Principles of Teaching

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING A Review Material for the NCBTSBased 2009 Licensure Examination for Teachers Compiled by

Maria Ruth M. Regalado PNU Manila

Competencies

PNU-Manila

1. Select activities, teaching methods, instructional materials and technology, classroom management techniques appropriate for chosen subject-area. 2. Apply appropriate approaches to lesson planning and curriculum development. 3. Choose appropriate principles in the preparation and utilization of the conventional and nonconventional technology tools as well as traditional and alternative teaching strategies.

Content Coverage 1. General Principles of Teaching 2. Principles of Teaching Specific Content Areas 3. Management of Instruction 4. Instructional Techniques 5. Classroom Management

Part 1

I.

CONTENT QUEST

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING A. Defining Philosophy, Theory and Principle of Teaching 1.

Philosophy of Teaching  Concise statements of what a teacher believes in about the teaching and learning, and possibly also about education in general  A reflection of a teacher’s beliefs about the learner, what must be taught, and how to teach in order to come close to the truth

2. Theory of Teaching & Learning  A well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of teaching-learning situations, based on a body of facts that have been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment 3. Principles of Teaching  A fundamental truth, law, doctrine, or motivating force upon which others are based.  Overwhelming obvious ideas that are often accepted as a matter of faith  A set of guidelines that are based on sound beliefs about the nature of the learner, the teacher and the learning environment that lead to the improvement of teaching and learning  Covers 4 areas: (1) Students as Learners, (2) Instruction & Assessment, (3) Communication Techniques, and (4) Profession and the Community. Each of these categories observes specific principles in the achievement of cognitive, psychomotor and affective learning outcomes. B. Elements of Teaching and Learning 1. The Learners  An embodiment of both body and spirit  Equipped with cognitive faculties  Senses  Instinct  Imagination  Memory  Intellect  Equipped with appetitive faculties  Feelings  Emotions  Rational will  Elements that make learners different from one another  Ability The capacity to understand and assimilate information for their own use and application  Aptitude The innate talent or gift; a natural capacity to learn certain skills  Interests A strong appeal or attraction towards an activity or an area  Family and cultural background May include the exposure that the learners have as they are introduced and interact with the other people in the environment  Attitudes

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PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING A Review Material for the NCBTS-Based Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET)| Compiled by MARIA RUTH M. REGALADO, PNU-Manila

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An organized predisposition to respond positively or negatively, favorably or unfavorably toward as specified class of objects Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner)  Verbal-linguistic Intelligence Sensitivity to the meaning and order of words and the varied uses of language  Logical-mathematical Intelligence The ability to handle long chains of reasoning and to recognize patterns and order in the world  Spatial Intelligence The ability to perceive the visual world accurately, and to recreate, transform, or modify aspects of the world based on one’s perceptions  Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence A fine-tuned ability to use the body and to handle objects  Musical Intelligence Sensitivity to pitch, melody, and tone  Interpersonal Intelligence The ability to notice and make distinctions among others  Intrapersonal Intelligence Access to one’s own “feeling life”  Naturalist Intelligence Observing, understanding, and organizing patterns in the natural environment Learning Styles The classroom or environmental conditions that students prefer to learn  Sensing-thinking (mastery) Inclination for remembering, describing, manipulating, ordering Ability to organize, report, build, plan and carry out projects  Intuitive-thinking (understanding) Inclination for analyzing, testing/proving, examining, connecting Ability to argue, research, develop theories, explain  Intuitive-feeling (self-expressive) Inclination for predicting/speculating, imagining, generating ideas, developing insights Ability to develop original solutions think metaphorically, articulate ideas, express and create  Sensing-feeling (interpersonal) Inclination for supporting, personalizing, expressing emotions, learning from experience Build trust and rapport, empathize, respond, teach

2. The Teacher  Psychological Characteristics of a Good Teacher  Personality  Attitude  Experience  Aptitude and achievement  Key behaviors that contribute to effective teaching  Lesson clarity Making points clear to learners who come from different levels of understanding; explaining concepts in ways that would help students follow along in a logical order  Instructional variety Variability or flexibility of delivery during presentation of a lesson; the art of asking questions; the use of instructional materials, equipment, displays and space in the classroom  Teacher task orientation The amount of classroom time the teacher devotes to the task of teaching an academic subject  Engagement in the learning process The amount of time students devote to learning an academic subject

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PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING A Review Material for the NCBTS-Based Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET)| Compiled by MARIA RUTH M. REGALADO, PNU-Manila

Student success rate The rate at which your students understand and correctly complete exercises and assignments Helping behaviors  Using student ideas and contributions Includes acknowledging, modifying, applying, comparing, and summarizing  Structuring Comments teachers make for the purpose of organizing what is to come, or summarizing what has gone before  Questioning Posing questions to have student deal directly with the content taught, or process of thinking  Probing Teacher statements that encourage students to elaborate on an answer, either their own or another student’s  Teacher affect The emotions underlying a teacher’s actions that are perceived by the students 

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3. The Learning Environment  The place where teaching and learning can take place in the most effective and productive manner  Consists of the physical, psychological environment that surrounds the learner and that influences his/her learning  Factors and situations that are likely to promote or diminish student's motivation to learn, and how to help students to become self-motivated  Features of the learning environment:  Arrangement of furniture  Physical condition of the classroom  Classroom proceedings  Interactions  C. Principles of Teaching  Teaching is a complex, multifaceted activity, often requiring us as instructors to juggle multiple tasks and goals simultaneously and flexibly 1. Principles of teaching according to various authors  According to Tiberius & Tipping 1. Teachers' knowledge of the subject matter is essential to the implementation of important teaching tasks 2. Active involvement of the learner enhances learning 3. Interaction between teachers and students is the most important factor in student motivation and involvement 4. Students benefit from taking responsibility for their learning 5. There are many roads to learning 6. Expect more and you will achieve more 7. Learning is enhanced in an atmosphere of cooperation 8. Material must be meaningful 9. Both teaching and learning are enhanced by descriptive feedback 10. Critical feedback is only useful if the learner has alternatives to pursue 11. Time plus energy equals learning 12. Experience usually improves teaching  According to Eberly Center for Teaching Excellence 1. Effective teaching involves acquiring relevant knowledge about students and using that knowledge to inform our course design and classroom teaching.

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PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING A Review Material for the NCBTS-Based Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET)| Compiled by MARIA RUTH M. REGALADO, PNU-Manila

2. Effective teaching involves aligning the three major components of instruction: learning objectives, assessments, and instructional activities. 3. Effective teaching involves articulating explicit expectations regarding learning objectives and policies. 4. Effective teaching involves prioritizing the knowledge and skills we choose to focus on. 5. Effective teaching involves recognizing and overcoming our expert blind spots. 6. Effective teaching involves adopting appropriate teaching roles to support our learning goals. 7. Effective teaching involves progressively refining our courses based on reflection and feedback. 2. Principles of teaching based from the principles of learning (Thorndike) 

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Readiness Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to learn, and they do not learn well if they see no reason for learning. Students must have adequate rest, health, and physical ability prior active learning. Exercise Things that are most often repeated are best remembered. Students learn best and retain information longer when they have meaningful practice and repetition. Effect Learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling. Primacy Learning things the first time must be right. Things that are learned first create a strong impression in the mind that is difficult to erase. Recency Information acquired last generally is remembered best; frequent review and summarization help fix in the mind the material covered. Intensity The more intense the material taught, the more likely it will be retained. A student learns more from the real thing than from a substitute.

MANAGEMENT OF INSTRUCTION A. Definition of Instructional Planning  The ability to visualize the future classroom events.

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An instructional plan may be likened to a roadmap or a guide that assists in the smooth flow of movements from the start until the end. A means to manage learning time and activities. Involves decision-making based on the student’s prior learning experiences, context presented in the curriculum and support materials, and the actual conditions of the instructional setting.

B. Purpose of Lesson Planning  Provide an overview of instruction

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Facilitate effective management of instruction Provide for logical and purposeful learning Efficient utilization of available time and material resources Enable teachers to organize and rehearse thoughts and movements prior actual teaching Ensure strong link between the curriculum and the actual teaching-learning processes Guide substitute teachers in conducting teaching-learning processes appropriately

C. Principles of Instructional Planning  The course supports the context of the school or district goals.

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PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING A Review Material for the NCBTS-Based Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET)| Compiled by MARIA RUTH M. REGALADO, PNU-Manila

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The content supports the attainment of the objectives. The focus of the course must be clear on what it stresses – the subject matter, the learner or the societal needs. The time allotment must be sufficient to cover each topic. The plan considers areas that need special attention – learners with special needs, the instructional program. The important components of instruction must be identified -- content, concept, skill, values. These must be congruent with: - the objectives of the course - fostering critical or high order thinking skills - students’ interests and abilities - available resources - the scope and sequence The strategies and techniques are appropriate and can optimize the learning opportunities and needs of the students The assessment procedure must be able to give information on the learners’ attainment of the course and their difficulties. An experienced colleague or supervisor’s comments and suggestions may be considered as inputs to improve the plan. Review and revise the plan to cover gaps and avoid redundancy of activities.

D. The Instructional Planning Sequence Assessing Learners’ Needs

Stating the Goals of the School

Evaluation of Learning Achievement

Organizing the Content & Setting Conducting TeachingLearning Processes

E. Levels of Instructional Planning 1. Yearly Plan

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2. Term Plan

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3. Unit Plan

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4. Weekly Plan

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5. Daily Plan

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for establishing general content, basic curriculum and for ordering/reserving materials for scheduling the content in details for the next few months, and to establish weekly budget of content that conforms with the goals or theme of the term for scheduling in more detailed manner the content and activities on a month to week basis for reorganizing content and activities in order to adapt to the specific context or setting, disruptions, and special needs for organizing the activities to accommodate immediate concerns and/or last minute adjustments

F. Types of Lesson Plans

1. Brief 2. Semi-detailed 6

– an outline of instructional tasks usually prepared by seasoned teachers – a plan that presents all the activities and the teacher’s questions, required to be prepared by new teachers

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING A Review Material for the NCBTS-Based Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET)| Compiled by MARIA RUTH M. REGALADO, PNU-Manila

3. Detailed

– a plan that presents all the teacher’s questions to be corresponded by the learners’ responses, in full detail, required to be prepared by pre-service teachers

G. Types of Lessons

1. Drill Lesson

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2. Review Lesson

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3. Development Lesson

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4. Application Lesson

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5. Supervised Study

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6. Appreciation Lesson

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for fixing certain concepts through repetitive activities (Steps: Motivation, Focalization, Repetition with attention, Application) for presenting previously learned facts in new ways (Steps: Preparation, Review Proper/Activities, Further Application) for presenting new concepts, procedure or skills (Steps: Preparation, Development, Application) for fixing the learned concepts after a development lesson through new experiences and situations for ensuring individual needs through one-on-one instruction and guidance for enjoying while fixing the values learned through aesthetic discussions and reproduction

H. Components of a Long-Term Instructional Plan 1. Objectives (Gronlund)  Terminal – the most important learning outcome to be attained at the end of instruction  Enabling – learning objectives that lead to the attainment of the terminal objective 2. Content  Knowledge – facts, information, concepts, principles, laws  Skills – cognitive, affective, psychomotor  Values/Attitudes – integrity, respectfulness, responsibility 3. Skills  Reading, writing  Using references and reading resources  Inquiry skills  Researching  Social skills  Cooperative learning skills 4. Learning Activities  Varied techniques used incorporated in strategies or approaches 5. Resources and Materials  Printed  Audio-visuals  Programmed  Models, charts, specimens 6. Evaluation Procedures  Public display of outputs or interactions  Written tests  Reviews, summaries and generalizations formulated  Remedial work  Re-teaching I.

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Components of a Daily Lesson Plan I. Objectives A. (cognitive) B. (affective) C. (psychomotor) II. Subject Matter Concepts/Skills:

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING A Review Material for the NCBTS-Based Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET)| Compiled by MARIA RUTH M. REGALADO, PNU-Manila

Values Integrated: References: Materials: III. Learning Activities A. Preparatory Activities 1. Drill - an activity that automates learners’ prerequisite skills 2. Review - an activity that refreshes learners on a previously learned concept/skill that is very much related to the new concept/skill 3. Introduction - an activity where the teacher together with the learners agree and set the purpose of the day’s lesson 4. Motivation - an activity that is related to the new lesson but which is purposefully done to arouse the interest and set the mood of the learners to proceed o Intrinsic (self-interest) o Extrinsic (an external force that motivates one to achieve) B. Developmental Activities 1. Presentation - activities that incorporate real-life situations or examples that help translate the concept/skill/value into an opportunity for learning 2. Discussion - an active exchange of questions and answers between and among the teacher and the students that promote understanding of the new lesson 3. Generalization - an abstraction of the lesson which is done by the students through the guidance of the teacher C. Closure Activities These are activities where the students are given the opportunity to try-out their new learning by applying and/or translating it in new, more realistic situations. IV.

Evaluation These are tasks done by the students to determine the extent of their mastery of the subject matter, and the attainment of the learning objectives previously set by the teacher.

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Assignment A set of activities intended to reinforce or enrich the learning of the day’s plan, and/or to prepare for the next day’s activities.

J. Developing Learning Objectives Basic Concepts  Aims - broad statements about the intention of education, translates the needs of society into educational policy  Goals - statements that describe what schools are expected to accomplish vis-à-vis subjects and grade levels, where it wants to be  Objectives - specific skills, tasks and attitudes that are stated in behavioral terms and which are set as a guide or standards of performance in a particular level and class; the steps be taken to reach the goal 1. Objective Derivation a. Sources of learning objectives  constitutional aims  institutional mission  curriculum goals  course/subject goals  unit objectives  lesson objectives 2. Objectives Specification a. Guidelines in Formulating Behavioral Learning Objectives (Drucker) S – specific

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PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING A Review Material for the NCBTS-Based Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET)| Compiled by MARIA RUTH M. REGALADO, PNU-Manila

M – measurable A – attainable R – result-oriented T – time bound b. Criteria of a Measurable Objective  learners’ behavior  observable terms  time-bound 3. Sequencing Objectives a. Taxonomy of Cognitive Objectives LEVEL DESCRIPTION 1. Knowl Recall and remember previously edge learned materials 2.

Compr ehension

Understand the meaning of something by translating it

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Applic ation

Use learned rules/formulas in different situations

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is

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Analys

Break down components or elements to see relationship

Synth

Arrange and organize elements into new structures

Evalua

Judge the quality or worth of something based on criteria

esis 6.

tion

b. Taxonomy of Psychomotor Objectives LEVEL DESCRIPTION 1. Receiv Develops awareness of a situation, ing receives information 2. Respo Shows an initial level of satisfaction nding 3. Valuin Shows that something has value or g has worth 4.

Organi zation

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Chara cterization

1. 2. 3. 4.

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Combines together complex set of values and organizes them into a harmonious and consistent set of contents Practices in real life through outlooks and basis of philosophy in life

c. Taxonomy of Affective Objectives LEVEL DESCRIPTION Percep Use of sense organs to become aware tion of cues Set Preparedness and readiness to take action Guide Imitates, conducts trial and error d Response based on a model Mecha Responses are done with confidence

BEHAVIORAL TERMS name, define, state, recall, identify, label, select, match, enumerate, list describe, interpret, explain, infer, estimate, convert, represent apply, use, demonstrate, solve, construct, show, prepare, carry out classify, compare, contrast, differentiate, categorize, distinguish Combine, suggest, create, design , conclude, summarize, plan, integrate Judge, weigh, evaluate, verify, justify, defend, confirm, decide, critique BEHAVIORAL TERMS Listen, look, observe, watch, attend Share, respond, react, follow Support, cooperate, admire, participate, promote, preserve, assist Organize, integrate, propose, balance, resolve Assert, accept, maintain, advocate approve, influence, justify BEHAVIORAL TERMS Observe, watch, listen, monitor Ready, prepare, set-up, show Imitate, follow, copy, repeat, practice Manipulate, collect, draw,

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING A Review Material for the NCBTS-Based Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET)| Compiled by MARIA RUTH M. REGALADO, PNU-Manila

LEVEL nism

DESCRIPTION

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Compl ex Overt Response 6. Adapt ation 7. Origin ation

Performs with confidence and more skillfully with proficiency

BEHAVIORAL TERMS use, sketch, demonstrate, write Construct, troubleshoot, operate, drive

Skills are modified to fit in new situations Creation of new movements, patterns to solve a situation

Adjust, repair, change, integrate Create, produce, develop, compose

4. Determining Appropriate Contents a.The Structure of Subject Matter Content  Cognitive Basic Concepts:  Facts – events or actual states of affairs

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Knowledge – factual information that is initially learned and later remembered Concept – an understanding of what something is

Principle – the relationship between at least 2 concepts Kinds of Cognitive Learning: 1. Fact, Factual Information, and Knowledge Principles in Teaching Factual Information:  Organizing learning materials through meaningful association

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Transition from old to new materials

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Appropriate language for concepts

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Delimiting the problem

Proper sequencing of materials Appropriate practice

Self-evaluation 2. Concept and Principles Principles in Teaching Concepts and Principles:  Awareness of attributes Proper sequencing of instances Guided student discovery Concept application

Self-evaluation 3. Problem Solving Abilities Principles in Developing Problem-Solving Abilities  Recognizing difficulties in a situation Using new methods for arriving at a conclusion

Generalizing possible solutions by applying knowledge and methods to the problem situation  Inferring and testing hypothesis to solve problems 4. Creativity Principles in Developing Creativity:  Providing opportunities for new ideas through self-expression in figural, verbal and physical forms

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PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING A Review Material for the NCBTS-Based Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET)| Compiled by MARIA RUTH M. REGALADO, PNU-Manila

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 Associating success in creative efforts with level of experience Psychomotor Basic Concepts:  Capacity – an individual’s potential power to do a certain task  

Ability – the actual power of an individual to perform an act physically and mentally

Skill – the level of proficiency attained consistently by an individual in carrying out sequences of action Phases of Motor Skills Learning 1.Cognitive Phase – understanding the task 2.Organizing Phase – associating responses with particular cues 3.Perfecting Phase – executing performance in an automatic manner Principles that Promote the Development of Psychomotor Skills:  Attending to the characteristics of the skill and assessing one’s own related abilities

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Observing and imitating a model’s movements Guiding initial responses verbally and physically Practicing under desirable conditions to eliminate errors and strengthen and refine correct responses and form Knowledge of results and learning achievement through feedback

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Self-evaluation of a performance

Affective Basic Concepts:  Affective – pertains to the emotions or feeling of an individual rather than on his/her thoughts  Affective Learning – consists of responses that are acquired as an individual evaluates the meaning of an idea, object, person or event based on his/her own view  Taste – an individual’s preference of a particular thing, object or event

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Attitudes – a learned, emotionally-toned predisposition toward something

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Observing and imitating a model

Values – an individual’s inner core belief based on internalized standards as norms of behavior Principles that Promote the Development of Attitudes and Values:  Recognizing an attitude for initial learning

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Positive attitudes toward something Getting more information about something Interacting with the primary sources, and later establishing commitments toward the sources Practicing an attitude Purposeful learning

b.Guiding Principles in Content Selection (Ornstein & Hunkins)  Validity – authenticity of information  Significance – based on one’s favor (in terms of concepts, needs, interests)  Utility – usefulness of content  Learnability – difficulty level  Feasibility – consider time constraints, expertise of staffs, funding, educational resources

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PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING A Review Material for the NCBTS-Based Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET)| Compiled by MARIA RUTH M. REGALADO, PNU-Manila

5. Determining Appropriate Instructional Approaches and Methods Basic Concepts & Terms  Approach – a teacher’s viewpoint toward teaching

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Method – a series of related, progressive activities performed by a teacher and his/her students to achieve the learning objectives Strategy – a set of decisions to achieve an instructional plan

Technique – a personal style or the art of a teacher in conducting the teaching activities Characteristics of a True Method  Utilizes the theory of self-activity

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Utilizes the law of learning Aids the learner in defining his own purposes by setting the situation for the emergence the desired purpose Starts from what is already known to the learners Based on an accepted and well-integrated set of educational theory and practice to unify teaching and learning efforts Provides the learners with a wide array of diverse learning experiences or activities Challenges and encourages the learners to move further in the process involving differentiation and integration Provides opportunity for the learner to ask and answer questions Supplements other teaching methods.

Factors to Consider in Choosing a Method 1. Objectives – the expected outcome of the lesson to be attained by the learners at the end 2. Subject Matter – the substance of teaching 3. Learners – considered as the center of the educational process. Their nature, problems, needs and interests are relevant factors. 4. Materials and Technology – tools and devices for the lesson. 5. Time Allotment – the amount of time available for the lesson. 6. Teacher – must be familiar with the method Characteristics of a Good Teaching Method  Makes use of the principles of learning

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Utilizes the principle of learning by doing Provides for individual differences Stimulates thinking and reasoning Provides for growth and development

Liberates the learner Different Teaching Methods Major Classifications  Deductive – direct approach; expository tasks where the teacher puts forth to the learners the major concepts which they will simply apply in different situations  Inductive – indirect approach; exploratory activities that enable learners discover the content Time-Tested Methods  Expository –

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learners listen and observe as the teacher tells or explains a concept

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING A Review Material for the NCBTS-Based Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET)| Compiled by MARIA RUTH M. REGALADO, PNU-Manila

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Lecture

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explaining an idea that originates from a question or a problem, done due to lack of information sources Demonstration or Showing – a presenter demonstrates or shows procedures on how things are done while the audience watch and observe, may be done due to lack of materials, danger in handling substances and time constraints Type Study – tasks focus on the study of a single case, to learn its attributes and qualities Problem-Solving – uses a problem as an opportunity to develop scientific attitudes and reflective thinking skills Project – activities that require both intellectual and physical abilities to produce or construct a product which is the learning evidence Unit or Morrison – often utilized in teaching social sciences where there is a need to explore, present, integrate, organize and recite. Laboratory – uses apparatuses and equipment together with materials primarily intended to develop manipulative and scientific skills

Progressive Methods  Integrative –

occurs within a learner; initiates, plans activities, integrate, culminates and evaluates  Discovery – teacher guides learners in discussing and organizing ideas and processes by themselves  Process – emphasizes on the mastery of scientific process skills such as measurement, inferring, hypothesizing, predicting, controlling variables, experimenting and communicating  Conceptual – learners develop their concepts through identification of attributes of examples and non-examples; steps are initiation, recognizing, identifying major and minor problems, hypothesizing, grouping, data gathering, organizing data and summarizing, reporting, testing and accepting or rejecting hypothesis – conceptualizing, generalizing and evaluating  Mastery Learning – individualized instruction intended to address specific needs of learners; provides feedback along the process  Team Teaching – two or more teachers cluster together to support each other in carrying out specialized topics and areas  Programmed Instruction – a device is used to present the learning material as the learner go through specific steps to learn the content  Individually Prescribed Instruction – a learner takes a test for placement, works at his/her own pace on a series of learning tasks, takes another test to see learning achievement  Metacognitive Teaching – learners become aware of and control over their own learning using metacognitive processes; uses advance organization, organizational planning, directed attention, selective attention, self-monitoring, self-evaluation, auditory representation  Constructivist Approach – learners use their own experiences to create their understanding of new concepts  Problem-based Learning – learners actively involved in the investigation of real life issues, and in evolving solutions, involves thinking and scientific skills Teaching Techniques  Role Playing – learners spontaneously portray a roles in a situation

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Simulation – learners replicate an episode

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING A Review Material for the NCBTS-Based Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET)| Compiled by MARIA RUTH M. REGALADO, PNU-Manila

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Socio-drama – pantomiming or portraying specific events in history or a fictional material Panel Discussion – a group of 4-6 learners with a chairman sit together to discuss a topic among themselves Forum – similar to a panel discussion but the audience takes part at certain points of the discussion Symposium – a group of participants formally present their positions on certain topics before an audience Debate – two groups of participants, each taking a position, intends to defend their stand by formally presenting their points on a topic Buzz session – small groups of participants sit together to discuss among themselves their opinions on a certain issue Brainstorming – a group of participants generate ideas as they meaningfully discuss or solve a problem Jury Trial – combination of group work, research study and panel discussion presented in a simulated trial court Case Study – a class is presented with a situation, and is asked to give their viewpoint on the matter Problem Solving Discussion – a class thinking together to solve a problem at hand Field Trip – learners visit real settings to witness and experience first hand the actualities

Resource Person – an expert speaks before a group of spectators, ably discusses a topic of interest, and may be asked to answer certain issues relevant to the topic  Using Media – audio-visual equipment and canned materials are used to present concepts complete with animation Structure-Oriented Strategies & Techniques  Group 1. Whole Group Instruction - most common; traditional form of classroom instruction - cost-effective 2. Small Group Instruction - works best in rooms with movable furniture - groupings may be done according to ability, interest, skill, viewpoint, activity or project, integration or arbitrary 3. Cooperative Learning Groups - best done with a maximum of 4 members in a group - each member is given a responsibility to contribute for the team’s success - may require several sets of materials and varied learning tasks - involves highly learner-centered tasks - teacher facilitates, oversees conduct of activities

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Dyad 1. Partners Learning Approach - effective in teaching students who do not respond well to adult intervention - develops a deep bond of friendship between the tutor and the tutee - takes pressure off the teacher - tutors benefit by learning to teach - happens spontaneously under cooperative condition 2. Peer Tutoring - gives the slow learners the individual attention they need

Individualized 1. Adaptive Instruction

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING A Review Material for the NCBTS-Based Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET)| Compiled by MARIA RUTH M. REGALADO, PNU-Manila

2. 3.

- occurs on 2 levels: (1) developing the abilities and learning skills of the student, and (2) altering instructional environment to correspond to the individual’s abilities and learning skills Mastery Instruction - focuses on mastery of skills at the most appropriate pacing of individual learner Computer-Assisted Instruction -utilizes computer technology to facilitate learning of concepts and skills -consists of 3 levels: (1) practice and drill, (2) tutoring, and (3) dialogue

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Independent - A student work on a topic using different resources with occasional supervision from a teacher. Selecting Instructional Activities Bases for Selection  Goals & Objectives Will the activity serve the purpose for a particular group in a particular time?  Maximization of Opportunities Achieve Multiple Goals Will the activity contribute in the attainment of the specific goals, too?  Student Motivation Can the activity engage the students and sustain their interest?  Principles of Learning Does the activity satisfy the principles of learning especially those that pertain to the development of cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills?  Facilities, Equipment and Resources Are the material resources needed in the activity available? Continuum of Instructional Activities from Passive to Active Learning

6. Determining Appropriate Instructional Materials and Tools Types of Instructional Materials 1. Printed - textbooks, periodicals 2. Visuals – realias, pictures, graphs, charts, photographs 3. Chalkboard/Display board 4. Audios – tapes, recorders, players 5. Overhead transparencies and projectors 6. Slides and slide projectors 7. Filmstrips 8. Televisions

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PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING A Review Material for the NCBTS-Based Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET)| Compiled by MARIA RUTH M. REGALADO, PNU-Manila

9. Video tape/CDs/DVDs 10. Computers 11. Internet Access Principles in Selecting Instructional Materials 1. Meaningfulness 2. Appropriateness 3. Breadth 4. Usefulness 5. Communication Effectiveness 6. Authenticity 7. Responsiveness 8. Interest 9. Cost-effectiveness Factors Affecting Selection of Media 1. Human Factors – learners’ interest and needs; teacher’s skills in handling the media 2. Instructional Method – the method dictates and limits the kind of media 3. Practical Constraints – administrative and economic concerns General Guidelines in Utilizing Instructional Materials 1. Purpose 2. Learning Objectives 3. Flexibility 4. Diversity 5. Learners’ Development 6. Content 7. Guidance for learners 8. Evaluation Results 7. Determining Appropriate Evaluation Instruments a. Prior to instruction: Pre-assessment b. During instruction: Concurrent, Formative c. After instruction: Post Test/Summative/Mastery Test III.

QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES A. Definition of Questioning  A key technique in teaching that is used for a variety of purposes, but most importantly to make students think. B.

Purposes of Questioning

 Arousing students’ interest and curiosity  Reviewing content  Stimulating learners to ask questions  Promoting thinking and understanding of ideas  Changing the mood and directions of a discussion  Encouraging reflection and self-evaluation  Allowing students to express their feelings C.

Types of Questions According to the thinking process involved Low-Level – focused on factual information High-Level – beyond facts, moves to higher order thinking  According to the type of answers required Convergent – brings about only one specific answer Divergent – usually open-ended and encourages reasoning  According to the cognitive taxonomy

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PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING A Review Material for the NCBTS-Based Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET)| Compiled by MARIA RUTH M. REGALADO, PNU-Manila

D.

E.

IV.

Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, Evaluation  According to the purposes of the teacher during an open discussion Eliciting – encourages immediate and initial responses Probing – seeks to expand or extend ideas Closure-Seeking – helps students to form conclusions, solutions or create plans Guidelines in Asking Questions  Provide for “wait time”

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Prompt by using hints and techniques to assist students to successfully arrive at the correct answer

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Phrase questions clearly

Redirect by asking a single question where several answers may manifest higher level thinking

Probe to increase quality in the kind of thought processes that will take place; enable the students to support their stand  Comment on the students’ responses to increase achievement and motivation Tips on Asking Questions  Ask questions that are: - stimulating - thought-provoking - within student’s level of abilities - relevant to students’ daily life situation - sequential - clear and easily understood Vary the length and difficulty of questions Have sufficient time for deliberation Call on volunteers or non-volunteers Call on disruptive students Move around the room for rapport/socialization Encourage active participation Ask as many learners as possible to answer certain questions Follow up incorrect answers

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT A. Definitions of Classroom Management  The operation and control of classroom activities



Involves the ability to maintain order and sustain learners’ attention B. Purposes  To minimize the occurrences of problems on discipline.

 To increase the proportion of classroom time devoted to constructive and productive activities C. Basics of Classroom Control  Content : manage to facilitate the delivery of instruction  

Conduct : manage to promote orderly and safe learning environment

Context : manage to encourage interaction rather than physical elements associated with the classroom setting D. Types of Control  Preventive : minimizes the onset of anticipated discipline problems

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Supportive : directs students’ behavior before a discipline problem fully blows up

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING A Review Material for the NCBTS-Based Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET)| Compiled by MARIA RUTH M. REGALADO, PNU-Manila



Corrective : seeks to discipline students who failed to meet the agreed code of conduct in a particular setting E. Management Techniques 1. Content

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Establishing standard arrangements

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Establishing a code of conduct

Identifying traffic routes Organizing supplies and materials within learners’ reach Consistency on rules and areas where they apply Refraining from using the first few minutes of the session for collection Using overlapping techniques during collection and distribution of materials Preparing for transitions in activities Arranging furniture that will aid in monitoring distractions Maximizing visibility and accessibility through proper arrangement of furniture Developing and utilizing nonverbal techniques to manifest disapproval of certain behavior

Model and emphasize self-discipline 2. Conduct Setting limits to conduct inside and outside the learning area Managing consequences of enforced rules Seeking the support of the school administration and parents Encouraging self-discipline through positive feedback

3. Context

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Respecting students as human beings instead of valuing them for what they can and cannot do Attending to disturbances while maintaining your teaching purpose Attending to large concerns rather than small issues Revealing oneself to the learners Get involved in the process and with the learners as their friends

Capitalizing on interpersonal relationships of trust and confidence F. Techniques in Developing Good Discipline 1. Demonstration: explain to the students the behavior expected of them. 2. Attention: focus the students’ attention on what was explained and model them 3. Practice: provide opportunities to practice appropriate behavior 4. Corrective Feedback: provide frequent, specific and immediate feedback to correct behavior 5. Application: students now applying the behavior in real-life situations G. Guidelines for Using Punishments 1. Make sure the punishment is feasible. 2. Never punish when you are not in a proper emotional state 3. Do not assign extra work as punishment. 4. The punishment must follow the offense the soonest time possible. 5. Be consistent with the punishment. 6. Never use double standards when punishing. 7. Give the students the benefit of the doubt. 8. Never hold any grudge after the incident. 9. Never take the incident personally. 10. Document all serious incidents.

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PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING A Review Material for the NCBTS-Based Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET)| Compiled by MARIA RUTH M. REGALADO, PNU-Manila

SOURCES: Borich, G. D. (2004). Effective Teaching Methods, 5th ed. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. Corpuz, B.B. and G.G. Salandanan. (2006). Principles of Teaching 1. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing, Inc. Corpuz, B.B., G.G. Salandanan, and D.V. Rigor. (2006). Principles of Teaching 2. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing, Inc. McNergney, R. F. and J. M. McNergney. (2001). Education: The practice and profession of teaching. USA: Pearson Education, Inc. Salandanan, G.G. (2007). Elements of Good Teaching. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing, Inc. Salandanan, G.G. (2006). Methods of Teaching. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing, Inc. Salandanan, G.G. (2000). Teaching Approaches and Strategies. Quezon City: Katha Publishing Co., Inc.

Part 2

CONTENT CHALLENGE

DIRECTIONS: Analyze each item carefully. Then choose the best answer. 1. Which signals a teacher that a child is ready to learn? A. If the child is interested in the assigned task. B. If the child shows improved performance. C. If the child manifests sustained interest. D. All of the above 2. Which teaching principle does a teacher satisfy when the student’s age and cognitive processes are considered when presenting content activities? A. Communication Needs B. Instruction and Assessment C. Student Development D. Professional Growth 3. Which learning theory is satisfied when a teacher organizes the learning tasks hierarchically? A. Cumulative Learning B. Meaningful Learning C. Social Cognitive Learning D. Theory of Instruction 4. When should reinforcement be used by a teacher to be effective? A. When applied to all behavior B. When applied to good behavior C. When applied to specific behavior D. When applied to either good or bad behavior 5. Which of the following statements will not support the concept of diversity of learners? A. Consider the uniqueness of each student B. Use varied activities for a difficult lesson C. Involve all students regardless of what the activity is D. Help should be extended to both the gifted and the retarded. 6. Why should teachers provide positive feedback and realistic praise? A. To motivate the students to study B. So the students will know what to do C. To be liked and loved by the students D. So the students will also praise him/her 7. Why should a teacher do a series of observations, not just one, to be able to make conclusion regarding an individual’s behavior? A. To see the consistency of the exhibited behavior B. To check if the modeled behavior was copied correctly C. It is better to see the individual show different behavior at different times D. It is not always possible to draw accurate conclusions by observing only once. 8. Mr. Guerta would like to transfer computing skills to figuring income tax. What should be the teacher’s action? A. Check students’ knowledge and understanding skills

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PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING A Review Material for the NCBTS-Based Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET)| Compiled by MARIA RUTH M. REGALADO, PNU-Manila

B. Apply information storage mechanism C. Teach students to process D. Develop retrieval skills 9. Ms. Agustin is developing the concept of solid to her Grade 2 pupils. Which of the following actions will she follow? A. Present only examples of solid. B. Present four examples of solid and four non-examples of solid. C. Present examples of solid in varying sizes, colors and shapes. D. Present four examples of solid first, then remove them, and present the four non-examples. 10. All are outcomes of learning except one. Which is the exception? A. Abilities and skills B. Habits and attitudes C. Knowledge and understanding D. Maturation and development 11. Two hyperactive pupils, Francis and Miguel are seated next to each other. Every time Francis pays attention and completes his tasks, Teacher Roselle praises him. In this condition, the teacher notes that Miguel’s behavior has also improved even without specific reinforcement from her. What is demonstrated by Miguel? A. Imitation learning B. Observational learning C. Self-regulated learning D. Vicarious learning 12. In reinforcement, which of the following praise statements enable the students to understand the specific action that is being praised? A. “You were very responsible.” B. “You returned the books in their proper shelves.” C. “Aren’t you good today?” D. “You got high in the test. How lucky can you be?” 13. Miss Montalbo is presenting a new unit on plants to her grade two class. She starts with an advance organizer that is more general, abstract and inclusive. Which principle of teaching does Miss Montalbo apply to facilitate the acquisition of information? A. Organizing learning materials through meaningful association B. Transition from old to new materials C. Proper sequencing of materials D. Independent evaluation 14. Which should Miss Tan consider foremost when planning for instruction? A. Her learners who have special needs. B. The time allotment for the subject area. C. The curricular goals and mission of the school. D. The availability of resources and materials that would be used. 15. What should be the foremost concern when deciding on the type of assessment to be administered? A. The needs of the learners. B. The learning objectives of the particular lesson. C. The extent of accomplishing the planned activities. D. The time allotted for conducting the assessment tasks. 16. Why should a teacher aid the students’ learning through formulating and asking questions? A. To help the students develop their self confidence B. To involve the students in the teaching-learning process C. To have a basis in assigning the students’ grade in recitation. D. To stimulate the students to think and discover new concepts. 17. Miss Macatangay needs to get her classroom chalkboard repainted but her school comes short of its budget for the need. Which of these would be the best thing for her to do? A. Spend her own money. B. Wait until the school gets to save enough money for the repainting job. C. Mobilize the homeroom parent-officers of her advisory class to turn this into their homeroom project. D. Forget about the repainting need because the teaching-learning processes would still continue even if the board remains unrepainted. 18. Mr. Jose wants his class to master the basic problem-solving skills. Which should he do? A. Conduct regular drills on basic operations.

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PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING A Review Material for the NCBTS-Based Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET)| Compiled by MARIA RUTH M. REGALADO, PNU-Manila

19.

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B. Ask the learners to compose their own word problems. C. Direct them to the steps in solving problems. D. Provide his learners with as many opportunities to solve problems. Which of these would not be helpful in developing creativity among children? A. Providing samples to clarify the concepts. B. Demonstrate how the ideal products are made. C. Allow the children to express their own interpretations of the task. D. Involve the learners in determining the set of standards that must be observed while doing creative activities. A group of young dancers can very well perform a dance sequence. In what phase of motor skills learning are they in? A. Cognitive Phase C. Organizing Phase B. Mechanism Phase D.Perfecting Phase What should be done to master any desired learning outcome? A. Continuous practice and opportunities to apply the skills in real life situations. B. Read more about the concepts involved in the learning outcomes. C. Immediately assess learning performance and provide appropriate reinforcement or enrichment D. Pair off the learners according to their abilities – fast and slow learners as partners. Which of these is the least reason for teachers to plan for their instructional activities? A. To utilize the time allotment and resources efficiently. B. To determine possible free time for other creative activities. C. To ensure strong link between the curriculum and the actual teaching-learning. D. To guide substitute teachers in conducting the processes when the originally assigned teacher suddenly takes the day off. Miss Lopez had to choose the most relevant learning tasks in her plan even if she was interested to conduct so much more for a single lesson. Why do you think prompted her to do so? A. Because most of the materials that would be needed are not available. B. Because the size of the class is too big for effective management. C. Because some of her learners may feel too tired to finish up all the tasks. D. Because the time allotted for the lesson is not enough to conduct all of her creative tasks. Why is it helpful to have an experienced colleague check on your instructional plan? A. To further improve the plan. B. To ensure the relevance of the tasks to the school’s mission. C. To create a pool of instructional plans for the grade level. D. To focus the course on the components of the instructional plan. After assessing his learners’ needs, Mr. Guerta continues to plan for his instructional task. What would be his next concern? A. Conducting teaching-learning processes B. Evaluation of learning achievement C. Stating the goals of the school D. Organizing the content The school principal gives out to his teachers a complete list of concepts and skills to be taught during the school year. What level of instructional planning is manifested here? A. Daily Plan C. Unit Plan B. Term Plan D. Yearly Plan What should be the main concern of Grade 1 teacher if he is about to plan for the learning activities? A. Evaluation of learning outcomes B. Appropriate strategies and techniques C. The skills needed by the learners to do the tasks D. The values to be integrated to make the lesson holistic After preparing the class for the new lesson, a teacher presents, discusses and guides her students in formulating their generalizations. Under what part of the lesson plan should these three activities fall? A. Assignment C. Developmental B. Closure D. Evaluation Jasper was asked by his teacher to flash multiplication cards to his group mates every time they are about to begin their Math class. What type of lesson does his teacher want them to engage in? A. Cooperative C. Motivation

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PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING A Review Material for the NCBTS-Based Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET)| Compiled by MARIA RUTH M. REGALADO, PNU-Manila

30.

31. 32.

33. 34.

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B. Drill D. Review In the unit on “Earthquake”, Miss Yeban plans to ask her Grade 6 class students to narrate their personal experiences on it. In what phase of the lesson will this activity be most appropriate? A. Apperception C. Evaluation B. Application D. Motivation Which of these strategies does not require investigation? A. Inquiry C. Metacognitive Approach B. Laboratory D. Problem Solving If you wish to do inquiry activities in your class, what should be the initial task to be done? A. Forming generalization on the bases of hypotheses and data by students. B. Forming hypotheses and gathering data on questions given by the students. C. Displaying data on a chart, discussing and assessing hypotheses by students. D. Presenting questions to the students to further encourage them to ask some more questions. A teacher plans to present to the class important historical facts. What type of lesson is he supposed to prepare? A. Development C. Drill B. Discovery D. Review Teacher Tess gives out lollipops to her preschool learners every time they get things right. As a result, the children became excited and more focused to make correct marks. What kind of motivation is Teacher Tess doing? A. Artificial C. Intrinsic B. Extrinsic D. Reverse If you start out your lesson by giving your students a generalization, what teaching strategy are you using? A. Deductive B. Discovery C. Inductive D. Inquiry Sir Rey drew several triangles on the board. He asked his students to measure the angles of the triangles, and to sum each set up. The students found out that all the angles of a triangle always add up to 180 degrees. What teaching strategy did Sir Rey use? A. Demonstration B. Deductive C. Discovery D. Expository A teacher formulates questions to increase her learners’ participation. Which of these types of questions would be easiest to redirect? A. Those that require principles B. Those that require application C. Those that require factual information D. Those that require description or comparison Which learning objective would be taught best using an inquiry method? A. To diagram paragraphs B. To know the effect of demand on cost C. To distinguish between living and non-living things D. To distinguish between Buddhism and Christianity Which of these questions would require students to do cognitive processing? A. Explain why smoking is not a natural need. B. How does the tobacco industry try to market its product? C. What is the Philippines annual advertising expenditure on cigarette? D. How much does the Philippine tobacco industry spend per year on advertisement? What type of mental process is a teacher trying to develop if she tries to help her students remember words or ideas in a definite order? A. Abstract reasoning B. Analytical Thinking C. Logical sequencing D. Rose association Teacher Mike’s morning routine consists of organizing the room for the day’s lesson, checking materials and equipment and doing other similar activities that will promote an orderly and safe place for learning. Under what type of management do these tasks belong?

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PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING A Review Material for the NCBTS-Based Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET)| Compiled by MARIA RUTH M. REGALADO, PNU-Manila

42.

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A. Climate management B. Conduct management C. Routine management D. Setting management If you intend to establish control on the very first day, which action should you take? A. Give a long list of rules and sanctions. B. Be in the room when the students arrive. C. Give a long assignment to command respect. D. Establish yourself immediately as the supreme authority. If the closure of a day’s lesson is as important as its beginning, which statement should you say? A. That’s all for today. Goodbye! B. There’s the bell. Get ready for home. C. Before we end, let us look at what we learned today. D. Our time over. Take care of all the problems that we did not finish. Which of the following supports preventive discipline? A. Stating rules B. Giving rewards C. Inflicting punishment D. Providing reinforcement You hope to make your lesson on the similarities and differences of animals more realistic. What can you do? A. Present pictures of different animals. B. Bring your class on a field trip to the nearest zoo. C. Ask your students to act out their most favorite animals. D. Make your students surf the internet to view animals around the world. What is the most valuable learning experience that is derived from the use of discussion procedures? A. Formulating opinions B. Group thinking C. Gathering of facts D. Public speaking When does an instructional material become inefficient in the teaching-learning process? A. When it facilitates learning. B. When it increases students’ degree of mastery of its content. C. When it increase the time take for the learners to attain the desired goal. D. When it increases efficiency of teachers in terms of numbers for learners taught. What is the best way to maintain discipline inside the classroom? A. Be democratic in your approach. B. Frown every time your students misbehave. C. Be consistent in the rules and regulations agreed upon. D. Scold at your students everytime they commit mistakes. After planning for instruction, Teacher Racquel found out that not all her needed materials are available. What should she do? A. Teach the lesson some other time. B. Modify your plan to maximize available materials. C. Change your learning objectives based on available materials. D. Carry out the activities as planned and make use of the available materials. Which of the following is an ineffective way of presenting your visuals? A. Show visuals with an element of suspense. B. Shut off the overhead projector when explaining lengthily. C. Erase any writing on the chalkboard or whiteboard when you no longer need it. D. Have as many visuals as you can present simultaneously to hold the learners’ interest.

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PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING A Review Material for the NCBTS-Based Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET)| Compiled by MARIA RUTH M. REGALADO, PNU-Manila