Principles and Strategies of Teaching Lecture

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Chapter I COMPONENTS OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING Introduction What are the components of effective teaching? Before one can really answer this, it is important that the term teaching be defined. Many authors view teaching as organized, purposeful, and deliberate efforts designed to bring about certain specifically desirable ends in an individual. Garcia quotes Ronald Hyman (1970) and states that a teacher must know what teaching is because his concept of teaching guides his behavior and his own interpretation of teaching becomes essential to his performance as a teacher. It serves as his guide as well as direction in every classroom work he conducts for his students. According to Navarro, et al., teaching is an activity that, is not really new to the education students as they have been exposed to it since they first enrolled in Grade I. Teaching and learning are two aspects of the process called Education. Learning is the expected end of teaching in a school setting. Hence, teaching has always been directed at learning. Aquino (1974:27) identified six important elements or factors of the teaching-learning process: teacher; learner; classroom; curriculum; materials of instruction; and administration. A. The Teacher "Teachers, like leaves, everywhere abound Effective teachers, like fruits, are rarely found." An effective teacher is one who has honed his skills in the art of teaching. He demonstrates proficiency in the use of language, adopts varied teaching strategies, recognizes change, applies innovations, revises techniques for optimum results, and allows himself to be guided by acknowledged principles and theories in education. More than knowledge and skills, an effective teacher is compassionate and understanding. He gives allowance for personal limitations. He looks at every learner as a unique individual with peculiar needs and interests. Above all, an effective teacher is one who allows himself to grow professionally. His efficient performance is always a result of his educational preparation including attendance at seminars and workshops. Under the close supervision of an effective teacher, the individual gradually, slowly, and cumulatively learns things appropriate to his age and grade level. To become an effective teacher is the aspiration of every mentor whether new or has been in it for years.

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What then constitutes an effective teacher? A great, deal has been said of teaching as one of the important professions from the standpoint of human welfare. It is also one of the most technical, difficult, and challenging professions. A teacher can be effective if he has mastery of the subject matter, in which case, he must be an authority on the subject he is teaching. A teacher can only speak with authority on anything about which he has acquired familiarity. Personal Qualities of an Effective Teacher These personal characteristics are related to the five aspects of personality: intellectual; social; physical; emotional; and moral. Among those rated highly are the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Pleasing personal appearance, manner, courtesy, pleasant voice; Intelligence, emotional stability, and self-control; Sympathy, kindness, helpfulness, patience; Integrity, trustworthiness, honesty, loyalty; Flexibility, creativity, resourcefulness; Sociability, friendliness, cooperativeness; Fairness, impartiality, tolerance; and Sense of humor, cheerfulness, enthusiasm.

Mehl, et aI., pointed out that in analyzing teacher personality, it is necessary to consider the total impact of the total pattern of these qualities upon the pupil. The individual qualities which make for excellence are not identical in all effective teachers. It would be useless to attempt to fit all teachers into a common mold. The individuality and uniqueness of teacher personality is a priceless ingredient of a teaching staff. Teachers are the most important part of the learner's educational environment. Without them, the other elements of the educational environment would be ineffective, for they guide, direct, and stimulate youth in their goal-seeking (Bent, et al., 1970, as cited by Aquino, 1988:5). From day to day, the teacher plays many roles in the classt06In. These roles include the following: 1. Manager. As manager, the teacher is responsible for the effective management of her class from the start to the finish. The teacher carries throughout the day systematic activities to develop the pupils' cognitive, psychomotor, and effective aspects of the teaching-learning process. The pupils' eagerness and interest, therefore, to participate in all the learning activities prepared and conducted by the teachers in the classroom is a manifestation of an orderly classroom management by the teacher-manager. 2. Counselor. Every teacher is a guidance teacher. He acts as counselor to the pupils especially when the pupils are beset by problems. In general, teachers comfort and make the pupils feel they have a ready shoulder to cry on. As counselor, the teacher religiously keeps tab of all the activities of the children under his care, carefully noting important information regarding the children's moods, health, and progress in their studies that will help him assess the over-all performance of the learners. 2

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3. Motivator. Encouraging and motivating pupils to study well and behave properly in and outside the classroom is an enormous task. Despite the constraints, however, the teacher should use effective ways to awaken the drives and motives of children as he knows fully well the role played by motivation in the learning of the pupils. Motivation sets the mood for learning. It enlivens the interest of the learners and gets them more involved in the class activities. A dynamic teacher is always good at motivating learners to listen, participate, and eventually get the message. 4. Leader. A leader directs, coaches, supports, and delegates depending on the needs of the situation. A leader is always looked upon as somebody dependable and responsible. A teacher always assumes the position of a leader and he has to be credible in this regard. He should, therefore, manifest the highest leadership potentials demanded of his role as teacher and leader. The teacher should set the example to emphasize his role of being a leader. He should also be aware that to be a good leader, he must first be a good follower. 5. Model. A teacher is an exemplar. He serves as model to his pupils. Pupils idolize teachers; they believe the things the teacher says, especially if the teacher is kind, approachable, and sympathetic to their needs. As a model, the teacher must look his best all the time, master his lessons, show his interest in the children's welfare, show good behavior, and inculcate good work and attitudes, especially during trying moments inside the classroom; be fair in dealing with pupils; and exhibit good judgment when the situation calls for it. 6. Public Relations Specialist. The credibility of the school is attributed most of the time to the ways the teachers deal with people outside the school, like the schools' benefactors, parents of the pupils, church leaders, government employees, and others. The teacher, in his role as a public relations specialist, will be able to solicit important donations in cash or in kind for the development of both the school and the pupils. More than this, the teacher who has good public relations will always make a name for his school. 7. Parent-surrogate. In the school, the teachers are the parents of the pupils/students. Parents have a feeling of security knowing that their children are in good hands. Added to their main function of developing the pupils intellectually, teachers are also expected to train the pupils socially and emotionally and to look after their physical and mental wellbeing. In school, teachers take over the role of the parents, attending to the needs of the pupils and offering them the comforts away from home. In the process, he guarantees that the individual rights of the pupils to education and safety are respected. 8. Facilitator. The teacher is the facilitator of learning. The pupils must be given the chance to discuss things under the close supervision and monitoring of the teacher. As a facilitator, the teacher prepares guidelines which will serve as the focus of discussion and activities. The teacher oversees the activities inside the classroom. He allows pupils to discuss spontaneously with only his very minimal affirmation and confirmation. In the event, however, that some clarifications are needed, he can clarify vague points and correct wrong notions of the pupils. 3

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9. Instructor. The main function of the teacher is instruction. All the other roles aforementioned are corollary to teaching. To effectively carry out this aspect of teaching, the pre-service education of teachers must be more than adequate to prepare them for a job involving varied responsibilities. B. The Learner The learner is the subject of the schooling process. Without him, the educational system will not exist. The learner is a person who is receiving instruction or lessons from a particular teacher. There are two classifications of the learners, namely: pupil and student. The term pupil is applied to a child in the elementary level and the term student is applied to one attending an educational institution above the elementary level. To make teaching effective and learning productive, the teacher must know the nature of the child to be motivated, directed, guided, and evaluated. To understand the child, the teacher must know: a) the child as a biological organism with needs, abilities, and goals; b) the social and psychological environment; and c) the cultural forces of which he is a part. The learners differ from one another physically, intellectually, socially, and emotionally. Every learner is a unique personality, separate and distinct from the rest. It is from this premise that the teacher defines his role in the classroom to ensure the educational growth and development of the learner. He, therefore, takes into account the learner's varied interests, intellectual preparedness, emotional stability, and task readiness along with his levels of aptitude and degree of maturity.

C. The Classroom The classroom is a place where formal learning occurs. This could be a standard classroom with a standard measurement or an outdoor space where both the teacher and the pupils/students are interacting. The important thing is that, it is a place that can offer a wholesome venue for learning activities which can be realized only in an atmosphere conducive to both teaching and learning process. A good classroom is conducive to the teaching-learning process because: a) its activities are well-organized; b) there is mutual sharing of responsibility in establishing and maintaining a state of order and democratic living; and c) pleasant and hygienic conditions prevail.

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According to Aquino, a good classroom has a stimulating climate - one that results not only from desirable physical surroundings and healthful conditions but also from social relationship and emotional attitudes. Classroom Environment Encompasses Four Factors 1. Physical Environment. This includes the location, size, shape, construction of the room itself; the furniture in the room; instructional supplies or resources for learning; provisions for lighting, heating and ventilating; acoustics of the room; provisions for sanitation, cleanliness, and orderliness. 2. Intellectual Climate. This refers to patterns of behavior, the interaction pattern, qualities of interaction, and attributes that help the learners think clearly, critically, and creatively. The general atmosphere should be characterized by intellectual activities and pursuits for excellence. The teacher should understand that problem-solving develops through several stages, which include: recognizing the problem; collecting all the facts that bear on the problem; and forming tentative solutions and trying out the tentative solutions to see whether they work. In other words, the teacher is creating an intellectual environment in which the learners are free to work out under guidance the solutions to their own problems and thus, grow in the ability to be intelligent, self-directing citizens. 3. Social Climate. There are three types of social climate existing in the classroom: a) autocratic; b) laissez-faire; and c) democratic. In the autocratic climate, the teacher makes all the important decisions, directs all the activities, and evaluates pupil progress in terms of arbitrary standards. There is very little communication between teacher and pupils, hence, the learners find little opportunity in this type of climate for initiative, participation in group planning, or self-evaluation. In the laissez-faire climate, each learner operates as an individual, strives for recognition of his own achievement, and develops little regard for the rights and accomplishments of others. In this climate, the human relationships are in terms of coactions rather than interaction, there is little emphasis in group living. In the democratic climate, the goals are established by group participation and plans are made on the basis of cooperative group planning. There is, therefore, a great deal of cooperative teamwork resulting from a wide circle of communication. The role of the teacher in this kind of climate is neither that of dictator nor of an interested spectator but that of a mature person

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responsible for guiding the performance of the children as they work out goals, plan activities, and evaluate achievements. Leadership, likewise, is not regarded as the exclusive privilege of a few gifted learners. It is a shared role where every individual can contribute to the work of the group as a whole. In this kind of setting, participation affords the long-run potential for the realization of the best learning performance in terms of visible output. 4. Emotional Climate. This pertains to the emotional adjustment and mental health of the children. To foster the right kind of emotional climate, the teacher must see that the personality needs of the learner are met in the classroom. The learner needs to feel secure in his group. He must have opportunities to make decisions and become increasingly self-directing. It is only the effective teacher who can provide these opportunities. D. The Curriculum The term comes from the Latin root currere which means "to run." In educational usage, the "course of the race," became "course of study." The academic curriculum refers to the formal list of courses offered by a school. The extra curriculum refers to those planned but voluntary activities that are sponsored by a school, such as sports, drama, or social clubs. The hidden curriculum refers to those unplanned learning activities (e.g. learning how to cope with school bureaucracy and boredom or learning how to gain popularity with one's peers) that are a natural by-product of school life (Aquino, 1988:48). According to Hessong and Weeks, the hidden curriculum is the informal part of the curriculum that you know is there, but is difficult to see and study. Ballantine (1983) described the hidden curriculum as the part of the curriculum that refers to the three Rs - rules, regulations, and routines, to which the school must adapt. Guthrie and Reed (1991) have this to say about the hidden curriculum: The formal content of courses may not constitute the only knowledge conveyed by schools. Some social scientists contend that the overall school environment presents a powerful instructional message, a message which may not always be consistent with learning outcomes intended by district policy or the content conveyed by instructors in their classes. For example, it is alleged that a rigidly hierarchical school climate, where students are permitted little discretion and are seldom encouraged to make decisions, eviscerates formal course content extolling the virtues of democracy. Similarly, students observing what may be unfair segregation of their 6

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peers into ability tracks may be "learning more," acquiring a cynicism regarding equal opportunity and social mobility than from the abstract academic ideals they are being taught in history and civic courses. In its broad sense, curriculum is the sum total of all learning content, learning experiences, and resources that are properly selected, organized, and implemented by the school in pursuit of its peculiar mandate as a distinct institution of learning and human development. Curriculum, therefore, can be viewed as having two mutually inclusive components, namely: a) the blueprint or master plan of selected and organized learning content which can be referred to as "curriculum" per se; and b) the actual implementation of this plan through contrived experiences in the classroom which is called instruction (Palma, 1992:78). E. Materials of Instruction Materials of instruction refer to the various resources available to the teachers and learners which help facilitate instruction and learning. These materials represent elements found in the environment and which are meant to help students understand and explain reality. If the school has an Instructional Learning Center, the teacher should pay a visit to the center to find out what materials he can use for his course. The effective use also of non-book materials in the teaching-learning process will capture the students' interest and develop good attitude towards the topic being discussed. The non-book materials refer to the other members of the instructional media family that should be a part of the library collections but somehow are housed in another place called the Instructional Learning Center. Examples of non-book materials are audio-visual materials, audiovisual aids, instructional aids, educational media, etc. The types of audio-visual aids commonly used include the following: 1. Two-dimensional Materials. Any visual appearing to have height and width. a) Flat picture. They are sometimes referred to as a universal language because anybody can read pictures, although people have different ability in reading pictures. Pictures must have emphasis on key idea, must be suitable to the needs of the students, must provide correct and accurate impression or information as to size, color, or movement of unfamiliar objects.

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b) Graphics. Webster defines it as the art or science of drawing, especially mechanical drawing. It includes a variety of visual forms, such as: graphs; diagrams; charts; posters; cartoons; comics; and maps and globes. These materials are very valuable for instruction because of their capacity to attract attention and to convey certain types of information in condensed, summarized form. 2. Three-dimensional Materials. Visual materials appearing to have depth or thickness in addition to height and width. Examples of these are the following: a) Model. It is a representation of a real thing that is infinitely large, like the earth, or a thing that is small, like an atom. A model, therefore, reduces or enlarges objects to sizes we can observe. It provides the interior view of objects like a model of the human heart. b) Realia. It is an inclusive term that covers the tangible or visible things which serve the purpose of teaching. It is classified into objects, specimens, relics, replicas, and exhibits. c) Mock-up. It is a full-size dummy or structural model designed to be worked with directly by the learner for analysis or training. d) Diorama. It is a three-dimensional material scene in depth using a group of modeled objects and figures in a natural setting. e) Puppets. Small, usually jointed figures in the forms of human beings, animals, etc. moved with the hands or by strings, wires, or rods, usually in a puppet show. Puppetry can present ideas with extreme simplicity, without elaborate scenery or costume, yet they are effective. Puppets are classified into: shadow puppet; simple rod puppet; hand puppet; finger puppet; and marionettes or string puppets. 3. Audio-recording Materials. These auditory materials are used to provide learning experiences of a specific type - experiences of pure listening. a) Recordings - This registers sound or visual images in some permanent form as on a phonograph disc, magnetic tape, etc. for reproduction on a playback device. b) Radio - This is an audio device used by teachers in social studies, music, science, etc. The radio is an effective audio-device inasmuch as it can be used anywhere with or without electricity. 4. Projected Materials. They are materials which use a machine for throwing images on the screen as from a transparent slide or motion picture film. The term includes all instructional materials which are enlarged on a viewing screen. a) Still projection. Slides, transparencies, filmstrips, overhead projection, opaque projection, microfilm, microfiche, microprojection. 8

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b) Motion pictures. Motion picture is an edited version of reality. This editing, which may involve manipulation of time, space, objects that can heighten reality by eliminating distractions and by pointing up relationships that might well be overlooked. Motion picture can bring the distant past and the present into the classroom. c) Educational television. TV can provide enrichment and meaning, teach skills, perform drills, encourage research work and other projects, and stimulate students to new insights, perceptions, and discoveries. F. Administration Administration is defined as the organization, direction, coordination, and control of human and material resources to achieve desired ends. According to Moehlman, administration is exercised in a series of closely related and complementary specializations or activities. He calls this phase of administration the executive activity which he defines as all the acts or processes required to make policies and procedures effective. The principal function of administration is to provide optimum educational opportunities for all children in school. Among these are the school plant, equipment and supplies, finance, curriculum, faculty, and other support personnel. The administration, therefore, is a means toward the achievement of instructional objectives. What are the functions of school administration? According to Aquino (1974), one commonly accepted view is that school administration has the following functions: a) b) c) d) e) a) f) g) h) i) j)

Seeing that all school money is economically expanded and accounted for; Preparing the school budget; Selecting and purchasing school sites; Planning, erecting, and equipping the school buildings; Operating the school plant and keeping it in an excellent state of repair; D Selecting, training, and supervising teachers; Providing supplies; Providing textbooks; Assisting in curriculum construction; Organizing an instructional program; Keeping the public informed of the aims, accomplishments, and needs of the schools; and k) Keeping school records and accounts.

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Chapter II VARIOUS CONCEPTS OF TEACHING TEACHING CONCEPTS A. Teaching Is a Complex Human Activity It is so because teaching involves a wide range of human interactions, organizational arrangements, and material resources that converge on the teaching-learning process. Varied activities inherent in teaching are identified in this definition by Garcia (1989:1516): 1. Human Interactions. Teaching is considered a system of actions varied in form and content but directed toward learning. It is in the performance of these actions and in the interactions of the teacher with his students that learning takes place. These actions and interactions are personal but they are also logical in that they have a certain structure, a certain order, such that no matter, where in the world teaching takes place, it does so in accordance with operations that reflect the very nature of a teaching-learning situation. The logical operations involve three variables such as: a) the teacher's behavior (IV); b) the learner's behavior (DV); and c) various postulated entities such as memories, beliefs, needs, interferences, which are intervening variables. The independent variables in the teacher's behavior consist of linguistic behavior, expressive behavior, and performatory behavior. Linguistic behavior - otherwise known as verbal communication whereby teachers verbalize their thoughts through language that is characterized by spontaneity, precision, and naturalness. Expressive behavior - patterns of communication achieved through changes in the tone of voice, facial expressions, and kinesis - motions of the hands, arms, eyes, head, or other parts of the body. Expressive behavior is intended to emphasize ideas to inject humor, to indicate seriousness, irritation as well as approval and disapproval. Performatory behavior includes all physical activities such as: a) writing on the blackboard; b) operating projectors and record players; 10

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c) manipulating models; and d) using laboratory equipment, tools, machines, computers, and other instructional materials. 2. Organizational Arrangements. Teaching is an activity with four phases: a) b) c) e)

curriculum planning phase; an instructing phase; a measuring phase; and an evaluating phase.

Such phases are spelled out more specifically, respectively, as: a) Helping to formulate the goals of education, selecting content and stating objectives; b) Creating intentions regarding instructional strategies and tactics, interacting and acting on situational feedback about instruction; c) Selecting or creating measurement devices: measuring, learning, organizing, and analyzing measurement data; and d) Evaluating the appropriateness of objectives of instruction and the validity and reliability o the devices used to measure learning (John Hough, 1970). 3. Material Resources. The process of teaching includes: a) b) c) d) e) f) g)

the selection and development of instructional units; planning individual lessons; organizing material for instructional purposes; designing the methods to be used; classroom management; evaluation of pupils' achievements; and reporting of pupils' grades (B.J. Chandler and Daniel Powell, 1970).

B. Teaching Is Both a Science and an Art Teaching involves imparting a body of systematized knowledge. It affords the development of a level of consciousness of everything about the world and the totality of facts about life. But more than the knowledge about realities, teaching also taps the performance skills of the learners to make them physically, intellectually, and socially equipped despite varied interventions. More than a science, teaching is also an art. It must provide avenues for achieving pleasure and delight in learning. Every learning experience, therefore, must find its way to the learners' heart. Anything that is satisfying is readily appreciated because it meets the needs and interests of the individual learners. As an art, teaching is a continuous process responding to the demands of the time and the changes in the learners' perspective. It is never static, it adheres to novelty.

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Garcia (1989) quoted Eisher (1983) when he pointed out a couple of distinguishing marks between these two facets of teaching.

Science Art 1. Teaching as a science is primarily 1. Teaching as an art is more suited to directed to inform the head. satisfy the soul. Therefore, teaching as a science emphasizes the cognitive and psychomotor aspects of learning or simply the subject matter that must be put across into the learners' level of awareness as well as the skillful performance that they should be able to develop in and by themselves.

Therefore, teaching as an art presupposes the need for the learner to appreciate and improve on whatever knowledge he has gained and skills he has acquired. Hence, this facet tends to give more credence to the affective aspects of learning.

The knowledge and skill they will acquire are indispensable to their everyday living especially in decision-making and in solving crucial problems. Which of the two is more important? Both are equally important as far as the total personality development of the learner is concerned. It follows then that the learner must know something before he can appreciate it. He can never appreciate something that he does not know of or something that does not exist in him. Something is derived from something, nothing can be taken from nothing. 2. The second difference presents a more in-depth perspective. Teaching as a science views the teacher Teaching as an art goes beyond the prescribed level of instruction. This facet views as an academician as well as a craftsman. the teacher as an innovator, one who is willing As an academician, he is pictured to be to modify and to create new forms of teaching. disciplined, organized, systematic in his teaching. As such he is expected to: The teachers' artistry comes in when they consider the varying mixture of these a) have a mastery of the subject matter; young people and through processes that are basically intuitive build up meaningful and programs of study for them. These teachers b) organize it well in a form that is believe teaching requires an ability to see through and respond to individual differences' comprehensible to his learners. among the learners. As a craftsman, he has a repertoire of teaching methods and is quite skillful in their use.

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Teaching as a science regards teaching Teaching as an art looks at teaching as as mechanical and routinized in order to make a dynamic and imaginative process. it more systematic and more efficient. Teaching as an art makes teaching more Teaching as a science calls for skillful teaching. relevant and' responsive to the learner's needs, interests, and abilities. Teaching as a science aims at optimum Teaching as an art is destined to come out with efficiency devoid of creating something new. something novel or innovative.

C. Teaching as a System According to Navarro, et al. (1988), teaching as a system requires an understanding of the role of the more mature, experienced members of society in stimulating, directing, managing, and guiding the immature and inexperienced members in their adjustments to life. With the young and immature students as inputs into the system, the processing takes place in the school setting with the teacher playing a major role in instructing the inexperienced so that they can develop into upright and useful members of society and well-adjusted citizens with wholesome personalities imbued with: a) b) c) d)

love of country; duties of citizenship; moral character; personal discipline; and e) scientific, technological, and vocational efficiency.

A schematic presentation of this concept is shown in Figure 1 on the next page. D. Teaching Is One of the Most Exalted Forms of Social Service Gregorio (1976) states that the classroom is a society made up of teachers and learners working together for the purpose of human growth and betterment. The opportunities of the teachers and the learners for good or evil are boundless. For this reason, society has insisted that teachers should be known for their high character, honesty, integrity, and skill. Teaching is guided by the spirit of service. Service may be defined as the performance of a task for the benefit of others given voluntarily, by request, or by fulfilling a social need. People look at it as the beginning and end of the teaching profession. It is the beginning because service is the guiding, stabilizing, and directing factor of the teaching profession. Service can build the organization or destroy it. Service can give life, honor, and beauty or it can bring disappointments and dishonor to each member in the profession. Teaching in a democracy is rich in opportunities for service.

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It is an end because service is the ultimate goal of the teaching profession. The success of any professional organization in a civilized world is measured not by the size of the members of the profession, but by the services they have rendered in the community and to the nation.

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The true measure of service is not what the teaching organization has planned but what the members have done to improve the living conditions in the community and to save humanity. E. Teaching Is the Responsibility of the Teacher While Learning Is the Responsibility of the Learner Teaching is always a two-way track. The stimulus is teaching and the response is learning. It involves a process intended to bring about a desired result.

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According to Palma (1992), learning involves a process and brings about an outcome. Figure 2 illustrates in simplified form the process and product of learning as gleaned from the psychology of learning. All learning begins with things around us. They may be objects, persons, or phenomena that we "experience" or that we become aware of through any of our five senses. The S- R bond as explained in behavioristic psychology holds that every stimulus elicits an automatic response. Such behavior is not only true of human beings where the animalistic nature is concerned but animals as well, as they operate on the instinctive or sensitive level. However, such reaction may not always be true in situations where human beings behave on a higher or rational-moral level. According to humanistic psychology, learning on the human level becomes a more intricate process, primarily because it takes a different, more circuitous route that involves the mind, the intellect, and the will. The conscious mind receives the stimulus and passes it on to the subconscious until a connection is established between the stimulus and the previous learning and experiences. In the process, the intellect analyzes, discerns the new experience, and attaches a new meaning until the will accepts it as part of a new experience. The individual then makes a conscious attempt to respond to it. he conscious, willful repetition of the response will then result in a modified behavior that may be expressed in the form of a new knowledge gained, a new skill acquired, or a new attitude or value imbibed. The new behavior is characterized as permanent or lasting, purposeful or willful, and progressive. Such changes in the behavioral pattern will contribute to the total transformation of the individual which is the outcome of learning and the byproduct of education. It is to be noted that the learning process is a joint endeavor between the teacher who provides the adult help and supervision and the learner who recognizes his personal responsibility to make the most of the learning situations. Figure 3 presents the intervention points in relation to the learning process. There are five such intervention or helping points in the continuum: A, B, C, D, and E. These points encompass the key elements or the so-called 8 Ms of teaching. The 8 Ms of Teaching (as conceptualized by Palma (1992)) 1. Milieu. The Learning Environment. Milieu is the physical environment, the place of work, the classroom, the laboratory, workshop, or even the school campus where learning activities can be done. Learning starts from reacting to stimuli in the environment, for 17

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that matter the environment assumes an important role in the teaching and learning process.

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2. Matter. Matter refers to the content. It embraces everything there is that has to be covered and, therefore, learned. A basic tenet in organizing matter is mastery of the subject matter. The role of the teacher is to see to it that the subject matter is not only covered but mastered as well. It is mastery that will add to the pupil's level of proficiency and understanding of the content. A little of every lesson works to the disadvantage of the learners. 3. Method. They are the purposeful, planned activities and tasks that are undertaken by the teacher and the students in the classroom to bring about the intended instructional objective. An effective teacher employs a variety of teaching strategies that will set the mood for classroom work-activities. The teacher must not limit his strategies to chalktalk or lectures. He should devise a way where students can engage in wholesome activities that will not only arouse their interests but tap whatever potentials they have. When activities are varied, pupils/students are challenged, participation is encouraged, and thinking is enhanced. 4. Materials. Materials are the resources, both human or physical object, made available for use by the teachers and learners. These materials serve as stimuli in the teaching-learning situation. These materials are meant for the learners to understand the world they live in and, therefore, the basic realities each learner has to contend himself with. Figure 4 shows several ways of portraying reality. One closest to reality, the direct, purposeful experience where the learner makes use of practically all the five senses in establishing contact with true-to-life objects, artifacts, views, sounds, etc. This is sometimes referred to as experiential learning where learners acquire knowledge about particular situations, events, through experiences. An educational field trip provides a type of learning obtained from real-life situations.

Figure 4: Ways of Portraying Reality Source: Palma's Curriculum Development System Another way of showing reality is through a reproduction, where one creates a vividlike impression of the real thing. However, such approach makes use of one or both of 20

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two senses, seeing and hearing. Included in this classification are the so-called audiovisual materials used by teachers such as films and video cassette tapes. Still another way of portraying reality is through a representation of reality. While it may not be too successful in re-creating the original, it is the idea conveyed that will help understand that of reality which is under study. This approach is limited to only one sense, the sense of sight. Examples of representation are materials such as illustrations, dioramas, mock-ups, puppets and moppets, maps and globes, and graphs. Considered as the least effective of all the ways of portraying reality is the abstraction of reality. This is done through lecture or teacher talk. Abstract explanations do not at all contribute to the learner's ability to concretize. There is nothing in the mind that was not first in the senses. Learning, therefore, is better achieved by allowing learners to touch, taste, hear, smell, and see objects being studied. 5. Media. It is the system of communication in the teaching-learning process aimed at promoting common understanding in instruction and setting and maintaining a healthy climate in the classroom conducive to learning. Since oral communication is inevitable and necessary in teaching, the teacher should keep certain helpful tips in mind. First, he should make an effort to use language efficiently and effectively. He is supposed to serve as a model of a good language user, regardless of the language used. Every lesson in any subject becomes a lesson in communication. This is particularly true of pupils who are highly impressionable and that they learn much through plain imitation. Second, the teacher should keep in mind the principle of parsimony in the use of language. He should strive to keep his communication clear, concise, and comprehensible at all times. Language should, therefore, be simple and familiar to the learners. 6. Motivation. Motivation is a cardinal principle in learning. A learner will learn only those things he wants to learn. If a student is not interested in what he is learning, he will simply "go through the motions," or worse, he will not engage himself in the learning act at all. The teacher should, therefore, usher in every lesson or unit with some form of motivation. A good teacher is a good motivator. He starts every lesson about something that will call the attention and will evoke the interest of the listeners. Effective teachers are good at motivating learners because they know how to hold captive the learner's attention. When a learner feels disinterested in the lesson, there is no chance at all for learning to take place. Motivation is always associated with the learner's understanding of a value in the learning act based on a "felt need" (present gratification) or a "reward" as the case may be. In other words, every learning situation must be a gratifying experience to the learner.

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7. Mastery: The Be-all and End-all of Learning. Mastery means habitual or automatic change in behavior brought about by the learners having internalized what they have acquired through repetition and application. Mastery denotes ability to put to constant use what' has been fixed in the mind and to apply such in future situations and where need arises. Mastery is the last stage in the learning circle illustrated in Figure 5. The circle of learning is a graphic presentation of the four stages involved in the acquisition of knowledge which starts with the state of unconscious incompetence till the stage of unconscious competence or mastery. Stages in the Circle of Learning Stage 1: Stage of Unconscious Incompetence. The state of not desiring to know because he does not know what is there to know (blissful ignorance). Stage 2: Stage of Conscious Incompetence. A situation referred to as the "teachable moment" when, by accident the learner realizes there is a need to know about things around him. He consciously develops a desire to know the need to develop personal interests. He now has a "motive" for and consequently an "interest" in learning (motivation). Stage 3: Stage of Conscious Competence. The learner is helped by a teacher who starts coaching after telling him what to know. He is, therefore, guided into gathering information, aided and corrected when need be, and made to engage in constant independent applications over a period of time. This stage includes content, coaching, guided practice, feedback, and application.

Figure 5: The Circle of Learning Source: Palma's Curriculum Development System

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Stage 4: Stage of Unconscious Competence. The point where a learner achieves a degree of competence in a particular area, exhibiting skills honed through constant practice. The learner, therefore, becomes knowledgeable because he has acquired mastery of the subject matter: conscious effort. 8. Measurement: Getting Evidence of Learning. It is the final measure of how much a learner has acquired and mastered as revealed by an instrument "test" in the form of a "test score." The score has to be referenced to the stated criterion or norm so a judgment can be rendered as to the acceptability or non-acceptability of the performance. Measurement then is but one aspect of a process called evaluation. Benjamin Bloom defines evaluation as "the systematic collection of evidence to determine whether in fact certain changes are taking place in the learner as well as to determine the amount or degree of change in the individual students." Two aspects of evaluation can be gleaned from this definition. The first, which is quantitative: the gathering of data on student learning in terms of scores in a test. The second, qualitative: the judgment as to the acceptability or non-acceptability of the learning level based on present standards. The first is referred to as measurement, the second, valuation. Thus, the term evaluation consists of a measurement aspect and a valuation aspect (Palma, 1992:114). F. Teaching Is Providing the Teachers with Opportunities to Make Desirable Changes in the Thinking, Attitudes, and Behavior of their Pupils In a child's development, three important factors should be given utmost consideration, namely: a) objectives; b) learning activities; and c) evaluation. The interrelationships between these three factors show that the focus of the teacher's effort is the child. The child is the core of the teaching-learning process that is aimed at the development of a mature individual. To guide the development and learning systematically and effectively, schools are established and maintained by society. The school has an instructional program that accomplishes these objectives and evaluation determines if these objectives are being attained and if the learning activities (or learning experiences) contribute toward the attainment of such objectives (Aquino, et al. 1988:18).

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Figure 6: Interrelationships among Objectives, Learning Activities, and Evaluation 1. Objectives. Educational objectives, specific or otherwise, serve a valuable function in the educational process. Effective instruction occurs when learners are provided with instructional experiences that are designed to help them achieve goals stated in instructional objectives. They require specification of student learning in terms of observable and measurable behavior. Statement of educational objectives in behavioral terms facilitates the evaluation of educational programs and improves the validity of the measures and scales used in the evaluation process. Basic Concepts in Writing Educational Objectives Instructional objectives should contain the following five elements: a) Who is to perform the desired behavior (e.g. the pupil, the student, or the learner). b) The actual behavior to be employed in demonstrating mastery of the objective (e.g. to write, to identify, or to distinguish). c) The result (i.e., the product or performance) of the behavior which will be evaluated to determine whether the objective is mastered (e.g. an essay or a speech). d) The relevant conditions under which the behavior is to be performed (e.g. in a onehour quiz or at the end of a forty-minute period). e) The standard that will be used to evaluate the success of the product or performance (e.g. 90 percent correct or eight out often correct) (Lardizabal, et at., 1991:42-43). 2. Learning Activities. These refer to certain activities that the learner undergoes in reaction to the environment with which he has an opportunity to interact. An experience is personal to the learner and what he gets out of it depends a lot on his total personal life space.

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Since learning results directly from personal experiences, its selection becomes a vital concern in the classroom. The central problem of schooling, then, is that of determining the kinds of experiences likely to produce the given objectives. The main concern of the teacher is how to set up situations and conditions in the classroom which will stimulate the students to pursue the objectives laid out before them (Palma, 1992:77-78). The teacher should provide students the opportunities to engage in a variety of experiences to increase the depth of meaning of important concepts. Likewise, the teacher should be able to devise many activities which will give students concrete experiences instead of verbal abstractions. Learning activity to be effective must be properly distributed. The following are some suggestions for making material meaningful by gearing it to the learner's experiences: a) evaluate the learner's experience; b) provide variety of experiences; c) use pictorial illustrations, objects or models, or examples frequently; and d) create situations for applications of concepts or skills learned (Gregorio, 1976:167168). 3. Evaluation. Evaluation validates the objectives and points out the affectivity and propriety of the learning experiences. Therefore, evaluation cannot be taken apart from teaching. It is not to be considered even as a mere adjunct of instruction. It is de facto an integral part, that is, part and parcel of the teachinglearning process. A teacher who teaches without testing for results is in much the same situation as a person who prepares a meal and serves it without benefit of tasting it beforehand. A popular saying goes, "the test of the pudding is in the eating." By the same token, the proof of learning is seen in the testing. (Palma, 1992:113-114).

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Chapter III PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING A. Principles Defined The term principle has been adopted from the Latin word princeps which means the beginning or the end of all things. The early Greeks used the term principles not only to express the origin of things but als1> to express their fundamental laws and to bring out the ultimate objectives. Principles are used in many different senses. According to Webster, a principle is a comprehensible law or doctrine from which others are derived or on which others are founded. In the language of Hopkins, a principle is a rule for guiding the ship of education so that it will reach the port designated by the philosophy of education; it is a compass by which the path of education is directed. Principles are the chief guides to make teaching and learning effective and productive. They are the fundamentals through which we proceed from one situation to another. Principles are important for the governing of actions and the operation of techniques in any field of education. True principles explain educational processes. They show how things are done and how educational results are achieved. For the individual, a principle, when understood and accepted, serves in important ways to guide his reflective thinking and his choice of activities or actions. In the field of education, an accepted principle becomes part of one's philosophy which serves to determine and evaluate his educational aims, activities, practices, and outcomes. B. How Principles of Teaching Are Derived Sound principles of teaching are formulated from carefully observed facts or objectively measured results which are common to a series of similar experiences, as such, they must be carefully distinguished from the assumptions of so-called arm-chair philosophy which are made up largely of purely theoretical principles not based on experience, reality, investigation, or experimentation. It can be said that principles of teaching are derived: a) through the pooling of the opinions of experts; b) through comparative studies of the teaching performance of capable and incapable teachers; c) through experimental studies of teaching and learning in the classroom; d) from the results of experiments which are the universal methods of deducing principles; and 26

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e) from critically analyzed experience or from systematic investigations. C. Function and Scope of Principles When general principles are used to stimulate, direct, guide, and evaluate the conduct of life, they are translated into means and measures of actions. Only actions can change things in the direction of unity and stability. Organized principles of teaching should serve at least two general purposes: a) Principles should serve as the bases of intelligent and profitable practice. The nature of principles is constant and universal but their application varies from one generation to another or from one situation to another within the same generation, owing to changing conditions. b) Principles should serve not only to stimulate, direct, and guide, but also to interpret school practices. Principles depend upon how well they are founded upon scientific experimentation, expert opinion, or classroom experience. The function of teaching is to provide the stimuli so that the best learning may take place. Principles of teaching are guides so that teachers may better adopt their instruction to the learner's individual capabilities. They are not rigid, unequivocal laws that apply in all teachinglearning situations. As such, teaching must always be considered as a complex process that may be better understood by making a broad and discerning application of its various principles. D. Types of Teaching Principles 1. Starting Principles. These involve the nature of the learner and his psychologi.cal and physiological endowments which make education possible. The hereditary endowments are the preliminary concern in all educational endeavor. It is, therefore, the function of education to make the best use of these hereditary tendencies to meet human needs, growth, and development. The primary concern of the teacher is not the subject, but the learner, not knowledge of specialty, but knowledge oft he laws and principles of human growth and development, which, like all other natural processes, involve laws and principles. 2. Guiding Principles. These refer to the procedure, methods of instruction, or agglomerations of techniques by which the learner and the teacher may work together towards the accomplishment of the goals or objectives of education. 3. Ending Principles. These refer to the educational aims, goals, objectives, outcomes, purposes, or results of the whole educational scheme to which teaching and learning are directed.

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These educational aims or objectives may be used as definite, intelligible principles or guidance by those who seek to educate effectively. General educational aims may be either philosophical or psychological. Philosophical aims are based on folkways and mores or ideals of the Filipino people. They are otherwise known as the ultimate aims of education outlined in our Constitution. Psychological aims refer to the growth and development of the learner in terms of knowledge, habits, skills, and abilities or integrated personality. They may be expressed in behavioral terms. In other words, psychological aims refer to subject matter aims. They are also known as the immediate aims of education. E. General statements Concerning Principles Principles as used in teaching have broad meanings and extensions: The term principles refer to:  general laws;  doctrines;  rules of actions;  fundamental truths;  general statements;  educational concepts;  accepted tenets; and  the conditions that affect the teaching-learning process. The meaning of the term principles varies considerably in teaching as well as in learning. a) Principles are considered sound when they are formulated from carefully observed facts or objectively measured results which are common to a series of similar experiences. b) Principles are also considered valid when they are the results of scientific experimentations, expert opinions, and classroom observations and experiences. c) Principles, when understood and accepted, serve in important ways to guide the individual's reflective thinking and his choice of activities. Principles are the bases in stimulating, directing, guiding, and encouraging the learners in their learning and the teachers in their teaching. They are used as guides to educational procedure. They are the guides in making teaching and learning activities effective and productive. d) Principles and techniques do not work effectively by themselves. There is constant interplay which gradually improves the selection and functioning of both principles and techniques.

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e) Principles are the criteria to be used by the teachers in the evaluation of their teaching and of the learning of the learners. They also serve to determine and evaluate educational objectives, practices, and outcomes. f) Principles are needed to guide techniques, but in no way do they supplant the fundamental role of techniques in carrying on the process and activities which make up the day-to-day work of teaching and learning. g) Principles, although based on enduring concepts and values, are themselves subject to change. They are dynamic, not static. Principles do change with the discovery of new facts, with new educational philosophy, and with changes in social and moral values. h) Principles are workable only under normal conditions. When the classroom conditions are abnormal, common sense must be the guiding factor in meeting the situation. Common sense is the ability to do and to say the right thing at the right time in the right way to the right person. Common sense is the right kind of personality in action. It is practical intelligence and tact in behavior. It is a product of individual experience gained through contact with practical problems of life and through lessons derived from success and failure. i) Principles are of great value if they are basically true and applied into the learning situations. Thus, the use of the general principles in the field of teaching involves considerably more than a mere statement of sound basic principles. If the principles taught are acquired in the best way, there can be little question of their validity. j) Principles oftentimes overlap or even at times conflict with each other. However, although principles at times overlap, nevertheless, they work out harmoniously in achieving the desired objectives or aims. k) Principles are means to ends and never ends in themselves. When abstract principles are used as guides and evaluate the conduct of life, they must be translated into means and measures of action (Gregorio, 1976:1-14). F. John Dewey's Philosophy Dr. John Dewey (1859-1950) was an outstanding American philosopher and educator. John Dewey was born on October 20, 1859 in Burlington, Vermont. He graduated from the University of Vermont in 1879 and received his Ph.D. degree from John Hopkins University in 1884. He was a professor of Philosophy at the University of Minnesota in 1888 and at the University of Michigan from 1889 to 1894. He served also as head of the Philosophy Department at the University of Chicago in 1894-1904. Up to his retirement, he was a professor of Philosophy at Columbia University. 29

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As a philosopher, he was an outstanding pragmatist and as an educator, he was known as progressivist or a democratic educator. His philosophical beliefs have been described as: 1) radical empiricism; 2) experimentalism; 3) intrumentalism; and 4) pragmatism. (Gregorio, 1979:42). Actually, John Dewey's philosophy was an outgrowth or product of: a) Rousseau's principles of growth, pupil activity, and individualism; b) Pestalozzi's discipline of sympathy and his principle that learning proceeds from the known to the unknown, and his doctrine of interest; c) Froebel's ideal of learning by doing which depended upon self-principled activities or creative development which is the basic principle of socialization; and d) Findings in the study of G. Stanley Hall which stimulated an interest in child nature. Progressive education owes much to John Dewey's philosophy of instrumentalism, a philosophy which holds that the various forms of human activity are instruments developed by man to solve his problems. It bears a close resemblance to' pragmatism, which states that truth is measured by experimental results and practical outcomes that can be shared and tested by all who investigate. The chief tenets of John Dewey's philosophy are the following: a) b) c) d)

We learn by doing; Education is life, not a preparation for life; Education is growth; The school is primarily a social institution; and e) The center of education is the child's own social activities.

Out of the foregoing tenets have grown, according to Mills and Douglas, the basic principles of today's learning, which are as follows: a) b) c) d) e) f)

Children learn by doing; Motivation should be intrinsic and natural, not artificial; Learning should be gradual and continuous, not discrete; Instruction should be adapted to individual needs; Natural social settings should constitute learning situations; Learning depends upon the child's ability; g) Learning comes through sense impressions; g) The child can best be educated as a whole, as a unit organism; h) Teacher-pupil and, inter-pupil relationships should be cooperative; and i) Education means improving the quality of living. (Aquino, 1988:39-40). G. Principles of Good Teaching Based on the Educational Philosophy of John Dewey

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a) Teaching is good when it is based on the psychology of learning. This is based on the concept that the child is made the center of the educative process. The nature of the child and the nature of the learning process and the laws that govern its operation determine the type of teaching to be done by the teacher. b) Teaching is good when it is well-planned such that the activities and experiences of the learner are continuously related and interrelated into larger, more meaningful, more inclusive, relation patterns. c) Teaching is good when the learner is made conscious of the goals or aims to be accomplished. This concept calls for proper motivation. d) Learning is good when it provides learning experiences or situations that will insure understanding. Good teaching requires a rich environment of instructional materials and devices. Instructional materials and devices will challenge the attention of the learner, stimulate thinking, and facilitate understanding which make learning more meaningful. e) Teaching is good when there is provision to meet individual differences. This is based on the psychological principle tl:1at individuals differ from each other in their learning potential. To be effective, teaching must treat the learner as he is, but at the same time with reference to what he might become. f) Teaching is good when it utilizes the past experiences of the learner. This concept is based on the principle of apperception. This means that learning is easier when you start from what the pupils already know. g) Teaching is good when the learner is stimulated to think and to reason. The best teaching method is that which liberates and encourages thinking. Effective teaching involves differentiation and integration or analysis and synthesis. Generalization of facts learned is important in teaching for transfer. h) Teaching is good when it is governed by democratic principles. In democratic teaching, social relationship is placed on a plane of natural respect, cooperation, tolerance, and fair play. Teaching to be effective must be governed by love and understanding. In other words, the learners are free from emotional tension. i) Teaching is good when the method used is supplemented by another method and instructional devices. It is an accepted fact that good method is a synthesis of many methods. This is based on the principles that the best learning takes place when a greater number of senses are stimulated and utilized in the process. j) Teaching is good when evaluation is made an integral part of the teaching process. Evaluation is part and parcel of teaching. Evaluation measures the effectiveness of teaching and learning and completes the function which is essential in teaching. Teaching is meaningful only when the results of teaching are achieved.

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k) Teaching is good when drill or review is made an integral part of teaching and learning. The teacher must bear in mind that drill and review have different meanings and functions. The purpose of review is to bring out relationships of facts learned to give new view or new meaning. (Gregorio & Gregorio, 1979: 63-65). A Synthesis of John Dewey's Thoughts on Education I

Dewey's Education Theories

Education as a Necessity of Life -

Education makes possible continuance/renewal of social life. Education is a communication-making experience. Education is a shared possession. Education is a self-renewing instrument of a complex society.

Education as a Social Function -

Education provides the social environment that leads to the development of attitudes necessary for a continuous and progressive life. As an educative environment, the school performs three social functions: a) simplifying/ordering the factor it wishes to develop; b) purifying and idealizing the existing social function; and c) creating a wider and better balanced environment.

Education as Direction -

Education directs the natural impulses of the young to agree with the life customs of the group through commands, prohibitions, approvals, and disapprovals. The business of education is to make the young understand the internal controls.

Education as Growth -

Education is all one with life; life is growth and, therefore, education has no end beyond growth. Growth in education is not physical but growth in insight and understanding of relationship between various experiences and learning episodes.

Education as Preparation -

Education is preparation when it:

a) progressively realizes present possibilities, thus, making the individual better fitted to cope with later requirements; and b) makes the present rich and significant, thus, merging into the future. 32

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Education as Unfolding -

Education is unfolding when it draws out from the learner what is desired through suggestive questioning or other pedagogical device. Education is unfolding from within.

Education as Training of Faculties -

Education as training of original impulsive activity is selecting those responses that can be utilized by the individual. Education is not mere "exercise" of the faculties of the mind but the development of initiative, inventiveness, and adaptability.

Education as Formation -

Education is formation when it consists of the selection and coordination of native activities so that the subject matter of the social environment is utilized.

Education as Recapitulation and Retrospection -

Education is not "repeating" the past but utilizing it as a resource in developing the future.

Education as Reconstruction -

Education is the reorganization of experience which adds to its meaning, increasing its ability to direct the course of subsequent experience. In education as reconstruction, increment of meaning corresponds to increased perceptions of connections and continuities of experiences. Education is the fundamental method of social reform.

Education as a Democratic Social Function -

Education gives the individuals a personal interest in social relationship and controls the habits of the mind which secure social changes without introducing disorder. Education emphasizes the cooperative nature of shared human experience which embraces three key elements: a) common - represents shared objects, ideas; b) communication - occurs when people share their experiences; and c) community - results when individuals discuss common experiences through shared communication.

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II. Dewey's Thoughts on Education Aims A. Natural Development Aim. Spontaneous development not only of the bodily organs but their capacities as well. B. Social Efficiency Aim. Cultivation of power to join freely and fully in shared/common activities. C. Cultural Aim. Expansion of one's range and accuracy of one's perception of meanings. III. Dewey's Thoughts on the Correlative Aspects of Education A. Interest and Discipline -

Interest and discipline are correlative aspects of activity. Interest means one is identified with the objects and activity up to its realization. Interest is entering into a situation, continuity of attention, and endurance. Interest represents the moving force of education. Discipline is the development of the power of continuous attention.

B. Experience and Thinking -

Experience involves a connection of doing or trying with something undergone in consequence. Experience has two elements:

Active - Experience is trying. Passive - Experience is undergoing.    

Education is an active-passive affair, a separation destroys the vital meaning of an experience. Thinking is the accurate and deliberate instituting of connections between what is done and its consequences. Thinking includes these steps: sense of a problem; observation of the condition; formation and rational elaboration of a suggested conclusion; and active experimental testing.

-

All thinking results in knowledge, ultimately the value of knowledge is subordinate to its use in thinking.

-

Experience provides solidity, security, and fertility to education.

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Thinking unifies all processes of instruction.

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C. The Nature of Method -

Method is the way the subject matter of an experience develops most effectively and fruitfully. Method is embedded in the child's' own nature which is active rather than passive. Good methods are straightforward and promote flexible intellectual intere'st, openminded will to learn, integrity of purpose, and acceptance of responsibility for the consequences of one's activity. "Project" or "Problem" or situation methods shall replace formalized operation. Projects and problems should come within the scope and capacities of the experience of the learner. Methods must raise new questions, introduce new undertakings, and create fresh knowledge.

D. The Nature of Subject Matter -

Subject matter consists of facts observed, recalled, read, and talked about and ideas suggested in the course of a development of a situation having a purpose.

-

The subject matter of education consists primarily of the meanings which supply content to existing social life. Transmission of subject matter needs special selection, formulation, and organization. Most subject matters are derived from past col, lective experience, The educator's task is to develop the pupil's ability to appropriate and reproduce the subject matter into his activities. The young begins with social activities and proceed to a scientific insight in the materials by assimilating into their direct experience the ideas of those who have had a larger experience.

-

IV. Dewey's Thoughts on the Curriculum A. Play and Work in the Curriculum -

Both play and work involve ends free and intrinsically motivated but differ in time span. Play and work have means and ends connection. Play passes gradually into work when it grows more complicated and gains added meaning by greater attention to specific results. Work is psychologically an activity which includes regard for consequences as a part of itself.

B. Geography and the Curriculum -

The function is to enrich and liberate the more direct and personal contacts of life by furnishing the context, background" and outlook 35

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-

Geography emphasizes the physical and natural side; and history, the social and the human. Geography must coordinate the mathematical, astronomical, physiographic, topographic, political, and commercial phases. History includes primitive, economic, industrial, and intellectual history. Geography provides the material and medium of development for mankind.

C. Science -

It represents the fruition of the cognitive factors in experience. It aims to reveal the sources, grounds, and consequences of a belief. Its function:

 

emancipation from local and temporary incidents of experience; and opening of intellectual vistas through destruction, generalization, and formulation.

H. Basic Principles of Successful Teaching at Any Academic Level by Olsen, et al. Edward G. Olsen and his associates have formulated a summary of basic principles of successful teaching applicable to any academic level. They ate as follows: 1. Educate the whole child. The child is not just a mind to be instructed: he is a physically, socially, emotionally, ethically, and intellectually growing person. If his powers are to develop in proper harmony, he needs learning activities which challenge his emerging interests and abilities in all the areas of growth. 2. Keep the program informal, flexible, and democratic. Children are restless and need confidence in their own power and achievements. They, therefore, need every chance to ask questions freely, confer with other children informally, share in planning their individual and group activities, carry personal responsibility for group projects, and help to judge critically the results of their efforts. This requires that the entire classroom atmosphere is friendly and democratic as well as informal and flexible and that children are not held in unfair competition with standards of performance beyond their possible ability to achieve. 3. Capitalize upon present pupil interests. It is of utmost importance that the teacher first discovers what interests and purposes his students already have and then use these drives as springboards to further desirable learning. Thus, limited interests may develop into wider interests, undesirable purposes into praiseworthy purposes as to how the child's educational growth can be best promoted. 4. Let motivation be intrinsic. Most learners find few desirable incentives in the traditional system of school marks, honors, and penalties. Their most moving incentives are those of real life itself: 36

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a) b) c) d) e)

to explore the new and the interesting; to associate actively with other people; to manipulate and construct things; to compare opinions about matters which seem important; and to express one's self artistically.

5. Make learning experiences vivid and direct. Generalizations will be mere verbalisms unless they are based upon meaningful personal experiences. That is why children need constant opportunity for motion pictures, radio programs, excursions, interviews, service projects, work experience, and the like. Through such media, the children receive more concrete, interesting, and meaningful experiences than they are likely to receive through the printed page alone. 6. Stress problem-solving, the basis of functional learning. Real education comes about when children intelligently attack real problems, think them through, and then do something to solve them. Every chance should, therefore, be given for pupils to discover, define, attack, solve, and interpret both personal and social problems within the limitations of their own present abilities, interests, and needs. 7. Provide for the achievement of lasting pupil satisfactions. Students who dislike their work learn little from it and retain that little briefly. Every effort should, therefore, be made to maintain learning situations wherein children will achieve genuine success, find personal satisfaction therein, and, thus grow, intellectually, emotionally, and socially. 8. Let the curriculum mirror the community. Learning situations must reflect life in the pupil's own community if they are to be most effective. I. Principles of Humanistic Teaching Humanistic teaching involves three conditions. These are emphatic understanding, respect or non-possessive warmth, and genuineness which are necessary for the development of self-actualizing persons. They are necessary for self-initiated, meaningful, experiential learning. They permit the child to actualize his potentialities. 1. Emphatic understanding. By emphatic understanding is meant understanding of another from an internal frame of reference, achieved by putting oneself in the place of another, so that one sees him and the world as closely as possible, as he does. 2. Respect or non-possessive warmth. It is respect which provides for a warm acceptance for another as a person, with all his faults, deficiencies, or undesirable/unacceptable behavior. Respect also means a deep interest and concern for his development and welfare. It involves acceptance of each child as he is, for what he is.

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3. Genuineness. It is the congruence or integration of the therapist in the relationship. The humanistic teacher is genuine and real. She is not putting an act nor trying to play the role of the mythical teacher. The totality of these conditions can be summarized in two ways: First, they are nonthreatening. The humanistic teacher reduces the tension, fear, and anxiety which are so prevalent in classrooms and which we know inhibit learning. Second, the essence of these conditions is love. It is the love which has been recognized by humanistic teachers as the basic requirement of a good teacher. J. Principles of Good Teaching There are certain principles of good teaching that the teacher should familiarize himself with. These principles are almost important as the stimulation and inspiration of a good teacher. 1. Active Learning. The pupil must be mentally active most of the time and physically active some of the time. Extensive physical and mental activity on the teacher's part will not necessarily guarantee learning on the pupils part. In numerous learning situations, the child learns better if he is engaged in' some physical and mental activities while concentrating upon a mental task. For example, in an arithmetic lesson, a pupil who is able to put a group of three objects with another group of two objects will learn more quickly that 2 + 3 = 5 than if he were merely told the number fact. 2. Many Methods. There is no single correct way to teach a cla.ss. There are many good ways. A method which fails with one child may be very helpful to another. 3. Motivation. Effective motivation arises from children's interests, needs, problems, and expressed purposes. Although we humans learn only what we want to learn, it is nevertheless true that interest in the unfamiliar can be developed by relating the unknown to the known interests. 4. Well-balanced Curriculum. The curriculum should serve two purposes: to provide essential skills for the child to enable him to become a useful member of society; and to satisfy the child's personal and immediate needs. There should be a blend and balance of the two throughout the day's curriculum. 5. Individual Difference. Good teaching recognizes individual differences. The slowlearning child, the average child, and the bright child, the three commonest categories, have to be taught in different ways. In addition to children's intellectual differences, there are differences in emotional, social, physical, spiritual, aesthetic, and moral development. Good teaching will adapt methods, activities, assignments, and advice to each pupil based on an understanding of his unique characteristics.

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6. Lesson Planning. Units, lessons, activities, and even housekeeping must be wellplanned. Daily planning should be detailed and classroom management should be made routine. All planning should be flexible. 7. The Power of Suggestion. Suggestions are more fruitful than dictation. Through the power of positive suggestions, children are willing to undertake tasks and procedure which they may have felt inadequate to tackle before. Suggestions may be given as to which books and materials to use, how to solve problems, and what procedures to follow. 8. Encouragement. Praise, given only when earned, makes pupils aware of their successes. Constructive criticism may be needed where persistent errors are being made. 9. Remedial Teaching. Good teaching is both diagnostic and remedial. 10. Democratic Environment. Children learn democracy by living it. In return for rights and privileges within the classroom, children should be aware of their responsibilities to the group and of group service. 11. Stimulation. Each child can be stimulated within the limits of his abilities to exceed his present efforts. Challenge can be provided through the teacher's expression of confidence in her own pupils' aptitudes and skills, through provoking curiosity, and through encouraging creative endeavor. 12. Integration. By building upon previous knowledge and experience, new learning and new experiences become more meaningful. Learning involves a reorganization of previous experience and an integration of what has been completed into the new learning experience. 13. Life-like Situation. Children should be guided into a realization that their school studies and activities are a part of life. 14. Independence. A child's increasing independence from adults and ever-increasing responsibility are signposts of good teaching. The degrees of independence gained at any given time should measure up with the maturity level of the child. K. Basic Principles of Today's Teaching a) Children learn by doing. b) Motivation should be intrinsic and natural, not artificial. c) Learning should be 'gradual and continuous, not discrete. d) Instruction should be adopted to individual needs. e) Natural social settings should constitute learning situations. f) Learning depends upon the child's ability. g) Learning comes through sense impressions. h) The child can best be educated as a whole, as a unit organism. i) Teacher-pupil and inter-pupil relationships should be cooperative. j) Education means improving the quality of learning. 39

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L. Instructional Principles and School Applications (Aquino, et al., 1988). The instructional principles presented were based on research and theory. For every principle, Goodwin and Klausmeier derived a parallel classroom application chiefly for use by teachers. According to these two authors, the principles and applications, although based on research and theory, have been tempered and influenced by their own teaching at every school level and by their work with educators in cooperative research and development activities (Goodwin and Klausmeier, 1975:253). A. Factual Information Instructional Principle 1. Organizing material into appropriate learning units facilitates the acquisition knowledge. 2. Cognizing meaningful relationships between new material and what one already knows facilitates the learning of the new information 3. Organizing complex material into appropriately arranged sequential parts facilitates the learning of factual information. 4. Practicing and utilizing information is necessary for its mastery and retention 5. Evaluating the accuracy and suitability of information is important for achieving independence in learning factual information. B. Concepts Instructional Principle 1. Discriminating and naming a concept and its attributes facilitate concept attainment and use. 2. Identifying examples and non-examples is critical for concept attainment by the students at all levels. 3. Ascertaining the correctness of one’s responses is essential in concept attainment and refinement. 4. Utilizing a concept extends its meaning for the individual.

School Application 1. Arrange material to appropriate units. 2. Help students to perceive meaningful relationships.

3. Arrange material in an appropriate sequence.

4. Provide for appropriate practice. 5. Invite independent evaluation

School Application 1. Define the concept and denote a its defining attributes. 2. Arrange appropriately the difficult and sequenced examples and non-examples of the concept. 3. Establish procedures for feedback.

4. Arrange for the appropriate use of the concept. 40

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5. Achieving autonomy in learning concepts and principles requires selfinitiated inquiry and evaluation. C. Problem-Solving Instructional Principle 1. Maintaining sensitivity to felt needs and directly analyzing problem situations are perquisites to operating on the problems. 2. Retrieving stored or securing new information and acting on it is essential to successful problem-solving. 3. Generating hypotheses and testing them is necessary for successful problemsolving. 4. Determining the effectiveness of one’s own methods and the acceptability of one’s own solution helps independence in problem-solving. D. Creativity Instructional Principle 1. Producing novel ideas or products is enhanced by practice in expressing one's self in verbal, figural, and physical means. 2. Being reinforced for one's creative efforts is more effective when originating from a well regarded person. 3. Developing a higher level of creative expression requires a nurturing environment and successful experience. 4. Acting and thinking in divergent ways are essential to reactive production. E. Attitudes and Personality Integration Instructional Principle 1. Facilitating the learning and development of attitudes requires careful thought and 'a clear statement of objectives 2. Learning by observation and imitation

5. Guide the students’ discovery and invite independent evaluation/

School Application 1. Help pupils to detect and state needs and directly analyzing solvable problems. 2. Help pupils to find and process information. 3. Help students to generate and test hypothesis. 4. Invite independent evaluation in hypothesis and problem-solving abilities.

School Application 1. Encourage divergent production in many media. 2. Develop strong positive relationships in and out of class. 3. Encourage expression.

continuing

4. Promote unique personalities.

and

creative

creative

School Application 1. Identify the attributes to be facilitated.

2. Provide exemplary models.

3. Provide

pleasant

emotional

and 41

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3.

4. 5.

6.

7.

takes place often in receptive and responding individuals. Strengthening attitudes takes place via positive reinforcement; and improving the accuracy of their informational components of attitudes is appropriate. Practice an attitude in pertinent situations increases its stability. A higher level of moral development is facilitated by social interaction centering on moral dilemma. Acquiring rational methods of coping with problem situations may reduce excessive use of defense strategies. Accepting oneself (adequate selfconcept) and others and being accepted by them are both interdependent and necessary for personality integration.

information experiences with attitude objectives. 4. Arrange for appropriate practice. 5. Provide practice in considering moral dilemma. 6. Provide practice in meeting conflict situations. 7. Encourage self-understanding and selfconcept.

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Chapter IV THE CURRICULUM Introduction Through the years, education has seen the coming and going of practices, paradigm shifts, innovations, and methods, all aimed at the improvement of instruction. Some have left their imprint, while others have been mere passing fads. Amidst all of these is the child, his learning and development. It is the function of education to provide the vehicles that shall open to the child the wide vistas and limitless horizons of his future. It is, however, unfortunate that in the course ,of time, the educational highway along which the child has to travel has been built and reshaped by different educators, so that by now, instead of the smooth and even road that it should be, it has become an artificial obstacle course. It is, therefore, incumbent upon educators to provide all the necessary facilities and conveniences for the children in order that their travel may be as comfortable and as enjoyable as it is finally fruitful. Definitions The term comes from the Latin word currere which means "to run." In educational usage, the "course of the race" with time came to stand for the "course of study." Nowadays, curriculum has different meanings for different people depending on how it is used. Palma (1992) defines the curriculum as "the sum of all learning content, experiences, and responses that are purposely selected, organized, and implemented by the school in pursuit of its peculiar mandate as a distinct institution of learning and human development." Doll defines the curriculum as "all the experiences which are offered to students under the auspices or direction of the school." Johnson defines the curriculum more narrowly. He refers to it as "a structured series of learning outcomes that prescribe for the teacher the goals or expected results of instruction." Romberg, on the other hand, refers to curriculum as a "set of intended learning and the operational plan for achieving these learning." Anglin, Goldman, and Anglin defined curriculum as "the planned learning experiences that a school presents to its students in order to socialize them into the prevailing culture." The Academic Curriculum refers to the formal list of courses offered by a school. The Extra Curriculum refers to those planned but voluntary activities that are sponsored by a school, such as sports, drama, or social clubs. '

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The Hidden Curriculum refers to those unplanned learning activities (e.g., learning to cope with school bureaucracy and boredom or learning how to gain popularity with one's peers) that are a natural by-product of school life. (Aquino, 1988). One area of the curriculum that is probably as important as, or sometimes, even more important than the actual content offered for study is the so-called "Hidden Curriculum." It is the informal part of the curriculum that you know is there, but that is difficult to see and study. Ballantine (1983) described the hidden curriculum as that part of the curriculum that refers to the three Rs - rules, regulations, and routines - to which the schools must adapt. Lloyd Trump (1968) wrote that the curriculum is a vital, moving complex interaction of people and things in a freewheeling setting. It includes questions to debate, forces to rationalize, goals to illuminate, programs to activate, and outcomes to evaluate. Formulating Goals Wiles and Bondi (1989) state that educational goals are statements of the outcomes of education. The scope of the entire educational program of a school can be found in the goals of that school. Goals are the basic elements in educational planning. The reflection of societal needs in educational goals usually results in statements describing categories of human behavior. Goals relating to "maintaining health" and "carrying out the activities of a citizen in a democratic society" are examples of societal needs. Goals may be stated at several levels of generality or specificity. Goals that are general and broad reflect a philosophical base and are not concerned with particular achievement within a period of time. Relating Goals and Objectives to Curriculum Development Wiles and Bondi (1989) state that anyone familiar with curriculum documents is probably aware that there is usually a discrepancy between curriculum planned and curriculum implemented. Curriculum workers using curriculum materials know that statements of goals and objectives accompanying those materials are not always reflected in the curriculum as it becomes operative in the classroom. Because most curriculum development projects are cooperative endeavors involving people, it is sad that goals and objectives of curriculum documents are not reflected in classroom practice.

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Classifying Goals and Objectives Learning objectives should be designed at more than one single level of operation. Table 1 illustrates the three levels.

Level of Objective Level I

Table 1: Levels of Learning Objectives Type Origin Broad goals or Formulated at the purposes district level by councils or school board

Level II General but more specific than Level I

Formulated at school or department level

Behaviorally stated

Formulated by teams of teachers or single teachers

Features Seldom revised

Contains an out - line of processes to accomplish Level II objectives

Level III Describes expected outcomes, evidence for assessing outcomes, and level of performance.

Level I objectives are stated in very general terms. They are usually found at the system level. They are sometimes referred to as purposes or goals. They should be accomplished by a related and complementary policy statement. Level II objectives are stated in broad or general terms, but are more specific than Level I statements. They are not, . however, behaviorally stated as in the case of Level III learning objectives. Level II objectives support and define Level I objectives. They reflect the same philosophy and are directed toward the realization of the Level I goals or purposes, as found in Table 2. Level III objectives are found at the classroom level and are behaviorally stated. These specific objectives support Level II and Level I objectives. Behavioral objectives are statements describing what the learner is doing when he is learning. Teachers need to describe the desired behavior well enough to preclude misinterpretation. Behaviorally stated objectives contain essential elements: a) The terminal behavior must be identified by name. An observable action must be named that shows that learning has taken place; b) The important conditions under which the behavior is expected to occur should be described; and

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c) The criteria of acceptable performance should be specified. A simple method of developing a complete behavioral objective is to apply the A, B, C, D rule. A - stands for audience B - for the behavior C - for the condition D - the degree of completion. The three taxonomies of educational objectives are best illustrated in Tables 2, 3, and 4. Taxonomies are classification schemes developed by educators to define educational goals. The reader is especially encouraged to review the following three sources for a detailed discussion of the three taxonomy schemes. Benjamin S. Bloom, ed., Taxonomy of Education Objectives, The Classification of Education Goals - Handbook I: Cognitive Domain (New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1956). David Krathwohl, Benjamin Bloom, and Bertram Masia, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, The Classification of Education Goals - Handbook II: Affective Domain (New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1964). Anita J. Harrow, A Taxonomy of the Psychomotor Domain' - Guide for Developing Behavioral Objectives (New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1972). Evaluation

Applications

Knowledge (ability to recall;

Comprehension (ability to use ideas, principles, (ability to theories in new particular and comprehend what is being concentrated commucated and situations) make use of the

(ability to judge the value of ideas, Synthesis procedures, (ability to put methods, using Analysis together parts appropriate (ability to break and elements criteria) down a into a unified communication organization or into constituents whole) parts in order to make organization of Requires the whole clear) analysis Requires analysis 46

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to bring to mind idea without the appropriate relating it to material) other ideas or materials or seeing fullest Requires meaning) comprehension Requires knowledge Requires knowledge

Requires application

Requires application

Requires comprehension

Requires comprehension

Requires knowledge

Requires knowledge

Requires application

Requires comprehension Requires knowledge

Table 2: Levels of Cognitive Behavior

Sources: The Classification of Educational Goal, Handbook I: Cognitive Domain by Benjamin S. Bloom, et al. Copyright @ 1956 by Longman Inc., Reprinted by permission of Longman Inc., New York. Characterization

Valuing

Receiving

(accepts worth of a thing; an idea or a behavior; prefers Responding it; consistent in (makes response at responding; first with develops a compliance, later commitment to it) willingly and with satisfaction

(attending; becomes aware of an idea, process, or thing; is willing to notice a particular Begins phenomenon) attending

Requires response

a

Begins attending

with

(generalizes certain values into Organizations controlling tendencies; (organizes values; emphasis on determines internal relationships; adapts behavior to value system Requires organization of values Requires development of values Requires development of values

Requires response

a Requires response

with Begins attending

a

with

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Begins attending

with

Table 3: Levels of Affective Behavior

Sources: Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goal, Handbook II: Affective Domain by David R. Krathwohl, et al. Copyright @ 1964 by Longman Inc., Reprinted by permission of Longman Inc., New York.

Adapting (makes individual modification and adaptation in the Practicing process to suit the (repeats steps worker and/or the until some or all situation) aspects of process Imitating become habitual, (follows requiring little Requires practice directions; conscious effort, Observing carries out steps performs (watches process; with conscious smoothly) pays attention to awareness of Requires imitation steps or efforts, performs techniques and to hesitantly) Requires imitation finished product Requires or behavior; may observation or read directions.) Requires Requires reading of observation, or observation, or direction reading of reading of directions directions Table 4: Levels of Psychomotor Behavior

Sources: A Taxonomy of Psychomotor Domain: A Guide for developing Behavior Objectives by Anita J. Harrow Copyright @ 1972 by Longman Inc., Reprinted by permission of Longman Inc., New York.

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Functions of the Curriculum There are many variables affecting the performance of the school system. However, it is the educational content itself, the curriculum, that shapes these variables, particularly the institutional capability requirements for its proper implementation. It defines the human resource qualifications, the instructional support requirements, the facilities needed, and the amount of financing required for the successful achievement of goals. The curriculum has five complementary functions such as: 1. General Education. It is that part of the curriculum that is designed to provide for a common universe of discourse, understanding, and competence for the purpose of developing thinking, socially responsible citizens of a free society. General Education is represented by the core of common learning from which all other studies emanate. It provides the essential basic knowledge needed by man for a balanced life. It includes languages, sciences, mathematics, humanities, arts, etc. It forms the broad base of knowledge stressing the commonality of all academic courses. It provides a foundation for advancement into a major field of specialization and it seeks to develop critical thinking, effective communication, sound judgment, and formation of values. 2. Specialized Education. It is that aspect of the curriculum designed for the major field or professional program of studies. At the high school level, the student who aspires to become a scientist will ordinarily be advised to take a concentration of course work in the sciences and mathematics, including advanced placement courses in these fields. The student who opts for vocational studies in the high school may enroll in such program as: 1) agriculture education; 2) distributive education (distribution and marketing); 3) health occupations education; 4) home economics education; 5) office occupations education; 6) trade and industrial education; and 7) pretechnical education (electronics, computer programming, machine tools). The student may proceed to enter the world of work in one of these areas after graduation from high school, or may go to college to prepare for a career in agriculture, home economics, nursing, machine-tool design, and so on. 3. Exploratory Education. This function provides knowledge beyond those of general specialized education. This comes in the form of electives, cognates, minor, or allied subjects. At the elementary level, the exploratory function is met through a range of activities and projects extending from within the common core of studies. For example, a social studies unit on occupations will lead some children into the reading of different source materials on given occupations, including simple biographical material; others 49

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may be engaged in surveying the different occupations in the community; and some may be working on a class mural depicting the different occupations in society. At the high school or college, a student may elect courses in science with the intention of deciding whether to pursue a career in science. The exploratory experience may impel the students towards a scientific career or away from such a career. 4. Enrichment Education. This part of the curriculum is intended to supplement and deepen one's educative experience beyond those connected with general education, specialized education, and exploratory education. As in the case of exploratory education, the enrichment function may be met in the secondary school and college through controlled or required electives or through free electives. At the elementary level, the enrichment function is typically provided not through course options, but through activities growing out of the common learning. Thus, the children who are working on a class mural depicting the various occupations in society, or the major historical epochs as part of a unit in the social studies are gaining enrichment experiences in the visual arts. In the secondary school, students who have completed the core courses in English language arts, for example, may be required to elect a course in literature to enrich their learning experiences beyond the required core studies in English. 5. Special-interest Education. This function of the curriculum in the secondary and college is typically met through free electives. At the secondary school and college levels, special interest education is provided not only through formal course work but also through organized student activities such as clubs, publications, community services, and so on. Many student organizations in high school and college are oriented toward career goals as well as toward special interests. The elementary pupils may have a special interest in photography or crafts and may be involved in contributing his or her talents to the class work in social studies and science. Or they may have developed a special interest in writing poetry as the result of the study of poetry in language arts or one may have developed a special interest in trains as a results of the social studies unit on transportation. Obviously, special-interest and enrichment education are not necessarily sharply demarcated, except that the former is more highly focused and concentrated. (Tanner and Tanner, 1987). Elements in Curriculum Development (Palma, 1992) Tyler introduced the concept of structural cycle whereby evaluation can lead to a reconsideration of purpose. Such cycle reduces the somewhat cumbersome process of planning and makes it possible to treat curriculum making in a systematic manner. 50

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Viewed from this perspective, the school curriculum has three fundamental elements: 1. Purpose. This indicates the goals and directions the school should take; 2. Means. This suggests the learning experiences and resources that are to be selected, organized, and implemented in pursuit of the purpose; and 3. Assessment of outcomes. This measures the degree to which purposes have been met. The following model presents this systematic view of the curriculum:

The three subsystems - purpose, means, and assessment - are enclosed in a circle suggesting that they constitute the totality of the curriculum. The circle is also indicative of the continuous process of curriculum development. Curriculum is far from being static. It is never a "finished curriculum." It is always "tentative" and is meant to undergo a process of development to bring it to ever higher levels of effectiveness. The concurrent process of planning, implementing, evaluating, and revising the curriculum goes on in a never-ending cycle always taking into consideration the constantly shifting needs of the learners, the emerging thrusts of the school and its sponsors, the changing expectation of the larger society, and the exigencies of the times. The two-way arrows indicate the dynamic interaction and relationships that should exist among the subsystems if the system is to function well. The counter-clockwise arrowheads in the outer circle indicate the normal sequence in the process of curriculum planning and development. Logically, the first step should be the determination of purpose and objectives. However, in curriculum development, it is possible that one can start with any step. One might even begin with the assessment or evaluation phase. Using the result of this evaluation or assessment, we can examine and make adjustments in the purpose and the means of attaining this purpose. 51

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Finally, the all-important process of curriculum development has only one function, the formation of the "Ideal Graduate." This becomes the ultimate measure of the success or failure of the total school enterprise. It should be pointed out, however, that the conception of the "Ideal Graduate" will vary since it depends on the school's clientele, ecology, and thrusts (Palma, 1992).

Areas of Concern in Curriculum Planning According to Wiles and Bondi (1989), the various areas of concern and influence in curriculum planning are known as "domains." At least five major domains currently affect curriculum planning and decision-making. These include philosophy and goal development, instructional systems, materials development, management of instruction, and teacher training. Figure 7 on the next page shows the illustration of the five major domains.

PhilosophyGoals

Materials Development

Instructional system

Concerns

Management of Instructions

Teaching training

Figure 7: Curriculum Domains Curriculum development is a comprehensive process that: a) b) c) d)

facilitates an analysis of purpose; designs a program; implements a series of related experiences; and aids in the evaluation of this process.

Philosophy is the clarification of beliefs about the purpose and goals of education which is essential to curriculum development. Without direction, school programs meander, become targets for social pressure, or operate in a state of programmatic contradiction. The development of a philosophy of education is a prerequisite to assuming a leadership function in school program development.

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Educational goals are statements of the outcomes of education. The scope of the entire educational program of a school can be found in the goals of that school. Goals are the, basic elements in educational planning. The reflection of societal needs in educational goals usually results in statement describing categories of human behavior. Goals relating to "maintaining health" and "carrying out the activities of a citizen in a democratic society" are examples of societal needs. Instructional considerations in curriculum development require planners to move beyond a theoretical framework to the implementation of such plans at the classroom level. Instructional considerations at the classroom level include teachers making daily lesson plans, sequencing of activities, grading, and so on. Each of these small decisions determines what kind of learning will occur. In the past, most curriculum experiences were grouped as "curricular" or "extracurricular." The broadening of the definition of the curriculum today has diminished somewhat the distinction between curricular and extra-curricular experiences. Within a school program all experiences can be classified under the following headings: a) The personal development of the individual; b) Skills for continued learning; and c) Education for social competence. The above classification can serve as the basis for planning a school program and provides direction for instruction at the classroom level. Attention can be given to each of the three phases of the school program while still recognizing that the three phases are related. Curriculum Components According to M. J. Eash (1991), the curricula consist of five widely agreed upon dimensions or components: a) a framework of assumptions about the learner and society; b) aims 'and objectives; c) content or subject matter with its selection; scope, and sequence; d) modes of transaction, for example, methodology and learning environments; and e) evaluation. The components are interdependent in a manner analogous to the systems. Any alteration in one component affects the structure and functioning of the others. They must all be well coordinated for the system to grow and develop, yet, they may be separated for purposes of description, study, and research. When separated for study, curriculum components also serve a productive analytic function. The five curriculum components are given below: 1. The Individual and the Society as a Framework. All curriculum organizations begin with assumptions concerning the learner and the society in which he lives. A first guiding construct among curriculum planners is the determination of the learner's ability, needs, interest, motivation, and potential for learning certain cultural content. The learner's 53

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ability to assimilate and shape experience is the focus of the major studies. What the learner can assimilate, under what condition, and with what results are among the telling questions that have historically guided these investigations. Society, its orientation to nurturing or using the individual, is the second guiding construct in selecting the options within curriculum components. How the schools select individuals for various curricula, such as, vocational, liberal arts, sciences, reflects an orientation to the society in which the individual will be a functioning member. The purpose of the society, its need for trained personnel, and the preeminence given to society's needs over the individual purposes of the learner are telling areas for curriculum makers. 2. Aims and Objectives. Aims and objectives map out the arena for a teacher's directed effort. There is no standardization among statements of aims and objectives; thus, in their various forms they reflect philosophical assumptions and positions on the pre-eminence of the learner or society and how these are to be played out in the curriculum. Aims and objectives evolve and change as cultures and their participants change. Curricula lag in reflecting these changes - a common problem worldwide is how to maintain currency in the curriculum (Tanner, 1988). 3. Form of Subject Matter. Subject matter is selected, organized, cultural content which is packaged for use by teachers and learners. Student experiences are largely shaped from cultural content, derived from the major areas of human learning, and organized along subject matter discipline lines for purposes of formal curriculum implementation. The form of subject matter and its packaging comes in many shapes but the textbook has been the standard work for use by teachers and students in the study of subject matter in the curriculum. However, electronics promises to add new dimensions through computers and word processors which increase the range of subject matter and the power of manipulation by the teacher and learner for combinatory and recombinatory forms of learning of the subject matter (Brandt, 1988). Subject matter may be selected on the basis of the general education of all students or the specialized development of a selected group of students. The curriculum planners exercise selection in the choice of subject matter and develops a scope, range, and the sequence or order in which the subject matter is to be studied (Talmage, 1985).These selections are translated through textbooks, curriculum guides, syllabi, electronic data banks, and other directives to teachers and learners. 4. Modes of Transactions. As a curriculum component, modes of transactions have been provisioned as recommended teacher methodology to inculcate subject matter. Modes of transactions also figure heavily in syllabi as authorities attempt to guide teacher behavior and influence learner outcomes chiefly for national purposes. They are also viewed as major determinants in learner outcomes especially as they affect attitudes of students as well as content mastery. Influences on modes of transaction have swung between teachercentric and pupil-centric emphases, but current developments in electronic presentation of subject matter and replacement of the standard textbook have induced changes in the role of the teacher as a mediator of subject matter and repository of a bank of 54

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methodologies for transmitting the required learning as set forth in the aims and objectives and presented in the subject matter. Modes of transactions may also be further classified as direct and indirect. These classifications stem from the role of the teacher and the role of the learner in the transaction of learning and their respective degrees of choice in determining the modes of learning (Joyce and Weil, 1980). 5. Evaluation. Evaluation as a curriculum component may be provisioned in several dimensions. As an integral element to a curriculum, evaluation may give emphasis to providing the individual with information on performance to guide the learner to the next steps in the sequence of the· subject matter. Another form of provisioning evaluation is to obtain information on students' learning that can be directed to screening and selecting students or providing data on how well schools are serving national policy. (Walker, 1976). Evaluation can be directed toward providing information directly to the learner for guidance, directly to the teacher for orientation of the next instruction activities, and directly to external agencies for their assessment of schools' functioning in the light of national purpose. Evaluation as a way of measuring educational systems' contributions to national welfare becomes more important as industrial and military strength hinge ever more on the human resources capital available to these efforts.

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Chapter V TIME-TESTED METHODS Objectives 1. Enumerate and explain the time-tested methods of teaching 2. Demonstrate each method of teaching Required Activities 1. Lecture 2. 2. Demonstration on the different time-tested methods 3. Examinations Introduction Lardizabal, et al. (1991) state that the concept of method is probably as old as education itself. Methods go as far back as antiquity. These include the Socratic method, Commenius nature teaching, Pestalozzi's object teaching, the Herbartian steps, and others. Only those methods that have stood the test of time and are still used today will be discussed in this chapter. THE TIME-TESTED METHODS A. The Inductive Method Induction is simply defined as the process of arriving at ' a given generalization. It starts from the known to the unknown, from the specific to the general, from the particular to the universal, from simple to complex, and from the concrete to the abstract. Steps of the Inductive Method a) Preparation b) Presentation c) Comparison and Abstraction d) Generalization e) Application To illustrate the steps of the inductive method, a specific lesson in social studies has been used: 1. Preparation. Let us close our eyes and make a mental excursion to each of the following places: Batanes, Baguio City, 110cos region, and Central Plain of Luzon. As I describe each place, imagine that you are right there in the place. Are you now ready to travel with me? (Note: The teacher describes the place and later the class identifies it. Ex., as we go up the winding roads, it becomes cooler and more pine trees are seen. Where are we now?) 56

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2. Presentation. We have a map of the Philippines, can you locate each of these places on it? The bulletin board shows us different crops. Can you match these crops with the places? (Note: The expected results of the activity is the construction of a chart similar to this.) Place Batanes Baguio City Ilocos region Central Plain of Luzon

Crops root crops like camote fresh fruits, flowers, vegetables tobacco rice

and

3. Comparison and Abstraction. Analytical questions are raised at this point like "Can the 110cos region raise as much fresh fruits, flowers, and vegetables as Baguio City? Why not? Why does tobacco not grow well in Baguio City? Why do people in Batanes prefer root crops and not other crops like rice, tobacco, and even flowers and vegetable?" 4. Generalization. Why do these places grow different crops? The expected answer: They differ in prevailing weather conditions. It should be made clear to students that the Philippines has only one climate - tropical climate - but within that climate are found different weather types. It is this difference in weather types that explains the various prevailing weather conditions from one place to another. While Batanes has stormy weather, Ilocos region has a long dry season, and the Central Plain of Luzon has long rainy season. 5. Application. Apple growing has been tried many times in our country and so far nobody has been successful in this undertaking. Similarly, the banana plant cannot grow in places where the climate is very cold. Can you explain these two situations? Is difference in weather type only manifested in difference in crops raised in certain places? What are the other effects of such difference? B. The Deductive Method The deductive method begins with a generalization and subsequently all examples and specific situations to be given are supportive of this generalization. The deductive method is a process of starting with a generalization and arriving at a specific statement or conclusion namely: one which is not applicable to a class of objects, situations, or phenomena.

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We use a generalization or rule or principle to arrive at a specific statement. In a broad sense, when the pupil thinks in a logical sequence and arrives at a specific item, he is deducting. One well-known example of a deductive scheme of a formal argument is syllogism. It usually consists of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. Steps of the Deductive Method a) b) c) d) e)

Introduction Statement of a generality Explanation of a general idea Illustration Evaluation

To illustrate the steps of the deductive method, the lesson in English found below has been prepared: 1. Introduction. How many of you have a best friend who lives far from your place, let us say abroad? I am sure the most common way of communicating with your friend is through letter-writing. 2. Statement of a generality. In writing a friendly letter, the parts are the heading, the salutation, the body of the letter, the complimentary close, and the signature. 3. Explanations of the general idea. The heading of a letter contains the address of the letter sender and the date the letter was made. The salutation is the greeting found at the start of the letter. The body of the letter is the most important part of the letter because it contains the message of the sender to the person to whom the letter is addressed. The complimentary close is a word or a group of words used to end the letter. . The signature is the name of the person who writes the letter. 4. Illustration. On the board is written a sample friendly letter. See how each of the five parts is properly written. Read its part and let us give our observations on how each part is correctly written. 5. Evaluation. I have prepared another friendly letter which is incorrect1y written. I want you to rewrite this letter and to correct the errors found in it. ' Observations seem to show that students can better grasp the idea presented through the combination of the explanation and citing examples rather than just mere explanation of the idea. Lastly, the evaluation phase usually in the form of oral, written, and performance tests is administered to find out how much the students have absorbed and to provide pertinent data which could be used later to improve instruction. Applicability of Inductive and Deductive Methods 58

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Almost all subject areas in all educational levels can use both methods. Whether it is the inductive or the deductive to be. employed depends largely on the teacher's instructional objectives. The inductive method is best for the following purposes: a) to make the teaching-learning process more student oriented; b) to develop the higher levels of thinking among the learners; and c) to treat every topic in a more in-depth manner. The deductive method, on the other hand, is designed to facilitate the explanation of relatively difficult and abstract topics to our students. c. The Integrated Method Integration is the process or practice of combining different elements and presenting them as one unifying whole. It has been, used in several instances like combining two subjects in the curriculum like science and health, music and physical education, social studies and character education. Integration can also take place within a subject as in language teaching in which literature is usually related to grammar. In fact, the so-called integrated approach stemmed from using the literature as the springboard or the take-off point of the grammar lesson. To illustrate, a poem expounding in .the beauty of nature is initially taken up. Naturally, a lot of words that describe are found in the literary pieces which are used as actual examples in developing the concept "adjectives" during the grammar portion. In this particular lesson, the literature topic is well chosen so the structure needed in the grammar part is contained in it. As a result, the grammar topic becomes more meaningful since actual examples are previously discussed. The integrated method combines two given methods or two techniques in one given lesson. The combination aims at making learning a total process; what is learned in one method is further strengthened in the other method; or what one teaching method lacks is properly compensated by the other. Some of the teaching methods that are usually combined to form the so-called integrated method include: a. b. c. d. e.

lecture-discussion; demonstration-lecture; film showing-discussion; reporting-discussion; and inductive-deductive.

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D. The Lecture Method The lecture method is a teaching procedure for explaining and clarifying a major idea. It makes use of exposition which may be a narration or a description. The main aim of the lecture method is to serve as a guide through a great mass of information characteristic of subject areas. The use of the lecture is justified therefore under the following conditions: 1. When the teacher can give affective information in one hour of lecture-demonstration what may be taken up by the class in two or three hours of laboratory work to reinforce learning; 2. When the teacher has available data that would be hard for the class to obtain. 3. When a new topic is to be introduced so as: a) to show how the new topic fits the work; b) to give a bird's eye view of the work to come; c) to arouse interest in the new work; and d) to give adequate explanation for students to begin new work. 4. When summaries are needed at the: a) close of the day's work; b) close of the topic; c) end of the chapter; and d) end of a unit. 5. At the beginning of the hours, to create proper mind set; to generate enthusiasm; or to arouse appreciation. 6. On occasions where problems arise or questions are asked that are valuable and pertinent. 7. When visual materials such as slides, pictures, graphs, films, and specimens need explanation. Garcia (1989) states that the lecture method is predominantly teacher-directed, aimed at providing needed information. It involves factual presentation and textual explanation of a particular topic or few selected topics. It is a factual presentation since salient and pertinent information are given out. Not only are these bits of information merely presented, but also meanings and insights are to be derived from them. Hence, there is the textual explanation whereby the lecturer interprets them so they could be better understood. This explanation, therefore, expands and advances the frontier of knowledge. Without this aspect, lecture becomes synonymous with the telling process. Lecturing goes beyond the level of telling since it makes points clearer and clarifies some ' issues, and if successfully done, it should be able to erase certain doubts in the minds of the learners. Steps of the Lecture Method 1. Preparation for the lecture. This encompasses salient points like the: ' 60

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a) cognitive framework upon which to develop the topic selected; b) appropriate language and manner of presentation, that is, considering the kind and nature of the students; c) selection of helpful audio-visual aids and instructional materials; d) planning the motivational technique (recall of interesting anecdotes and life-situations familiar to the students); e) anticipating certain difficulties and problems during the lecture; and f) finding suitable solutions and alternatives to these barriers to a successful lecture. Significantly, such preparation should include some psychological overtones like plans on doing away with the unwanted nervousness, wearing presentable but comfortable attire, becoming more relaxed and rested, and increasing the feeling of self-confidence. 2. Introduction to the lecture. It should be done briefly but effectively for if it were executed poorly, it could initially kill off the enthusiasm of the students. The art of breaking the ice in a lecture should be mastered well by the teacher. Several techniques for an appropriate start are: making the students anticipate what they expect to learn from the lecture itself; making them aware of the importance of the topic for a given purpose (examination, interview, etc.); asking them what they know about the topic, making casual remarks about the topic (prevailing weather condition, present controversy); and establishing good rapport with the class either by praising the students or by sharing an interesting joke or a puzzle. 3. Giving the body of the lecture. The teacher should have a given cognitive framework upon which he relies to achieve a more logical lecture presentation. 4. Conclusion of the lecture. To wrap up the lecture, the teacher may resort to any of the following techniques: a) summarizing major points presented; b) paraphrasing the key ideas shared; c) forming generalizations; and d) giving implications. E. Type-study Method It is an inductive procedure except that only one case is studied. For example, if one were to study the parts of a river system, it is not necessary to study many river systems. Just one river would be enough, but it must be representative of other rivers and must have all the parts. In studying the parts of a flower, one needs to study only one flower which has all the characteristics of most flowers. Steps of the Type-study Method

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a) b) c) d) e) f)

Selection of the topic Apperception and motivation Statement of a typical case Study of details Comparing details Generalization

F. Problem Method The problem method gives direction to a discussion and prevents wandering off from the topic. It stimulates reflective thinking and furnishes a guide for organizing ideas. It directs attention to the task to be done and it encourages concentration. It may be used in two ways: 1. A whole unit of subject matter may be presented as a problem; or 2. Problem-solving may be one of the methods utilized in a unit of work. Steps of the Problem Method a) Recognition and statement of the problem originating in a difficult or perplexing situation. b) Statement of hypothesis - inspection and proposal of solution or solutions. c) Critical evaluation of suggested solution. d) Verification of accepted solutions. In the classroom, the procedure is much more detailed, and the teacher has to guide the pupils' learning. Pupils will probably not be able to recognize the problem without the teacher's guidance. To raise the problem, the teacher must set the stage. The teacher should assist them by directing their observation to related data and recalling past experiences that have a bearing on the problem. The next step is working on the problem. This involves organization of facts, principles, and ideas pertinent to the problem, selecting a hypothesis and trying it out, gathering data through reading, observing, etc., evaluating the solution, and forming a conclusion. The pupils do the work while the teacher directs. The last step is checking or verifying results and applying these if necessary. The teacher also aids the pupils in learning how to check or verify and summarize results. Exercises or problems must be provided by the teacher for practical application of the understanding gained. If the teacher has stimulated a desire on the part of the class to use the knowledge gained, the lesson is successful. G. The Project Method

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A project is a significant, practical unit of activity of a problematic nature, planned and carried to completion by the student in a natural manner, and involving the use of physical materials to complete the unit of experience. Types of Projects 1. Construction Project. The motive is to do something. Pupils have ideas that they want to put in concrete form. 2. Employment Project. The motive is participation in an activity that is accompanied by enjoyment or satisfaction. An example may be planning and taking part in a school program. 3. Problem Project. The motive is to master some intellectual difficulties which come from the learner himself. Curiosity or interest in the subject may be the dominant factor. 4. Learning Project. The inner drive is toward acquisition of a skill or some knowledge. For example, a pupil may want to learn to swim or master certain combinations in arithmetic. Another classification of projects according to Risk (1965): 1. Physical or material project (making a table, digging a wall, making a school album, planning a garden plot, or fencing the garden). 2. Learning projects are study activities on the initiative of the individual, such as a project to speak English fluently, master Spanish conjugation, write a short story, etc. 3. Intellectual or problem projects are intellectual questions that can be solved by induction or deduction, such as: a) to determine whether Maria Clara would survive in modern-day society or not. b) to determine how Spain lost her colonies. c) to determine if Romeo is worthy of the love of Juliet. Steps of the Project Method 1. Purposing. It is important for the teacher to consider the pupils' needs, abilities, and interests at this step of the lesson. Goals and activities can be decided upon cooperatively by students and teachers. 2. Planning. No matter how young the pupils are, they can always offer very good suggestions. When activities are planned and initiated by the pupils, they perform their parts willingly and enthusiastically.

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3. Executing. This means carrying out activities as planned and envisioned by the class. This may take one class period, a week, a month, or the whole semester depending on the project being undertaken. 4. Evaluating. The finished products are displayed and judged by both pupils and teacher. Here is an excellent chance to help develop critical thinking among the pupils. They should be trained to look for what is positive and not merely that which is negative. H. The Laboratory Method The laboratory method is a teaching procedure dealing with firsthand experiences regarding materials or facts obtained from investigation or experimentation. It is experimentation, observation, or application by individuals or small groups dealing with actual materials. Essentially, it is the experimental method, enlarged and expounded. Types of Laboratory Method 1. Experimental. Aims to train pupils in problem-solving with incidental acquisition of information and motor skill. The emphasis is on discovery, original procedure, analysis, and solution of problems. 2. Observational. The acquisition of facts is the dominant aim of the method. Facts can be acquired through activities such as visits to museum, exhibits, and art galleries, watching demonstration, listening to lectures, viewing films, and going on field trips. Steps of the Laboratory Method 1. Introductory step for orientation and motivation. Includes the determination of work to be done. Motivation by the teacher is very much needed. 2. Work period. When all the pupils may be working on the same problem or on different problems on their own, this becomes a supervised work period. No matter what they are working on, the students will gain experience in scientific procedure, handling raw materials, and using tools. 3. Culminating activities. After completion or near completion of the work, the class may get together to discuss and organize their individual findings. They may also decide on how to present results of their individual work which may take any of the following forms: a) b) c) d) e)

explaining the nature and importance of the problem the group had worked on; reporting data gathered on other findings; c)presenting illustrative materials or special contributions; special reporting and exhibition of work by those with individual projects; and exhibiting various projects and explanations by their sponsors.

I. The Demonstration Method

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There are cases when it is better to use the demonstration method instead of the laboratory method. The chief difference between the two is that in the laboratory method, all the children perform the experiment and "learn by doing." In the demonstration method, the teacher does not experiment before the class. The demonstration method is sometimes called the imitative method (Garcia, 1989). Learning a skill is faster and more effective when the students are shown how the job is done by using the actual tools, machines, and materials they are expected to work with on the job. All the steps involved in the project method are adopted in the demonstration method, although there is an addition of one very important step.

Steps of the Demonstration Method 1. Purposing. The class decides on an activity which involves the process of demonstration. The teacher may suggest it but he should not impose it on them, he may encourage them to go through with it but he should not dictate it on them. 2. Planning. This phase consists of the object of the demonstration, the person or persons to conduct it, the materials to be needed, and the date, time, and place of the activity. If an outside resource speaker will be invited, necessary arrangements like a letter or invitation should be made. 3. Demonstration proper. Before the demonstration is done, all the preliminaries should have been prepared - materials, procedure, and the physical arrangement of the classroom. 4. Executing. Students are expected to carry out or repeat the same performance shown during the activity. During this phase, the teacher should keep a close watch of the students' performance for they may likely need his assistance and further explanation. 5. Evaluation. This is done to assess how successful the students are in following certain instructions, in duplicating an observed phenomenon, and in showing their creativity. J. The Expository Method The expository method is closely akin to the showing or telling method. It is used a great deal in the lower grades as there is much that needs explaining. However, it is also used in the upper grades, in the secondary school, and even in college when something difficult needs explanation by the teacher. Steps of the Expository Method 1. Approach. The proper mind set may be established by recalling past experiences related to the present lesson. The points to be explained must be placed before the class. 65

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2. Presentation. While explaining, it might be well for the teacher to make use of the following principles: a) b) c) d) e)

relate the new experience to the previous experiences; teacher and class should have the same viewpoint regarding what is to be explained; exposition means not only explaining but also interpreting; materials should be organized so as to permit thinking; and to make the explanation clear and effective, devices may be used such as:

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

analogies and stories; illustrations; models; diagrams; demonstration; and outlines and summaries to set facts in proper relationships.

3. Application. This step will show whether the pupils understood the explanation or not. It may be given in the form of a test, creative work, or another activity. K. The Morrisonian Technique or Unit Method (Garcia, 1989) Henry C. Morrison, former Superintendent of Schools in New Hampshire, is the proponent of the Unit Method. The unit method is the process of taking the contents of a particular subject as big blocks and not as isolated and fragmentary bits of information. The aim is to approach topics as an organized and integrated body, showing relevance and cognitive relationship. Commonly, the teacher assigns every unit or every chapter as the subject of the class activity. The activity does not last in just one sitting; it may certainly take several days before one unit or chapter is completely taken by the class. Steps of the Unit Method a) b) c) d) e)

Exploration Presentation Assimilation Organization Recitation

1. Exploration. The teacher, through questions and tests or in discussion, discovers what previous knowledge or experience the pupils have about the unit to eliminate repetitions of subject matter already learned and to decide on the apperceptive basis for the new unit. 2. Presentation. The essential features of the unit are presented and important points emphasized. The aim is to give the pupils a bird's-eye view of the entire unit, lectures,

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demonstrations, maps, pictures, stories, outlines, models, blackboard exercises, etc. can be utilized to make presentation successful. 3. Assimilation. The child learns what has been presented by the teacher, absorbs it, and makes it part of himself. It is really a supervised study. The assimilation period presents an excellent opportunity for the teacher to check up on the study habits of children. It is an opportunity to develop valuable habits of study such as outlining, use of reference materials, getting the gist of paragraphs, etc. 4. Organization. After assimilating the unit, the class is ready for the organization step. This should he done without books, notes, charts, etc. In this step, cooperative outlining is usually utilized and adopted in a final form. This is an opportunity for the teacher to train the pupils in outlining. With this help, the children gradually learn to organized their thoughts. 5. Recitation. This step is the reverse of presentation where the teacher does most of the activity while the class listens. Now, the class performs while the teacher and the other pupils listen. This should be the liveliest part of the lesson because the pupils prepare for and participate in many activities.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Aquino, Gaudencio V. Principles and Methods of Effective Teaching. Manila: National Book Store, Inc., 1988. Garcia, Manuel Buenconsejo. Focus on Teaching. Quezon City: Rex Printing Company, Inc., 1989. Lardizabal, Amparo S. et al. Principles and Methods of Teaching. Quezon City: Phoenix Publishing House, Inc., 1991. Palma, Jesus C. Curriculum Development System. Manila: National Book Store, Inc., 1992.

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Chapter VI IMPROVED INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES Objectives 1. Enumerate and explain selected improved instructional practices 2. Demonstrate each improved instructional practice Required Activities 1. Lecture-discussion 2. Teacher-demonstration on the improved instructional practices Introduction The different kinds of improved instructional practices are the following: discovery approach; conceptual approach; process approach; inquiry approach; integrative approach; programmed instruction; modular instruction; and team teaching. A. Discovery Approach The discovery approach refers to an inductive method of guiding pupils to discuss and organize ideas and processes by themselves. It means helping them use ideas already acquired as a means of discovering new ideas. According to Lardizabal, et al., the discovery approach is the process by which the children under subtle direction go through the logical process of observation, comparison, and abstraction, generalization, and application. Instead of "telling," either by the teacher or a textbook explanation, self-discovery sets up learning situations whereby children are encouraged to explore a process or discover rules. The primary concern is with developing a pattern of thinking instead of merely arriving at an answer. Definition Given by Other Authors 1. It stresses the learning of concepts, theories, principles, and content through discovery rather than rote memorization (Anderson, 1969). 2. It is not only the act of finding out something unknown before mankind but also includes all forms of obtaining knowledge for oneself by the use of one's own mind (Rowe, 1973). 3. It is the act of an individual using his mental processes (cognitive abilities) to derive a concept or principle. A discovery activity is a lesson designed to help students discover concepts or principles for themselves. It is a matter of rearranging data internally so no concepts are formed. It involves finding the meaning, the organization, the structure of the ideas (Carin and Bund, 1971). 68

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4. It incorporates those views of teaching which place greatest emphasis on the selfdirected activity of the student. It incorporates some of the present-day concern for creativity, child development, and the terminology of cognitive psychology (Myron and Karplus, 1962). 5. Its main emphasis is on the teacher not telling the students the principle or generalization or rule when they are supposed to learn (Ausubel, 1961). 6. It is a matter of rearranging or transferring evidence. It is a type of thinking. This type of thinking occurs in such a way that the individual discovers what goes beyond the information given to new insights and generalizations (Bruner, 1965). 7. It allows the students to become "active in the learning process." He must engage in doing, manipulating materials, and interpreting results. As a result, he discovers something (Hendrix, 1961). Types of Discovery Approach 1. Guided Discovery -The teacher tries to draw out from his pupils certain bits of information through properly organized questions and explanations leading them to the eventual discovery of particular concepts or principles. 2. Pure Discovery - The pupils are expected to arrive at certain concepts and principles completely by themselves. Guidelines in the Use or the Discovery Approach 1. There should be a well-planned structured instructional strategy. The students should understand the problem very well. Data must be arranged systematically. 2. Teacher should not answer questions, although he can give clues and hints. 3. The teacher should not expect the students to find out for themselves all the concepts, ideas, and generalizations of his course. B. Conceptual Approach According to Dr. Liceria Soriano, the conceptual approach is choosing and defining the content of a certain discipline to be taught through the use of big or pervasive ideas as against the traditional practice of determining content by isolated topics. The emphasis is not on the content per se, but in the big ideas that pervade the subject. It is using the content as a means of leading the students to discover the laws and principles or generalization that govern a particular subject or discipline.

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According to Garcia (989), the conceptual approach, like other approaches, is not a particular teaching method with specific steps to follow. It is more of a viewpoint of how facts and topics under a discipline should be dealt with. As such, information processing becomes interestingly effective as the learners are guided toward organization of thoughts into meaningful, bigger ideas. This approach, like discovery, stresses cognitive learning: the learning of content or the acquisition of knowledge. However, the conceptual approach requires the categorization of content from simple to complex level while discovery is generally concerned with the conscious effort of the learners to find out mere relationships between two given variables. The conceptual approach involves more data collection usually through research while the discovery approach actively involves students to undertake experimental and investigative work. A teacher should never tell the students the principle or rule which they are supposed to state at the end of the lesson. As much as possible, the teacher should help the students gather sufficient data to enable them to form the expected generalization. Another equally important role of the teacher using the conceptual approach is that he should be able to master the cognitive hierarchy of his discipline. He should be able to categorize all knowledge pertinent to his area: from facts to concepts, from concepts to generalizations; from generalizations to principles; and all of these should be organized around conceptual schemes which are the pervasive ideas embodying the whole discipline.

Conceptual Scheme Principle Concept Generalization Fact

Hierarchy of Cognition To explain the abo7e hierarchy of cognition, each level is properly defined and illustrated on the next page. Term Meaning Example/s Fact A simple statement of truth Ice melts. Water freezes. Wax liquid solidifies. 70

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Water vapor condenses. Mothballs sublimate. Concept

Synthesis or constellation of Ice, water, wax, water vapor, and mothballs are all matter. related facts Melting, freezing, solidification, sublimation are all physical or phase change.

Generalization

Principle

Conceptual Scheme

General statement relating two By relating matter with physical change, the general or more concepts statement may likely be: "All matters undergo physical change." Statement of fundamental processes, true without The principle involved in the exception within the stated physical change of matter is limitations, capable of conservation. demonstration or illustration The main pervasive theme underlying a major field of Understanding the study environment through matter and energy.

Notice that the flow of ideas from facts up to conceptual scheme is from simple to complex, allowing students to organize their thoughts from bits of information to larger cognitive level. Students should be given lots of opportunities to read, listen, and write to expose them to as many situations as possible and lead them to categorize information. C. Process Approach The process approach may be defined as teaching in which knowledge is used as a means to develop students' learning skills. Students are actively engaged in the activities so the competencies needed in the subject could eventually be acquired by them. For instance, if they are to learn cooking, they should actually cook rather than devote a great deal of their time on the theoretical aspects of cooking. The essence of the process approach lies on three major points: 1. Emphasis on process implies a corresponding deemphasis on the subject content (the concern is how to learn and not what to learn); 71

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2. It centers upon the idea that what is taught to children should be functional and not theoretical (if you learn math, do what mathematicians do, if you learn science, do what scientists do, and if you learn music, do what musicians do); and 3. It introduces the consideration of human intellectual development. The process approach originated from and used to be a monopoly of science instruction. But today, it is identified primarily with skill-oriented subjects like practical arts, home economics, and even with knowledge-laden subjects like social studies. Learning Skill in Selected Subjects I. Social Studies A. Thinking Skills. Observing, describing, developing concepts, differentiating, defining, hypothesizing, comparing and contrasting, generalizing, predicting, explaining, and offering alternatives. B. Academic Skills. Reading, viewing, listening, outlining, note-taking, caption-writing, making charts, reading and interpreting maps, diagramming, tabulating, constructing timeliness, and asking relevant questions. 1. Social Skills. Planning with others, participating in research projects, participating productively in group discussion, responding courteously to the questions of others, leading group discussion, acting responsibly, and helping others. II. Science A. Basic Skills. Observing, classifying, using numbers, measuring, using space-time relationship, communicating, predicting, and inferring. B. lntegrated Skills. Defining operationally, formulating hypotheses, interpreting data, controlling variables, and experimenting. III. Language (English and Filipino) A. Speaking. Proper pronunciation and enunciation, good diction, voice modulation, quality, pitch, and timbre, etc. B. Listening. Concentrating, deciphering ideas, analyzing and interpreting, getting the main thoughts, etc. C. Reading. Speed and comprehension, reading between lines, sequencing, comparing and contrasting, drawing out the main idea or the moral lesson, interpreting a selection, generalizing, etc. 72

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D. Writing. Jotting down important notes, outlining, summarizing, mastering the mechanics of writing like spelling, use of punctuation marks, and use of small and capital letters, writing a composition following qualities like good grammar, simplicity, cohesiveness, etc. IV. Mathematics A. Basic Skills. Placing numbers in columns, mastering the four fundamental processes, getting the percentage, finding the least common denominator, changing fractions to decimals and vice-versa. B. Complex Skills. Getting the square root, computing mean, median, and standard deviation, solving one step problem and two or three-step problems, etc. V. Physical Education A. Gymnastics. Developing coordination and vigor, practicing alertness, quickness to respond, poise, and grace, exercising muscular strength, maintaining normal functioning of the organic system of the body, etc. B. Organized Games and Relay Skills. Cultivating a general "ball sense" for application in team games, practicing throwing, catching, bouncing, and aiming the ball, participating in lead-up activities that will increase interest and ability to play the games, etc. C. Rhythmic Skills. Mastering some fundamental dance steps, demonstrating skills in various rhythmic skills, etc. D. Body Mechanics. Acquiring a good body posture in different positions (sitting, walking, standing, running, kneeling, lying, etc.) E. Locomotor Skills. Demonstrating the ability to move from one place to another with the greatest degree of safety and speed, exercising to develop body coordination, agility, and timing, etc. D. Inquiry Approach The inquiry approach is the search for truth, information, or knowledge. It pertains to research and investigation and to seeking for information by asking questions (Kilnkmann, 1970). The inquiry approach is also a search for the solution to a problem through an exploration and evaluation of alternatives (Suchman, 1964). '

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The inquiry approach views a given discipline more as an attitude than as a body of knowledge or as a method. Emphasizing the affective aspects of learning, it uses both the content and processes as means toward the development of the qualities of the mind as curiosity, skepticism, intellectual honesty, and others. Hence, the primary aim is the development of a desirable attitude including proper appreciation and valuing. The inquiry approach can either be inductive or deductive. Deductive, if the teacher in the beginning provides the students with background information which will serve as the subject of the inquiry. It can also be done soon after the students have learned through discovery. The generalization that they have just formed could be subjected to a closer scrutiny during the inquiry session so it will lead them toward a more in depth understanding of the generalization. On the other hand, the inquiry session becomes inductive when through a set of questions presented, the students are able to come up with certain ideas of their own which are open for further investigation. E. Unified Approach The unified approach is defined as means of treating relationships that exist among the significant components making up a given body of knowledge. It is a thorough process of weaving and integrating topics into a general framework or a conceptual scheme. This simply means that the teacher does not treat each concept as "an isolated island by itself," but rather he relates the previously learned concept with the new concept, until finally the students are able to see the interrelationships among the various concepts that serve as the "mainstays" or as the "cognitive pillars" of an academic subject. Its primary aim is to enhance the students' learning by making them view things in their entirety or totality. The Features of the Unified Approach 1. It is highly cognitive (subject content is viewed as a system of interrelated and interdependent elements). 2. It leads students toward insightful and meaningful learning (learning in this approach requires students to go through different mental processes like comparison, linking up, ascertaining the cause-and-effect relationships, determining prerequisites, predicting results, and even synthesis). 3. It is holistic in treatment (it is based on the premise that parts are nothing unless they are viewed as one whole). 4. It requires the teacher to present his subject matter in an entirely different manner. Guidelines in the Use of the Unified Approach 1. Restructure the presentation of the subject matter to show the needed interrelationships. Determine the major concepts in the subject matter then determine 74

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their relationships and plan relevant situations and examples to be cited in order to make certain relationships clear and understandable to the students. 2. Recall the previous lesson and link it up with the present one. Students should be led to see that the subject taught to him is an integral element of the whole. 3. Include relevant points only. Avoid presenting ideas that would not help establish the interrelationship desired. If irrelevant ideas are presented, they should be properly labeled. 4. Start with the most fundamental concepts in presenting the relationships. In every subject, there is a fundamental unifying concept which could be used as the starting point which will naturally bring students to other related concepts. For instance, in biology, the topic "living things" as well as in sociology, the topic "society" are some examples of these concepts. The words placed inside the boxes in the diagram are some major concepts. Each concept is related to another concept as shown by the use of the line and arrow although the more substantial link is provided by each sentence found in the diagram.

An Illustration of the Unified Approach The lesson sequence involving all the concepts included in the diagram goes like this: Day 1 - Discussion of what society is, its nature and its types.

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Day 2 - Discussion of all the salient points about culture stressing the relationship between society and culture Day 3 - Relate society with social institutions, discussion of the different types of social institutions, and enumeration of the functions of each type. Day 4 - Introduce the concept of "socialization" and integrate it with either previously learned concepts like "society," "social institution," and "culture." Day 5 - Stress the kind of socialization that depends on the culture, and more specifically, on one's social status as properly defined by culture. It should be understood that the sequence goes beyond the discussion of social status and social role to include other sociological concepts not included in the diagram. At the end of the sequence, it is expected that the class is able to form one big cognitive structure embracing all the concepts of the subject together with their interrelationships. Worthy of mention, too, is the fact that the planned five recitation days devoted to the discussion of the selected concepts may not be followed; the recitation days may extend beyond five days if the class is not fast enough. F. Programmed Instruction Programmed instruction is an instruction in which the self-pacing method has a rightful place. Morris Bigge (1982) defined it as a system of teaching and learning within which the subject matter is broken down into small, discrete steps and carefully organized into a logical sequence in which it can be learned readily by the students. Barry Harley (1973) likewise pointed out that it is an auto-instructional approach to teaching which is changing the role of the classroom teacher. He specifically described the method as follows: 1. Programming itself is the writing of sequential steps structured so as to bring about a learning experience. Each programmed lesson consists of steps called frames. Each frame is associated with content in previous frames. Since the correct response accompanies each frame, the student is provided with reinforcement when he answers correctly by the reward of knowing he is right. By the same token, the fixation of incorrect responses is prevented and remedial reinforcement provided. By this spiral design, the written sequence leads the student progressively to more difficult levels of learning in answering question in each frame, he can make two forms of responses: the linear and the branching. The first form uses structured responses which require the student to think of or recall the response; the second is multiple choice questions requiring only recognition of the correct response. 2. Programmed materials are self-instructional. Students direct their learning activity by themselves with the least interference from their teacher. They actively interact with the programmed materials, follow the instructions found in them, answer readymade questions, and check own answer as against the correct answer which is given

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either on the same page or on another designated page. Once in a while, the teacher is consulted in case they do not understand something found in the materials. 3. This type of instruction is highly individualized. Fast, bright students are expected to cover much more frames than slow, dull ones. The latter may probably need constant teacher's assistance. 4. It requires the so-called criterion-referenced type of evaluation and not the norm-referenced type. This mode of instruction has set certain minimum requirements that even the slowest and dullest students are capable of meeting. Hence, they are compared to their own selves and not to their classmates which is the essence of the second type of evaluation. 5. It requires the teacher to play three distinct rules in today's school- director, analyst, and tutor. The first role requires him to direct the learning experiences of the students as a specialist in education; the second one has him continually analyzing and evaluating the progress of students on the basis of results from their daily work and frequent testing; and the third role finds him monitoring and personally tutoring students during their study. Another vital role of the teacher here is his being a consultant. He must possess a more comprehensive, organized, and ready grasp of his subjects than is ordinarily possessed by other teachers in a traditional classroom role. This, in part, is because he is called upon to explain many different parts of the programme to students in any one given class session. 6. It is not a complete instruction by itself. Discussion may occur between the instructor and one student, between students themselves, or between the instructor and a group of students. This discussion makes it possible to clarify more difficult and subtle parts of the programme at the time when the clarification is most needed. 7. Programmed instruction requires a lot of materials. Sets of well-prepared instructional materials like a programmed textbook, use of audio and video tapes, live television films, and selected reference reading from the school library should be at the disposal of the teacher. Video tapes are used for lecture demonstration on major topics of the course. Audio tapes should be available in the listening laboratory for students whenever they have free time, while video tapes should be scheduled for viewing on the closed circuit television of the school at times other than the regular class sessions. The use of tapes, therefore, is a natural supplement to programmed instruction. Owing to the need for such educational technology, the teacher must discharge some nontraditional roles in teaching. That is, he has to write and produce the tapes, to preview and to select suitable films, and to review and to recommend up to-date resource materials. Perhaps this last feature of the programmed instruction makes it beyond the reach of an ordinary school in the country today. Aside from the special teacher's expertise needed here, he must procure updated instructional materials. Only the exclusive private schools may be able to realize these desirable modes of instruction. 77

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G. Modular Instruction Modules as instructional materials have concretized pretty well the principle of individual differences, allowing each student to proceed at his own pace. More intellectually superior students are separated to finish more modules; less bright ones are only capable of taking up fewer modules. While the use of modules has been widely accepted as a desirable pedagogical practice, its actual utilization in classroom instruction leaves much to be desired. Dr. Constantino M. Torralba, the leading proponent of learning modules in the country, adopted two definitions of module, the first given by Darrel Murray and the second by the Workshop in the Application of Educational Technology sponsored by DECS-UNESCO held in Tagaytay City. The first definition goes like this: "A module is a self-contained and independent unit of instruction with a primary focus on a few well-defined objectives. The substance of a module consists of materials and instructions needed to accomplish these objectives." The second definition is stated as: "A module is a set of learning opportunities systematically organized around a well-defined topic, which contains the elements of instructions - specific objectives, teaching-learning activities, and evaluation using criterion-referenced measure." Likewise, Good (1973) described its use in modernizing the teaching process by using a set of modules suited to each student who is given a chance to advance at his own best rate, bypassing unnecessary instruction and satisfying his particular needs, and he will thus, as an individual case, be able to earn his degree in a considerably shorter time. Components of a Module According to its proponents, a module to be complete must contain the following components: 1. Title. It should be briefly, comprehensively, and interestingly stated. 2. Target population. This specifies the level and the kind of students to which the module is directed. 3. Overview. It gives the students a bird's-eye view of the topic being covered by the module. Such background is needed to prepare their mental setups and at the same time to motivate them. 4. Objectives. The students should know exactly what is expected of them in going through the module in terms of learning objectives. To make these objectives clear and comprehensible to them, they should be formulated in terms of students' specific and measurable performance. 5. Instructions to the learners. Since the module is self contained, students are expected to carry out the suggested activities, to answer specific questions, to accomplish sheet assignment, and other related activities by themselves. To enable them to do so, they are to be given instructions which should be worded following qualities like clarity, brevity, simplicity, and specificity.

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6. Entry behavior and prerequisite skills. The beauty of the module as a learning material is, it specifies what entry behavior and prerequisite skills are needed to enable the learner to use it successfully. It does provide him a preliminary assessment whether the module is within his capability or not. If he feels he does not have the needed behavior and skills, he may skip the module and instead concentrate on the development of such requirements before he does try it. 7. Pre-test. One important component of a module is the pre-test which is purposely given to determine how much the learner already knows about the topic. If the results show that he has considerably mastered it, he may be given the next module. 8. Pre-test feedback and evaluation. To determine whether his answer to every item in the pretest is correct or not, a key to correction must be provided within the module. Such key to correction refers to the so-called pretest feedback. On the other hand, once the total number of correct answers is counted, it must be given an equivalent grade to find out whether the learner passes or fails the test given. Such equivalent grade is contained in the pre-test evaluation. 9. Learning activities. This is the heart of the module, specifying the different activities that the student must undertake in order to achieve the specific learning objectives. Such activities include the various lessons, study sheet assignments, tests, and even suggested projects. 10. Post-test. After the student had done all the learning activities suggested in the module, he has to take a post-test aimed at finding how far he has learned from it. In the' absence of other equally well-prepared post-test, the pretest used earlier may be given as a post-test. An improvement of the test score by the student is most likely to occur. 11. Post-test feedback and evaluation. The post-test feedback, just like the pre-test feedback, serves as the key to correction while the post-test evaluation like the pretest evaluation provides the grade equivalents of the different scores obtained by the students. 12. Teacher's manual or guide. Every instructional material should be effectively used which means that the module can greatly benefit students if they are properly and competently guided by their teacher in going through it. Therefore, he needs a manual which will provide him with the necessary pointers, helpful alternatives, and even necessary background to strengthen his mastery of the topic. Such manual or guide can clarify things, provide cautions in the use of module, call the attention of the teacher to emphasize salient points, and suggest enrichment activities in order to maximize students' learning.

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H. Team Teaching According to Lardizabal, et at., team teaching is an approach that involves two or more teachers who work cooperatively with the same group of students for some period of time. Hence, many teachers and school administrators claim that teaching is nothing new. As a matter of fact, they claim they have .been doing it for years. Teachers have been allowed to exchange classes or to exchange teaching tasks; they have combined their classes with those of others in specific subjects such as music, dramatic performances, athletics, and allied activities; the older teachers in a school voluntarily assist a new teacher or the latter requests assistance from the other. At best, three or more teachers should be involved in planning actual work with children and in evaluation. All team members should participate in the formulation of objectives for the total program, in the planning of daily activities, in teaching functions, and in periodic evaluation of the entire program. It is a novel way of organizing the teaching staff, curriculum, and space. Instead of putting say 12 teachers in charge of from 30 to 40 students, the teachers can be regrouped into three teams. Each team pools its talents and resources together to plan the curriculum, the lessons, and even evaluation procedures. Each team takes responsibility for 150 to 200 students. Each teacher teaches the subject in which he has specialized, thus giving the students the best possible instruction in all areas. No fixed pattern for teams has yet been evolved. The discussion, planning, and blending of ideas can surely vitalize the instructional program and give the curriculum increased breadth and depth. There is team teaching in the school if the teachers are formally organized as a team which is duly recognized by the school system. Each of these teachers has his own definite responsibilities and area of specialization. Rationale for Adopting Team Teaching 1. It allows the more competent teachers to assume leadership in the team. Teachers are encouraged and stimulated to specialize in those aspects of a course for which they are best qualified. 2. Teachers are stimulated to do better teaching through close association with other members of the team, through discussion, and working out problems with their colleagues. 3. Students benefit from exposure to a variety of points of view and teacher personalities. 4. Teaching techniques that require more elaborate preparation and administration like films and transparencies can be utilized better because more time is given to the teachers in advance for preparation and planning. 5. The teacher is freed from routine tasks, especially when non-professional assistants are employed to take care of roll call, correction of papers, grading, etc. The teacher's time can be devoted to more productive pursuits like curriculum revision or planning for the day's lesson.

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6. Team teaching is applicable to every discipline. It is an excellent set-up for interdisciplinary combination. 7. It is suitable to almost any kind of situation, whatever the school level, size of school, subject area, student ability, and type of teacher. Patterns and procedures of team teaching can be made successful at every school level elementary, secondary, collegiate, and graduate. Several Limitations of Team Teaching 1. Time. Planning, recording, and evaluating need time and teachers have to put in extra time for projects. 2. Space and Facilities. The program needs a lecture room, overhead projectors, sound system, larger space for projects. 3. The young and inexperienced teacher may be given enough time to learn from his mistakes, to tryout his own ideas. Exponents of the approach however, believe that such difficulties can be overcome. The important part is to get the staff to cooperate. Mature adults can organize and work together as a team. Team teaching relieved the teacher of some teaching chores and gives him added responsibility and prestige. It is believed that when teachers work as a group, when their professional talents are utilized to the fullest extent toward the achievement of specific goals, the accomplishment of the group will be greater than the sum total of the individual talents of the teachers working with their own pupils in their self-contained classrooms in almost complete isolation from the rest of the teachers and pupils of the entire school. Glossary of Teaching Methodologies A.

Whole Group Instruction is the most traditional and common form of classroom organization (Ornstein, 1992). Teachers generally gear their teaching to the "mythical" average students 'on the assumption that this level of presentation will meet" the needs of the greatest number of students.

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Behavior Modeling

Acting out a particular behavior the right way.

Case Study

A problematic situation written or described in narrative form ranging from a paragraph to several paragraphs.

Cross-impact Analysis

With the occurrence of one or more separate situations, the learners estimate possible linkages or causal relationship between or among these events and come up with action plan to deal with likely events.

Delphi Procedure

A method for obtaining the consensus of opinion of a group of experts through questionnaires with controlled opinion feedback.

Demonstration

Showing the learner how to perform a task/activity or how to operate an equipment.

Devil's Advocate

A method of dealing with a complex problem or conflicting situation in the context of opposition. Said conflicting views may stem from different goals, perspectives, and role requirement. The "devil" serves as a criticattacking idea presented and defended by learners.

Exercises

Drill, boardwork, writing exercises that require learner's application of the acquired knowledge and skills.

Force Field Analysis

Incident Process

A process of assessing a felt need or a performance problem by identifying the strengths and weaknesses of an organization, including outside influence with the aim of effecting change through an action plan. A short (one-to-two sentence) description of a problematic situation.

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Lateral Thinking

The use of techniques in developing new attitudes and ideas in looking at problems or issues.

Lecture

A lengthy talk delivered to trainees primarily designed to inform or impart knowledge.

Mastery Instruction

It is a desired educational goal for all grade levels and subjects. The teacher must adapt the instruction to the student, rather than the student adapting to the instruction. The teacher must closely monitor each student's work, provide a variety of instructional materials and activities, determine what skills and tasks each student has mastered, and provide immediate feedback.

Microsimulations

Short informal practice sessions . whereby learners perform a new task/activity under artificial conditions to help them develop necessary knowledge and skills required by the new job.

Morphological Analysis

A forced-relationship approach '. that divides a problem into its major dimensions to develop a matrix of solutions and effects to help the learners generate new ideas to deal with future problems before they occur.

Role Play

A dramatic enactment between two or more people intended to represent a situation.

Scenario Analysis

Building of hypothetical sequence of events (stories); answers the questions "If, then, etc." to deter mine the future effects of a problem, issue, or trend.

Simulations & Games

Similar to a lengthy role play involving several participants intended to represent a work, a problem situation, or a real-life situation.

Team World-Webbing/ Mindmapping

Students write simultaneously on a paper drawing to bridge the main concepts with their components, supporting elements in order to show multiple relations among ideas, or to differentiate concepts presented. 83

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Think- Pair-Share

Each student thinks about a topic provided by the teacher, they pair up with another student to discuss it until they generate a concept, a conclusion through inductive-deductive reasoning, and an application of the concept developed. In the end, each pair shares their thoughts with the entire class.

Trips

Take learners to see something for themselves like visits to museums, historical spots, congress. etc.

B.

Small-Group Instruction - According to Ornstein (1992), dividing students into small groups seems to provide an opportunity for students to become more actively engaged in learning and for teachers to monitor student progress better. Between five to eight students seem to be an optimal number to ensure successful small group activity.

Ability Grouping

Grouping learners according to their ability and mental preparedness, thus, reducing the problems of heterogeneity in the classroom.

Brainstorming

The process of getting as many ideas as there are learners in a span of time. Allowing free expression of ideas without prejudice or criticism.

Brainwriting

Writing down of ideas in slips of paper by a group of about six trainees regarding several photographs or drawings related to a problem.

Buzz Group

A small group (five or six) assembled to work on common problems or issues and work out a solution and report such to a larger group.

Cooperative Learning

Students divide the work among themselves by helping one another, praise, criticize one another's effort and contributions, and receive a group performance score.

Group Debate

A method by which learners are divided into two groups or panels to examine an issue from different view points, after which synthesis, consensus or solution, and action plan are arrived at. 84

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Interviewing Technique

Students are divided into pairs to share some personal information (such as hypothesis, reactions to a literary piece, conclusions from a unit, etc.) with one another. In the end, each will share with the whole class his learning from the interviewing process.

Jigsaw Technique (cooperative instructions)

The whole class is divided into teams or functional groups. Each student in the team becomes an "expert" on one topic by working with members from the other teams who have been assigned the corresponding similar topic. Upon returning to their teams, each one in turn teaches their respective group. Students are assessed on all aspects of the topic.

Nominal Group Technique

Assembling a small group of knowledgeable people in a room to work alone to develop ideas and then share their list of ideas, one item at a time in round-robin fashion.

Panel

A group of people assembled in front of trainees to discuss an issue or problem.

Peer Tutoring

Also called pairing students, is the assignment of students to help one another on a one-to-one basis or in small groups in a variety of situations.

Philipps 66

Asking a small group to come up with short, single answers to a simple problem at the end of the agreed-on time limit.

Adaptive Instruction

Sometimes called adaptive education, is a program that occurs on two levels: 1) developing the abilities and learning skills of the student; and 2) altering the instructional environment to correspond to the individual's abilities and learning skills.

Independent Reading

Reading intended to provide background information for training or to substitute for classroom-based instruction.

Independent Study

It involves work conducted by the student on a 85

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topic using school or non-school resources under the direction of the teacher. Computer-Assisted Instruction

It is the use of the computer by the student to facilitate learning. This involves tutoring and practice and drill programs.

Computer-Managed Instruction

It is the use of the computer by the teacher and school for the systematic control and organization of aspects of instruction including testing, diagnostic data, learning prescriptions, and record-keeping.

C. Individualized Instruction attempts to maximize individual learning by diagnosing the student's entry achievement levels or learning deficiencies, providing a one-to-one, teacherto-teacher, or machine-to-student relationship, introducing sequenced and structured instructional materials, frequently accompanied by practice and drill and permitting students to proceed at their own rate.

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Chapter VII TECHNIQUES OF TEACHING Introduction It is not enough that a teacher knows his subject matter; what is important is that he must be able to impart it properly and effectively to the students. Garcia (1989) states that a common error among teachers is to use interchangeably terms like approach, method, and technique. Such pedagogical weakness may be considered as forgivable. It is a fact that the three foregoing concepts are all closely identified with the procedural aspects of teaching but they are basically different and distinct although related to one another. The diagram below is an attempt to distinguish them.

The "How" Dimension of Teaching Source: Garcia's Focus on Teaching DIFFERENCES AMONG APPROACH, METHODSI STRATEGIES, AND TECHNIQUES Based on the above diagram, a technique is part of method and, likewise, a method is a component of an approach. This makes approach the broadest of the three. Technique, the most specific, and method, intermediate between the two. Approach -

an enlightened viewpoint of teaching. provides sound philosophy and orientation to the whole process of teaching in which the selection of an instructional method is part and parcel of. embraces the entire spectrum of the process such that: a) it specifies the major goal of teaching; b) the given priorities among the three domains, cognitive, psychomotor, and affective; c) the role of the teacher; d) the expectations from students; e) the nature of the teaching-learning process; and

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f) the kind of evaluative techniques and suitable teaching methods/strategies to be employed. There are two salient points to remember: First, all approaches of teaching are viewpoints of teaching, but not all viewpoints of teaching are considered approaches of teaching. Second, the selection of an instructional method is based on a given approach. It may be any of the following: - a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the process of teaching. - an axiom that describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught. - a point of view, a philosophy, an article of faith, something which one believes but cannot necessarily be proven. Methods/Strategy Method/strategy refers to an organized, orderly, systematic, well-planned procedure. It consists of steps which are logically arranged aimed at achieving the specific aims of instruction, at enhancing greater teaching and maximizing learning output. Method directs and guides the teacher in all class activities and involves as well, the organization of materials to get things done .. Organization of materials can be categorized into two: 1. Logical organization aims to facilitate the recall or location and use off acts, ideas, materials, procedures, etc; and 2. Psychological organization is designed to facilitate learning of new things. The logical organization is achieved by any of the following: a) association of one's ideas and arranging known materials like books, letters, and the like systematically; b) organizing ideas of a similar nature under an appropriate heading; c) using suitable headings for the major divisions; and d) grouping the related subpoints. The psychological organization is realized through: a) understanding how pupils learn things normally; b) selecting those that seem to have a definite bearing on the given task; and c) making free and controlled associations needed in developing the work. Strategy in the beginning is a monopoly of other disciplines like military, science, politics, economics, and even psychology. Later, it has been adopted in the field of education since it connotes the same idea. Strategy and methodology are now used interchangeably.

Technique A technique is implementational and that which actually takes place in a classroom. It is a particular trick, or contrivance, used to accomplish an immediate objective. It is usually consistent with a method, and, therefore, in harmony with an approach as well. It depends on the teacher, his individual artistry, and on the composition of the class. A technique is also defined as a procedural variation of a given method. It involves a highly personalized style of carrying out a particular step of a given method. 88

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Variation in technique calls for alternatives which can be in the form of small group discussion, panel discussion, debate, brainstorming, resource speakers, and others. Although there can be no specific technique for any given situation, the discussions at the later part of this chapter will present suggested techniques under the categories of teaching methods. Classification of Teaching Methods Criteria: 1. whether methods are addressed to: a) whole class b) group of students c) individual students -

lecture method group discussion modular learning

2. whether methods are: a) highly cognitive reporting/unit method b) highly psychomotor project method c) highly affective role-playing, simulation, sensitivity training, organic technique, cross-age tutoring, and affective exercises. Note: There are methods, however, like the laboratory method that gives almost equal importance to both the acquisition of knowledge and the development of skills. 3. whether methods are: a) teacher monopolized b)student monopolized c) teacher-student collaborated

-

pure lecture field trip socialized classroom discussion

4. Kilgore (1982) categorized teaching styles into two major areas: a) direct teaching - teacher provides new or additional information to students through: 1) lecturing 2) film showing 3) field trip b) indirect teaching - teacher structure activities in which the learner is active, such as 1) playing games 2) group role playing 3) inquiry training 4) laboratory work 5. whether methods are: a) convergent - this mode of teaching makes students come together to 'a point which means they are expected to accept an idea or set of ideas like what is being done in the process of generalizing or jotting down the teacher's lecture notes.

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b) divergent - permits students to branch out to different ideas allowing them to share diverse opinions about a certain topic or issue. 6. The classification of teaching methods is based primarily on the nature of the teachinglearning activity. For instance, on the basis of teacher-student involvement, the socialized classroom discussion, the small group discussion, and panel discussion are three different teaching methods since they present three varying degrees of teacher- student participation. Categories of Teaching Methods 1. Inductive and Deductive Methods 2. Lecture Method a) Outlining technique b) Component technique c) Sequential technique d) Relevance technique e) Transitional technique 3. Discussion Method a) Small group discussion technique b) Socialized classroom discussion technique c) Direct instruction or classroom teaching technique d) Panel discussion technique e) Recitation technique f) Interview technique 4. Reporting Method a) Unit or Morrisonian technique b) Individual and group techniques c) Reading and story-telling techniques d) Schematic technique e) Symposium 5.

Investigatory Method a) Laboratory technique b) Problem-solving technique c) Research technique d) Field study technique e) Experimenting technique

6.

Activity Method a) Project technique b) Field trip technique c) Dramatization technique d) Role-playing technique e) Simulation technique f) Brainstorming technique 90

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g)

Debate

7.

Demonstration Method a) Teacher-directed b) Student-directed c) Teacher and student-directed d) Resource speaker

8.

Self-Pacing Method a) Programmed instruction, modules, kits, correspondence course b) Mastery learning technique

9.

Integrated Method a) Lecture-discussion b) Demonstration lecture c) Film-showing discussion d) Reporting discussion e) Inductive-deductive

10.

Traditional Method a) Textbook technique b) Rote-learning technique c) Teacher's full-directed technique d) Memorization technique e) The 2 x 4 x 8 technique of teaching.

Techniques in the Lecture Method 1. The outlining technique involves a cognitive framework in which the subject matter is presented from general to specific (from a broad topic to sub-topic, from the sub-topics to sub-sub-topics). This requires the lecturer to present a ready outline in the beginning - an outline which will guide him in his actual task of lecturing. In a way, it is similar to the process of analysis which is the breaking up of the whole into its parts. In the outlining technique, there is hierarchy of ideas developed from big to small, from complex to simple, and from general to specific. 2. The component technique is exactly the reverse of the outlining technique. This time instead of breaking up the whole into parts, the lecturer should organize his ideas from small to large. Hence, the process of synthesis is involved. As the lecture proceeds, more pertinent data are presented, resulting to the crystallization of one pervasive idea. For instance, in a sociology class, the instructor provides the following information about progress.

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First Face of Progress

Second Face of Progress

• A great pool of knowledge

• Social disintegration manifested by the erosion of traditional practices • Physical and material wellbeing • Weakening social inclinations • Longer and healthier life • Disruption of social order • Opportunities to acquire skills and to develop • Increasing gaps between the developed and talents the underdeveloped societies • Greater job and leisure opportunities • Obsolescence • Incredible human achievements • III effects of urbanization and industrialization

Naturally, as soon as the instructor has presented both faces of progress, the general idea arrived at is that progress is both good and bad. He may ask his students to state the expected generalization and for emphasis he could restate it in a more sophisticated manner by uttering this statement: "So class, I have shown you that progress is both a boon and a bane." 3. The sequential technique provides the most effective, cognitive framework around which the whole lecture revolves. It provides a very logical presentation of ideas like: a) the chronological arrangement of events in history; b) the stages in the cycle of communications; c) the steps involved in critical analysis; d) the development of a story plot or a novel; and e) the operation of the law of supply and demand. 4. The relevance technique consists of four main steps, namely: a) Presentation of a central thought or the singular idea; b) Giving all impressions about this idea; c) Separating the correct impressions from the incorrect ones; and d) Concentrating the lecture on the explanation of the correct impressions. In a psychology class, a diagram is drawn on the board presenting the different perceptions made on the term motive. Such a diagram is as follows:

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As soon as the diagram is completed, the teacher starts his lecture on what motive actually is. As he proceeds, he checks on a correct perception as he gives more substance on its veracity. Conversely, too, he erases the wrong perception and explains why such perception has to be discarded. 5.The transitional technique presents an in-depth treatment of a particular topic. It aims to expand and provide different but acceptable perspectives about the subject of the lecture. In philosophy of education, for example, the aims of education are many and varied depending on several schools of thought, namely: idealism, realism, naturalism, pragmatism, and existentialism. Each philosophy views educational goals and priorities distinctively. Likewise, in a classification lesson in elementary science, pupils are asked to group rocks. There is not only one way of categorizing them; there are several ways of doing it. • According to color, some rocks are brown, others are gray. • According to shape, some rocks are round, others are oblong, etc. • According to size, some rocks are big, others are small. Techniques in the Discussion Method 1. The small-group discussion technique is breaking down the whole class into small groups in order to encourage and maximize free exchange of ideas about a familiar topic. This technique is more student-directed but it does not mean the teacher leaves the classroom while it is being done nor he just sits down in front and assumes the "I don't care attitude." He can go from one group to another to find out the progress of the discussion. Sometimes, students may ask questions which are indispensable to the smooth exchange of ideas. At times, he can act as a temporary group moderator if the group has difficulty of "taking-off." At other times, teacher can add supplements and necessary information which the panelists fail to include in the discussion. Ideally, each group should be composed of five to six students in order to ensure their equal participation. More than six members may likely decrease the amount of students' participation because the time may not be sufficient for a prolonged discussion. 2. The socialized classroom discussion technique involves a free exchange of ideas between the class and the teacher. The teacher acts as a moderator, guiding and directing the class discussion. He does not put a period for every idea presented but rather provides perplexing situations and good items for inquiry so as to stimulate his students' minds. At the start of the activity, the students should have a feeling that the teacher is depending on their answers and ideas, and not the other way round. They should not regard the teacher as the only fountainhead of knowledge but a co-partner in the teachinglearning situation. 3. The direct instruction or classroom teaching technique resembles most closely the lecture method. It is a combination of teacher's exposition and follow-up discussion on the part of the students. In this technique, the teacher initially provides an information 93

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which will be adopted, supported, and affirmed by the students. The students are expected to participate during the activity. The teacher should: a) explain further the initial exposition; b) provide more and different but pertinent examples; c) make another interpretation; d) re-state the teacher's point; e) substantiate and support the ideas presented; and f) summarize the lesson as presented by him. 4. The panel discussion technique is a direct, conversational, and interactional discussion among a small group of experts or well-informed persons (Lardizabal, et al.) The members of the panel should be well-selected. Talk shows aired over television stations which employ this technique could attest that the invited panelists are all knowledgeable of the topic and most of them are authorities in their respective fields. In view of this, in the actual panel discussion conducted in the classroom, the panelists should not ordinarily be the students themselves. Instead, they can be teachers, school administrators, members of the school staff as well as outside resource persons. Even the moderator should be one who is adept in conducting a group discussion, after all the life of the discussion lies in the ability of the moderator to make follow-up questions or comments to encourage an intellectual discussion. Some bright students who are good in oral communication could be assigned as panelists but proper orientation and adequate preparation should be done. 5. The recitation technique (graded or ungraded) is highly cognitive, highly teacherdirected, highly structured, student-dominated, and aimed at developing the study habits of students. The recitation type of activity is normally planned ahead. The teacher gives a bird's-eye view of a new topic to students, presents several specific questions to be answered, and assigns them the sources from which to get the needed information. During the activity proper, the class is greatly engaged in a question-and-answer session. From the preconceived questions assigned to the class, the teacher usually makes followup questions which are all to be answered by students. This kind of technique actually makes the students study diligently every day and not only on scheduled examination days. 6. The interview technique involves inviting a resource person to the class and asking him to answer preconceived questions about a specific topic. Interview is done to serve certain ends, namely: a) to make an in-depth treatment of a subject or an issue; b) to clarify certain points; and c) to provide the listeners with first-hand information about an interesting topic. The interview technique calls for an active interaction between the interviewer and the interviewee. They both should be conversant with the topic. Only one resource speaker is invited to shed light on a given issue.

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Techniques in the Reporting Method 1. The unit or Morrisonian technique is the process of taking the contents of a particular subject as big blocks and not as isolated and fragmentary bits of information The aim is to approach topics as organized and integrated body, showing relevance, and cognitive relationship. The teacher assigns every unit or every chapter as the subject of the class activity. The activity may certainly take several days before one unit or chapter is completely taken by the class. 2. Individual or group reporting technique. Reporting could be done either by individual students or by groups of students. Each technique has its own particular use. This group reporting affords better participation. The individual is made to feel he is an important member of the group. Likewise, group reporting facilitates easy gathering of data as the members can be given specific tasks to work out. On the other hand, the individual mode of reporting could be resorted to on a selective basis - where only the capable students in class are asked to report. Furthermore, the group mode of reporting provides students with the opportunity to work together as one body. To make the reporting highly interesting and enjoyable, the students could be encouraged to go into contrived situations. The style of reporting could imitate the format of any of the popular television and radio programs. Reporting could play the role of known personalities in certain fields like government, movie, press, etc. Some students could even tape music identified with the pro-gram and others mimic the voice, facial expression, and manner of dressing of such personalities. 3. Reading or story-telling technique. Pupils could simply be allowed to read from their books or to narrate their own experiences in relation to a given topic. For instance, after a Grade IV class read and discuss a selection about the first trip of a 10-year old boy to his home province, the teacher may ask several pupils to tell their own similar experiences. Each pupil may be assigned to read some passages or line from a book and consequently to explain them .. Both the reading and the story-telling parts of a report have certain aims to achieve. Reading a passage or two allows the class to focus its attention on particular point or points. It also makes learning less cumbersome since it does take a bit of information and not a big "chunk" of knowledge. On the other hand, story-telling activity has an apperceptive basis since pupils are able to bring into the consciousness of the whole class their very own experiences. There are also psychological dimensions involved here - that is, in terms of arousing interests among themselves and of providing opportunities for self-expression. 4. The schematic technique is a type of reporting which considerably makes use of hard wares of instruction. Hence, the products of instructional technology are extensively used to aid the reporter. Although this mode of reporting is ordinarily done by an invited resource speaker and by the teacher himself; several students; could be taught to conduct reporting using modern media or communication like phonograph records, film-showing, film-strips and tapes, slides, tape-recorders, and the like. How to operate these modern equipment could be an equally significant learning experience for students. One important principle involved in this reporting technique is stated as: "These products of instructional technology should be used as means rather than the end of 95

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teaching." This simply means that they could not be asked to just view a film and when it is over, the class is automatically dismissed. The film-showing is nothing unless it is properly explained and evaluated by the reporter himself. Thus, audio-visual devices should serve several purposes during the reporting like: a) making an interesting vivid and well-done illustration of an idea; b) substantiating points shared; c) sustaining the interest of the audience in the report; and d) ensuring permanency in learning. Schematic technique of reporting could be less sophisticated and, therefore, less expensive and elaborate. Students could make use of the diagrams, tables, graphs, etc. that they personally made for the report. Experiences show that such mode is far more feasible than the reporting done using the modern means of communication. Schools by and large are not adequately equipped with them. And probably, another reason is that most teachers are not conversant in their use. But with the advent of educational technology nowadays, teachers are better prepared to manage and handle this common media. 5. The symposium technique entails a lot of preparation and involves certain complexities in the actual implementation. One symposium a semester is enough. A symposium is closely identified with school forum which is open to all faculty members and students. This is particularly true when there are school celebrations being commemorated. This kind of technique, however, affords more student participation, more so if symposium is handled efficiently and if it delves on more relevant, current issues. Symposium involves the following phases: a) Identifying the theme of the school celebration; b) Breaking down the theme into three or more specific topics; , c) Selecting the appropriate speaker for each topic; d) Allotting adequate time for each speaker; and e) Giving time for the open forum whereby the students ask questions to the designated. The symposium experience can provide students with opportunities: a) to organize, plan, and execute certain courses of action (committees); b) to internalize the concepts of good leadership and membership; c) to tap, enhance, develop their imagination, creativity, and resourcefulness; d) to work in a cooperative and collaborative manner; and e) to keep abreast of the timely and pertinent issues. Techniques in the Investigatory Method 1. Laboratory technique is a technique in which students actively manipulate and study a given situation upon which a given problem lies. The situation being manipulated is contrived and it necessarily involves the use of materials. In home economics, several groups of students make use of different ingredients to improve the preparation of a 96

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native delicacy. In psychology, an observation of human behavior under controlled or normal situations is done to confirm and/or to apply certain theories or laws. Types of Laboratory Technique a) Laboratory exercise is designed to help the students acquire fundamental knowledge and skills. The speech exercises commonly done in the speech laboratory like interpretative reading of poetry, accentuation, intonation patterns, phrasing, pausing, blending, and the use of science equipment are examples of this type. b) Laboratory investigation is a deeper and more serious undertaking that requires careful planning and doing on the part of the researcher. c) Confirmatory type of laboratory technique tends to be traditional since the teacher explains the concept or principle to students before they undertake the investigation. The investigation only concretizes the basic data expounded by the teacher. d) Exploratory type of laboratory technique approximates more closely a scientific investigation. In here, the students are not given the expected generalization, instead, they are made to feel that they are responsible in actively searching for it. It is the responsibility of the students to work on their own. Steps of Laboratory Technique Laboratory work in the elementary level presents more detailed steps while its counterpart in the high school and collegiate levels gives only three yet more inclusive steps, namely: c) pre-laboratory discussion; d) activity proper; and e) post laboratory discussion. The pre-laboratory discussion consists of the following: a) preparation which includes giving of reminders and safety procedures, familiarization of materials to be used, etc.; b) presentation of the laboratory activity which may provide students with conceptual background; c) review of hypothesis/ses to be tested and/or assumptions to be verified; and d) raising of specific questions. The activity proper is the actual laboratory work done by the students. The post laboratory discussion includes these phases, namely: a) the answering of specific questions; b) the giving of actual observations; c) analysis and comparison of experimental data; d) formulation of generalization; e) the review of principle involved; and f) the discussion of the application of the generalization formed.

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2. The Problem-solving technique requires a learner to work actively in the solution of a difficulty or an undesirable situation. Solving a problem has two forms, namely: a) rational mode; and b) empirical mode. The rational mode is solving a problem through a process of reasoning done either qualitatively or quantitatively. On the other hand, the empirical mode is solving a problem through a carefully laid down procedure. The second one may closely correspond to the so-called scientific method. Types of Classroom Problems The kind of problems that students solve depends on the subject. If it is mathematics, naturally it is quantitative; if it is logic, it is qualitative; if it is arts, it is concrete; and if it is philosophy, it is abstract. Problems could be either real (true-to-life) or imaginary (hypothetical or make-believe). In languages, problems tend to be highly symbolic. One general rule is, as the levels decrease (from college to elementary), problems tend to be more concrete and real. Conversely, as the levels increase, problems grow in abstraction and complexity. However, it does not mean that college students should not be given concrete and real problems. On the contrary, they should be trained to work out concrete and real problems to improve their critical thinking abilities. Steps in the Problem-Solving Technique a. Identifying and defining a problem. Any problem-solving undertaking should be purposeful. There must be a real problem that exists. Students find it hard to identify a particular problem to work on. Even among graduate st1;.dents, topic selection poses a difficulty to them, hence, they cannot start their thesis-writing right away. After the problem is identified, the student should be able to define it. All data relevant to the problem must be obtained. Reading more about it and interviewing people who are knowledgeable about this should be done. b. Formulating a hypothesis. After defining the problem, the student must have obtained some idea about its solution. This solution which can be expressed as a short statement or a mathematical relationship should be treated tentatively. Such statement or relationship which serves as a tentative solution to the problem is called hypothesis. With this hypothesis, the investigator can predict the result of his work and it can serve as the basis of the investigation. At the end of the study, he can either accept or reject it. c. Verification. It is here that the researcher conducts a formal study. He may experiment, he may conduct an inquiry, or he may observe people and actual setups. In this phase, he should be keen enough to be able to notice even the minute details. He should be careful and not hasty in jumping to conclusions. Every phase of the study must be carefully analyzed and studied.

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d. Collection and organization of data. The outcome of any endeavor that calls for problem solving should be in an orderly manner. Well-organized data are easily disseminated and understood. e. Generalization. The summation of all pertinent data. It could be the hypothesis that has been fully verified and, therefore, an acceptable solution to the problem previously formulated. It is a result of a careful and painstaking investigation. f. Application. Easily provides the so-called transfer of learning which is a process that makes possible the use of previously learned responses in new situations. 3.

The Research technique is the technique least used by the teachers. Except in special subjects like educational research, its potentials for instructional purposes are still untapped. The research technique is a careful and an organized study designed to serve a specific purpose. The purpose depends greatly on the specific type of research. Its end is to seek truth in any kind of study - be it determining actual conditions presently occurring, ascertaining the authencity of events that have happened, or unlocking the hidden relationships of two or more phenomena.

Types of Research Activities The teacher should simplify the process of research so students will be able to do it. Some suggested types of research activities are as follows: a) interviewing a chosen subject; b) making a simple survey; c) constructing the historical episode of an individual; a community, an institution, etc.; and d) doing a simple experiment. Steps in Doing a Research a) Preparing for the research work. This phase involves the selection of a research problem, preparing an introduction which contains the background of the problem, giving the importance of the study, statement of the problem, definition of terms, specifying the scope and delimitation of the study, forming a review of related literature, and identifying the methodology and sources of data used. b) Collecting and gathering data. For close-ended type of questions, the researcher can easily tally the answers. However, responses to open-ended type need proper categorization before they are finally tallied. c) Organizing the data obtained. The student as a researcher should be taught how to prepare a table, a graph of each kind and probably a diagram. He should be familiar with the format of each of these visual representations so he can decide for himself which of them will be best used in organizing the data he has gathered. d) Analyzing and interpreting the data organized. One common mistake among beginners in interpreting the data presented is the tendency to repeat what' is being shown by the data. Hence, it is not only making a statement like: "The data reveal that 99

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boys are more politically inclined than girls." For analysis and interpretation, one must go beyond this level of presentation. They are necessarily done to explain, to give implications, to confirm or• reject previous findings, to identify either the probable causes or effects, to relate certain variables or phenomena, and to make an in-depth interpretation. It is also important to remember that any analysis and interpretation done should not sound conclusive. In the first place, it is impossible to formulate any given generalization on the basis of the findings of one or two studies made. Phrases like "The data seem to show ... , ""They tend to indicate ... ," and the like could be used to begin a statement of an interpretation. e) Making a formal report of the research done. How this is done should be formally discussed in class. The teacher should see to it that the significant points stressed during the discussion are correctly followed. 4. Field study technique is a technique in which the student investigates a given situation by being a part or an integral component of it. The ultimate purpose is to get a first-hand information to clear up some uncertainties and doubts. The more integral he becomes in the situation, the more truthful the data he can obtain. It is because, the respondents or subjects do not give the accurate and complete information to an outsider of the locality. Usually, the residents put up a "front," withholding the more vital facts. Steps in the Field Study Technique a) Preparation; b) Actual investigation; c) Making a formal report; and d) Class reporting. 5. Experimenting technique is an operation carried out under controlled conditions to discover an unknown effect or law, to test or establish a hypothesis, or illustrate a known law. The definition stresses two points: a) experimenting is an active process since it is an operation; and b) it is highly purposeful. Another definition of the experimenting technique is that it is not merely a manipulation of scientific apparatus. In experimentation, a genuine problem or question exists and it is an attempt to discover or test possible relationships, causes, and effects. This definition gives importance to the existence of a real problem before any experimental undertaking is done by the students. It follows, then, that experimenting is not pursued for the sake of doing it. Students experiment because they must and have to. Types of Experiments Experiments can be any of the following: a) structured; b) unstructured; and c) semistructured. a) Structured experimentation requires students to strictly answer a set of predetermined questions. b) Unstructured experimentation represents an "emerging" type of conducting this activity. This involves giving greater freedom for students as they raise the problem, 100

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plan out the experimental project which includes the determination of both experimental and control variables, the formulation of hypotheses, and the choice of materials and procedures. c) The semi-structured type of experimentation shows the joint teacher-student involvement in the planning of an experiment. This type is more commonly done in the classroom. Experiments can also be classified based on their specified purposes. Such types are: a) methodological; b) explanatory or heuristic; c) fact-finding; and d) boundary setting. a) Methodological experiments serve the purpose of improving some techniques or procedures. Often, they are experiments done in order to allow the experiments to progress toward some chosen goal. b) Explanatory or heuristic experiments are designed to expose relationships among variables. They provide the data on which to base explanation of phenomena and to generate laws. c) Fact-finding experiments are designed to transform the data that are relevant to specific hypotheses or questions. They are also intended to collect data on the performance of systems under a greater variety of operating conditions than those obtained during the explanatory or exploratory phase. Simple problems for such experiments are: a) Will eggs hatch faster in darkness or light at low temperature?; b) Could hatching be facilitated by splitting the egg case with a razor?; and c) Is turncoatism prejudicial to the realization of the party objectives? d) Boundary setting experiments are a special version of fact-gathering experiments. They seek to uncover the range of application of some idea or theory or the range of conditions under which a hypothesized relationship continues to be detectable or the limitations of the conditions under which the relationships are expected by boundary studies. Hence, they try to expose parameter values. Some sample problems involving this experimental type are: a) What is the normal rate of growth?; b) What proportion of embryos do not hatch?; c) What is the effect of secondary smoke?; and d) What is the maturity level of an elementary pupil? Steps in the Experimenting Technique a) Designing an experiment; b) Preparing for the experiment; c) Conducting the experiment; and d) Obtaining results of the experiment. Activity Method The activity method refers to a classroom encounter whereby students are actively engaged in a first-hand, direct experience. This is a teaching method in which students' participation is fully maximized. In the traditional method, it is the teacher who is the main actor but in the activity method, it is the student who performs the act. The teacher is more of a consultant or an adviser and no longer the sole disseminator of knowledge.

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The following are the techniques of the activity method: 1. Project technique. It calls for an activity that is directly planned, controlled, executed, and evaluated by students in order to accomplish a specific goal. The teacher energizes his students to action to accomplish something. 2. Field trip technique. It is a well-planned excursion, a trip to a special location which provides students an opportunity to manipulate knowledge they possess (Renner, Stafford, and Ragan). It is also defined as an out-of-the classroom experience, primarily for the purpose of observing natural phenomena which cannot be brought into the classroom or which, because of their immediacy, are best studied in their natural setting. (Kuslan and Stone). 3. Dramatization technique. Alcantara (1981) defined the dramatization technique as one that involves telling a story in one's own distinctive way. The story is told through acting on a stage by actors before an audience. Teachers can initiate classroom activities which can tap the dramatic prowess of the students and at the same time make use of these as meaningful learning experiences. There are three relevant teaching techniques, such as dramatization, role playing, and simulation. 4. Role-playing technique. It involves an activity which a student or a group of students dramatizes his or their real reactions to certain problematic situations. The purpose is to find out how students will normally conduct themselves once they are confronted with a particular kind of conflict or difficulty. The main characteristic of student participants in this activity is spontaneity. It is an on-the-spot performance which requires participants to rely primarily on their own personal judgment and on their ability to make their own decisions. 5. Simulation game technique. Akin to role-playing technique is the simulation game technique. The term simulation comes from its verb form simulate which means to' imitate, to pretend, to counterfeit, or to feign. As it is, it may mean an operating imitation of a real process like the one being done by law students who conduct moot court proceedings and the students' body organization which conducts a mock political convention. The simulation game technique involves a contrived experience previously prepared and aimed at providing students with an illusion of real experience. It is characterized as follows: a) The learning environment approximates the real situation; b) The students' performance is directly geared to the acquisition of the desirable and acceptable behavioral patterns; c) It is a highly student-directed activity; and d) It expects student-participants to make a total adjustment to a given situation. 6. Brainstorming technique. It calls for an activity in which a deliberate attempt is made to think and speak out freely and creatively about all possible approaches and solutions to a given problem, the group participating in spontaneous and unrestrained discussion which usually involves evaluative feedback. (Good, 1973). The following are the characteristics of the brainstorming technique: a) The technique is problem-centered. The participants are involved in a conscious effort to solve a perplexing problem. 102

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b) All possible solutions are exhausted. The giving out of solutions goes on a rotation, each participant giving one idea per turn. As soon as the last participant shares his own suggestion, the chance is given back to the first one. All ideas no matter how weird or impractical are accepted and listed down. c) It is a highly creative undertaking. Solutions are necessarily the result of originality, imagination, and resourcefulness of the participants. d) It recognizes the importance of each participant. Participants are supposed to be on equal footing. Each one is neither superior nor inferior to others. Every one is perceived to have is own talents and potentials to share during the group session. 7. Debate technique. According to Good (1973), a debate is a formal presentation of arguments on both sides of a question before an audience in accordance with standardized procedure. The purpose of this activity is to present the two sides of an issue - its merits and demerits, its advantages and disadvantages, its strengths and weaknesses, or its good and bad points. Two groups are assigned, each one taking one of the two sides, either affirmative or negative. The member of each side should have the ability to convince the audience based on the soundness, logic, and desirability of his reasoning. He should be able to spot a weak point in the argument of the other side and should capitalize on this to win over the opponents. Demonstration Method Teaching by demonstration comes in different forms, namely: 1) teacher-directed technique; 2) student-directed technique; 3) teacher-student directed technique; and 4) resource speaker-directed technique. 1. Teacher-directed technique. The teacher performs the, demonstration, especially when there is only one set of materials available for instructional purposes, making it impossible for the students to work in groups. The teacher also does the demonstration when the activity requires the handling of harmful materials and delicate, fragile equipment. 2. Student-directed technique. Students, especially the most capable ones could be taught how to show a demonstration although it could be done with joint teacherstudent participation. The teacher can give the instruction while the selected students follow them. 3. Teacher-student directed technique. The teacher performs the demonstration with the students helping in handing the materials over to the teacher as he needs them during the demonstration. 4. Resource speaker-directed technique. An invited resource speaker could be the demonstrating teacher himself. The class may likely welcome this change and besides their teacher may not be in a position to demonstrate such particular lesson or procedure. The resource speaker may be found more effective as he can provide the class with the necessary know-what and know-how in line with his own expertise and special training. Self-pacing Method 103

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According to Good (1973), the self-pacing method calls for an activity whereby provision is made for the individual student to set his own schedule for learning or rate of achievement, and to monitor his own progress. 1. Programmed instruction is an instruction in which the self-pacing method has a rightful place. Morris Bigge (1982) defined it as a system of teaching and learning within which pre-established subject matter is broken down into small, discrete steps and carefully organized into a logical sequence in which it can be learned readily by the students. Barry Harley (1973) pointed out that it is an auto-instructional approach to teaching which is changing the role of the classroom teacher. 2. Mastery learning is a technique which allows the class to be divided into groups, each group is composed of students who have reached almost the same learning level. This technique is not new for it has been patterned after Morrison's mastery formula which is an instructional procedure recommended for securing mastery of subject matter and defined as "pre-test, teach, test the result, adapt procedure, teach and test again to the point of actual learning." 3. Modular learning technique is a technique which allows each student to proceed at his own rate. Darrel Murray defines module as a "self-contained and independent unit of instruction with a primary focus on a few well-defined objectives. The substance of a module consists of materials and instructions needed to accomplish the objectives." Another definition by the Workshop in the Application of Educational Technology sponsored by the DECS-UNESCO held in Tagaytay, "A module is a set of learning opportunities systematically organized around a well-defined topic which contains the elements of instruction - specific objectives, teaching-learning activities, and evaluation using criterion-referenced measures." Characteristics of a Good Module Dr. Constantino M. Torralba listed the following characteristics: a) It should be self-contained. The content of a module is so prepared that it allows students to work independently by themselves and if there is a need for some teacher's assistance, such help will be at its minimum. b) It should be self-pacing. Within the time frame provided, the forty students in the class achieve different levels. Some can finish ahead of the others, others are fairly catching up, and still others are trailing behind. c) Its topic or subject matter should be short enough and well-defined. Every module takes up only one particular concept or topic at a time. This allows a more indepth study of it· and students could concentrate on one given subject matter.

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d) It should be adequately motivating. If a student is able to achieve successfully the objectives explicitly stated in a module, certain encouraging statements appear in it and at the same time they direct him to proceed to the next module. If he is unable to do so, he comes across certain encouraging remarks that will advise him to do some remedial works all by himself. e) It should provide opportunities for interaction with the learner. When a student reads a module, it seems it were talking to him in a conversational, friendly manner. Such informal approach encourages him to proceed through the different parts of the module. f) Its objectives and activities should be properly sequenced. Logical arrangement of objectives as well as activities is observed in the preparation of modules. This arrangement usually follows the inductive pattern from known to unknown, from concrete to abstract, or from simple to complex. g) It should be written in clear, correct language suitable to the level of the target learner. Any module becomes useless if its target learner cannot grasp it in terms of its incomprehensible and complicated language, unrealistic situations, and irrelevantly obscure examples. h) It should be accurate. The knowledge presented in a module should be truthful and up-to-date. There should not be any room for misleading and obsolete information. Facts and figures should be checked for accuracy in this regard. i) It should bear no wrong implications to or conflict with other subject matters or values. The knowledge contained in a module should, as much as possible, have universal meaning that it becomes not only acceptable to one field but also to other academic areas. j) It should utilize every opportunity to achieve affective outcomes of learning. The ultimate objectives of learning are concerned with the development of the proper attitudes, appreciations, and values in individual students. Knowledge and skills are nothing if they are only self-serving and egoistic. Students should not only be taught how to exist and survive in this highly competitive world but more importantly how to live well in close harmony with their fellowmen. k) It should contain all the necessary components of a module. An effectively prepared module should contain all its expected parts. l) Components of the module should be highly supportive of each other. For instance, parts like objectives, learner's activities and evaluation should be interrelated with one another, the suggested activities are means used to achieve the predetermined objectives and likewise evaluation is used to find out the extent of how much the objectives are realized.

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Integrated Method 3. Lecture-discussion is a technique that uses the "threepronged strategy" which includes careful organization of the course material, student interaction in lecture, and discussion activities. To illustrate the combination of these two methods, the following steps are presented: a) Divide the class into small groups of about 4-6 members. Such number becomes desirable in order to maximize students' interaction and participation. Each group shall elect its leader and rapporteur. b) Provide for a try-out to check whether the students can apply group dynamics. Present a very familiar problem to them to find out whether the whole group can practice: 1) the exchange of ideas, with every member in the group sharing in the discussion without anyone monopolizing nor showing his lack of interest to participate; 2) tolerance and respect for the opinions of others; and 3) democratic procedure in settling disputes and in arriving at a group consensus. c) Give pointers on how to conduct group discussion properly. It is proper to give lectures on this topic. However, it would be better if the lectures were accompanied by a socialized class discussion during which answers could also be drawn from the students. d) Present a problem that will really be good material for active group discussion. Select a problem that is part of the present lesson of the class that will make the students think critically so they can start and sustain interesting group discussions. e) Have a sharing period when the different groups give their own answer to the question. It is important that the teacher does not take side with any group so as to maintain the enthusiasm of the students, the teacher can ask each group to clarify some points, and to encourage the students to do better for the next round of group discussion, the teacher can grade each group based on the answers given. f) Conduct a lecture session to make the answers to the question clear to the students. This time lecture becomes very necessary to give further clarification, to add salient points not given by the students, to correct certain misinterpretations, and to tighten some loose ends. When the lecture is given at the last part of the lesson, the activity becomes more meaningful to the students since the points presented are familiar to them since they have undergone the searching process themselves.

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2. Lecture-demonstration is a technique wherein the lecture part precedes the demonstration. The combination aims at concretizing the teacher's lecture with an actual demonstration. 3. Film-showing-discussion. The use of films, slides, tapes, and even television is still not widely practiced in our schools in spite of the fact that these forms of media have been with us for at least six decades now. The common reason given for the inability to use these technological devices is they are unaffordable to most of our schools. The technique involves three phases: a) introduction and raising questions about the film; b) film-reviewing; and c) answering the questions formed and discussing some other salient points seen in the film. 4. Reporting-discussion is a technique wherein after a student makes a report, the class can actively engage in an interesting discussion of the various ideas and concepts he has shared with the classmates. The teacher can enliven the session by asking some questions and by adding relevant and clarifying ideas. The discussion done after a report can also tighten up some loose points. 5. Inductive-deductive technique. To strengthen new learning, the lesson should be initially presented inductively and later deductively. At first, the students are guided to proceed from the simple to the complex ideas, from particular to general or from known to the unknown. Later, they use these complex or general ideas to draw out new simple or particular cases. During the process, whatever generalization they are able to formulate from the data they have collected, the same generalization is further reinforced by citing a new set of data to support it. Traditional Method 1. Textbook learning is the most common instructional material used by both the teacher and his students. On the part of the teacher, he usually refers to the subject's textbook in making his daily lesson plan. The students, on the other hand, commonly rely on the textbook in preparing themselves for the class recitation, doing their daily assignments, and reviewing for an examination. The textbook is usually associated with the teaching learning process. Elwood Cubberley justified the use of textbook for instructional purposes. He wrote: Textbooks are often very good books and very useful to the pupils. They are usually wellorganized sources of information and valuable aids in instruction for the pupil and for the beginning teacher. They offer condensed and illustrated outlines of the different subjects ()f the course of study. . 2. Rote learning is a technique that requires students to repeat what the teacher tells them without understanding. This eventually results in the learners being able to mouth the words of the teacher, devoid of any understanding. It may also involve 107

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reciting a piece without necessarily knowing it like being able to deliver a long poem written in Spanish. The student who does it cannot give justice to it since it means nothing to him. 3. Directed technique is associated with the well-·known practice of spoon-feeding. In here, the teacher either dictates or let the students copy word for word the lesson. Since the student's mind is compared to an empty container, the role of the teacher is to fill it up. 4. Memorization is still acceptable in today's school provided it serves certain learning purposes and more importantly, if it is done with understanding. Students memorize because teachers tend to emphasize more on facts rather than on the insights that could be drawn out from these facts. Memorization without insights makes learning a meaningless routine, a useless understanding, and therefore, a big waste on student's time and efforts. Teachers who indulge in this undesirable practice are doing their students a big disservice since it fails to achieve more legitimate outcomes of learning like the development of the higher mental processes such ai, analysis, synthesis, and judgment. 5. The 2 x 4 x 8 concept of teaching. Learning is confined within the three given dimensions: 2 x 4 x 8 - 2 stands for the two covers of the book; 4 for the four walls of the classroom; and 8 for the eight hours of student's stay in school. The traditional teacher then views learning that goes beyond the book, the classroom, and the school time as something impossible and something that will never be achievable.

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Chapter VIII PLANNING FOR EFFECTIVE TEACHING Introduction Planning for effective learning experiences is one of the skills the teacher has to develop. Planning insures more or less the direction that his efforts will take. It helps create wholesome discipline, a pleasant classroom atmosphere, and purposeful teaching-learning activities that are free from waste in terms of time and effort. Careful planning can give the teacher a sense of confidence in overcoming nervousness and preventing wastage and confusion especially during the first days of teaching. Planning for Purposeful Instruction Planning for teaching involves a sequence of steps. It calls for decisions with respect to each of the tasks involved. If all these tasks are accomplished successfully, the prospects that students will master what has been taught are excellent. The interrelationships among these tasks are presented as a cycle in Figure 8 on the next page. The first task, diagnosing student's needs and abilities, imparts to the teacher the necessity of discovering the needs, interests, and capabilities of his students.

Systematic techniques are available to the teacher which ~le can use in gathering information about the student's needs and abilities (Armstrong & Savage, 1983: 114-24): work samples; conference; anecdotal records; checklist; interest inventory; teacher tests; and cloze test. The second task, setting up of objectives and selecting content, involves selecting appropriate learning materials suited to the needs and interests of the students. The instructional objectives describe what the students are expected to do at the completion of the instructional sequence to show they have learned. The third task is preparing the setting for learning and selecting instructional strategies. Once the objectives have been established, the teacher has to decide on the technique that will help the students achieve the goals. To provide for an intellectual setting and an emotional atmosphere conducive to learning, it will help the teacher to keep in mind that an orderly, well-disciplined class is essential for successful teaching and learning. Good classroom management is a prerequisite to the maintenance of discipline and control in a class. Many teachers usually find discipline and control of classes very difficult.

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Figure 8: The Teaching Cycle Source: Navarro, et aI's Principle of Teaching and Instructional Technology.

The fourth task is formalizing units and making lesson plans. This involves organizing information about individual students, objectives, materials, and techniques into a resource unit that can serve as reference to the teacher as he does his work from day to day. An instructional unit is a planned sequence of learning activities or lessons covering a period of several weeks and centered around some major concepts, mainly content-oriented lessons or semi-individualized, laboratory-oriented, experience oriented unit assignments, or any of a variety of combinations. Some units may be shorter than two weeks but others may be longer than six weeks in length (Clark and Starr, 1981:144). Instructional units provide the teacher with opportunities to use his creativity as he plans instructional sequences systematically for students. In planning the units, the teacher has to take 110

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into account the needs and the varying, levels of the students. He has to consider individual differences among students and has to be selective, taking care that relevant topics are not omitted. Units are generally designed to be taught over a number of days. After they have been developed, the teacher has to prepare more specific plans for a given period. These are called lesson plans, consisting of very specific outline describing in detail what the teacher and the students will do on a day to implement the unit's objectives. Lesson plans give a sense of direction and organization to both teacher and students. The Lesson Plan In planning the daily lessons, it would be well for the teacher to keep the following principles in mind (Clark and Starr, 1981:154): 1. The objectives should contribute directly to the unit and course objectives. 2. The objectives are clear in the teacher's own mind. 3. Each objective is a learning product or a terminal behavior that is definite and specific so that the teacher can aim at it directly. 4. The lesson is feasible. It is neither too difficult nor too long. It is better to do a little well than a lot badly. 5. The teaching-learning activities will bring about the accomplishment of the objectives. 6. The teacher should be prepared to carry out the selected activities. He should know what to do and how to do it with all the materials ready on hand. 7. The teacher has to provide for a suitable introduction an~ a culminating clinching activity. The Lesson Plan Format The format of the lesson plan is not of particular importance. The teacher can use any that seems easiest for her. Components of the Lesson Plan 1. Objectives or Targets. They are definite statements of what are to be learned in the lesson. They may be expressed either from the point of view of the teacher or the students. To facilitate evaluation of results, formulating objectives from the point of view of students expressed as learning outcomes or in behavioral terms is generally 111

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recommended. To formulate instructional objectives in behavioral terms, the teacher has to use action words indicating observable behavior. 2. Content or Subject Matter and Materials. The teacher indicates the subject matter that he believes will help attain his objectives. This may be indicated as generalizations in outline form. Sometimes, it can be a part of the procedure or it can be written on a separate sheet of paper if the teacher wants more details in the outline. The teacher should also consider the materials and equipment that he may need. Illustrations and posters may be prepared to help students concretize what are to be emphasized. 3. Procedure or Strategy a) The teacher should write down in the order of occurrence the activities that he and his students are going to do during the period. b) He should avoid skimping the planning of the teaching procedure. He should not just indicate "lecture on the principle of capillary for 15 minutes." 1) what he will say and the questions he will ask; 2) the main points he will bring out; and 3) the experiments he may ask students to undertake. It is not enough that he indicates some problems that will be done on the board. The teacher should plan which problems he should work out the answer to beforehand. If he plans to ask questions, he should decide what questions to ask and the answers to the most important ones. Student teachers and new teachers are usually required to indicate "Teacher Activity" and "Student Activity." The elements under the procedure may vary according to the subject matter and grade level of students. 4. Evaluation or Application. Evaluation should be continuous from the beginning of the unit to the end. In planning evaluation activities, the teacher should include those that can be implemented throughout the unit so that evaluation becomes an "on-going" activity, not just "an end of the unit" activity. Checklists, rating scales, role-playing situations, and group-discussions can serve as evaluation exercises. 5. Assignment/Agreement and Special Reminders. The effectiveness of the giving of the assignment will determine the success of the new lesson the next day. This part is now called "agreement" - implying that the students agree to undertake further studies after realizing a need for them. The last part may be devoted to the giving of reminders. It includes things that are not ordinary. Some announcements may also be made.

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The fifth task is motivating students and guiding learning activities. This involves looking into ways by which students may develop interest and desire to learn and planning interesting activities to achieve the objectives using the appropriate techniques. In order to learn, the students must do the work and undertake the learning activities themselves. But, they can only do these if there is discipline, order, and courtesy. Unless students are properly motivated, these conditions may not be possible in the classroom. How to motivate students effectively must have top priority with the teacher as he plans his work. Importance of Motivation An individual learns only through his own self-activity. His mind cannot simply absorb knowledge like a sponge. His learning can result only from his interactions with the environment - what he does to his environment and his reactions to what his environment does to him. In short, he can only learn from experience. He may read or he may listen to the teacher but unless he does something to what he read and what he heard, learning may not take place at all. The task of the teacher is to make students undertake activities that will result in the desired learning. This is essential both for instruction and discipline purposes. The hierarchy of needs by Abraham Maslow is a presentation of human needs in a graded order from the lowest or the most basic to the highest. According to Maslow, the basic needs for survival and safety are the most important and they control the behavior of people when they are not being met. But, once people become physically comfortable and safe, they begin to pay attention to slightly higher needs, namely: the social needs of belonging and self-esteem within the social group. Mter these needs have more or less been satisfied, people turn to the higher level needs of intellectual achievement, aesthetic appreciation, and, ultimately, self-actualization Highest Level Self-actualization - the need for self-fulfillment and the realization of one's potential

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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Middle Level Self-esteem - the desire for approval and recognition. Belonging - the need to be accepted and loved. Security - the need to be physically and psychologically free from any danger. Lowest Level Survival - the basic physiological needs for food, water, air and shelter. The four lower needs of survival, safety, belonging, and self-esteem are deficiency needs; some call these maintenance needs or motives. As long as they are not satisfied, the person's motivation to find ways of satisfying them increases. Hence, the hungrier the person becomes, the harder he looks for food. Once these deficiency needs are satisfied, the person's motivation to satisfy them decreases. The three higher level needs of knowledge, understanding, and aesthetic appreciation are called being needs or growth motives. Unlike the deficiency needs, even when these needs are satisfied, the individual craves for more or seek for further fulfillment of the same needs. For example, the more successful a person is in acquiring knowledge and power, the more does he strive to increase them. Thus, the needs can never be completely satisfied, unlike the deficiency needs. The tendency to pursue the being needs or growth motives is renewed continuously. The sixth task relates to plans centering on measuring, evaluating, grading the student performance and reporting on the progress of students. This involves the development of plans for testing and for making judgments about the performance of the individual students. Actually, evaluation should be part of each of the tasks as a built-in mechanism to help in the modification of plans as previously prepared. The seventh and final task is following through which means putting up plans for follow-up lessons on materials that :';'"1e students have learned well as shown by the results of the ~valuation (Navarro, et aI., 1988). SAMPLE LESSON PLANS Lesson Plan in Elementary Mathematics Grade V 1. Objective

: Solve word problems involving percentage of a number.

II. Subject Matter: Finding the percentage of a number Reference: Playing and Working with Numbers 114

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Materials: Fraction circles Illustrations of sets Flip chart with problems Mathematical Idea: 1. Finding percentage of a number has an important function in everyday living: a) b) c) d)

determining savings, interest, or capital loss and profit sharing of income between partners in business preparing of income tax

2. Percentage is a certain number of hundreds of the base or the whose base. 3. Formula: P = b x r where b = base - the number by which the percent is to be found r = rate - the number of hundredths taken III. Strategies 1. Preparatory Activities (3 minutes) a) Drill 1) Express the shaded parts of the circle in percent.

2) Give the equivalent fraction of numbers expressed in percent: 25% 60% 50% 331/3 % 12 ½ % 8

¼ 3 /5 ½ 1 1

/3

/8

b) Review On the chart, read a problem situation involving finding the part of a number and ask the class to analyze and solve. Problem

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Mrs. Cruz hired Jose and his brother to clean her garden. Mrs. Cruz gave them "45.00. Jose gave 1/3 of their earnings to his brother. How much did his brother receive? What is asked in the problem? How much did Jose's brother receive? What are given in the problem? P 45 - amount Jose and his brother earned. 1 /3 - fractional part of the earning which Jose gave to his brother How will you know the brother's share in the earnings? What process will you use? Multiplication Who can make the arithmetic sentence? Let us use!l to represent the share of Jose's brother. n = 1/3 x P45.00 3 Correct. Now, who will solve the arithmetic sentence? n = 1/3 x P45.00 3 = 1 x 45/ 3 = P15.00 - share of Jose's brother 2. Lesson Proper 00 to 15 minutes) (Present a problem situation on finding percentage) Problem Edward gathered 20 eggs from their poultry house. He sold 25% of the eggs he gathered. How many eggs did he sell? Read the problem. (A pupil reads the problem) What are the 5 steps that we should follow in problem-solving? a) Understand the question asked in the problem. b) Find the needed data. c) Plan what to do. d) Find the answer. e) Check the answer.

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What is asked in the problem? How many eggs did Edward sell? What are given in the problem? 20 - number of eggs Edward gathered from their poultry house 25% - the percentage expression for the number of eggs Edward sold. What process do you think is involved in solving the problem? Multiplication Who could illustrate the idea of the problem? I will help you do it. Answer the questions by drawing. a) How many eggs did Edward gather? 00000

00000

00000

00000

b) What is the equivalent fraction of 25%? ¼ c) Based on the equivalent fraction of 25%, into how many small groups will you divide the eggs Edward gathered? Draw it 00000 ¼ 00000 ¼

00000 ¼ 00000 ¼

d) How many eggs are in each small group? 5 eggs e) What is the problem again? e) What is 25% of 20 eggs? f) Write the arithmetic sentence using percent. n = .25 x 20 g) Use n as the unknown. Use the equivalent function of 25%. n = ¼ of 20

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h) Solve the problem using both sentences. 1) n = .25 x 20 = 5 eggs 2) n = ¼ of 20 = 5 eggs 3. Generalization In the problem that we just solved, 25% = percentage expression rate '@ 20 = is the base '(b) So, who can make a number sentence to find the percentage using the letter symbols? Repeat. What do the symbols P, r, and b represent? P = r x b or P=bxr 4. Fixing Skills - (10 minutes) (application) (The teacher provides two problem situations where the concepts and principles of problem-solving may be applied.) \ a) Maria bought 60 chicos. She sold 45% of the chicos. How many chicos did Maria sell? Question asked: How many chicos did Maria sell? Given: 60 chicos 45% = percentage of the chicos sold. Solution:

P = .45 x 60 = 27 chicos sold

b) In a school of 400 pupils, 62 ~ % are boys. How many boys are there in the school? Solution: P = .625 x 400 = 250 boys in the school 5. Evaluation (5 minutes) Solve the following problems: a) If a man's salary is P1, 800 a month and his expense is 87 ½ of the amount, how much is the expense? 118

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b) A man bought 350 chickens and sold 65% of them,. how many chickens did the man sell? IV. Agreement (5 minutes) Solve the problem: Mrs. Castro receives P2, 400.00 a month. She pays 15% of it for board, 8 ½ % for clothing, and 16% for other expenses. List her monthly expenses? Lesson Plan in Science Grade V 1.

Objective

:

II.

Subject Matter:

Body Systems

Reference

:

To describe what a system is.

Health and Science for Better Life V, page 7.

Materials : Pictures of different body systems such as digestive, respiratory, circulatory, reproductive, muscular, etc. Science Idea : Body system is an organized set of organs in the body working together. Science Processes: Observing, describing Vocabulary Words Phrases: Organized set KBI - awareness, open-mindedness III.

Developmental Activities

A. Opener: Look at the pictures displayed on the bulletin board. B. Lesson Proper 1. Motivation Can you identify the different pictures on the bulletin board? What systems are they? What organs are found in the system? 2. Initiation of the Problem What is a system? 3. Activity Proper (Use Activity Card I-A) Activity Card I-A Materials: Pictures of different systems on the bulletin board. 119

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Do these: 1) Look at the pictures on the bulletin board. 2) Name the pictures you identified and list them on a separate sheet. 3) Prepare the table like this.

As a single organ

With a set of organs

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

4) Answer the following questions: a) Which body parts did you classify as a single organ by itself? b) Which of the pictures did you classify as a set of organized organs? Name them. c) What do you call the pictures with an organized set of organs? d) What is the common characteristic of all systems of our body? e) What is a body system? 4. Analysis/Understanding (Activity Card I-A) 5. Generalization - What is a body system? 6. Application Why can you say that the sun and the planet work as a system? IV.

Evaluation

A. Give three examples of an organ. B. Select the letter of the best answer. 1. Which of these is a set of organs?

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a) intestine b) stomach c) liver

d) brain e) spinal cord f) nerves

2. Which of the following statements describes a body system? a) composed of an organized set of organs working together b) composed of an individual organ c) composed of an organized set of organs doing different works V.

Assignment 1. Differentiate an organ from a system. 2. Bring to class food like biscuits, chocolates, calamansi, sugar, etc. Lesson Plan in Communication Arts (English), Grade I

I.

Objectives GLR

II.

:

Shows enjoyment in listening to a rhyme

CT : MSEL : TS :

Answer specific questions about the story Good morning/Good afternoon with correct intonation Note similarities in shape

GLR MSEL

: :

Good Morning Sky: Big Book Good Morning/Good Afternoon, Textbook, pp. 1-2.

TS: Reading Readiness: Visual Discrimination, Shape, Skill book Reading Readiness III.

GLR: 1. Vocabulary development through the use of visuals sky

sun

ee

2. Motivation - Identifying things they see outside the room Flowers

trees

birds

3. Motive question: What does the girl say to the sun, sky, tree, when she gets up in the morning? 4. Turning into the story 121

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5. Story telling 6. Comprehension check-up a) What does the girl say to the birds and bees? b) What will she do outdoors? c) What do you do when the sun is up? d) What games do you play on sunny days? 7. Appreciation/Creativity: Drawing of the sun MSEL: 1. Motivation: Good morning song 2. Presentation: Greeting the children and let them say: Good morning teacher. 3. Development: Greeting the teacher by group. Greeting one another. 4. Evaluation: Dialogue: Good morning, Jose. Good morning, Rita. TS:

1. Identifying different shapes 2. Comparing different objects according to shapes 3. Drawing the shapes 4. Evaluation: Color the shapes that are alike.

a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

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Masusing Banghay Aralin sa pagtuturo ng Kasanayan sa Pakikinig ng Tula Ikalimang Baitang 1. Mga Layunin: 1. Matalinong naipaliliwanag ang nilalaman ng tula 2. Nailalarawan ang isinasaad ng tula 3. N agagamit ang batayang kaalaman sa wastong pakikinig 4. Naiguguhit ang mga bagay na inilalarawan sa tula II. Paksa: Tula: Ang Aking Pagkain Sining ng Kumunikasyon II, pp. 76-79

Ang Aking Pagkain Ako'y isang batang anak-maralita. Sumilang sa isang giri-giring dampa, Ang aking daigdig ay munting tumana Sa gilid ng isang liku-likong sapa. Sa aming tumana'y maraming gulay, Katulad ng talong, labanos at petsay; Ang mais at gabi, ampalaya't sitaw, Upo't kalabasa ay naglalakihan. Sa likod ng aming maralitang dampa, May baboy at manok na laging alaga; Ang kinakain ko'y manok na nilaga Na maraming sahog na gulay na sariwa. lsang basong gatas ng aming kalabaw Ang iniinom ko halos araw-araw, Itlog na sariwang kaiitlog lainang, lniinom ko rin nang may kasiyahan. Kung ako'y sawa na sa kame ng hayop At nananaba na rin sa itlog ng manok, Ako'y nangangapa ng isda sa ilog Ng hipon at ulang, luwalo't lukaok. Ang aking minindal ginataang pinipig, Kung minsa'y inihaw o nilagang mais; Kaya't sasarili'y aking nasambit Mapalad din ako sa silong ng langit. IV Pamamaraan: 123

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III. Kagamitan: Larawan, tsart, plaskard, krayola, papel

Gawaing Guro A. Panimulang Pagganyak

Gawaing Bata Pag-awit ng "Wastong Pagkain."

Mga bata, ating awitin ang awit na Magtipid po tayo sa pagkain. Kumain po "Wastong Pagkain." Ano ang masasabi tayo ng wasto. ninyo sa ating awit? Anong mensahe ang ibig ipahiwatig sa atin?

B. Paghahawan ng Balakid Heto ang ilang salita na maririnig ninyo sa tulang , ating bibigkasin. Basahin natin ang mga salita upang higit ninyong maunawaan ang kahulugan ng tulang inyong maririnig mamaya. (Ipabasa ang mga salita sa mga bata) 1. Anak-maralita (ipaliwanag ang kahulugan ng salita) 2. Giri-giring dampa (pagpapakita ng larawan) 3. Tumana (pagpapakita ng larawan) 4. Sapa (pagpapakita ng larawan) 5. Liku-liko (pagsasagawa ng kilos na ibinabadya) 6. Kasiyahan (ipahiwatig ang kaugnay na kahulugan) 7. Sawa (ipahiwatig ang kahulugan) 8. N angapa (pagsasagawa ng kilos na ibinabadya ng salita) 9. Luwalo, ulang, lukad (magpakita ng mga larawan nito) 10. Masambit (ipaliwanag ang kahulugan) Ngayon, tingnan natin kung sino sa inyo ang makakahula kung anong salita ang tinutukoy ng ipakikitang larawan 0 ng aking isasagawa. Piliin ninyo ang salitang ito na nakasulat sa plaskard at ilagay sa ating paskilan. Gawin ito sa pangungusap. K. Unang Pagbigkas ng Guro Makinig kayo at ating bibigkasin ang tula. Kailangan pa ba nating sariwain ang ating pamantayan sa was tong pakikinig. Anu-ano ang dapat gawin ng isang nakikinig? 1. Makinig nang mabuti. 2. Unawain ang sinasabi ng nagsasalita. 124

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3. Maupo nang wasto. 4. Iwasan ang paglikha ng anumang ingay na makagagambala sa nagsasalita at nakikinig. (Bibigkasin ng guro ang tula habang ipinakikita ang larawan) D. Pagtalakay Pangkagandahan Sa inyong palagay, saan nangyari ang tulang Sa bukid po. ito? Labanos, ampalaya, petsay, sitaw at talong. Anu-ano ang bungangkahoy at gulay ang bin abanggit sa tula? Mahirap po. Ano sa palagay ninyo ang batang nagsasalita sa tula, siya kaya ay mayaman 0 mahirap? E. Pagtalakay na Pangkaisipan Sa bukid po. Ano ang ibig sabihin ng salitang tumana? Sira-sira pong kubo. Giri-giring dampa? Ang batang nagsasalita po ay mahirap. Siya po ay nakatira sa bukid na nasa tabi ng sapa.

Ano ang ibig sabihin ng unang saknong?

Mahirap po subalit malusog. Ano ang uri ng batang nagsasalita? Kasi po ay kumakain ng gulay. Bakit mo nasabing malusog? Upo, kalabasa, sitaw, ampalaya, labanos, talong, petsay.

Anu-anong gulay ang nakikita sa tumana?

Nasa bukid po. Sa inyong palagay, saan naroroon ang kubo ng batang nagsasalita, sa lungsod 0 sa bukid? Itlog, gulay, gatas, mais, isda at iba pa. ,. Anu-anong pagkain ang dapat ninyong kainin upang kayo'y maging malusog? Maging masipag po. Anong kaugalian ang dapat nating ugaliin? Anong kabutihan ang naidudulot pagtatanim ng gulay? Ano pa?

Kung tayo'y maraming tanim na gulay, ng sasagana po ang ating pagkain. Makakatipid po tayo sa pagkain pagka't di na po natin bibilhin ang mga ito Opo. 125

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Sa palagay mo, angkop ba ang pamagat ng ating tula? F. Muling iparirinig ng guro ang tula. Opo. G. Naibigan mo ba ang narinig mong tula? (lpaliliwanag ng bata.) Ipaliwanag sa sariling pangungusap kungbakit mo naibigan ang tula. H. Paglalagom Pagtitipid. Anong karagdagang kaalaman ang iyong Hindi na po tayo bibili ng mahal na mga gulay. napulot sa iyong narinig na tula? Maging masipag po. Kumain po ng gulay na sariwa. Kumuha ng lapis at papel at iguhit ninyo ang mga larawang ipinahihiwatig sa tulang narinig. Kulayan ang inyong mga larawan.

IV. Takdang-aralin Sumulat ng isang talata tungkol sa tulang napakinggan. Isulat kung bakit mahalaga ang wastong pagkain.

Chapter IX CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT Objectives 1. Explain why classroom management is an integral part of teaching 2. Identify and explain the various approaches to classroom management 126

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3. Identify the elements of classroom management Required Activities 1. Lecture-discussion 2. Buzz session 3. Sharing Why Is Classroom Management an Integral Part of Teaching Ornstein (1990) states that in order to teach, one must be able to manage the students under him. No matter how much potential one has as a teacher, if he is unable to control the students in his classroom, little learning will take place. Classroom management is an integral part of teaching and techniques of managing students must be acquired by the teacher. Inadequate classroom management and discipline are widely considered by the public to be a major educational problem. In the annual Gallup polls in education, discipline or the lack of it, is listed as the number one or number two school problem each year for the last 20 years. The classroom cannot function well without the teacher. The success of the activities in the classroom depends on the ability of the teacher as classroom manager. He takes care of two aspects of classroom management: namely, care of routine and classroom discipline. Classroom Management Defined Carter V. Good's Dictionary of Education defines classroom management as the "Administration or direction of activities with special reference to such problem as discipline, democratic techniques, use and care of supplies and reference materials, the physical features of the classroom, general housekeeping, and the social relationships of pupils. According to Lardizabal, et al. (1991), classroom management includes operation and control of activities. Such details as seating, attendance, use of instructional materials, classroom courtesies, and discipline require foresight and planning. A well-managed class is conducive to mental growth and development. Learning becomes interesting and enjoyable under favorable working conditions. Good classroom management establishes an atmosphere which permits activities to be carried on efficiently and economically. It ensures wise use of both the teacher's and the pupil's time, efforts, and energies. It spells careful use of the physical facilities of the school. Approaches to Classroom Management 1. The assertive approach to classroom management expects teachers to specify rules of behavior and consequences for disobeying them and to communicate these rules and consequences clearly. The classroom is managed in such a way that students are not allowed to forget who is in charge of the classroom. 127

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According to Duke and Mechel, "Students come to realize that the teacher expects them to behave in a certain way in class." Teachers hold students accountable for their actions. Students who disobey rules receive "one warning and then are subjected to a series of increasingly more serious sanctions." The technique assumes that firm classroom management liberates students because it allows them to develop their best traits, skills, and abilities and provides them with psychological security in the classroom and an effective learning environment. It also assumes that good teachers can handle discipline problems on their own and that teaching failure is directly related to the inability to maintain adequate classroom discipline. The approach is probably most effective at the secondary level and in inner-city classrooms where it is now recognized that chronic student behavior problems often exist. This type of approach was criticized in the 1960s as authoritarian, repressive, militaristic, and prejudicial toward minority students. Its acceptance nowadays is due in part to the student disruptions of the 1970s and the general public demand in the 1980s for firmer discipline and higher academic standards for all students. Suggestions for teachers applying assertive discipline: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) k) l) m)

Clearly identify expectations. Take positions (Say, "I like that" or "I don't like that.") Use a firm tone of voice. Use eye contact, gestures, and touches to supplement verbal messages. Say no without guilt feelings. Give and receive compliments genuinely. Place demands on students and enforce them. Set limits on students and enforce them. Indicate consequence of behavior and why specific action is necessary. Be calm and consistent; avoid emotion or threats. Follow through regularly. Persist; enforce minimum rules; don't give up. Establish positive expectations for student behavior, eliminate negative expectations about students. n) Gain confidence and skills in working with chronic behavior problems in the classroom. 2. Business-Academic Approach. This was developed by Evertson and Emmer and emphasizes the organization and management of students as they engage in academic work. Task orientation, that is, focusing on the businesslike and orderly accomplishment of academic work, leads to a clear set of procedures for students and teachers to follow.

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Evertson and Emmer divide organizing and managing student work into three major categories: establishment and communication of work assignments, standards, and procedures, monitoring of student work; and feedback to students. Clear Communication of Assignments and Work Requirements The teacher must establish and explain clearly to students work assignment, features of work, standards to be met, and procedures. a) Instruction for assignments. Explanation should be made in both oral and written forms. In addition to telling the students about assignments, teachers should post assignments on the chalkboard or distribute duplicated copies. Students should be required to copy assignments posted on the chalkboard into their notebooks. b) Standards for form, neatness, and due dates. Before students start, they should be given general rules for all assignments: type of paper and writing material to use, page numbering system, form for headings, due dates, and so forth. Students will then know what is expected of them without having to be told each time. c) Procedures far absent students. Routines should be established for make-up work for absent students. These must include meeting briefly with students at a set time before or after school, assigning class helpers who will be available at particular times of the day to help the students, and having a designated place where students can pick up and turn in makeup work. Monitoring Student Work Monitoring student work helps teacher to detect students who are having difficulty and to encourage students to keep working. a) Monitoring group work. Before helping any individual student with work, the teacher mast be sure that all students start work and are able to do the assignment; otherwise, some students will not even start the assignment and others may start incorrectly. b) Monitoring individual work. Work can be monitored several ways, including circulating around the room and giving feedback where needed, having students bring their work to the teacher one at a time at some designated point during an activity, and establishing due dates that correspond with stages in an assignment. c) Monitoring completion of work. Procedures for turning in work must be established and enforced. When all students are turning in work at the same' time, the best procedure is to have the work passed in a given direction with no talking until all the work is collected. d) Maintaining records of student work. It is important for teachers to keep a record of the students' work and to incorporate it as part of the grade. The record should be divided

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into several headings, such as workbook assignments, major assignments or projects, daily homework, and quizzes and tests. Feedback to Students Frequent, immediate, and specific feedback is important for enhancing academic monitoring and managerial procedures. Work in progress, homework, completed assignments, tests, and other work should be checked promptly. a) Attention to problems. It is important for teachers to pay careful attention at the beginning of the year to completion of classroom and homework assignments. The first time a student fails to turn in an assignment without a good reason is the time to talk to the student. b) Attention to good work. Part of giving feedback is to acknowledge good work. This may be done by displaying the work, giving oral recognition, or providing written comments. The business-academic approach involves a high degree of "time on task" and "academic engaged time" for students. The idea is that when students are working on their tasks, there is little opportunity for discipline problems to arise. The teacher organizes students' work, keeps them on a task, monitors their work, gives them feedback, and holds them accountable by providing rewards and penalties. It is a no-play, no-frills approach, corresponding to old fashioned "three Rs" and now packaged as part of the "academic productivity" movement in education. 3. The behavior modification approach spends little time on the personal history of students or on searching for the reasons for a particular problem. It strives to increase the occurrence of appropriate behavior through a system of rewards and reduce the likelihood of inappropriate behavior through punishments. The basic principles of the behavior modification approach are as follows: a) Behavior is shaped by its consequences not by the causes of problems in the history of the individual or by group conditions. b) Behavior is strengthened by immediate reinforcers. Positive reinforcers are praise or rewards. Negative reinforcers take away or stop something that the student doesn't like. c) Behavior is strengthened by systematic reinforcement (positive or negative). Behavior is weakened if not followed by reinforcement. d) Students respond better to positive reinforcers than they do to punishment. Punishment can be used to reduce inappropriate behavior, but sparingly.

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e) When a student is not rewarded for appropriate or adaptive behavior, inappropriate or maladaptive behavior may become increasingly dominant and will be utilized to obtain reinforcement. f) Constant reinforcement. The reinforcement of a behavior every time it occurs - produces the best results, especially in new learning or conditioning situations. g) Once the behavior has been learned, it is best maintained through intermittent reinforcement - the reinforcement of a behavior only occasionally. There are a number of systems or variations of behavioral modification that are applicable to classroom management. They basically build limits and consequences into behavior and employ various rules, rewards, and punishments. A well-known system utilized in various social learning situations is termed modeling. Models are effective in modifying behavior to the degree that they capture attention, hold attention, and are imitated. Effective models may be parents, teachers, and other adults, public figures, and peers. The best models are those that individuals can identify with on the basis of one or more of the following traits: physical attractiveness, personality, competence, power, and ability to reward imitators. 4. The group managerial approach is based on Jacob Kounin's research. He emphasizes the importance of responding immediately to group student behavior that might be inappropriate or undesirable in order to prevent problems rather than having to deal with them after they emerge. He describes what he calls the "ripple effect." If a student misbehaves, and the teacher stops the misbehavior immediately, it remains an isolated incident and does not develop into a problem. However, if the misbehavior is not noticed, is ignored, or is allowed to continue for too long, it often spreads throughout the group and becomes more serious and chronic. Kounin analyzes classroom activities for purposes of management by dividing them into categories of pupils' behavior and teacher management behavior. Major categories of pupil behavior are work involvement and deviancy. a) Work involvement is the amount of time students spend/engaged in assigned academic work. It closely resembles what other researchers call "time on task" or "academic engaged time." Students who are involved in work (writing in a workbook, reciting, reading, watching a demonstration) exhibit fewer disciplinary problems than students who are not involved in any assigned task. If the teacher keeps students involved in work, there is less chance that boredom and discipline problems will arise. b) Deviancy ranges from no misbehavior to serious misbehavior. No misbehavior means the student is not purposefully upsetting another student or teacher or is slightly off task. 131

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Mild misbehavior includes such actions as whispering, making faces, teasing, reading a comic, passing notes. Serious misbehavior is aggressive or harmful behavior that interferes with others or violates school or social codes. The point is not to allow mild misbehavior to generate into serious misbehavior by dealing with the mild misbehavior as soon as it occurs. Major categories of teacher behavior are desist techniques, movement management, and group focus. a) Desist techniques are teacher actions taken to stop misbehavior Kounin feels that they depend on two abilities. 1) With-it-ness is the ability to react on target and in a timely fashion. It also involves communicating to students that one knows what is happening or, as Kounin puts it, that one "has eyes in the back of one's head." 2) Overlapping behavior refers to the teacher's ability to handle more than one matter at the same time - say, a student who is reciting and another student who is interrupting with a question or comment. b) Movement management is the organization of behavior in transitions from task to task within and between lessons. Movement may be characterized as smooth or jerky. Smoothness is an even and calm flow of activities. It involves uninterrupted work periods and short, fluid transitions that are made automatically and without disruption. In particular, the teacher: 1) avoids unnecessary announcements and interruptions when students are busy doing work; 2) finishes one activity before starting on the next; and 3) doesn't abruptly end or start an activity. Jerking is a disorderly flow of activities. It may result if the teacher tries to do too many things at once or does not make clear to students procedures for ending one task and changing to a new one. Movement management also involves momentum, that is, keeping activities at an appropriate "pace." Momentum is slowed or impeded if the teacher engages in overdwelling or fragmentation. Overdwelling may take the form of giving explanations beyond what is necessary for most students' understanding or lecturing, preaching, nagging, overemphasizing, or giving too many directions. Fragmentation takes the form of giving too much detail, breaking things down into too many steps, or duplicating or repeating activities. For example, a teacher who calls students to the desk to read, one by one, when one student can read aloud while the others listen, is engaging in fragmentation.

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Movement management also refers to the technique of guiding students smoothly from one activity to another, of the technique of keeping the lessons, and the group moving by changing the pace or using variety when the need arises. It involves skills in routinizing housekeeping activities to provide more time for instruction. Among the housekeeping activities that need to be routinized are the following: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

seating arrangement; entering and leaving the room; taking class attendance; using blackboard and keeping it clean after use; passing, collecting, handling and putting away books, materials, and equipment; and collecting and distributing students' papers.

c) Group focus is keeping the students focused on the group activity or task. It can be achieved by what Kounin calls alerting. Alerting activities include creating suspense, presenting new material, choosing reciters randomly, and selecting reciters. Group focus can also be achieved by using accountability. c) This involves such methods as asking students to hold up props, circulating to check the products of non-reciters, and requiring students to perform and checking their performance. Kounin believes that work performance, smoothness, and momentum are enhanced by instructional techniques that facilitate learning. Student satiation (boredom) can be avoided in three ways: by providing a feeling of progress; providing challenges; and adding variety to the lessons. Kounin believes that student engagement in lessons and activities is the key to successful classroom management. Students are expected to work and behave. The successful teacher monitors student work in a systematic way, clearly defines acceptable and unacceptable behavior, and exhibits with-it-ness and overlapping activities. The successful teacher has a clear sense of direction and sequence for tasks. Smooth transitions are made from one activity to another. 5. The group-guidance approach is based on changing the surface behavior of the students on a group basis. Since teachers have few opportunities to work with students on an individual basis, they must learn to work with groups of students and to maintain group focus on the content and tasks of the group. Discipline and classroom control are produced through the group atmosphere and enhanced through group rapport. 6. The acceptance approach to discipline is rooted in humanistic psychology and maintains that every person has a prime need for acceptance. They want to belong and to be liked by others who are important to them more than they want to learn. This approach is also based on the democratic model of teaching in which the teacher provides leadership by establishing rules and consequences, but at the same time allows students to participate in decisions and to make choices. 133

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7. Success approach is also rooted in humanistic psycho" logy and the democratic model of teaching. However, instead of dealing with inappropriate behavior and the consequences of such behavior, it deals with general psychological and social conditions. Glasser's view about discipline is simple but powerful. Behavior is a matter of choice. Good behavior results from good choices, bad behavior results from bad choices. A teacher's job is to help students make good choices. Elements of Classroom Management The elements of classroom management are physical arrangement or environment, classroom routine, and discipline. The topic on classroom routine has been discussed under the group managerial approach. The discussions then of the elements will include only the physical arrangement or physical environment and discipline. Physical arrangement or environment includes the location, size, shape, and construction of the room itself, the furniture in the room, the instructional supplies or resources for learning, the provisions for lighting, heating and ventilating, the acoustics of the room, and the provisions for sanitation, cleanliness, and orderliness. Some factors that are included in the physical condition are not within the teacher's control, for example, the size of the room and location of the building. But the resourceful and creative teacher can make even the dullest room attractive and conducive to learning. Aquino (1974) states that the teacher has many opportunities for creating with and for children a classroom environment that promotes cooperative group experiences through which children develop skills for living in a democrative society. The term "classroom environment" for Aquino encompasses four factors, namely: 1) the physical environment; 2) the intellectual climate; 3) the social climate; and 4) the emotional climate. The climate inside the room is as important as the climate outside it. Such a climate is more than physical; it includes the intellectual, social, and emotional. Promoting a sound intellectual climate means that teachers must help the learners think clearly, critically, and creatively. In this regard, the teacher can do a number of things. He must understand that problem-solving develops through several stages. These stages include recognizing the problem, collecting all of the facts that bear on the problem, forming tentative solutions, and trying out the tentative solutions to see whether they work. All of these mean that the teacher is creating an intellectual environment in which the learners are free to work out under intelligent guidance the solutions to their own problems and, thus, grow in the ability to be intelligent, self-directing citizens.

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The social climate of the classroom is as important as th8 intellectual climate. In general, there are three types of social climate existing in classrooms, such as the autocratic, laissezfaire, and democratic. In the autocratic climate, the teacher makes all the important decisions, directs all the activities, and evaluates pupil progress in terms of arbitrary standards. In the laissez-faire climate, each learner operates as an individual, strives for recognition of his own achievement, and develops little regard for the rights and accomplishments of others. In the democratic climate, goals are established and plans are made on the basis of cooperative group planning. The role of the teacher is neither that of a dictator nor of an interested spectator but that of a mature person responsible for guiding the work of the children as they work out goals, plan activities, and evaluate achievements. The emotional climate pertains to emotional adjustment. It has a great deal to do with the mental health of children: To foster the right kind of emotional climate, the teacher must. see that the personality needs of the learners are met in the 'classroom. The learner needs to feel secure in his group. He must have opportunities to make decisions and to become increasingly self-directing. Classroom Discipline The other big aspect of classroom management has to do with proper conduct of the learners in the classroom. This is referred to as classroom discipline. The teacher should not only take care of routine factors, he has also to maintain good discipline in his class to achieve good classroom management. Discipline, as applied to classroom instruction, is any means adopted by the teacher for the orderly behavior of the learners. Discipline to be effective should be vital, meaningful, and sympathetic. The learner should know why he is called upon to conform to certain rules and regulations. The advantage of proper conduct in society should be very clear to him. He should realize that developing desirable habits will be of value in his future life. Suggestions and Tips for Classroom Discipline Lardizabal, et al. (1991) give the following suggestions and tips for classroom discipline: a) Establish good routine habits and keep the learners busy. b) Teacher should take stock of his ability to discipline his class by frequent selfevaluation. c) Punishment should be adjusted to the offender and the offense. Never punish the whole class for the offense of one individual. d) Show the right kind of interest in your learners and in their school work. e) Dress and behave in a manner that becomes a mature individual of your position. f) Avoid gossip. Never talk about the deficiencies of your co-teachers or those of your learners. g) Make the learners believe and trust in you. h) Never promise anything that you cannot do. 135

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i) Be genial, amiable, and friendly with your learners but always maintain a dignified reserve. j) Learn how to smile. A smile can disarm the most hardened offender. BIBLIOGRAPHY Aquino, Gaudencio V. Fundamentals of Effective Teaching. Navotas, Rizal: Navotas Press, 1974. Lardizabal, Amparo S., et al. Principles and Methods of Teaching. Quezon City: Phoenix Publishing House, 1991. Ornstein, Allan C. Strategies for Effective Teaching. Novatas, Rizal: Navotas Press, 1990, Philippine copy.

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Chapter X THE ASSIGNMENT

Objectives 1. Explain the meaning and importance of assignments 2. Identify the type and explain the functions of assignment 3. Discuss some pointers in the giving of assignments Required Activities 1. Interview of students on how they perceive assignments and on how they perceive their teachers' practice of giving assignments 2. Lecture-discussion 3. Sharing Introduction According to Lardizabal, et aI., the value of the assignment in the teaching-learning process has long been recognized by educators. It is an integral part of any lesson. Good teachers plan their assignments well because they know that the success of any lesson depends in a large measure on the kind of assignment given to students. Students do assignments that are clear, worthwhile, and purposeful. To be able to make such an assignment is not easy especially for beginning teachers. Meaning and Importance of the Assignment The assignment is that part of the lesson which tells the pupils what they are to do and what they are to accomplish in the lesson. In the past, assignments were regarded as synonymous with homework. The modern teacher looks at the assignment as: a) b) c) d) e) f) g)

a job to be done either at home or in class; a lesson to be studied; a theme to be written; a project to be accomplished; an exercise to be explained; f) a selection to be memorized; a question to be answered; an interview to be accomplished; and i) a review of the past lesson or lessons. Such activities are parts of the teaching-learning cycle.

The assignment is the chief means of stimulating and directing learning activities inside or outside the classrooms. It helps in creating favorable attitudes toward the task to be done. The

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students take pride in their accomplishments and each assignment completed is regarded as an accomplishment which serves to motivate the students to do better. The assignment can be the means of developing good study habits and independent work. They become deterrents to waste of time since a well-planned lesson gives specific tasks and goals to be accomplished. Types of Assignment 1. Individual assignment. The most time-and-effort-consuming task for the teacher since he must consider each pupil's needs, interests, abilities, and achievement level. 2. Group assignment. May be for a small group or it may be for the whole class. Activities in the small group assignment are tailored to the needs, interests, and abilities of the pupils belonging to a group. The class assignment involves every member of the class. Criticism has been leveled against this type of assignment since it does not provide for individual needs and interests. 3. Day-to-day assignments. Daily assignments given by the teachers in every subject. 4. Long-range assignments. Projects or activities to be accomplished over a greater length of time. Examples: panel discussions, dramatizations, debates, symposia and fora. Projects are making scrap books, relief maps, doing experiments, collecting specimens, reading of novels, and other activities which involve some time to prepare are long-range assignments. Functions of the Assignment The first function is to set the goal or direction of the learning activity. The pupil must know what he is supposed to do. His task must be clear and definite to him. Some assignments stimulate logical and creative thinking. Others may give training in good study habits. The second function is to review past lessons in preparation for a long test or it may call for organization of ideas and concepts. Some teachers tell the pupils directly what to do. Others involve pupils in determining the goals of the activities. The third function is to motivate the pupils and prepare them for the job to be done. This preparation includes giving the background of the activity. Pupils should know why they are doing the task assigned. They should be convinced that the job is worthwhile and that they stand to benefit from the exercise or project. Some questions to ask at this point should be: 1. Is the activity worthwhile? 2. Is the task within the interest and capability of the student? 3. Does it take into consideration the length and difficulty of the assignment?

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There are varied ways of motivating the students. The teacher can use the challenge involved in the needs and varying abilities of the students, the natural tendency of pupils to see what happens or the opportunity to develop necessary traits of character and personality.

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A fourth function deals with setting up definite learning activities to be carried out. Such activities include practice exercises to reinforce what has been taught, completion of a project begun in class, follow-up activities to develop certain traits, etc. A fifth function deals with providing directions for the learning activity. Students must be given clear instructions as to procedure, sources of materials, and criteria for evaluation of the finished exercise or project. Many assignments are left undone because directions to the students are either misleading or inadequate. A pupil who comprehends the details of a specific piece of work will have the necessary urge to do it. This stimulation and urge become all the more powerful when he realizes that the assignment is a natural growth of past lessons. The sixth function of the assignment has to do with establishment of the habits of studying regularly. While the fifth function deals with how to study, the sixth function tries to make students get into the habit of studying regularly. Some students study only when they have homework or lessons to study. Regular assignments will therefore help the students develop the habits of studying. Requisites of a Good Assignment Authorities on principles and methods of teaching agree that a good assignment should be: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

clear and definite; relates new learning to the old; significant to the learner; stimulating and challenging; adapted to the learner's ability; comprehensive; and includes large units of work.

When to Give Assignments There is no fixed time when the assignment should be given. It may be given at any time during the recitation when the psychological moment arises. If the assignment has no direct bearing on the lesson at hand, it may be given at the end of the lesson. Giving the assignment depends upon the subject matter, the type of assignment, and the need for it. Giving the assignment involves another question: How much time should be devoted to the assignment? A day-to-day assignment requires a much shorter period than a unit or project assignment. The whole period or more may have to be devoted to the assignment where explanations and details are needed for the proper accomplishment of the project or experiment.

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Ordinarily, daily assignments should take no more than ten or fifteen minutes of a 60-minute class period and from five to ten minutes of a 40-minute period. But certainly, there is no place for an assignment given a few seconds before the bell rings. Pointers to Consider in Giving Assignments 1. Make clear to the students the aims of the assigned task. They should know why they are doing the task. They will do their assignments enthusiastically if they are convinced that their assignments are worthwhile. 2. Make clear all directions, procedures, steps, cautions involved in the assignments. Many projects are not realized because instructions are not clear and definite. 3. Clear all difficulties so that learning will be smooth and continuous. Difficult and vague words or steps should be explained. Difficulties or obstacles to be encountered in the preparation of the assignments should be anticipated and discussed. Sources of data and references must be available. 4. Evaluation of the project or task should be very clear. Students should know how their assigned projects will be evaluated or graded. The bases of grading should be agreed upon by both teacher and students. 5. Assignments should not be given as punishment. Assignments should be positive, rather than negative, means of learning. 6. Provisions for enough time to complete the assignment should be given. Teachers should not compete with one another in giving assignments. It is not true that the importance of the subject is gauged by the length of assignment given. 7. Teachers should distinguish between homework and assignments. Tedious and lengthy homework should be avoided so that students will be given enough time to do their assignments. 8. Assignments should be within the ability of students in amount and difficulty. 9. Assignments must be checked. Teachers should never give any learning task that they cannot check or evaluate. Some teachers give projects like term papers that they do not check. This is most unfair to students. 10. Assignments should be varied and interesting. Projects that students like to do will be done better than teacher-imposed ones. Evaluation of the Assignment The following list of questions can help the teacher determine whether his assignment is good or not. 141

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1. Are the objectives of the assignment attainable? 2. Are the sources of materials available and accessible to students? 3. Are the directions clear and specific? 4. Are the activities meaningful and worthwhile? 5. Does the assignment make use of past experiences of students? BIBLIOGRAPHY Lardizabal, Amparo S. et al. Principles and Methods of Teaching. Quezon City: Phoenix Publishing House, 1991. Ornstein, Allan C. Strategies for Effective Teaching. Navotas, Rizal: Navotas Press, 1990. Philippine copy.

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Chapter XI THE ART OF QUESTIONING Objectives 1. Enumerate and explain the characteristics of good questions 2. Explain the principles that must be observed in the art of questioning Required Activities 1. Library research on the characteristics of good questions 2. Classroom observation with the help of an observation guide 3. Post-classroom observation/discussion Introduction Lardizabal, et al., state that one of the teaching tools conveniently placed in the hands of a teacher is the question. And yet too many teachers either use it carelessly or fail to see its possibilities for promoting effective learning. Even with the teaching formula of "assign, study, recite, test," the traditional classroom at all levels was dominated by activities of the question and answer type. Although the traditional teaching formula has fallen into disrepute in current educational practices, questioning still .remains an indispensable part of good teaching. There are even some who say that the effectiveness of a teacher can be gauged by his ability to ask good questions. Skillful questioning involves knowledge of the various uses of the question, the characteristics of a good question, the techniques of questioning, and the techniques of handling students' responses and questions. Uses of Questions 1. To stimulate pupils to think 2. To motivate pupils 3. To diagnose pupils' difficulties 143

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4. To discover pupils' interests 5. To help pupils organize and evaluate 6. To aid pupils to relate pertinent experiences to the lesson 7. To focus pupils' attention on the key points of the lesson 8. To develop new appreciations and attitudes 9. To provide drill or practice 10. To show relationships, such as cause and effect 11. To encourage the application of concepts 12. To encourage pupil evaluation 1. To stimulate pupils to think. Getting pupils to think intensively about the subject matter is a common problem of teachers. The effective use of thought-provoking questions serves well in this connection if the teacher knows when to raise the question and how to state the question. Emphasis is not upon recall of facts but upon thinking about facts in a meaningful, interrelated way. Factual knowledge is incidental to learning only if it is made meaningful through established tasks with actual situations and experiences. The thought provoking question is used by teachers in all subjects, although it is probably used more often in such areas as mathematics and social studies, which are concept-centered. Example: What good will it do us if we consent to amending the charter? Would you rather go for poll computerization this national election? Why? 2. To motivate pupils. Question can be used effectively to arouse and hold the interest of pupils. Questions must be able to make pupils enthusiastic about learning a new topic, reacting to a story, and discovering more details previously unknown to them. Often, questions are used to motivate as initial part of the lesson. They may, however, be utilized for other purposes like developing good attitude~ toward work in the classroom. For example, the teacher in a mathematics class may pose the question, "Can you imagine what else can the depreciated peso buy nowadays?" On taking up a unit on heavenly bodies in grade five, the teacher may start the lesson by asking, "Have you even wondered how the planets revolve around the earth? Are there moonlit nights?" An example of a motivating question to hold the interest of the class in health education after a unit on health problems has been started may be as follows: "If you were the doctor, what would you do to help the barrio folks understand the need for cleanliness of surroundings?"

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3. To diagnose pupils' difficulties. Questions can be helpful in determining the difficulties of students in any lesson. By using a wide range of question types - objective or subjective, oral or written, thought-provoking or simple - a teacher will be able to obtain a valid appraisal of the pupils' specific weaknesses, indicating what remains to be done to help the pupils. For example, in diagnosing the difficulties of students in the use of the present tense, third person, singular number, the following questions may be asked: What is referred to as the S form of the verb? What form of the verb is required by a plural subject in the third person? 4. To discover pupils' interest. Some random questions by the teacher may reveal what children are interested in. By encouraging pupils to raise questions, the teacher will soon find their interests, which are important factors in learning. Example: List down some of your favorite hobbies. What would you prefer, horseback riding or mountain climbing? Why? 5. To develop the ability to organize and evaluate materials or experiences. Through questions, teachers can lead the pupils to evaluate carefully the values or merits of the data gathered and to realize their relative significance. Example: Was the King right in abdicating his throne in favor of his cousin? Do you think parents are to blame for their children's mistakes? How true is the statement that "Life is pre-destined"? Aside from developing the ability of the pupils to evaluate, questions can be utilized further to help the pupils organize the data evaluated into a form that makes for larger generalizations. The teacher can formulate questions that will lead pupils to see relationships upon broader interpretation and conclusion. For instance, a teacher may ask the following questions regarding taxes: Why do people pay taxes? What do people get in return for paying their taxes? Why do some people avoid paying taxes? How does the BIR ensure effective collection of taxes? 6. To aid pupils to relate pertinent experiences to the lesson. Children come to school with varying experiences which may have important bearing in the understanding of a given lesson. To supplement and clarify certain difficult points in a lesson, teachers can draw upon the experiences of the children through the use of questions. For example, in teaching about the different kinds of clouds, the teacher may ask:

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Have you ever enjoyed watching the clouds on a bright sunny day? What did you observe? What happens to these clouds when it is about to rain? 7. To focus pupils' attention on the key points of the lesson. Some kinds of questions can help pupils pick out and remember the main ideas in a lesson. These questions can also help pupils organize their thinking about a lesson in a logical way. For example, in preparing a report about an educational trip made by pupils to the Rizal Park, the teacher may pose these questions: What about Rizal Park did you find most interesting? Tell something about it as a historical place, as a national park, and as a tourist spot. Sometimes the class discussion may wander and become quite unrelated to the main idea of the lesson. In this case, the teacher can pose questions that will reduce the pupils' thinking and direction to the important items in the lesson being discussed. In a math class, for example, if the discussion has strayed from the lesson, a question such as the following might be in order. Going back to the lesson we are discussing, what are the advantages of paying your dues on time? How does the school accommodate promissory notes? 8. To develop new appreciations and attitudes. Questions can be used to help pupils modify, clarify, or expand ideas relating to appreciations and attitudes. A well-directed series of questions may awaken or change a certain· type of response to a given situation and thus, condition the response thereafter toward similar ideas or modes of behavior that can develop an appreciation of the beauty of nature, the teacher in literature may ask the following: What are the basic life realities mentioned in the poem? Which is the most common? Why? What does the. . . symbolize in the poem? 9. To provide drill or practice. For certain types of learning, certain facts need to be fixed in the mind. Such facts are necessary either to continue to stimulate thought or elicit automatic response. Questions that involve frequent recall will help pupils' retention of facts. Such questions are very helpful in subjects like languages and mathematics, for example: What verb form is appropriate for expressions like a year ago, last month, last night, an hour ago? How can we find the number of times one fraction is ¢contained in another when the denominators are alike? When they are unlike?

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10. To show relationships, such as cause and effect. Why questions lead pupils to think about situations in relation to their causes. Such questions are important to avoid meaningless repetition of facts without real understanding of their relationships. Figuring out why story characters feel and act as they do, seeing what scientific principles explain a health or safety rule, noticing events that lead to other events in history - these involve perceiving cause-and-effect relationships. Example of some questions of this type are as follows: What are the ill-effects of smoking'? How does drought affect the supply of rice? Why should the government adopt emergency measures to combat water crisis? Why are barrio folks superstitious? 11. To encourage the application of concepts. Questions can best be used to help pupils see how they can apply the new concepts developed in a lesson to new situations or problems. A lesson takes on personal meaning for pupils when questions that point out the ways new ideas can be used are asked. Such questions can be used to good advantage in certain subjects. In mathematics, for example, after children have known a variety of geometric shapes, they may be taught the wide application of geometric shapes in their environment by using the following questions: What objects can you find in the classrooms that are round, square, triangular, etc? Why are the wheels on your toys like a circle? Why are the doors of your home like a rectangle? Why are these shapes used in each particular instance? Why do you prefer a round table to a rectangle? Characteristics of a Good Question What makes a good question? The following criteria are characteristics of a good question: 1. A good question is simple and clear. It is so constructed that students can easily understand what is asked, although they may not know the answer to it. The teacher must avoid ambiguity, confusing constructions, double questions, parenthetical remarks, and other verbiage which might cause the pupils to miss the point of the question. For example, "Who called up while I was away?" is a good question, but "Who called?" is a question that cannot be answered until the learner knows the exact time. 2. A good question is definite. It is so stated as to permit only one answer. "Who was our President who stayed in power for 20 years, and why was he called a dictator?" is a poor question, for, it requires two distinctly different lines of thought and should be broken into two separate questions. 3. A good question is challenging and thought-provoking. It must stimulate the student to compare, evaluate, draw conclusions, and appraise results. Unless the purpose of 147

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questioning is drill, a question which can be answered by merely repeating some facts from a book can never be as stimulating as a thought question. Examples of such questions are: How can you tell if a storm is coming? Why are local fabrics of lesser quality than those imported? 4. A good question is adapted to the age, abilities, and interests of the students. The general level of ability and interests of students at various grade levels differ. Or, within an age-grade itself, there may be variations due to different home environments among pupils. There is no point in embarrassing or frustrating a pupil by asking him questions which are beyond his capacity. Neither is there much point in asking easy questions which will not stretch the intellect of bright pupils. Examples of questions adapted to age and abilities of students are: Elementary: Secondary: College:

Show that Oriental Mindoro is favorably located. How has the location of Oriental Mindoro made her agriculture-based? How will the location of Oriental Mindoro promote her status or position in the MIMAROPA areas?

5. A good question requires an extended response. Unless the purpose of questioning is drill, a question must not call for a single word or phrase answer. A single word ~or phrase answer tends to become the simple recall type and it could introduce the element of guessing in the classrooms. This is especially true with questions that call for either "yes" or "no" answers. If teachers will raise questions that call for answers in sentence or paragraph form, the probable results will be extended analysis, synthesis, and organization of response. For example: In what ways is the Philippines affected by the financial instabilities in the Asian region? Why has the peso remained a volatile commodity? If questions framed by teachers comply with the above criteria, teaching will be improved tremendously. Techniques of Questioning Questioning requires skill. It often takes many years of classroom experience, professional reading, and self-evaluation for a teacher to be a proficient questioner. All the while the teacher must make a constant and persistent effort to improve his questioning ability and technique. Toward this end, the following techniques are suggested. 1. Questions should be asked in a natural and well· modulated voice. Questions should not be asked hurriedly nor in a way that is likely to create nervous tension in the student and thereby, block the student's thinking.

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2. A teacher should ask the question first and then wait for the class to think about it before calling on a student to answer the questions. In this way, everyone has a chance to think before anyone tries to answer it. Students should be given enough time to formulate the answer. Furthermore, this technique will keep all the students alert. If students are appraised before hand as to who is to answer the question, inattention will result. 3. A sufficient number of questions should be asked to stimulate students to activity. There should not be too many questions to the extent that they require a minimum of thought and the giving of very short or one word answers. Too many questions lead to so much teacher activity and not enough on the part of the students. 4. A teacher should refrain from repeating questions. Attention is challenged when questions are not repeated. However, if for some legitimate reasons, the student did not hear or understand the question, then, of course, one has to repeat the question. This technique also applies to repeating answers. Repeating answers merely wastes time and encourages inattention. 5. Questions should be evenly distributed so that the majority of the pupils can take part in the discussion. Difficult questions should be asked of bright students. A teacher should encourage all students to share in the group thinking at all times. 6. A teacher should avoid resorting to any mechanical system of fielding questions to the class, such as by alphabetical order or row by row. Students catch on to these devices, thus, resulting in student inattention. 7. A teacher should ask questions that are really interesting and thought-provoking. Leading questions which give away answers, one-word answer questions, and the like may result in boredom on the part of the students. The manner in which the teacher handles the answers of the students is as important as the asking of questions. The following techniques are suggested for the teacher to observe in handling student responses to his questions: 1. A teacher should make every effort to show an appreciative attitude toward student answers. The students should be made to feel free to do their best. They should be allowed to make mistakes without fear of recrimination, but they should not be abetted in doing careless work. When the student does not answer correctly, the teacher can ask further questions to help the student discover for himself why his original answer was wrong. The teacher should refrain from giving sarcastic comments to wrong answers. 2. A teacher should never allow wrong answers to slip by; otherwise the students will learn wrong facts and concepts. A portion of an answer that is correct should be recognized, but any part of an answer that is incorrect should be corrected. This can be done by the teacher pointing out the error himself or by throwing the question to the class for discussion. 149

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3. Correct answers of students should be followed with encouraging remarks by the teacher. Commendations should be judged by the nature of the response. 4. Clarity in every point expressed by the students should be insisted upon by the teacher. If a student fails to make a point clear, the teacher can ask him to elaborate. 5. Answering in concert should be discouraged. Allowing the whole class to shout the answers aloud will result in classroom chaos. It will also give the lazy or inattentive student the chance to go unnoticed. 6. A teacher should encourage students to answer in a loud and clear voice. A student's response should be heard by the other students in the class. This is especially important when the student's answer will be thrown to the class for the other students to comment on. 7. Students should be encouraged to answer in complete thought units and grammatically correct statements. Every teacher should be concerned with the development of correct expression, whatever subject he teaches. He should insist upon correct forms of expression in order that they may become habitual to the students. 8. A teacher should refrain from marking the students in his record book during the class recitation. Such a procedure is probably the worst way to handle a student's response. This will reduce the recitation to the level of traditional recitation. It will create nervous tension among students and may paralyze critical thinking and hamper spontaneity. Techniques in Handling Student Questions The student, not just the teacher, should ask questions. Student questions should be encouraged because they reflect their mental activity. A student will be likely to ask questions only if the teacher will create that type of classroom atmosphere. How should a teacher handle questioning so that he will be constantly encouraged to ask questions? The following are techniques suggested in handling student questions: 1. Student questions should be welcomed by a teacher. If students know that their questions will be respected by the teacher, then a teacher can expect more students to ask questions. 2. A teacher should not answer a student question right away. He should first turn over the question to the class for other students to answer and probably discuss.

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3. Indiscriminate student questions should not be allowed. Trivial and insignificant questions should be dismissed by the teacher, not automatically but in a brief way such that the student will realize why the question does not merit attention. 4. A teacher should require students to frame grammatically correct questions. 5. If a teacher is asked questions he cannot answer, as sometimes happens, he should promptly admit his inability. Perhaps a student in the class does know. If not, the teacher should help the students to look up the answer. After class, he himself should look up the answer, too. Types of Questions According to Ornstein (1992), questions can be categorized in many ways: (1) according to the thinking process involved, from low level to high level or (according to the cognitive taxonomy) from knowledge to evaluation; (2) according to type of answer required convergent or divergent; and (3) according to the degree of personal exploration or valuing. Some authorities have also developed descriptive categories of questions that deal with academic tasks and activities. According to thinking process involved: Low-level questions emphasize memory and recall of information. When was Mindoro divided into Oriental and Occidental? Where is Banaue Rice Terraces? Who obtained the highest vote in the Senatorial position? These questions focus on facts and do not test understanding or problem-solving skills. High-level questions go beyond memory and factual information and deal with complex and abstract thinking. Examples: What were the reasons for dividing the province of Mindoro into Oriental and Occidental? Why is Banaue Rice Terraces considered a scenic spot and one of the wonders of the world? What are the implications if the Bill on the Magna Carta of Students sponsored by Congressman Edcel Lagman will be signed into law? What are the effects of the El Nino phenomenon to the economic, political, and social aspects of our life? These questions are obviously more advanced, more stimulating, and more challenging and, in many cases, there are no right and wrong answers. As the questions become more advanced, they involve more abstractions and points of view. Asking high-level questions demands patience and clear thinking on the part of the teacher, as creating appropriate timing, sequencing, and phrasing is no easy task for even the experienced teacher. According to type of answer required: Convergent questions tend to have one correct or best answer. For this reason, they are often mistakenly identified as low-level and knowledge-questions, but they can also be formulated to demand the selection of relevant concepts and the solution of problems dealing 151

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with steps and structure. Convergent questions can deal with logic and complex data, abstract ideas, analogies, and multiple relationships. It can also be used when students work on and attempt to solve difficult exercises in math and science, especially dealing with analysis of equations and word problems. Often convergent questions must be asked first to clarify what students know before advancing to divergent questions. Convergent questions usually start with what, who, when, or where. Divergent questions are often open-ended and usually have many appropriate, different answers. Starting a "right" answer is not always most important, rather it is how the students arrive at their answer. Students should be encouraged by the teacher to state their reasoning and to provide supporting examples and evidence. Divergent questions are associated with high-level thinking processes and can encourage creative thinking and discovery learning. Divergent questions usually start with how or why. Divergent questions require more flexibility on the part of the teacher. For the student, divergent questions require the ability to cope with not being sure about being right and not always getting approval from the teacher. In general, the pace of questioning is slower. There is more opportunity for students to exchange ideas and differing opinions. There is also more chance for disagreement among students and between students and teacher - which is often discouraged or viewed as tangential by teachers. According to the degree of personal exploration or valuing: Valuing is a process in which students explore their feelings and attitudes, analyze their experiences, and express their ideas. The emphasis is on the personal development of the learner through clarifying attitudes and aspirations and making choices. A teacher can stimulate valuing through probing questions. Keep in mind, however, that a 6-year-old cannot be confronted or probed in terms of feelings or attitudes in the same way as a 16-year old. The teacher must also consider how far to get students to express themselves in the classroom, especially in front of their peers, to avoid unexpected, unintended, or extreme emotional reactions. Louis Raths and his colleagues have developed a model for clarifying the values of learners. For them, valuing consists of seven components: 1. Choosing freely What made you forego your first real ambition in life? How long did it take you to decide to abandon your career for good? What would you have done had not better opportunity come your way? 2. Choosing from alternatives What other options did you consider before making your final choice? 152

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How long did it take you to decide which way to go? Was it a tough decision to make? What made you join the Lakas-NUCD? 3. Choosing after considering the consequences of each alternative. What possible consequences will your actions bring? Have you given this thing a serious thought? I guess you wanted to say. . . (interpret statement) 4. Prizing and cherishing Are you sorry for having missed the chance to see them off? How long have you cherished such thought? Why does it matter so much to you and your family? 5. Affirming the choice to others Would you explain why you felt bad about the politician's dirty tactics? Would you consider running for an important position in the government? Are you saying that male chauvinism is a thing of the past? 6. Acting upon choices You have been very vocal about your choice. Is there, still anything you want done? What are your priorities? Are you willing to invest your fortune despite the consequences? 7. Repeating Have you been trying hard to have the resolution signed? How often do you travel? What are your plans for doing more of it? Several authorities have formulated their own categories and models of questions. James Gallagher sorts questions into four categories: 1. Cognitive-memory questions require students to reproduce facts or remember content through processes such as rote memory or selective recall. For example, "What is the referred to as the legislative body of the Philippines?" 2. Convergent questions require students to recall information that leads to a correct or conventional answer. Given or known information is usually the expected response; novel information is usually considered incorrect. For example, "Summarize the salient features of a republican system of government." 3. Divergent questions require students to generate their own data or a new perspective on a given topic. Divergent questions have no right answer, they suggest novel or creative 153

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responses. For example, "What will happen if the Bill of the Magna Carta of Students will be signed into a law?" 4. Evaluative questions require students to make value judgments about the quality, correctness, or adequacy of information, based on some criterion usually set by the student or by some objective standard. For example, "How would you evaluate the recently concluded 47th Foundation of Oriental Mindoro?"

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Chapter XII SMALL COOPERATIVE LEARNING Introduction One of the problems encountered by teachers is the inability of the students to communicate in class. Discussions always drag, but interest is nonetheless high. By working in small groups, the students may come to know and understand each other better, and consequently, be able to communicate more effectively. Dividing the students into small groups aims to provide an opportunity for the students to become more actively engaged in learning and for the teachers to monitor the student progress better. Between five and eight students should be the optimum number to ensure successful small group activity. Small group instruction works best in rooms with movable furniture, but it can also be used in classrooms with fixe a furniture. Small groupings can enhance the student cooperation and social skills. Appropriate group experiences foster the development of democratic values, cultural pluralism, and appreciation of differences among people. Small group instruction can provide interesting challenges, permit the students to progress at their own pace, provide a psychologically safe situation in which to master the material, and encourage them to contribute to class activities. SMALL GROUP DISCUSSIONS A. Group Development Small groups are typically used in elementary school reading and mathematics. The teacher divides the class into two or three groups, depending on the number of pupils, their range of ability, and the number of groups the teacher is able to handle. The teacher usually works with one group at a time, while the other pupils do seatwork or independent work. The use of small groups can be extended beyond the typical grouping in elementary reading and mathematics to all grade levels and subjects. There are seven logical criteria on which small grouping can be based. 1. Ability. Grouping by ability reduces the problems of heterogeneity in the classroom. 2. Interest. Students have some choice in group membership based on special interests in a particular subject matter or activity. 3. Skill. The teacher forms groups in order to develop different skills in the students or to have them learn to work with different types of materials. 4. Viewpoint. Students have some choice in forming groups based on feelings about a controversial issue. 5. Activity or project. The teacher forms groups to perform a specific assignment. 6. Integration. This grouping considers race, ethnicity, religion, or sex, to enhance human relations. 155

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7. Arbitrary. Groupings are made at random or on the basis of alphabetical order, location in the room, or some other method not related to student or work characteristics. Groups, like individuals, develop, grow, and pass through discernible stages in this process. The Schmucks (1988, as cited by Arends, 1994) have adapted general theories about group development and have created a four-stage developmental model for classroom groups. These four stages are summarized on the following page. Figure 5: Schmucks' Stages of Classroom Development Stage Stage 1. Inclusion and membership

Group and Members' Needs and Behaviors Early in classroom life, the students seek to find a niche for themselves in the peer group. Students want to present a good image and are on their good behavior. Teachers have great influence during this period because of their assigned authority. Everyone is sizing up one another and the issues of inclusion and membership must be resolved before the group can move along to the next stage.

Stage 2. Influence and collaboration Members of the class enter into two types of power struggle. One struggle tests the authority of the teacher; the other establishes the peer group pecking order. Tensions will exist between the students and the teacher and among the students themselves during this stage. If these tensions cannot be resolved and power relationships balanced, the group cannot move along very productively to the next stage. Stage 3. Individual and academic goals The classroom enters a stage of development for working productively on academic goals. Students during this stage can set and accomplish goals and work together on tasks. The classroom can also be pulled back into the earlier stages during this stage. Stage 4. Self-renewal/adaptive change This stage is one in which members can think about their continuous growth and about taking on new and more challenging tasks. This is also a stage that can produce conflict because change in tasks will perhaps upset earlier resolutions of issues around membership and power.

Source: R. A. Schmuck and P. A. Schmuck, pp. 178-187. 156

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The Schmucks are quick to point out that the stages of classroom development are not always sequential. Instead, they are often cyclical in nature, with many of the stages repeating themselves several times during the school year. The teachers can assist the development of their classroom groups in two important ways. They can teach the students that groups grow and learn in some of the ways individuals do. They can also explain and help the students learn how to work in groups and provide leadership to group efforts. Positive communication and discourse is perhaps the single most important variable for building groups and productive learning environments. It is through classroom discourse that norms are established and classroom life defined. It is through discourse that the cognitive and social aspects of learning unite. David Berliner (as cited by Ornstein, 1992) contends that teachers who engage in small group instruction seem to attend to five strategies of teaching, as follows: 1. compensation, favoring the shy, quiet, or low-achieving student 2. strategic leniency, ignoring some inappropriate behaviors of students 3. proper sharing, enlisting some students to aid in sharing homework or tutoring responsibility 4. progressive sharing, compensating, for the problems of low-ability students 5. suppressing emotions, limiting their emotions or feelings because they feel they are inappropriate or may lead to management problem. Thus, the apparently simple task of organizing small groups involves numerous complex decisions and strategies. Regardless of the basis of the grouping, assignments should be specific enough and within the range of the students' abilities and interests so the group can work on its own without teacher support. This permits the teacher to single out the group for attention or to help individuals by explaining, questioning, redirecting, and encouraging. B. Group Activities In various kinds of group activities, the teacher's role moves from engineer or director to facilitator or resource person, and many leadership functions transfer from the teacher to the students. Although there is no clear research showing that the group techniques correlate with the student achievement, it is assumed that under appropriate circumstances, instruction in these groups can be effective rather than relying on the teacher as the major source of learning. It is also assumed that many kinds of group activities 1) help the teachers deal with differences among learners, 2) provide opportunity for the students to plan and develop special projects on which groups can work together, and 3) increase the student interaction and socialization. In short, they achieve social and emotional as well as cognitive purposes. There are many ways for teachers to arrange activity in groups. Different group arrangements, also called group projects, result in different roles and responsibilities for the students and teacher. 157

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Possible group projects/activities: 1. A committee is a small group working together in a common venture for a given period of time. Using committees succeeds to the extent that members grow socially in the group process and are able to accomplish cognitive tasks apart from close teacher direction. A committee representative may be chosen to report to the entire class. 2. Brainstorming is a technique to elicit large numbers of imaginative ideas or solutions to open-ended problems. Group members are encouraged to expand their thinking beyond the routine sort of suggestions. Everyone's suggestions are accepted without judgment, and only after all the ideas are put before the group do the members begin to focus on a possible solution. 3. A buzz session provides an open environment in which group members can discuss their opinions without fear of being "wrong" or being ridiculed for holding an unpopular position. Buzz session can also serve to clarify a position or bring new information before the group to correct misconceptions. 4. The debate and panel are more structured in format than some of the other small group activities. In a debate, two positions on a controversial issue are presented formally; each debater is given a certain amount of time to state a position, to respond to questions from others in the group, and to pose questions. The panel is used to present information on an issue and, if possible, to arrive at group consensus. Several students (three to eight) may sit on a panel. Each panel member may make an opening statement, but there are no debates among panel members. 5. A symposium is not as structured as a debate and not as relaxed as the give-and-take exchange of a panel. The symposium is appropriate for airing topics that divide into clear-cut categories or viewpoints. Participants are expected to represent a particular position and try to convince others, but the method of interaction is more spontaneous and no one is timed as in a debate. 6. Role playing and improvisation are techniques for stepping outside of one's own role and feelings and placing oneself in another's situation. Role playing also serves as a technique for exploring intergroup attitudes and values. 7. Fish bowl is a technique in which group members give their full attention to what one individual wants to express. The whole group sits in a circle. Two chairs are placed in the center of the circle. A member who wants to express a point of view does so while sitting in one of the chairs. Any other member who wants to discuss the view takes the other chair, and the two converse while the others listen. To get the discussion, the students must wait for one chair to be vacated. 8. A critiquing session is the examination of members' work by the group. The group offers constructive comments and suggestions about ways to improve the work. 158

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9. Round table is a quiet, informal group, usually four or five students who sit around a table conversing either among themselves (similar to buzz session) or with an audience (similar to a forum). 10. A forum is a panel approach in which members interact with an audience. 11. Jury trial is a technique in which the class simulates a court room. It is excellent for evaluating issues. 12. Majority-rule decision making is a technique for arriving at an agreement or selecting an individual for a task when members of the group hold different opinions. It involves discussion, working out compromises, and making conclusions or decisions based on the wishes of the majority. 13. Consensus decision-making requires that group members agree. Consensus requires that the views of all members of the group be considered, since the group must arrive at a conclusion or agree on a plan of action. 14. A composite report synthesizes and summarizes the views or information of all members of a group. Rather than a series 'of reports by individual members, one report is presented in written or oral form to the class or teacher. 15. An agenda is a formal method of organizing a group task. The students or the teacher can plan the agenda, and members of the group must keep it. 16. The seminar group is a deliberative body looking for a solution to the problem based on readings, experiences, and minds of its participants. The discussion is on an issue, problem, situation, or proposition for which an answer, a solution, or a policy is formulated. Using group techniques in flexible and imaginative ways can have important instructional advantages. 1. They give the students some control over their own personal adjustment as well as over their cognitive learning. 2. They allow the teacher to plan different lessons to meet the needs and interests of different groups. 3. They permit the teacher to vary instructional methods, to plan interesting and active activities. 4. They supplement the lecture, questioning, practice, and drill methods. The key to the success of group projects is the way the teacher organizes them. Flexible space and furniture undoubtedly make them easier. All of the group techniques if planned and implemented properly, tend to promote five group oriented characteristics in the classroom:

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1. task structures that lend themselves to cooperation among group members 2. a chance for students to work at their own pace, but think in terms of group goals 3. the development of social and interpersonal skills among participants - the students learn to communicate with and trust one another 4. a reward structure based on the performance of the group 5. a variety of team building strategies - the students learn to work together, appreciate individual diversities, and capitalize on individual strengths. Based on a five-year longitudinal study, Daniel Solomon (as cited by Ornstein, 1992) lists five major behaviors that should evolve with an effective group project. 1. Cooperative activities in which the students work on learning tasks or play together. 2. Regular participation in helping and sharing activities. 3. Experiencing the positive expectations of others (that is, the group expect members to be considerate, cooperative, take responsibility, help, and share). ' 4. Role-playing and other activities designed to enhance children's understanding of other people's needs, intentions, and perspectives. 5. Positive discipline which includes the development and clear communication of rules and norms that emphasizes the individual's rights and responsibilities with respect to others. David Johnson (1989) points out that when the students, work on group projects, they must learn to disclose their attitudes and behaviors in an honest way: 1. 2. 3. 4.

by giving and receiving supportive feedback, by focusing on specific problems, not personalities, by providing feedback that the receiver can understand, and by providing feedback on actions that the receiver can change.

Mutual trust and communication is improved. The giving and receiving of feedback in this way requires courage, understanding, and respect for others and oneself. The teacher should stress that honesty and support are important and can be used to improve or hinder people's attitudes and actions, and therefore they should not be taken' lightly. Guidelines for Group Activities In order to organize group activities, the following recommendations are given. They are basically sequential, although each recommendation should be used only if it coincides with the circumstances and teaching style of the teacher. 1. Decide on the group project selectively to enhance objectives and outcomes. 2. Consider social and cognitive purposes (intermixing the students by ability, matching the students and topics, blending personalities, promoting social or racial integration) and potential managerial problems when assigning members to groups. 3. Solicit volunteers for membership in group projects, reserving the right to decide final membership.

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4. Go over directions for carrying out each phase of the group activity in writing or orally to the point of redundancy. 5. Explain the role of participants, the way they are to interact, and whatever problems might occur. Define roles, interactions, and problems through examples and preliminary simulations. 6. Be sure that individuals can function socially, emotionally, and intellectually in their roles as members of a particular group. 7. Allot class time for groups to organize, plan, and develop some of their projects or assignments, with supervision as needed. 8. Be sure a group is able to function effectively and do a good job before asking it to perform for the class. 9. Allow group members to decide on the nature of the class presentation, within general rules that have been established. 10. Do not allow any individual to dominate the activities or responsibilities of the group. All members of the group should participate, within the limits of their abilities, and assume responsibilities for the success of the project. 11. Evaluate the completed group project with the students. 1. Discuss the problems and decisions participants had to face and the strategies chosen by each participant. Note recommendations and revisions that should be implemented with the next group project. 12. Do not direct a class into a group project unless you are willing to work harder than you would in large group instruction. The process of organizing and supervising group projects from behind the scenes of the classroom is almost always more taxing than the process of direct teaching in the foreground of the classroom. COOPERATIVE LEARNING A. Main Features of Cooperative Learning Cooperative learning is a model of teaching with a set of common attributes and features. Cooperative learning is a set of instructional methods in which the students work in small mixed ability working groups. It involves the instructional use of small groups so that the students work together to maximize their own and each other's learning. Cooperative learning encompasses a wide variety of strategies to promote academic learning through peer cooperation and communication. It implies that the students help each other, share ideas and resources, and plan cooperatively what and how to study. Cooperative learning was basically one of the principles of the progressivists who differed in many of the theories and practices, but were united in their opposition to certain traditional practices in school. One of the most famous proponents of it is John Dewey. Progressive educators and philosophers encourage the students to be involved in cooperative groups and view the teacher as a facilitator and resource person. They focus on the child as the learner rather than someone who is just getting information as a form of learning.

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Cooperative learning structures are an integral part of the open environment, but circumscribed approaches to cooperative learning have been introduced into a variety of setting, where they may constitute only part of the child's school experience. The goal of cooperative learning is to maximize the learning of all the students and to increase the mutuality of their relationships with the children different from their race or themselves. B. Situations that Require Cooperative Learning There are a lot of instances wherein a teacher may use the cooperative learning strategy but they can be trimmed down into three, since some of them fall under the same purpose. 1. Cooperative learning is best for activities that demand cooperative thoughts or mathematical thinking. Included in this are solutions where long-term retention is desired, lessons that require decision making, task where solutions are not readily apparent, and lessons that need higher level reasoning strategies and critical thinking. 2. Cooperative learning can also be used in open-ended problem solving activities that call for clarification and a range of strategies for finding the solution. Included in this is a task that requires hypothesizing, estimating, and experimenting. 3. Cooperative learning can also be used for activities where there are limited resources and lessons that provide opportunities for students to apply and/or extend skills and concepts. C. Philosophy of Cooperative Learning Cooperative learning sees the development of an individual in reference to his group's completion of a task; it also takes into account the collective performance of the group. Seeing both of these, the groups are rewarded according to how much all the group members learned. Cooperative learning; can create a positive impact on the individual's self-esteem, helping behavior, interest, personal liking, mutual concern among peers, cooperation, and attitude toward school and learning. Students learn to negotiate and to be more tolerant of others. Cooperative learning leads to greater cohesiveness, susceptibility to peer influence and an unwillingness to risk disagreement. It provides "a forum in which students ask questions, discuss ideas, make mistakes, learn to listen to others' ideas, offer constructive criticisms, and summarize their discoveries in writing." (NCTM's Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics, 1989, p. 79). The teacher is no longer seen as the authority who dispenses knowledge to students who merely absorb information. Students become more important resources for one another in the learning process. They work together helping each other integrate prior knowledge and new knowledge and discover their own meanings as they explore, discuss, explain, relate, and question new ideas and problems that arise in the group.

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D. Basic Elements in Cooperative Learning 1. Positive Interdependence. This means that the students in the group believe they can work together. The members of the group recognize that there is a need to coordinate efforts to accomplish the tasks that the teachers assign. There is a link among the members that the success of one is the success of all. There are four ways to structure positive interdependence. a. Establish a positive goal interdependence. Each member's effort should be directed toward the group's goal. The goal should be part of the lesson. A teacher may structure the goal for the group or the group itself may formulate its own goal. b. Provide a positive reinforcement. Positive reinforcements like rewards can enhance the quality of cooperation among the members of the group. Rewards may be individual or joint rewards. In joint rewards, the teacher considers the group's overall production; individual rewards considers each member's contribution to the group's performance. c. Promote positive resource interdependence. Positive resource interdependence is created when the members of the group are given a limited resource to be shared by them. For example, one copy of the problem or task is provided to the group. The students work on the problem or task on scratch paper and share their ideas and insights on the problem. Another example of promoting positive resource interdependence is providing each member a part of the resource or material which they must fit together to form a whole. This is the jigsaw procedure. d. Create a positive interdependence. Each member should be assigned a role. The roles should complement one another. These roles include that of a reader, recorder, checker, encourager, and elaborator. The reader reads the task/problem to the group. The checker sees to it that each member of the group knows and understands how to go about the task or problems. The encourager gamely persuades the members to participate in the group discussion and planning of ideas and sharing of feelings. The recorder writes down the things discussed in the group. The elaborator explains further the topics discussed and has the responsibility of making the topics more understandable to the members of the group. Assigning roles to the members of the group ensures active participation of each member in the learning process. 2. Face-to-face promotion interaction. It is the result of positive interdependence among the members of the group. If the members of the group are able to encourage and assist one another, in learning a lesson, promotive interaction exists. The generous exchange of needed resources, efficient and effective processing of information and honest and open feedback mechanism to improve the performance or roles and responsibilities are some of the indications of promotive interaction. In cooperative situations,' there is more tutoring and members more frequently help one another than in competitive and individualistic 163

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situations. Competitive situations result in individuals obstructing each other's efforts to achieve, refusing to help, and engaging in antisocial behavior. 3. Individual accountability and personal responsibility. This component entails an assessment of each student's performance, the result of which is given back to the student and the group. The group holds the individual responsible for contributing his fair share to the group's achievement of the goal. It is important that the group knows who among its members would need more assistance and encouragement to perform the tasks assigned. 4. Social Skills. This element of cooperative learning involves the use of interpersonal and small group skills. But the students should be taught these social skills and be motivated to use them in cooperative groups. To achieve common goals, the members of the group must know each other, trust each other, communicate openly with each other, accept and support each other, and resolve conflicts reflectively. 5. Group Processing. It is an act of reflecting on what actions of the group members were helpful and not helpful to the achievement of the goals and deciding on what actions should be changed and continued. The main purpose of group processing is to clarify and improve the effectiveness of the contribution of the members of the group in performing the tasks and achieving the group's goal. Group processing can take place at two levels; in a small group and in the whole class. In small group processing, the teacher allows time after each class session for the group to discuss how they have performed their assigned tasks that contribute to the attainment of the goal. Whole class processing includes holding a discussion in front of the class on how the group worked/performed on the tasks that led to the attainment of the goal. Both the small group and' whole class processing should allow the students a feeling of celebration. The feeling of success and being appreciated for having contributed to the attainment of the groups’ goal encourages the students to work cooperatively with one another. Likewise cooperative learning demands specific tasks from the teachers. These tasks include: 1. specifying objectives of the lesson; 2. making decisions about placing the students in learning groups before the lesson is taught; 3. explaining the task and goal structure to the students; 4. monitoring the effectiveness of the cooperative learning groups; and 5. evaluating the student's achievement and helping the students discuss how well they collaborate with each other. Specifying objectives include academic and social objectives. The academic objectives must be specified at the correct level for the students and matched to the right level of instruction 164

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according to a conceptual or task analysis. The social skills objective specified the interpersonal and small group skills to be emphasized during the lesson. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

size of the group grouping of the students physical setting of the classroom planning instructional materials assigning roles to create interdependence

Structuring of tasks and goals to promote positive interdependence can be accomplished through the following steps: 1. 2. 3. 4.

explaining the academic task explaining the criteria for success structuring positive interdependence structuring individual accountability

To be able to monitor and intervene with the learning of the students, the cooperative teacher should monitor the students' behavior to see what they do and do not understand, and check what problems they have in working cooperatively. The cooperative teacher should also assist with the task by clarifying instructions, reviewing important procedures and strategies, and teaching skills related to the task. Evaluating learning and processing interactions should mark the end of every cooperative learning session. A discussion of how the group worked cooperatively, shared of incidents, reflected on experiences, and determined ways of further improvement will also strengthen group learning. Researchers confirm the benefits derived from cooperative learning. It promotes active learning - the students learn more when they listen positively. The students are motivated to do more and eventually achieve more. Cooperative learning fosters respect for diversity and improves language skills. It leads to improvement in self-esteem and in social skills. It bonds communication interaction, the sharing of ideas, listening, and decision making. Cooperative learning is a method that leads to academic success as well as social success; it is not difficult and expensive to implement. In cooperative learning, students divide the work among themselves, help one another especially the slow members, praise and criticize one another's efforts and contributions, and receive a group performance score. Of all the cooperative learning arrangements, the two developed by Slavin are most popular: the student team achievement divisions (STAD) and team assisted instruction (TAl). Both arrangements have been found to increase the student achievement, given the proper implementation. In STAD, teams of four or five members (preferably four, which contradict) an earlier statement that groups of four tend to pair off) are balanced by ability, gender, and ethnicity. Students are ranked by previous test scores or grades and divided into thirds or quarters. Each team consists of one student from each of the thirds or 165

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quarters of the class ranking, with extra middle-ranked students becoming the fourth or fifth members. STAD involves five basic steps. 1. The teacher presents the lesson to the whole group in one or two class periods. 2. Team study follows for one or two class periods. Students who have already mastered the material help slower, teammates with it. Drill is stressed, although the students can engage in discussion and questioning. In a group of four students, only two copies of the work sheets and answer sheets are given to each team to encourage team interaction and support. The students can work alone, if they prefer, or in pairs or threes. The team is not finished with the assignment until all members can score 100 percent on a practice quiz. The students are supposed to give one another explanations, not just check answer sheds and supply answers. The teacher moves around the room to monitor the teams' activities, and provides additional assistance. 3. Class quizzes are given frequently to see if the students have learned the material while in the group. The students return to their assigned seats or move their desks apart for quizzes. The student scores are averaged into a team score, so that group members are more likely to help each other. Quizzes are scored in terms of progress so that slowperforming groups have the opportunity to· gain recognition. The teacher grades the quizzes promptly, or the students may exchange test papers for faster feedback. 4. Recognition is given teams for high average scores or improvement scores. Recognition can be given through bulletin boards, certificates, class newsletters, and letters to parents. Individuals are also recognized for good performance to maintain motivation, but a balance between individual reward and team accomplishment must be found. Giving too many individual rewards heightens competition and reduces cooperation. 5. Teams are changed every five or six weeks to give the students an opportunity to work with other students and to give the members of low scoring teams a new chance. E. Guidelines for Cooperative learning Specific strategies for cooperative approaches developed by David and Roger Johnson are as follows: 1. Arrange the classroom to promote cooperative goals. The students will need to work in clusters, and seating arrangements should reflect this need. Provide sufficient space and study areas for the students to share, position media equipment in a way that the students have easy access as a group. 2. Present the objectives as group objectives. The group and not the individual is the focus. Gear the reward structure to achieving group objectives. 3. Communicate intentions and expectations. The students need to understand what is being attempted. They should know what to expect from the teacher and from each student in the group and what the teacher expects them to accomplish. 4. Encourage a division of labor where appropriate. The students should understand their roles and responsibilities. This will take time and practice. 166

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5. Encourage the students to share ideas, materials, and resources. The students should look to each other and not the teacher. The teacher may act as a catalyst in making suggestions, but not be the major source of ideas. 6. Supply a variety of materials. Since the sharing of materials is essential to the group, sufficient quantities and variety are needed. If materials are insufficient, the group may bog down and perhaps become disruptive. 7. Encourage the students to communicate their ideas clearly. Verbal messages should be clear and concise. Verbal and nonverbal message should be congruent with each other. 8. Encourage supportive behavior and point out rejecting or hostile behavior. Behaviors such as silence, ridicule, personal criticism, one-upmanship, and superficial acceptance of an idea should be discussed and stopped since they hinder cooperation and productive group behavior. 9. Provide appropriate cues and signals. Point out when the noise level is too high ("Things are getting a little too boisterous.") Direct the group's attention to individual problems and encourage the students to use the group. ("Check with the group"; "Would you please add this problem to the group's agenda?") 10. Monitor the group. Check progress of individuals in a group and of the group as a whole. Explain and discuss problems, assist and give praise when appropriate. 11. Evaluate the individual and group. In evaluation, focus on the group and its progress. Evaluate the individual in the context of the group's effort and achievement. Provide prompt feedback. 12. Reward the group for successful completion of its task. After evaluation, recognition and rewards should be given on a group basis so that individuals will realize that they benefit from each other's work and will help each other succeed.

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Chapter XII HIGHER LEVEL THINKING Introduction Most experienced teachers would agree that conveying information to students is very important but that teaching the students how to think is even more important. Experienced teachers also know that concepts are the basic building blocks for thinking, particularly higher level thinking. Concepts allow individuals to classify objects and ideas and to derive rules and principles; they provide the foundations for the idea networks that guide our thinking. The process of learning concepts begins at an early age and continues throughout life as people develop more and more complex concepts, both in school and out. The learning of concepts is critical in schools and in everyday life, because concepts allow mutual understanding among people and provide the basis for verbal interaction. Skills are abilities to do things. They are competencies that people possess that enable them to perform in certain ways. Skills are different from knowledge in that they require more' than just knowing. They require doing, with some degree of proficiency. Skills, however, are just as much school content as knowledge. They are part of what the students need to learn and part of what teachers must teach. Skills differ from both knowledge and affective learning and are taught differently, but they are an important dimension of school instructional programs and are central to the reasons that schools exist. In at least two ways, thinking which is a complex skill or combination of skills, is especially important as content to be taught in schools. First, all students must learn to think; second, the extent to which they do affects all their other learning. When experts explain thinking, they usually use technical terms. Many say it involves at least three elements - intellectual processes, mental activities, and cognitive strategies. In combination, they help people make sense out of the information and other stimuli that they encounter in their lives and relate new information to ideas they already have. Thinking involves so many skills that people do all of the following: to impose intellectual order or disorder, to gain insight, to predict consequences, to propose solutions to problems, and to decide what to do when faced with a decision. Some educators say thinking is a uniquely human trait. It is the most significant characteristic that separates human from other forms of life because human thinking is at a higher and more sophisticated level than that of other worldly creatures. These higher levels of thinking are described in many ways and often with highly specialized language. Some of the more common general labels are critical thinking, systematic thinking, theoretical thinking, and abstract thinking. More specific terms that define particular aspects of thinking are conceptualizing, comprehending, computing, inferring, interpreting, analyzing, synthesizing, problem solving, generalizing, applying knowledge, and evaluating.

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Key Features of Higher-order Thinking (Lauren Resnick, 1987 as cited by Arends, 1994) 1. Higher-order thinking is nonalgorithmic. That is, the path of action is not fully specified in advance. 2. Higher-order thinking tends to be complex. The total path is not visible (mentally speaking) from any single vantage point. 3. Higher-order thinking often yields multiple solutions, each with costs and benefits, rather than in unique solution. 4. Higher-order thinking involves nuanced judgment and interpretation. 5. Higher-order thinking involves the application of multiple criteria, which sometimes conflict with one another. 6. Higher-order thinking skill often involves uncertainty. 1. Not everything that bears on the task at hand is known. 7. Higher-order thinking involves self-regulation of the thinking process. We do not recognize higher-order thinking in an individual who allows someone else to "call the plays" at every step. 8. Higher-order thinking involves imposing meaning, finding structure in apparent disorder. 9. Higher-order thinking is effortful. There is considerable mental work involved in the kinds of elaborations and judgments required. Higher Level Thinking Skills 1. Concepts are the basic building blocks around which people organize their thinking and communication. A concept's critical attributes help define it and distinguish it from other concepts. The various kinds of concepts include: a) Conjunctive concepts – this kind of concept has a constant rule structure. J:he concept of island, for example, always involves land surrounded by water. A triangle is a plane, closed figure with three sides and three angles. The rule structure for this concept is constant. The critical attributes are combined in an additive manner and are always the same. b) Disjunctive concepts - this concept is broader and more flexible and permits alternative sets of attributes. Th8 rule structures are not constant. Example, the concept of a strike in baseball is based upon a number of alternative conditions. A strike may be when a batter swings and misses, when an umpire determines that the pitch was in the strike zone even though the batter did not swing at the ball, or when the batter hits a foul ball. The concept "noun" is another example of a disjunctive concept since, a noun may be a person, a place, or a thing, but it cannot be all three at the same time. c) Relationship concepts - a concept whose rule structure depends on relationships. The concept of "aunt" describes a particular relationship between siblings and their offspring’s. The concept "time" and "distance" are also relational concepts.

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Students grasp general concepts mainly by being presented with specific examples and nonexamples of the concept. Learning a particular concept involves identifying both examples and nonexamples. For instance, a cow is an example of a mammal but is a nonexample of a reptile. Australia is an example of a country in the southern hemisphere, but it is a non example of a developing country. Cotton and silk are examples of the concept "fabric," but leather and steel are nonexamples. 2. Concept learning and logical thinking are critical goals for almost everything taught in schools. These become important scaffolding for building student understanding of school subjects. Concept learning is essentially a process of putting things into classes or categories. 3. The knowledge based on concept learning and teaching is extensive. Studies have shown how age and intellectual development influence readiness to learn concepts. Studies have also shown how examples and nonexamples should be presented to maximize the student learning and how the teachers can use such specific practices as visual and mental images and graphic organizers to support concept learning. 4. The instructional effect of concept teaching is mainly to help learners acquire conceptual understanding of the subjects they are studying and to provide a basis for higher level thinking. 5. A concept lesson consists of four major phases, such as: Phase

Teacher/Behavior

Phase 1. Presenting goals and establishing Teacher explains the goals and procedures for the setting lesson and gets the students ready to learn. Phase 2. Providing nonexamples

examples

and In the direct presentation approach, the teacher names the concepts, identifies the critical attributes, and illustrates them with examples and nonexamples. In concept attainment, examples and nonexamples are given and students inductively arrive at the concept and its attributes.

Phase 3. Testing for attainment

Phase

4.

Analysis

of

thinking

Teacher presents additional examples and nonexamples to test the students' understanding of the concept. Students are asked to provide their own examples and nonexamples of the concept. and Teacher gets the students to think about their own 170

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integration of learning

thinking processes. Students are asked to examine their decisions and the consequences of their choices. Teacher helps the students integrate new learning by relating the concept to other concepts in a unit of study.

6. There are several different approaches to teaching concepts. Two of the most prevalent are direct presentation and concept attainment. In direct presentation, the teacher labels and defines the concept early in the lesson and then presents the best examples through exposition. In concept attainment, the teacher presents examples and non examples of a particular concept but does not define and label the concept until the end of the lesson. 7. Preinstructional tasks include concept selection and analysis, selection of examples and nonexamples, and decisions regarding the sequence in which to present the examples. a) Selecting and Analyzing Concepts The curriculum is the primary source of key concepts for instruction. These concepts may be embedded in a textbook or contained in local curriculum guides. Charts, diagrams, and webs, as well as pictures can be employed as visual examples of abstract concepts. They can also aid the teacher in analyzing the concept for instructional decisions. A web provides a visual image of the characteristics and relationships generating from the core idea of a concept. There are four steps in constructing a web for a particular concept. Step 1: Create the core, which is the focus of the web. This would be the name of the concept. Step 2: Construct strands branching out from the core. These strands are critical attributes of the concept. Step 3: Draw strand supports, which connect the critical attributes to the concept. Step 4: Identify the strand ties, which may show relationships among the various attributes. b) Selection of Examples and Nonexamples This is the most difficult phase of concept teaching. Examples serve as the connectors between the concept's abstraction and the learner's prior knowledge and experiences.

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Examples must be meaningful to the learner and must be as concrete as possible. Figure 6: List of Easy and Difficult Examples and Nonexamples of Adverbs

1. 2. 3. 4.

Easy Examples You are so happy. She has been absent lately. Slowly; she walked home. The train chugged loudly. Medium Examples Are you fighting mad? Clouds gathered threateningly. It was not difficult to explain. The most dangerous weapon is a gun.

1. 2. 3. 4.

1. 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 2. 5.

Difficult Examples 1. The small floral print looked pretty. 2. Cats are my No.1 favorite ', pet. 3. He wants the dark purple bicycle. 4. The book had three color pictures

1. 2. 2. 4.

Easy Nonexamples Sewing makes you happy. She has been late. She is slow. 4. The loud train chugged. Medium Nonexamples Do you fight? The threatening clouds gathered. It is difficult to explain that not is a negative word. Most guns are dangerous weapons. Difficult Nonexamples The small print looked pretty One special cat is my He wants the dark rim to match. The book had three pictures.

c) Choosing and Sequencing of Examples and Nonexamples Examples and nonexamples should be sequenced for presentation in a logical fashion, and normally sets should be ordered from the easiest to the more difficult. Teachers may also want to plan to give cues to focus students' thinking before each set of three to five examples. 8. Through questioning and discussion, teachers help the students analyze their thinking and integrate new learning with old as the final phase of a concept lesson. 9. As with other instructional models, a major post-instructional task requires teachers to match their testing programs to the model's particular goals. 10. When evaluating the students' understanding of a concept, it is important to ask the students to do more than merely define the concept. Students should also be asked to demonstrate their knowledge of the concept's critical attributes and its relationship to other concepts. CRITICAL THINKING Definitions Critical thinking is a careful and deliberate determination of whether to accept, reject, or suspend judgment on a claim (Brooke & Parker, 1989). 172

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Critical thinking is reasonable reflective thinking that is focused on deciding whether; to believe or not (Ennis, 1987). It is an activity both practical· and reflective, that has reasonable belief or action as its goal. Critical thinking comprises the mental processes, strategies, and representations people use to solve problems, make decisions and learn new concepts (Sternberg, 1985). Critical thinking is the process of assessing conclusions based on evidence. Assessing conclusions with evidence takes several forms, such as:     

Confirming conclusions with facts Identifying bias, stereotypes, cliches, and propaganda Identifying unstated assumptions Recognizing overgeneralizations and undergeneralizations Identifying relevant and irrelevant information (Eggen, 1996).

Logical reasoning is a complex weave of abilities that helps one to get someone's point, explain a complicated idea, generate reasons for your viewpoints, evaluate the reasons given by others, decide what or what not to do, decide what information to accept or reject, see the pros as well as the cons and so forth (Dowden, 1993). Logical reasoning is also called critical thinking. Importance of Critical Thinking Critical thinking is very important. It is needed in the following daily teacher activities:        

solving problems making decisions evaluating pupil's statements/actions/behavior assessing the information/data gathered arguing about issues judging making predictions/projections acting/reacting/pro acting

Students who have developed a high degree of competence in critical thinking can make judgments about information related to personal, social, economic, political, and other related issues affecting their lives. They can scrutinize a newspaper editorial, select criteria, judge information in terms of these criteria and write a persuasive argument justifying a tightly reasoned judgment. Students' skills in critical thinking will also be applicable more likely to their personal lives. ' Brandth (1989) suggests that in order to qualitatively improve the students' ability to think, three approaches should be employed, such as:

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  

Teaching for thinking Teaching of thinking Teaching about thinking

Teaching for thinking calls for creating conditions at the school and classroom level conducive to thinking. The teacher's strategies include posing problems and questions that require thinking at different levels. Teaching of thinking refers to the direct instruction of thinking skills and strategies. Teachers should be aware of definitions and distinctions among various thinking skills, introduce skills directly as lessons and incorporate thinking strategies into content areas. Teaching about thinking focuses on making the students aware of their own and others' thinking processes and their use in real life situations. This approach called metacognition involves the students in reflecting on how they solve problems. Teachers guide the students toward independently planning, monitoring, and assessing their thinking processes. Only teachers who understand what critical thinking is and deliberately engage in it can help the students improve their own critical thinking skills. The Three General Skills in Critical Thinking Jonassen (1996) states that critical thinking involves the dynamic reorganization of knowledge in meaning and usable ways. It involves three general skills, such as evaluating, analyzing, and connecting. 1. Evaluating is making judgments about something by measuring it against a standard. Evaluating is not expressing a personal attitude or feeling. It involves recognizing and using criteria in different instances. Recognizing criteria is important when criteria are unstated, otherwise, the learning is required to use a publicly available set of standards. It is also important that the students be able to determine which criteria are appropriate. Skills necessary for evaluating information: 





assessing information for its reliability and usefulness, and discriminating between relevant and irrelevant information (e.g. evaluating the meaningfulness of criticism of a film based on the ability of the critic; evaluating a historical account in terms of its accuracy. determining criteria for judging the merits of ideas or products by identifying relevant criteria and determining how and when they will be applied (e.g. developing an evaluation sheet for critiquing research studies, establishing evaluation guidelines for judging an art show) prioritizing a set of options according to their relevance or importance (e.g. ranking a set of interventions for solving a child's behavioral problem; rating a set of bonds for long-term gain) 174

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

recognizing fallacies and errors in reasoning, such as vagueness, nonsequiturs, and untruths (e.g. propaganda in political campaigns, sales pitches that promise more than they can deliver) verifying arguments and hypotheses through reality testing (e.g. solving proofs in geometry; checking the accuracy of arguments in court actions)



2. Analyzing involves separating a whole entity into its meaningful parts and understanding the relationships among those parts. Manipulating part/whole relationships helps learners understand the underlying organization of ideas. Analyzing knowledge domains involves skills such as: 

recognizing patterns of organization (e.g. meter and rhyme schemes in poetry; arithmetic series) classifying objects into categories based on common attributes (e.g. sets in math, plant/animal classifications; economic, social or political groups) identifying assumptions, stated or unstated, including suppositions and beliefs that underlie positions (e.g. postulates in geometry; meaning in advertising campaign) identifying the main or central ideas in text, data, or creations, and differentiating core ideas from supporting information (e.g. discovering the theme of a series of paintings; finding important arguments or themes in a passage or poem) finding sequences or consecutive order in sequentially organized information (e.g. determining sequences for preparing dishes in a meal; determining the order of operation in solving math problems).

   

3. Connecting involves determining or imposing relationships between the wholes that are being analyzed. Connecting compares and contrasts things or ideas, looks for cause-effect relationships, and links the elements together. Connecting builds on analyzing because it often compares wholes based on the parts that were analyzed. It involves skills such as: 

comparing/contrasting similarities and differences between objects or events (e.g. comparing business plans, contrasting different phyla of animals in terms of locomotion)



logical thinking, required to analyze or develop an argument, conclusion or inference; or provide support or assertions (e.g. evaluating the logic used in a geometric proof or a position paper in economics; using a method for determining an unknown element in chemistry)



inferring deductively from generalizations or principles to instances (hypotheticodeductive or syllogistic reasoning) (e.g. proving theorems given a set of axioms; solving logic problems in philosophy)



inferring a theory or principle inductively from data (e.g. developing a theory of animal behavior from observing animals in the wild; drawing conclusions from collections of data such as tables or charts) 175

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

identifying causal relationships between events or objects and predicting possible effects (e.g. predicting the effects of a physics experiment; inferring the causes of social strife in a country)

Higher Order and Critical Thinking: The Role of Metacognition Metacognition is the awareness of and control over our cognitive processes. Nickerson (1988) characterizes the role of metacognition in higher order and critical thinking in this way. "The fact that an individual has some knowledge that would be useful in a given situation does not guarantee that it will be accessed and applied in that situation." Metacognition is the ability to know what we know and what we don't know, or thinking about the way we think as is now viewed as central to the development of skillful thinkers. Basic Processes in Thinking Process

Subprocesses

Observing Finding patterns and generalizing

Comparing and contrasting Classifying

Forming conclusions based on patterns

Inferring Predicting Hypothesizing

Assessing conclusions based on evidence Confirming (Critical thinking) facts/observations

conclusions

with

Checking consistency Identifying bias, stereotypes, cliches, and propagandas . Identifying unstated assumptions Recognizing overgeneralizations and under generalizations Identifying relevant and irrelevant information

A number of attitudes and inclinations associated with higher-order and critical thinking have been identified. Some of them include:  

A desire to be informed An inclination to be reflective 176

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      

The tendency to look for evidence An inclination to look for relationships (versus isolated pieces of information) A desire to know both sides of an issue An attitude of open-mindedness Healthy skepticism · The tendency to reserve judgment Respect for others' opinions Tolerance for ambiguity

Elements of Thinking

Figure 9: Elements of Thinking Expert teachers go beyond essential teaching skills to promote higher-order and critical thinking in their students. Teaching for thinking and deep understanding of content cannot be separated, and expert teachers simultaneously teach both. In addition to acquiring a deep understanding of specific content together with using basic cognitive processes, developing thinking includes training in metacognition and developing the attitudes and dispositions associated with thinking. Teaching for thinking and deep understanding of content emphasizes high levels of student involvement and classroom discussion, the process of acquiring knowledge as well as the knowledge itself, and learning in context. It deemphasizes learning based on memorization, teacher lecture, passive students, and knowledge learned as isolated concepts. Models of Intelligence Sternberg (1988) believes that any theory of intelligence must be able to do three things: 1. relate intelligence to an individual's internal world and explain what happens when a person thinks intelligently;

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2. accept the relation between the external world and that person's intelligence, and explain how intelligence functions in the real world; and 3. relate intelligence to the individual's experiences. Three current interpretations of intelligence that have particular relevance for the teaching of thinking skills are: Sternberg's triarchic model, Gardner's multiple intelligences, and Perkins' thinking frames and mindware. A. Sternberg's Triarchic Model of Intelligence Robert Sternberg (1986), a cognitive psychologist and leading theorist on human intelligence and problem solving, believes that intellectual skills and thinking skills are inseparable, although there is more to intelligence than thinking. He developed the triarchic model of intelligence consisting of three elements designed to explain what intelligence "should do." 1. Componential. Sternberg identified three types of in formation-processing components that constitute the initial segment of our intelligence: metacomponents, performance components, and knowledge-acquisition components. a) Metacomponents are the executive components of intelligence used to plan, monitor, and evaluate problem-solving strategies. b) Performance components help us to execute the instructions of the metacomponents; they are the implementation segment of intelligence. Among these are inferring relations, applying these relations to new stimuli, and comparing attitudes to stimuli. Students must learn when to use the various components and to use them in as many situations as possible. Inference is particularly important. For example, you overheard that your student is in the hospital. You may infer that he is there because he is doing part-time work. c) Knowledge-acquisition components refer primarily to our ability to acquire and use language, thus enabling us to use contextual cues in solving problems. The key here is to help the students determine which facts are pertinent. Sternberg (1988) identified three crucial processes. First is selective encoding in which the individual detects relevant facts that are not immediately obvious. Second is selective combination in which the individual sees a way of combining unrelated facts. Third is selective comparison in which the person combines old and new information. For example, a college instructor who conducts his class according to cognitive principles may encounter a student who is not doing well in this method. The instructor may recall an educational psychology course in his undergraduate class, in which the professor, while

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discussing the theory of behaviorism, mentioned that some students need a carefully planned reinforcement schedule. The three components are highly interactive; they generally act in teams as they allow a person to plan, act, and receive feedback. 2. Experiential. This tells us that our experiences increase our ability to deal with novel tasks and make information processing more automatic. For example, reading about the use of projective technique tests would not mean that you can now administer, score, and interpret these tests. You must experience the novelty of actual administration, scoring, and interpreting the test for you to become competent in the future. 3. Contextual. This specifies the functions to which components are applied in coping with the external world. Its major thrust is adaptation. It refers to: (a) adaptation to this existing environment in order to fit better into them;(b) shaping this existing environment or changing present environments to more suitably meet one's need; and (c) selecting a new environment which involves evaluation of the present environment and selection of new, more favorable environments. B. Gardner's Multiple Intelligences Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence is based on his belief that the brain has evolved separate systems for different adaptive abilities, talents, or mental skills that he calls "intelligences." According to Gardner (1991), there are seven types of intelligences, each of which is developed to different degrees in every person. Gardner further assumes that the brain pathways underlying these intelligences are developed to different extents and the damage to specific brain pathways interferes with one or more of the intelligences. For example, damage to speech centers interferes with linguistic intelligence and damage to the cerebellum interferes with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. 1. Logico-mathematical - using logical and numerical patterns and deductive reasoning; used by mathematicians, scientists, and logicians. 2. Linguistic - sensitivity to sounds and meanings of words and language abilities; used by writers and literature teachers. 3. Musical- sense of rhythm, pitch, and melody, and appreciation of musical expressions; used by musicians. 4. Spatial - spatial memory and manipulating and transforming perceptions of visual objects; used by artists and architects. 5. Bodily-kinesthetic - control of bodily movements and pro-prioceptive abilities; used by athletes and skilled artists. 6. Interpersonal- understanding and dealing with the moods, temperaments, motivations, and behaviors of other people; used by counselors, social workers, and salespersons. 7. Intrapersonal- understanding one's own feelings, motivations, needs, strengths, and weaknesses; used in guiding one's own behavior.

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Most individuals used most or all of these kinds of thinking, with varying levels of skills. And when one engages in complex learning tasks, one uses combinations of these different kinds of thinking. C. Perkins' Thinking Frames and Enculturation of Mindware David Perkins (1986-1987), desiring to help schools in addressing thinking skills, stated that any perspective on the teaching of thinking must confront the problem of intelligence, if or no other reason than to help teachers decide whether those they teach are already functioning at their intellectual "ceilings" or upper levels. Perkins (1987) stressed that as educators, one should not limit his view of intelligence. Instead one should identify the psychological factors that contribute to a broader, more qualitative model of intelligence. For this part, he conceptualized intelligence in this way. Intelligence = Power + Tactics + Content

1. A power theory of intelligence. This is solely dependent on the neurological efficiency of the brain (a genetic interpretation). 2. A tactical theory of intelligence. This holds that those who think better do so because they know more tactics about how to use their minds; or 3. A content theory of intelligence. This reflects a view of intelligence as a rich knowledge base. Mastery of actual material is at the heart of thinking and problem solving. In conclusion, Perkins believes that not one of these views contains the answer about intelligence, but a combination of all three is more promising. Perkins believes further that thinking skills improve intelligence. Noting that the schools can do little about the power of intelligence and perhaps have done too much in content, Perkins focused on tactics or strategies. Describing tactical intelligence as a "bag of tricks" he came up with term "thinking frame" to mean representations intended to guide the process of thought by supporting, organizing, and activating that process (Perkins, 1986 as cited by Gines, et aI, 1998). Perkins further hypothesized that humans or learners acquired these frames through a three-stage process involving acquisition, internalization, and transfer. In acquisition, the students encounter and transfer the basics of a frame by direct instruction or invention. It is the teacher's task to help them forma representation of the topic. In internalization, the students make the process automatic. Internalization comes about through practice on simple examples until it becomes fluent and spontaneous. Memory gradually becomes an' important support, only to recede as the process becomes automatic. Meaningful practice and memory aids lead to automatic processing. 180

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In transfer, the students use the "frame" in a wider variety of contexts. Since transfer or generalization does not occur spontaneously, teachers have to teach it (Perkins, 1987 as cited by Gines, et al. 1998). Perkins continues to work on ways to advance instruction of thinking skills or mindware as he now prefers to call it: The term mindware refers to learnable processes, schemata, and attitudes that foster good thinking (Perkins, 1993.) He continues to work on new approaches to teaching thinking skills and calls it enculturation. The concept of teaching thinking skills or mindware as an enculturation process provides a broad, less top-down approach to skills development. According to Perkins (1993), enculturation occurs in four distinct but mutually reinforcing ways: 1. cultural exemplars are artifacts and people, modeling or otherwise exemplifying cultural knowledge; Levels of Thinking Level I. Remembering Information Level II. Understanding Information

Level III. Applying information

Helping Strategies Mnemonics

Graphic organizers Generalizing Summarizing A problem-solving metacognition

strategy

with

Level IV. Analyzing information

Level V. Synthesizing/creating information

Level VI. Evaluating/Criticizing Information

Fact-opinion analysis Fact-inference analysis Good-poor reasoning analysis Cause-effect analysis Design of structure analysis Patterns in sequence analysis Flexibly relating things Using random input Elaborating on usual uses Evaluating other points of view Evaluating the reliability of information Evaluating alternatives Decision making Evaluating bias in information 181

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2. direct transmission of key information is the straightforward teaching of concepts, vocabularies, and information related to cultural knowledge; 3. involvement in cultural activities entails hands-on practice using aspects of cultural knowledge; and 4. involvement in cultural interactions refers to learner/ learner and teacher/learner interpersonal exchange that embodies cultural knowledge. These four methods of stimulating enculturation can serve as a guideline for organizing instruction, such that each element of the approach requires specific teaching activities. Figure 10: Strategies to Develop Levels of Thinking Benjamin Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives for the cognitive domain as six levels of cognitive complexity as illustrated below ranging from the knowledge level (simple) to the evaluation level (most complex). Cognitive Domain Highest Level

Least Common Evaluation Synthesis Analysis Application Comprehension Knowledge

Lowest Level Most Common Figure 11: Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

The levels are presumed to be hierarchical, meaning, higher-level objectives are assumed to include, and be dependent on, lower-level cognitive skills. Each level of the taxonomy has different characteristics as follows: 1. Knowledge. Objectives at this level require the students to remember. Test items require the students to recall or recognize facts, terminology, problem-solving strategies or rules. Some action verbs that describe the learning outcomes at the knowledge level are: Define Identify Label

list match

describe outline select state 182

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2. Comprehension. Objectives at this level are focused on some level of understanding. Test items include changing the form of a communication (translate), to restate what has been read or heard, to see relationship or connection among parts of a communication (interpretation), or to draw conclusions or consequences from information (references). Some action verbs that describe learning outcomes are: Defend discriminate explain

extend generalize paraphrase

predict summarize

3. Application. Objectives at this level ask the students to use previously acquired information in a setting other than that in which it was learned. Application differs from comprehension in that questions requiring application present the problem in a different and often applied context. Therefore, the student can rely on neither the question nor the context to decide what prior learning information may be used to solve the problem. Some action verbs that describe learning outcomes at the application level are: change compute demonstrate

develop modify prepare

produce solve

use

4. Analysis. Objectives at this level require the students to identify logical errors or to differentiate among facts, opinions, assumptions, hypothesis, or conclusions. Test questions at this level ask the students to draw relationships among ideas or to compare and contrast. Some action verbs that describe learning outcomes at this level are: deduce differentiate distinguish infer

illustrate outline point out relate

separate subdivide track down

5. Synthesis. Objectives at this level ask the students to produce something unique or original. Test items are focused on solving some unfamiliar problem in a unique way, or combining parts to form a unique or novel whole. Some action verbs used are: categorize compose create

design devise formulate

rewrite summarize

6. Evaluation. Objectives at this level require the students to form judgments about the value or worth of methods, ideas, people, "or products that have a specific purpose. Questions require the students to state the basis/bases for his judgments. Some action words used are: appraise

conclude

interpret 183

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compare contrast

criticize defend

justify validate

Trends in Critical Thinking The extraordinary pace of change has sparked renewed interest in the teaching of criticalthinking. This rate of change has created not only an unpredictable future but an uncertain school curriculum as well. Critics believe that schools need to turn away from the traditional curriculum and to focus on critical-thinking skills required in this information age. The concern with critical thinking is itself not new. Educators have long advocated that the students be able to organize ideas, analyze problems, demonstrate creativity, and think logically; but success in these areas has been limited. Only a few decades ago, some teachers believed that critical thinking was a natural by-product of studying any subject, "Just teach history or English and the students will naturally learn how to analyze, evaluate, and create," was the commonly held belief of both teachers and parents. Educators today believe that criticalthinking skills, like competency in playing a clarinet or skiing or writing clear sentences, must be taught directly. Many different programs and approaches have emerged during the past decade to promote critical thinking as well as creativity, ranging from courses designed to teach thinking skills to techniques for infusing critical thinking into ongoing course work. The great variety of approaches being tried indicates that no single curriculum has received widespread acceptance.  

   

David Perkins of Harvard University's Project Zero emphasizes "thinking frames." Using this approach, the students develop a framework to acquire information, internalize practices, and transfer information. Reuven Feuerstein's instrumental enrichment curriculum stresses the development of mental processes such as comparing, classifying, and predicting. This Israeli psychologist has developed learning activities to help the students adjust to and succeed in new environments. Edward de Bono attempts to teach thinking skills directly by helping the students restate and diagram problems, break them into smaller parts, and compare them to similar problems that have already been solved. Robert Sternberg offers a triarchic theory of intelligence that relies on thinking skills drawn from an information-processing approach. Matthew Lipman's philosophy for children program offers classroom activities and a teacher education approach that emphasizes reasoning with language and philosophy. Arthur Whimby and J. Lochhead have developed procedures to help the students become more systematic in their thinking. These exercises encourage the students to work in pairs and externalize thinking, or think aloud, so that errors and problems can be identified.

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One of the more widely known approaches was developed by Robert Marzano, and it may be useful to examine his curriculum in greater detail. Marzano and his colleagues identify five dimensions of thinking. 1. Metacognition. It is self-awareness of our thinking as we perform various tasks and operations. It also means using this awareness to enhance the thinking process. According to Marzano and colleagues, effective use of metacognition can enable the students to monitor and control their commitment, attitudes, and attention during the learning process. 2. Critical and creative thinking. Dating back to Socrates, the goal of critical thinking is to enable the students to become objective, committed to accuracy and clarity. The goal of creative thinking is to help the students form new combinations of ideas that lead to creative output or results. According to Marzano, critical and creative thinking are closely related, can be taught directly, and are at the heart of efforts to teach thinking. 3. Thinking processes. Thinking processes refer to mental operations including concept formation, principle formation, comprehension, problem solving, decision making, research, composition, and oral disclosure. The first three processes - concept formation, principle formation, and comprehension are directly related to the acquisition of knowledge. The next four processes are geared to the production of knowledge. Oral discourse overlaps and includes both the acquisition and production of knowledge. 4. Core thinking skills. Core thinking skills are essential to the functioning of the broader dimensions of thinking. For example, the core thinking skill of goal setting can assist in the larger dimension of metacognition; the core thinking skill of identifying relationship and patterns serves the larger dimension of critical and creative thinking. 5. The relationship of content area knowledge to thinking. Educators frequently debate the question: Can thinking be taught in isolation, or should it be taught as part of the academic subject areas? Currently, most researchers conclude that instruction in thinking should be strongly linked with content instruction. Therefore, content specialists need to identify important models and modes of instruction in their academic disciplines and relate these to the dimensions of thinking. CREATIVE THINKING Jonassen (1996) states that creative thinking requires going beyond accepted knowledge to generate new knowledge. Many creative thinking skills are closely tied to critical thinking skills. Critical thinking makes sense out of information uf1ing more objective skills, such as analyzing and evaluating information using established, external criteria. Creative thinking, on the other hand, uses more 185

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personal and subjective skills in the creation of new knowledge, not the analysis of existing knowledge. The new knowledge may also be analyzing using critical skills so the relationship between critical and creative thinking is dynamic. The major components of creative thinking are: 1. synthesizing 2. imagining 3. elaborating 1. Synthesizing involves skills such as: 

  

thinking analogically, which involves creating and using metaphors and analogies to make information more understandable (e.g. creating characters to describe different chemicals or chemical groups; finding everyday occurrences to relate to fictional events in literature). summarizing main ideas in one's own words (e.g. summarizing the meaning of a story in English or foreign language; stating a personal method for solving math problems) hypothesizing about relationships between events and predicting outcomes (e.g. sampling classmates' attitudes about new laws and projecting their parents' beliefs; predicting the reaction of chemicals in a laboratory simulation) planning a process, including a step-by-step procedure for accomplishing activities (e.g. developing a new study sequence for improving course grades; developing a plan for completing a term paper)

2. Imagining processes, outcomes, and possibilities. It involves intuition and fluency of thinking, and often calls on students to visualize actions or objects. Visualization is a skill that some students will find difficult to develop because of individual differences in thinking abilities. Although imagining skills are not as concrete or easily taught as other skills, they are nonetheless important for generating new ideas. Imagining includes skills such as:    

expressing ideas fluently or generating as many ideas as one can (e.g. thinking of things that are red and round; generating an adjective checklist to describe individuals in history lessons) predicting events or actions that are caused by a set of conditions (e.g. predicting the effects of new seat belt laws on traffic, fatalities; predicting the effects of healthier diets and exercise on body weights and fat counts) speculating and wondering about interesting possibilities and solving "what if' questions without logical evaluation (e.g. speculating about the effects of a major earthquake in Taiwan; what if certain historical figures had known each other) visualizing which involves creating mental images or mentally rehearsing actions (e.g. imagining yourself performing a double flip in a diving class; imagining a battle between the immune system and an invading virus)

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

intuition or hunches about ideas are powerful strategies that are impossible to teach but worth accepting, at least as hypotheses that can be tested using other skills (e.g. guessing the worth of a painting in an art class; prediction who will win in an election).

3. Elaborating on information, that is adding personal meaning to information by relating it to personal experiences or building on an idea. Elaborating includes skills such as:     

expanding on information by adding details, examples, or other information (e.g. generating as many examples as possible of a concept such as "value"; developing a story around solving a type of math problem) modifying, refining, or changing ideas for different purposes (e.g. change a story line to have a sad ending rather than a happy one; modifying the form of a musical composition) extending ideas by applying them in a different context (e.g. treating science problems like military battles from history; translating experiences from one culture to another foreign culture) shifting categories of thinking by assuming a different point of view (e.g. changing from the role of a Democrat in a debate to that of a Republican; classifying food groups and nutritional values of typical meals from different countries) concretizing general ideas by giving examples and uses (e.g. writing 'a short poem in different meters; creating a voyage to the center of different atoms).

INQUIRY TEACHING Inquiry teaching goes by other names such as discovery teaching and discovery learning (Arends, 1994). When educators discuss strategies to promote higher-level thinking, they most often are describing approaches very similar to inquiry teaching. Conceptually, inquiry teaching can be considered comparable to other models such as concept attainment, direct instruction, and cooperative learning. However, unlike the models that emphasize presenting ideas or demonstrating concepts and skills, the model teacher in inquiry teaching poses problems, asks questions, and facilitates dialogue. Inquiry teaching cannot occur unless teachers and students are skilled in discussion techniques and unless norms exist within the classroom that allow open and honest exchange of ideas through dialogue and discussion. The overall goal of inquiry teaching is to help the students learn how to ask questions, seek answers or solutions to satisfy their curiosity, and build their own theories and ideas about the world. Teachers are taking an inductive rather than a deductive orientation. Instead of giving the students ideas or theories about the world, which is what teachers are doing when they use the presentation or direct instruction models, teachers using inquiry or discovery approaches pose questions or problems to students and ask them to come up with their own ideas and theories. 187

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The teacher is not "instructing" the students on important ideas, but instead facilitating inquiry and discovery. To do this effectively requires some knowledge of what thinking is and the nature of human discourse in the process of learning to think. Thinking Skills and Processes There is an array of ideas and sometimes bewildering lists of terms used to describe the ways people think. But what does thinking mean? What are thinking skills? What are higher order thinking skills? From the many definitions that have been provided, most include statements which describe abstract intellectual processes and operations. For example:   

Thinking is a process involving such mental operations as induction, deduction, classification, and reasoning; Thinking is a process of dealing with abstractions and discovering the essential principles of things, as contrasted to remaining on the concrete level of facts and specific cases; Thinking is the ability to analyze and criticize and to reach conclusions based on sound inference or judgment.

Hyde and Bizar (1989 as cited by Arends, 1994) have provided another conception of thinking. Based on recent research in cognition, Hyde and Bizar write about thinking as intellectual processes instead of skills. They point out the complexity of thinking. They also emphasize the importance of thinking about thinking in context. That is, although thinking processes have some similarities, they also vary according to what one is thinking about. For instance, the processes we use when thinking about mathematics differ from those used when thinking about poetry. Figure 12: An Overview of the Intellectual Processes

Schema: Using prior knowledge, relating ideas to experience, integrating the old and the new     

relating information to oneself using tacit knowledge interpreting finding analogues, metaphors, and similes criticizing and evaluating

Focus: Breaking things down, analyzing, encoding, representing, deciding what is relevant and what are the key units to focus on · identifying key aspects, attributes, features, characteristics  

observing events, phenomena, creatures, things comparing and contrasting 188

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

collecting, recording, and representing

Pattern: Combining, putting together, synthesizing, seeing patterns, forming concepts, conceiving of the whole entity     

organizing information classifying and categorizing summarizing inferring and concluding predicting and hypothesizing

Extension: Using w4at is known to understand and act upon increasingly complex problems and situations   

decision making problem solving conducting investigations and inquiries

Projection: Diverging from the known to create new and different understanding of forms     

imagining expressing creating inventing designing

Metacognition: Thinking about one's own thinking; using executive/control processes      

planning or strategizing monitoring or checking regulating questioning reflecting reviewing

Source: AA Hyde and M. Bizar, 1989. Thinking in Context. Teaching Cognitive processes across the elementary school curriculum. New York: Longman. The inquiry teaching model has been developed primarily to accomplish three important instructional effects: 5. To help the students develop the intellectual skills of asking important questions and seeking answers, 189

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6. To help the students acquire the inquiry process skills associated with various domains of human learning, and 3. To help the students become independent, autonomous learners confident and capable of learning on their own. Figure 13: Syntax For Inquiry Teaching Phase

Teacher Behavior

Phase 1. Providing objectives and setting and Teacher goes over the objectives of the lesson explaining inquiry procedures and gets the students ready to inquire. Teacher explains the ground rules. Phase 2. Presenting the puzzling situation

Phase 3. Data gathering and experimentation by the students

Teacher describes the puzzling situation to the class using the most appropriate medium. Teacher encourages the students to ask questions about the puzzling situation with the aim of helping them gather information to assist inquiry.

Phase 4. Hypothesizing and explaining Teacher encourages the students to make predictions and to provide explanations for the puzzling situation. Phase 5. Analyzing the inquiry process Teacher gets the students to think about their own intellectual process and the inquiry process associated with a specific lesson.

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Chapter XIV ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION Introduction Probably since the time the first test or the first grade was given, there has been controversy surrounding its use. For instance, some have argued that grades dehumanize education and establish distrust between teachers and students. Others have said that grading and comparing students leads to harmful anxiety and to low self-esteem for those who receive poor grades. Even those who acknowledge the importance of assessment and evaluation have often condemned current practices for the emphasis on testing basic skills out of context and the excessive competition which results. Still others have commented that grades are really a "rubber yardstick" measuring the whims of particular teachers rather than master of important educational goals. Regardless of the criticisms and controversy surrounding this topic, the process of assessing and evaluating the students has persisted and basic practices have remained essentially constant. Meaning and Nature The term assessment refers to the full range of information gathered and synthesized by teachers about their students and their classrooms. Information can be gathered on students in informal ways such as through observation and verbal exchange. It can also be gathered through formal means such as homework, tests, and written reports. Information about classrooms and teacher instruction can also be part of assessment (Arends, 1994). Measurement is the process of quantifying the degree to which someone or something possesses a given trait, i.e., quality, characteristic, or feature. It is not synonymous with the administration of a test since data may also be collected with processes such as observation or may already be available and retrieved from records (Gines, et al., 1998). Measurement refers to the process of gathering information in relation to the presence or absence of a student behavior (Navarro, et al., 1988). Evaluation is the systematic process involving collection and analysis of data in order to make decisions. Its purpose is not to determine whether something is "good" or worthwhile as opposed to "bad" or worthless per se, but rather, to determine the current status of the object of evaluation, to compare this status with a set of standards or criteria, and to select an alternative from among two or more in order to arrive at a decision (Gines, et al., 1998). Evaluation is a continuous process of inquiry concerned with the study, appraisal, and improvement of all aspects of the educational program. The most ideal is for this process to be carried out cooperatively by all concerned with the growth and development of children. Evaluation is the process of determining the changes in the child as a result of teaching and of his experiences. It is a systematic attempt to ascertaining the amount of progress made in the education of the child toward the realization of objectives of education. It is an act of judging 191

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the child's acquisition of all forms of learning outcomes based not only on the definitive data of the child's subject matter achievement in the learning of fact, skills, and abilities but also on descriptive, qualitative data about his personality changes such as social attitudes, interests, ideals, ways of thinking, work habits, and personal and social adaptability. Evaluation refers to the process of making a value judgment or decision on the basis of information gathered (Navarro, et al., 1988). The term evaluation refers to the process of making judgments, assigning value, or deciding on worth. A test, for example, is an assessment technique to collect information about how much the students know on a particular topic. Assigning a grade is an evaluative act because the teacher is placing a value on the information gathered on the test. To evaluate means to put a value or. to assign worth on something. It includes a quantitative and/or qualitative description and a value judgment. Judgment is the essential element in evaluation. This makes it different from measurement. Measurement or assessment connotes a description of a situation, while evaluation implies judgment of the value of the situation. . Types of Evaluation 3. Diagnostic evaluation. This refers to the evaluation the teacher does at the beginning of the unit or course to determine the different levels to which the students belong to serve as basis for grouping them into slow, average, or fast group. Diagnostic evaluation also enables the teacher to discover the reasons for the students' difficulties. This will help him in planning remedial activities that can meet their needs. 4. Formative evaluation. This refers to the evaluation the teacher performs in the course of his teaching to find out how well he is doing and what he needs to do next. It reveals the stage at which the students have arrived in the learning process. This should be relayed to the students to give them enough information for self-appraisal. In this way, they can be motivated to do better work. Formative evaluations are collected prior to or during instruction and are intended to inform teachers about their students' prior knowledge and skills in order to assist with planning. Information from formative evaluations is not used to make judgments about a students' work; it is used to make judgments about such matters as student grouping, unit and lesson plans, and instructional strategies. 5. Summative evaluation. This refers to the evaluation the teacher undertakes at the end of a unit or course in order to grade the students and judge his own teaching success. Evaluation, therefore, serves as a basis for summarizing and reporting the student progress, for deciding whether promotion or retention will be better for a student, and for determining the effectiveness of instruction and planned activities.

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Summative evaluations are efforts to use information about the students or programs after a set of instructional activities has occurred. Its purpose is to summarize how well a particular student, group of students, or the teacher has performed on a set of learning goals or objectives. Summative evaluations are designed so that judgments can be made about accomplishments. Information obtained from summative evaluations are those used by teachers to determine grades and inform the reports sent to students and their parents. Purposes of Evaluation Besides the aforementioned purposes, evaluation is necessary for the following reasons: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

to maintain standards to guide teaching to appraise teachers, teaching methods, book contents, etc. to predict success in academic subjects to measure special abilities

Tools for Measurement and Evaluation In undertaking the different types of evaluation, the teacher tends to use test scores as basis most of the time. This should not be the case, because the teacher can use various tools or instruments to gather the information she needs. Among these are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

actual observation of student behavior; examination of work samples; rating scales; check lists; themes; notebooks; recitations; homework; and tests.

Observation and Work Samples. Actual observation and examination of work samples are the two bases for evaluating the students' performance. The teacher should note, however, that observation has limitations. The students may lose spontaneity in their behavior when they become aware that they are being watched. To some degree, this may be reduced if the teacher prepares beforehand a written guide or a rating scale _ to facilitate his observation and observes as unobtrusively as possible. Rating Scales. Rating scales are used especially for evaluating skills, procedures, and personal social behavior. They can also facilitate evaluation of the student projects and other work. They have the advantage of showing the students an analysis of the rater's evaluation.

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A rating scale identifies a specific set of characteristics or qualities. Indications are made along the scale in such a way that judgment is made about the degree to which the identified quality is present. Checklists. A checklist is different from a rating scale. It only indicates the presence or absence of characteristics. It is most useful in evaluating products and procedures. It cannot be used to evaluate personal-social growth. Themes, Notebooks, Recitations, Reports, and Homework. The written work of the students like themes, notebooks, recitations, etc. can provide evidences of students' progress. Hence, all written work should be checked. Practice materials, however, need not be checked by the teacher himself. The students can check their own work or each other's work under the supervision of the teacher. Likewise, the participation of the students in classroom recitations and discussions can provide evidences of the student performance. Tests. Teachers in an effort to measure and eventually evaluate student learning in the classroom use a variety of tests. Tests are systematic procedures for measuring the results or effects of instruction on learning. They determine how much and how well the students have learned. Types of Tests 1. Standard survey tests aim to measure the attainment progress or status of the students or the school. Standard norms are used in the comparison. 2. Standard achievement tests aim to measure the students' achievement as a result of instruction in a given subject or subjects. A standardized test is one in which the performance of an individual, or the average of the class, may be compared with that of a larger population. Standardized tests as contrasted to tests made by teachers, are those that have been designed and validated by professional test makers for specific purposes such 'as measuring academic achievement or literacy levels. There are two major types of standardized tests to measure the student abilities and achievement: the norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests. a) Norm-referenced tests attempt to evaluate a particular student's performance by comparing it to the performance of some other well-defined group of students on the same test. Most norm-referenced tests produce two types of scores - a raw score and a percentile rank. The raw score is the number of items on the test a student answers correctly. The percentile rank score is a statistical device that shows how a student compares with others, specifically the proportion of individuals who had the same or lower raw scores for a particular section of the test.

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b) Criterion-referenced tests measure the students' performance against some agreedupon level of performance or criterion. The content and skills measured are much more specific than the norm-referenced tests. This can provide information about a student's 'level of performance in relation to some specified body of knowledge or list of agreed-upon objectives. This is important information to have when making a judgment about the effectiveness of particular instructional programs and activities. Criterion-referenced measurement is a test that measures whether a learner has mastered an instructional objective which is specific, observable, achievable, verifiable, and interpretable. In this way, it is possible to evaluate the success or failure of the activity by means of direct measurement. 3:

Diagnostic tests aim to locate weaknesses and difficulties of the students and if possible, the causes of such difficulties in their performance. This kind of test is usually given at the beginning of the study or during the study of a piece of subject matter. The results of this kind of tests are not graded but are simply used to indicate the amount and kind of help needed by the students.

4.

Inventory tests aim to measure the degree of mastery before the teaching of the subjects. These tests are exploratory in their objective. The teacher uses them to discover what the students already know and what they do not know yet in connection with the subject matter to be learned. Based on the results; the teacher may just concentrate his efforts and the energy of the class on salient points not yet known thereby making for economy of time and effort.

5. Informal or teacher-made tests aim to measure the achievement, progress, weakness, or defects of individual students or class, or the effectiveness of methods used. Teacher-made tests are most commonly used in the classrooms. Teacher-made tests, may either be of the essay type or objective type of test. a) Essay test items are best used in assessing thinking at the higher levels like application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation than at the lower levels of knowledge and comprehension. Questions can be prepared relatively quickly but scoring can take more time than the objective type of test. In an essay test, the student is given the freedom to compose his answer to a question, drawing from his background knowledge, information on the problem, and presenting it in the best way he can. It encourages the student to learn how to organize his ideas and express them effectively. An advantage that is more apparent than real is its ease of construction. Only a few questions are needed for an essay test and it seems easy to prepare. The construction of an essay test, however, requires careful planning. The task must be carefully defined, general enough to offer some leeway for expression of ideas, but specific enough to set limits to this.

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b) The objective type of test may take any of the following forms: 1) Completion items are most useful in assessing the students' thinking at the lower cognitive levels of knowledge and comprehension. It is difficult to prepare completion items capable of testing higher level thinking abilities of the students. Completion items are easy to construct but difficult to score because it is not easy to construct items with only one correct logical answer. 2. Matching items are also used to measure the students' thinking at the lower levels of knowledge and comprehension. They are relatively easy to construct and can be corrected quickly. The basic form consists of two unequal columns of items to be matched. To cut down on guessing, the teacher should put in more responses on the right-hand column than the stimuli on the left-hand column. It is important that the entire test appears on the same page. This is in order to avoid accidental errors by the students if they have to turn the pages back and forth in searching for correct answers. 3.

Multiple choice items have the capacity to test not only knowledge and comprehension but also some higher-level thinking abilities. They can be adapted to a variety of subject matter content and they can be scored easily. However, they require a great deal of time to prepare as the items can be a good means for checking the students' understanding.

4. True-false items are generally used to assess knowledge level thinking. They can be prepared and graded relatively quickly. But there are disadvantages that should be noted. True-false items tend to encourage guessing and it is not simple preparing items that are absolutely true or absolutely false. General Principles in Test Construction Gronlund (1982 as cited by Arends, 1994) provides the basic principles that should guide the teachers as they design an assessment system and create their own tests. 1. Measure all instructional objectives. Teachers should construct tests to measure clearly the learning objectives they have communicated to students. The test should be in harmony with the teacher's instructional objectives. 2. Cover all learning tasks. A good test does not focus entirely on one type of objective such as factual recall; rather, it should measure a representative sample of the teacher's learning objectives. Remember that measuring more complex skills such as higher-level reasoning is more costly and time-consuming. 3. Use appropriate test items. Some types of test items, such as matching or fill-in-the blanks, are better for measuring recall of specific information; others, such as essay items, are better for tapping higher-level thinking processes and skills. A good test includes items that are most appropriate for a particular objective.

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4. Make tests valid and reliable. A test is said to be reliable when it produces dependable, consistent scores for persons who take it more than once over a period of time. A test is said to be valid when it measures what it claims to measure. Teachermade tests that are clearly written and that minimize guessing are generally more reliable than are ambiguous ones that encourage guessing. Likewise, tests containing a fairly large number of items are generally more reliable than those with just a few items. A test that is well-planned and that covers the full range of objectives and topics is most likely to ensure validity. Teaching the students the necessary skills to take the test also increases validity because, in some instances, the students may know the information being tested but simply cannot read or interpret the questions. No single test, however, can give a completely accurate picture of what a student knows or can do. Thus, there is always the need to interpret results with caution and to rely on multiple sources of assessment information before making final judgments about the students' work. 5. Use tests to improve learning. This final principle is meant to remind the teachers that although tests may be used primarily to diagnose or assess the student achievement, they can also be a learning experience for the students. Going over test results, for instance, provides the teachers with opportunities to reteach important information the student may have missed. Debate and discussion over "right" answers can stimulate further study about a topic. Effective teachers integrate their testing processes into their total instructional programs for the purpose of guiding and enhancing the student learning. Grading and Reporting Student Progress The purpose of grading and reporting the students' progress can best be understood in terms of those who use them - the students, parents, teachers, school officials, and employers. The most important purpose that should be kept in mind is that reports should facilitate the educational development of each student in relation to his ability. Reports mean the way or manner the grades may be relayed to the people concerned. These reports which may take the form of a report card, checklists of improvement in pupil behavior, personal letters, and teacher-parent conferences. They are effective only insofar as they improve the likelihood that the students will develop and achieve to the fullest degree that his potentialities allow. Uses of Grades 1. To determine who of the students are to be promoted to the next year and who are to be retained another year or eliminated from a class. 2. To motivate the students to work hard. 3. To guide the planning of the student's current school work. 5. To guide plans for future education. 6. To provide records for the school. 7. To provide reports for student progress for the parents and the student himself. 197

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Determining Promotion and Retention. The underlying principles that should guide the teachers at the elementary and secondary levels might be stated as: Help each child become the best person he is capable of being, considering his natural abilities and regardless of his socioeconomic background. At these levels of schooling, it is not the purpose of education to establish set standards of performance and then eliminate from the school the children who have not met standards. This does not mean, however, that there should be "mass promotions" or that every child should just be passed from one grade to the next because there are also certain minimum requirements that every child should meet at each level of education. What the teacher should guard against is adapting such a rigid standard as to emphasize "lock step" education wherein everybody is expected to learn to spell the same word, to read the same books, recite the same poem, and sing the same songs. In other words, the teacher should see to it that he is not teaching the children to adapt exactly the same patterns of behavior. The main objective of a professional school is to produce skilled people to fulfill an important function in society. In fact, the primary objective of colleges and universities is to prepare leaders in the arts, the sciences, and the professions. It is evident that the main focus of the professional school is on society's needs rather than on the individual's needs. Therefore, unlike the elementary and secondary schools, the professional college has a screening function in addition to the teaching function. The school sets standards of competence in the professions and those who cannot reach the competency levels are eliminated. If a society is to thrive, it has to set standard for people who will become future leaders who are to fulfill crucial jobs. The best guide to adopt in any promotion policy should come from the results of research on the problem. As a general policy, it has been found best to promote the less adequate student with his class for he will usually do better scholastically than if he is held back to repeat the grade. This policy is not recommended because research shows that it usually works (Thomas, 1962 as cited by Navarro, et al., 1988). Besides, it has been found out that repeaters do not become any better, especially if they repeat under the same teacher. In some cases, it is more desirable for the very slow student to be retained in a grade especially when he cannot even meet part of the minimum requirements for his grade. He will find himself so far behind the class in the next higher grade that he may develop general feelings of inadequacy and insecurity which may affect not only his academic standing but also his total personality growth. It is desirable for the gifted to be accelerated beyond his agemates so that he will not lose interest when he finds it very easy and he can keep the feeling of challenge within him. Motivating Pupils. One of the most popular techniques used by the teacher to stimulate the students to learn is the school mark or grade. Fear of failure is believed to produce greater achievement and knowledge of possible passing is believed to induce lesser efforts from the students.

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Planning Current Schoolwork. The grades the students receive every grading period can serve as basis for planning current school work because the grades reflect the areas wherein the students are weak or strong. Guiding Plans for Future Education. In spite of the shortcomings of "final grades" they often function as useful indicators of future success. In general, the student who has achieved high grades in a particular area of learning in the past can be expected to do relatively well in the same area in the future. Hence, elementary school marks or grades are useful in predicting secondary school marks. Likewise, secondary school marks are useful in predicting college marks. Bases for Marking or Grading Student Progress. A mark or a grade is a judgment of the student's progress on the basis of some standards. There are three principal kinds of standards or bases the teacher can use. These are: 1. Individual performance as compared with group performance 2. Individual performance as compared with a pre-determined standard 3. Individual improvement Individual Performance and Group Performance. Giving a mark or grade to the student on the basis of how his performance compares with that of the other students in the class is a commonly used system. This system is referred to as norm-referenced grading. Based on this system, the student is graded in reference to the "norm" for the group to which he belongs. Norm-referenced grading awards higher grades to students scoring below the average. It is important that norm-referenced grading standards be tied up with some kinds of assessment that will tell about the level of content mastery of an individual student. Gronlund, an authority in the field of measurement, suggests that a special mastery test covering minimum essentials of the course be devised in order to assure that students considered as "passing" possess certain basic knowledge (Gronlund, as cited by Navarro, et aI., 1988). He pointed out that even when grading is done on a relative basis (norm-referenced), the pass-fail decision must be based on an absolute standard of achievement if it is to be educationally sound. Individual Performance Compared with Predetermined Standards. The system of grading based on a comparison of student individual performance with a predetermined standard is generally called criterion-referenced grading. The students are graded according to .how their scores measure up against a given standard. Individual Improvement. Awarding marks or grades on the basis of individual improvement implies comparing the student's present success with his own past performance, regardless of the level of work being done by his classmates. They require the teacher to administer an initial test of the students' understanding and then a second test or tests after he has been exposed to the instructional program. The students who get high improvement scores received the better grades.

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Reporting Student Progress. If a teacher is to secure the wholehearted cooperation of parents, he has to inform the parents of the progress of their children in their school work. Through the marks or grades he gives the parents will know the strengths and weaknesses of their children and will, therefore, be in a better position to follow-up the instruction being given by the teacher. In order to avoid misunderstanding between the parent and the teacher, it is suggested that the following be borne in mind when preparing reports to parents: 1. The language of the report on the student growth and development should be as simple and as easy to understand as possible, whether it is in English, in Filipino, or in the vernacular. 2. The teacher should write down only that information which can help elicit parent cooperation. Whatever unsavory comments are to be made should be reported to the parents orally. 3. The report should be brief but clear. 4. The teacher should begin the report or letter with encouraging news and close with an attitude of optimism. 5. There should be a duplicate copy of every report to be sent to parents. 6. The teacher should put himself in the place of those who will receive the report and should anticipate the nature of the responses which are likely to result. He should be prepared to meet criticisms that may be raised.

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