Principles of Pragmatics - Leech -1983

Principles of Pragmatics Geoffrey N. Leech

LONGMAN LINGUISTICS UBRARY Title no 30

PRINCIPLES OF PRAGMATICS

LONGMAN LINGUISTICS LIBRARY General editors

20 Problems in French Syntax

R. H. Robins, University of London G. N. Leech, University of Lancaster

Transformational-Generative Studies

TITLE NO 2 General linguistics

NICOLAS RUWET TRANSLATED BY SHEILA M. ROBINS

An Introductory Survey

Third Edition R. H. ROBINS 6 A Short History of Linguistics Second Edition R. H. ROBINS

21 Text and Context

Principles of Pragmatics

Explorations in Semantics and Pragmatics of Discourse

TEUN A. VAN DIJK

Geoffrey N. Leech . 22 The Evolution of French Syntax A Comparative APproach

10 Studies in English Adverbial Usage SIDNEY GREENBAUM

MARTIN HARRIS 23 Modality and the English Modals F. R. PALMER

12 Phonetics in Linguistics A book of Readings

EDITED BY W. E. JONES AND J. LAVER 13 Structural Aspects of Language Change JAMES M. ANDERSON

24 Grimm's Grandchildren Current Topics in German Linguistics

THOMAS HERBST, DAVID HEATH HAN$-MARTIN DEDERDING 25 Explanation in Linguistics

14 Philosophy and the Nature of Language DAVID E. COOPER 15 Semantico-Syntax FRANS LIEFRINK 16 From Signs to Propositions The Concept of Form in Eighteenth-Century Semantic Theory

STEPHEN K. LAND

The logical problem of language acquisition

EDITED BY NORBERT HORNSTEIN AND DAVID LIGHTFOOT 26 Introduction to Text Linguistics ROBERT-ALAIN DE BEAUGRANDE AND WOLFGANG ULRICH DRESSLER

21 Spoken Discourse A model for analysis

17 Spatial and Temporal Uses of English Prepositions An Essay in Stratificational Semantics

DAVID C. BENNETI

WILLIS J:DMONDSON 28 Psycholinguistics Language. mind. and world

DANNY D. STEINBERG

18 The English Verb . F. R. PALMER

29 Dialectology W. N. FRANCIS

19 Principles of Firthian Linguistics T. F. MITCHELL

30 Principles of Pragmatics G.N.LEECH

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QQJ:l QQJ:l c:=:7 LONGMAN LONDON AND NEW YORK

LONGMAN GROUP LIMITED Longman House, Burnt Mill, Harlow

E8118x CM20 2JE, England Associated companies throughout the world Published in the United Ststes of America by Longman Inc., New York

© Longman Group Limited 1983 AU rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the Copyright owner. First published 1983

ISBN 0 582 55110 2 Paper

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Leech. Geoffrey Principles of pragmatics. - (Longman linguistics library; 30) 1. Pragmatics 2. Language - Philosophy I. Title 401 P99.4.P72 ISBN 0-582-55110-2 Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data Leech, Geoffrey N. Principles of pragmatics. (Longman linguistics library; no. 30) Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Pragmatics. I. Title. II. Series. P99.4.P72L43 1983 410 82-22850 ISBN 0-582-55110-2 (pbk.i

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Set in 10/11 pt Linotron 202 Times Printed In Singapore by Selector Printing Co Pte Ltd

To Tom and Camilla

Contents

Preface A note on symbols 1 Introduction I. I Historical preamble 1.2 Semantics and pragmatics 1.2.1 An example: the Cooperative Principle of Grice 1.3 General pragmatics I ·4 Aspects of speech situations I. 5 Rhetoric

2 A set of postulates 2.1 Semantic representation and pragmatic interpretation 2.2 Rules and principles 2.3 Convention and motivation 2.4 The relation between sense and force 2.5 Pragmatics as problem-solving 2.5.1 The speaker's task, viewed in terms of means~ends analysis 2.5.2 The addressee's task, seen in terms of heuristic analysis 2.6 Conclusion

3 Formalism and functionalism 3.1 Formal and functional explanations 3.2 Biological, psychological, and social varieties of functionalism

X

xiii I I

5 7 IO

13 15

19

I9 21"

24 30 35 36

40 44

46 47 48

viii

CONTENTS

CONTENTS

7. 1 Communicative Grammar and pragmatic force 7.2 Remarks on pragmatic metalanguage 7·3 Some aspects of negation and interrogation in English 7·3·1 Syntax 7.3.2 Semantic analysis 7·3·3 Pragmatic analysis 7·3·3·I Positive propositions 7-3·3·2 Negative propositions 7·3·3·3 Ordinary yes-no questions 7·3·3·4 Loaded yes-no questions 7-4 Implicatures of politeness 7 ·5 Conclusion

3·3 The ideational, interpersonal, and textual functions of language 3. 3. I A process model of language 3.3.2 An illustration 3.3.3 The textual pragmatics 3·4 The ideational function: discreteness and determinacy 3·5 Examples of 'overgrammaticization' 3.6 Conclusion

70 73

76

4 The interpersonal role of the Cooperative Pri.ncip!e 4.1 The Cooperative Principle (CP) and the Politeness Principle (PP) 4.2 Maxims of Quantity and Qualitr . 4.2.1 Implicatures connected wtth defimteness · . 4 3 Ma."im of Relation 4:4 The Hinting Strategy and anticipatory illocut10ns 4.5 Maxim of Manner . 4·5· r The obliquity and uninformatlveness of negation

100

5 The Tact Maxim

104

5.1 Varieties of illocutionary function 5.2

5 .3

5 ·4

5.5 5.6 5·7 s.8

a

7

Searle's categories of illocutionary acts Tact: one kind of politeness. Pragmatic paradoxes .of pohteness . Semantic represen~atlon o~ declaratlves, interrogatives and 1mperattves The interpretation of impositives Pragmatic scales . Tact and condescension

the

A survey of Interpersonal Rhetoric 6. I Maxims of politeness . 6. r. I The Generosity Max1m 6.1.2 The Approbation Maxim 6. r .3 The Modesty Maxim 6. I .4 Other maxims of ~olit~ness 6.2 Metalinguistic aspects ot politeness 6.3 Irony and banter 6. 4 Hyperbole and litotes 6.5 Conclusion

Communicative Grammar: an example

79

79 84 90 93 97 99

8 Perlormatives 8. I The Pcrformative and Illocutionary-Verb Fallacies 8.2 The speech act theories of Austin and Searle 8.2. I Declarations 8.3 Illocutionary p~rformatives: descriptive and non -descriptive approaches 8.4 Illocutionary performatives and oratio obliqua 8.5 The pragmatics of illocutionary performatives 8.6 The perforrnative hypothesis 8. 7 The extended performative hypothesis 8.8 Conclusion

104 105 107 IIO.

II4 II9 123 127

131

131 133

135 136

138 139 142

145 149

3 Speech-act verbs in English 9· r Locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary . 9.2 A survey of speech-act verb classes 9.2. I Illocutionary and perlocutionary verbs 9.2.2 Classifying illocutionary verbs 9.2.3 Problems of classification and their solution 9.2-4 Phonically descriptive and content-descriptive verbs 9·3 Is there a separate class of performative verbs? 9-4 A semantic analysis of some illocutionary verbs 9·5 Assertive verbs 9.6 Conclusion

·t 0 Retrospect and prospect References Index

I 57

57 59 164 I

I

!04 I65 I65

I66 169 171

174 !74 I75 179 I8I

I84

189 192 I93

195 I98 199 203

203 205

207 212

2I3 2!6 223 225 229

234 243

PREFACE

Preface

Pragmatics can be usefully defined as the study of how utterances have meanings in situations. In this book I present a comp!ementarist view of pragmatics within an overall programme £or studying language as a communication system. Briefly, this means studying the use of a language as distinct from, but wmp!ementary to, the language itself seen z.s a formal system. Or more briefly still: grammar (in its broadest sense) must be separated from pragmatics. To argue this, it is not sufficient to define pragmatics negatively, as that aspect of linguistic s1udy which cannot be accommodated in linguistics proper. Rather, onto: must det velcp theories and methods of description vihich are peculiar to pragmatics itself, and show thai these have to be different from those which are appropriate to gramm:~r. The domain of pragmatic Ltbrary,. Professor R. H. Robins, has also kindly given me the oenefit of h1s c.omments on the final manuscript. The customary

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xii

PREFACE

disclaimer that I alone am responsible for the shortcomings of this book i! particularly appropriate here:· on a subject so controversial u the present one, even my most benevolent critics have found -: and no doubt will find - enough cause for disagreement. I acknowledge with thar.ks the permission granted by John Benlamins, 8, V., ~sterdam, to reprint, as part of Chapter 7 of the present work, part of the paper 'Pragmatics and conversational rhetoric' which I contributed to Herman Parret, Marina Sbisa; aggj,,i~f Verschtt~r~n. eds, Possibilities and Limitatiorns of Prqgrtu!tics_, _A.mstei"4~f~~John Benjamins, 1981.

A note on symbols

Umrn,?ity;of Lancasfef'

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