Prinsip Desain Pesan Dalam Komunikasi Pembelajaran

 

RZHMUHR N@UDHM R@UDM NDIDG LKGPMHLDUH R@GJ@IDODZDM

Gdldidf Hmh Nhjudt Aumd G`g`mufh ^uads Gdtd Luihdf N`sdhm R`sdm R`gj`idodrdm

Ki`f? 4. Curh N`shrd R`idwh

(48121:042:1) (48121:042:1)

:. Pivd Murui Gdnhfdf

(48121:042::) (48121:042::)

Nks`m R`madgpu? Nr. Dih Guftdnh, G.Rn.

 

h

 

RZKAZDG U^PNH ^@LMKIKAH R@GJ@IDODZDM RZKAZDG RDUEDUDZODMD PMHS@ZUH^DU M@A@ZH XKAXDLDZ^D :248

 

hh

 

NDC^DZ HUH

Ekv`r ............................................. ................................................................... ............................................ ............................................ .............................. ........ h Ndctdr Hsh .......................................... ................................................................. ............................................. ............................................. ......................... .. hh Jdj H R`mndfuiudm......................................... ............................................................... ............................................ .................................. ............ 5 

4.: Idtdr J`idldma ............................................ .................................................................. ............................................ .......................... ....5 4.5 Zugusdm Gdsdidf .......................................... ................................................................ ............................................ ........................5 4.> ^uoudm R`muihsdm ............................................ .................................................................. ............................................ ........................5 Jdj HH R`gjdfdsdm R`gjdfdsdm .............................................................. .................................................................................... .................................. ............> :.4 Rrhmshp L`shdpdm ndm Gkthvdsh ...................... ............................................ ............................................. .......................> 

:.4.4 R`ma`rthdm L`shdpdm ............................................ ................................................................... .............................. .......> :.4.: R`ma`rthdm Gkthvdsh ...................................... ............................................................ ..................................... ...............0 :.: Rrhmshp R`maaumddm Didt R`gusdt R`rfdthdm ................... .......................................... .......................3  :.5 Rrhmshp L`dlthcdm Uhswd ..................... ........................................... ............................................. .................................. ...........6

............................................. .............................................. ..................................... ..............8 :.> Rrhmshp Pgpdm Jdihl ...................... :.: Rrhmshp R`ruidmadm ...................... ............................................ ............................................. ....................................... ................42 Jdj HHH R`mutup ............................... ..................................................... ............................................. .............................................. ......................... 45

Zhmaldsdm ........................................... ................................................................. ............................................ ....................................... .................45 Ndctdr Rustdld............................................ ................................................................... ............................................. ................................. ........... xhv

 

hhh

 

JDJ H R@MNDFPIPDM

4.4 Idtdr J`idldma

Rdnd ndsdrmyd prks`s p`gj`idodrdm htu s`odidm n`madm prks`s lkgumhldsh. ^`rndpdt p`sdm ydhtu jdfdm dodr ydma dldm nhsdgpdhldm ki`f p`mnhnhl s`jdadh lkgumhldtkr

l`pdnd

p`s`rtd

nhnhl

ydma

j`rthmndl

s`jdadh

lkgumhldm.

Lkgumhldsh ydma t`rodihm jhsd s`drdf, nud drdf, jdfldm jdmydl drdf. Dadr p`sdm (jdfdm

dodr)

ydma

nhlkgumhldshldm

thndl

g`i`jdr,

gdld

p`sdm-p`sdm

 p`gj`idodrdm fdrus nhn`sdhm n`madm jdhl ndm j`mdr s`fhmaad tuoudm ndrh prks`s  p`gj`idodrdm ydma sundf nhrugusldm ndpdt nhedpdh. G`madgjhi ndrh t`krh U``is ndm Zhef`y (488>) jdfwd n`sdhm shst`g p`gj`idodrdm ydhtu sudtu prks`s t`rkradmhsdsh ydma t`rnhrh ndrh p`madmdihshsdm, p`rdmedmadm, p`ma`gjdmadm,  p`madpihldshdm ndm p`mhidhdm p`gj`idodrdm. U`g`mtdrd U`g` mtdrd n`sdhm p`sdm dndidf sudtu  p`r`medmddm umtulg`r`ldydsd j`mtul chshl ndrh p`sdm dadr t`rodnh lkgumhldsh. Ndidg g`mn`sdhm p`sdm-p`sdm p`gj`idodrdm, t`rndpdt j`j`rdpd lrht`rhd t`rt`mtu ydma fdrus nhp`mufh s`sudh n`madm prhmshp-prhmshp n`sdhm p`sdm  p`gj`idodrdm. Dadr p`sdm t`rs`jut thndl fdmyd ndpdt nht`rhgd ndm nhpdfdgh, t`tdph ouad gdgpu g`mydgdldm p`rs`psh ndm ouad gdgpu g`mdrhl p`rfdthdm  p`m`rhgd p`sdm. N`madm n`ghlhdm, pdnd gdldidf hmh p`muihs dldm g`maurdhldm  prhmshp-prhmshp n`sdhm p`sdm ndidg lkgumhldsh p`gj`idodrdm ydma fdrus nhp`rfdthldm ki`f n`sdhm`r.

4.: Zugusdm Gdsdidf

J`rndsdrldm idtdr j`idldma gdsdidf nh dtds, gdld rugusdm gdsdidf ndidg gdldidf hmh dndidf jdadhgdmd prhmshp-prhmshp n`sdhm p`sdm ydma nhaumdldm ndidg lkgumhldsh p`gj`idodrdm.

 

5

 

4.5 ^uoudm R`muihsdm

Gdldidf hmh j`rtuoudm umtul g`mn`slrhpshldm t`mtdma prhmshp-prhmshp n`sdhm  p`sdm ydma nhaumdldm ndidg lkgumhldsh p`gj`idodrdm. JDJ HH R@GJDFDUDM

Dsrh Junhmhmashf (:225?448) g`maumaldpldm dnd ihgd prhmshp utdgd ndidg n`sdhm p`sdm p`gj`idodrdm, ydhtu prhmshp l`shdpdm ndm gkthvdsh, prhmshp  p`maaumddm didt p`gusdt p`rfdthdm, prhmshp l`dlthcdm shswd, prhmshp ugpdm jdihl, ndm prhmshp p`ruidmadm. L`ihgd prhmshp t`rs`jut j`rndgpdl pdnd t`rdmedmamyd g`nhd p`gj`idodrdm ydma `c`lthc s`sudh n`madm tuoudm p`gj`idoddm.

:.4 Rrhmshp L`shdpdm ndm Gkthvdsh :.4.4 R`ma`rthdm L`shdpdm

Nodgdrdf (:22:? 50) g`ma`guldldm jdfwd l`shdpdm umtul j`idodr g`rupdldm lkmnhsh nhrh ydma t`idf nhp`rshdpldm umtul g`idluldm sudtu l`ahdtdm. G`murut ^fkrmnhl` ndidg Uidg`tk (:225? 44>) l`shdpdm dndidf l`dnddm ldpdshtds ydma dnd pdnd nhrh shswd ndidg fujumadm n`madm tuoudm  p`gj`idodrdm t`rt`mtu. Uidg`tk ndidg julumyd (:225? 445) g`ma`guldldm jdfwd l`shdpdm dndidf l`s`iurufdm lkmnhsh s`s`krdma ydma g`gjudtmyd shdp umtul g`gj`rh r`spkm dtdu odwdjdm nh ndidg edrd t`rt`mtu t`rfdndp shtudsh. Ndrskmk (:22? :1) cdltkr l`shdpdm, jdhl chshl gdupum pshlkikahs, g`rupdldm lkmnhsh dwdi sudtu l`ahdtdm p`gj`idodrdm.

 

>

 

Ndrh j`j`rdpd p`mndpdt ydma t`idf nhl`guldldm ndpdt nhshgpuildm  jdfwd p`ma`rthdm l`shdpdm dndidf dn didf lkmnhsh dwdi, jdhl chshl gdupum pshlkikahs pshlki kahs  pdnd nhrh p`s`rtd nhnhl ydma g`gjudtmyd gdgpu g`r`spkm dtdu g`modwdj ydma j`rfujumadm n`madm t`redpdhmyd tuoudm p`gj`idodrdm t`rt`mtu. Nodgdrdf (:22:? 50) g`rugusldm cdltkr-cdltkr l`shdpdm ydma nhdmtdrdmyd g`ihputh? d) L`shdpdm chshl L`shdpdm hmh g`madrdf pdnd tujuf thndl sdlht, oduf ndrh admaaudm i`su, g`madmtul, ndm s`jdadhmyd.

 j) L`shdpdm pshlhs L`shdpdm hmh g`madrdf pdnd dnd fdsrdt umtul j`idodr, ndpdt j`rlkms`mtrdsh, dnd gkthvdsh hmtrhmshl. e) L`shdpdm gdt`rhi L`shdpdm hmh g`madrdf pdnd dndmyd jdfdm ydma nhp`idodrh dtdu nhl`rodldm, ndpdt j`rupd julu jdeddm, edtdtdm, i`gjdr tuads, ndm s`jdadhmyd.

:.4.: R`ma`rthdm Gkthvdsh

Ldtd ‖gkthc‘ nhdrthldm s`jdadh ndyd updyd ydma g`mnkrkma s`srkrdma umtul g`idluldm s`sudtu. Gkthc ndpdt nhldtdldm s`jdadh ndyd p`maa`rdl ndrh ndidg ndm nh ndidg sujy`l umtul g`idluldm dlthvhtds-dlthvhtds t`rt`mtu n`gh g`medpdh tuoudm (Uunhrgdm, 4861? 15). G`murut Dmmh (:22>? 442) s`jdahdm  j`sdr pdldr pshlkikah g`mydtdldm jdfwd gkthvdsh g`rupdldm lkms`p ydma g`mo`idsldm didsdm s`s`krdma j`rprhidlu. Ge. Nkmdin ndidg Udrnhgdm (:244? 15) gkthvdsh dndidf p`rujdfdm `m`rah ndidg nhrh s`s`krdma ydma nhtdmndh n`madm gumeuimyd  c``ihma  ndm   ndm nhndfuiuh n`madm tdmaadpdm t`rfdndp dndmyd tuoudm.

 

0

 

J`rndsdrldm j`j`rdpd p`mndpdt ydma t`idf nhl`guldldm, nhshgpuildm  jdfwd gkthvdsh dndidf ndyd p`maa`rdl ydma g`gj`rhldm l`ludtdm ndm g`madrdfldm dlthvhtds s`s`krdma umtul g`idluldm s`sudtu ndidg g`medpdh tuoudm t`rt`mtu. Ci`gghma ndm I`vh` ndidg Hqjdi (:243? 4:) g`ma`guldldm prhmshp prhmshp ugug gkthvdsh. Rrhmshp-prhmshp t`rs`jut dndidf s`jdadh j`rhlut? 4) G`mugjufldm rdsd hmahm tdfu p`s`rtd nhnhl :) G`gjudt p`sdm p`gj`idodrdm ydma r`i`vdm n`madm numhd p`s`rtd nhnhl 5) G`mn`sdhm p`gj`idodrdm ndig j`mtul tdmtdmadm >) G`mo`idsldm fdshi pkshthc dtdu l`umtumadm ohld g`mahluth prks`s  p`gj`idodrdm. Ndidg prhmshp hmh, auru ndpdt g`gjdmtu p`s`rtd nhnhl ndidg g`gjdmalhtldm l`shdpdm ndm gkthvdsh p`s`rtd nhnhl, dpdjhid p`s`rtd nhnhl  j`iug gdgpu n`madm s`mnhrhmyd g`gjdmaum l`shdpdm ndm gkthvdsh ndidg  p`gj`idodrdm. Fdi ydma ndpdt nhidluldm auru dndidf g`gjdmaum l`n`ldtdm `gkshkmdi n`madm p`s`rtd nhnhl g`idiuh j`re`rhtd lhsdf-lhsdf hmsphrdthc, g`mo`idsldm tuoudm ndrh prks`s p`gj`idodrdm, j`rjdah lhsdf l`fhnupdm, ndm s`jdadhmyd. U`fhmaad, ohld l`n`ldtdm `gkshkmdi sundf t`rodihm, gdld p`s`rtd nhnhl s`edrd j`rtdfdp dldm shdp j`idodr ndm ndpdt g`m`guldm gkthvdsh j`idodr myd s`mnhrh. Ndrh urdhdm nhdtds ndpdt nhl`guldldm jdfwd l`shdpdm ndm gkthvdsh g`rupdldm ndsdr dtdu j`ldi p`s`rtd nhnhl umtul g`gp`idodrh s`judf higu dtdu gdt`rh jdru. U`jdadhgdmd p`mndpdt ndrh Dsrh (:225? 448) ohld ndidg l`ahdtdm  p`gj`idodrdm shswd g`ghihlh l`shdpdm ndm gkthvdsh ydma thmaah, gdld fdshi  j`idodr dldm i`jhf jdhl.

:.: Rrhmshp R`maaumddm Didt R`gusdt R`rfdthdm

 

3

 

Rrhmshp p`maaumddm didt p`gusdt p`rfdthdm g`mydtdldm dpdjhid ndidg  prks`s p`gj`idodrdm p`rfdthdm shswd shs wd t`rpusdt pdnd p`sdm ydma nhsdgpdhldm, gdld fdshi j`idodr dldm s`gdlhm jdhl. U`fhmaad t`rpusdtmyd p`rfdthdm dmdl t`rfdndp sudtu kjo`l g`g`adma p`rdmdm p`mthma t`rfdndp l`j`rfdshidm j`idodr. U`jdihlmyd,  ohld dmdl lurdma g`gp`rfdthldm gdld fdshi fdshi j`idodr dldm adadi. Uidg`tk (:242?423) g`mo`idsldm jdfwd t`rndpdt j`j`rdpd prhmshp p`mthma ydma j`rldhtdm n`madm p`rfdthdm ndidg j`idodr, dmtdrd idhm dndidf? d.  R`rfdthdm s`s`krdma t`rtuou dtdu nhdrdfldm pdnd fdi-fdi ydma jdru, fdi-fdi ydma j`ridwdmdm n`madm p`madidgdm ydma jdru sdod nhp`rki`f dtdu n`madm  p`madidgdm ydma nhndpdt s`idgd fhnupmyd. fhnupmyd.  j.  R`rfdthdm s`s`krdma t`rtuou ndm t`tdp j`rdnd ndm g`madrdf pdnd fdi-fdi ydma nhdmaadp rught, s`idgd l`rughtdm htu thndl g`idgpduh jdtds l`gdgpudm krdma t`rs`jut. e.  Krdma g`madrdfldm p`rfdthdmmyd pdnd fdi-fdi ydma nhl`f`mndlhmyd, ydhtu fdi-fdi ydma s`sudh n`madm ghmdt, p`madidgdm, ndm l`jutufdmmyd. Rdnd ndsdrmyd auru thndl gdgpu g`ma`mndihldm p`rfdthdm shswd, mdgum ydma ndpdt nhidluldm auru dndidf jdadhgdmd edrd g`gp`madrufh p`rfdthdm shswd dadr t`rtuou pdnd p`idodrdm ndm t`rus g`gj`rhldm sthguius dadr p`rfdthdm shswd thndl t`rdihfldm. Dnd j`j`rdpd edrd ydma ndpdt nhidluldm auru dadr p`rfdthdm dmdl thndl t`rdihfldm s`p`rth g`mehptdldm sudsdmd j`idodr ydma g`my`mdmaldm  jdah shswd, g`idluldm a`rdldm  ― a`rdldm a`rdldm ydma ndpdt g`mdrhl p`rfdthdm shswd s`rtd g`maaumdldm g`nhd p`gj`idodrdm ydma g`mdrhl. U`idmoutmyd lkgpkm`m p`gj`idodrdm ydma ndpdt g`mdrhl p`rfdthdm shswd ydhtu? g`nhd, g`tkn`, adyd g`madodr auru, ndm sugj`r j`idodr. G`nhd  p`gj`idodrdm

g`rupdldm

didt

jdmtu

ydma

nhaumdldm

ki`f

auru

umtul

g`mydgpdhldm p`sdm l`pdnd shswd. Didt t`rs`jut ndpdt j`rupd p`rdmaldt l`rds s`prth lkgput`r, IEN, ^`i`vhsh, Rdpdm ^uihs ndm p`rdmaldt iumdl ydma t`rndpdt  pdnd p`rdmaldt l`rds t`rs`jut. G`nhd dldm g`maurdhldm lkms`p-lkms`p ydma djstrdl g`modnh i`jhf lkmlr`t. G`nhd ndpdt g`makpthgdildm l`t`rihjdtdm hmn`rdhmn`rd shswd n`madm g`my`sudhldm adyd j`idodr ydma nhghihlh shswd. Mdgum

 

1

 

n`ghlhdm, thndl s`gud g`nhd ekekl umtul s`thdp gdt`rh p`gj`idodrdm. U`thdp g`nhd

g`ghihlh

l`i`jhfdm

ndm

l`lurdmadm

gdshma-gdshma

ydma

ndpdt

g`gj`rhldm p`madruf l`pdnd prks`s p`gj`idodrdm. G`tkn` p`gj`idodrdm g`rupdldm updyd g`mydohldm, g`mahmckrgdshldm, g`gj`rhldm idthfdm ndidg g`m`rdpldm r`medmd ydma t`idf t`rsusum ndidg r`medmd l`ahdtdm p`gj`idodrdm. J`j`rdpd g`tkn` p`gj`idodrdm ydma ndpdt nhaumdldm auru ydhtu e`rdgdf lkgjhmdsh, nhslush, g`tkn` tdmyd odwdj, g`tkn` n`gkstrdsh, g`tkn` shguidsh, g`tkn` prdlt`l idpdmadm, ndm g`tkn` p`rgdhmdm. Adyd g`madodr auru ndpdt g`gp`madrufh ghmdt ndm p`rfdthdm shswd. Auru ydma g`ghlh adyd ydma j`rsdfdjdt dldm i`jhf nhs`mdmah shswd nhjdmnhmaldm auru ydma suld gdrdf-gdrdf. Auru nhtumtut umtul lr`dthc g`gdmcddtldm j`rjdadh sugj`r j`idodr, g`nhd, t`lmhl, ndm g`tkn` p`gj`idodrdm dadr prks`s p`gj`idodrdm i`jhf `c`lthc ndm `chsh`m. J`j`rdpd prhmshp ydma ndpdt nht`t`rdpldm s`krdma auru dadr ndpdt g`ma`ikid l`ids s`edrd lkmnushc ydhtu? d.  L`fdmadtdm ndm dmtushds  j.  Sdrhdsh l`ahdtdm p`gj`idodrdm e.  Hgprkvhsdsh n.  J`rshldp pkshthc `.  Cdshihtdtkr Uugj`r j`idodr g`rupdldm s`gud sugj`r jdhl j`rupd ndtd, krdma, ndm wuoun t`rt`mtu ydma ndpdt nhaumdldm p`s`rtd nhnhl ndidg j`idodr umtul g`medpdh tuoudm p`gj`idodrdm. U`edrd adrhs j`sdr sugj`r j`idodr nhjdah g`modnh nud ydhtu sugj`r j`idodr ydma ydma nhrdmedma ndm sugj`r j`idodr ydma nhgdmcddtldm. nhgdmcddtldm. Uugj`r  j`idodr ydma nhrdmedma dndidf sugj`r j`idodr ydmas s`edrd lfusus nhrdmedma s`jdadh lkgpkm`m shst`g hmstrulshkmdi umtul g`gj`rhldm cdshihtds j`idodr ydma t`rdrdf ndm j`rshcdt ckrgdi. Uugj`r j`idodr ydma nhgdmcddtldm dndidf sugj`r  j`idodr ydma thndl nhn`sdhm lfusus ndm l`j`rdnddmmyd ndpdt nht`guldm, nht`rdpldm ndm nhgdmcddtldm umtul l`p`riudm p`gj`idodrdm. U`idmoutmyd g`murut D@E^ 488> sugj`r j`idodr ndpdt nhj`ndldm g`modnh `mdg, ydhtu s`jdadh j`rhlut?

 

6

 

d.  R`sdm dndidf p`idodrdm/hmckrgdsh ydma nht`rusldm ki`f lkgpkm`m idhm ndidg  j`mtul hn`, cdltd, drth ndm ndtd.  j.  Krdma g`madmnuma p`ma`rthdm gdmushd ydma j`rthmndl s`jdadh p`myhgpdm,  p`makidf, ndm p`mydoh p`mydoh p`sdm. e.  Jdfdm g`rupdl s`sutdu (prkardg dtdu  skctwdr`  skctwdr`)) ydma g`madmnuma p`sdm umtul nhsdohldm g`idiuh p`maaumddm didt. n.  Didt dndidf s`sudtu ydma nhaumdldm umtul g`mydgpdhldm p`sdm. `.  ^`lmhl j`rfujumadm n`madm prks`nur ruthm dtdu deudm ydma nhshdpldm umtul g`maaumdldm jdfdm, p`rdidtdm, krdma ndm ihmalumadm umtul g`mydgpdhldm  p`sdm. c. 

Idtdr g`rupdldm shtudsh s`lhtdr nhgdmd p`sdm nht`rhgd.

:.5 Rrhmshp L`dlthcdm Uhswd

Rrhmshp pdrthshpdsh dlthc g`ihputh dlthvhtds, l`ahdtdm, prks`s g`mtdi, `gkshkmdi dtdupum chshl. Rdrthshpdsh dlthc dldm ndpdt nhwuounldm ndidg dlthvhtds chshl, g`mtdi ndm `gkshkmdi ndidg g`r`spkm p`sdm dtdu hmckrgdsh, s`fhmaad r`spkm ydma nhj`rhldm ki`f sh j`idodr dldm mdgpdl (g`idluldm s`sudtu s`edrd chshl) gdupum r`spkm ydma thndl mdgpdl (g`ghlhrldm s`sudtu, g`r`mumaldm, g`rdsdldm, g`madmdihshs dtdu g`medrh odwdjdm). G`murut Qdrshtd (:226) g`mydtdldm jdfwd p`m`rdpdm prhmshp pdrthshpdsh dlthc ndidg rdmedmadm jdfdm dodr ndm dlthvhtds ndrh auru nh ndidg prks`s p`gj`idodrdm dndidf n`madm edrd s`jdadh  j`rhlut? d.  G`gj`rh

l`s`gpdtdm,

p`iudma

s`iuds-iudsmyd

l`pdnd

shswd

umtul

 j`rlr`dthchtds ndidg prks`s j`idodrmyd.  j.  G`gj`rh l`s`gpdtdm g`idluldm p`madgdtdm, p`my`ihnhldm dtdu hmluhrh ndm `lsp`rhg`m. e.  G`gj`rh tuads hmnhvhnudi dtdu l`ikgpkl g`idiuh lkmtrki auru.

 

8

 

n.  G`gj`rhldm puohdm v`rjdi ndm mkm-v`rjdi l`pdnd shswd ydma g`gj`rhldm r`spkm t`rfdndp p`rtdmyddm-p`rtdmyddm nhdouldm auru. `.  G`maaumdldm guithg`tkn` ndm guithg`nhd ndidg prks`s p`gj`idodrdm. Dmmurdf (:228) g`mdgjdfldm jdfwd dnd edrd-edrd idhm ydma ndpdt nhaumdldm s`jdadh prhmshp pdrthshpdsh dlthc shswd ndidg g`rdmedma jdfdm dodr ydhtu? d.  G`gj`rhldm p`rtdmyddm-p`rtdmyddm l`thld prks`s p`gj`idodrdm j`ridmasuma  j.  G`ma`rodldm idthfdm pdnd s`thdp dlfhr sudtu p`gj`idodrdm e.  G`gjudt p`rekjddm n.  G`gj`mtul l`ikgpkl j`idodr `.  G`m`rdpldm p`gj`idodrdm ydma lkmt`lstudi, lkkp`rdthc, ndm lkidjkrdthc Rdmndmadm g`mndsdr ydma p`riu g`modnh l`rdmald j`rchlhr s`thdp auru dndidf jdfwd s`thdp shswd htu g`rupdldm hmnhvhnu ydma dlthc. Fdi hmh puid ydma g`mndsdrh p`ghlhrdm jdfwd prks`s p`gj`idodrdm fdrus ndpdt g`gj`rhldm l`s`gpdtdm jdah shswd umtul j`rpdrthshpdsh dlthc.

:.> Rrhmshp Pgpdm Jdihl

Pgpdm jdihl j`rcumash s`jdadh lkr`lsh t`fdndp prks`s j`idodr ndm fdshi  j`idodr shswd dadr shswd g`matdfuh s`odufgdmd l`gdoudm ydma t`idf nhghihlh s`fhmaad ndpdt g`idluldm thmndldm s`idmoutmyd ndidg j`idodr. U`idhm htu ugpdm  jdihl ndpdt g`gp`madrufh gkthvdsh j`idodr shswd. G`murut Zhedrn I. dr`mn (4881) ugpdm jdihl dtdu  c``njdel   dndidf hmckrgdsh ydma nhj`rhldm ki`f auru l`pdnd shswd t`mtdma thmaldf idlu t`rt`mtu n`madm tuoudm g`mhmaldtldm p`rckrgd (l`rod) shswd. Fdi hmh p`mthma nhidluldm ki`f p`mnhnhl pdnd s`gud o`modma l`ids shswd, t`ri`jhf idah jdh shswd o`moda dwdi.

 

42

 

R`gj`rhdm ugpdm jdihl g`rupdldm sdidf sdtu j`mtul hmt`rdlsh dmtdrd auru ndm shswd. G`murut Zkp`r (ndidg Qhmdrshf, :243?:0) ugpdm jdihl ndpdt nhj`ndldm g`modnh `gdpdt thmaldt ydhtu s`jdadh j`rhlut?

^hmaldt 4

? ugpdm jdihl j`rupd l`t`rdmadm j`mdr sdidf

^hmaldt :

? ugpdm jdihl pdnd thmaldt : nhtdgjdf p`gj`mdrdm odwdjdm ydma sdidf 

^hmaldt 5

? ugpdm jdihl pdnd thmaldt 5 nhtdgjdf p`mo`idsdm

^hmaldt >

? ugpdm jdihl pdnd thmaldt > nhj`rh p`madodrdm dtdu lkms`p tdgjdfdm umtul g`maudtldm

U`idhm j`rgdmcddt jdah shswd, ugpdm jdihl ouad j`rgdmcddt jdah auru s`jdadhgdmd ydma nhsdgpdhldm ki`f Ekkp`r (ndidg Qhmdrshf, :243?:>) ’gdmcddt ugpdm jdihl jdah auru ndpdt nhp`raumdldm ndidg g`madgjhi l`putusdm, dpdldf gdtd p`idodrdm ydma t`idf nhidlsdmdldm p`riu nhp`rjdhlh dtdu nhidmoutldm‗. J`j`rdpd l`umtumadm p`maaumddm ugpdm jdihl g`murut Uuf`rgdm (ndidg Qhmdrshf, :243?:>-:0) dmtdrd idhm s`jdadh j`rhlut? d.  G`mnkrkma shswd umtul t`rus j`ridthf. Rrks`s p`gj`rhdm ugpdm jdihl l`pdnd shswd s`edrd thndl idmasuma dldm g`gj`rh tdfu shswd jdfwd idthfdmmyd s`idiu nhihfdt ndm nhp`rfdthldm ki`f auru.  j.  G`me`rghmldm p`rhidlu auru ydma `c`lthc. Ndidg prks`smyd, ugpdm jdihl fdmyd dldm nhp`rki`f dpdjhid auru dlthc s`idgd l`ahdtdm p`gj`idodrdm. e.  G`gjdmtu shswd umtul g`mhidh p`mdgphidm (l`gdgpudm) ydma thndl jhsd nhihfdt ndm nhrdsdldmmyd s`mnhrh. n.  G`mnkrkma auru umtul g`mhidh s`j`rdpd r`i`vdmsh dgtdrd dsp`l-dsp`l  p`gj`idodrdm n`madm thmaldt l`gdgpudm shswd ndidg g`maudsdh g`maudsdh jdfdm dodr. R`gj`rhdm ugpdm jdihl l`pdnd shswd fdrus s`a`rd nhj`rhldm ndm i`jhf jdhl  odmadm nhtumnd. Pgpdm jdihl ndpdt nhj`rhldm s`edrd v`rjdi dtdu mkmv`rjdi. R`gj`rhdm ugpdm jdihl ndpdt j`rshcdt r`wdrn dtds fdshi j`idodr ydma jdhl dtdu

 

44

 

lrhthldm ydma j`rshcdt g`gjdmaum gkthvdsh umtul ndm p`rjdhldm fdshi j`idodr s`idmoutmyd. R`riu nhhmadt jdfwd p`gj`rhdm ugpdm jdihl s`jdhlmyd nhidluldm s`edrd sdmtum dadr shswd i`jhf i` jhf p`redyd nhrh umtul g`mafdndph tuads s`idmoutmyd.

:.0 Rrhmshp R`ruidmadm

Hmckrgdsh ydma nhsdgpdhldm j`ruidma-uidma ndpdt g`gjudt p`s`rtd nhnhl i`jhf g`mahmadt dpd ydma t`idf nhsdgpdhldm. G`murut Nhgydth ndm Gunohkmk (488>? >5) p`ruidmadm g`ghihlh thad t`krh, ydhtu t`krh pshlkikah ndyd, t`krh  pshlkikah dskshdsh dtdu lkm`lshkmhsg`, ndm pshlkikah ekmnhthkmhma . L`thad t`krh t`rs`jut g`m`ldmldm p`mthmamyd prhmshp p`ruidmadm. ^`krh p`rtdgd p`ruidmadm umtul g`idthf ndyd g`madgdth, g`mdmaadp, g`mahmadt, g`malfdydi, g`rdsdldm,  j`rchlhr ndm s`jdadhmyd. ^`krh l`nud ndm l`thad p`ruidmadm umtul g`gj`mtul r`spkm dtdu p`rhidlu ydma j`mdr. R`ruidmadm sdmadt g`gjdmtu umtul g`gp`rjdhlh s`gud l`sdm ydma gdshf sdgdr-sdgdr umtul g`modnh l`sdm ydma s`sumaaufmyd, ydma t`radgjdr o`ids ndidg hmadtdm (Nodgdrdf, :22:? >:). G`murut Afkcur (:245? :64) p`ruidmadm ndpdt puid nhidluldm n`madm g`gj`rhldm thmodudm s`ihmtds pdnd sddt g`guidh  p`gj`idodrdm ndm rhmaldsdm dtdu l`shgpuidm pdnd dlfhr p`gj`idodrdm. p`gj`idodrdm. R`g`rki`fdm hmckrgdsh sdgpdh p`grks`sdm fhmaad p`myhgpdmdm hmckrgdsh t`rnhrh dtds thad tdfdp, ydhtu  s`mskry g`gkry, sfkrt-t`rg g`gkry, ndm ikma-t`rg g`gkry (Dtlhmskm ndm Ufhccrhm ndidg Jfhtmm`y, p. 10).

^`krh Dtlhmskm ndm Ufhccrhm g`mo`idsldm jdfwd dpdjhid thndl nhidluldm  p`ruidmadm, gdld hmckrgdsh ydma nht`rhgd p`s`rtd nhnhl dldm idmasuma t`riupdldm t `riupdldm

 

4:

 

ndrh g`gkrh odmald p`mn`l. U`jdihlmyd, dpdjhid t`rodnh prks`s p`ruidmadm, gdld hmckrgdsh t`rs`jut dldm t`r`ldg ndm gdsul l` ndidg g`gkrh odmald pdmodma. Ndidg g`gkrh odmald pdmodma hmh hmckrgdsh dldm t`rs`rdp s`edrd p`rgdm`m g`slhpum hmckrgdsh t`rs`jut thndl nhp`riuldm idah. J`rndsdrldm p`mndpdt nhdtds, ndpdt nhshgpuildm jdfwd p`ruidmadm dndidf sudtu l`ahdtdm umtul g`madtdsh l`iupddm ndm g`gp`rjdhlh s`gud l`sdm ydma sdgdr n`madm edrd g`mauidma p`sdm p`gj`idodrdm ydma t`idf nhsdgpdhldm umtul g`gdsulldmmyd l`ndidg g`gkrh odmald pdmodma.

R`mnhnhl

ndpdt

g`gjdmtu

p`s`rtd

nhnhl

ndidg

g`mauidma

p`sdm

 p`gj`idodrdm n`madm g`gj`rhldm g` gj`rhldm j`j`rdpd p`rtdmyddm ndm g`gj`rhldm  pr`-t`st ndm pkst-t`st ndm  pkst-t`st l`pdnd p`s`rtd nhnhl t`rldht p`sdm ydma sundf nhj`idodrldm, g`gj`rh l`s`gpdtdm

l`pdnd

p`s`rtd

nhnhl

umtul

nhj`idodrldm.

 

45

g`rdmalug

p`sdm-p`sdm

ydma

 

JDJ HHH R@MP^PR

L`shgpuidm

Ndidg n`sdhm p`sdm p`gj`idodrdm t`rndpdt prhmshp-prhmshp utdgd ydma fdrus nhp`rfdthldm. Rrhmshp-prhmshp t`rs`jut, t`rnhrh dtds< 4. Rrhmshp L`shdpdm ndm Gkthvdsh

 

4>

 

Ndidg p`mydgpdhdm p`sdm, l`shdpdm ndm gkthvdsh turut g`gp`madrufh, jdhl ndrh shsh p`mydgpdh p`sdm (p`mnhnhl) gdupum p`m`rhgd p`sdm (p`s`rtd nhnhl). Ndidg  prdlthlmyd, dpdjhid l`shdpdm ndm gkthvdsh nhghihlh ki`f l`nud dsp`l t`rs`jut, gdld fdshi p`gj`idodrdm ydma nhp`rki`f pum dldm thmaah. :. Rrhmshp R`maaumddm Didt R`gusdt R`rfdthdm R`rfdthdm p`s`rtd nhnhl t`rfdndp p`sdm ydma nhlkgumhldshldm j`rj`nd-j`nd  j`rndsdrldm o`modmamyd s`fhmaad p`mydgpdh p`sdm (p`mnhnhl) fdrus pdmndh g`gjudt ndyd tdrhl, dadr p`rfdthdm p`m`rhgd p`sdm (p`s`rtd nhnhl) t`tdp t`rl`mndih. 5. Rrhmshp L`dlthcdm Uhswd R`sdm ydma nhsdgpdhldm fdrus g`gumeuildm rdmasdmadm-rdmasdmadm s`fhmaad  p`s`rtd nhnhl g`r`spkm p`sdm t`rs`jut. Z`spkm t`rs`jut ndpdt j`rupd l`ahdtdm `lsp`rhg`m, tdmyd odwdj, g`madmdihshs, ndm s`jdadhmyd. >. Rrhmshp Pgpdm Jdihl U`jdadhgdmd ydma t`rodnh pdnd prks`s lkgumhldsh, ndidg p`mydgpdhdm p`sdm  ouad p`riu dndmyd ugpdm jdihl. Pgpdm jdihl ydma t`pdt t `pdt dldm g`gheu s`gdmadt  p`s`rtd nhnhl. Edrd g`gj`rhldm ugpdm jdihl ouad ndpdt g`gp`madrufh gkthvdsh  p`s`rtd nhnhl. 0. Rrhmshp R`ruidmadm Ndyd l`tdfdmdm ndrh g`gkrh p`s`rtd nhnhl t`mtumyd j`rj`nd-j`nd, jdhl ndrh s`ah hmnhvhnu ndm o`modmamyd, gdld ndidg p`mydgpdhdm p`sdm p`riu dndmyd  p`ruidmadm. Dadr p`sdm ydma sundf nhs`rdp ndidg g`gkrh odmald p`mn`l dldm l`gjdih j`rprks`s s`fhmaad p`s`rtd nhnhl gdgpu g`mahmadt l`gjdih p`sdm t`rs`jut.

 

40

 

NDC^DZ RPU^DLD

Dmmh, Edfdrhmd ^rh. :22>. Rshlkikah :22>. Rshlkikah J`idodr . U`gdrdma? PR^ PMM@U Rr`ss. Dmmurdfgdm. :228. J`idodr :228. J`idodr ndm R`gj`idodrdm. R`gj`idodrdm. Jdmnuma? Dicdj`td Dr`mn, Zhedn I. 4881. eidssgHmstruhk DnGdmda`. DnGdmda`. M`w Xkrl? Ge.Ardw Fhiepdmh`s, Hme. Jfhmm`ty, Gdand. Utrultur ndm Rrks`s G`gkrh. G`gkrh. Jui`thm Rshlkikah. Cdluitds Rshlkikah PAG. Mk. Mk. :. Ski. 43. 43. Fig. 1> - 66. 66. Junhmhmashf, Dsrh. :225. N`sdhm :225. N`sdhm R`sdm R`gj`idodrdm. Xkaydldrtd? R`gj`idodrdm. Xkaydldrtd? Pmhv`rshtds  M`a`rh Xkaydldrtd. Nhgydth nd Gunohkmk. 488>. J`idodr 488>. J`idodr ndm R`gj`idodrdm. R`gj`idodrdm. Odldrtd? N`pnhljun. Nodgdrdf, Uydhcui Jdfrh. :22:. Zddsd :22:. Zddsd Uuls`s J`idodr . Odldrtd? Zhm`ld Ehptd. Hqjdi, Gufdggdn Xusuc. R`m`rdpdm Xusuc. R`m`rdpdm Rrhmshp N`sdhm R`sdm R`j`idoddm R`j`idoddm ndidg  Julu U`lkidf @i`ltrkmhl (JU@) A`gdr Gdt`gdthld Gdt`gdthld 0 L`ids 0 UN nh UN  Nkmkthrtk.. Ulrhpsh? PMX.  Nkmkthrtk Udrnhgdm, D.G. :244. Hmt`rdlsh :244. Hmt`rdlsh ndm Gkthvdsh Jidodr G`madodr . Odlrtd? R^. Zdod Ardhmnk R`rsdnd.  R`rsdnd.  Uidg`tk. :242. J`idodr :242. J`idodr Ndm Cdltkr-Cdltkr Xdma G`gp`madrufhmyd G`gp`madrufhmyd.. Odldrtd? Zhm`ld Ehptd. Srhfdtmkik, ^`nfy. nll. :244. Edrd G`mdrhl R`rfdthdm Uhswd. `jkkl. (fttp?//www.sihn`sfdr`.m`t/gkjhi`/^`nfySrhfdtmkik/`jkkl-edrd-g`mdrhl p`rfdthdm-shswd nhdls`s pdnd :1 Ouih :248). Qdrshtd, Jdgjdma. :226. ^`lmkikah R`gj`idodrdm, Idmndsdm ndm Dpihldshmyd.  Dpihldshmyd.  Odldrtd? Zhm`ld Ehptd.

 

4>

 

Qhmdrshf. :243. Dpihldsh :243. Dpihldsh ^`krh Pgpdm Jdiihl (C``njdel) Ndidg p`gj`idodrdm  Gktkrhl Rdnd Dmdl Pshd Nhmh. Nhmh. Ski.: Mk.4 \kmihm`W (fttp?//`-okurmdi.sthlpshihwdmah.de.hn/hmn`x.pfp/tumdsshihwdmah/drthei`/nkwmikdn/523/::1 nhdls`s pdnd :1 Ouih :248).

 

40