabric (usually  polyester) through a combination of heat and pressure. The gravure process is also used to  print continuous patterns patterns on wallboard, wallboard, wallpaper wallpaper,, floor coverings, and and plastics. The chemicals used in product gravure are similar to those used in both publication and  packaging gravure. However However,, product gravure uses both water- and solvent-based inks (GATF 1992b). The industry has used water-based inks successfully on medium-weight  papers and on nonabsorbent substrates such as plastics, aluminum, and laminates (Tyszka (Tyszka 1993). However, problems such as paper distortion and curl persist with lightweight papers (Buonicore).

Image Preparation Image Ima ge pre prepa parat ration ion begin beginss wit withh ca camer mera-re a-ready ady (me (mecha chanic nical) al) art/co art/copy py or electr electroni onica cally lly  produced art supplied by the customer. Images are captured for printing by camera, scanner, or computer. Components of the image are manually assembled and positioned in a printing flat when a camera is used. This process is called stripping. When art/copy is scanned or  digitally captured, the computer with special software assembles the image. A proof is  prepared to check for position and accuracy accuracy.. When colour is involved, a colour proof is submitted to the customer for approval.

Cylinder Preparation The gravure cylinder is composed of a steel or aluminum base, is copper plated and then  polished to a predetermined predetermined diameter diameter.. Precise diameter of gravu gravure re cylinders in a set is critical. critical. Any variances in diameter, as little as 2 thousandths of an inch can significantly affect the  print registration. These These cylinders are extreme extremely ly sensitive to scratches and abrasions. Extreme care is taken when handling and storing the cylinders.

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Because copper is so soft the image areas quickly wear. Cylinders that are used for press runs of a million impressions or more are chromium plated. Some gravure printers "Double Chrome" cylinders in order to run them even longer. When the chromium begins to wear or  the image is no lit is stripped off and the cylinder is re-chromed. This is much cheaper (and environmentally responsible) than etching a new cylinder. Once the cylinder has degraded or  the image is no longer needed the image can be stripped off and the base cylinder can be reused for other printing jobs unlike other printing processes.

Gravure Cylinder Imaging:

• Chemical Etching  • Electromechanically Engraved  • Direct Digital Engraving. There are three processes used for making gravure cylinders. The first is for conventional gravure using chemical etching that produces cells of the same size or area with varying depths dep ths.. The sec second ond is Ele Electr ctrome omecha chanic nicall allyy en engra graved ved cy cylin linder ders. s. In electr electrome omecha chanic nicall allyy engraved cylinder making, the image or copy is wrapped around a scanning cylinder. The scanning head moves across the scanning cylinder which sends impulses to a computer. The computer signals a pneumatic head, which contains a diamond stylus, when and where to make a cell in the copper cylinder. The diamond stylus cuts an inverted pyramid shaped cell into the copper cylinder. Engraved cells may be up to 200 microns wide and up to 50 microns deep. Chemical etching is hardly used now, but the process involves applying iron chloride so solu luti tion on of vary varyin ingg st stre reng ngth thss over over ca carb rbon on tiss tissue ue th that at ha hass be been en se sens nsit itiz ized ed to li ligh ghtt by submerging it in a bath of potassium bichromate and water. The carbon tissue is a water  sensitive, fibrous paper that has been coated with a smooth gelatin resist. In summary the gelatin resist is made to adhere to the cylinder. The cylinder is then exposed to UV light to harden the gelatin resist and then rinsed with plain water. Finally the etching technician applies the ferric chloride etchant which creates the printing cells on the cylinder. cylinder. Electromechanically engraved cells hold a lot less ink, yet print quality is equal to or better  thann ch tha chemi emical cally ly etc etched hed cylind cylinders ers.. In fact, fact, an Electr Electrome omecha chanic nicall allyy engrav engraved ed ce cell ll holds holds approx app roxima imatel telyy 30% les lesss ink than than a che chemic micall allyy eng engrav raved ed cell. cell. Recen Recently tly direc directt digita digitall engr engrav avin ingg has has beco become me wide widesp spre read ad.. With ith this this pr proc oces esss th thee imag imagee ca cann be cr crea eate tedd an andd manipulated using an image handling computer computer.. Therefore, the steps of creating, copying, and rescanning film, and the loss of quality inherent in these steps, can be avoided (GAA 1991).

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Web Gravure Printing The Doctor Blade and Impression Cylinder The doctor blade is a simple device used to shear the ink from the surface of the plate cylinder. Pressure is applied to the doctor blade to assure uniform contact along the length of  the cylinder. The blades must be angled to cut the surface of the ink, but pressure and angle must be carefully adjusted to prevent premature wear on the cylinder. The doctor blade also oscillates back and forth to prevent a flat surface being worn into the cylinder. The rubber  coated impression roll brings the substrate in contact with the engraved cylinder resulting in  proper ink transfer. transfer. The impression roll also acts to adjust the tension between print units and helps move the substrate through the press. The impression roll is made of a tubular sleeve coated with a rubber compound. The cover material is determined by the press conditions. Typically the coating is made of natural rubber, neoprene, nitrile or polyurethane. These impression rolls are typically purchased from an outside vendor rather than made on site.

Sheet-fed Gravure Applications: Sheet-fed gravure is used when very high quality impressions are required. Uses include the  production of pictorial impressions for art books and posters and short runs of high quality  packaging material such as cosmetics cartons. Sheet-fed gravure presses are also used for  overall coating of products printed by sheet-fed offset to provide high brilliancy to the printed sheet and for the application of metallic inks that cannot be applied by the offset method. Additionally, sheet-fed gravure presses are used to produce proof copies prior to large rotogravure runs (GAA 1991). Intag Int aglio lio pla plate te pri printi nting ng is us used ed to pro produc ducee stamps stamps,, cur curren rency cy,, ba bank nk notes notes,, se secur curiti ities, es, and stationary items such as invitations and business cards. It is also used for fine arts printing. Most intaglio plate presses use gravure printing cylinders. However, a flat gravure plate is used for fine arts printing. Intaglio plate printing presses differ from other gravure presses  primarily in the inking system system which is des designed igned to handle th thick ick pastelike ink (GAA 1991). Another Anoth er type of offset offset grav gravure ure press, the flexo-gra flexo-gravure vure press, is currently currently used for printing clear film over wraps for paper towels and tissues as well as high quality plastic shopping

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 bags. A flexo-gravure press is a flexographic press on which the anilox roller has been replaced by a gravure printing cylinder (GAA 1991).

Process Overview The sheet-fed gravure press differs from the web-fed press primarily in that paper is delivered to the press as pre-cut sheets instead of a continuous web. The printing mechanism in a typical sheet-fed gravure press consists of a gravure cylinder and an impression cylinder of  the same size. The plate itself is a flexible metal sheet wrapped around a carrier cylinder  equipped with a gripper to hold the plate in place during printing. The offset gravure press is a standard gravure unit to which a rubber-covered transfer roller  has been added. The image to be printed is transferred from the gravure printing cylinder to the roller. The transfer roller then prints the image on the substrate. The gravure process has its origins in the early seventeenth century when the intaglio printing process was developed to replace woodcuts in illustrating the best books of the time. In early intaglio printing, illustrations were etched on metal, inked, and pressed on paper. Gravure, still also known as intaglio printing, makes use of the ability of ink to adhere to a slight scratch or depression on a polished metal plate. Currently, the dominant gravure printing process, referred to as rotogravure, employs web  presses equipped equipped with a cylindrical plates (image carrier). A number number of other types of gravure  presses are currently in use. Rotary sheet-fed gravure presses are used when high quality  pictorial impressions are required. They find limited use, primarily in Europe. Intaglio plate  printing presses are are used in certain sspecialty pecialty applications applications such as printin printingg currency and in fine arts printing. Offset gravure presses are used for printing substrates with irregular surfaces or  on films and plastics. Today almost all gravure printing is done using engraved copper  cylinders protected from wear by the application of a thin electroplate of chromium. The cylinders (image carrier) used in rotogravure printing can be from three inches in diameter by two inch wide to three feet in diameter by 20 feet wide. Publication presses are from six to eight feet wide while presses used for printing packaging rarely exceed five feet. in width. Product gravure presses show great variation in size, ranging from presses with cylinders two inches wide, designed to print wood grain edge trim, to cylinders 20 feet wide, designed to  print paper towels. The basics of Gravure Gravure printing is a fairly simple process which consists of 

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a printing cylinder, a rubber covered impression roll, an ink fountain, a doctor blade, and a means of drying the ink. The transfer of the image from the cylinder to the roller is similar to the transfer method used in offset lithography. Offset gravure presses are used to print substrates with irregular  surfaces such as wood veneer or decorated metal (GAA 1991). In some printing processes, both sides of the web can be printed simultaneously. simultaneously. However, in gravure, printing of one side of the web must be completed before the other side can be  printed. In practice, practice, the web is printed on one side, rewound, rewound, flipped over over,, and then printed on on the other side. Some rotogravure presses are designed with a turning station that rotates the web 180 degrees. The web is then run through a parallel paper path with different cylinders that prints the opposite side of the paper. These presses are called double-ended presses.

LESSON 2 : STENCIL PRINTING—SCREEN PRINTING

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This is a process that is used by many artisans for short-run jobs. It is such a less expensive  process that many screen printing units are operated out of garages. But that does not mean that screen printing cannot offer good quality printing. It is a pretty simple process to understand and operate. Basically if you have seen how printing is done from a stencil, then yo youu have have prob probab ably ly se seen en the the proc proces esss of sc scre reen en pr prin inti ting ng.. The The pr proc oces esss is pr pret etty ty much much  photographic in the image creation stage stage and it is mostly m manual anual at the printing sstage. tage. The image that needs to be printed is first captured on a photographic material, a positive usually. A silk screen is stretched tightly by hinging around a wooden frame. The process derives its name from this silk screen, which was used as the image carrier. The positive image is then transferred to the screen and developed. The image that has been transferred to the silk screen is on the porous area of the screen. The non-image areas are blocked out during the stage of image creation itself. The screen is laid over the substrate that is to be printed and ink is poured on the frame over  the screen. The ink is then wiped across the surface of the screen using a device called a squeeze. A squeeze is a wooden device that has a rubber blade. It facilitates the smooth flow of ink over the screen. Since the screen is porous in nature, the ink flows through it. Because the image areas are porous, they allow ink to flow through them. This ink is thus printed onto the substrate beneath.

Printing capability Since the printing surface in the screen printing process is very flexible, it allows printing on three-dimensional objects too. This is something that the printing processes discussed earlier  cannot offer. A substrate that is two-dimensional and flat is all that can be fed into those machines; in the case of screen printing, the printing surface itself can be wound around the substrate. So objects like cups, mugs, watches or other irregular-shaped irregular-shaped products can be done using the screen printing process. Although this description of screen printing may sound quite simple, in actuality there are screen printing presses that are as automated as any other   printing presses. Multi-colour printing presses employing screen printing process with capab capabili ility ty to pri print nt on dif differ ferent ent sub substr strate atess like like pol polyes yester ter,, metal metal,, and pressu pressurere-sen sensit sitive ive materials are today a common scenario. These presses are equipped with online corona (electrostatic) treatment, and can even combine ultraviolet drying in some colour units.

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Screen Printing Applications Screen printing is arguably the most versatile of all printing processes. It can be used to print on a wide variety of substrates, including paper, paperboard, plastics, glass, metals, fabrics, and many other materials. including paper, plastics, glass, metals, nylon and cotton. Some common products from the screen printing industry include posters, labels, decals, signage, and all types of textiles and electronic circuit boards. The advantage of screen printing over  other print processes is that the press can print on substrates of any shape, thickness and size. A significant characteristic of screen printing is that a greater thickness of the ink can be applied to the substrate than is possible with other printing techniques. This allows for some very interesting effects that are not possible using other printing methods. Because of the simplicity of the application process, a wider range of inks and dyes are available for use in screen printing than for use in any other printing process. Utilization of screen printing presses has begun to increase because production rates have improved. This has been a result of the development of the automated and rotary screen  printing press, improved dryers, and U.V U.V.. curable ink. The major chemicals used include screen scre en emuls emulsions, ions, inks, and solv solvents ents,, surfactan surfactants, ts, caus caustics tics and oxidizers oxidizers used in screen screen reclamation. The inks used vary dramatically in their formulations (GA (GATF TF 1992b).

Screen Printing Process Overview Screen printing consists of three elements: the screen which is the image carrier; the squeegee; and ink. The screen printing process uses a porous mesh stretched tightly over a frame made of wood or metal. Proper tension is essential to accurate colour registration. The mesh is made of porous fabric or stainless steel mesh. A stencil is produced on the screen either manually or photo chemically. The stencil defines the image to be printed in other   printing technologies this would be referred to as the image plate. Screen printing ink is applied to the substrate by placing the screen over the material. Ink with a paint-like consistency is placed onto the top of the screen. Ink is then forced through the fine mesh openings using a squeegee that is drawn across the screen, applying pressure thereby forcing the ink through the open areas of the screen. Ink will pass through only in areas where no stencil is applied, thus forming an image on the printing substrate. The diameter of the

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threads and the thread count of the mesh will determine how much ink is deposited onto the substrates. Many factors such as composition, size and form, angle, pressure, and speed of the  blade (squeegee) determine the quality of the impression made by the squeegee. squeegee. At one time most blades were made from rubber which, however, is prone to wear and edge nicks and has a tendency to warp and distort. While blades continue to be made from rubbers such as neoprene, most are now made from polyurethane which can produce as many as 25,000 impressions without significant degradation of the image. If the item was printed on a manual or automatic screen press the printed product will be  placed on a conveyor belt which carries the item into the drying oven or through the UV curing system. Rotary screen presses feed the material through the drying or curing system automatically. Air drying of certain inks, though rare in the industry, is still sometimes utilized. The rate of screen printing production was once dictated by the drying rate of the screen print inks. Do to impro improveme vements nts and innovations innovations the prod productio uctionn rate has greatly greatly increased increased.. Some specific innovations which affected the production rate and have also increased screen press  popularity include: 1. Development of automatic presses versus hand operated presses which have comparatively slow production times 2. Improved drying systems which significantly improves production rate 3. Development and improvement of U.V. curable ink technologies 4. Development of the rotary screen press which allows continuous operation of the press. This is one of the more recent technology developments

Screen Preparation Screen (or image transfer) preparation includes a number of steps. First the customer provides the screen printer with objects, photographs, text, ideas, or concepts of what they wish to have printed. The printer must then transfer a "picture" of the artwork (also called "copy") to  be printed into an "image" (a picture on film) which can then be processed and eventually used to prepare the screen stencil.

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Once the artwork is transferred to a positive image that will be chemically processed onto the screen fabric (applying the emulsion or stencil) and eventually mounted onto a screen frame that is then attached to the printing press and production begins.

Screen Scree n Materials and Preparation Overview Frames There are two types of screen frames, metal and wood. Metal frames, both static (solid) and retention able, have become the industry standard. Retentionables do not require the use of  adhesive products. Metal frames have been replaced by wood because they do not warp from water like wood frames do. The most commonly used types of wood are cedar and pine. Pine is preferred  because it is more water resistant while it is light weight. Metal screens are made out of  aluminium or steel. Aluminium is commonly preferred because it is light weight, yet sturdy. There are some applications where steel is preferred such as very large printing frames used for long printing runs.

Fabric Screen making - there are two types of threads for screen fabric: • Monofilament - single strands weaved into fabric

o o

 primarily used in commercial commercial printing and othe otherr applications Advantage: Monofilament is easier to clean than multifilament

• Multifilament - multiple strands wound together like a rope, then weaved into fabric o o

 primarily used in textile textile printing. Disadvantage:: ink tends to build up on screen, more difficult to clean Disadvantage

Monofilament mesh has become the industry standard

Fabric Types Today commercial screen printing primarily uses 4 types of fabric for making screens, silk, cotton organdie, nylon, and polyester. polyester. Silk was the original material used to make screens for  screen printing. By far the most widely used fabric is monofilament polyester followed by multifilament polyester and nylon. • Silk - multifilament weave loses taughtness with frequent use 

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 

reclaiming chemicals containing bleach or chlorinated solvents destroy the silk  today silk is primarily used for printing art, not commercial use as before

• Cotton Organdie - multifilament weave 

same disadvantages as silk 

• Nylon - multifilament or monofilament    

good for stretching compared to polyester, lacks stability less rigid than polyester  unsuitable for closely registered colours

• Polyester - multifilament or monofilament (calendared monofilament polyester, metallized monofilament polyester)  primary material used in commercial screen printing  Polyester is strong and stable when stretched Other screen materials - carbonized polyester  Glass wire mesh stainless steel Screens made of the same material can differ in thread diameter, number of threads-perinch, 

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and choice of mono- or multifilament fibers. The need for various characteristics such as wear ability and dimensional stability will help determine the fabric selected for a particular  screen printing job. Diameter of mesh thread and number of threads per inch determine the amount of ink transferred to the substrate during the printing process (Buonicore and SPAI 1991).

Screen mesh Screen mesh refers to the number of threads per inch of fabric. The more numerous the threads per inch the finer the screen. Finer mesh will deposit a thinner ink deposit. This is a desirable affect when printing a very fine detail and halftones. Typically a fabric should be 200-260 threads per inch. Water based inks work best on finer mesh. These are generally used in graphic and industrial  printing. Course mesh will deposit a heavier ink deposit. This type of screen is used on flatter, open shapes. Typically Typically a course screen mesh will be 160-180 threads per inch. These are generally used in textile printing. "Emulsion" or "Stencils" The words emulsion and stencil are used interc int erchan hangea geably bly in scr screen een pri printi nting. ng. Applying Applying the em emuls ulsion ion is the ch chemi emical cal proce process ss of  transferring image to a screen. The function of the emulsion (or stencil) is to cover the non printing area of the screen. The stencil process works due to the use of a light sensitive

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material that hardens when exposed to ultraviolet light. The stencil material must be of a material that is impermeable to the screen printing ink. Materials used for stencils include plain paper, shellac or lacquer coated paper, lacquer film,  photographic film, and light-sensitive emulsions. Stencil types available include: hand-cut film, photographic film, direct coating, direct/indirect photo stencil, and wet direct photo stencil. The stencil is composed of either a liquid product that is poured onto the screen mesh or a film product. There are two types of photographic film, pre-sensitized and unsensitized, available for use in the preparation of stencils. Pre-sensitized film is ready to use as  purchased, while while unsensitized film mu must st first be treated with a photosensitization photosensitization so solution. lution. In preparing the stencil, the film is exposed to a positive film image in a vacuum frame. It is then developed in a solution that renders the unexposed image areas soluble in water. The soluble areas are removed and the remaining film is bonded to the screen fabric. There are four stencil application processes, hand cut, direct stencil and indirect stencil (application of a film):

Hand Cut A hand-cut film stencil is made by hand cutting the image areas from a lacquer film sheet on a paper backing. A liquid adhesive is then used to bond the stencil to the screen fabric. Once the adhesive has dried, the film's paper backing sheet is removed.

Direct Stencil In the direct coating process, a light-sensitive emulsion is applied to the entire screen using a scoop coater and allowed to dry. The screen is then exposed to a film positive image. The non-im non -image age are areas as of the emulsi emulsion on harde hardenn upo uponn ex expos posure ure.. Howev However er,, the co coati ating ng in the unexposed image areas remains soluble and is removed with a spray of warm water. Several coats of the light-sensitive material are applied and smoothed to achieve a long wearing screen. Some of the characteristics of direct stencils are: • Most are water soluble • Wear better than indirect stencils • Cheaper to produce than indirect stencils • Two different different types of direct stencil solution o o

Water-resistant stencil solution Solvent-resistant stencil solution

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Within direct stencil processes yellow and orange coloured fabric is used for the screen mesh. The colour prevents light from bouncing when the stencil is exposed to UV. If light bounces or scatters the exposure is uneven.

Indirectt Stencil Indirec The preparation of indirect stencils combines elements of both the photographic film and the direct coating methods. An unsensitized unsensitized photographic film is laminated to the screen and then sensitized by the direct application of a photosensitive emulsion. The exposed stencil is  processed in a manner similar to that used in the preparation of stencils produced by the  photographic film and the direct coating methods. The indirect process produces highly durable stencils that are used in applications where high print quality is required. Indirect Stencil process consists of using a coated acetate film which is cut into the exact shape of the artwork and adhered to the screen using water then is dried by heat. Some of the characteristics of Indirect Stencils are: • Produce excellent definition & finer detail • Best for Water-based ink printing • More difficult to remove from screen mesh, requires high pressure water rinse.

Wet-Direct Photo stencil A recent development in stencil preparation is the wet-direct photo stencil process. T Too prepare a stencil using this process, a film positive is held in direct contact with a wet photopolymer  emulsion. The emulsion hardens when exposed to UV light. The unexposed areas of emulsion are then removed yielding a very durable, high quality screen. Screen Printing Prepress - Screen Making - Emulsion Application • Clean & Degrease Screen Mesh o

 putting tooth on mesh mesh

The screen must first be thoroughly cleaned and degreased prior to applying emulsion (stencil). If not, the film stencil will not properly adhere to the screen resulting in parts of the stencil coming loose during printing and thus spoiling the finished product. The screen is then cleaned with warm water and cleaner/degreaser. Then, a pumice-based abrasive is used. These steps act to remove grease from the surface and roughen it so that the film stencil adheres well. This is called "putting tooth" on the mesh.

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• Apply emulsion/stenc emulsion/stencil il The process of exposing indirect and direct stencils is the same. A light-proof positive is made on a sheet of clear acetate to act as the positive image area of the screen. This is placed over the light-sensitive coating. A timed exposure to UV light is then made. The UV light hardens only the exposed parts of the film coating (negative areas); the areas of emulsion concealed beneath the positive image remain soft. A simple developer is then used to further  harden the exposed parts of the film stencil. On washing the emulsion with warm water, the soft areas of film emulsion start to dissolve, finally disappearing to leave a negative stencil that is the exact opposite of the positive image. When printed, the result will be the exact likeness to the original positive image / artwork.

Emulsion Types • Water resistant emulsions o o o

Solvent based ink  UV curable ink  Water based ink - w/ chemical curing

• Solvent resistant emulsions o o

Water based ink  UV curable ink 

Water resistant emulsions are used in Direct Stencil processes and capillary film processes. Stencil or emulsion which is water-soluble is incompatible with water based ink. Solvent based and UV curable inks can be used with water-resistant emulsions Chemical curing of  water-resistant emulsions using a HCl based solution can improve resistance to water and therefore can be used with water based inks. Screens made with water resistant emulsions are more difficult to reclaim/remove the stencil than solventresistant, but are very inexpensive. It also adds an extra step and use of additional chemicals. Solvent resistant emulsions cam be used along with water based inks. Although solvent re resi sist stan antt em emul ulsi sion onss are are most most comp compat atib ible le with with wa wate terr ba base sedd in inkk sy syst stem ems, s, th thee us usee of  solventresistant emulsions and water based inks cause the emulsion to quickly erode and create pin-holes. In order to avoid this problem screen printers can opt for water resistant emulsions with chemical curing.

There are no VOC or HAP emissions from screen emulsion products or the process of  applying the emulsion to the screen.

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Screen Printing Presses There are three types of screen printing presses. The flat-bed (probably the most widely used), cylinder, and rotary.

Flat-bed and Cylinder Presses Flat-bed and cylinder presses are similar in that both use a flat screen and a three step reciprocating process to perform the printing operation. The screen is first moved into  position over the substrate, the squeegee is then pressed against the mesh and drawn over the image area, and then the screen is lifted away from the substrate to complete the process. With a flat-bed press the substrate to be printed is positioned on a horizontal print bed that is  parallel to the screen. With a cylinder press the substrate is mounted on a cylinder (Field and Buonicore).

Rotary Screen Presses Rotary screen presses are designed for continuous, high speed web printing. The screens used on rotary screen presses are seamless thin metal cylinders. The open-ended cylinders are capped at both ends and fitted into blocks at the side of the press. During printing, ink is  pumped into one end of the cylinder so that a fresh supply is constantly maintained. The squeegee is a free floating steel bar inside the cylinder and squeegee pressure is maintained and adjusted by magnets mounted under the press bed. Rotary screen presses are most often used for printi printing ng textiles, textiles, wallpaper wallpaper,, and othe otherr produ products cts requiring requiring unbroken unbroken continuo continuous us  patterns. Until relatively recently all screen printing presses were manually operated. Now, Now, however, most commercial and industrial screen printing is done on single and multicolour  automated presses.

Screen Scree n Reclamation (post-press) Why reclaim screens? Polyester fabric costs $10-40 per square yard. Failure to reclaim screens and ruined screens cost on average $5,000-$10,000 per year. year. The average monthly fabric cost $360. One study showed chemical reclamation cost between 2 and 10 dollars per average screen, while screen disposal cost just shy of 50 dollars. The  process of reclaiming screens generates solvent waste and waste water. water. Solvent waste generated from screen cleaning and waste water is generated through the process of emulsion

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removal. The waste water will contain particulates comprised of ink pigment, emulsion and emulsion remover (periodate). Reclaiming screens involves 2 to 3 steps.

1. Remove the ink: Any and all excess ink in the screen should be "carded off" for reuse on another job. The screen must then be washed to remove any remaining ink because the ink will interfere with the process of removing the stencil. Screen cleaning solvents are a source of VOC emissions.

2. Emulsion removal: The stencil or emulsion is removed by spraying the screen with a solution of water and emulsion remover chemicals which is comprised mainly of sodium metaperiodate. Then rinsing the solution away with fresh water. The emulsion remover solution should not be  permitted to dry on the surface of the screen. The emulsion and remover will become virtually impossible to remove if allowed to dry. Repeated rinsing will result in excess waste water that must be disposed of as a regulated waste and will not significantly improve the situation.

3. Haze or ghost image removal: Finally, if any haze or "ghost image" remains, a haze remover must be applied. Some haze remover products are caustic and can damage or weaken the screen. Haze removers make screens brittle and tear easily, therefore only small amounts should be used. Ghost image is a shadow of the original image that remains on the screen caused by ink or stencil caught in the threads of the screen.

Screen Printing Inks Screen printing inks are moderately viscous inks which exhibit different properties when compared to other printing inks such as offset, gravure and flexographic inks though they have similar basic compositions (pigments, solvent carrier, toners, and emulsifiers). There are five different types of screen ink to include solvent, water, and solvent plastisol, water   plastisol, and UV curable.

UV Curable UV curable inks consist of liquid prepolymers, monomers, and initiators which upon being exposed to large doses of U.V. Radiation instantly polymerize the vehicle to a dry, tough

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thermosetting resin. They also require less energy, overall, to dry or "cure" compared to gas or electric driers. The down side of UV inks is they can cost as much as three times that of regular inks and must be handled differently than conventional inks due to safety issues. Additionally, Additionally, solvents are required for clean-up which results in some VOC emissions.

Plastisol Inks Plastisol inks (both solvent and water based) are used in textile screen printing.

Solvent Inks & Water Inks Solvent and water based screen printing inks are formulated with primarily solvent or water. The solvent evaporates and results in VOC emissions. Water based inks, though they contain significantly less, may still emit VOC’s from small amounts of solvent and other additives  blended into the ink. ink. The liquid w waste aste material may aalso lso be conside considered red hazardous waste. waste.

 Screen printing features • Printing by forcing ink through a stenciled screen mesh image directly onto substrate • Principal applications: can print on any substrate; point-of- purchase displays, billboards, decals, fabric, electronic circuit boards, glasses, etc. • Ink formulation, screen mesh count, and image type are major quality factors • Recognition characteristics: heavy, heavy, durable, brilliant layer of ink 

Other printing processes The above-mentioned four printing process were considered the major printing processes for  a long time. This was due to the fact that other forms of outputting ink on paper did not really have the ability to compare with the quality that these processes could produce. Moreover, the ability of other processes to produce colour was very limited. Over time other processes evolved to cater to specific market needs, and with their ability to reproduce colour, they were extended to serve specific printing markets. They are all used mostly as proofing devices and without an exception they are all digital devices. One of the  prime differences between the already discussed processes and the following is in the image carrier. In the traditional printing processes, the image is on a surface that produces multiple reproductions as replica to the one on the printing surface. The digital printing devices have the ability to vary the image every time they need to print. Let us take a look at some of the

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otherr tech othe technolog nologies ies that could put ink on paper. paper. For the present, we will call thes thesee digital   printing processes: processes: • dot matrix ( including limited colour) • electrostatic (including colour) • laser printing (including colour) • dye diffusion • thermal printing  –thermal wax transfer  • inkjet  –bubble jet printers • other recorders

Dot matrix These were the early forms of outputting a document from a personal computer computer.. Used largely in the office environment, they did (and do) a pretty good job. The printers have a series of  hammers in the  print head. A colour colour ribbon, usually black, is placed in front of the head. On instruction from fr om the computer to print, the hammer whacks the ribbon against the paper placed behind it. The ink from the ribbon is thus transferred to the paper. The character or images are constructed  by a formation of small dots. The quality of the output is quite poor, and the noise that is generated by the printer is quite disturbing. Types do not look sharp and the problems are worse when printing one colour over another. The quality of image transfer deteriorates with aging of the ribbon and/or the hammer hammer..

Electrostatic A laser beam creates a selective charge on a selenium drum when exposed to laser light. The charge takes place in the image areas. The equivalent of ink is a toner particle. This toner   particle gets attracted to the charge in the drum. When the substrate is fed into the machine, the toner particles transfer from the drum onto the substrate. A lot of document copying and  printing work is done this way way,, and is also called photocopying, because multiple copies of a document are created by the use of light. Colour electrostatic printers adopt the same  principle to reproduce colour and, depending on the equipment, the paper may pass through the machine four times, in a single writing station, or once in a multiple-pass station. These  printers can print good line work, as they have a high addressability. addressability. Some of these printers  print 600 dpi.

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Laser printing This is electrophotographic imaging as in copying machines, with the printing machines driven by computers. When the document is sent for output, a laser beam charges the printing drum by applying a static charge to the photoreceptive drum. The areas that received the char charge ge tend tend to attr attrac actt tone tonerr part partic icle les, s, and and the the im imag agee is tr tran ansf sfer erre redd to su subs bstr trat ate. e. For  For   permanency,, the toner-base  permanency toner-basedd image is heate heatedd and fused with the substrate.

The early models of laser printers which produced good quality copies had one drawback. The speeds were not very attractive for high volume requirements. Now high-speed printers are available like the Xerox Docutech 135 and 180, as well as Docucolour 40 and 70/100 which can be used for production work. They all use the laser process principle. Though claimed to be high-speed printers, they do not compare with traditional printing process speeds. Nonetheless, Nonetheless, they are quite popular in the short-run, and on-demand printing markets.

Thermal printing

If you have seen the way something gets printed from a fax machine, then you have pretty much understood this process. A specially specially made paper that is coated with a dye is used in this

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 process. When the paper is heated it turns black. So, during the imaging process, the image areas are heated and the spots on the paper turn black, giving us the reading matter printed. This is also a popular method employed for generating labels and barcodes. Because the  process involves an induced induced change in the state of the substrate substrate (paper), the process is limited to printing only in single colour.

Dye diffusion printers Originally this process was created for printing on fabrics. It uses a colour donor ribbon that transfers the dye to the substrate by the use of heat. The temperature is usually very high, in the region of 400 degrees C. By varying the temperature on the print heads, varying intensities of colour can be printed. This can produce a feel of continuous tone printing. This  process has a good potential, as the inks used in dye diffusion printing have a colour gamut greater than that of photography. However the flip side to this technology is that it is expensive, slower, slower, and requires special substrates to print on.

Thermal wax printing This process is somewhat similar to that of a dye diffusion printer, using wax as the medium of “ink transfer.” A metal drum is divided into a grid that addresses a pixel to a spot on the grid. Every spot on the grid is assigned a colour value. The pixels in the grid heat up and melt the wax in the ribbon, which is transferred to paper. These waxes are transparent, which makes it advantageous for these prints to be used as overhead slides for projection. Some of  these types of printers have a three- or four-colour ribbon to print from. They both produce

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colour prints, but the one with four-colour ribbons has more visual appeal than the tri-colour  ribbon printer.

Inkjet printing This process works by spitting small droplets of ink on the surface ofvthe paper. The amount of ink that is to be spewed on the substrate is controlled by a computer. There are three kinds of ink jet printing: • continuous inkjet printing • drop-on-demand inkjet printing • phase-change inkjet printing

Continuous inkjet printing “spits” liquid ink in a continuous fashion, and the pressure of the spurting of the ink is controlled by a vibrating device and the ink is spurted from an orifice which also determines the size of the droplet that will ultimately land on paper. All of the ink  is fired from a single nozzle. This produces print which makes good line work and solid colours, which is acceptable for some low-end applications of the market. When it comes to  printing fine images and multi-colour printing, the drawback in the process stems from the single nozzle rather than an array or group of them. And that is what happens in continuous

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array ink jet. Every droplet’ droplet’ss size is controlled by a single nozzle. Because of multiple arrays, speeds can be increased, and this gives better productivity. An array of continuous ink jet  printing nozzles can also be attached to t o high speed printing presses for specialized printing like barcoding or personalization.

Drop-on-demand Drop-on-dem and inkjet printing The ink is forced out of the orifices onto the substrate only where it is required. This is done  by one of several methods. The inks used in this process are water-based. water-based. When heated, the water in the ink vaporizes and forms a gas bubble. This causes a droplet of ink to be pushed out of the orifice in the chamber, which will have to be replenished. The replenished ink then goes through the same process till it is pushed out. Because of this alternating method of  throwing out the ink and then replenishing the chamber, the process slows.

Another drop-on-demand ink jet printing method uses a piezoelectric plate. This plate carries the ink, and on an electrical current being passed, the size of the plate is deformed. The deformation of the plate reduces the volume of the ink in the plate and causes it to spill a drop. The drop of ink lands and dries on the substrate. This kind of inkjet printing is commonly used for large billboards and posters. The quality is acceptable.

Phase-change inkjet printing The process derives its name because the ink changes its state from solid to liquid to solid  before it actually lands on paper paper.. These printers use a waxy kind of an ink in the ink ch chamber amber.. This wax is heated and the ink changes to a molten state in a reservoir. When the print head receives an electrical signal, the volume of the reservoir reduces, causing the molten ink to be ejected. The reservoir is filled when there is no charge. Based on the signal received from the computer,, the print head either turns on or turns off the electrical signal. computer Thus, the ink ejection from the reservoir is controlled. Since the ink is wax-based, it gels well with the substrate and does not penetrate the substrate. Up to 600 dpi can be addressed by this  process, and it produces sharp and saturated images. As the ink settles on tthe he surface of the

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substrate, its thickness can be felt; this also adds to the feel of the image printed on it. However,, if handled, the print is subject to abrasion and can get damaged. However

Bubble-jet printers Bubble-jet printers are relatively low cost devices that produce colour prints on plain paper. Low cost per page and low cost of the printer are the primary attraction of these printers. They are also limited in reproduction size, in that many bubble jet printers can print only up to a letter size (8.5"x11"). Th They ey can be used for applications like inhouse work, or for reports,  but certainly cannot cannot be used for contract contract proofs.

Slide or film recorders Film recorders produce slides, in colour and monochrome, as negatives or positives. When only one slide is needed, it can be easily produced with your camera. However, when a number of slides need to be duplicated, the need to maintain consistency and standards  become critical. The basic image is created digitally in a computer and is imaged on a  photographic medium for as many times as the number of copies needed. The recorders function like a camera though they do not capture light the way a camera does. Instead of  aiming at the scene to be captured, the recorder aims at a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). A lightsensitive emulsion is exposed from the beams of the CRT and this emulsion is sent for   processing, the same way a conventiona conventionall photographic film is processed. A recorder that has come in to cater to the high end of the market is Light Valve Technology (LVT). The film that is to be imaged is wrapped around a cylinder as in a scanner scanner.. The drum spins at a high speed, and the film is imaged by narrow beams of light through electronic light valves that modulate the amount of light that should image the film.

 Ink  Every printing ink is formulated from three basic components: • colorant (pigment or dye) • vehicle • additives Pigments or dyes give inks their colour and make them visible on the substrate. Without  pigments, printing could occur occur,, but it would be pointless since the image would be almost invisible. Vehicles carry the pigment through the press and onto the substrate. Without the

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vehicle, there is no printing, period. Additives include silicone, wetting agents, waxes, driers and other materials used to enhance performance characteristics such as drying speed, colour  development, slip and mar resistance. Of the three, vehicle formulation is most critical to an ink’s performance on the press. Colorants are the visible portion of the ink. They may be dyes, but more often are pigments. They may be in powder form (dry toner), in a concentrated paste dispersion known as a flush, or in a liquid dispersion. Red, blue, yellow, and black are the most frequently used colours in  printing and together create purple, green, orange and other colours during the printing  process. Other colours are used, but in much smaller quantities. The red, yellow, yellow, and blue colorants are almost exclusively synthetic organic pigments. The black used in printing ink is carbon black—a soot generated through burning natural gas or oil. While not as visible as colorants, vehicles are just as important to the ink. Made up of oils (petroleum or vegetable), solvents, water, or a combination of these, they carry the colorant through the printing press and attach it to the paper or substrate. Most vehicles contain resins which serve to bind the colorant to the printing surface. The vehicle is the portion of the ink  most responsible for tack, drying properties and gloss. Additives can include waxes, driers and other materials which add specific characteristics to an ink or to the dried ink film, such as slip and resistance to scuffing and chemicals.

Vehicles are complex blends of natural and synthetic solvents, oils, and resins, and are manufactured with strict attention to cycle times, heating and cooling. They can account for  up to 75 % of an ink’s content. Ink formulators can choose from hundreds of materials, alone or in combination, to create an infini inf inite te varie variety ty of veh vehicl icles es,, ea each ch wit withh dis distin tinct ct pro prope pertie rtiess suited suited to differ different ent printi printing ng applications. The vehicle is responsible for an ink’s body and viscosity, or flow properties. It is also the primary factor in transfer, tack, adhesion, lay, drying and gloss. More than any other element in a formulation, the vehicle determines how well an ink does its job. An ink’s vehicle determines its rheology, or flow characteristics— whether it is liquid or   paste, long bodied or short. This has a direct impact on the ink’s ink’s movement from the ink 

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fountain through the roller train, and its transfer from roller to plate, plate to blanket and  blanket to substrate. The faster the press, the more critical these transfer properties become. As speeds increase, ink misting tends to increase as well. Increased shear and heat build-up on faster presses have the potential to cause an ink to break down, leading to dot gain, toning and other print quality problems. Printe Pri nters rs des desiri iring ng to use lig lighte hterr wei weight ght,, uncoat uncoated ed or recycl recycled ed sto stocks cks for ec econo onomic mic or  environmental reasons complain that the softer surface of these stocks makes them prone to water absorption, dot gain and picking. Using an ink with inappropriate tack and transfer   properties because because of an inappropriate inappropriate vehicle compounds compounds the problem. problem. Ink formulations differ depending upon printing process and application. Printing presses used in the various processes require different flow characteristics or rheology for the ink to travel in an optimal fashion through the press to the substrate. Letterpress and offset lithographic inks are fairly thick or “viscous.” On press, they move through a series of rollers called the ink train where the action of the rollers spreads the ink into a thin film for transfer  to the blanket and or plate and onto the substrate. Flexographic and gravure printing inks are more fluid, so that they flow easily into and out of the engraved cells on anilox rollers (flexo) and print cylinders (gravure).

All inks are made up of pigments, resin vehicles, solvents, and other additives, but the most important properties are colour, colour strength, body, length, tack, and drying. Colour is determined by pigments, which are finely divided solids. Important characteristics of pigment includ inc ludee spe specif cific ic gra gravit vityy, par partic ticle le siz size, e, opa opacit cityy, ch chemi emical cal resist resistanc ance, e, wettab wettabilit ilityy, an andd  permanence.. Body refers to the consistency and stiffness or softness of inks. Inks can range  permanence from stiff ink like that used for lithography to very liquid ink like that used in flexography. The term that is associated with this is viscosity viscosity.. Viscosity is the resistance to flow, so that a high viscosity ink would not flow. Length is associated with the ability of an ink to flow and form filaments. Ink length ranges from long to short. Long inks flow well and form long filaments and are not ideal since they tend to mist or fly. Short inks do not flow well, and tend to pile on rollers, plates, and blankets. Ideal

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inks are somewhere in the middle of the two types. Tack refers to the stickiness of the ink, or  the force required to split ink film between two surfaces. Tack determines whether or not the ink will pick the paper surface, trap properly properly,, or will print sharp. If the tack is higher than the surface strength of the paper, the paper may pick, split, or  tear. When putting down more than one ink on a page, the ink that has the higher tack should  be put down first. Tack can be measured using either aninkometer or tackoscope. tackoscope. The final  property is drying, but the ink must first set before it actually dries. Some newer drying systems include ultraviolet and electron beam radiation.

Ink drying Ink drying is a very important function when considering what to use. Inks can dry by absorption, oxidation/polymerization, evaporation, solidification, and precipitation. During the process of absorption the vehicle drains into the sheet, leaving the pigment trapped by the fibers in the surface of the paper. There is really no true drying, which is why newsprint comes off on the reader’s hands. When ink is dried using oxygen, it attacks the carbon atoms. This is called oxidation. The oxygen break down the double bonds of the atoms found in the drying oils, which causes the ink to dry. Sometimes the solvent is evaporated using heated rollers or dryers that cause the inks to dry, and is called evaporation. If the ink then needs to be chilled after going through a set of heat rollers the process of drying is called solidification. Finally, Finally, precipitation depends on the actual precipitation of resin from the ink vehicle by addition of moisture. This method is incompatible with the dampening solution on an offset press.

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There are a wide variety of inks used for different purposes. Radiation inks have been developed to eliminate spray powder in sheet-fed presses. There are two types of radiation inks • UV curing • electron beam UV curing inks dry when exposed to large doses of UV light. These inks are expensive  because of the costly active ingredients. Electron beam curing inks are a good alternative to UV inks. The main cost is the high capital cost of getting the equipment to run these inks. Heat set inks are quick drying inks used mostly for web presses. The solvents in the ink  disappear after a drier heats them. Once the solvents are gone, the pigments and binding resins are fixed to the paper so the ink does not spread. Another type of ink is high gloss ink. These inks contain extra varnish, which give them a glossy appearance. There are still many problems with printing inks although they have been around for  centuries. The most common problems in the pressroom include:

• hickeys • picking • piling • tinting • scumming • ghosting

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Hickeys are caused by dirt. Ink cans should be closed to prevent debris from getting in the ink. Picking transfers debris from the paper back through the ink and onto the paper again. Piling happens when the ink fails to transfer from the blanket to the paper. Tinting is caused  by the emulsification of ink in the dampening solution and results from poorly formulated ink. A common remedy is changing inks, though adding a binding varnish may help. Scumming oc occu curs rs wh when en th thee no nonn-im imag agee area area ta take kess up ink ink in inst stea eadd of re rema main inin ingg cl clea ean. n. Ghos Ghostin tingg (mechanical) occurs when there is uneven ink take-off from the form rollers.

The substrate used for each printing application and its end use further dictate the raw materials chosen to formulate an ink. Nonporous substrates such as plastic films and glass cannot absorb ink vehicles and require inks which dry either through evaporation or by  polymerization (UV or EB). Often solvent-based, solvent-based, these inks are frequently formulated for  additional performance characteristics. Inks used on soap wrappers, for example, must be alkali resistant; inks on liquor labels must be alcohol resistant; inks on food containers that will be heated in ovens or microwaves must resist high cooking temperatures.  Newspaper inks are formulated formulated to dry by absorption; that is, the ink oils are absorbed into the newsprint. This process leaves the colorant sitting on the surface, and without the binding  properties of resins or drying oils, it tends to rub off. For magazines, catalogs and brochures, the demand is for high quality paper, glossy printing with vivid colors that do not rub off 

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readily. Here the printed ink is often subjected to heat to assist in drying. These properties dictate a different and more costly set of raw materials. Many printers have made the switch from alcohol to alcohol substitutes in their fountain solutions for environmental and health reasons. If they did not communicate the change to their ink suppliers so that an adjustment in ink could be made, they may have been surprised to find a deterioration in print quality—increased quality—increased scumming, tinting and toning. Using soph sophistic isticated ated labor laboratory atory instr instrumen uments—rh ts—rheome eometers, ters, visco viscomete meters, rs, inkom inkometers eters,, and surface surfa ce tens tensiomet iometers—i ers—ink nk formu formulator latorss can test vehi vehicles cles to closely closely predict predict performan performance ce characteristics. The final test of any ink, however, will always be on the press, when the full combination of variables (ink, press speed, substrate, plate chemistry, fountain solution and even the ambient temperature and humidity of the press room) come into play. Close cooper coo perati ation on and contin continuou uouss com commun munica icatio tionn with with ink su suppl pplier ierss will will minimi minimize ze potent potential ial  problems and ensure ensure that the vehicle in the ink you are using is the the right one to get you whe where re you want to go.

Inkjet ink  Inkjet printers fall into the larger class of non-impact printers. There are many techniques for   printing without use of plates and pressure. These non-impact printers are used largely for  computer printout and copying requirements and also include electrostatic printers, laser   printers, thermal, and others. Inkjet printers are among the most important of non-impact  printers. The are used to produce or reproduce variable information on a wide variety of  substrates, paper, gloss, and metal, and textiles. For the last thirty years, inkjet has been  predicted to be the next major printing tec technology hnology..

Inkjet printers are used for many applications including mass mailings as well as home usage. Ink jet printing uses jets of ink droplets driven by digital signals to print the same or variable information inform ation direct directly ly onto paper withou withoutt an imaging system system.. The ink is sent out of the print head either by a pumping action, by a piezo electric crystal, or by vapor pressure. In the continuous process, electronic deflectors position the drops, while drop-on-demand places the ink only when needed. The bubble-jet printer you may own at home just drools the ink onto the paper. Once the ink is dropped onto the paper, the ink sets through absorption, spreading,

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and evaporative drying. Inkjet currently is the key contender for low-speed, low-cost desktop full colour. The main categories of inkjet systems are listed in the following chart:

Inkjet inks are made of water-soluble dyes, polyethylene glycol, diethylene glycol, N-methyl  pyrrolidone, biocide, buffering buffering agent, polyvinyl alcohol, tri-ethanolamine, tri-ethanolamine, and distilled water water.. Since the dye must be water-soluble, this leads to poor water fastness on paper. HewlettPackard changed their ink formula in their HP DeskJet for a large improvement in water  fastness. A problem is that of wicking, which is ink spreading away from the dots along the fibers of the paper. One way to reduce this problem is to change to hot melt/phase change inks.

Hot melt/phase-change inks are used in drop-on-demand desktop printers, but are aimed at high-quality full-colour printing on a range of substrates. The phase change refers to the fact that the ink dye or pigment is contained in a binder that is solid at room temperature. This principle requires a low viscosity ink. The inks are jetted as a hot liquid but cool almost instantly upon hitting the surface. Inkjet technology is really not one technology technology,, but two. The first is continuous as mentioned before. This method produces small characters at high speeds (up to 2000 characters/second). This method allows the printer to apply variable data to a job. The basic idea of this method is called oxillography. Using oxillography, ink is pressurized through a small nozzle, about the diameter of a human hair, and pulsed to form a uniform stream of regularly sized and spaced drops. These drops pass an electrode, which can induce an electrostatic charge on any droplet. Only drops that are used for character formation are charged. As the drops continue, they pass through an electrostatic field induced by two

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deflector plates. These plates deflect the path of the droplets by an angle proportional to the charge. By changing this degree of applied charge (changing the degree of deflection), characters can be formed on a moving substrate.

Uncharged drops are deflected back and collected to be used again. There are some problems Uncharged that are associated with this method of inkjetting. These problems are as follows: • The need for sophisticate sophisticatedd equipmen equipmentt for dry cond condition itionss to avoid loss of ink solven solventt in nozzle. • Stationary items cannot be printed. • The print is not solid and looks a lot like a bad dot matrix. The second technology is drop-on-demand. This technology produces images using water based inks for on-line printing of bags, boxes, and other items used for distribution. The drops are not deflected from one head, but from multiple heads, otherwise known as a raster. The firing of the ink is computer controlled to form the character. Drop-on-demand is slower  than continuous jet, and the water-based inks require an absorbent substrate. There are limitations on this method of inkjetting • coarse printing • slow speeds • only print on absorbent substrates Rapid development is taking place in the area of continuous jet printers. These printers will  be able to do quality multi-coloured graphics, although at low speeds. More developments also seem to be taking place in continuous multiple inkjet systems. This system prints with 100 nozzles. In this system it is the uncharged droplets that are placed onto the paper, not the charged droplets. This should increase  print accuracy, accuracy, as there is no deflection between particles. Drop-ondemand developmen developments ts are focusing in on smaller dot sizes in order to achieve smaller characters that in the traditional method. In order to do this, the number of heads is increased, though it prints at slower  speeds. The latest technology includes the touch dry ink jet which uses 32 jets to apply thermo the rmopla plasti sticc ink ink,, which which elimin eliminate atess pro proble blems ms associ associate atedd with with solven solvent-ba t-based sed ink inks. s. The medium is held in the reservoir in the form of dry pellets, which are heated just before  printing.

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Inkjet has many benefits as well as problems. Benefits include low price for equipment, high  print quality quality,, use of plain paper paper,, and lowcost consumables. Problems include that of having water-based inks which are too volatile and dry in the nozzle and dry slowly. slowly. In the future we can look forward to high resolution at a low cost, reliability, fast drying black ink, speed, and  possible continuous continuous tone colour colour..

Inkjet printers transfer colour to a page by squirting ink onto the paper. paper. The different methods of applying the ink are known as liquid and solid inkjet. Both of these methods apply ink only where it is needed; this results in a variable cost per page. Liquid inkjet uses liquid ink that drys on the paper through evaporation. Liquid inkjet consists of two techniques known as  pulsed inkjet and thermal inkjet. Pulsed inkjet uses hydraulic pressure to control the ink sent to the print heads and then to the paper. Thermal inkjet uses a heating element normally located in the ink nozzle that causes the ink to form bubbles. Once the bubbles become large enough, they are forced from the nozzle onto the paper. The problems with this technology are non-uniform spot shape and colour density that is lost when ink is absorbed into the  paper.. Another  paper Another shortcoming is that the ink remains water soluble and and will smear if exposed to moisture. Solid inkjet uses ink that is solid and must be melted before it is sprayed onto the paper. This ink solidifies quickly when exposed to room temperature and results in a better dot than liquid inkjet. The ink is dropped on the page using a print head which contains nozzles of 

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each colour. The ink hardens as soon as it makes contact with the paper. Once the page has  been completely covered, a cold roller applies pressure to flatten the ink and strengthen its  bond to the paper paper.. Inkjet has has two major subcategories: drop-on-demand [DOD] and continuous, further  defined by the size of the finished product. Dropon- demand ink jet heads have an array of  tiny jets (240, 300, 600 per inch, depending on resolution) that each emit a single droplet of  ink at an extremely high rate. Pressure difference caused by reducing the volume of ink in a reservoir causes this phenomenon. There can be multiple heads for printing process colours; however print speed is relatively slow (under ten ppm) because of the difficulty controlling each droplet and amount of time needed for the ink to dry. A variation in the drop-on-demand technology is bubble-jet, where the ink is actually boiled and the resulting drop fired at the substrate. Still another variation is solid inkjet. Ink is contained in solid sticks which melt when heated. The resulting liquid is fired in the same way as the water based ink products, but instead of absorbing into the substrate, the ink  resolidifies on contact. The printed piece is often three dimensional. This process works on almost any substrate. With continuous ink jet, ink is fed as a continuous stream. The stream is separated into droplets which are then electrostatically charged and deflected by magnetic fields to control the placement on the substrate. Unused ink is recycled.

Toner  Electr Ele ctrost ostati atic, c, ele electr ctroph ophoto otogra graphi phic, c, and xerogr xerograp aphic hic printe printers rs all use ele electr ctrica icall ch char arges ges transferred to a nonconducting surface that either attract or repel the toner. There are several types of electrostatic processes: direct electrostatic, colour xerography, and ElectroInk. The imaging material is a thermoplastic material (containing lampblack) that is used to create an image. The first toners were used in 1938 when Chester Carlson and Otto Kornei performed their experiments with electrophotography using a powder to transform printed images to a  paper sheet. These experime experiments nts were conduc conducted ted from 1944 until 1948. 1948.

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In 1950, Xerox released the product of these experiments, the first xerographic reproduction equipment. Since the introduction of the equipment, toner has become one of the most widely used reproduction vehicles. There are three major groups of toners:

• dual component  • mono component  • liquid  Dual-component is the most common type of toner used today. It is made up of two distinctive parts—toner and carrier beads. There are three major ways of developing dual component toners, the most common of these being cascade development. It is based on triboelectrification, which is the process of exciting toner particles by causing an electrical charge (static) through the use of friction. The triboelectrification process causes excited  particles to cling to read carriers. Toner is 3–30 μm in size, depending on the desired resolution of the printed image. The higher the resolution is, the smaller the toner particles needed. Dual-component toner is used in over 90% of the current xerographic copiers and digital printers. Printers such as Xeikon and the Xerox Docutech use dual-component toners for the development of their images. Colour xerography uses a pre-charged drum or belt that conducts a charge only when exposed to light. The scanning laser is used to discharge this belt or drum which creates an invisible image. Toner Toner containing small iron particles is magnetically attracted to the appropriate areas of the image and repelled from others. This image is then transferred to a roller r oller which collects all four colours. The image is then electrostatically transferred to plain paper where it is fused  by heat and pressure. pressure. The mono component toners differ from dual-component toners in that they do not require the use of carrier beads for development. There are several ways to charge mono component toners, induction, contacting, corona charging, ion beam, and traveling electric fields. The easiest and most commonly used of these is induction charging. Through induction charging, a conducting particle sitting on a negative surface becomes negatively charged. Because the opposite charges repel each other, the negatively charged particle is repelled by the negative  plate and drawn to the positive plate. Through this process, particles lose their negative

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charges and become positively charged. Once toner particles become charged, they can be transferred to the substrate. Most low-end printers use one of these monocomponent tonercharging methods. Direct electrostatic printers apply a charge directly to specially coated paper. Liquid toner   particles are then swept across the paper and stick to the charged regions. Repelled toner is removed from the page before the next colour pass. After all colours have been placed, the toner is then fused. This technology can be easily modified for large format printing. Liquid toner provides the advantage of finer toner particles that can be used to achieve high resolution output. Liquid toners are comprised of toner and solvent. It is the use of solvent instead of developer  that causes them to be liquid. Liquid toner solvents are nonconductive and primarily made up of thermoplastic resin particles, which are suspended in a saturated hydrocarbon. In many respects liquid development is related to or considered with powder-cloud development. In  both cases, freely freely moving char charged ged toner moves un under der the action of an electrostatic field. Indigo ElectroInk is a variation of xerography that uses liquid toner. The liquid toner is charged electrostatically and brought into contact with the photoconductor where it is either  attracted or repelled. The colours are imaged to an offset blanket from which the composite colour image is then transferred to the paper media. This liquid toner offers the advantage of  delivering very small dots that can produce very high resolutions. The Indigo E-Print 1000 is  based upon this technology technology.. Thermal transfer devices include thermal wax transfer and dye sublimation. Thermal transfer  technologies use a three- (CMY) or four- (CMYK) colour ink-coated ribbon and special  paper which are moved together across a thermal head. Wherever the thermal head applies heat, the ink fuses to the paper. This technolog technologyy requires 3 to 4 passes across the thermal head depending on the use of a 3 or 4 colour ribbon of ink. The result of this process is single-bit dots of the primary colours. The QMS ColorScript 230 is an example of a thermal wax  printer..  printer Dye sublimation uses a similar technology, except that the inks used change to a gaseous

state. This requires the thermal head to deliver a much higher temperature but results in finer  122

 

control and smaller dots which can deliver multi-bit colour. This results in continuous tone colour. The gas that carries the colour and tone entirely covers the dot being imaged. If less ink is carried, the dot changes in tone. In contrast, thermal wax would cover only half the dot area and the rest of the cell would remain white. Fresh consumables (a ribbon in most cases) used for each image result in a constant cost per page, regardless of the number of colours used. For sev severa erall dec decade ades, s, ink man manufa ufactu cturer rerss hav havee so sough ughtt ne new w ra raw w materi materials als which which ad addre dress ss economic and environmental considerations. For example, vegetable-derived oils such as soy and linseed oils have been used in place of petroleum-based oils in some formulations, water  is replacing volatile solvents in others, and pigments are selected to eliminate heavy metals from inks, particularly those used for food or toy packaging. The adaptation of technology to individual indiv idual process process or prod product uct needs can be comp complex. lex. The succ successfu essfull implemen implementation tation of  electr ele ctroni onicc pri printi nting ng tec techno hnolog logyy req requir uires es an app apprec reciat iation ion of a wide wide range range of scient scientifi ificc disciplines. The interaction of ink or toner with the print mechanism and substrate needs care carefu full cons consid ider erat atio ion. n. The The pred predic icti tion on of fina finall pr prin intt qu qual alit ityy an andd it itss co cont ntro roll wi will ll ne need ed evaluatio eval uation. n. Wi With th all of the varia variables bles in print printing ing press, press, subs substrate trate,, and end-use requirements, requirements, inkmakers face an exciting challenge. Will inkjet printing ink and toner compete commercially with offset lithography ink? There is an appeal here because it eliminates rollers, dampeners, and plates; it requires no film. On the negative side, however, are the costs of the equipment, the limited resolution of the currently  popular ink jet printers, and limitations in inks. The graphic industry anticipates continued improvement in inkjet equipment in the areas of ink technology and costs. Digital printing is becoming very popular since the introduction of the Indigo and Xeikon  presses in 1993. These These digital devices use toner, which is similar in principle to that used in a copy machine. But how does the fine powder stay on the page? Chester F. Carlson created the  photocopier methodology. methodology. He found that in order to get copies of something it either needed to be rewritten or photographed, and knew there had to be a better way. He first looked at  photoconductivity  photoconduc tivity for the answer, and realized that if the image of an original were projected onto a photoconductive surface, current would only flow in the area the light hit. In October  of 1937, his first patent was created for what he called electophotography. Chester hired Otto

Kornei to help him out. Otto took a zinc plate and covered it with a coating of freshly 123

 

 prepared sulfur and wrote the words “10- 22-38 Astoria” Astoria” on to a slide in India ink. The sulfur  was given a charge and the slide was placed on top of the sulfur and under a bright light. The slide was removed and the surface was covered with lycopodium powder. The powder was  blown off and there was an almost almost exact image of of “10-22-38 Astoria.” In order to preserve the image, Carlson took wax paper and heated it over the remaining  powder.. The wax was cooled and was peeled away,  powder away, creating the first photocopy photocopy.. This method created a blurry image though and Carlson wanted better dry ink. A fine iron powder was substituted and mixed in with ammonium chloride salt and a plastic material. The ammonium was to clean the image and the plastic was designed to melt when heated and fuse the iron to the paper. This was the first toner and in order to produce different colours, different tones were we re used used.. Toner onerss are are pigm pigmen ente tedd bits bits of plas plasti ticc ab abou outt te tenn micr microm omet eter erss in si size ze.. The The manufacturing of toner is a multistep process consisting of mixing pigments and internal additives with the base toner polymer, which breaks the pigmented polymer into particles of  the desired size. The most important step is blending the pigments and other internal additives with the polymer binder at the right temperature so that it flows, but has a high viscosity. If  the temperature is too high the pigment will not disperse as well. The name electophotography is classified under patent class 355, subclass 200. It is defined as a device wherein the electrical conductivity conductivity,, the electric charge, the magnetic condition, or  the electrical emissivity of a light-responsive medium is selectively altered directly by light reflected from or transmitted through an original, whereby a visible or latent image is formed on the medium and persists after exposure. In simpler terms, a photoconductor acts as an insulator, retaining a charge of electricity. Areas of the surface contacted by light lose their  charge. The remaining areas with charge attract oppositely charged particles of toner that is transferred to the paper. For most printers using this method, the drum is re-imaged for each sheet, unlike in lithography where the same image is produced multiple times. There are various types of toners and development systems available on the market. Dry toner printers use a form of magnetic brush system to carry toner/developer from the supply to the development zone. These utilize non-magnetic toners carried on a magnetic iron which  provides charge by rubbing contact or magnetic toners which contain a proportion of  magnetic oxide. Dry powder toners are made up of the following components:

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Constituent Function

With these toners there are significant temperatures necessary in xerography. The first is the temperature at which the image is fixed to the paper. Anywhere above this temperature the toner is very fluid and splits apart. Once it splits, it then is left on the fuser roll and attaches itself to the next page. Toner also has some problems that differ from those of inks. Particle size also has a lot to do with the quality that you can get from a machine using a dry toner. Particle size usually ranges from 10–20 mm in diameter. diameter. Particle size any larger than this will usually produce jagged lines and dots. Toners which produce smaller dots take longer to make, and cost more. Another type of toner is liquid toner. These toners are charged, coloured particles in a nonconductive liquid. Liquid toner particles are much smaller than those of dry toners, and are capable of smaller particle sizes ranging from 3 mm to submicrometer sizes. Liquid toners are used in copiers, colour proofing printers, electronic printers, and electrostatic  printer-plotters. Liquid toners are made up of dispersants, resins, charge control agents, and  pigments. The dispersants must be non-conductive in order to not discharge the latent image as well as interact with any other materials used in the process. The resin is used as a vehicle for the pigment or dyes to provide stability, and aids fixing of  the final image. The charge control agents are added to the toners to impart charge on the toner particles. Metal soaps are a common material used as a control agent. Finally, the  pigment controls the colour colour of the toner toner..

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Important Impor tant factors of the pigm pigment ent inclu include de parti particle cle size, size, dispersibi dispersibility lity,, and insolubility insolubility in the toner dispersant. Liquid toners could be combustible, rather than flammable because of their  high flash point. If evaporation does not occur and comes in contact with flesh, slight irritation may occur. Devices that use liquid toners are well-ventilated, or re-cycle any hydrocarbons through an internal system. A major imaging problem is that charge voltage decay between the time of charging the  photoconductor,  photoconduc tor, exposing, and toning can affect image density and tone reproduction, as the amount of toner transferred is dependent on the exact voltage of the charge on the image at the instant the toner is transferred. The second deals with the toner chemistry. Because the chemistry is not understood, variations in batches of the same toner occur. occur. In liquid toners the isopar that is used to disperse the toner is a volatile organic compound, which may require venting and is subject to Environmental Protection Agency regulations. Thee proc Th proces esss and and th thee prod produc uctt dict dictat atee wh what at type type of in inks ks yo youu ca cann us use. e. A co conv nven enti tion onal al lithographic press, an inkjet system, or a digital printing press are not only used for different applications, the inks used are all different. This will affect the quality and the other printing attributes. In almost every electronic printer, the consumable (the ink) is specific to the device.

 Digital presses Variable data Digita Dig itall pre presse ssess have have one uni unique que ca capab pabili ility ty tha thatt con conven ventio tiona nall printi printing ng pro proces cesses ses ca canno nnott deliver. In a digital printing device, every copy that is printed is imaged that many number of  times. Which also means that the printing surface is imaged once for every copy that is  printed. This is in contrast to the conventional printing process where the printing surface is imaged once, and multiple copies are generated from that printing surface. It is this feature in a digital  press that slows down its production. But the uniqueness of this feature opens up a new opportunity, which is exploiting the necessity to image every time for a copy. Since every copy needs to be imaged on the printing surface, every copy can also be varied on the

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Which opens up a whole new world of printing capability— variable data printing. Imagine all that one could do with variable data. Specially targeted messages can be printed for a select audience, instead of printing static data that may not be completely targeted to a  particular audience. audience. You You can now have your brochure spe specially cially printed for you. T The he press will  print your name, address, and even have contents in the copy that have been personalized to suit your tastes. V Variable ariable data includes images. The key to producing efficient variable data is handling powerful databases. There are off-the-shelf programs like Print Shop Mail, and Darwin (Scitex) and extensions to QuarkXPress like Datamerge that promise to exploit the  potential of variable data. W Wee have to keep in mind that though the potential of variable data is humongous, we are at an evolving stage of this great possibility. Digital presses provide this capability, capability, which conventional printing processes can never do.

 Digital printing features • Digital printing is a rapidly growing segment of printing. • Principal applications: short-run, on-demand printing. • A digital printer can be defined as one that inputs a digital data stream and outputs printed  pages. • The broad categories of digital printers include electrostatic, inkjet, and thermal. But we can also say that any printing process that takes digital files and outputs spots is also digital. • Interdependency with digital presses will likely create major changes in the operation of the  printing industry and increase increase the volu volume me of digital printing. • Xe Xero roxx Do Docu cuT Tec ech, h, Xe Xero roxx Do Docu cuco colo lour ur,, Indi Indigo go E-Pr E-Prin int, t, Xeik Xeikon on DCP DCP, Sc Scit itex ex,, Agfa Agfa,, Chromapress, and Canon CLC-1000 are among current major electronic systems. • Digital masters made directly on press, printed with waterless offset lithographic process, characterize short-run direct imaging printing presses. • Cost of digital presses and consumables impact competition between digital printing and offset lithography. Run length, turnaround time, and bindery needs/solutions are major cost factors in this competition. On-demand printing involves short notice and quick turnaround. In the printing industry industry,, print-on-demand can be defined as “short notice, quick turnaround of  short, cost-competitive print runs,” which all results in lower inventory costs, lower risk of  obsole obs olesce scence nce,, lower lower pro produc ductio tionn cos costs, ts, and red reduce ucedd distrib distributi ution on costs. costs. Most Most tra tradit dition ional al  printing does not satisfy this criteria and does not result in these advantages. advantages. The

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obsolete, which requires the disposal and re-manufacture of new material. In the United States, approximately 31% of all traditional printing is thrown away because it is outdated. This number includes 11% of all publications, 41% of all promotional literature, and 35% of  all other material. Although print-on-demand is a more sophisticated phrase for the printing industry, there is no specific technology that is used to perform such a job. On-demand  printing (also known as demand printing) can be produced with a traditional press because the customer does not care so long as the quality is acceptable, and it is done quickly and economically. Digital printing is any printing completed via digital files. A digital press may be capable of   printing short runs economically economically,, but digital printing on printing presses is well-suited for  slightly longer runs. When comparing on-demand printing and digital printing, demand  printing is economical, economical, fast, and oriented to sh short ort runs. On the oppos opposite ite end, digital printing is  printing from digital files, but is not restricted to short runs. Demand printing can be done with digital files or conventional conventional film or plat plates; es; howeve however, r, digital printing is done only with digital files.

Variable printing Variable information can be printed by digital presses, which are   presses that print digital data. On different pages you could have different names and addresses. This cannot be accom accompli plishe shedd by tra tradit dition ional al pri printi nting. ng. With tra tradit dition ional al printi printing, ng, the prepre prepress ss wor workk is  performed, the plates are made, and they are run on the press. The end result is thousands of   pages that are identical. identical. The in information formation is static. The capacity to print variable information, which results in variable printing, is the key factor  of customized printing. To accomplish customized printing today, conventional pages or  static pages are run through high-speed inkjet devices for variable information. Many digital  presses offer this ability. ability. Unlike inkjet devices, digital presses are not limited to six or twelve lines of copy, but some can customize the entire page. The basics of customized printing is the combination of variable information with output devices that do not require intermediate films or plates. They are true digital printing systems in that all or part of the image area can  be changed from impression to impres impression. sion.

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Short run can best be defined as one that is less than 5,000 impressions. Almost 56% of  commer com mercia cial,l, boo book, k, an andd offic officee pri printi nting, ng, inc includ luding ing duplic duplicati ating ng and co copyi pying, ng, falls falls in the category of run lengths from 500 to 5,000 impressions. Presently, only 2.8% of this printing is done in four or more colours. By the year 2000, the amount of four-colour printing in this run-length market will increase to approximately 11.5%. 11.5%. Traditional printing presses usually operate in the long-run category; however, this trend seems to be changing. In order to stay competitive in this growing industry, printers are attempting to compete with moderate or even short-run categories. While most traditional  presses will have difficulty meeting the needs of the short-run category, category, this is where a new market is developing. It is projected that the short-run wars will take place in the 100- to 3,000-copy range. The on-demand process consists of the client supplying electronic files or  camera-ready materials and specifying how many copies of the publication will be needed. The printer produces the publication directly from the disk or camera-ready artwork and delivers it within an specified timeframe. Currently there are three specific on-demand strategies in our industry: on-demand printing, distributed demand printing, and on demand publishing. “On-demand” means that the data is stored and printed in electronic form. It does not necessarily have to be an electronic file, but usually it is a digital file which provides the effectiveness of the short run. The second strategy, distributed demand printing, requires that the electronic files be transmitted to other  locations, printed, and distributed locally locally.. These publications can then be stored, printed, and shipped locally as needed. The third and final strategy is on-demand publishing (also known as demand publishing), in which the data is stored in paginated form and transmitted for immediate printout. This is done by largevolume magazines. Portable Document Formats, such as Adobe Acrobat, are being used to distribute the print-ready document files. Electronic printing allows variable data printing. Traditional printing does not. Let us now compare the major features of the three traditional printing processes as we move into a discussion of packaging:

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LESSON 3 : PACKAGING Packaging graphics are the last and possibly the most important advertising many products receive. Flexographic printing technology is used on a wide variety of materials for a great variety of packaging applications. Arguably, it is the flexographic process’s “flexibility” that is its greatest advantage. Soft compressible printing plates, fast-drying fluid inks, and a simple, efficient ink delivery system give the flexographic printer the ability to reproduce high quality graphics on many different surfaces. During the last decade, the dollar volume of products produced by the use of the flexographic  printing process has been growing at a rate of approximately eight percent a year, year, a rate unparalleled by any other printing technology. Some of this growth is due to the increased need for packaging and packaging graphics. However, another source of new business for  flexography is products that have traditionally been printed by the other major printing  processes— gravure and offset lithography lithography.. Print buyers are beginning to recognize flexography as an economical, high-quality alternative to gravure and lithographic printing. Packaging buyers have begun to hold the flexographic printer to the same high quality standards as lithography and roto-gravure. This means that the flexographic printers will have to consistently deliver high quality graphics. Specifically Specifically,, tone reproduction is expected to be the same resolution in flexography as that printed by lithography and gravure. Historically, the flexographic printing process has been used for low-cost/low-quality packaging graphics. In fact, the stigma of being a “cheap” printing process has caused some packaging buyers to ignore flexography when selecting a process for higher quality graphics. Even within the industry a culture shift from lowcost/ low-quality to low-cost/high-quality has been slow to come about. Adding to the problems flexographers find when competing with other printing  processes is the fact that there are no established standards for flexographic printing. Some standards stan dards that may be helpful include include trappin trapping, g, dot gain, and specific val values ues for process colour inks. The fact that the flexographic industry is without these standards complicates communication between buyers, suppliers, and printers, and makes quality consistency very difficult. The recent move to “desktop” design has also introduced new problems for flexographic  printers. With With the use of the computer it has become relatively simple for the novice to create

attractive new package designs. Unfortunately, many of the novice designers are ignorant of  131

 

the limitations of the printing technology that will be used to mass-produce their designs. Also, many designs that appear attractive on a computer monitor are impossible to reproduce on a flexographic printing press due to press registration problems and ink limitations. When a designer who has experience creating a package design to be printed by offset lithography or gravure applies the same design principles for a flexographically printed graphic, they may  be creating problems for the flexo printer printer.. Withou Withoutt the benefit of research into production methods and equipment, an otherwise simple design for gravure or offset would pose many  printing problems for flexo. flexo.

Traditional printing processes The three most commonly used printing processes are lithography, lithography, flexography, flexography, and gravure. Eachh of these Eac these proces processes ses ha hass its own inh inhere erent nt adv advant antage agess and disadv disadvant antage ages. s. To better  better  understand the primary differences in each process, one needs to compare three key areas: the ink, the ink delivery system and the image carrier carrier.. The most commonly used printing process (based on the number of printing presses currently in production) is lithography, sometimes called offset lithography. Lithography is used heavily in the publication industry for printing magazines, catalogs, and many daily newspapers as well as a number of other applications like annual reports, advertising, and art reproduction. Lithography is also often used for   packaging such such as folding ca cartons, rtons, labels, and bags. Offset lithography is classified as a “planographic” process. That means the printing plate or  image carrier used for lithographic printing holds both the image and non-image on one flat surface or plane. The image areas of a lithographic plate are chemically treated to be attractive to the lithographic paste ink, while a fountain solution or ink-repellent chemical  protects non-image areas from inking. In a lithographic printing press, a paste ink is applied to the image areas on the plate, the image is then transferred to a blanket (hence the term offset), and then to the substrate. Lithography has been a favored process because it can reproduce soft tonal values on coated substrates. Another highly prized feature of lithography is its ability to print 300-line screen images with excellent fidelity. fidelity.

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Gravure packaging Gravure, sometimes known as roto-gravure, is the second most commonly used process in Europe and the Far East, and the third most commonly used process in the US. The gravure  process prints perhaps perhaps the widest variety of products of all processes. processes. Gravure is heavily used in the magazine printing industries and also prints many of the inserts in the Sunday newspaper. Vinyl flooring and woodgrain desktops and paneling are also printed by gravure. An offset gravure process is used to print the M on M&M candy and the printing on many medicine capsules. Gravure is used for many of the same packaging applications as those of  flexography. Gravure is used for:

• Publications • Products • Packaging  The gravure printing process is classified as an “intaglio” process. An intaglio printing  process recesses recesses the image below the level of the non-image areas. A gravure gravure image is etched or engraved into a copper plate or copper-plated cylinder. All gravure images are etched in a cell format on the gravure cylinder. By varying the size and depth of each cell, the gravure  press can vary tones. Often, after the copper is etched or engraved, the plate or cylinder is  plated with chrome to add durability and ru run-length n-length to the gravure cylinder cylinder.. In a gravure press, a fast-drying fluid ink fills the recessed cells, a thin metal strip called a doctor blade clears the non-image area of ink, and then the image is transferred tr ansferred directly to the substrate subs trate under heav heavyy impression impression pressure from a rubbe rubber-co r-covere veredd impressio impressionn roll. Gravure Gravure has been an outstanding choice for printing process colour for mass-circulation magazines and newspapers. Gravure-printed postage stamps are another example of the fine print results of rotogravure. Many plants have blended flexography with gravure to produce exceptional print results on  packaging materials. The flexographic printing process is classified as a relief process. A relief printing process is characterized by the image areas being raised above the surrounding non-image areas. Letterpress is also a relief printing process, the primary differences between letterpress and flexographic printing technologies are:

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1. Plate hardness—the letterpress plate is hard and noncompress noncompressible; ible; the flexographic plate is soft and compressible. 2. Ink—the letterpress ink is a paste consistency; the flexographic ink is a fluid, about the same consistency as paint. In a flexographic press, an ink metering roll called an anilox is brought into light contact with th thee ra rais ised ed imag imagee area areass of the the flex flexog ogra raph phic ic pl plat atee by an ad adju just stme ment nt co cont ntro roll lled ed by th thee flexographic press operator. The flexographic press operator then moves the plate into light contact with the substrate to cause image transfer. transfer.

Flexographic packaging Flexographic printing units in use today are simple in design and easy to understand. The following components makeup a flexographic printing unit:

• Fountain roll  • Anilox roll  • Doctor blade • Dual doctor ink chamber  • Plate cylinder  • Impression roll  There are three types of flexographic printing units being used today: two roll, two roll with doctor blade, and dual-doctor chambered systems. The two roll units are usually found on older flexo presses, and on narrow web presses. Narrow web presses doing process colour  work will probably be equipped with two roll units and doctor blade, and more modern wideweb presses are equipped with the dualdoctored chambered system. Each of these printing units may perform acceptably; however, a doctor blade system should be used when doing screens and process colour flexographic printing. To understand each of these printing units, it is important to first understand the “heart” of the unit, the anilox roll. The surface of every anilox roll has been engraved with a tiny cell  pattern, cells so small they can only be seen under magnification. The size and number of  these cells determines how much ink will be delivered to the image areas of the flexographic  plate, and then to the substrate. An anilox roll is either copper engraved and then chrome  plated, or ceramic ceramic coated steel with a la laser ser engraved cell cell surface.

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On a two-roll flexographic printing unit, the rubber-covered fountain roll rotates in a bath of  fluid flexo ink. As the fountain roll rotates, it drags a supply of ink from the ink pan and delivers it to the cells of the anilox roll. The relatively soft, rubbe rubber-covered r-covered fountain fountain roll is held in tight contact (nipped) with the anilox roll. As the anilox rotates past the nip point, excess ink is “wiped” from the non-cell area by the fountain roll. Once past the nip point, each cell is filled with ink, and a measured, repeatable amount of ink is available to the  printing plate. On the press, the flexographic press operator moves the “metered” anilox roll into light “kiss contact” with the image areas of the flexo plate, and then moves the plate cylinder into light “kiss contact” with the substrate to achieve ink transfer. The steel impression roll supports the substrate during ink transfer. When a doctor blade is used with a two-roll unit, the nip between fountain and anilox roll is opened to allow the ink to flood the anilox and fill the cells. The doctor blade, a thin metal or polyethylene blade, blade, then comes into contact with the anilox to sheer excess ink from the non-cell areas. When the flexographic  press is equipped with chambered doctor blade inking units, the fountain roll r oll and inking pan can be eliminated, and ink is delivered directly to the anilox through an enclosed chamber.

Anilox cells The best flexographic printers select anilox rolls for their press after carefully evaluating the type of printing they intend to do, and the type of substrate they will be printing on. Often the flexographic printer will perform test runs to determine the ideal type of anilox roll in an effort to maximize graphic elements related to screen ruling, solids and spot colour, type, and substrate.

These are the important characteristics of an anilox roll: • Cells Per Inch (CPI)—The number of cells in a linear inch. CPI counts will range from 140 CPI to 1200 CPI. A general rule of thumb is as the cell count increases, the ink delivered to the plate decreases. To achieve adequate ink densities, a flexographer printing linework on absorbent corrugated linerboard linerboard would be using anilox rolls at the low end of cell count (160, 180, 200). If the corrugated printer was required to print halftones at 55 or 65 linescreen, the anilox roll

would have to be replaced with a roll of higher cell-per-inch count (280, 300, 360). Another  135

 

important concept is that as line screen resolution increases, cell per inch count should also increase. For instance, a process colour graphic on a polyethylene frozen food bag may be  printed at 133 lpi. For For best results, and in order to avoid “flo “flooding” oding” the halftone ddots ots with ink, the cell count of the anilox roll that inks the 133 lpi printing plate should be at least 550 or  600 cells per inch. • Cell Volume—Cell count and cell volume are related. As a general rule, as CPI increases, cell volume decreases. Anilox cell volume is described by a theoretical or measured volume, and reported as Billion Cubic Microns (BCM) per square inch ofcells. Typical BCM ratings for printing applications range from a low of 1.8 to a high of 14. Using our example of the flexographer printing linework on absorbent corrugated linerboard, the low cell count anilox being used may have a cell volume of 10.0 BCM, and the process colour on polyethylene at 133 lpi, and a 600 linescreen plate may be inking with an anilox cell volume of 2.8 BCM. • Cell Angle—Anilox cells are engraved in a linear pattern, and at various angles. Typical anilox cell angles are 30°, 45°, and 60°. It is important to understand that the screen angle of  the printing plate and the cell angle of the anilox roll can combine to cause an objectionable moiré pattern, even if only one-colour halftones are being printed. Many anilox roll suppliers  produce a random random cell (no-angle) anilo aniloxx that may be used used for limited applications. applications. While an anilox cell angle may be selected to help avoid moiré, the problem of moiré is usually avoided by angling the separation screens. Research and experience has shown that the 60° angle allows for more complete ink transfer, and is becoming the preferred cell angle for flexographic printers. There is currently no other single component of the flexographic  process that will have as significant an effect on flexographic print quality as the type of  anilox roll being used.

Plate cylinders and repeat length All flexographic presses, with the exception of corrugated and newspaper presses, have a variable repeat length capability. This variable repeat length is possible because the plate cylinder on a flexographic printing unit is removable and interchangeable with plate cylinders

of different diameters. The flexographic package printer can minimize substrate waste by 136

 

having an adequate inventory of plate cylinders of various diameters, and choosing the cylinder size that best fits the print dimensions. Most lithographic presses are limited to a fi fixe xedd re repe peat at leng length th (oft (often en call called ed a “fix “fixed ed cuto cutoff ff”) ”).. Th Thee pl plat atee cy cyli lind nder er us used ed fo forr most most lithographic presses cannot be changed to conform to various package sizes. In this case each  package layout layout and design must fit into the “fixed” dimensions ddictated ictated by the press press and plate size of the specific lithographic press. Flexographic plates can be mounted around the entire circumference of the plate cylinder, and images can be arranged arranged to print a “continuous “continuous repeat,” void of any se seam am area where the  plate ends butt. Continuous repeats can also be accomplishe accomplishedd by using laserengraved design rolls. Flexographic presses can be built in several basic configurations: Stack Press, In-line, Common Impression Cylinder (CIC), and Corrugated. Stack Press One to eight colour units Web can be printed on both sides with some stack presses T Traps raps should be no less than 1/32” for thin films. Often in line with other converting operations, including polyethylene extrusion, lamination, rotary and flatbed die cutting, and sideseal bag converting. In-Line Up to twelve colour units Often used for printing thick substrates, like corrugated, paperboard Can print two sides (with the aid of a turn-b turn-bar). ar). Often in line with other converti converting ng operation operationss Not recommended recommended for   printing thin packaging film materials CIC Four to eight colour units limited to one-sided  printing Ideal press for hairline register at high speeds on thin, stretchable films Longer  make-ready times required because of the inaccessibility of the printing units Corrugated Usually no more than four colours All corrugated presses are sheet fed Widths up to 120" Less accurate register capabilities Limited to one-sided printing

Multicolour capabilities Flex Fl exog ogra raph phic ic pr pres esse sess comm common only ly come come with with mu mult ltic icol olou ourr ca capa pabi bilit litie ies. s. Rece Recent ntly ly th thee flexographic industry has experienced an increase in installations of six and eight colour   presses. In some limited applications, as many as twelve colours can be applied in one pass through a flexographic press. From a creative design perspective the possibilities for eyecatc catchi hing ng colo colour ur are are grea greatl tlyy enha enhanc nced ed by a prin printin tingg pr proc oces esss of offe feri ring ng so ma many ny co colo lour  ur  capabilities. Combinations of four colour process and spot colours, multiple spot colours alone, or high fidelity process colour printing allow the designer a great deal of creative

latitude when designing a graphic to be printed by flexo. 137

 

It is important to note that for transparent film substrates, the chances are good that one of the colour stations will be required to apply a white backup or “choke” plate. Without the white  backup, colours would appear flat and transparent. The white plate is a characteristic unique to processes utilizing clear or coloured substrates. Another important colour characteristic of  flexographic inks is that they are usually made from opaque or semi-opaque pigments. The colour sequence usually adhered to for flexographic printing is lightest to darkest colours in the press units. Overprinting two or more spot colours will most likely result in the creation of an objectionable “mystery” third colour in the overprint areas.

Reverse-side printing An exception to the rule of lightest-to-darkest colour sequence occurs when a spot colour or  line art job calls for “reverse-side printing.” Reverse-side printing means the job is reversed laterally and printed on a clear substrate like polyethylene, polypropylene, or polystyrene. After printing, the graphics will be displayed from the “reverse” or substrate side, rather than the side of the substrate where ink has been applied. This technique is often used for non-food  packaging, or for for applications where another film will be lamina laminated ted to the printed film.

Flexographic plates There are a many types of flexographic printing plates, with the primary differences being the material from which the plate is made and the plate thickness. The type of plate material to be used to print a flexo job is decided by the flexographer after consideration of the graphic elements they are asked to reproduce. Although few flexo printers print from both rubber and  photopolymer plates, many have two or three types of rubber or photopolymer materials for   platemaking. Another important characteristic of all types of plates is durometer (a measure of the hardness or softness of a plate). Printing plates (rubber or photopolymer compound) are soft and are of  concern to graphic designers. Dot gain is affected by the durometer of the plate being used. Plates of higher durometer (harder), will print with less dot gain than softer plates. However, lower durometer plates transfer solid images more smoothly and completely than high

durometer plates. The plate thickness is dictated by the flexo printer’s type of press and plate 138

 

cylinder inventory. Generally speaking, wide-web printers print from thicker plates than do narrow-web printers.

Molded rubber plates The molded rubber plate has been used for flexographic printing since the 1930s. However, the introduction of the photopolymer plate in the 1970s marked the beginning of a period of  steady decline in the use of the rubber plate. From a design perspective, the important characteristics of molded rubber plates include: • Molded Molded rub rubber ber pla plates tes shrink shrink sho shortly rtly after the theyy are remove removedd from from the moldin moldingg press; press; consequently, plate films should be adjusted to compensate for shrinkage. The amount of  shrinkage depends on the type of rubber being molded, but is typically 1.5%–2.0% along the grain of the rubber and .5%-1% across the grain of the rubber. To ensure accuracy, the exact shrink factors should be communicated between production artists and plate makers. • Resolving capability of a rubber plate is limited to the 120-line screen. • Molded rubber plates may be more difficult difficult to regis register ter in the plate mounting mounting step than  photopolymer plates. plates. • Prints from molded rubber plates can only appear to be continuous repeat if images are nested in the job layout design, to hide the plate seam. • It is difficult difficult to mold accu accurate rate rubber plates large largerr than 24"x 36", conseque consequently ntly designs larger than 24"x36" must be done by piecing together multiple plates for each colour colour..

Laser-ablated plates and design rolls A design roll is a rubber-covered roll that has been imaged by laser ablation. The design roll is seamless, and can carry images around the entire circumference. The laser ablation imaging  process is direct-to- plate. This process can also improve register capabilities. The specified trap between colours can be accurately achieved, bleed can be handled, registration marks can be provided as part of the design and eyespots or other devices can be placed precisely. Laser-ablated design rolls are often used for long-run jobs that require continuous printing, and can be run in combination with other flexographic plates. Direct-to-plate laser ablation can also be used for imaging plates rather than an entire roll. However a laserablated plate

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must be mounted on a plate cylinder and will not be seamless. Laser-ablated plates are often used for short-run jobs and for spot coating on flexo or offset presses. From a design perspective, the important characteristics of laserablated plates and design rolls include: • Resolution is limited to a 100-line screen for tone reproduction, but can be a 200 to 300 line screen for tints. • Laser-ablated image carriers do not require film output. • Lase Laser-ab r-ablate latedd design design rolls can be a truly continuo continuous us repea repeatt design; design; laser-ab laser-ablate latedd plates plates require nested images to give the appearance of continuous repeat. • Plates or design rolls imaged on a circumference do not require distortion. • Laser ablation can be performed on both rubber and sheet polymer materials.

Photopolymer plates Today, the photopolymer plate is the most frequently used plate for flexographic printing. There are two general categories of photopolymer plates available, sheet and liquid. The main difference between the two is the physical state of the raw material from the supplier. Sheet  photopolymer is supplied in a solid state, while the liquid plate is supplied as a liquid which has about the same consistency as honey. The liquid solidifies when exposed to ultraviolet light. lig ht. Fro From m a des design ign persp perspec ectiv tive, e, the imp import ortant ant cha charac racter terist istics ics of photop photopoly olymer mer plates plates include: • Phot Photopoly opolymer mer plates plates have guaranteed guaranteed resolvin resolvingg capa capabiliti bilities es of a 150-line 150-line screen. Some high-end flexo printers have actually printed from plates with a 200-line screen. • Prints from photopolymer photopolymer plates can only appe appear ar to be continuous continuous repe repeat at if images images are nested in the job layout and design to hide the plate seam. • Most of the newest plate positioning and register devices rely on a ”one piece” flexographic  photopolymer plate. plate. • Som Somee servic servicee bur bureau eauss an andd fle flexog xograp raphic hic pla plate te mak makers ers pre presen sently tly have have the capabi capability lity of  filmless, direct digital imaging for conventiona conventionall (non-laser ( non-laser-ablated) -ablated) sheet photopolymers.

Platemounting systems Offset lithography has long been able to take advantage of pin register for quick accurate colour-to-colour registration. The first commercial device for mounting and proofing rubber   printing plates was probably developed in the 1940s by Franklin Moss, founder of the Mosstype Corporation. Until the recent adaptation of pin register and micro-dot register 

systems to flexographic plate mounting, colour-tocolour register was entirely dependent upon 140

 

the skill level of the plate mounter. Many platemounters became highly skilled, while others were less accurate in plate positioning and registration, resulting in poor registration on the  press.

The concepts of pin register and micro-dot register were developed to make accurate plate mounting fast and easy for everyone, even the beginner. Pin register requires a systems approach appr oach.. That is to say that each prep prepress ress statio station, n, right up to the critical plate making and mounting stage has to adopt pin register or micro-dot line-up techniques. Pin positions or  micro-dot targets must be accurately transferred through each step of prepress.

Mounting tapes Mounti Mou nting ng tap tapee is the two-si two-side dedd ad adhes hesive ive use usedd for af affix fixing ing flexo flexo pla plates tes onto onto the plate plate cylinders. Mounting tapes also come in a variety of types and thicknesses. Two Two general types of mounting tapes are “hard” tapes and compressible tapes. A compressible tape is actually a thin layer of foam coated on both sides with an adhesive. The thin foam layer acts as a shock  absorber to minimize over-impression on the flexographic plate. By contrast, hard tapes offer  no shock absorbing characteristic and are only used to adhere the plate to the cylinder cylinder.. Research of various mounting tapes has shown surprising findings. For instance, one test of  five different mounting tapes found solid ink density variations from 1.34 to 1.66 by simply changing mounting tape. Dot gain is greater with harder tapes than with softer tapes; usually, the less dot gain the better. Soft cushion tapes, however, do not provide for a uniform ink  transfer in solid printing areas, often causing pinholes.

Cylinder preparation Each cylinder should be checked for condition and accuracy before a plate is mounted on it. Cleaning, checking for defects, and checking for accuracy before mounting the plate will often save material waste, press time, and extra work. • Cleaning—Plate cylinder surfaces should be thoroughly cleaned to provide the best possible surface for plate mounting. Improperly cleaned cylinders can cause inaccurate plate pressures  by trapping ink or other foreign matter between cylinder surface and mounting tape. A cylinder surface with oil, grease or any other residue on it will not allow proper adhesion of 

the mounting tape and will eventually lead to plate lift. When cleaning a cylinder, it should be 141

 

noted that many water-based inks require some type of detergent to rewet dried ink for  cleaning purposes. Often these detergents leave an invisible residue or film on the surface of  the cylinder that inhibits adhesion of tape to metal. Final cleaning of the cylinder surface should be done with a solvent that will leave no residue. • Gears—Gears should be kept clean and well lubricated. Make a practice of noticing the condition of each with each job change. If they are removable, make sure they are tight when replaced. • Tota otall Ind Indica icated ted Runout Runout (TI (TIR)— R)—Goo Goodd pressr pressroom oom pra practi ctices ces includ includes es the use of a dial dial indicator to check cylinder circumferences and bearing accuracies. Runout of each plate cylinder is important. Recommended tolerances for runout have been +/–0.001” for line work  and +/-0.0005” for halftones; however, with today’s more demanding quality requirements a good practice is to always work at halftone tolerances.

Substrate and substrate influence on flexographic printing Substrate is a generic term for the packaging materials printed by flexography and other   printing processes. These These materials aren’ aren’tt necessarily chosen for their printing characteristics,  but because they’re functional. Thanks to flexog flexography’ raphy’ss versatility versatility,, there is almost no material material that has not or cannot be printed by it. It has been said that if any material can be put in a roll, it can be printed by flexography. The quality of a printed product is affected more by the substrate than the type of process that applies the graphics. Packaging industries utilize a wide variety of substrates to satisfy the demands of a wide assortment of packaged products. Substrates can be classified into three general categories:

 Paper/paperboard   Paper/paperboar d  kraft linerboard (corrugated) clay coated kraft (corrugated) solid bleached sulfate (SBS) (folding carton) recycled paperboard (folding carton) coated paper (labels, gift wrap) uncoated freesheet paper (paperback books)  Polymer films

 polyethylene (PE) (dry cleaner, cleaner, bakery, aand nd textile bags) 142

 

 polypropylene (PP) (snack packages, packages, candy wrapper wrappers, s, cookie  packaging labels)  polyvinyl chloride (vinyl films) (labels, wall coverings)  Multilayer/laminations metallized papers (gift wraps) metallized film (snack food bags)  polyethylene coated SBS (milk cartons) The important characteristics of substrates as they relate to the packaging printing process are:

Colour A printing ink is significantly influenced by the colour of the substrate on which it is applied. The flexographic process is often used to print corrugated containers with unbleached brown kraft linerboard exteriors. Colour matching on these types of material surfaces is difficult to achieve. Paper/paperboard—White, Paper/paperbo ard—White, brown kraft, and a variety of coloured papers. Polymer films—Can be clear, white, combinations of white and clear, clear, or coloured. Multilayered/Laminations—The colour characteristics are decided by the topmost layer with reflective qualities. Foils and metallized papers or films are silver, or tinted to a coloured finish.

Whiteness/brightness The whiteness or brightness of a paper is the paper’s light reflective qualities. Even on  bleached or coated papers there are differences in the whiteness or brightness of a sheet. Paper containing a high percentage of recycled fiber may appear to be more off-white than  paper made from 100% 100% virgin fiber. fiber. • Paper/paperboard—Whiteness and brightness increases with bleached and coated papers. Optical brighteners may also be added to paper to increase brightness • Polymer films—White films can vary in opacity, which will affect brightness. Clear films require a printed opaque white ink under colour images. Coloured films are not be included in this measuremen measurement.t.

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• Multi Multilaye layer/lami r/laminatio nations—De ns—Decide cidedd by the topm topmost ost layer of film or paper paper with reflective reflective qualities. Foil and metallized printing surfaces require a printed white ink under colour  images.

Opacity All substrates have a measurable opacity rating. Opacity is the ability of a substrate to prevent light transmission. The more opaque a substrate, the less light will pass through. Acolour   printed on paper or film with a low opacity rating will be influenced by what lies beneath the substrate. • Paper/paperboard—Thin lightweight papers have lower opacity and will be more prone to ink show-through. • Polymer films — On clear substrates, opacity depends on the opacity of the printed white ink layer. The opacity of white or coloured films depends on the film manufacturing process; films may be made white or coloured by adding the appropriate coloured resin to clear resin during the extrusion process. Darker films may tend to be more opaque than lighter films, but all films can be manufactured with high opacity. • Multila Multilayer yered/ ed/lam lamina ination tions—U s—Usua sually lly hig highh opa opacit cityy is ac achie hieve vedd by the multip multiple le layers layers of  opaque or semi-opaque substrates.

Smoothness Smoother substrates allow for the printing of higher line screens. Rough, irregular surfaces such as newsprint and corrugated liner board require coarse screen rulings. Defects in smoothness can be described as either macro or micro. Macro refers to irregularities that can  be seen with the naked eye; micro refers to a very small area with defects not readily seen with the naked eye. Because the flexographic ink is fluid and generally not regarded as tacky tacky,, fiber pick (a problem common to lithographic printing) is not an issue. • Paper/paperboard—Newsprint, corrugated linerboard, and paperboard are relatively rough. Calendered and coated papers are the smoothest.

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• Polymer films—Polymer films are the smoothest printing surfaces, consequently roughness is not a problem; however, however, ink adhesion sometimes is a problem. • Multilayered/laminations—The smoothness is dependent on the substrate used as a printing surface.

Absorption On substrates with little or no absorption characteristics, the ink will dry at the surface  providing more saturated colour and less dot gain for halftone printing. Papers with low absorption rates are referred to as having high “hold-out.” This means the paper holds or   prevents the ink from being absorbed into the sheet. • Paper/paperboard—Corrugated, newsprint, and paperboard are very absorbent. Calendered and coated papers are less absorbent and exhibit high ink hold-out. • Polymer films—Polymer films are non-absorbent and exhibit the highest ink hold-out. • Multilayered/laminations—Absorption characteristics are dependent on the substrate used as a printing surface. Gloss Coated papers and films have gloss characteristics that influence the gloss of the inks that are applied to them. High gloss finishes are very shiny, and tend to be reflective. Matte or lowgl glos osss fi fini nish shes es ca cann be appl applie iedd to all all su subs bstr trat ates es by matt mattee co coat atin ings gs,, an andd un unco coat ated ed an andd uncalenderedd papers have low gloss. uncalendere • Pa Pape per/ r/pa pape perb rboa oard rd—C —Cal alen ende dere redd and and coat coated ed pa pape pers rs ar aree hi high ghgl glos osss wh whil ilee co corru rruga gate tedd linerboard, uncalendered newsprint, and paperboard have low-gloss qualities. Gloss can be increased after printing by applying an overprint varnish or lamination. • Polym Polymer er films—Film films—Filmss are higher gloss than the highe highest st gloss papers. Films can also be  produced with a matte matte finish. • Multilayered/laminations—The gloss of the printing surface is dependent on the substrate used as a printing surface; gloss can be increased after printing by applying an overprint varnish or lamination.

Caliper Caliper is the thickness of a substrate. Caliper is usually measured with a micrometer. Thin

sheets of paper may have a caliper as small as 0.002 , and thicker sheets may have a caliper  145

 

of 0.010”. Paper with caliper readings greater than 0.010” are often referred to as paperboard. The caliper caliper of paperbo paperboard ard may be as much as 0.030”. Polym Polymer er films are by definition definition thin. Dry cleaner bags are 0.00065”.

The thickest calipers used for flexible packaging are 0.005” to 0.006”. Thin films require  printing conditions with very accurate accurate tension controls. Paperbo Paperboard ard caliper should be uniform and free from low spots that will lead to print skips (voids) on the flexo press. For all substrates, caliper uniformity is critical. • Paper/pap Paper/paperboa erboard—Th rd—Thinne innerr pape papers rs are more consistent consistent in calip caliper er,, paperboa paperboard rd may have inconsistencies in caliper. • Polymer films—Thin films are susceptible to stretch during printing. Caliper inconsistency will cause misregistration, and print wrinkle problems. • Multilayered/laminations—Caliper increases as layers are added. Extremely thin layers may  be laminated together together to attain required ba barrier rrier and printing surface properties. properties.

Flexographic design considerations Trapping Trapping is the overlap of colour to avoid misregistration during printing. Misregistration is caused by substrate handling and tension problems on the press, irregular or inconsistent plate elongation from one colour to the next, inaccuracies in the plate mounting, and limited register capabilities. A preliminary test run and analysis of the press will determine the registration tolerances. Typically Typically,, a designer will build traps into the file if the job is a simple one, otherwise trapping will be handled by using an option in a drawing or trapping software  program like Trapwis Trapwisee or DKA Island Trapp Trapper, er, or handled entirely by the prepress service  bureau. The best trapping applications allow for partial traps—where only the areas of an image that require trapping are affected, while leaving all other areas at their original dimensions. Traps Traps serve the same purpose in packaging as in commercial printing. There are two primary differences: 1) in packaging there are generally more colours, and 2) with flexographic printing, larger traps are required to compensate for misregister. Guidelines when designing for flexography would include avoiding tight registration requirements, creating sufficient trap for anticipated misregistration, designing with the dominant colour 

 printing over the lighter lighter colour, aand nd avoiding trappin trappingg of gradations. 146

 

 Trapping may cause a dark line where the colours overlap. A label printed on a narrow-web  press should be trapped at a minimum of 0.005”—some require as much as 1/32", or 0.031" compared to average traps of 0.002"–0.005" for lithography. lithography.

A typical trap area for a job on wide-web polyethylene might be 1 point (1/72", or 0.014"). However,, if an objectionable dark trap line is created by the 1 point overlap, the designer may However  plan for a trap of .5 points. points. T Trapping rapping for linerboard linerboard or corrugated may req require uire 1/64" to 1/8".

Typography The soft flexographic printing plate, irregular substrate surfaces, and the fluid flexo ink can have a profound negative impact on text-sized type printed by flexography. The line strokes of smaller point sizes of type often increases during the printing process because of the compressibility of the printing plate and the fluid nature of the flexo printing ink. Negative or  reverse type often tends to become pinched or fills in. In extremely adverse situations (poor   press equipment or rough irregular substrates), lettershapes may begin to appear rounded and lose their shape. It is the problem of impression pressure on the printing plate in the printing nip that causes most of the deformation of type. Smaller point sizes of type are most adversely affected and require attention. For wide-web polyethylene printing, typical minimum type sizes are: • Positive type—six point for sans-serif fonts and eight point for fonts with serifs. • Rev Revers ersee typ type—n e—nine ine point minim minimum um (it may be a goo goodd idea idea to spread spread 9 point point revers reversee minimum type). For narrow-web printing, some fonts may be printed as positives as small as three point type, while others may lose shape at six or eight points. Use bolder fonts instead of light-weight versions. When designing a job to be printed on corrugated, it is best to choose a medium weight typeface, and to avoid serifs for any type that is smaller than 18 point. A good rule of thumb is to avoid type that is made up of stroke widths less than 1/32" for positive type and 3/64" for reverse type. All type should be set at normal letterspacing. To help compensate for the “weight gain” of flexographic type, it may be possible to use the trapping technique of  spreads and chokes. Chokes are used on positive type, spreads are used on negative type. Some programs, such as Freehand and Illustrator, allow the designer to adjust the thickness of 

the type. This type effect can be achieved by selecting the text, converting to a “path” and 147

 

then specifyin specifyingg a value for the“ the“width width”” for the oute outerr and/or inner “str “stroke” oke” of the type. In some cases, these programs allow the designer to simply select the type and choose a desired effect such as “heavy” to thicken the selected type to print bolder.

In prepress design, some compensation can be done by choosing either a lighter face or a  bolder face. For example, if bold positive type is desired, use a medium weight face. If a medium negative type is desired, specify bold face on the desktop. However, should this technique of selecting style attributes be used, make sure the printer font selected is installed on the output device to be used in the production process. Letter spacing must be considered when designing for flexo. In offset, letters can be squeezed together to form a denser appearance on the page. The same spacing printed in flexo may cause the letterforms to merge together to become unacceptable. However, when printing fine-serif type with major letterspacing, the serifs may begin to lose their shape. Ideal letterspacing occurs when letters are close enough together to lend support to each other  while under the pressure of the printing nip, yet not so close that they begin to join together  under that same pressure. Whenever possible, sans-serif fonts are preferred for flexo printing, however, the larger the  point size being printed printed the better the chances chances that the font will reproduce as ddesired. esired. Unofficial industry standards and recommendations for type: • Six point minimum for positive type, nine point minimum for reverse or knock out on wide web. • Four point for positive, six for reverse on narrow web. • When using small size type, avoid fonts with fine serifs or delicate strokes. • Kerning may cause squeezing across cylinder. Avoid tight line spacing. • Letterspacing and/or line spacing may increase slightly in the curve dimension due to plate elongation during the platemounting phase. • All positive text should be printed in a single colour if possible. • Avoid placing placing fine type on the same colour plate with line work and solid printing areas. • Spec Specify ify type thoroug thoroughly hly and accu accurate rately ly to the service bureau or flexograp flexographic hic prepress prepress department. • Avoid reversing reversing type out of two or more colours unless a dominant colour outline is used.

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Plate distortion and elongation From Fro m a pre prepre press ss and des design ign persp perspec ectiv tive, e, one of the most most import important ant charac character terist istics ics to understand about flexography is the phenomeno phenomenonn of plate elongation. As a flexographic plate is mounted on a plate cylinder, a natural elongation occurs in the curve around the cylinder  direction. Consequently, if the printed design is meant to be a circle, the image must be compen com pensat sated ed by distor distortin tingg (sh (shrin rinkin king) g) the ima image ge in the around around-th -the-c e-cyli ylinde nderr or curve curve dimension, and the image on the resulting plate films may appear to be oval. After proper  distortion factors have been applied and the plate has been mounted and printed, the oval will elongate to form a circle. The same distortion requirements hold true for all images.

This means that for every linear inch of plate used in the around-the cylinder or curve direction, the images will increase at the rate of 0.042"/inch. To apply the calculation to a design measuring 12 inches in the curve dimension: 12" x 0.042" =0.509" This means that plate films should output to measure 11.490" in the curve dimension, or  95.7% in the curve dimension, and 100% in the other dimension (ignoring any plate shrink as discussed in the Flexographic Plates section). Software written specifically for flexography can compute plate distortion factors and apply them to each colour separation. This formula shows that as the plate thickness increases the stretch factor increases, and as the cylinder repeat length decreases, the stretch per inch increases. The flexographic industry

is currently using a variety of plate thickness in combination with a variety of mounting tape 149

 

thicknesses. The type and thickness of the plate being used is dictated by the type of press  being used and and the type of work bbeing eing printed on the press. Some typical typical plate thicknesses thicknesses for  some of the larger flexographic f lexographic printing markets are:

Combined board corrugated 0.250", or 0.107" Wide-web flexible packaging, preprint, and folding carton 0.107", or 0.067"  Narrow-web label 0.067", 0.067", or 0.045"  Newspapers 0.024" 0.024" These are only examples of plate thicknesses currently being used. Recently there has been a trend toward thinner plate technology for flexographic printing. There exist today many software packages with the capability of shrinking or distorting an image in one dimension. To be sure that the design will be the correct size and shape, the design has to be output to film after plate thickness has been determined and the proper distortion factor applied. The  plate distortion step should be performed as close to the film output or plate setting stage as  possible, and can be performed by the raster image processor (RIP) operator using distortion software. The actual distortion process need not be of concern to the designer.

Halftones and screening The flexographic printing process historically has been recognized for its ability to apply spot colour and line art graphics to a wide variety of substrates, especially those used for   packaging. However, it is the recently improved capability of high-quality, high-quality, economical four  colour process printing that has given the flexographic process an edge over other processes for packaging graphic applications in full colour.

Dot gain All printing processes are subject to the natural and unavoidable occurrence called “dot gain.” Dot gain can be described as an increase in the diameter of halftone dots from the film to  plate and a further increase in size from plate to print. For example, when the image setter  outputs a 50% screen film dot, the flexographic platemaking exposure step may cause that

50% film dot to “grow” to become a 51% dot area on the plate. This is a small and relatively 150

 

insignificant gain in comparison to plate-to-print gain, where a 50% film dot may eventually  print on a flexographic flexographic press as a 665% 5% or greater print dot. Halftone dots can be generated in a number of shapes including the square dot, the elliptical dot, octagonal dots, and symmetrical and asymmetrical round dots. Square dots begin to join at 50% (arranged in a checkerboard pattern), and the connected areas continue to increase as the dot area increases. Dot gain occurs at the perimeter of the halftone dot; as individual dots  join, the perimeter area increases, causing a large density jump at the dot area where the contact first occurs.

 Dot shapes.  Without question, a round dot screen is the ideal for the flexographic process. There are however different versions of round dot screening software. Individual film dots on the best round dot screens for flexography do not begin to touch until they reach the 70- 75% region. Most design software can provide for a round dot; however, dot shape should be determined as close to the platemaking step as possible, either at the film imagesetter or the  platesetter..  platesetter Consequently, the same type of dot should be available on the RIP and imagesetter, or   platesetter..  platesetter The fluid ink and compressible plate used for flexographic printing tend to increase dot gain, maki ma king ng do dott gain gain comp compen ensa sati tion on an es espe peci cial ally ly impo importa rtant nt st step ep fo forr hi high gh qu qual alit ityy to tone ne reproduction. Each different substrate printed by flexography will also influence dot gain characteristics. It is important to understand that dot gain compensatio compensationn is different for each printing process, for many different substrate surfaces, and often for different printing presses within the same  process. Fortunately,, dot gain is predictable and compensated for by a colour separator, or adjusted for  Fortunately compensation in Photoshop, or in RIP based calibration packages like Agfa Calibrator. One of the most important considerations for a successful four-colour tone reproduction is an understanding of the ink hue and dot gain differences that exist for the flexographic printer. When high-quality tone reproduction is important, the best results are obtained by first

 performing a preliminary press press test run called called a “fingerprint.” 151

 

A fingerprint of the press will provide important information to the colour separator or the desktop designer. By printing a target of this type under controlled conditions, colour  separation films can be adjusted to compensate for flexographic dot gain and ink hue.

Highlights Another important consideration when colour separating for the flexographic process is the  placement of the minimum highlight dot. Most photopolymer flexographic plates are capable of holding a two percent highlight dot. Since the highlight areas of a flexographic print show the most dot-gain, it is extremely important that the minimum highlight dot capabilities be discussed with the printer before separations are made.

Vignettes Flexographic highlight dot gain makes it difficult (if not impossible) to print a fade-away to white paper without a harsh break at the highlight edge. When designing for flexo, it is best to fade off the end of the design, or border the highlight end of the vignette.

 A vignette vignette or blend  Screen ruling and substrate The selection of the proper screen ruling is critical to four-colour process flexography. flexography. Screen ruling capabilities are most often dictated by the type of substrate being printed. The corrugated industry, for example, prints halftones screened at 45, 55, 65, or 85 lines-perinch. Flexographic newspaper printers print halftones screened between 65 and 100 lines per inch. Flexible packaging on film-based substrates is commonly done at 120 to 150 lines per inch, and highquality label printers have the capability of printing 200 line screen images. Anilox cell count and separation screen ruling should be correlated to achieve the best flexographic print. Ageneral rule of thumb is that the separation screen ruling should be no more than 25% of the anilox that will be used to apply ink to the plate. The ideal from an inkapplication-to-the-plate perspective is to have a minimum of four anilox cells on top of each halftone dot.

a to e dot.

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Screen angles Cells are engraved on an anilox roll at one of three possible angles 30°, 45°, or 60°. To avoid anilox moiré, film or plate screen angles should be at least 7.5° away from the anilox cell angle. Cyan, magenta, yellow, yellow, and black screen angles should also be set at angles at least 15° apart from each other.

Stochastic screening Stocha Sto chasti sticc or Fre Freque quency ncy Mod Modula ulated ted (FM (FM)) scr screen eening ing for flexog flexograp raphy hy may of offer fer some some advantages over conventional half-tone screening. FM screening eliminates the possibility of  moiré, and also allows the flexographer to print high-fidelity colour. High-fidelity colour is a technique used to extend the printed colour gamut by printing a total of six or sometimes seven process colours. The multicolour capabilities of flexo and the random dot pattern of a stochastic screen to avoid moiré make high-fidelity colour an excellent design option. The dot size used for FM screening is extremely small and comparable in size to the highlight dot of conventional screening. The flexo highlight dot is subject to excessive dot gain. Consequently, FM screening for flexography should not be attempted unless the printer and colour separator have performed press fingerprints to determine the ideal dot size to be used, and accurate dot gain compensation curves. A final point about films made for flexographic plate making: The polymer plate material is very soft and will easily trap air between the film and the plate during the plate exposure. Consequently, when making films for sheet photopolymer plates, a special “matte emulsion” film must be used to avoid out-of-contact areas during plate exposure.

Step & repeat The concept of printing the same image multiple times across the width of a web and around the entire repeat length of a cylinder is known as “step and repeat.” Package printing industries apply this concept in combination with variable repeat length and variable web width capabilities. The ideal is to maximize substrate usage and productivity by fitting as

many repeated images on the flexographic plate as possible.

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Often, a technique called nesting will be required. By placing duplicate package layouts or  label graphics strategically between other layouts or graphics, the job can be designed for  maximum productivity and minimum material waste. The best method of nesting images is to cut and paste original graphics. This step in the flexographic prepress process is done in the  production art stage. Most standard layout programs do not have the capability of step and repeat. Step and repeat can be performed on some illustration programs and by specialized software that will create templates to allow the production artist the ability to impose multiple images for film output, while working within the confines of web width limitations and plate cylinder repeat length. In the past, multiple sets of flexographic plates were made from one set of films, and imposition was performed in the plate mounting stage. Today, photopolymer plates and pin register or micro-dot plate register systems require one-piece plates, and one-piece plates should be made from one-piece films. The need for large one-piece films for wide web flexographic printing applications has brought about the need for large format imagesetters and film processors. The flexographic printing process is sometimes prone to a quality problem known as “plate  bounce.” This problem is especially prevalent when lead edges of the printing plate run  parallel to the printing nip, and can be avoided by a layout technique called staggering the  plate. Not all designs will allow this technique, but when possible, staggering the plates may  provide for f or higher press speeds. Another technique used ffor or minimizing plate bounce is the use of “bearer bars” in the non-image areas. Bearer bars provide continuous contact between the plate surface, the anilox, and the impression roll.

Die-cutting & converting When designing graphics for a die-cut label or die-cut folding carton, an artist must take care to place all graphical elements in the correct positions. A die-cut folding carton is an excellent example to illustrate the fact that the first requirement for design is that it conform to the shape of the package. Packaging engineers often use computer aided design (CAD) systems to design folding

cartons, corrugated containers, or rigid paper boxes. CAD files can be exported to illustration  programs to provide the designer a two-d two-dimensional imensional layou layoutt of the job. 154

 

The designer should remember that eventually the design will be converted to a package, and each package forming process has special considerations that may be adversely affected by the design of the packag package. e. Some importan importantt considera considerations tions when designing designing for a job to be a die-cut box or converted to a bag include: • Bar coding —Bar coding can be created on the desktop desktop or provided through another outside source. In either case, bar codes should run parallel with the web direction, and should be cut  back to compensate compensate for flexo gain ccharacteristics. haracteristics. • Bleeds —For die-cut jobs it is important to have a copy of the die being used. This will allow the designer the opportunity to see where packages fold and join, and where bleeds will  be required. The amount of bleed required depends on the press being used. Bleeds can be created with standard illustration programs. • Cut areas —Because flexographic f lexographic printers do in-line flatbed or rotary die-cutting, the die must be held in register with the colours being printed on the package. Important graphic elements should not be placed too close to cut areas. • Glue areas/seal areas —T  —Too assure sealing when forming a folding carton, glue areas should  be free of ink and varnish. varnish. Polyethelyne bags are often heat sealed. All areas in or near a heat seal should be free of ink. Heat sealing is also done on some folding cartons; for example, milk cartons are laminated with polyethylene and will be heat sealed at the seams. The design should be void of ink in the heat-sealing areas. • Score lines —Die-cut folding cartons usually fold at score lines. The designer should consider a score line a critical registration area. • Varnish areas —Many folding cartons or labels require the application of an over-print varnish. In some cases, variable information like freshness dating or product coding will be added during packaging. Often these areas must be free f ree of varnish. This application requires a

special spot varnish plate.

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• Windows —Die-cut windows should be clearly indicated. indicated. A window used for folding carton or label work presents problems in the die-cutting operation. Before designing a window, check with the printer or package convertor to make sure that windowing is within their  capabilities.

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LESSON 5 : PREPRESS OUTPUT After a design has undergone the required production art trapping, distortion, and imposition steps, it is ready for film output or, in some cases, it is ready to go directly to digital flexo  platemaking. Imagesetters us used ed for the flexograph flexographic ic process have have some unique requirements. requirements. • Accuracy —The nature of the flexographic process includes a number of areas that might lead to print misregister. When precise register is required, the imagesetter being used should  be the more accurate drum imagesetter imagesetter,, rather than its predecessor predecessor,, the flatbed capstan imagesetter.. However, capstan devices are suitable for single-colour jobs with less demanding imagesetter register requirements and are especially useful for unusually long jobs. Capstan devices can output film up to 80", while drum scanner lengths are limited to the circumference of the imaging drum. • Size —The imagesetter should be large enough to handle the largest films required for   platemaking. • Film —The imagesetter imagesetter must be capable of hhandling andling 0.007" ma matte tte emulsion film. • Calibration —It is imperative that the imagesetter be properly calibrated. Film dot  percentages below 10% should not vary by more than 1% from the required dot area. Film dot area over 10% should not vary by more than 3% from the required dot area. • Uniformity —Light screen tints should be a uniform dot percentage, with no variation in size between individual dots. • Shape —The imagesetter and RIP screening information should be capable of outputting a “hard” round dot. • Resolution —Resolution should be adequate for the screen ruling to be output (1200–3600 dpi). • Processor —Because flexographic plates require a relatively lengthy exposure, the film densit den sityy bec become omess an import important ant fac factor tor.. Ima Image geset setter ter exposu exposure re levels levels and fil film m proce process ssing ing chemistry should be adjusted to provide D-Max areas of 4.0 and D-Min of 0.04 or less.

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Proofing “Proofing” for a flexographic job is not always a clearly defined activity. Historically, a flexographic proof had been a plate proof made on a mounter-proofer during the plate mounting procedure. This practice continues today in many wide-web flexo applications. The mounter-proofer proof is not appropriate for colour matching. Instead, this proof is used internally to verify plate register, plate quality, and plate content. This type of proof is not used for customer approval. A “contract “contract proof” is a facsimile of the job a printer agrees to reproduce reproduce;; the customer customer and  printer sign a contract for printed material based on a contract proof. The typical “contract”  proofing system used for offset lithography is not suited for flexographic package proofing. Basically there are three general problems associated with offset proofing when applied to flexography. • Substrate —Most proofing systems proof to a limited number of substrates. Flexographic  package printing is done done on a wide variety of substrates, substrates, and colours proofed on any substrate other than the one to be printed will show colour variation when compared to the live press run. • Spot Colour Matching —Film-based or digital proofing systems systems are based on CMYK toner  applications. Many of the packaging graphics are line art and spot colour, not screen tints of  CMYK. • Halftone Dot Gain Compensation —When a proof of a process colour graphic is required, most film-based proofing systems are not calibrated for flexography. Proofing systems like Imation Imati on Matchprin Matchprintt and DuPo DuPont nt Chrom Chromalin alin were desi designed gned for offset offset lithograph lithographyy. These These systems were designed to replicate dot gain as it would typically occur in offset lithography. To use these proofing systems, the flexographer has to output two sets of films: one set compensated for flexographic dot gain (cutback dot percentages) and sent to platemaking, and one set with increased dot percentages to replicate on-press dot gain, used for proofing. Mostt fle Mos flexog xograp raphic hic pri printe nters rs use cutout cutoutss and “dummy “dummy”” mock-u mock-upp pa packa ckages ges for proofi proofing ng

 purposes. Digital proofs can be made from an inkjet or dye sublimation printer and used as a facsimile for the mock-up. When critical spot colour matching is required, the flexographic 158

 

 printer will often provide the client with a catalog of colours applied to the substrate to be used. These colours may be variations of conventional colour matching systems like Pantone, or Focolto Focoltone, ne, they may be colou colours rs formu formulat lated ed by the prin printer ter,, or they may be col colour ourss requested by the buyer. In any case, spot colour matching should be visually evaluated and numerically verified by colour measurement instruments. Halftone film-based systems can be used for process colour flexographic proofs; however, however, the current systems will continue to require that two sets of films be produced—one for plates, and one for proofing. Digital proofing systems (both halftone and continuous tone), when used within a colour management environment, can be manipulated to output contract proofs for flexographic printing. When used in a colour management environment, digital proofing can eliminate the need for  an extra set of films for proofing purposes.

Packaging conclusions The flexographic printing process has evolved from letterpress to become the most adaptable  process currently used for packaging graphics applications. Because the process is unique, there are many unusual design features that should be considered during the prepress stages of a flexographic printing job. . Add to the unique flexographic design features the design features that are unique to  packaging requirements and those that are unique to various substrates and design can quickly become a nightmare. In order to create successful designs for a flexographically  printed job it is useful for the design and prepress personnel to have a basic understanding of  the process, and its unique design considerations. The design and prepress personnel may also find it useful to understand those features of a flexographic printing system that offer a wider latitude of design considerations, like that of  multicolour capability. capability. The most important areas of flexographic design are as follows:

Trapping.  Generally speaking, traps need to be larger for flexographic printing than traps for  the other printing processes. The type of press being used for printing and the substrate being 159

 

 printed also should be considered when deciding what trap measurements measurements are appropriate. The best register (and so the least amount of trap requirements) can be achieved on a common impression cylinder flexographic press. Traps for prints to be done on an in-line or  stack press should be larger than those intended for a CIC press. Thin films of polyethylene are the most difficult substrates to print without stretch, consequently these films may require larger areas of trap than designs to be printed on more stable films such as polypropylene. Typography. The flexographic plate may cause type to distort somewhat during the printing

 process. A natural and unavoidable stretch occurs in the web or machine direction when the flexographic plate is mounted. This plate stretch may cause an increase in line spacing to  blocks of text composed in that direction, or an increase in letterspacing when text is composed to run parallel with the web direction. Abnormally high pressure in the printing nip can cause a significant increase in the weight of  type selected by the designer. Reverse type may be “pinched” by the excess pressure. Wider  webs and rougher substrates like paperboard are especially prone to excess pressure being applied in the printing nip.

 Plate elongation.  Unlike any other printing plate, the flexographic plate will elongate or  “stret “st retch“ ch“ dur during ing the plate plate mou mounti nting ng pro proces cess. s. The elonga elongatio tionn for each each de desig signn must must be compensatedd for in the prepress stage. General axioms to apply are: compensate • The thicker the plate, the more the stretch. • The smaller the cylinder to be used for platemounting, the more the stretch.

 Halftones.  The flexographic plate has its own dot gain characteristics; each substrate will also contribute to differences in dot gain and tone reproduction. Highlights are also a challenging area of print for the flexographic process. Special care should be taken when generating film separations for flexographic printing. The best results for halftone printing can be achieved by first performing a “fingerprint” test run of the flexographic press in question. This test will provide the colour separator with the information necessary to apply the correct gamma for the printing conditions. The rougher the substrate, the greater the dot gain. The durometer of the plate being used and the type of mounting tape also have a significant influence on dot gain.

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Screen angles. The cells of the flexographic anilox roll are engraved in either a 30°, 45°, or 

60° angle; these cell angles make a one-colour moiré possible. Common practice when screening for a flexo job is to re-angle screens by either adding or subtracting 7.5° from standard offset screen angles. Many unique packaging considerations are important to design and prepress for flexographic  printing. The following techniques are often used for packaging design and prepress. Step and repeat. Many smaller packages or labels are often printed multiple times on wider webs.

When step and repeats are necessary, images may be turned 90° or 180° to allow for the best fit and least amount of waste.

 Stochastic screening. Stochastic screening may be used when printing high-fidelity colour or  when printing multiple screen tints. Halftones for corrugated are best suited to stochastic screening techniques.  Die-cutting and converting.  Pack Packag agee prin printi ting ng usua usuall llyy is on only ly on onee st step ep in a pa pack ckag agee conversion process. When designing graphics for packaging, special requirements must be considered. For polyethylene and other substrates that will be heat-sealed, it is important to keep heat-seal areas free of ink. Afolding carton to be die-cut should have all image elements located such that when the box is formed they will appear on the correct panel. It is also important to keep glue areas free from coating or ink that may interfere with bonding.

 Paper issues in reproduction reproduction Runnability Runnability is the ability of a paper to run through a press efficiently with no loss of   productivity or increase in downtime. Runnability affects the profitability of a job and is a major concern to the printer. There is a difference between purchase price and user cost. A  paper can have have the greatest print qquality uality characteristics but but if it can’t be run th through rough the press, it is of little value. This is because of the large area of surface contact with the rubber blanket and stiff, tacky, paste inks.

 Lithographic paper requirements.  Conventional lithography uses a dampening or fountain

solution to wet the plate’s non-image areas so they stay ink-free or clean. Therefore, the paper 

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must resist weakening of its surface strength due to repeated exposure to moisture from each successive unit.

Water resistance. Excess water or poor water resistance can cause the coating of the paper to soften, weaken and leach out onto the blanket. This causes piling and milking. Calcium carbonate (limestone) is a common coating and filler ingredient. Being an alkaline, it will increase the pH of the fountain solution and cause other print problems.

Offset litho paper requirements. Lithography Lithography,, especially sheet-fed, uses thick, paste inks that are very tacky. Therefore, the paper must have good bond strength to resist rupturing of its coating or fibers from the surface. Of all the printing processes, lithography deposits the thinnest film of ink—about one (1) micron thick when dry dry.. Amicron is 10-9m or .00004 inch. Therefore, any loose surface dirt or contamination such as fizz, lint, or slitting and cutting dust will show as an aesthetic print defect.

Gravure paper requirement.  Image areas are engraved below the surface of the cylinder so  paper must be very flat and smooth to make good contact with the well opening to transfer  (pull out) ink. Gravure inks are very fluid and have little tack to pick up coating and fibers. Paper should have sizing so fluids inks don’t feather. feather. Comparing coated and uncoated stocks: stocks:

Coated paper Uncoated Has a mineral coating Has no coating, More expensive Less expensive, Smoother surface Rougher surface, Higher gloss Less gloss, More holdout More absorbent, Better image quality Poorer image quality, Stronger surface Weaker surface

Basis weight Basis weight is a measurement of weight of some unit of area. It is the weight (in pounds) of  a ream (500 sheets) in the basic size for that paper grade. It is important because paper is solid by weight, not linear distance or surface area by volume. Basis weight tolerances are +/5%. The US system of basis weight is very confusing because of the difference basic sizes for  each grade category:

Basic paper sizes 162

 

 Bond, ledger, ledger, writing 17"x22" Cover 20"x26"  Bristol 22.5"x 28.5" 28.5"  Index 25.5"x 30.5" 30.5"  Newsprint, tag 24"x 36" Coated, text, book, offset 25"x 38" The metric system uses grammage, which is grams per square meter (g/m2). For a 25"x38"  basic size, the conversion factor to go from basis weight to grammage is to multiply by 1.48. Multiply by 0.675 for g/m2 into lbs. A 100 lb book paper is equivalent to a 148 g/m2 and a 50 lb is 74 g/m2. Substance weight usually applies only to writing grades of paper (bond, duplicator). It is the same as basis weight. “M” weight is the weight for 1,000 sheets, not 500. M weight is twice the basis weight. The thickness of cover grades is measured in thousanth of an inch. Ten (10) point is .010". Thickness is often called caliper and it is measured in points or mills which is a thousandths of an inch (.001"). Bulk for book papers is expressed in the number of pages per inch (ppi) for a given basis weight. 50 lb book paper can vary from 310 to 800 ppi, .003" to .0013" respectively.

Paper grain direction

The grain direction, or alignment of paper fibers, fi bers, affects the feeding and transporting of paper  through the press. You want to handle paper on sheetfed presses at very fast production speeds of 15,000 impressions per hour (iph). The wrong grain direction can cause a loss in productivity. If 25"x38", then the grain is long Fold a sheet in both directions Cleanest fold is with the grain Tear a sheet in both directions Cleanest tear is with the grain

Cut two strips in different directions Most rigid or stiffer strip is with the grain 163

 

Moisten only one side of a sheet of paper  The paper will immediately curl and roll with the grain The grain should run parallel to the printing cylinders or along the longest dimension which is called grain “long.”

Why grain long? The sheet must follow a relatively tight “S” curve as it wraps around the impression cylinder  on its way to the transfer cylinder. If the sheet is grain long, it is more pliable and will gently follow and conform to the “S” curve. If grain short, the sheet is stiff and rigid and will slap against the cylinder. The wet ink surface will then mark and scratch. If the paper absorbs moisture it will expand mostly in the cross-grain direction. This makes the sheet of paper  longer front-to-back. The packing beneath both the plate and blanket can be adjusted to compensate for the size change so images will now register and fit properly. properly.

Finishing & bindery Substrate and printing issues affect bindery and finishing. When folding you want to fold  parallel with the grain to prevent cracking, especially on black solid colours. Perfect bound (hot melt) books should have grain direction parallel with the spine or back bone. Sheetfed presses require flat paper to prevent feeding, register, and printing problems. Paper  should lie flat and have no curls, buckles, waves, or puckers. Flatness is very related to moisture content and relative humidity (RH). Mechanical curling on roll or reel set is greatest near the innermost core or reel where paper is wound very tightly around a small diameter. Tail-end hook is caused by forces of tacky ink splitting when the sheet is peeled off the rubber blanket at a sharp angle. It is especially noticeable on heavy coverage near the tail end of the sheet. At the wet end (headbox) of the papermaking machine, paper is almost 99.5% water. At the dry roll end, paper is only about 5% water. The amount of water contained in a sheet of paper is called its moisture content relative humidity (aka RH); the amount of water  or moisture in the air at a given temperature is called the relative humidity or RH. Cold winter months are usually dry. Warm Warm summer months are usually wet or damp. Many printers have little or no control of the environmental conditions that affect paper paper..

Dimensional stability 164

 

Pape Pa perr is hydr hydros osco copi picc wh whic ichh me mean anss it brea breath thss an andd ac accl clim imat ates es wi with th th thee su surr rrou ound ndin ingg environment. The exposed outer edges of a pile or load can either absorb or release moisture while the inside of the pile, which is protected, remains unchanged. This causes the paper to swell and expand or shrink and contract in size. Wavy edges on paper is caused by an increase in RH of the atmosphere in the pressroom. Wavy Wavy edged paper causes mis-registration on pres presss or poor poor fit fit betw betwee eenn colo colour urs. s. It us usua uall llyy oc occu curs rs at th thee ba back ck co corn rner erss an andd ge gets ts  progressively worse, thus fans out. Severe cases cause wrinkles starting at the lower center  and progressing diagonally to the outer back corners.

Conditioning and trimming paper Paper must first be brought into temperature equilibrium before it is opened up and exposed to the humidity of the environment. Conditioning depends on the volume or amount of paper  and the relative difference in temperature between the paper and air. Six cubic feet of paper  takes 72 hours (3 days) to condition at 50 degrees difference. Sheets should be both square and accurate to size. Front-to-back dimension is critical on sheetfed perfecting presses. Many printers trim stock for accurate size.

Cleanliness Paper should not have any loose surface contamination such as dust, lint or dirt. If it does, the result will be voids in print areas called hickeys, fisheyes, or donuts. Many times this is caused by a dull rotary slitter or flat blade knife. It shows up as contamination on the blanket at the outer edges of the sheet only. Hickeys come from three different sources: • paper  • ink  • dirt

Strength Streng Str ength th is pri primar marily ily det determ ermine inedd by how well the inner fibers fibers are bonded bonded or closel closelyy intermingled together, more so than thickness. Web- or roll-fed presses that are under high tension need a lot of tensile strength so web breaks do not occur. Weak Weak surface strength tends to pick and cause hickeys, or delaminate and split apart. Stretch (elasticity) is the amount of 

distortion paper undergoes under tensile strain or tension. It is important in web or roll

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 printing because paper is under a constant pulling stress. Stretch is generally greater in the cross direction (CD) than in the machine direction (MD).

Print quality Print quality is defined by those factors and characteristics that influence the appearance of  the printed image on the paper paper.. Some print quality problems are unjustly blamed on the paper  when some other factors, such as ink, blanket, or press, are really the cause.

Whiteness Whiteness is the ratio of red, green and blue reflectance. Likewise, it’s also the amount of  cyan, magenta and yellow density. It is important in full four-colour process printing that the  paper be as white as possible so it can reflect all the colours in the spectrum. Printing is a subtractive process. White can be many different colours. White can be very neutral and  balanced or it can can have a predominant predominant cast or hue. If the paper is “cold” it is toward the blue side (CIE + b*). If the paper is “warm,” it is toward the red side (CIE + a*).

Brightness Whiteness is the ratio of RGB reflectance. Brightness is how much blue light only is being reflected. Adding blue to a yellow paper makes it whiter (neutral) but less bright. The TAPPI (Technical Association for Paper and Pulp) specification calls for measuring brightness (% Ref.) at 427 nm. If the brightness is over 87%, the paper can be classified as a number one (#1) sheet. Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) is a popular additive that makes paper whiter, brighter  and more opaque. Calcium carbonate (limestone) is a more practical and less expensive alternative for paper filler and coatings. Paper mills sometimes add fluorescent brightening agents (FBA) to paper to make them look whiter than they really are. For a fluorescent material to fluoresce, the light source much contain some ultra-violet (UV) energy. Natural daylight is UV rich. Fluorescent agents are also used in specialty inks.

Opacity If the paper is not opaqued but translucent, the image from one side can be seen on the other. This is called show-through and can be very distracting to the reader. As the paper caliper or 

weight increase, whether from fiber or filler, opacity increases because more light can be absorbed. Calendering reduces opacity because air spaces, which act as light traps, are 166

 

collapsed. Strike-through is when the ink physically penetrates through a sheet of paper, not the light.

Smoothness The smoothness or roughness of paper greatly affects printability. This is less so for offset lithography because the pliable rubber blankets can easily transfer ink into the low valleys. Surface texture can be measured, quantified, and profiled with instruments. Gloss is the amount of specular or mirror reflection a surface has. The flatter or smoother a surface is, the more gloss or shine it will have. Calendering increases smoothness and gloss because the rough surfaces are polished flat. More calendering of coated papers changes the paper’s finish from matte, to dull, then gloss, to finally ultra-gloss. Paper gloss is measured at a 75 degree angle of geometry. geometry. Heatset web inks have poor ink gloss.

Formation Form Fo rmat atio ionn is the the te term rm us used ed to desc describ ribee a pa pape per’ r’ss fib fibro rous us st stru ruct ctur ure, e, un unifo iform rmit ityy, an andd distribution. Formation is judged by transmitted back lighting, such as a light table. Uneven clumping of paper fibers is called “wild” and will cause mottled printing because of the difference in ink absorption due to paper fiber concentration or density. Back tap mottle is a sporadic problem where the paper is blamed. It usually occurs in purples or blues. Pulling a single impression of just cyan or magenta shows no mottle, but together, it’s mottled. The stillwet ink is non-uniformly back trapping onto subsequent blankets.

Two sidedness.  Printers want paper to be as similar as possible for both sides of the sheet. This is because of sheetwise, work & turn, and work & flop impositions and layouts. Colours on facing pages (reader spreads) must match at the cross-over. Fourdriner-made paper is two sided because of the effects of the felt and wire side on water drainage.

 Absorbency & holdout. holdout. Paper Paper,, by its very nature, has an affinity for inks, especially the liquid inks used in flexography and gravure. There must be a delicate balance or compromise  between the paper’s ability to absorb ink and its holdout. Too Too much of one and not enough of 

the other will cause several different print quality problems to result.

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Too absorbent. If the paper absorbs too much ink then the solid images will appear weak and flat with little gloss. Halftones and screen tints will have excessive dot growth or dot gain and look dark, dirty, plugged up and filled in. Uncoated papers and newsprint may act like a  blotter..  blotter

 Holdout.  Holdout is the ability of a paper to allow a fresh, wet ink film to sit on the top surface of the paper and not be quickly absorbed into the paper. If so, the ink will dry with a higher high er density density (darker), and more gloss (shine). The more fluid the inks or more absorbent absorbent the paper, the less holdout there is.

Ink mileage Paper holdout determines the mileage or ink consumption rate. It is very similar to an automobile’s gasoline mileage. The more holdout, the better the ink mileage. One pound of   black ink should cover 360,000 square inches of area on coated paper, paper, but covers only 150,000 on newsprint.

Set-off  Set-off occurs when the fresh, wet ink film on the top surface of a bottom sheet makes  physical contact with the bottom side of the next top sheet and the ink transfers. The image will always be wrong reading. Set-off occurs when there is too much holdout, an ink film that is too thick, an ink that dries too slowly, or cold paper.

Blocking Blocking is a severe case of set-off. Blocking occurs when the wet inks dry in contact with each other and effectively have been glued together. Because the sheets stick together they cannot be easily separated without damaging the image areas. Usually, these sheets must be thrown away.

Spray powder A printer can prevent set-off and blocking by using a fine white powder that is sprayed onto the top surface of the sheet. This anti-set-off spray powder prevents the sheets from making any physical contact.

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It allows air and oxygen to flow between the sheets so they can dry faster. The powder is usually a corn starch. If too much spray powder is used, it dries in the ink and makes it very rough, almost like sand paper. This can cause abrasion when two pieces run up against each other. It also detacts from the gloss of the inks. Excess powder can also cause problems on the second pass through the press.

Racking or traying Sheet-fed printers try to avoid set-off, blocking and excessive spray powder by running small lifts in their press delive delivery ry.. This is called racking or trayi traying. ng. Paper is very heavy and small  piles or lifts keep the weight and pressure to a minimum. These piles are separated and supported by metal angle braces and plywood boards.

Chalking If any ink takes too long to dry, the thinner viscosity vehicles, oils, solvents and other  ingredients that bind or adhere the ink to the surface drain into the paper. The result is a dry ink that is mostly just pigment powder and can easily be rubbed or scratched off. This is called chalking.

Blistering Heatset web offset presses dry the inks by passing the web through a hot, open flame gas oven. Blistering occurs on coated paper when there is heavy ink coverage that seals the sheet closed. Any moisture trapped inside the sheet suddenly vaporizes, turning into steam and rupturing the paper surface. Blistering is likely to occur when: • The paper is coated • There is a lot of heavy ink coverage on both sides of the paper or substrate • There is too much moisture in the paper  • The dryer oven temperature is too hot • The web speed is too slow When you get right down to it, paper seems simple but it is rather complicated.

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The digital movement  The age of electronics and computers has changed the way printed products are created and  produced. Since the early 1980s, printing and publishing technology has been evolving new methods for production digital imaging. Before going further, let’s define what exactly a digital image is. The term digital literally means “composed of numbers,” so a digital image is an image that is composed of numbers. Every file, whether it be an image, a sound, or a text file, is nothing more than a string of   binary digits. By modern convention the binary digit 0 is used to represent an image element, the binary digit 1 is used to represen representt a non-i non-image mage eleme element. nt. Binary digits are called called bits. A  byte is a binary numbers represented by eight bits, it can have 256 possible values ranging from 1 to 255.

Digital images

 Scanner  Images can be digitized by a scanner. A scanner captures an image and converts it into a computer file of binary values (0s and 1s) that correspond to the brightness of the image at various points, pixels. The ability of the scanner to “see” variations in brightness depends on how much information is stored in a pixel, an amount called pixel depth. The deeper the  pixel, the more information information it can store.

 Digital image type Pixel size Tones/colours Tones/colours Binary image 1 bit 2 Grayscale image 1 byte 256 RGB colour image 3 bytes 16,777,216 CMYK colour image 4 bytes 4,294,967,296

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LESSON 6: DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY Digital photography is another way to digitize images. Digital cameras and cameras backs are used to photograph subjects using charged couple devices (CCD) that record the coupled images as electronic voltages. These analog voltages are converted to digital signals that can  be fed directly into colour correction software that produces images without the need for  films or scanners.

Digital type All output devices today are raster-based. This means that they create type and images as  patterns of spots or dots on paper, film, plate, and other substrate. In 1985 Adobe introduced PostScript as a language for driving raster-based output devices, and for producing typefaces as vector-based outlines. Almost all digital fonts now fall into 2 main categories: • PostScript or Type 1 fonts are scalable outline fonts which are defined using PostScript’s  bézier curves and work best with Raster Image Processors (RIP) because they do not need to  be converted to be be RIPped and output. • Tr TrueT ueType ype fonts are also scal scalable able outline fonts but they are based based on quadratic quadratic curves. curves. Created by Apple, these fonts must either be converted to Type 1 before being RIPped or a True- Type Rasterizer must be used to create the bitmap for the output device. When data is stored in a file, it is usually structured in a manner that is tailored to specific types of  information. It is also structured in a manner that allows recovery of the data with a reasonable degree of efficiency. There are various document structures that feed into the digital printing process.

Text data In order to maintain effective and consistent results in the exchange of textual data across multiple platforms, an encoding scheme must be used to represent alphanumeric characte characters rs as a set of binary digits. ASCII eventually become the standard and is now used in most  personal computers. The ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)

de desc scrib ribes es a code codedd char charac acte terr se sett wh whic ichh is prim primar aril ilyy in inte tend nded ed fo forr th thee in inte terc rcha hang ngee of 

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information inform ation.. The charac character ter set is appl applicab icable le to all Latin alphabet alphabets; s; eight eight bits are commonly commonly used to represent each character in ASCII code.

Graphical data

 Bitmaps A bitmap is described as a rectangular array of pixels, which are used to form an image. In a  bitmap, the pixel depth specifies the number of colours the pixel can show; 24 bits or 3 bytes (RGB) is often used as a practical maximum for the number of colours that should be required in any bitmap image. Once an input device such as a scanner or a digital camera has captured a bitmap image, it can then be manipulated using different types of software tools. Thes Th esee tool toolss ra rang ngee from from simp simple le pa pain intt pack packag ages es th that at of offe ferr a li limi mite tedd ra rang ngee of ed edit itin ingg capabilities, to sophisticated photo-editing packages that offer a suite of complex editing and special effect tools. Common bitmap file types are TGA, BMP, PCX and TIFF (Tagged Image File Format).

Vectors In computer graphics, vector data usually refers to a means of representing graphic entities such as lines, polygons or curves, by numerically specifying key points to control their  generation. There are many common vector file types. Example: Auto CAD DXF DXF,, Auto CAD DWG and W Wavefront avefront OBJ.

 Metafiles Metafiles usually contain both bitmap and vector data. Metafiles are widely used to transport  bitmap or vector data between hardware platforms. Some examples of the common metafile types are RTF, WGM, Macintosh PICT, and EPS (Encapsulated PostScript).

 PostScript  The revolutionary product developed by Adobe Systems was a computer language called PostScript and a process that could interpret PostScript page descriptions and generate a data

stream to drive a digital printing device such as a laser printer or film writer. The PostScript 172

 

 page description language has become the heart of desktop publishing and electronic  prepress. It standardized the language that each application program outputs by developing RIPs for many different printers and output devices.

The RIP, or raster image processor, is really the PostScript programming language compiler. It interprets the file and executes its commands, which are to draw objects on a page. The end result of RIPping is a bitmap for the entire page that tells the output engine where to place dots. Digital imaging makes all direct-to outputs possible by replacing photography when used to image films, replacing films when imaging plates, and imaging plateless systems directly. Digital printing is divided into three main categories of technologies technologies:: • direct-to-plate off-press

• direct-to-plate on-press • direct-to-print   DIRECT-TO-PLA  DIRECT -TO-PLATE  TE  There are two categories of direct-to-plate technology, direct-to-plate off-press and direct-to plate on-press.

 Direct-to-plate off-press Direct-to-plate systems are the logical answer for longer run sheetfed and web offset printing, at least for now. That’s why we are most likely to find commercial and publication printers, who use special cylinder-to-press approaches, print runs in the millions. Offset printing has  been a bit behind because the CTP equipment hadn’t been available. Direct-to-plate or  computer comp uter-to-pl -to-plate ate (CTP) (CTP) mean meanss that electro electronic nic inform information ation from a file is sent in PostScrip PostScriptt form to an off-press platemaking device. There plates are written, exposed, and processed so they are ready to hang on an offset printing press. The  platesetter exposes the plate using a precisely guided and focused laser beam to deliver the data. CTP can save time and money, and can yield improvements in quality and consistency.

 Direct-to-plate on-press

Direct-to-plate on-press, called direct imaging presses, is a system that uses plates that have already been “hung” or put in place on the plate cylinders on a press. Once hung, these plates 173

 

are then imaged with the digital information for the print job. Before the plates can be imaged, the digital information has to be prepared. The electronic files, generated on the desktop computer and delivered in their native applications, first go to the printer’s desktop workstation. There the operator performs a flight check, final imposition, and conversion to PostScript.  Next, the PostScript files are digitally separated and bitmaps are generated via the RIP to a server and subsequently transferred to plates on press. Each plate is mounted on each press unit and imaged simultaneously. simultaneously. In direct imaging press, the prepress steps of film output and off-press off-p ress plate are elimi eliminated nated.. The techn technology ology use usedd to image image digital information information from the  press computer directly to each plate is called laser dot imaging. It was developed by Presstek. Laser dot imaging was first brought to the market on the GTO-DI from Heidelber Heidelberg. g.

 DIGITAL  DIGIT AL PRINTING  PRINTING  Once the plate is made, however however,, the image reproduction process is a purely analog affair. affair. Ink  is transported from reservoir to plate, and then from plate to substrate by mechanical means. Modern printing process may incorporate a number of digital subsystems to monitor and control colour register, paper tension, paper density, and other important variables. However, the image information that the press transfers to the substrate does not have to exist in a digital form. Analog printing presses often employ computers to help them do their job more efficiently, but they do not need computers to tell them what to print. We do not consider  modern lithography or gravure processes digital, even though the images they reproduce almost certainly were in digital form at some point earlier in the process.

Direct to print Direct-to-print or digital printing is the production of printed materials directly from digital information residing in an electronic file in a computer. Put another way, it’s the output of  digital information from an electronic file onto a substrate of some kind. Until now, most direct digital printing devices, with the exception of imagesetters, produced continuous tone output. Imagesetters use lasers to expose graphic arts film, special paper, or plate materials with digital information.

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When the film is reproduced, the halftone dot structure is in place and the project is ready to  be assembled into a film flat, which is then subseque subsequently ntly imaged to make a printing plate. If  I f   plate materials are imaged, the job is ready to go to press. Images printed by one of the traditional printing processes must have a halftone dot structure to be reproduced. Digital  printing has this capability capability,, so it’s finally become printing to commercial printers as well; they can have their dots and digital too. Traditional printing does not allow us to print variable information. With traditional printing, the prepress work is performed, the plates are made, and they are run on the press. The end result is thousands of pages that look exactly the same. This information is not variable; it is static. In contrast, many of the digital presses (presses that print from digital data) can print variable information. On different pages we can have different names and addresses. The abil abilit ityy to prin printt vari variab able le info inform rmat atio ionn wh whic ichh resu result ltss in va varia riabl blee pr prin inti ting ng is th thee cr crit itic ical al component of customized printing. For years, printers have been reporting that press runs are becoming shorter each year. A commercial printer’s average order fell from 20,000 press sheets in the early 1980s to 5,000–  10,000 press sheets today. No one talks about the customers who forgo ordering a printed  product because they really need about 1,000 copies or less. Shorter printing runs evidently do not mean that people are buying less print—the printing industry is putting more ink on  paper every year; people seem instead to want to buy more of less—they want more short runs than long runs.

On-demand printing  On-demand is a term that means different things to different people. In a general sense, the concept of on-demand is basically one of short notice and quick turnaround. In the printing industry,, it is also associated with shorter and more economical printing runs. When all of this industry is combined, the definition becomes “short notice, quick turnaround of short, economical  print runs.” When all criteria are met, it results in lower inventory costs, lower risk of  obsolescence, obsolescenc e, lower production costs, and reduced distribution costs.

Distribute and print

By combining digital printing with telecommunications, one can greatly reduce the delivery timetable of printed product. Most printing plants today use a print-and-deliver approach; the 175

 

 job gets printed, loaded on trucks or put in the mail, and delivered to the customer or their  audiences. With digital printing and telecommunications, the customer or an electronic service bureau can design the pages, assign them to forms, and send the images electronically to many local printers for production. This new approach reverses the process of deliver-and print, and gets the message into the hands of audie audiences nces quicker quicker..

Fast turnaround A few years ago, turnaround time at a commercial printer was 14 to 21 days, today it is about 10 days. For many projects, even that time does not work. When we add that reality to the decreasing size of the print orders, we can see why digital full-colour printing is the right  process at the right time. Digital printing is very fast—as a rule of thumb, two-sided full colour print runs of 500 11"x17" sheets will take less than a half hour to go through these machines. And when the printing is completed, the product is ready for finishing. What must  be factored is the time to flight and prepare the file for printing.

Personalization One way a company can distinguish itself from the competition is to add perceived value to its product or performance. It can do that with improvements, innovations, and pricing options. Direct the message to the target audience as individuals (personalize it) and you also add value. Marketers, especially cataloguers, would like to use their databases in more sophisticated ways. Specially Specially versioned catalogs, based on a consumer’s consumer’s previous purchases, purchases, credit history, and demographic information, are supposed to be the waves of the future. Short run, personalized digital printing becomes a tool to test these pieces before a fullfledged roll out. Shorter-run specialty catalogs, those with final print runs of 5,000 to 10,000 copies, can even be printed digitally in five or ten different editions of 1,000 each, with fewer   pages of well-chosen well-chosen merchand merchandise. ise.

Post press Operations Post press operations consist of four major processes: Cutting, folding, assembling, and binding. Not all printed products, however, however, are subjected to all of the processes. For example, simple folded pamphlets do not undergo binding.

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There The re are ma many ny ad addit dition ional al lesser lesser post post pre press ss fin finish ishing ing proces processes ses such such as va varni rnishi shing, ng,  perforating, drilling, etc. Some types of greeting cards are dusted with gold bronze. Printed metal products are formed into containers of various sizes and shapes. Many metal toys are  prepared in the same manner manner.. Containers may also be coated on the inside to protect the eventual contents. Other substrates may be subjected to finishing processes that involve  pasting, mounting, mounting, laminating, and collating collating.. There are also a number of post press operations unique to screen printing including die cutting, vacuum forming, and embossing. A limited number and volume of chemicals are used in post press operations. The major type of chemicals used in post press are the adhesives used in binding and other assembly operations. Because chemical usage is limited, only a brief overview of each of the four  major post press operations is provided.

Cutting The machine typically used for cutting large web-type substrates into individual pages or  sheets is called a guillotine cutter or "paper cutter". These machines are built in many sizes, capacities, and configurations. In general, however, the cutter consists of a flat bed or table that holds the stack of paper to be cut. At the rear of the cutter the stack of paper rests against the fence or back guide which is adjustable. The fence allows the operator to accurately  position the paper paper for the specified cut. The side guide guidess or walls of the cutter cutter are at exact right angles to the bed. A clamp is lowered into contact with the top of the paper stack to hold the stack in place while it is cut. The cutting blade itself is normally powered by an electric engine operating a hydraulic pump. However, manual lever cutters are also still in use. To assist the operator in handling large reams of paper which can weigh as much as 200  pounds, some tables are designed to blow air through small openings in the bed of the table. The air lifts the stack of paper slightly providing a near frictionless surface on which to move the paper stack. The cutter operator uses a cutting layout to guide the cutting operation. Typically, the layout is one sheet from the printing job that has been ruled to show the location and order of the cuts to be made. Though cutting is generally considered a post press operation, most

lithographic and gravure web presses have integrated cutters as well as equipment to perform related operations such as slicing and perforating.

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Folding Folding largely completes post press operations for certain products such as simple folded  pamphlets. Other products are folded into bunches, known as signatures, of from 16 to 32  pages. Multiple signatures are then assembled and bound into books and magazines. Though folding is generally considered a post press operation, most lithographic and gravure web  presses are equipped equipped with folders. Three different folders are used in modern print shops. They range in complexity from the  bone folder to the buckle folder. Bone folders have been used for centuries and are made of  either bone or plastic. These folders are simple shaped pieces of bone or plastic that are  passed over the fold to form a sharp crease. Today oday,, they continue to be used, but only for  small, very high quality jobs. Knife folders use a thin knife to force the paper between two rollers that are counterrotating. This forces the paper to be folded at the point where the knife contacts it. A fold gauge and a moveable side bar are used to position the paper in the machine before the knife forces the  paper between the rollers. The rollers have knurled surfaces that grip the paper and crease it. The paper then passes out of the folder and on to a gathering station. Several paper paths, knives and roller sets can be stacked to create several folds on the same sheet as it passes from one folding station to another. Buckle folders differ from knife folders in that the sheet is made to buckle and pass between the two rotating rollers of its own accord. In a buckle folder, drive rollers cause the sheet to pass between a set of closely spaced folding plates. When the sheet comes in contact with the sheet gauge, the drive rollers continue to drive the paper causing it to buckle over and then pass between the folding rollers.

Assembly The assembly process brings all of the printed and non-printed elements of the final product together prior to binding. Assembly usually includes three steps: gathering, collating, and inserting. Gathering is the process of placing signatures next to one another. (A signature is a  bunch of printed sheets ranging from 16 to 32 pages.) Typically, ypically, gathering is used for  assembling books that have page thicknesses of at least 3/8 inch. Collating is the process of  gathering together individual sheets of paper instead of signatures. Inserting is the process of 

combining signatures by placing or inserting one inside another. Inserting is normally used for pieces whose final thickness will be less than one-half inch.

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Assembly processes can be manual, semiautomatic or fully automatic. In manual assembly operations, workers hand assemble pieces from stacks of sheets or signatures laid out on tables. Sheets or signatures are picked up from the stacks in the correct order and either  gathered, collated, or inserted to form bindery units. Some printers use circular revolving tables to assist in this process. However, due to the high cost of labor, manual assembly is used only for small jobs. Semiautomatic assembly is completely automated except that stacks of sheets or signatures must be manually loaded into the feeder units. During semiautomatic inserting, operators at each feeder station open signatures and place them at the "saddlebar" on a moving conveyer. The number of stations on the machine is determined by the number of signatures in the completed publication. Completed units are removed at the end of the conveyer and passed on to the bindery. Automatic assemblers are similar to semiautomatic units except that a machine and not a person delivers the sheets or signatures to the feeder station and places them on the conveyor. In order to improve efficiency, automatic assemblers are typically  placed in line with bindery bindery equipment.

Binding Binding is categorized by the method used to hold units of printed material together. The three most commonly used methods are adhesive binding, side binding, and saddle binding. Three types of covers are available to complete the binding process: self-covers, soft-covers, and case bound covers.

Binding Methods Adhesive binding, also known as padding, is the simplest form of binding. It is used for note  pads and paperback books, among other products. In the adhesive binding process, a pile of   paper is clamped securely securely together in a press. A liquid liquid glue is then applied with a brush to the  binding edge. The glue most commonly commonly used in binding is a water-soluble latex that becomes impervious to water when it dries. For note pads, the glue used is flexible and will easily release an individual sheet of paper 

when the sheet is pulled away from the binding. Adhesive bindings are also used for   paperback books, books, but these bindings mu must st be strong enough to pre prevent vent pages from pulling out during normal use. For paperback book binding, a hot-melt glue with much greater adhesive 179

 

strength than a water-soluble latex is applied. A piece of gauze-like material is inserted into the glue to provide added strength. In side binding, a fastening device is passed at a right angle through a pile of paper. Stapling is an example of a simple form of side binding. The three other types of side binding are mechanical, loose-leaf, and side-sewn binding. A common example of a form of mechanical  binding is the metal spiral notebook. In this method of binding, a series of holes are punched or drilled through the pages and cover and then a wire is then run through the holes. Mechanical binding is generally considered as permanent; however, plastic spiral bindings are available that can be removed without either tearing the pages or destroying the binding material. Mechanical binding generally requires some manual labour. Loose-leaf bindings generally allow for the removal and addition of pages. This type of   binding includes the well known three-ring binder binder.. Side-sewn binding involves drilling an odd number of holes in the binding edge of the unit and then clamping the unit to prevent it from moving. A needle and thread is then passed through each hole proceeding from one end of the book to the other and then back again to the beginning point. This type of stitch is called a buck-stitch. The thread is tied off to finish the process. Both semiautomatic and automatic machines are widely used to perform side-stitching. The main disadvantage of this type of binding is that the book will not lie flat when opened. In saddle binding one or more signatures are fastened along their folded edge of the unit. The term saddle binding comes from an open signature's resemblance resemblance to an inverted riding saddle. Saddle binding is used extensively for news magazines where wire stitches are placed in the fold of the signatures. Most saddle stitching is performed automatically in-line during the  post press operations. operations. Larg Largee manually operate operatedd staplers are used for small printing jobs. Another saddle binding process called Smythe sewing is a center sewing process. It is considered to be the highest quality fastening method used today and will produce a book that will lie almost flat.

Covers

Self-covers are made from the same material as the body of the printed product. Newspapers are the most common example of a printed product that uses self-covers. Soft covers are 180

 

made from paper or paper fiber material that is somewhat heavier or more substantial than the  paper used for the body of the publication. This type of cover provides only slight protection for the contents. Unlike self-cover, soft covers almost never contain part of the message or  text of the publication. A typical example of the soft cover is found on paper-back books. These covers are usually cut flush with the inside pages and attached to the signatures by glue, though they can also be sewn in place. Case bound covers are the rigid covers generally associated with high-quality bound books. This method of covering is considerably more complicated than any of the other methods. Signatures are trimmed by a three-knife trimming machine to produce three different lengths of signature. This forms a rounded front (open) edge to give the finished book an attractive appearance and provides a back edge shape that is compatible with that of the cover. A backing is applied by clamping the book in place and splaying or mushrooming out the fastened edges of the signatures. This makes the rounding operation permanent and produces a ridge for f or the case bound cover. cover. Gauze and strips of paper  are then glued to the back edge in a process called lining-up. The gauze is known as "crash" and the paper strips are called "backing paper." These parts are eventually glued to the case for improved strength and stability. stability. Headbands are applied to the head and tail of the book for  decorative purposes. The The case is made of two pieces of thick board, called binder's board, that is glued to the covering cloth or leather. The covering material can be printed either before or  after gluing by hot-stamping or screen methods. The final step in case binding consists of  applying end sheets to attach the case to the body of the book.

In-Line Finishing Historically,, the finishing operations described above were labor-intensiv Historically labor-intensivee operations handled either in-house or by trade shops. Even when performed in-house, finishing operations generally were not integrated with the presses or with each other. Today, web presses are often oft en lin linked ked dir direct ectly ly to co compu mputer ter co contr ntroll olled ed in-line in-line finish finishing ing eq equip uipmen ment.t. Equipm Equipment ent is available to perform virtually all major post-press operations including cutting, folding,  perforating, trimming, and stitching (Adams). In-line finishing equipment can also be used to  prepare materials for mailing. The computer can store and provide addresses to ink-jet or  label printers, which then address each publication in zip code order (Adams).

One of the most important results of computer in-line finishing is the introduction of  demographic binding, the selective assembly of a publication based on any one or more of a 181

 

number of factors including geographic area, family structure, income, or interests. For  example, an advertisement will appear only in those copies of a magazine intended for  distri dis tribut bution ion in the adv advert ertise isers rs se selli lling ng are area. a. Dem Demogr ograp aphic hic bindin bindingg has pro proven ven to be a succes suc cessfu sfull mar market keting ing too tooll and is alrea already dy wid widely ely use used, d, es espec pecial ially ly by major major magazi magazines nes (Adams). One comparison found that the use of in-line finishing equipment can reduce the number of  operators and helpers required for an off-line finishing operation by almost half, while at least doubling doub ling the rate of produ production ction (Adams). In-line finishin finishing, g, an automate automatedd process process that links the press directly with post press operations, is also discussed.

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UNIT IV LESSON 1 : DESK TOP PUBLISHING ‘Publishing’ traditionally conjures up visions of only composing and printing. However, it encompassess a whole range of tasks that go much beyond typesetting and printing. Publishing encompasse includes everything from origination of the message to generation of text and graphic design and assembly of text and graphics into a functional form. Copy-editing, proof-reading, and, finally, converting the assembled page into a camera-ready copy-all this is a long labourintensive process, involving various specialists and expensive equipment. The traditional, labour –intensive process of publishing had a high incidence of errors and required more and time. Computers are now being increasingly used in all significant aspects of publishing, not only removing most of the bottlenecks in publishing but also offering tools and techniques for  carrying out all the tasks related to printing. Above all, all the phases of publishing can now  be controlled by one one person directly directly with the help of comp computer uter commands. Desktop publishing (DTP) has provided entirely new means to create a print document in less time, with less cost and less bother. Desktop publishing is so called because, in a DTP system, most of the publishing tasks can be carried out on relatively small equipment that can  be placed on a table. The advantage advantagess of DTP over the traditional methods of publishing include increased control over the end-product and savings in turnaround time as the product can be created and printed at the same place. Desktop publishing can be said to have begun with the advent of early phototypesetters (second generation) which were a combination of typesetting and computing. Traditionally, typesetting is an expensive and labour-intensive process for producing high quality print document docu ments. s. It invo involves lves cutting cutting and pastin pastingg jobs to combine type with headline headlines, s, charts, diagrams, and other graphic elements. The inevitable last-minute changes are difficult to incorportate in traditional typesetting when type must be reset, a redrawn, and headlines, ty type pe,, and and art art shuf shuffl fled ed arou around nd on a pa past ste-u e-upp bo boar ard. d. Desk Deskto topp pu publ blis ishi hing ng go goes es be beyo yond nd typesetting, as it produces typeset matter and graphics, and a combination of the two. Pasting is done electronically in DTP. DTP. It is far easier to draw several geometrical shapes using

DTP than to draw them by hand. Also, undergoing a mistake electronically is far easier than to draw them by hand. Also, undergoing a mistake electronically is far easier than using an

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eraser or white-out manually. Perhaps the most important advantages of DTP is that it  possible to re-arrange re-arrange a page with a simple computer command. command.

Capabilities Almost anything that can be achieved on a dedicated publishing system can also be achieved on a DTP system. This includes handling of text, generation of graphics, editing of images and outputting.

Handling of text   DTP allows one to compose text in a manner that comes close to the requirement of  typese typ esetti tting. ng. It is possi possible ble to co compo mpose se tex textt wit withh wel well-de l-desig signe ned, d, propor proportio tionat nately ely spaced spaced characters along with justified lines, if desired, and automatic and customized hyphenation. Type composition in a DTP ssystem ystem allows the use of more than one type type of font and size, and a character set more varied than that available on a typewriter or with hot metal composing methods. An in-built dictionary helps in checking spellings. Desktop publishing also takes care of the setting of tabular matter, indents of all kinds, and aesthetics character kerning. They system accepts processed words from pen drives, disks, tapes, OCRs, or directly from the keyboard. It also alerts the user to grammatical mistakes in the text. Desktop publishing also enables the user to create a particular style for the word processing document as per the look or image desired for the publication. The style may include elements such as font size, leading, space before and after paragraphs, alignment, and indention. The style created can easily be exported to the application of desktop publishing. Every detail of the style can be reproduced accurately through DTP.

Generation of graphics Artwork and design can be created with the commands of the operator in DTP. Business graphics can be generated by programs that use figures from the data and convert them into required charts or graphics. Other than text, graphics may be either free-hand graphics or drawings made by using

computer aided design (CAD) programs. Graphics may also be scanned through a peripheral device such as a scanner or drawn with the help of a digitizer. The pictures used in the 184

 

 publication do not need need to be derived from pho photographs tographs and the screened to con convert vert them into halftones for the purpose of reproduction. The system performs a variety of manipulative tasks, such as sizing, cropping, and image rotation. Image can also be enhanced using several visual effects-strokes, washes, and textures that simulate conventional are techniques.

Editing of images Thee visu Th visual al docu docume ment ntss crea create tedd by the us user er can ea easi sily ly

be vi view ewed ed on th thee co comp mput uter  er 

monitor/VDU. It is also convenient to edit and shift around composed matter in a DTP system. Illustration areas can also be edited by cutting, cropping, deleting, superimposing, and colouring. The image quality of the on-screen matter is as fine f ine as the output quality. Desktop publishing clearly demands an effective and experienced editor and an imaginative designer who can make good use of the various facilities available in a DTP system.

Outputting The DTP system must be able to produce output on at least one of the devices available. Today’s publishing standards require the output of a DTP system to be at least 600 dpi or  more for the master to be camera ready ready,, or for the film in positive form. Laserr printers Lase printers can produce acc accepta eptable ble outputs for many users. For some some,, however, however, laser  output is of too a quality to be used for publishing. In such cases, the master copy for printing is created through image setters, which produce higher resolution output. Printouts of 300 dpi or less serve as proofing copies copies in these cases. Since a DTP system system requires a small area and less of running around, one person can easily take control of the entire process and keep of   both the creative and and the production aaspects. spects.

USERS OF DESKTOP PUBLISHING SYSTEMS DTP systems can be used by an individual or by small groups and organizations. The individual may be an author, a journalist, or an artist. Authors and journalists can prepare their manuscripts on their personal computers. A low –cost printout of the same can be

obtained as per the publications format, thus avoiding the need for costly and time-consuming typesetting.

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Artists, with their basic skills of drawing and layout designing, can use the DTP system to create graphics, illustration, etc., and arrange them aesthetically on page along with the text created by other individuals.

 Magazine editors  use DTP to test their ideas, producing near typeset quality pages showing the layouts, graphics, etc. Corporate or business houses can produce brochures, direct mail or  communication materials, and other promotional tools quickly and easily with data-base assisted publishing solutions, eliminating the involvement of any third party party..

 Public relations department of organizations can use DTP to produce consumer newsletters,  press material, etc., much more efficiently efficiently,, which help to enhance the organization’s organization’s image. Advertising departments and advertising agencies also use DTP to produce advertisements, test new ideas, and to make presentation for clients. Alterations and change of design elements are now a matter of pressing a keyboard button, eliminating the need for manual cutting cutti ng and pasti pasting ng that earlier used to take several hours a day. day. Some agencie agenciess are using using DTP not only in their creative departments but also in their media and administrative de depa partm rtmen ents ts to take take ca care re of camp campai aign gn sc sche hedu duli ling ng,, ac acco coun unti ting ng,, an andd ot othe herr as aspe pect ctss of  advertising.

Equipment required for Desktop Publishing A typ typica icall DTP syste system m nee needs ds two bas basic ic co compo mponen nents-h ts-hard ardwar waree an andd softwa software. re. Hardw Hardware are includes a computer, a printer, and an optional peripheral such as scanner. Software includes the programs that interact with the hardware. The hardware performs various tasks under  software instructions and manipulation.

Graphics software Graphi Gra phics cs softwa software re is use usedd for cre creati ating ng and editin editingg freeha freehand nd drawin drawings, gs, ch chart arts, s, graphs graphs,, il illu lust stra rati tion ons, s, diag diagra rams ms,, etc. etc. He Here re,, agai again, n, the the ca capa pabi bilit litie iess of a pr prog ogra ram m de depe pend nd on it compatibility with the computer and the features the software contains. Graphics software

gives the designer access to hundreds of possible choices that he/ she might never have thought of. Myriad tools of an artist are available in a few minute icons. The same pictures can instantly be ‘tired’ in different sizes and styles and moved to a new layout. The designer  186

 

needs to make the aesthetic choice and is in control of the images that are produced by variou var iouss man manipu ipulat lation ionss on suc suchh sof softwa tware. re. Gra Graphi phics cs so softw ftware are may be an objec object-or t-orien iented ted drawing program or a pixels form paint program.

Object-oriented drawing progr programs ams Object oriented drawing programs are those which clearly define each element of a graphic formed by lines and curves. In computer language, these programs are referred to as vector   programs. Types Types and thickness of lines created on such programs can be manipulated. Logos can be created with tint and shade on these programs. Graphics formed on object-oriented  programs can be reproduced accurately on a high-resolution laser printer. printer. These images, when stored on a computer, do not occupy much memory space. Usually, images drawn on object-oriented programs tend to have an artificial and unrealistic appearance they are made up of lines and objects. They are easy to draw but difficult to edit, especially with gradation tones. Graphics made up of pixels reproduced with less clarity on vector programs. Macromedia free Hand; Adobe Illustrator and MacDraw; Corel DRAW; DRAW; and Microsoft Line Art Tool Tool are some commonly used drawing programs.

Point-oriented graphics Comp Co mpar ared ed to dr draw awin ingg prog progra rams ms,, so soph phis isti tica cate tedd pa pain intt pr prog ogra rams ms ca cann st stor oree much much st stor oree information about each pixel. They can also provide fine quality photo-realistic printouts. Corel PHOTO-PAINT, Microsoft image Composer, Jasc Paint shop pro and Metacreations Painter are some examples of paint programs. Adobe photoshop is used for touch-ups of  images. Paint programs allow coloured painting to be electronically created on the computer  screen. The layering layering options allow the user to com combine bine several images that are edited part by  part and layer by layer layer.. The laye layers rs are then mer merged ged or flattened for furthe furtherr use. A number of sophisticated features are available on paint programs. Paint software provides tools such as different brush shapes and sizes, pencils, and erasers. It also has tools for  spraying, shading, images rotation, scaling, and sizing, and the option of choosing from hundreds of colour shades. Several screen patterns are available on paint programs. An artist

can change his/her painting in a few seconds with the help of cut and paste features available in paint programs. AutoCAD, PC Paint, Lotus, Photoshop, and Symphony are examples of  software used in a Windows environmen environment.t. Today Today, most software is being developed for cross187

 

 platform use, which enables the user to open a file created in Windows in Macintosh or vice versa.

Layout software Layout software allows the user to create test based pages in many styles and format- they may be multi-column and multiple-font pages with special indents, drop letter, and ruling lines between columns. These programs normally features style sheets. Style sheets are a type of pre-formatted page layout where all parameters like the number of  column; type style and size for body text, headings, subheadings, and headers and footers; alignment; align ment; and other controls controls are defin defined. ed. All that one needs to do once the style sheet sheet has  been finalized is to import the word-processed text from another program and apply the style sheet, and the text is automatically laid out. Layout software accepts graphics created in other  applications or scanned images with the help of import facility or data file transfer of the system. It can build a spread the runs across the gutter between two pages. Layout software can even be used to prepare the layout of a tabloid or broadsheet newspaper page. For such  jobs, printouts are taken in more than one one A4 size paper paper by tiling. Each sheet contains a little matter of other sheets. A big single-sheet page is prepared by overlapping and pasting the sheets together. The first true layout software was a program called Page Maker, which was developed on the classic design studio environment of a drawing board and paste-up tools. The page is the  basic unit on which the user operates. Page Maker was initially available only to IBMcompatible machines. Another popular layout software which is available only to IBM machines and compatibles compatibles is Corel Ventura. Ventura. It works almost like PageMake PageMakerr although the  basic way of operating Ventura is different from that of Page Maker. Maker. QuarkXpress is a software that is used for multi-lingual page making and typesetting and has proved quite effective in India. It is available to both Macintosh and IBM machines, and is deal for  newspaper edits and art rooms. Adobe InDesign is the favourite layout software of many artists. With its near-natural colour display and design and production controls, the software

is a better choice for page layout at the professional level.

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Features of Some Specific Software Programs Ther Th eree are are ma many ny so soft ftwa ware re prog progra rams ms with with hund hundre redd of fe feat atur ures es de deve velo lope pedd by va vari riou ouss companies. Some of them work in a similar manner, but some programs have very specific features. We shall now look at some specific features-document setup, typographic controls, image manipulation, and printing-of some commonly used software.

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LESSON 2 : CORELDRAW Some basic features of CorelDRAW are discussed here. A basic knowledge of these features will help the user to draw images on this software with ease.

Create an object CorelDRAW CorelDRA W documents are made up of separate elements called objects. An object’s edge is called a path. Paths can be closed or open. An object with a closed path can be filled with colour, but this is not possible in the case of an object with an open path. The path of an object passes through nodes that shape the path. Some CorelDRAW tools automatically create closed path objects.

Modify an object In order to modify an object, it must first be selected. When an object is selected, handles appear in a rectangular formation around it. Objects can be modified using a variety of   program features, such as menu commands, dialog boxes, and tools. For instance, an objects  path can be shaped shaped by mov moving ing its nodes and control points with the Shape tool.

Fill an object An object can be uniformly filled with a spot or process colour. Objects can be filled with  patterns, textures, and foundation fills with the interactive fill tools. They can be rotated, skewed, scaled, and mirrored with the Pick tool.

Special effect Special effects effects add a professional touch to drawings. Envelopes are used to distort the shape shape of objects. Blends create a number of intermediate objects, perspectives lets the user add the illusion of distance and depth, shadows can make drawing look three dimensional , and the  power clip can be used to place place one object inside another another..

Handling text CorelDRAW lets the user be creative with text. Text can be artistic or it can be in a paragraph.

It can float free on the page as text object or fellow the path of an object. Text can also be

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converted to curves, changing it into a graphic object whose outline can be modified like any other outline.

Change view The view of a drawing can be changed to make editing easier easier.. One can zoom in to get a close look and work with small details or zoom out to see the drawing as a whole. CorelDRAW also allows the user to view a drawing in the enhanced mode or as a full-screen preview. preview.

Place objects One can use precision tools such as guidelines, grids, rulers, and the align and distribute dialog box to place objects exactly where he/she wants them.

Import and export Many types of files, such as clip art, text and graphics, can be imported into a drawing. Drawing can also be exported in a format that enables them to be read by another program or   be used on web page.

Print document When a drawing is completed, it can be printed or saved to file for a high resolution output. The Print preview mode allows the user to see what the printed document will look like.

Photoshop Photoshop is a powerful graphics program, primarily used for photo re-touching image manipulation. It can also be used to create original art, either from scratch or from a base such as a photog photograph raph or painting.

Starting a new page The Photoshop New Page dialog box allows the user to indicate the image size, resolution, and colour mode. On opening the window, a large white area appears with the toolbox at the corner.

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Toolbox The toolbox, like an artist’s workable or paint box, holds all the tools that are used to draw,  paint, erase, and otherwise work on a picture. There are four types of tools in the boxSelection, Painting, viewing, and Specialized.

Working on window One can start working with the menu displayed on the top of the screen. The File menu lets the user work with files-opening, closing, saving, exporting, printing the same. The Edit menu is for actions such as cut, copy, paste, and undo. The image menu is for choosing a colour mode, changing image size, rotation, etc. The Filter menu can bring dozens of physical changes to an image.

Working with layers The most powerful feature of Photoshop is the layering option. This tool allows the user to combine images and create collages by working on one part of an image at a time.

Merging layers One needs to merge the layers or flatten the image if the file is to be used for anything else. It should be kept in mind that no change or alternation is possible once the image is flattened.

Selection tools There are several ways to select a specific piece of a picture. Any of the selection toolsMarquee, Lasso, or Magic Wand-can be used for the purpose.

Cutting, copying, and cropping The Cut and Paste options enable the user to borrow from one picture to add to another. Cropping is an artist’s term for trimming the unwanted parts of a picture.

Image scanning Usually, flatbed scanners are used for digital scanning. A flatbed scanner works by making a  bit-by-bit image of a document, document, photo, or piece piece of artwork fed into it. Scanned documents documents can

 be imported into Photoshop, Photoshop, where they they can be worke workedd upon.

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Digital painting Photoshop Photo shop allows the user to choo choose se and appl applyy colo colour ur to the picture in differen differentt ways. ways. The Colour Picker is a colour palette that contains all the colours that one can paint with. At the  beginning, one can work with two available colours-foreground and background colour: One serves as the colour of a brush /pencil on the painting and the other serves as its canvas.

Image alteration Images in Photoshop can be turned into an imitation of an oil painting, water colour, or  drawing by using the various filters and brushes available in this software. Filters are also used to improve an image, distort it, and to make it artistic and achieve other other special effects.

Masking This option enables the user to apply changes to an image selectively, protecting parts of the image that he/she does not want to change.

Adding type In photoshop, type images are in pixel form. They can be given special effects using all the attributes of Photoshop.

Saving files Photoshop can save documents in all the formats it can open. Besides PSD, its native format, JPEG, TIFF, and EPS are some examples of formats in which Photoshop can open and save files. Different formats have different purposes and file sizes. Some are specially intended for  web users while others are more appropriate for printing.

Printing Obtaining printouts of Photoshop images involves quite a few variables and decisionschoosing a printer, setting the page up, deciding on paper quality, etc.

PageMaker PageMaker is a layout software program that automates all the steps in developing a printed

document.

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Requisites for creating new document Before one begins to work on a document in PageMaker, it is important to feed in data about the paper size, margin, and page extent of the document.

Creating master pages For multi-page documents, it is important to create master pages. PageMaker displays a two page spread, labelled L and R Headers, footers, graphics, and column grids applied on the master pages appear on all the pages of the layout automatically. automatically.

Changing page size view On this software, it is possible to shrink an image to see the whole page or to see varying enlargements enlargeme nts on the page up to 400 per cent of its actual size.

Using rulers PageMaker allows the user to draw horizontal and vertical rulers on the page. Measurement of ruler can be changed into millimetres, inches, and picas. Rulers provide accuracy in laying a page.

Using guidelines A fundamental aid to page layout is the grid, which helps one to visualize the basic format of  a page and provides an accurate reference for positioning text and graphics

Entering text TEXT can be typed directly or placed/pasted from word documents, Text is typed in text  blocks in PageMaker. PageMaker. The blocks can be moved like any other graphic object. Text blocks have sizing handles that allow the user to resize their width.

Formatting type PageMa Pag eMake kerr offer offerss hig highly hly acc accura urate te typ typogr ograp aphic hic conten contents ts of let letter ters, s, words words,, limes limes and  paragraphs. With Pag PageMaker eMaker,, one is free to exp experiment eriment with different forma formats. ts.

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Changing font families A font family consists of the basic typeface and (usually) the bold, normal, and italic forms of  the typeface. The type can be changed by selecting a section of the text and applying the required type attributes to it.

Character specification This involves specifying the space between lines-known as leading- and between letters, which is adjusted by tracking.

Editing text One can add, change, or delete words in the document layout window in PageMaker. The view size of the windows can be enlarged to make the text easier to read.

Adding Graphics Graphics can be added anywhere in a document by drawing with PageMaker drawing tools or   by importing images from other programs or sc scanned anned photog photographs. raphs.

Text wrap PageMaker normally considers graphics to be independent objects on the page. If the graphic is inserted on the text page, it can make room for itself by shifting the text around it with the help of the text wrap command.

Adding colour Colour can be added to text as well as graphics. Colour are displayed and activated with the colour palette which contains default colour and custom colours defined by the user.

Saving a document While working on a document, it should be saved every ten minutes. The first time one saves a particular particular document document,, he/ she needs to use the Save dia dialog log box to assign assign a file name and and directory path.

Printing a document One should select the printer according to the quality requirement for the job. He/she should

ensure that the printers can recognize the fonts used on the page. If the job is meant for  commercial printing, one should discuss the page information with the service bureau.

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LESSON 3 : QUARKXPRESS QuarkXPress is a layout program like PageMaker PageMaker.. It is known for its box-based interface. It is known for its box –based interface. interface. It contains three types of boxes-text, pictu picture, re, and fill.

Pages and spread The most basic concept in QuarkXPress is the page-all documents are made up of one or   pages, which can can face each each other to create a sspread. pread.

Pasteboard The work surface of QuarkXPress is the pasteboard, which is as big as a document.

Using the pallets QuarkXPress has several floating palettes such as tools, measurement, style, colour, etc.

Handling text and Graphics Any object created on QuarkXPress can be moved, resized, reshaped, locked, and grouped with other objects. Importing text One can create a text box in QuarkXPress and import the text from a Word document. Any overset text will flow into another box if both the boxes are linked.

Editing text QuarkXPress has tools that allow the user to replace text and check spelling. It also has the standards cut, copy, and paste commands

Formatting text There are two ways to apply text formatting in QuarkXpress locally and by using a style sheet. Importing graphics QuarkXPress lets the user import scanned images and images created in other applications. They can be manipulated to some degree and integrated into the design in QuarkXPress

Use of Master page One must have have a master page whe whenn all the pages nee needd to look alike alike in terms of style and database information.

Use of Colour Every QuarkXpress document starts with a set of default colours including the four basic

colours. One can also combine colours one has defined to create multi-ink colours.

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Trapping Trapping consists of making sure that different coloured elements overlap enough so that there will be no gaps between them. QuarkXpress has built in trapping system.

Printing As with most modern software, printing is easy and works in the same way. The Quality of   prints sometimes depends on the output medium, such as film or paper. paper. At other times, it depends on the output medium, such as film or paper. At other times, it depends on the  purpose of the prints, prints, such as obta obtaining ining proofs or final outputs. outputs.

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UNIT V LESSON 1: MAGAZINE DESIGN PRINCIPLES If the design strategy serves as a plan or blueprint for a publication, it can be useful to think  of the elements of design as structural components and the design principles as the tools. Principles help a designer determine the relationship between the parts or design elements involved invo lved and serve as rules that a desig designer ner can follo follow w when combining combining these elements elements in a design. Within Within the realm of publication design, these elements and principles are combined in a layout . In publication design, a layout is a composed page or cover design. In any given layout, some  principles will likely have a more dominant function, whereas others serve a supporting role. Before design decisions can be made, it is important to understand what each of these  principles involves. involves.

Hierarchy Hierarchy is achieved by determining dominance or emphasizing one design element over  another. In some cases, it is obvious which elements in a layout need to be most dominant, such as the photograph of a new car on the cover of a brochure that promotes it. However, often the designer determines which elements will dominate and which will be subordinate, and develops an arranged order by controlling size, placement, colour, and balance of these elements. This arrangement determines the path the viewer’s eye will take as it scans a layout. Lack of  clear visual hierarchy is the reason many designs fail to attract and hold a viewer’s attention. It is important that one element be dominant to give the viewer’s eye a  focal point . There should also be an underlying order of emphasis for other elements in the design. There should never be a “power struggle’’ between design elements.

Balance We strive for balance in all aspects of our lives. A diet of too many starchy foods is not  balanced. If we work too hard and don’t take time to relax, our lives feel out of balance.

Balance is also an important component in design. When design elements are not in balance, the viewer feels uncomfortable. Balance in a design refers to the equal distribution of visual 198

 

weight wei ght in a lay layou out.t. In any layou layout,t, som somee vis visual ual elements elements ha have ve more more optica opticall weight weight or  dominance than others. It is the designer’s role to arrange these visual elements so that they are in optical balance. There are two approaches to achieving balance in a layout: symmetric and asymmetric. In a symmetrically balanced layout, identical or similar design elements are aligned in an equal way on either side of a vertical axis. Symmetrically balanced layouts tend to be more formal and static in their appearanc appearance. e. In an asymmetrical layout, balance is achieved with an unequal arrangement of elements. Asymmetrical layouts tend to look more casual than those that are symmetrically balanced. However, achieving asymmetrical balance is more difficult and complex because the visual weight of each element and their arrangement needs to be carefully considered. Balance can often be achieved by balancing positive with negative space, space, or form with counter form.

Proximity The placement of design elements together and apart from one another is a function of   proximity.. Equal spacing between elements in a composition often results in a static, boring  proximity design. However, proportional variation in the placement of elements results in a kinetic tension that brings interest and excitement to a layout. The space between two or more elements affects their relationship. Visual tension results as they move together, and when they touch, hybrid shapes can form. Proximity groupings of several design elements can create patterns, a sense of rhythm or other relationships, such as ambiguity between figure and ground. Groupings where elements are layered or one element overlaps another can create the illusion of depth.

Rhythm, Pattern, and Texture In music, rhythm refers to a pattern of alternating occurrences of sound and silence. Rhythm

in design is similar in that it is a pattern that is created by repeating visual elements and establishing a sense of movement from one element to the next. Sound and silence are replaced with form and space. Texture is closely related to pattern in that texture is a bi 199

 

 product of repetition, but it differs from pattern in that the perception of the shapes, lines, or  typographic forms that were used in its creation are overridden by the sense of texture that is achieved. Texture is not a design principle or element on its own, but can enhance the quality of  elemen ele ments ts in a lay layout out by giv giving ing the them m sur surfac facee cha charac racter terist istics ics.. Text exture ure can imply imply tactile tactile characteristics by simulating surfaces such as fur or granite. Texture can be created by digitally scanning actual objects or by using markers, pen-and-ink, paint, and pencil to create textural effects. Designers use texture to achieve richness, variety, variety, and depth in a composition and to help differentiate figure from ground.

Scale Scale is the size relationships between the various elements in a layout and can be used to control emphasis and hierarchy. A sense of perspective, or the illusion of depth, is an aspect of scale. Spatial depth can be achieved by placing large elements in the front and smaller  elements in the back. Overlapping shapes can increase the illusion of spatial depth. Scale is often relative to what we are accustomed to seeing and experiencing. Because we are used to thinking of an elephant as large and a fly as small, a scale reversal, where a fly is seen as large and imposing, can create visual interest and surprise by presenting the viewer with something unexpected. Using contrast of scale, where one element in a layout overpowers another,, can result in intriguing relationships between design elements. another

Unity and Variety Unity is achieved by choosing and organizing design elements in a way that creates a sense of  wholeness and harmony. harmony. Unity can be easily achieved when all elements in a composition are the same. However, too much sameness can result in a boring composition. As a complementary principle, variety involves choosing and adding different elements for  visual interest. Too much variety, or random use of it, can cause confusion. The most effective design solutions achieve a balance between unity and variety by arriving at a

harmonious combination of design elements that are similar in subtle ways, yet varied enough to be visually stimulating.

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Design Elements Design elements are the components or the parts that make up a design composition. The formal elements of design, shape, line, and colour, are abstract in nature, meaning that they do not describe anything. However, they can be used to represent an object. A circular circular shape, for instance, can represent the moon in a composition. Designers arrange elements in a layout in support of the publication’ publication’ss goal and give them order using the principles.

Shape Shape is the form or outline of something. It can also be described as form or mass. In computer programs, shape is often described as a closed form or closed path. In twodimensional design, a shape has width and length but not three-dimensional mass. A shape can be described by a line that defines its edge, or it can be defined by an edge that is clear  and distinct. Shapes exist as figures in or on a ground. Although they are generally considered as positive figures displacing space, the negative space, or the space around a figure, has shape as well. Harmonic relationships occur when a designer pays attention to both of these aspects. Dynamic visual activity develops when ambiguity exists between positive shapes and the negative spaces surrounding them.

Line A line is a path connecting two or more points. Althoug Althoughh computer programs describe lines as  paths, a line can also be a mark made by a tool that is drawn across a surface to describe a  path. Lines can can be straight or ang angular, ular, or the theyy can meand meander er and curve. The quality or look of a line is an aspect of the tool that makes it, and it can communicate a mood or attitude. For instance, a line drawn with charcoal has a soft, organic quality. One drawn with pen-and-ink is crisp and precise.

Lines can also indicate direction. Horizontal lines in a composition guide a viewer’s eye from left to right. Vertical lines direct a viewer’s gaze downward and upward. Lines are often implied. Alignment of type or shaped elements in a composition can create implied linear  201

 

relationships. Linear relationships can activate compositional space by helping to direct the viewer’s eye.

Colour Like texture, colour enhances the elements in a layout by helping to activate shapes and space and by creating emphasis and supporting hierarchy. Designers who understand how to use colour effectively can use it to create a sense of special depth and emphasis, and guide a viewer’s eye through a layout. Colour can also be a powerful means of communicating emotion and can be a useful unifying device in publication design.

Type The principles that apply to the other formal design elements also apply to type. Type is a component in page and cover layout that is controlled and arranged with other elements in support of the publication’s communication goal. However, type plays a dual role in that typogr typ ograph aphic ic form formss als alsoo con contai tainn ver verbal bal mea meanin ning. g. It is as imp import ortant ant for typogr typograph aphyy to effectively communicate a verbal message as well as function well in a design composition. Text, whether it is set in a rectangular format or configured to form a shape, functions as a design element in a layout. The amount of emphasis that a text-filled shape has in a layout is largely a result of its scale and the size, weight, and style of the typeface that is used.

Imagery Although not a formal element of design, imagery can function as a design element in page and page layout. Imagery can take the form of a photograph or illustration. It can be framed in a rect rectan angu gula larr or circ circul ular ar form format at,, or it ca cann fu func ncti tion on as an ou outl tlin ined ed sh shap apee (wit (witho hout ut  background) in a layout. A designer may be given imagery to work with, be given the task of  supplying an image, or be given the option to decide whether or not imagery is important to meeting the design objective. Typographic forms can be used to create shapes and harmonious figure/ground relationships

in a layout. Many typographic forms, by themselves, are beautiful and appealing to the eye. The pos positi itive ve and neg negati ative ve sha shape pess that that occ occur ur betwe between en arrang arrangeme ements nts of let letter terfor forms ms an andd

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numerals can also yield many intriguing visual possibilities. Typographic forms can also be layered to create spatial depth. Type also performs as a linear element in a composition, helping to guide a viewer’s eye. Typographic forms can be arranged in a way that implies linear direction, or they can be configured into a straight line or a curve to direct a viewer’s gaze. Just as a block of text serves as shape in a composition, the quality of the text within that  block can lend texture to that shape. Textural effects or patterns can also be created by repeating typographic forms. Type can also be used to support support attitude or mood.

Organizing Content Earlier in this chapter you learned about the importance of emphasis and hierarchy in page and cover layout. Understanding which design element should receive the most emphasis and which ones should play a supportive role is the first step in determining an arrangement. From there, the next step involves developing an underlying structure for organizing this arrangement.

Proportional Propor tional Systems and Grids Over the years, architects, artists and designers have used proportional systems or  grids to give organization and structure to visual elements in a design. A grid supplies an underlying struct str ucture ure or a tra transp nspare arent nt fra framew mework ork for det determ ermini ining ng whe where re to ali align gn gra graphi phicc elemen elements, ts, imagery. and text in a layout. A grid can be as simple as an invisible guide line running through a layout, or it can be more a complex system. Proportion is how a page is segmented. Proportional systems determine how a grid will be developed. Historically, optically pleasing arrangements have been based on proportional relati rel ations onship hipss fou found nd in nat nature ure.. The  golden mean, for instance, is based on a harmonic arrangement that has been found in plants and other life forms. It even exists in the human  body.. If you measure your body from foot to navel, then ffrom  body rom navel to the top of your head, you will find the ratio between these measurements is 1 to 1.6. This mathematic ratio can be expressed in a proportionately sectioned rectangle. The Ancient Greeks understood this ratio and applied it to the proportions of the Parthenon. Designers often apply this principle today to serve as a guide for organizing text and visuals in a layout.

Othe Otherr alig alignm nmen entt prin princi cipl ples es comm common only ly appl applie iedd to pa page ge la layo yout utss ar aree ba base sedd on si simi mila lar  r   proportional relationships that have been proven, proven, over time, to be optically pleasing. The line 203

 

of golden proportion, for instance, is based on dividing a page into eighths and placing a

design element or single line of text at a point so it is at three-eighths from the top of a page. It is the designer’s job to develop a grid that will support the publication’s content and visuals. Complex grids comprised of a series of horizontal and vertical lines provide a system for determining mathematically precise, modular units of text, visuals, and other graphic elements that comprise a page layout.

Directing Eye Movement After a grid or method of alignment has been decided upon, hierarchy and emphasis play an important role in guiding a viewer’s eye through a layout. The designer determines which element is most important and will be the first to catch a viewer’s attention. From there, design desi gn elements elements with seco secondar ndaryy impor importanc tancee (follo (followed wed by those with even less importanc importance) e) lead the viewer’s gaze through a layout so that the eye moves in a way that takes in all of the visual content. The positioning of elements on a page, their size, colour, and visual weight, as well as their  relationship to one another all affect hierarchy. Here are some guidelines to keep in mind when determining what elements will be seen first and which will play a subordinate role: • Position—In Western Western culture, we tend to read from left to right and from top to bottom. A Ass a result, elements in a layout that are positioned at the top and to the left are likely to be seen first. • Scale—Large items in a layout tend to draw the eye. The smallest elements tend to be seen last. • Con Contra trast— st—Are Areas as of hig highh con contra trast st ten tendd to dom domina inate te in a layout layout,, wherea whereass areas areas of low contrast tend to recede. • Implied direction—Linear elements, edges, elements in a line, or even an image such as a face in profile, can direct a viewer’s gaze.

LESSON 2 : TYPES OF PAPER  204

 

Paper is often characterized by weight. The weight assigned to a paper is the weight of a ream (500 sheets) of varying "basic sizes", before the paper is cut into the size it is sold to end customers.

Density of Paper: The density of paper ranges from 250 kg/m3 (16 lb/ft3) for tissue paper to 1500 kg/m3 (94 lb/ft3) for some speciality paper. Printing paper is about 800 kg/m3 (50 lb/ft3).

Bank Paper Bank paper is a thin strong writing wr iting paper of less than 50g/m2 commonly used for typewriting and corresponden correspondence. ce.

Bond Paper Bond paper is a high quality durable writing paper similar to bank paper but having a weight greater than 50 g/m2.It is used for letterheads and other stationery and as paper for electronic  printers. Wide Widely ly employed for graphic work involving pencil, pen and felt-tip marker. marker. It is largely made from rag pulp which produces a stronger paper than wood pulp. A book paper (or publishing paper) is a paper which is designed specifically for the  publication of printed books. Traditio Traditionally nally,, book papers are off white or low white papers (easier to read), are opaque to minimize the show through of text from one side of the page to the other and are (usually) made to tighter caliper or thickness specifications, particularly for  case bound books. Typically, books papers are light weight papers 60 - 90gsm and often specified by their caliper/substance ratios (volume basis).

Construction Paper / Sugar Paper Construction paper or sugar paper, is a type of coarse coloured paper typically available in large sheets. The texture is slightly rough, and the surface is unfinished. Due to the nature of  the source material from which the paper is manufactured, small particles are visible on the

 paper’s surface. surface.

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Cotton Paper Cotton paper is made from 100% cotton fibers. Cotton paper is superior in both strength and durability to wood pulp-based papers, which may contain high concentrations of acids. May also be known as cotton rag or ragged paper. Cottonn fiber papers is know Cotto knownn to last several hundre hundredd years years without without fading, fading, discolou discolouring, ring, or  deteriorating; so is often used for important documents such as the archival copies of  dissertation or thesis. As a rule of thumb, each percentage point of cotton fiber, a user may expect one year of resisting deterioration by use (the handling to which paper may be subjected).(reference - Southwest Paper Co). Legal document paper typically may contain 25% cotton.Cotton paper is also used in banknotes.

Electronic Paper/ E- Paper Electronic Paper is a display technology designed to mimic the appearance of ordinary ink on  paper.Electronic  paper .Electronic paper reflects light like ordinary paper and is capable of holding text and images indefinitely without drawing electricity, while allowing the image to be changed later.E-paper can be crumpled or bent like traditional paper. Pixels on e-paper are image stable, or bistable, so that the state of each pixel can be maintained without a constant supply of power.

Inkjet Paper Inkjet paper is paper designed for inkjet printers, typically classified by its weight, brightness and smoothness, and sometimes by its opacity.

Photo Paper Phot Ph otoo pa pape perr is a ca cate tego gory ry of inkj inkjet et pa pape perr desi design gned ed sp spec ecifi ifica call llyy fo forr re repr prod oduc ucti tion on of 

 photographs. The best of these pape papers, rs, with suitable pigment-based pigment-based ink systems, can can match or  exceed the image quality and longevity of traditional materials used for printing colour   photographs, such as Fuji CrystalArchive (for colour prints from negatives) and 206

 

Cibac Cib achro hrome/ me/Ilfo Ilfochr chrome ome (fo (forr col colour our prints prints from from po posit sitive ive transp transpare arenci ncies) es).. For pri printi nting ng monochrome photographs, traditional silver-based papers are widely felt to retain some advantage over inkjet prints.

Kraft Paper Kraft paper is paper produced by the Kraft process from wood pulp. It I t is strong and relatively coarse. Kraft paper is usually a brown colour but can be bleached to produce white paper. It is used us ed fo forr pa pape perr gr groc ocer eryy ba bags gs,, mu mult ltiw iwal alll sa sack cks, s, en enve velo lope pess an andd ot othe herr pa pack ckag agin ing. g.

Laid Paper Laid paper is a type of paper having a ribbed texture imparted by the manufacturing  process.Laid paper is still commonly used by artists as a support for charcoal drawings.

Tyvek / Tyvex Tyvek is a brand of flash spun high-density polyethylene fibers, a synthetic material; the name is a registered trademark of the DuPont Company. The material is very strong; it is difficult to tear but can easily be cut with scissors or any other sharp object. Water vapor can  pass through Tyvek, but not liquid water, so the material lends itself to a variety of  applications: medical packaging, envelopes, car covers, air and water intrusion barriers (housewrap)) unde (housewrap underr hous housee siding, siding, labe labels, ls, wrist wristband bands, s, mycology mycology,, and graphics graphics.. Tyvek is sometimes erroneously referred to as "T "Tyvex." yvex."

Paper Towel  A paper towel is a disposable product made of paper. It serves the same general purposes as conventional towels, such as drying hands, wiping windows and dusting. Because paper  to towe wels ls are are disp dispos osab able le,, th they ey are are ofte oftenn chos chosen en to av avoi oidd th thee co cont ntam amin inat atio ionn of ge germ rms. s.

Wall Paper 

Wallpaper is material which is used to cover and decorate the interior walls of homes, offices, and other buildings; it is one aspect of interior decoration. Wallpapers Wallpapers are usually sold in rolls 207

 

and are put onto a wall using wallpaper paste.Wallpapers can come either plain so it can be  painted or with patterned graphics. Wallpaper printing techniques include surface printing, gravure printing, silk screen-printing, and rotary printing."Wallpaper" is also a term for  computer wallpaper.

Washi Washi or Wagami is a type of paper made in Japan. Washi is commonly made using fibers from the bark of the gampi tree, the mitsumata shrub (Edgeworthia papyrifera), or the paper  mulberry, but also can be made using bamboo, hemp, rice, and wheat. Washi comes from wa meaning Japanese and shi meaning paper, and the term is used to describe paper made by hand in the traditional manner.Washi is generally tougher than ordinary paper made from wood pulp, and is used in many traditional arts.

Wax Paper  Wax paper (also called waxed paper) is a kind of paper that is made moisture proof through the application of wax.The practice of oiling parchment or paper in order to make it semitranslucent or moisture-proof goes back at least to medieval times. Thomas Edison claimed to have invented wax paper in 1872, but what he really invented was a cheap and efficient means to manufacture such paper.Wax paper is commonly used in cooking, for its non-stick   properties, and wrapping ffood ood for storage, as it keeps water out or in. It is also used in arts and crafts.

Wove Paper  Wove ove pape paperr is a writ writin ingg pa pape perr with with a unifo uniform rm su surf rfac ace, e, no nott ri ribb bbed ed or wate waterm rmar arke ked. d.

Coated Paper Coated paper is paper which has been coated by an inorganic compound to impart certain

qualities to the paper, including weight and surface gloss, smoothness or ink absorbency. Kaolinite is the compound most often used for coating papers used in commercial printing. One function of coating is to protect against ultraviolet radiation. 208

 

LESSON 3 : BROCHURE DESIGN A brochure is an informational pamphlet or leaflet advertising an organization, business, event, product, or service. Brochures are great way the package information in a simple, eyecatching design that attracts potential clients by offering basic information. A well-made  brochure will grab attention of the reader and provide needed information while inspiring the reader to take action.

Do you Need a Brochure ? There are many different print and media products that can be used successfully to promote an organization, business, event, product, or service. Before spending time and money on one or more, consider the characteristics of your audience and decide which method(s) will be most appealing. A brochure is professional, effective, and inexpensive way to provide information to your  target audience. They are designed for people to pick up. Brochures placed in a rack at touris tou rism m inf inform ormati ation on out outlet lets, s, hot hotels els,, mot motels els can pub public licize ize a touris tourism m or retail retail bu busin siness ess.. Brochures also can describe a program or class that is being offered. While brochures do get the word out, they are not as pervasive as a print, radio, or television advertisement.

Getting Started Before you begin to write, plan your brochure. Consider the following to help you gather the information needed.

Target your audience by answering following questions: * Is your audience specialized or familiar with your subject, or are they a general audience, not in the field or trade? * How will your audience use your brochure? For example, is it a “how to” that people will

keep, or is it to promote a one-time event? * How will the brochure be used with other marketing tools?

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Determine the purpose of your brochure. Are you persuading or informing? Having one  primary purpose or approach can be more effective than producing a generalized brochure that tries to say everything and therefore says too much. whatt makes your bu business siness unique. unique. What do Stand out from your competition . Emphasize wha you offer that other companies, services, or experience experiencess do not?

Determine the call to action . A call to action is wording that tells the reader to do something. It could be to make reservations, sign up as a volunteer, visit a store, plant water  wise landscaping plants, or fill out and mail in order form. In your call to action, provide the reader with specific examples and or detailed instructions to help them take the next step. If  you do not include action steps, the reader may lose the point of the brochure or the motivation to take the next step.

Creating your Brochure   A brochure should be clear, attractive, and brief . Before starting the design process, consider:   Grab attention. If the brochure in a rack among many, it has to stand out. Make sure the front panel will attract attention attention by using catc catchy hy phrases or ima images. ges.

The entire look. Attractivenes  Attractivenesss determines how likely a potential consumer is to pick up your   brochure. The The design, inclu including ding colours, fonts, gra graphics, phics, and layout, layout, all impact attractiveness. attractiveness.

The 5W’s and one H.  The reader needs to understand the information and not be left with any questions. To accomplish this, provide answers to the 5W’s – who, what, when where, and why and the H-how? H- how?

* Who is the business or sponsor? * What is the service or event? * When is the event? Give the date, time of the event or business business operation hours * Where is it located? Include map that shows ma major jor highways. * Why should anyone attend, use your service, shop at your store, visit your websites, or take action if this is a public service? * How can they take the action you want

Be brief

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Most people don’t want to read lengthy text. Wordiness can cause many to put a brochure down. To help determine how much text to include: * Think of your brochure as an appetizer. It should offer a small taste that makes the reader  want more.five Share only important interesting points. * Include or fewer key points.and Only use thankey words when possible. * Use bullets to break copy into small, easy- to –scan-chunks

Create Interest. While getting a reader’s reader’s attention may be most imp important, ortant, keeping the their ir interest is hardest. This is where most brochures fails, thus losing a prospective customer. Create interest by appealing to potential clients’ emotions and needs.

Long-term effectiveness. Make your brochure worth keeping. Give your audience a reason to hang on to it, even if they decide dec ide not to ca call ll or buy rig right ht no now w. Inf Inform ormati ationa onall brochu brochures res co conta ntaini ining ng brief, brief, useful useful instructions will be kept longer than brochures containing brief, useful instructions will be kept longer than brochures that do not contain any “how to” details. For example a brochure that provides people with instructions on how to xeriscape their yard is more likely to be kept than one that tells to xeriscape without explaining how. A brochure that describes your   business, showcases showcases what you offer, offer, and includes contact information and directio directions ns also will kept longer than one that does’t include this vital information.

Organize information Use subheadings, subheadings, textboxes, and bulle bullets ts to break up text and organiz organizee information. Readers like brochures that are easy to scan and read in sections.

Avoid copy right infringement.  With information readily available on the interest, it’s easy to break copyright laws, often without realizing it. To avoid violating copyright, seek photos from digital commons areas, obtain permission to use images, be sure the copy right holder is appropriately cited. Obeying copyright holder is appropriately cited. Obeying copyright laws and intellectual property rights is a must.

Check the facts. The information you put into your brochure will be in the public eye. Before you hit print, be sure to have other review the facts. If you are uncertain about the

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information inform ation,, use your resource resources, s, inclu including ding local local libra libraries ries and professio professionals nals,, to review review your   brochure before you you distribute it to the pub public. lic.

Layout At this point you have : * Selected a business, service, or event to publicize with a brochure, and * Decided upon the information to include in the brochure  Next, determine the layout. The way the information is presented helps determine determine how useful the brochure will be to a reader. Good brochures present a logical pathway through the  panels.

Size and format The size of a brochure is usually determined determined by the amount and type of information you need to include, your budget. Y You ou might select.:

* A simple simple rack card that is printed front and back but has no folds * A brochure with four panels or six panels, or * A very very detailed brochure with eight panels or more. Remember, making your brochure longer is not always a good idea. People often prefer brief  information and may not be motivated to read something lengthy. Also, be aware that increasing the number of panels increase the paper size, thereby increasing cost. The number  of folds (or staples) also increase costs for machine or hand folding. Generally speaking, 81/2 x 11 paper works well with a two fold, four panel design or with the typical three-fold, six  panel design.

Back Panel The back panels are an easy-to-find place for contact information. Adding a map next to contact information. Adding a map next to contact information is very helpful for potential visitors. Make sure the map shows major high ways or cities so it is easy for out-of-area

visitors and new residents to get their bearings.

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Mailing information also can be placed on the back panel, allowing the brochure to be mailed without an envelope, which saves money and trees. The post office has regulations for  mailing items without envelope: be sure your brochure meets all postal regulations. To print the back panel like an envelope, place your return address at the top left and leave space for a forwarding address and postage. The fold must be at the bottom, and the opening at the top must be taped closed. Always use tape. Never staples.

Graphic Design Effective graphic design helps grab attention. Consider these design elements when creating your brochure :    

Emphasis Repetition Repetiti on Alignment Proximity

* Levels of information * Typography * White space * Balance

Developing a Functional Strategy Brochures are often expected to accomplish multiple tasks as they can be presented to many different audiences with different needs. They should be designed to get consumers exited about your products or services, provide information to influence a purchasing decision and motive to them act. While brochures commonly illustrate a product, product line or service they can serve many functions: 



Direct mailer to potential or existing customers Handout to attract new customers



Included in a press kit or business proposal



Marketing piece used at fairs, festivals, trade shows or speaking engagements



Promotional piece left at other businesses with similar target audience(s)

Before designing a brochure, consider the following to develop its functional strategy: 1. Prim Primar aryy P Pur urpo pose se

What is the primary purpose of your brochure? 2. Prim Primar aryy B Ben enef efit it

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What unique benefit can you offer customers? What primary customer value or need can your enterprise meet? 3. Seco Second ndar aryy Be Bene nefi fitt What other key benefits will customers receive from your products or services? 4. Tar arge gett Au Audi dien ence ce At whom (what target market) are you aiming this brochure? 5. Au Audi dien ence ce Reac Reacti tion on What response do you want from your audience (come to the operation, visit a website, call an information line)?

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1. Co Comp mpan anyy P Per erso sona nali lity ty What image do you want to convey in your brochure?

If you only plan to develop one brochure, but have multiple target audiences, then the  brochure should be designed in terms of its highest potential financial outcome. Simply put, which audience is most likely to generate the most revenue for your business. The vast majority of the information provided in the brochure should focus on that group.

Collect Useful Information   After determining a functional strategy strategy,, the next step is to collect useful information to include in • Hours of operation the brochure. Consider the following:

• Special events or seasonal calendar

• Descriptions of your enterprise

• Directions / map

• Descriptions of your products or services

• Visual elements

• Contact information

0

Logo

0

Mailing address

1

Photographs

1

Phone number

2

Illustrations or clip art im images

2

Fax number

3

• Testimonials

3

E-mail address

4

• Recent publicity or news articles

4

Website address

Once the information and materials to include in the brochure have been gathered, it is often helpful to either draft an outline or create a mock-up version of the brochure on a folded sheet of paper so that it represents the layout of your brochure.

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Components of a Brochure Common components such as headlines, copy and signature information can be found in most brochures. Additional Additional elements which may be included are subheadings, subheadings, disclosures and illustrations. Let’s Let’s take a closer look at each component:

Headline Headlines should promote consumer benefits. The headline located on the top third of the front panel of a brochure is the most important element. If it fails to grab the reader’s attention then the entire brochure will likely go unnoticed. This is especially true when it is  placed in a brochure rack and the top third is the only portion that may be seen. Headlines may be presented as a statement, question, warning, or as a news alert. They should also be used throughout the brochure to create a balanced design, breaking up too much content making it easier for the reader to skim the page.

Subheading The subheading is an answer or support to the question or curiosity that the main headline evokes and is designed to further draw the reader in. It can act as a break between the headline and the body copy and makes it easier for the reader to skim the brochure for   pertinent information.

Body Copy

The body copy contains descriptive text that should create a visual image of your product or  service. Create excitement by using action words. The copy should persuade the reader to take action. Highlight product features, key benefits and include supporting facts. Keep  paragraphs as short as possible. It is best to limit paragraphs to only two or three sentences. Delete extra words or sentences that are not absolutely necessary. necessary.

In the body copy talk to your audience and not at them as if you are addressing only one  person instead of a mass of people. Use the words “you” and “your” while avoiding the words “we,” “they” and and unclear generalities. The use of subhea subheads ds and numbered or bulleted 216

 

lists can break up a sea of type, highlighting a number of ideas quickly. However, overuse of  this technique will reduce contrast and balance therefore losing its effectiveness. When writing copy remember to keep messages positive and avoid negative connotations or  comments about competitors. Grammar and spelling are important. Run the spelling and grammar check functions on your software. It is also advisable to have several other people read over your materials to find mistakes that might have been missed.

Signature

The signature is where the business name, logo and contact information such as an address,  phone number and website address are located in the brochure. Placement of the signature is most often located in the back panel of the brochure. Disclosures, Terms or Conditions When offers contain special stipulations to the sale; all disclosures, terms or conditions should be included in your brochure. This is often referred to as the fine print. Additional offerings such as warranties, options, incentives or financing terms should be included in this section.

Illustrations Though visual elements are not required, incorporating them will help draw attention to your   brochure. There are various types of visual elements used in brochures such as photographs, hand-draw hand -drawnn illus illustratio trations ns and graph graphic ic desig designed ned image imagery ry.. When poss possible, ible, visual visual elements elements should show action or a product in use rather than static. This design strategy is even more effective when the action features people or other living things. Additionally, using captions along with photos help promote the overall message of the brochure. Quality is essential when working with photographs. They should be of a high resolution and sizab siz able. le. Crop Crop pho photog tograp raphs hs to showca showcase se their their bes bestt light light if necess necessary ary.. Consid Consider er hiring hiring a  professional if you are unable to provide quality photos of your products or services. Another 

alternative is to purchase stock photos for use in your marketing materials. Stock photos are  professional quality photos which represent a common product or service. For example, if 

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you owned a pick-your-own apple orchard then a stock photo of a child picking an apple would be considered a good option for use in your brochure.

Design Considerations Considerations Before developing a brochure consider the following design principles:

The Rule of Thirds When laying out your brochure use the rule of thirds. Divide the page into thirds both vertically and horizontally. Areas where the lines cross are excellent points on your page for  important visual elements such as a headline or image. Use the other lines to line up body copy, graphics or other page elements as needed. Note that a tri-fold design automatically incorporates the rule of thirds, but it is still possible to crowd the space by putting too much content along the fold so use the horizontal lines to aide with important graphical elements.

Type 1. The typ typefa eface ce or font used in a bro brochu chure re can mak makee a big differ differenc encee to the resul results ts you achieve. Limit brochures to two types of font. A san serif font such as Arial for headlines and a serif font like Times New Roman works best for text located in the body copy copy.. Sans serif fonts are clean and look modern but can be hard to read. Serif fonts have tiny serifs or lines on the edges of the letter which reduces eyestrain among readers and makes words easier to read. 2. Use no mor moree than thre threee diff differe erent nt font siz sizes. es. Th Thee size of the font is measur measured ed in poin points ts which simply refer to the font’s height. A good rule of thumb is for the heading text to be twice as large as the copy text and the subheading text should be half-way between. For  example, in a brochure, set the headlines font size to 24 points, subheadings at 18 points and copy text at 12 points. Remember, it is best not to use a font size smaller than 10  points. 3. Uppe Upperr and lower case case type typeface face ha hass been sho shown wn to make he headlin adlines es more readabl readable. e. 4. Do not mix too ma many ny type sty styles les suc suchh as words in al alll capita capitall letters, letters, italics, italics, bold-face bold-face or  underlined. Overuse of these styles will deemphasize deemphasize the message.

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White Space

White space is the area on a page without words or that is left blank. This term applies even if  th thee back backgr grou ound nd has has colo colour ur.. Crow Crowdi ding ng a broc brochu hure re wi with th to tooo many many vi visu sual al el elem emen ents ts or  information will make it look cluttered and difficult to read, therefore reducing its overall effectiveness.

Brochure Layout While a basic tri-fold design with six panels is the most common layout used, brochures come in many shapes and sizes. Other typical layouts include the bi-fold layout with four   panels, z-fold layout with eight panels, or rack cards with only a front and back panel. Examples used throughout the remainder of this publication will focus on a standard tri-fold design; however the information can be adapted and applied for use with other layout designs as well.

(1) Outside Front Cover 219

 

1

Atte Attent ntio ionn gget etti ting ng head headli line ne sh shou ould ld be plac placed ed on th thee ttop op on one-t e-thi hird rd of th thee pag pagee

2

Busi Busine ness ss na name me,, lo logo go and and ooth ther er kkey ey info inform rmat atio ionn sh shou ould ld be be pla place cedd llow ower er on th thee pag pagee

0

Visual elements such as photographs or illustrations are encouraged but should not

1

overshadow your message

(2) Inside Front Cover   2

• Include a brief synopsis synopsis of information about busine business, ss, product or service Focus on

customer benefits Use bbulleted ulleted lists (3) Inside Middle Panel and (4) Inside Back Flap • Expand on customer benefits, products and services you summarized on inside front cover • Include detailed information 1 Conta ontacct in info form rmaation tion 2 Websit bsitee addre dress 3 Special events 4 Map 5

• Use brie rief statements and bulleted lliists

6

• Include visual elements

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5. Outside Back Flap

8

• Gen Genera rall llyy tthhe se second cond panel nel vvie iewe wedd by by the the re reaader 9 Sum Summa mariz rizee most iimpo mporta rtant nt informa informatio tionn for a qui quick ck refer referen ence ce 10 Days and hour hourss of opera operation tion 11 Pr Pric icin ingg 12 Ph Phon onee nnum umbe berr 13 Webs ebsite ite aaddr ddress ess

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• Fa Favo vora rabl blee lo loca cati tion on ffor or a prom promot otio iona nall co coup upon on oorr even eventt regi regist stra rati tion on

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6. Outside Middle Panel

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• Business logo

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• Website address

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• If using as a direct ma mailer 19 Spac Spacee fo forr ccustom ustomer er aaddres ddresss 20 Re Retu turn rn ad addr dres esss

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• If using as a direc rect hand-out 22 Map or dir direc ectio tions ns

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Summary Brochures can be an effective marketing tool when time is taken to carefully develop a proper  strategy. Special attention should be given to the layout and other design considerations. When done correctly a brochure’s front cover will grab a reader’s attention by appealing to their needs. Focusing on the benefits will persuade them to open the brochure for further  investigation. Communicating your company’s unique advantage will motivate readers to take action, thus resulting in your communication objective being met.

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LESSON 5 : LAYOUT LAYOUT STAGES AND FORMATS

The Design of Advertising Ten Basic Formats Whether you start right off on a comprehensive or try some thumbnails and rough layouts first, you will be trying to put the elements of the ad into a pleasing and useful arrangement. The number of arrangements and patterns you can come up with as a designer are almost endless, but it is possible to fit most print-medium advertisements into ten basic categories or  formats, if you interpret them loosely enough. A professional designer might balk at such categorizations,, saying that the art is too lively categorizations lively,, too ffull ull of surprises to pin down so abruptly. And some other writer on design might come up with a different set of categories. But a set like the one that follows may help the beginner see some new possibilities for design. 1.  Mondrian Layout. Let us start with one of the most widely recognized formats: Mondrian layout, named after the Dutch painter Piet Mondrian. Involved in a lifetime affair with  proportion, Mondrian, using black bars and lines and solid areas of primary colour, divided his canvases into vertical and horizontal rectangles and squares. Mondrian reworked his designs many times before he was satisfied with the sizes and relationships of each of the rectangles to be painted. He carried this concern to the decor of  hi hiss stud studio io:: an ou out-o t-of-p f-pla lace ce as asht htra rayy grea greatl tlyy dist distur urbe bedd hi him. m. To Mo Mond ndria rian, n, be beau auty ty wa wass exclusively geometric. He avoided the colour green because it is too close to nature. ÒAll in all,Ó he is quoted as saying, Ònature is a damned wretched affair. affair. I can hardly stand it.Ó The advertising designer, while not sharing MondrianÕs intensity, intensity, nevertheless freely applies MondrianÕs principles to the printed page. The designer uses rectangles of type or art much as Mondrian used solid blocks of colour. Sometimes the designer retains the lines or bars Mondrian used to separate elements; sometimes the designer leaves them out. Mondrian ads appear everywhere for a few months, then die out,

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D. CenciÕs ÒDetails, DetailsÓ ad selling menÕs high-style clothing makes use of a Mondrian Mond rian design design appr approach oach,, puttin puttingg elem elements ents into a near near-forma -formall balan balance. ce. Agenc Agency: y: Severin Aviles Associates. Art director and designer: Anthony Aviles. Copywriters: James Severin and Kathleen Cooney Severin.

th then en come come back back agai again. n. An Andd no wond wonder er th thee styl stylee re retu turn rnss to po popu pula larit rity: y: A Mond Mondri rian an arrangement is an easy, logical, workable, effective effective way to display type and art. The designer of Mondrian ads, like the master himself, is more interested in proportion as a design principle than in eye travel or emphasis or any of the other principles. There is nothing wrong with this. For some advertising, proportion deserves chief consideration, consideration, if for no other  reason than to set the ad apart from other ads whose designers have stressed some other  design principle. Designers with newspaper backgrounds take naturally to Mondrian layout because of their  experience with column rules and cutoff rules and boxes on the newspaper page. But

Mondrian layout is considerably more subtle than newspaper makeup. The idea is -to come up with a fitted set of vertical and horizontal rectangles (with perhaps a square thrown in)-all in different sizes. Lines separating the rectangles can be of even or varying widths; at their  223

 

thinnest they are bolder than ordinary newspaper column rules. Sometimes the designer uses Ben Day or colour.rules in combination with solid black rules. One or two of the rectangles may be filled with halftones; others may contain copy; others may be blank. If the ruled lines are heavy heavy,, typefaces should be bolder than normal. Sans serifs or gothics are appropriate types to use. Mondrian layouts are used more frequently in magazines than in newspapers, because the multiplicity of lines and resulting rectangles tend to break the- ad into sections that may be scattered optically when smaller ads are placed alongside, as on a newspaper page. Large reverse L-shape ads (or step ads) in newspapers sponsored by department stores or  womenÕs fashion stores, however, make use of the Mondrian principle with considerable success.

In arranging the rectangles, the designer lightly rules a series of horizontal and vertical lines, then eliminates some of them, either entirely or partially, and strengthens others, striving to leave rectangles of varying sizes and dimensions. The balance is almost always informal. Swiss design, with its orderly approach, has some ties to Mondrian layout. But in Swiss design, lines or bars are not shown; they appear only in the mind of the designer. And the

design is based often on a grid of squares instead of rectangles. 2.  Pictur  Picture-Wind e-Window ow Layout . More popular than Mondrian and especially suited to magazines is the format known in the trade as ÒA ÒAyer yer No. I,Ó after the agency that pioneered its use. We We 224

 

will call it ÒPicture window window.. Ó Doyle.Dane Bernibach for V Volkswagen olkswagen had particular success with this format, but probably theme and copy brilliance and wit were more important than layout. The least you can say for picture window layout is that it does not get in the way of  the adÕs message. No Òart for artÕs sakeÓ here, just generous display of picture and tight editing of copy so it will fit the small space remaining. The designer often bleeds the picture and crops close, almost overpowering the reader. Below the picture is a one-line, centered headline; copy may be broken into two or three short columns. The logo may be worked into the last column of the copy, thereby saving some space. To tie the picture with the copy, the designer may overprint or reverse some of the headline onto the picture. Or the designer may line up the copy with some-axis within the picture. The  picture is usually at the top, but nothing prevents the designer from pushing it down a bit,  placing the headline and and even the copy ab above. ove. A smaller smaller picture-or perhaps a line dra drawing wing for  contrast-can be placed near the copy.

The nature of the picture will affect the designerÕs decision on placement and type style for  the headline. Leading the body copy from 2 to 6 points helps keep the copy 225

 

3. Copy-Heavy Layout. The advertiser chooses a mostly-copy format for two reasons: (1) What is to be said is too involved, too important, too unique, too dignified to be put in  pictures; (2) most other ads in the medium will be picture-window or at least heavily pictureoriented, so a gray, quiet, copy-heavy approach makes a good change of pace. Because copy-heavy advertising takes itself rather more seriously than other advertising, it usually puts its elements into formal balance. Lines of the headlines, set in@roman, are centered; copy begins with a large initial letter and is broken into two or more columns. The logo is centered underneath. But a more interesting arrangement can result from less formal  balance, with the ad retaining the dignity it would have in a more formal arrangement. The designer should plan for a blurb or secondary headline as well as a main headline. Even though the copy is voluminous, there may be room for a few quiet illustrations. When copy is long, it must be broken somehow into easy-to take segments. The beginning beginning designer  often makes the mistake of marking such copy to be set solid, because it is so long. But long copy, even more than short copy, should be leaded, by at least a point or two. Furthermore, the copy at logical breaks should be refreshed with subheads of one kind or another. Subheads can be flush right, flush left, or centered, in a typeface slightly larger or bolder than the body type, or in all caps. Extra space should frame such subheads. Subheads can also be formed from the first two or three words of a paragraph, set in boldface. Extra space should  be provided to separate separate the bold beginning beginning from the pa paragraph ragraph above. 4.  Frame Layout. A photographer can get-a pleasantly composed picture by taking the shot from one of natureÕs nooks, with foliage and a rock formation in the foreground, dark and out of focus, framing the heart of the picture. In advertising, the designer easily frames a layout with a border, doing it sometimes with artwork that is drawn to leave room in the middle for headline and copy.

Frame layout, used more in newspaper advertising than in magazine advertising, keeps elements within bounds, preventing their being associated with some other ad on the page. There is something cozy about frame layout. But it does tend to decrease the optical size of  the ad. 226

 

Furthermore, the ad, if placed at the edge of a page, loses additional white space between the edge of the ad and. the edge of the page that an unframed ad would pick up. A variation variation of the frame layout is the one in which kidney-shaped artwork is spread over a large portion of the layout, creating a cul-desac of white in which the headline and copy are placed. Another  variation is the layout using a picture a photograph, usually that completely covers the area. Type is either surprinted or reversed in non-patterned or plain-toned areas.

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5. Circus Layout. An orderly approach in design is probably more important to the editorial than to the advertising side. The reader is already interested in editorial. The purchase of the newspaper or magazine proves this. Advertising has to work harder for attention. And to set itself apart from the staid editorial material, it takes more liberty with basic design principles. It does not mind standing on its head or wearing a lampshade. Moreover, there is something to be said for some disorder in an ad. It slows down the reader, making things more difficult to take in. And in the process of working through the disorder, the reader may remember  more. We can call design of this type Òcircus layout.Ó Filled with reverse blocks, oversize type, sunbursts, tilts, and assorted gimmicks, it may not win prizes in art directorsÕ competitions,  but apparently it does sell merchandise-at merchandise-at least a certain kind of merchandise to a certain

class of customers.

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Its apparent disarray (actually, under a good designer its elements are thoughtfully arranged) is sometimes found in advertising for lofty clients. It was this kind of layout, in the capable hands of art director Otto Storch, that helped helped bring McCallÕs out of its ÒT ÒTogethernessÓ ogethernessÓ rut to the number-one position among womenÕs magazines in the late 1950s. Circus layout takes in a wide range of layout approaches and deals usually with a larger-than-average number of  components. The secret of good circus layout lies in the dedication of the designer to basic principles of  design. Elements are organized into units, which in turn are organized into a unified pattern. Faced with many elements of equal weight, the designer achieves a pleasing proportion by  bunching some into a particularly heavy unit, to contrast with other units in the ad. V Variety ariety is a main concern, and the designer designer gets it chiefly through size, shape,- and tone cchanges hanges within the ad.

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Retail advertisers find circus layout especially useful. Because retail ads are often directed to  bargain hunters, prices played up in large sizes become an important element, ranking with

headlines and art units. One of the contributions of the underground press of the late 1960s was the attention it gave to the circus approach in graphic design. Thanks Ô to the flexibility of the offset printing 230

 

 process, circus. layout became the predominant format. Often self-conscious and amateurish, it nevertheless influenced the design thinking of the establishment press. In the hands of  designers desi gners who kne knew w what they were doin doing, g, it resu resulted lted in some engaging, engaging, if complicated complicated,, advertising in the 1970s. 6.  Multipanel Layout. Breath-purifying toothpaste, body-building iron tablets, and pimplerestricting yeasts started multi-panel layout a couple of generations ago with their ads in Sunday comic sections, made to look just like the regular fare. Today this Òcomic stripÓ layout technique is more useful than ever, although it has grown a bit more sophisticated, with photos replacing the drawings, in most cases, and with conversation set in type beneath the pictures rather than ballooned within. The designer often plans for panels of equal size, feeling that the staccato effect keeps the reader moving effortlessly through the ad. A proportional difference is achieved by keeping the block of panels larger than the block that remains to house the headline, explanatory body type, and signature. The panels can be used to tell a story, or they can be used simply to display a series of products, pretty much in checkerboard fashion.

7. Silhouette Layout. In another kind of layout layout the designer arrang arranges es elements in such such a way as to for form m one impos imposing ing and intere interesti sting ng sil silhou houett ette. e. Profes Professor sor Hal Hallie lie J. Ham Hamilt ilton on ha hass 231

 

explained to students at Northern Illinois University that silhouette layout evolves from the unique shape created by the design of the ad, not by the shape of the elements used.

The more irregular the silhouette, the better. To To test a silhouette, the designer tries to imagine the elements in the ad blacked in.

To illustrate the superiority of an irregular silhouette over a regular one, consider the ancient art of paper-cutting portraiture. The scissors artist always works from a side View, never a 232

 

front view. Otherwise, no one would recognize the portrait. One portrait would look just like the next. The outline of a front view of a face is never as interesting as the outline of the side view.. Silhouette layout is Òside viewÓ layout. view Just combining a silhouette photograph with some almost touching copy will give you a silhouette ad. But you can use regular square or rectangular photographs, too. The way they are put together Ð staggered rather than stacked-gives the ad its silhouette look.

Too much white space separating elements within the silhouette destroys the unity of the ad; so the designer usually pushes white space to the outside, forming a sort of border. In silhouette layout many designers arrange elements so that something in the ad touches each of the adÕs edges, preferably at spots unrelated to each other. This accomplishe accomplishess two things: (1) It prevents the white frame from turning into an even halo that could diminish, optically, the adÕs size; and (2) it prevents the mediumÕs encro encroachi aching ng on white space space the client has  paid for. Another way in a silhouette ad to guarantee that the client gets all the space  purchased is for the the designer to pla place ce dots at all four corn corners ers of the paste up. up. Checking tear sheets of the ad and finding that both dots at the top, say, are missing, the advertiser is alerted to the possibility that the medium has taken away some of the space. 8. Big-T  Big-Type ype Layout. Type manufacturers, typesetting houses, printers, and periodicals all issue type-specimen sheets or books for their clients, so that the clients can look over the selection and marvel at it and pick those typ types es that may be appropriate appropriate for a given job or us use. e. In their  largest sizes, types hold particular appeal to the artist and the designer, who derive an almost sensual pleasure through study of typeÕs peculiar curves and corners and serifs and stroke variations. Suspecting that type beauty might also be appreciated by the lay reader, or knowing that big typee comman typ commands ds gre greate aterr atten attentio tionn tha thann small small typ type, e, design designers ers someti sometime mess tur turnn to a type type specimen approach in their layouts. ÒSecond comingÓ type pushes boldly through the ad, leading to a small amount of body copy; or the body copy itself is set in a type that is well

 beyond the normal normal 10- to 12-point size sizess used in ordina ordinary ry ads.

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Type overpowers art in layouts like this. Art may not even be needed. Ordinarily we associate  big-type ads with hard-s-ell retailers; but well-designed or graceful types, used large size,  perhaps screened screened to a percen percentage tage of black, se serve rve image-consc image-conscious ious clients as well. Some of the best big-type ads use lowercase letters rather than all caps because lower case is more interesting. If only a few words are involved, the designer takes some liberties with readability.. Lines may rride readability ide piggyback on each other; they may overlap; they may be doctored to intensify the mood of the ad.

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9.  Rebus Layout. The Beef Industry Council an d Beef Board ad nearby serves as a good example of rebus advertising: advertising with copy broken up into small sections by illustrations. In most rebus advertising, the illustrations-and there are often many of themtake on such importance that the copy is set to wrap around them or to be interrupted by them. Communicators in semi-primitive societies developed rebuses to stand for difficult words or   phrases. Rebuses are small, simple drawings inserted at various places in text matter, sort of  as visual puns. A puz puzzle-maker zle-maker,, Sam Loyd, popularized rebuses in America in the nineteenth century, but they found use in many societies before then. They are still used, although not widely,, in word-and-picture puzzles for children. widely A modified rebus is one in which an occasional word or phrase is omitted and a picture substituted. An advertiser will not make a puzzle of an ad-clarity is too important-but may want to amplify the copy by inserting a series of illustrations. They can be all the same size, for a staccato effect; or they can be in various sizes to add variety to the ad. The ÒcopyÓ in

some cases is nothing more than picture captions. 10.  Alphabet-Inspire  Alphabet-Inspiredd Layout. The beauty of letterform, established by scribes and type designers over a period of several centuries, provides one other source of inspiration for  235

 

designers. The basic shape of letters, both capitals and lower case, can serve as the basic  pattern for the arranging arranging of elements within an ad. An ad designed to approximate the shape of a letter of the alphabet-or a number, for that matter-usually is strong in unity and eye travel, two important design qualities. The designer, however, should avoid an arrangement that too closely suggests a particular letter. The letter  should serve only as the starting point. The reader ordinarily would not be conscious that the ad took off from a letter or number. It may be helpful to consider each of the ten basic formats described here before beginning your assignment. Choosing one, you will find innumerable variations occurring to you as you doodle. Combining two of them into a single format, you will find your explorations even more fruitful.

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LESSON 6 : THE PRINCIPLES AND ELEMENTS OF PUBLICATION DESIGN

Design is a visual language built on fundamental principles and elements. The elements (shape, line, and colour) are governed by principles or rules that create order and visual interest or appeal. A publication designer works with these design principles and elements and combines them with words (in the form of type) and imagery to achieve a publication’s  purpose or goal. The goal may be to inform, persuade, se sell, ll, or entertain. The designer’s designer’s role is to manage the design process in an informed way by fully understanding the publication’s goal and how it can be achieved using the principles and elements of design.

Communication and Design Design is basically giving form and visual meaning to a publication, based on its purpose. But before the design process can begin, it is necessary to have a full understanding of a  publication’ss goal, its intende  publication’ intendedd audience, and where it will be see seenn and read.

Understand the Goal Publications are conceived and developed for any number of reasons. However, However, the goal of  most publications can be broken down into four categories. Publications exist to (1) inform, (2) persuade, (3) sell , or (4) entertain. 1. Inform: This textbook was conceived as an instructional aid for students who want to learn about publication design. Simply put, the goal of this book could be stated as “help students learn how to design publications.’’ publications.’’ In addition to textbooks, other publications that educate or  inform include instruction manuals, newspapers, encyclope encyclopedias, dias, dictionaries, and directories. 2. Persuade: Publications that persuade try to convince the reader to make a decision or act in

a deliberate way. Examples of persuasive publications include campaign literature, travel  brochures, and other promotional literature tha thatt persuades its aaudience udience to buy or or invest in a  product or service. service.

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3. Sell: Sales literature is different from persuasive publications in that it serves as a sales vehicle. Publications that sell allow the reader to see merchandise, make informed choices, and then follow through with a purchase. Catalogs, for instance, allow a reader to read about, select, and order merchandise. 4. Entertain: Publications that entertain include novels, comic books, or any other publication that exists solely for the purpose of entertaining the reader r eader.. Although some publications have  just one goal, many many publications ha have ve more than on onee goal. For instance, magazines contain useful information, provide some entertainment value, and include ads that attempt to persuade the reader to buy advertised products and services. Identifying the primary goal of a publication is the first f irst step in conceiving an effective design approach. A goo goodd way to be sure you understand a publication’ publication’ss primary goal is to put it in your own words. Write it down on a piece of paper to be sure you can articulate it.

Know Your Your Audience Audienc e Another crucial component in the design process is understanding a publication’s target audience and how to design in a way that will appeal to this audience. The target audience is the group of individuals to whom a publication is directed.

 

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The goal of this annual report for Zumtobel, a European manufacturer of lighting systems, was to convey a message of prosperity and success to its shareholders. Its cover, (a) a sculpture molded in plastic relief, reappears on the report’s interior pages (b,c) as a means of demonstrating the different lighting effects that Zumtobel’s products can cr create. eate. Showing Showing differ different ent lighting lighting effects effects supports supports the publ publicati ication’ on’ss goal by givin givingg shareholders shareho lders a demonstration of the product’s product’s effectiveness. The unexpected surprise of  an actual molded cover also supports the goal by sending a message that Zumtobel is creative and innovative—attributes that are important to continued success in this market. (Annual report design by Sagmeister, Inc.) It is important to know the psychological foundations of the members of the group (their   behavior,, how they think and feel and interact) before a design concept can be formed.  behavior Combining Comb ining these psy psycholo chological gical foundati foundations ons with stati statistic stical al information information,, or demographics, such as age, gender, ethnicity, geography, and income, forms a basis for determining what types of messages messages,, imagery, and visual approach will appeal to an audience.

Consider the Venue Venue refers to the place where a publication will be seen and read. Both aspects inuence a publication’s design and format, however they dier from each other in that a publication’s cover may perform in one venue, while its interior pages perform in another another.. When a publication is rst seen in the retail venue, such as a book store or newsstand, its cover acts as a

point-o poi nt-off-pu -purc rchas hase e dis displa play y. A boo book k cov cover, er, for ins instan tance, ce, mus mustt cat catch ch the at atte tent ntio ion n of a po pote tent ntia iall rea eade derr an and d inst instan antl tly y co comm mmun unic icat ate e wh what at the the reading experience will be like.

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 The portability, ease of use, and reader friendliness of a book are also important factors in determining its format and design. Reference manuals and cookbooks are made more useful when they are bound in a way that al allo lows ws the hem m to be laid laid op open en on a at su surf rfac ace. e. Book oks s dir irec ecte ted d at preschoolers usually have lots of pictures and few words so that they will engage their audience and encourage them to try to understand what they read.

YM is a lifest lifestyle yle mag magazi azine ne for teena teenage ge girls. girls. Like Like many many mag magazi azines nes dire directe cted d at thi thiss audience, the content of YM includes fashion features that keep reade readers rs informed about th thee la late test st tr tren ends ds.. To conn connec ectt with with it itss audi audien ence ce on a mo morre inti intima mate te leve level, l, YM personalized the experience for them by picking a teenage girl named “Sophie’’ and treating the feature as though it was a segment from her diary. The graphic treatment of