Practica N8 Extracción de Gelatina

 

. ‐NÞL EC @N EDVC]QDFDANADÑO Z]LESAUDVN T EC@ FL]UN@CADKDCOUL EC @ CESANADÑO‛

SODVC]QDENE ONADLON@ EC@ QNOUN CQASC@N NANEÄKDAN Z]LFCQDLON@ DOGCODC]DN NG]LDOESQU]DN@

 

]QL2

DOGCODC]ËN EC Z]LACQLQ NG]LDOESQU]DN@CQ DD EL COUC2

 Dog. Blrgc Elkëogucz Anstnþcen UCKN2

CXU]NAADÑO EC GC@NUDON N ZN]UD] EC ZNUNQ EC AC]EL T EC ZL@@L CQU

EDNOUCQ2

Gnkmln Aruznel Wngocr  @cño Vîsqucz Qusno Anrl`don Qdfucotcs Zcongls Gnmrdc` Lknr 

 D @L2

VDDD

OSCVL AHDKMLUC - =:>3 Z]NAUDAN O² 8

 

Uckn2 Zrlacsl ec lmtcoadño ec gc`ntdon D.

DOU]LESAADÑO @n gc`ntdon cs uon prltcëon, cs ecadr, uo pl`ëkcrl alkpucstl plr nkdolîadels. Cstn prltcëon anrcac ec `ls prdoadpn`cs nkdolîadels alkl vn`don, tdrlsdon y trdptñfnol, y plr `l tnotl ol tdcoc vn`lr alkl n`dkcotl. Alkl `ls pl`dsnaîrdels, c` grnel ec pl`dkcrdznadño, `n onturn`czn ec `ls kloñkcrls y `n scaucoadn co `n anecon prltcdan ectcrkdono sus prlpdcenecs gcocrn`cs. Co c` nodkn`, `n gc`ntdon ol cxdstc alkl alkplocotc, sc `n lmtdcoc plr hderñ`dsds pnradn` ec` al`îgcol, su  prcaurslr dosl`um`c. @n alovcrsdño ec` al`îgcol dosl`um`c n `n gc`ntdon sl`um`c alostdtuyc `n trnosflrknadño cscoadn` ec su c`nmlrnadño doeustrdn`. C` prlacsl  pucec ``cvnr n edfcrcotcs gc`ntdons ecpcoedcoel ec `ns rupturns co `ns uodlocs dotrnkl`cau`nrcs. Unotl `n gc`ntdon n`dkcotdadn alkl `n ol n`dkcotdadn ``cvno, kîs l kcols, c` kdskl prlacsl, pcrl uon rcqudcrc adcrtns aloedadlocs ec hdgdcoc cspcadn`cs plr su ecstdol plstcrdlr quc cs `n n`dkcotnadño. @ls rcalrtcs ec pdc` suc`co rcaupcrnrsc alkl kntcrdn prdkn pnrn `n fnmrdanadño ec gc`ntdon9 `ls rcalrtcs ec pdc` sdo aurtdr, nsë alkl `ls ecsanrocs, prlvcodcotcs ec` ecsanronel y edvdedel, ol nprlvcahnm`cs pnrn lmtcocr aucrl. Qcgòo doflrkc ec` Acotrl ec Alkcradl Dotcronadlon`, `ns edkcosdlocs këodkns caloñkdans ec uon dos dostn` tn`nad nadño ño rcotnm` rcotnm`cc ec prle prleuaa uaadño dño ec gc` gc`ntd ntdon, on, alrrcsp alrrcsploe loeco co n `n quc  prleuac >::: tloc`nens n` nþl9 pnrn cstl sc s c rcqudcrco =:: =:::: :: tloc`nens n` nþl ec hucsls frcsals quc alrrcsploeco n 3:: ::: anmczns ec gnonel snardfdanens n` nþl.

DD.

LMBCUDVL 

Alolacr c` prlacsl ec cxtrnaadño ec `n gc`ntdon n pnrtdr ec rcsdeuls ec lrdgco nodkn`



DDD.

Fnkd`dnrdznr n` cstuednotc alo `ls pnrîkctrls quc rdgco edahl prlacsl

FSOENKCOUL UCL]DAL

 

@n gc`ntdon cs uon prltcëon ec lrdgco nodkn` quc sc utd`dzn co n`dkcotnadño, cspcadn`kcotc co pnstc`crën y alofdtcrën, plr su anpnadene ec flrknr gc`cs naulsls kuy c`îstdals y tcrklrrcvcrsdm`cs sd sc nukcotn `n tckpcrnturn. Hnac uols nþls, c` knylr alosukl ec gc`ntdon cstnmn co `n fltlgrnfën (`n gc`ntdon flrknmn uon anpn ec prltcaadño n `ns sn`cs ec p`ntn ec `ls ocgntdvls) pcrl natun`kcotc natun` kcotc cstî co ecsusl plr `n npnrdadño ec `n fltlgrnfën edgdtn`. edgdtn`. @n gc`ntdon gc`ntdon cs c` prleuatl ec `n hderl`dsds pnradn` ec` al`îgcol alotcodel co `ns pdc`cs, c` tcbdel alobuotdvl y `ls hucsls ec nodkn`cs. @n kdskn sc prcscotn co p`nans, hlbns hlb ns f` f`cx cxdm dm`c `cs, s, rc rcsd sdeu euls, ls, gr grnol nolss l pl` pl`vl vl do doal al`l `lrl rl l `d `dgc gcrnk rnkco cotc tc knrrñ knrrñoo nknrd``cotl. @lss hu @l hucsl cslss pu puce ceco co scr prl prlac acsne snels ls pl plrr tr trnt ntnk nkdc dcot otll n` n`an an`d `dol ol ec ecspu spuäs äs ec `n ecskdocrn`dznadño l plr trntnkdcotl îadel (hucsls m`noels), quc n `n vcz quc `ls ecskdocrn`dzn, rlkpc `ls co`nacs ec `n cstruaturn al`îgcon y sc c`dkdono ltrls alkplocotcs quc edfdau`tno `n cxtrnaadño. @ns pntns ec pl``l rcprcscotno c` 5% ec` pcsl lrdgdon` ec` nvc. Ecotrl ec su alkplsdadño alotdcoco =:% ec al`îgcol, quc pucec scr utd`dznel pnrn lmtcocr  gc`ntdon. @n gc`ntdon, prltcëon sl`um`c co ngun, sc lmtdcoc kcednotc `n hderl`dsds ec` al`îgcol, quc cs `n prltcëon quc sc coaucotrn co c` tcbdel alocatdvl ec `n pdc`, tcoelocs, hucsls y anrtë`ngls. C` rcoedkdcotl ec `n prleuaadño ec `n gc`ntdon y su an`dene ecpcoeco ec `n cene ec` nodkn`, ec `n fucotc ec kntcrdn prdkn y ec`  prlacsl ckp`cnel co su fnmrdanadño. @n an`dene cstî dof`ucoadnen plr c` tdckpl, tckpcrnturn, pH, grnel ec kl`dcoen, anrgn mnatcrdnon, prcscoadn ec dkpurczns y nedtdvls quc scno ckp`cnels co c` prlacsl ec alovcrsdño ec` al`îgcol n gc`ntdon. Son ec `ns prdoadpn`cs prlpdcenecs ec `n gc`ntdon cs su anpnadene pnrn flrknr  gc`cs, cxprcsîoelsc alkl plecr gc`dfdanotc co grnels l vn`lr M`llk9 kdcotrns

 

kîss c` kî c`cv cvne nell scn, scn, kîs kîs sñ sñ`d `del el cs c` gc gc`` qu qucc sc pr prle leua uacc co al aloe oeda dadl dloc ocss olrkn`dznens l kcolr cs `n anotdene ec gc`ntdon quc hn ec utd`dznrsc pnrn  prleuadr uo gc` ec vn`lr olrkn`dznel. Ltrn prlpdcene ec `n gc`ntdon cs enr n`tn vdsalsdene n `ns sl`uadlocs vdsalsns, `n aun` ecpcoec ec `n aloacotrnadño ec gc`ntdon y ec `n aloacotrnadño ec sl`dels tltn`cs. C` puotl dslc`äatrdal ec `n gc`ntdon plr uo prlacsl îadel cstî cotrc pH 7 y 49 sd c` vn`lr ec` pH cstî acran n`  puotl dslc`äatrdal, `n vdsalsdene y `n hdoahnzño ec `n gc`ntdon slo mnbns, `n turmdecz, `n fucrzn ec` gc` y `n sdoärcsds n`tn.

DV.

KNUC]DN@CQ T KCULELQ N. Kn Kntc tcrd rdn` n`cs cs 

Kntcrdn prdkn2 >.3 ig ec pntns ec pl``l, >.3 ig ec pntns ec lvcbn l ec acrel.

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

Vnsls prcadpdtnels ec =3:, 3:: y >::: k`.9 Mnguctns, Z`nans Zctrd, Uc`ns ec scen pnrn fd`trnr. Dostrukcotn`2 Mn`nozn ec prcadsdño y non`ëtdan, Kl`dol, Aladon, Mnþl knrën, ]cfrdgcrnelrn, Cstufn, Zltcoadñkctrl, Ucrkñkctrl, Qcanelr ec tòoc`, cvnplrnelr n` vnaël, vdsalsëkctrl, Mrllifdc`e, ibc`enh`..



]cnatdvls2 HA` n` =%,

M. Kc Kctl tlel el`l `lgë gënn @n kctlel`lgën ec lmtcoadño ec gc`ntdon sc kucstrn co `n fdgurn >, c` kdskl quc sc ectn``n n alotdounadño2

Kntcrdn prdkn2 @n gc` gc`nt ntdo donn sc cxtrnc cxtrnc ec kntc kntcrdn rdnss pr prdk dkns ns sc`ca sc`caad adlo lonen nenss qu qucc al alot otdc dcoc ocoo al`îgcol. Cstns slo pdc` ec acrel, rcalrtcs ec pdc` ec rcs l tcrocrl, cotrc ltrns cspcadcs, cspcadcs, nsë alkl `ls hucsls ec ästls, sl`nkcotc sl`nkcotc ec nodkn`cs nodkn`cs quc hno sdel sdel cx cxnk nkdo done nels ls pl plrr vc vctc tcrd rdonr onrdl dlss y qu qucc hn hnoo sd sdel el nu nutl tlrd rdzn znel elss pn pnrn rn c` alosukl huknol.

]cacpadño ec `n kntcrdn prdkn2

 

@n kntcrdn prdkn n utd`dznr cs rcacpadlonen co mucons aloedadlocs sdo odogòo kn`.

Zcsnel2 Kcednotc uon mn`nozn ec prcadsdño alo `n fdon`dene ec aî`au`ls ec dosukls y  mn`noac ec kntcrdn.

@dkpdczn2 Alo ngun pltnm`c alo c` lmbctdvl ec c`dkdonr rcstls ec snogrc, pdgkcotls y kntcrdns cxtrnþns pnrn quc ol dotcrfdcrn co c` prleuatl fdon`.

Ecsgrnsnel2 Cstn lpcrnadño alosdstc co sl`umd`dznr y cxtrncr `n grnsn alo ngun an`dcotc,  pnrn `ucgl scr cofrdnen c` an`el alo ngun alrrdcotc y fdon`kcotc kcednotc uo ckmuel ec ecanotnadño sc rctdrnrî `n grnsn.

Ecskdocrn`dznadño2 Qc rcn`dznrî ckp`cnoel `n vën îaden, c` aun` sc cfcatòn utd`dznoel uo îadel dolrgîodal dolrgîo dal co frël 8 ‑ >:²A (HA@ =% =%)) plr uo tdckpl tdckpl ec 58 hlrns, alo c` lmbctl ec hdoahnr y ecmd`dtnr `ns uodlocs ec `ns pnrtëau`ns fdmrlsns ec` al`îgcol, fnad`dtnoel ec cstn knocrn `n rupturn fdon` aunoel sc utd`dzn ngun an`dcotc n vnplr.

@nvnel2 Qc rc rcn` n`dz dznn alo ng ngun un al alrrd rrdco cotc tc pnrn pnrn c` c`dk dkdo donr nr rc rcsd sdeul eulss îa îade dels ls,, nsë al alkl kl ltrns dkpurczns, nsdkdskl ecmc nbustnrsc alo OnLH c` pH ec 1.4 ‑ 5.=.

Cxtrnaadño2 Kcednotc uo mnþl knrën, sc rcn`dzn uon cxtrnaadño co an`dcotc (63²A) plr 3 hlrns, sdcoel kuy dkplrtnotc `n dof`ucoadn ec `n tckpcrnturn y tdckpl ec

 

cxtrnaadño co `n an`dene ec `n gc`ntdon. @n rc`nadño sñ`del ngun pnrn `n cxtrnaadño ecmc scr ec >2=.

Fd`trnel2 @ls `dalrcs cxtrnëels ec `n gc`ntdon sc fd`trno co an`dcotc pnrn c`dkdonr  dkpurczns sñ`dens.

Znstcurdznadño2 Lpcrnadño rcn`dznel co mnþl knrën l aladon n 83²A plr 1 kdoutls.

Aloacotrnadño2 Qc rcn`dzn kcednotc uo cvnplrnelr n` vnadñ, ``cgî ``cgîoelsc oelsc n uon aloacotrnadño aloacotrnadño ec sñ`dels ec rcfrdgcrnadño hnstn >:²Mrdx.

Qcanel2 Qc rcn`dzn co uo scanelr ec tòoc` plr ndrc an`dcotc (1:²A) hnstn lmtcocr uo  prleuatl alo >: n >5 % ec hukcene.

Kl`dcoen2 Cstn lpcrnadño sc rcn`dzn co uo kl`dol ec knrtd``ls pnrn lmtcocr c` prleuatl co pl`vl.

Covnsnel2 @n gc`ntdon sc pucec covnsnr co ml`sns ec pl`dctd`col.

KNUC]DN Z]DKN

]CACZADÑO

@NVNEL  

ECQG]NQNEL

ECQKDOC]N@DRNADÑO

@NVNEL CXU]NAADÑO

(Ngun frën y an`dcotc)

(=% HA`, x 58 hr)

Nbustc ec pH2 1.4 ‑ 5.= Qñ`del2 ngun (>2=) 63²A x 3 hrs.

FD@U]NADÑO

ZNQUCS]DRNADÑO

83²A x 1 kdo

ALOACOU]NADÑO

Vnaël >:% ec sñ`dels (>:²Mrdx)

QCANEL

1:²A hnstn >: ‑ >5% hukcene.

KL@DCOEN

COVNQNEL

Anrnatcrdznadño ec `n gc`ntdon 

Ectcrkdonadño ec` alotcodel prltcdal, kätlel ibc`enh`.

 

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Ectcrkdonadño ec hukcene, acodzn y grnsn scgòo kätlels lfdadn`cs.

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Ectcrk Ect crkdon donadñ adñoo ec `n vds vdsalsd alsdene ene (aps (aps)) prcpnrno prcpnrnoel el sl`uad sl`uadño ño 7.3 g ec gc`ntdon y >:3 k` ec ngun n tckpcrnturn ec 5:²A (scgòo kätlel mrdtîodal cstnoenrdznel (MQ 737=3).

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Fdrkczn kcednotc uo tcxturlkctrl l pcoctrlkctrl, prcpnrnoel kcza`n ec 8.65g ec gc`ntdon y ngun alo `n anotdene ec naucrel n `n prcpnrnadño alkcradn`, cs ``cvnel n uo mnþl n >:²A, `ucgl n pnrtdr ec `ns =/5 ec hlrn sc rcn`dzno `ns kcedadlocs.

V.

]CQS@UNELQ T EDQASQDLOCQ ]CACZADÑO EC KNUC]DN Z]DKN (>.3 IG EC ZNUNQ EC ZL@@L)

]CACZADÑO EC KNUC]DN Z]DKN (>.3 IG EC ZNUNQ EC AC]EL)

 

@NVNEL EC KNUC]DN Z]DKN Z]CVDN KL@DCOEN ZN]N KNTL]CQ ]COEDKDCOULQ

ECQG]NQNEL EC KNUC]DN Z]DKN QLKCUDCOEL N CMS@@DADÑO ZL] 1: KDOSULQ

ECQKDOC]N@DRNADÑO ALO ]CKLBL ZL] 58 HL]NQ ALO QL@SADÑO EC HA` N@ =%

@NVNEL ALO NGSN AL]]DCOUC T NBSQUN] C@ pH COU]C 3-6 ALO OnLH

 

CXU]NAADÑO CO NGSN AN@DCOUC ZL]  MNÞL KN]ËN

FD@U]NEL ALO AL@NEL]CQ

ALOACOU]NADÑO CO ]LUNVNZL] SQNOEL Z]CQDLO EC VNADL

ALOACOU]NADÑO CO ]LUNVNZL] SQNOEL Z]CQDLO EC VNADL

 

QCANEL N 1:ºA ZL] =5 HL]NQ

Qc utd`dzñ pntns ec acral lmtcoden edrcatnkcotc ec` kcranel @n Zcr`n co `n aduene ec Ahdkmltc. @ns pntns sc aloscrvnrlo mnbl alogc`nadño co rcfrdgcrnelrn elkästdan hnstn c` eën co quc sc usñ co `ns dostn`nadlocs ec` `nmlrntlrdl, sc alrtñ co trlzls ec nprlxdknenkcotc 1 x 1 ak, sc cobungñ alo ngun alrrdcotc frën. @ns pntns ec acrel sc slkctdñ n uo trntnkdcotl ec ecsgrnsnel sukcrgdcoel co ngun n cmu``dadño (>::ºA) eurnotc 1: kdoutls, sc cofrdñ n tckpcrnturn nkmdcotn`  pnrn fnad`dtnr `n scpnrnadño ec `n grnsn plr p lr su sl`dedfdanadño. @n ecskdocrn`dznadño sc rcn`dzñ ckp`cnoel `n vën îaden, c` aun` sc cfcatòn utd`dznoel 5: k@ ec îadel a`lrhëerdal co = @ ec ngun alrrdcotc, pnrn lmtcocr uon sl`uadño îaden (HA` =%) plr uo tdckpl ec 58 hlrns, alo c` lmb lmbctl ctl ec hdoahnr y ecmd`dtnr `ns uodlocs ec `ns pnrtëau`ns fdmrlsns ec` al`îgcol, fnad`dtnoel ec cstn knocrn `n rupturn fdon` aunoel sc utd`dzn ngun an`dcotc n vnplr. Znsnens `ns 58 hlrns ec rcklbl co sl`uadño îaden sc prlacedñ n `nvnr oucstrn kntcrd knt crdnn prd prdkn kn alo ngu ngunn alr alrrdc rdcotc otc pnrn pnrn c`d c`dkdo kdonr nr rcsdeuls rcsdeuls îadels, îadels, nsë alkl alkl ltrns dkpurczns, nsdkdskl sc ecmdñ nbustnr c` vn`lr ec` pH alo OnLH pcrl crn doocacsnrdl yn quc `ucgl ec` `nvnel c` pH sc coalotrnmn cotrc 3 ‑ 6. Fdon`dznoel cstn ctnpn ec naloedadlonkdcotl ec `n kntcrdn prdkn, sc dodadn `n ctnpn ec cxtrnaadño co an`dcotc (63²A) plr 3 hlrns, sdcoel kuy dkplrtnotc `n dof`ucoadn ec `n tckpcrnturn y tdckpl ec cxtrnaadño co `n an`dene ec `n gc`ntdon. @n rc`nadño sñ`del ngun pnrn `n cxtrnaadño fuc ec >2=. @lss `d @l `dal alrcs rcs cx cxtr trnë nëels els ec `n gc gc`n `ntd tdon on sc fd fd`t `trn rnrlo rlo co an an`d `dcot cotcc pnrn pnrn c` c`dk dkdo donr  nr  dkpurczns sñ`dens.

 

Son vcz lmtcodel c` fd`trnel sc prlacedñ n pnstcurdznr`l co aladon n 83²A plr 1 kd kdou outl tls. s. Fd Fdon on`k `kco cotc tc lm lmtu tuvd vdkl klss 1 @ ec fd fd`t `trn rnel el pn pnst stcu curd rdzn znel el al aloo uo uonn aloacotrnadño ec =ºMx, plr `l quc sc aloacotrñ kcednotc uo cvnplrnelr n` vnadñ, ``cgîoelsc n uon aloacotrnadño ec sñ`dels ec hnstn >:²Mrdx. Fdon`kcotc sc rcn`dzñ uo scanel plr ndrc an`dcotc (1:²A) hnstn lmtcocr uo  prleuatl alo >: n >5 % ec hukcene, auyn a uyn npnrdcoadn fuc ec uon hlbn ec pnpc pnpc`.`. Qcgò Qc gòoo Kd Kdno nol, l, N. ct n` n`.,., =: =:>5 >599 co `n do dovc vcst stdg dgna nadñ dñoo ‐D ‐Dof of`u `uco coad adnn ec `n tckpcrnturn y tdckpl ec cxtrnaadño co `n fucrzn ec gc` y rcoedkdcotl ec gc`ntdon lmtcoden n pnrtdr ec pdc` ec tl``l (Kus (K ustc tc`u `uss kcot kcotl)‛ l)‛ ectn` ectn``n `n c` kä kätl tlel el ck ckp` p`cn cnel el pn pnrn rn `n cx cxtr trna naad adño ño ec gc`ntdon.

Qc ckp`cñ pdc` ec tl`` tl``ll (Kustc`us kcotl) prlvcodcotc prlvcodcotc ec pcsanel frcsal alkprnel co c` kcranel. @ns pdc`cs ec tl``l tl``l sc `nvnrlo alo ngun pltnm`c y sc al alrt rtnr nrlo lo co au aune nern rnel elss ec >a >ak k ec `n `nel el,, sc sl slkc kctd tdcr crlo lo n pr prcc tr trnt ntnk nkdc dcot otll al aloo uo uonn sl sl`u `uad adño ño ec Hd Hder erñx ñxde dell ec Qled Qledll :, :,>O >O co `n  prlplradño pdc`/sl`uadño ec >21 (p/v) n tckpcrnturn ec >:ºA plr 58 hlrns. @ucgl sc `nvnrl `nvnrloo alo ngun ecstd`nen ecstd`nen y sc ocutrn`dznrlo ocutrn`dznrlo alo îadel a`lrhëerdal a`lrhë erdal :,:3O. Co `n ctnpn ec cxtrnaadño sc al`lanrlo co uo vnsl ec  prcadpdtnadño >3: g ec pdc` prc trntnens, alo ngun ecstd`nen co `n  prlplradño >25 (p/v) y fucrlo cxpucstns n tckpcrnturns quc lsad`nrlo cotrc 6:²A n 43²A plr tdckpls 1: kdo n =5: kdo, scgòo `ls trntnkdcotls ec` edscþl prlpucstl. Qc fd`trñ `n suspcosdño y sc lmtuvl `n pnrtc `dquden (gc`ntdon co sl`uadño). Cstn sl`uadño sc alogc`ñ plr =5 hlrns9 c` ngun cxacecotc sc scpnrñ plr ecsalogc`nadño n =:²A. @ls gc`cs ec gc`ntdon fucrlo al`lanens co uo scanelr plr ndrc an`dcotc n 6:²A plr >= hlrns  pnrn lmtcocr `îkdons ec gc`ntdon ecshderntnen. Qc ectcrkdoñ `n hukcene y acod acodzn znss (NLN (NLNA, A, =: =::: ::)) al aloo `l `lss kät ätle lels ls 43 43:. :.56 56 y 4= 4=:. :.>3 >311 rcspca rcs pcatd tdvnk vnkcot cotcc co `n pd pdc` c` ec tl tl`` ``ll y `n gc`nt gc`ntdo donn cxtrnë cxtrnëen en.. Zn Znrn rn `n ectcrkdonadño ec` plracotnbc ec rcoedkdcotl sc cxprcsñ `ls grnkls ec

 

gc`ntdon scan plr anen >:: g ec pdc` frcsan `dkpdn y pnrn `n ectcrkdonadño ec `n fucrzn ec gc` sc ckp`cñ c` Gc`ñ Qcgòo N`kcden, Z.F., ct n`, =:>=9 co `n dovcstdgnadño ‐Nprlvcahnkdcotl ec Zntns ec Zl``ls alkl N`tcrontdvn pnrn edskdoudr ]csdeuls Gcocrnels co `ls Kntnecrl‛ ectn``n c` kätlel ckp`cnel pnrn `n cxtrnaadño ec gc`ntdon. Co `n prdkcrn ctnpn2 Fucrlo `nvnens `ns pntns. Ecspuäs fucrlo rctdrnens `ns uþns y `ucgl sc `nvnrlo ec oucvl `ns pntns alo ngun frën pnrn c`dkdonr  aun`qud aun` qudcr cr rcsdeul rcsdeul ec suad suadcen cene. e. Zlstcrd Zlstcrdlrk lrkcot cotcc fucrlo fucrlo slk slkctd ctdels els n`  prlacsl ec alaa alaadño dño n >=:ºA eurnotc =: kdoutls. Ecspuäs Ecs puäs ec `n alaadño, `n plradño `ëquden rcsu`tnotc sc scpnrñ, sc fd`trñ y `n kucstrn sc al`lañ co uo rcadpdcotc ec vderdl. @n kucstrn fuc slkctden n rcfrdgcrnadño y ecspuäs ec sl`dedfdanel `n grnsn quc sc nauku`ñ co `n supcrfdadc ecmdel n `n kcolr ecosdene, fnvlrcadñ su scpnrnadño y plstcrdlr c`dkdonadño. Fdon`kcotc, Fdon` kcotc, uon kcza`n ec al`îgc al`îgcol ol y 3::k@ ec ngun fucrno al`lanels al`lanels co uo rcadpdcotc ec nacrl dolxdenm`c y fuc an`cotnel alo =::g ec nzòanr  y nedtdvls. @ls noî`dsds ec `n alkplsdadño ec `n gc`ntdon fucrlo hnahns ec naucrel alo Nrocsco y Gd`emcrg (=::7)9 Ahclw ct n`. (=::7)9 Hnl ct n`. (=::4) y Inrdk y Mhnt (=::4). Qcgòo Knrtëocz, G. ct n`., =:>> co `n dovcstdgnadño ‐N`guons Zrlpdcenecs Fdsdalquëkdans ec gc`ntdon ec pdc` ec truahn‛ ectn``n c` kätlel ckp`cnel  pnrn `n cxtrnaadño ec gc`ntdon. @n pdc` sc cobungñ alo ngun ecstd`nen (>2>) y sc slkctdñ n uo prctrntnkdcotl îadel-mîsdal. Qc kcza`ñ alo uon sl`uadño ec OnLH n` 3% co  prlplradño (>2>, pdc`2 sl`uadño), sc ngdtñ sunvckcotc sunv ckcotc plr 1 kdo y sc ecbñ rcplsnr eurnotc >3 kdo. Zlstcrdlrkcotc Zlstcrdlrkcotc sc ercoñ `n kcza`n alo kn``n ec  p`îstdal ec :.3 kk ec edîkctrl y sc ngrcgñ îadel naätdal n` 3% (>2>,  pdc`2 sl`uadño). @n kcza`n sc ngdtñ plr 1 kdoutls y sc ecbñ rcplsnr 

 

eurnotc >3 kdo. Nkmls prlacsls sc rcn`dznrlo n tckpcrnturn nkmdcotc. @n pdc` fuc erconen notcs ec slkctcrsc n` prlacsl ec cxtrnaadño alo sn`. N `n pdc` trntnen sc `c nedadloñ uon sl`uadño ec OnA` :.8 K (>2>, pdc`2 sl`uadño) n :ºA plr 1 kdo. Cstn lpcrnadño sc rcpdtdñ co auntrl lansdlocs. @n pdc` sc ercoñ ecspuäs ec anen `nvnel alo kn``n ec p`îstdal ec :.3 kk ec edîkctrl. Zlstcrdlrkcotc `n pdc` sc kcza`ñ alo ngun (>: g ec pdc`/8 k` ngun ecstd`nen) y sc knotuvl n 53ºA plr 1: kdo, alo ngdtnadño alostnotc. Qc ngrcgñ ngun ecstd`nen n uon rc`nadño ec >: g pdc`/8 k@ NGSN (prdkcr `nvnel). Cstn lpcrnadño sc rcpdtdñ els vcacs alo uon  prlplradño ec >: g pdc`/>3 k` ngun n `n kdskn tckpcrnturn. @n gc`ntdon lmtcoden ec` prdkcr `nvnel sc fd`trñ alo kn``n ec p`îstdal ec :.3 kk ec edîkctrl y coscguden alo tc`n ec fdmrn ec n`gleño pnrn c`dkdonr rcsdeuls ec pdc`. Co c` prlacsl ec purdfdanel sc utd`dznrlo a`nrdfdanotcs co c` sdgudcotc lreco2 >: g ec tdcrrn ec edntlkcns, ecspuäs alo >3 g ec anrmño natdvnel (= vcacs) y fdon`kcot fdon`kcotcc alo >: g ec tdcrrn ec edntlkcns plr `dtrl ec sl`uadño ec gc`ntdon n 6:ºA. @n gc`ntdon sc alogc`ñ co anbns Zctrd n -=:ºA notcs ec al`lanrsc co uo `dlfd`dzne `dlfd `dznelr lr doarckcotnoel doarckcotnoel `n tckpc tckpcrnturn rnturn anen els hlrns hnstn n`anoznr  -=ºA y sc knotuvl plr 46 h co cstns aloedadlocs. @n gc`ntdon sc scañ co anbns Zctrd n 3:ºA plr =5 h alo alrrdcotc ec ndrc flrznel (=: k/s) co uon cstufn. @n gc`ntdon `dlfd`dznen y scanen sc kl`dcrlo co uon `daunelrn plr 1 kdo y `ns kucstrn kucstrnss sc n`k n`knac naconrl onrloo co tumls tumls ec pl`dct pl`dctd`c d`col ol n tckpcrn tckpcrntur turnn nkmdcotc. @n gc`ntdon cs uo dkplrtnotc mdlpl`ëkcrl gc`dfdanotc doeustrdn`, olrkn`kcotc ecrdvnel ec rcs l ec acrel (Ahld y ]cgcostcdo, =:::), lmtcodel plr uo prlacsl îadel-mîsdal kcednotc `n ecgrnenadño hderl`ëtdan ec` al`îgcol, c` alkplocotc  prdoadpn` ec` tcbdel fdol alocatdvl nodkn` (Gdkcocz ct n`., =::5). @n gc`ntdon cs uon prltcëon ec n` vn`lr, mnbn co an`lrëns, `dmrc ec al`cstcrl` y ec nzòanr y

 

 prîatdankcotc ol alotdcoc kntcrdns grnsns. Cs fîad` ec edgcrdr y c` lrgnodskl huknol `n ecsalkploc alkp`ctnkcotc. @n gc`ntdon vdcoc sdcoel cxtrnëen knylrdtnrdn-kcotc n pnrtdr ec pdc` ec acrel (56%), pdc`cs ec mlvdol (=4,5%), hucsls (=1,>%) y ltrns fucotcs (>,3%) (GKC, =::8). Qdo ckmnrgl, n pcsnr ec quc `n gc`ntdon tdcoc kò`tdp`cs np`danadlocs (cspcsnotc, cku`sd-fdanotc, cta.), nòo cxdstco prclaupnadlocs ec pnrtc ec `ls alosukdelrcs alo rcspcatl n su lrdgco (Nshcr, >444). @ns gc`ntdons, ecpcoedcoel ec su kätlel ec cxtrnaadño, sc a`nsdfdano co els grnoecs grupls2 `n gc`ntdon tdpl N, quc en uon gc`ntdon ec anrgn ocgntdvn y alo  puotl dslc`äatrdal cotrc pH 6.3-39 prlvdcoc slmrc tlel ec `ns pdc`cs frcsans ec acrels y `n gc`ntdon tdpl M cs lmtcoden kîs quc tlel ec `ns pdc`cs ec vnauols ol aurtdens. Qcgòo cstl pleckls nfdrknr quc `n gc`ntdon cxtrnëen co c` `nmlrntlrdl fuc `n gc`ntdon g c`ntdon tdpl N (Ku`tlo, >488). @n an`dene ec `n gc`ntd gc`ntdon on lmtcoden cstî ddof`ucoadnen of`ucoadnen plr c` td tdckpl, ckpl, tckpcrnturn,  pH, grnel ec kl`dcoen, anrgn mmnatcrdnon, natcrdnon, prcscoadn ec dkpurczns y nedtdvls quc scnoo ck scn ckp` p`cn cnel elss co c` pr prlac lacsl sl ec al alov ovcrs crsdñ dñoo ec` al al`î `îgco gcoll n gc`nt gc`ntdo don. n. @n lmtcoadño ec gc`ntdon co c` `nmlrntlrdl, sc rcn`dzñ alotrl`noel c` tdckpl ec knacrnadño, pH ec `n sl`uadño naden y tckpcrnturn ec cxtrnaadño (G`daiskno, >464). Qcgòo vnrdls nutlrcs9 `n kntcrdn prdkn, prdoadpn`kcotc pdc` ec acrel, tlkn uo  prlacsl ec ec knacrnadño y/l ecsdotcgrnadño ec trcs eëns. Co cstc prlacsl `n kntcrdn prdkn cs trntnen alo îadels y n` fdon` cstî `dstn dokcedntnkcotc pntn `n cxtrnaadño cxtrnaa dño ec `n gc`ntdon. Co oucstrl oucstrl cxpcrdkcotl cxpcrdkcotl `n kntcrdn prdkn sc trntñ co kcedl îadel plr uon scknon nprlxdknenkcotc, notcs ec scr cxtrnëen `n gc`ntdon (Ku`tlo, >488). Ecspuäs ec `n knacrnadño, `ns alrtczns sc `nvno prdkcrl pnrn c`dkdonr `n sn` l aun`qudcr kctcr`n cxtrnþn quc puceno alotcocr (plr cbckp`l snogrc). Alkl `ns

 

alrtczns suc`co tcocr ec` 8->3 % ec grnsn cs prcfcrdm`c quëtnsc`n cotcs ec  prlacecr n` prlacsl ec` îadel. Co c` cxpcrdkcotl cx pcrdkcotl `n kntcrdn prdkn sc rcacpadloñ y slkctdñ n an`cotnkdcotl utd`dznoel tckpcrnturns ec cotrc 8: - 83 ²A, plr 1 hlrns alo ngdtnadño alotdoun pnrn rctdrnr `n grnsn (Laicrkno, >445). Eurnotc c` prlacsl ec cxtrnaadño co an`dcotc, c` tëpdal al`lr nknrd``cotl ec `n  prlpdn gc`ntdon vn mnbnoel kdcotrns c` vn`lr M`llk ssumc. umc. @n gc`ntdon lmtcoden n  pnrtdr ec `ns alrtczns ec acrel plscc gc`cs alo uon knylr rcsdstcoadn, kîs trnospnrcoadn y kcblr al`lr quc `n lmtcoden ec `ns pdc`cs ec vnauol co c` prlacsl n`an`dol. Co c` cxpcrdkcotl, `n gc`ntdon klstrñ uo al`lr a`nrl, plr `l aun` sc  plerën alosdecrnr quc su vn`lr M`llk fuc n`tl (Gñkcz y al`, =::=). Qcgòo vnrdls trnmnbls ec dovcstdgnadño9 c` rcoedkdcotl ec gc`ntdon lmtcoden ec  pdc` ec acrel cstî alkprcoedel cotrc >8 n ==%. Co c` cxpcrdkcotl rcn`dznel cstl sc alr cstl alrrlm rlmlrn lrn al aloo uo rcoed rcoedkd kdcot cotll ec => =>.5: .5:% % ec gc gc`n `ntd tdon on lmtco lmtcode den, n, alosdecrîoelsc nsë cxdtlsn `n lpcrnadño (@uoqudst, >47=). Qcgòo ]noico, K (>441). @n gc`ntdon sc flrkn kcednotc `n hderñ`dsds ec` al`îgcol y sc prcpnrn n pnrtdr ec kntcrdn`cs rdals co cstn sustnoadn tn`cs alkl `n  pdc` ec acrel, pdc` ec gnonel vnauol l hucsls. @n anroc ec nodkn`cs bñvcocs co `n quc c` al`îgcol tlenvën ol hn cxpcrdkcotnel uo cotrcaruznkdcotl dotcosl  prleuac gc`ntdon alo fnad`dene kcednotc c` prlacsl ec e c aladonel lredonrdl. Qcgòo ]lerëgucz, G. Dodadn`kcotc c` al`îgcol cs dosl`um`c co ngun, ecmdel n su cs cstr trua uatu turn rn fd fdmr mrls lsn, n, lr lrgn gnod odzn znen en y an ansd sd ar ards dstn tn`d `don on,, pc pcrl rl mn mnbl bl `n na naad adño ño ec trnt trntnk nkdc dcot otls ls îad îadel elss l mî mîsd sdal alss klec klecrne rnels, ls, cs cstn tn cs cstr trua uatu turn rn lrgno lrgnodz dznen nen sc ecslrgnodzn, prlvlanoel c` pnsl ec fdmrns n fdmrd``ns, `ucgl n trlplal`îgcol (uodene klolkärdan mîsdan) y plstcrdlrkcotc `n ecslrgnodznadño ec `ns trcs alostdt alos tdtutd utdvns vns ec `ns hä` hä`dac dacs. s. N trnväs ec vnrdn vnrdnss scknons scknons ec uo trntnkd trntnkdcot cotll n`an`dol, sc lmtdcoc uon audenelsn trnosflrknadño ec `n cstruaturn ec` al`îgcol. Ecspuäs ec uon `dkp `dkpdczn dczn dotcosdvn dotcosdvn ec `n kntcrdn kntcrdn prdkn alotdoòno, alotdoòno, ec naucrel n `n kntcrdn prdkn, edfcrcotcs pnsls prcpnrntlrdls pnrn `n cxtrnaadño ec gc`ntdon.

 

Zrlacsl îadel pnrn `n gc`ntdon ec tdpl N2 @n kntcrdn prdkn (prdoadpn`kcotc alrtczn ec acrel) cstî subctn n uo prlacsl ec ecsdotcgrnadño ec =5-hlrns. @n kntcrdn prdkn rcadmc uo trntnkdcotl îadel y ecspuäs ec vnrdns ctnpns ec purdfdanadño cstî nptn pnrn `n cxtrnaadño ec gc`ntdon. @ns kntcrdns prdkns prdkns slo trntnens trntnens alo ngun an`dcotc an`dcotc co uo prlacsl ec cxtrnaadño cxtrnaadño co vnrdns ctnpns. @ls prdkcrls cxtrnatls, lmtcodels n tckpcrnturns rc`ntdvnkcotc  mnbns lmtdcoco uon gc`ntdon ec n`tn fdrkczn ec gc` y al`lr a l`lr a`nrl. @ns sl`uadlocs ec cxt cxtrnaa rnaadño dño alo alotdc tdcoco oco nprl nprlxdk xdknenk nenkcot cotcc 6% ec gc`ntd gc`ntdon. on. Urns Urns c` prdkcr  prdkcr   prlacsl ec cxtrnaadño, c` kntcrdn` quc hn sdel pnradn`kcotc cxtrnëel, cs al`lanel cstn vcz co ngun `dkpdn pcrl kîs an`dcotc pnrn alotdounr c` prlacsl ec cxtrnaadño. Cstc prlacsl sc rcpdtc anen vcz hnstn cxtrncr c` ò`tdkl rcstl ec `n  prltcëon ec` al`îgcol. Son vnrdnotc ec` prlacsl ec cxtrnaadño a`îsdal cs c` prlacsl alotdoul. Nquë, kdcotrns sc vn al`lanoel c` ngun an`dcotc co `ns kntcrdns prdkns co c` rcadpdcotc ec cxt cxtrna rnaadñ adño, o, sc vn rct rctdrn drnoel oel `n sl`uad sl`uadño ño ec gc`ntd gc`ntdon on alotdo alotdounk unkcot cotc. c. @ns  prlpdcenecs ec `n gc`ntdon sc puceco nbustnr plr kcedl ec `n tckpcrnturn y ankmdls ec pH. @n sl`uadño ec gc`ntdon lmtcoden plr cxtrnaadño cs `dmcrnen ec `n grnsn ec `n kntcrdn prdkn y ec pnrtëau`ns dosl`um`cs co scpnrnelrcs ec n`tl rcoedkdcotl. Fd`trls ec nrrrnstrc, quc rctdcoco doa`usl `ns dkpurczns kîs fdons alo `n nyuen ec tdcrrn ec edntlkcns edntlkcns y uon fd`trn fd`trnadño adño alo fd`trls ec p`nan ec ac`u` ac`u`lsn, lsn, tn` alkl sc utd`dzn co `n doeustrdn ec `ns mcmdens, alkp`ctn `n kcaîodan ec prc-`dkpdczn. Alo c` prlacsl ec dotcrankmdl dñodal, slo rctdrnens `ns sn`cs ec `n gc`ntdon. Son p`notn ec cvnplrnadño n` vnaël ku`td-ctnpns c`dkdon sunvckcotc pnrtc ec` ngun ec `n sl`uadño fdon ec `n cxtrnaadño. Nquë, `n gc`ntdon sc ``cgn n aloacotrnr  hnstn tcocr uon tcxturn vdsalsn, alkl `n kdc`. @ns sl`uadlocs n`tnkcotc vdsalsns sc hnaco pnsnr ltrn vcz plr c` fd`trl ec pu`del hcahl ec p`nans ec ac`u`lsn, `ls aun`cs c`dkdono `ns ò`tdkns pnrtëau`ns fdonkcotc suspcoedens.

 

Ecspuäs ec `n aloacotrnadño `ns sl`uadlocs ec gc`ntdon slo slkctdens n uon cstcrd`dznadño ec scgurdene, `ucgl slo cofrdnens y sl`dedfdanens. Nsë sc flrkno uon cspcadc ec "fdecls ec gc`ntdon" quc sc edstrdmuyco uodflrkckcotc n trnväs ec `n mnoen ec uon scanelrn. Nquë, `n gc`ntdon cs scanen alo ndrc fd`trnel, `nvnel, scanel y cstcrd`dznel. N` fdon` ec` scanel, `n gc`ntdon quc nhlrn cs eurn y qucmrnedzn sc trdturn y kuc`c pnrn scr trnosplrtnen co c` n`knaäo dotcrkcedl hnstn su usl plstcrdlr. Ecspuäs ec noî`dsds fësdals, quëkdals y mnatcrdl`ñgdals `ls `ltcs doedvdeun`cs slo nutlrdznels pnrn su plstcrdlr prlacsnkdcotl. Kl`cr, tnkdznr y kcza`nr slo `ns trcs ò`tdkns ctnpns ec prlacsnkdcotl co c` quc `n gc`ntdon sc scan ec naucrel n np`danadlocs cspcaëfdans y n `ns ocacsdenecs doedvdeun`cs ec anen a`dcotc. Ecspuäs ec ``conr `ls sd`ls, mdg mngs, snals l  ml`sns, y `n nutlrdznadño fdon` ec` `nmlrntlrdl, c` ecpnrtnkcotl ec cxpcedadlocs nsukc `n prcstnadño ec trnosplrtc pnrn c` a`dcotc. @ns gc`ntdons, ecpcoedcoel ecpcoedcoel ec su kätlel ec cxtrnaadño, cxtrnaadño, sc a`nsdfdano a`nsdfdano co els grnoecs grupl gru pls2 s2 `n gc gc`n `ntd tdon on td tdpl pl N, quc en uon gc gc`n `ntd tdon on ec an anrg rgnn oc ocgn gntd tdvn vn y alo puot puotll dslc`äatrdal cotrc pH 6.3-39 prlvdcoc slmrc tlel ec `ns pdc`cs frcsans ec acrels y `n gc`ntdon gc`ntd on tdpl M cs lmtcoden kîs quc tlel ec `ns pdc`cs ec vnauols ol aurtdens. aurtdens. Qcgòo cstl pleckls nfdrknr quc `n gc`ntdon gc`ntdon cxtrnëen co c` `nmlrntlrdl `nmlrntlrdl fuc `n gc`ntdon tdpl N (Ku`tlo, >488). @n an`dene an`dene ec `n gc`ntdo gc`ntdonn lmtcoden cstî dof`ucoadn dof`ucoadnen en plr c` tdckpl, tckpcrnturn, tckpcrnturn, pH, grnel ec kl`dcoen, anrgn mnatcrdnon, prcscoadn ec dkpurczns y nedtdvls quc scno ckp`cnels co c` prlacsl ec alovcrsdño ec` al`îgcol n gc`ntdon. @n lmtcoadño ec gc`ntdon co c` `nmlrntlrdl, sc rcn`dzñ alotrl`noel c` tdckpl ec knacrnadño, pH ec `n sl`uadño naden y tckpcrnturn ec cxtrnaadño (G`daiskno, >464). Qcgòo vnrdls nutlrcs9 `n kntcrdn prdkn, prdoadpn`kcotc pdc` ec acrel, tlkn uo prlacsl ec ec knacrnadño y/l ecsdotcgrnadño ec trcs eëns. Co cstc prlacsl `n kntcrdn prdkn cs trntnen alo îadels y n` fdon` cstî `dstn dokcedntnkcotc pntn `n cxtrnaadño ec `n gc`ntdon. gc`nt don. Co oucstrl cxp cxpcrdkco crdkcotl tl `n kntcrd kntcrdnn prdkn sc trntñ co kcedl kcedl îadel plr uon scknon nprlxdknenkcotc, notcs ec scr cxtrnëen `n gc`ntdon (Ku`tlo, >488).

 

Ecspuäs ec `n knacrnadño, `ns alrtczns sc `nvno prdkcrl pnrn c`dkdonr `n sn` l aun`qu aun `qudcr dcr kct kctcr` cr`nn cxt cxtrnþn rnþn quc puc puceno eno alo alotco tcocr cr (plr cbckp` cbckp`ll snogrc). snogrc). Alkl `ns alrtczns alrtcz ns suc`co tcocr ec` 8->3 % ec grnsn cs prcfcrdm`c quëtn quëtnsc`n sc`n cotcs ec prlacecr n`  prlacsl ec` îadel. Co c` cxpcrdkcotl `n kntcrdn prdkn sc rcacpadloñ y slkctdñ n an`cotnkdcot an`cot nkdcotll utd` utd`dznoel dznoel tckpcrnturns tckpcrnturns ec cotrc 8: - 83 ²A, plr 1 hlrns alo ngdtnadño alotdoun pnrn rctdrnr `n grnsn (Laicrkno, >445). Eurnotc c` prlacsl ec cxtrnaadño co an`dcotc, c` tëpdal al`lr nknrd``cotl ec `n prlpdn gc`ntdon vn mnbnoel kdcotrns c` vn`lr M`llk sumc. @n gc`ntdon lmtcoden n pnrtdr ec `ns alrtczns ec acrel plscc gc`cs alo uon knylr rcsdstcoadn, kîs trnospnrcoadn y kcblr  al`l al`lrr quc quc `n lm lmtc tcod oden en ec `n `nss pd pdc` c`cs cs ec vn vnau auol ol co c` pr prla lacs csll n` n`an an`d `dol ol.. Co c` cxpcrdkcotl, `n gc`ntdon klstrñ uo al`lr a`nrl, plr `l aun` sc plerën alosdecrnr quc su vn`lr M`llk fuc n`tl (Gñkcz y al`, =::=). Qcgòo vnrdls trnmnbls ec dovcstdgnadño9 c` rcoedkdcotl ec gc`ntdon lmtcoden ec pdc` ec acrel acrel cst cstîî al alkp kprc rcoed oedel el co cotr trcc >8 n == ==%. %. Co c` cx cxpcr pcrdk dkco cotl tl rc rcn` n`dz dzne nell cstl cstl sc alrrlmlrn alo uo rcoedkdcotl ec =>.5:% ec gc`ntdon lmtcoden, alosdecrîoelsc nsë cxdtlsn `n lpcrnadño (@uoqudst, >47=). Alo rcspcatl n` prc trntnkdcotl alo îadel y n` rcoedkdcotl lmtcodel2 www.gc`dtn.alk, kcoadlon quc @n pntn ec pl``l, n edfcrcoadn ec `n rcs, cs snardfdanel www.gc`dtn.alk, tlenvën rc`ntdvnkcotc blvco. Alkl c` tcbdel ec `n pdc` co cstn cene ol cstî kuy fucr fucrtc tckc kcot otcc nr nrrn rndg dgne nel, l, ol cs ocac ocacsn snrd rdll c` tr trnt ntnk nkdc dcot otll pr prc` c`dk dkdo donr nr n` n`an an`d `dol ol,, lmtcodäoelsc c`cvnels rcoedkdcotls.

 

@n aloa aloacot cotrn rnad adño ño ec ec`` îa îade del(s l(s)) y c` td tdck ckpl pl ec pc pcrk rkno nocaë caënn co ä` ä`,, ns nsëë al alkl kl c` rcoe rcoedk dkdc dcot otll lm lmtc tcod odel el ec ecpc pcoe oecr crîî ec ec`` cs cstn tnel el ec `n kntc kntcrd rdnn pr prdk dkn, n, gr grne nell ec cotrcaruznkdcotl ec` al`îgcol, cta. Alo rcspcatl n `n cxtrnaadño2 Qcgòo N`znklrn, Q.K.  @n anrnatcrëstdan prdoadpn` ec `n gc`ntdon cs su anpnadene ec flrknr uo gc` co kcedl naulsl n tckpcrnturns dofcrdlrcs n 13 ‑ 5:²A y edsl`vcrsc co ngun an`dcotc (5: -3:²A) sdo ecbnr rcsdeuls od grukls. Ec `n prîatdan pleckls ecadr quc sc lmtuvl uon gc`ntdon alo dkpurczns y ec uon npnrdcoadn lsaurn, cstl ecmdel n `n kn` fd`trnadño y c` tdckpl ec rcklbl alkl edac `n mdm`dlgrnfën plr uo tdckpl ec >: n 1: hlrns, cstl dof`ucoadñ

 

co `n lmtcoadño ec uo mnbl rcoedkdcotl tnotl pnrn `ns pntns ec acrel alkl pnrn `ns  pntns ec pl``l, auyl rcoedkdcotls fucrlo dofcrdlrcs n `ls ec `n mdm`dlgrnfën coalotrnen.

Alo rcspcatl n` rcoedkdcotl2 www.gc`dtn.alk, kcoadlon quc `c rcoedkdcotl ec cxtrnaadño ec gc`ntdon cs ec =.3www.gc`dtn.alk, 1%, co `n prîatdan sn`dñ >.11% pnrn `ns pntns ec` acrel y =% pnrn `ns pntns ec pl``l, `l quc ols pucec ecadr quc huml päredens n` klkcotl ec `n cxtrnaadño. Qcgòo ]lerdgcz,>44= Kcoadlon quc c` rcoedkdcotl ec cxtrnaadño ec gc`ntdon cs ec =.315% co `n prîatdan `lgrnkls `lgrnk ls lmtcocr >.11% pnrn `ns pntns ec acrel y =% pnrn `ns pntns ec pl``l. pl``l. @l quc doedan quc oucstrls rcoedkdcotls cstîo plr ecmnbl ec `ls lmtcodels co mdm`dlgrnfën.

MN@NOAC EC KNUC]DN Z]DKN CO @N LMUCOADÑO EC GC@NUDON EC ZNUNQ EC AC]EL >.3 ig (pntns)

]CACZADÑO

Zäreden2 :.: Ig

3 ig (ngun)

@NVNEL

Zäreden2 3.: Ig

1 ig (ngun)

ECQG]NQNEL

Zäreden2 1.: Ig

= ig (HA` =%)

ECQKDOC]N@DRNADÑO

Zäreden2 :.: Ig

 

>: ig (ngun)

@NVNEL

Zäreden2 >= ig

1 ig (ngun)

CXU]NAADÑO

Zäreden2 :.: Ig

FD@U]NADÑO

Zäreden2 >.1 Ig

ZNQUCS]DRNADÑO

Zäreden2 :.= Ig

ALOACOU]NADÑO

Zäreden2 =.5 Ig

QCANEL

Zäreden2 :.38 Ig

KL@DCOEN

Zäreden2 6.: Ig

=: g ec gc`ntdon

 

ASNE]L2 MN@NOAC EC KNUC]DN CO @N LMUCOADÑO EC GC@NUDON EC ZNUN EC AC]EL LZC]NADÑO

DOG]CQL

QN@DEN

ZÄ]EDEN

]CACZADÑO

(IG) >.3

(IG) >.3

(IG) :

@NVNEL

6.3

>.3

3

ECQG]NQNEL

5.3

>.3

1

ECQKDOC]N@DRNADÑ

1.3

1.3

:

 O @NVNEL

>1.3

>.3

>=

CXU]NAADÑO

5.3

5.3

:

FD@U]NADÑO

5.3

1.=

>.1

ZNQUCS]DRNADÑO ALOACOU]NADÑO

1.= 1

1 :.6

:.= =.5

QCANEL

:.6

:.:=

:.38

KL@DCOEN

:.:=

:.:=

:

]coedkdcotl co `n Lmtcoadño ec Gc`ntdon  ] coedkdcotlec coedkdcotl ec gc`ntdon

;

W fdon` fdon` ec ec`nGc`n `nGc`ntdo tdon n   x >: >:: :% W ec pntns pntns ec Acrel Acrel

;

=: g >3:: g

 x >::%

>.11 >.1 1%

;

 

MN@NOAC EC KNUC]DN Z]DKN CO @N LMUCOADÑO EC GC@NUDON EC ZNUNQ EC ZL@@L >.3 ig (pntns)

]CACZADÑO

Zäreden2 :.: Ig

3 ig (ngun)

@NVNEL

Zäreden2 3.: Ig

1 ig (ngun)

ECQG]NQNEL

Zäreden2 1.: Ig

= ig (HA` =%)

ECQKDOC]N@DRNADÑO

Zäreden2 :.: Ig

>: ig (ngun)

@NVNEL

Zäreden2 >= ig

1 ig (ngun)

CXU]NAADÑO

Zäreden2 :.: Ig

FD@U]NADÑO

Zäreden2 >.1 Ig

 

ZNQUCS]DRNADÑO

Zäreden2 :.= Ig

ALOACOU]NADÑO

Zäreden2 =.5 Ig

QCANEL

Zäreden2 :.38 Ig

KL@DCOEN

Zäreden2 6.: Ig

=: g ec gc`ntdon

 

ASNE]L2 MN@NOAC EC KNUC]DN CO @N LMUCOADÑO EC GC@NUDON EC ZNUN EC ZL@@L LZC]NADÑO

DOG]CQL

QN@DEN

ZÄ]EDEN

]CACZADÑO

(IG) >.3

(IG) >.3

(IG) :

@NVNEL

6.3

>.3

3

ECQG]NQNEL

5.3

>.3

1

ECQKDOC]N@DRNADÑ

1.3

1.3

:

 O @NVNEL

>1.3

>.3

>=

CXU]NAADÑO

5.3

5.3

:

FD@U]NADÑO

5.3

1.=

>.1

ZNQUCS]DRNADÑO ALOACOU]NADÑO

1.= 1

1 :.6

:.= =.5

QCANEL

:.6

:.:1

:.37

KL@DCOEN

:.:1

:.:1

:

]coedkdcotl co `n Lmtcoadño ec Gc`ntdon  ] coedkdcotlec coedkdcotl ec gc`ntdon

;

W fdon` fdon` ec ec`nGc`n `nGc`ntdo tdon n   x >: >:: :% W ec pntnsec pl``l

;

1: g >3:: g

 x >: >:: :%

=.:%

;

 

VD.

ALOA@SQDLOCQ VD.>. VD. >. Alo Alolad ladkls kls c` prla prlacsl csl ec cxtr cxtrnaad naadño ño ec `n gc`nt gc`ntdon don n pnrtdr pnrtdr ec rcsdeu rcsdeuls ls ec lrdgco nodkn` alkl pntns ec acrel y ec pl``l, lmtcodcoel rcoedkdcotls ec >.11% pnrn gc`ntdon prlacecotc ec acrel. VD.=. Ols fnkd VD.=. fnkd`d `dnrdz nrdznkl nklss alo `ls pnrîk pnrîkctr ctrls ls quc rdgco rdgco edahl prla prlacsl, csl, rcsn`tn rcsn`tnoel oel  prdoadpn`kcotc2 @ns pntns ec acrel sc slkctdñ n uo trntnkdcotl ec ecsgrnsnel sukc sukcrg rgddco coel el co ng ngun un n cm cmu` u```dad adño ño (> (>:: ::ºA ºA)) eu eurn rnot otcc 1: kdou kdouttls ls99 `n ecskdocrn`dznadño sc rcn`dzn ckp`cnoel `n vën îaden, c` aun` sc cfcatòn utd`dznoel 5: k@ ec îadel a`lrhë a`lrhëerdal erdal co = @ ec ngun alrrdcot alrrdcotc, c, pnrn lmtcocr uon sl`uadño sl`uadño îaden îad en (HA` =% =%)) plr uo tdckpl tdckpl ec 58 hlrns9 hlrns9 c` `nvnel `nvnel sc rcn`dzn rcn`dzn alo ngun alrrdcotc pnrn c`dkdonr rcsdeuls îadels, nsdkdskl sc ecmc nbustnr c` vn`lr ec` pH alo OnLH cotrc 3 ‑ 69 `n ctnpn ec cxtrnaadño co an`dcotc (63²A) plr 3 hlrns, alo rc`nadño rc`nad ño sñ`del ngun pnrn `n cxt cxtrnaadñ rnaadñoo ec >2=9 `ucgl ec` fd fd`trne `trnell sc prlacec n  pnstcurdznr`l co aladon n 83²A plr 1 kdoutls, aloacotrnadño hnstn >:ºMx y fdon`kcotc uo scanel plr ndrc an`dcotc (1:²A) hnstn lmtcocr uo prleuatl alo >: n >5 % ec hukcene. VD.1. VD. 1. Qc ectc ectcrkd rkdoñ oñ `n anrna anrnatcrd tcrdznad znadño ño ec `n gc`ntd gc`ntdon on prlaceco prlacecotc tc ec pntns ec acrel, acrel, lmscrvnoel lmscrvn oel prdoadpn`k prdoadpn`kcotc cotc quc c` grnel ec gc`dfdanadño gc`dfdanadño n alkpnrnadño alkpnrnadño alo uon gc`ntdon alkcradn` ‐@n Ocgrdtn‛ cs ec `n kdskn alosdstcoadn.

VDD. DD.

]CALKCOENADLOCQ

 

Ecspuäs ec uon `dkp `dkpdczn dczn dotcosdvn dotcosdvn ec `n kntcrdn kntcrdn prdkn alotdoòno, alotdoòno, ec naucrel n `n kntcrdn prdkn, edfcrcotcs pnsls prcpnrntlrdls pnrn `n cxtrnaadño ec gc`ntdon. @n kntcrdn prdkn (prdoadpn`kcotc alrtczn ec acrel) cstî subctn n uo prlacsl ec ecsdotcgrnadño ec =5-hlrns. @n kntcrdn prdkn rcadmc uo trntnkdcotl îadel y ecspuäs ec vnrdns ctnpns ec purdfdanadño cstî nptn pnrn `n cxtrnaadño ec gc`ntdon. @ns kntcrdns prdkns prdkns slo trntnens trntnens alo ngun an`dcotc an`dcotc co uo prlacsl ec cxtrnaadño cxtrnaadño co vnrdns ctnpns. @ls prdkcrls cxtrnatls, lmtcodels n tckpcrnturns rc`ntdvnkcotc  mnbns lmtdcoco uon gc`ntdon ec n`tn fdrkczn ec gc` y al`lr a l`lr a`nrl. @ns sl`uadlocs ec cxt cxtrnaa rnaadño dño alo alotdc tdcoco oco nprl nprlxdk xdknenk nenkcot cotcc 6% ec gc`ntd gc`ntdon. on. Urns Urns c` prdkcr  prdkcr   prlacsl ec cxtrnaadño, c` kntcrdn` quc hn sdel pnradn`kcotc cxtrnëel, cs al`lanel cstn vcz co ngun `dkpdn pcrl kîs an`dcotc pnrn alotdounr c` prlacsl ec cxtrnaadño. Cstc prlacsl sc rcpdtc anen vcz hnstn cxtrncr c` ò`tdkl rcstl ec `n  prltcëon ec` al`îgcol. Son vnrdnotc ec` prlacsl ec cxtrnaadño a`îsdal cs c` prlacsl alotdoul. Nquë, , kdcotrns sc vn al`lanoel c` ngun an`dcotc co `ns kntcrdns prdkns co c` rcadpdcotc ec cxt cxtrna rnaadñ adño, o, sc vn rct rctdrn drnoel oel `n sl`uad sl`uadño ño ec gc`ntd gc`ntdon on alotdo alotdounk unkcot cotc. c. @ns  prlpdcenecs ec `n gc`ntdon sc puceco nbustnr plr kcedl ec `n tckpcrnturn y ankmdls ec pH. @n sl`uadño ec gc`ntdon lmtcoden plr cxtrnaadño cs `dmcrnen ec `n grnsn ec `n kntcrdn prdkn y ec pnrtëau`ns dosl`um`cs co scpnrnelrcs ec n`tl rcoedkdcotl. Fd`trls ec nrrrnstrc, quc rctdcoco doa`usl `ns dkpurczns kîs fdons alo `n nyuen ec tdcrrn ec edntlkcns edntlkcns y uon fd`trn fd`trnadño adño alo fd`trls ec p`nan ec ac`u` ac`u`lsn, lsn, tn` alkl sc utd`dzn co `n doeustrdn ec `ns mcmdens, alkp`ctn `n kcaîodan ec prc-`dkpdczn. Alo c` prlacsl ec dotcrankmdl dñodal, slo rctdrnens `ns sn`cs ec `n gc`ntdon. Son p`notn ec cvnplrnadño n` vnaël ku`tdctnpns c`dkdon sunvckcotc pnrtc ec` ngun ec `n sl`uadño fdon ec `n cxtrnaadño. Nquë, `n gc`ntdon sc ``cgn n aloacotrnr  hnstn tcocr uon tcxturn vdsalsn, alkl `n kdc`. @ns sl`uadlocs n`tnkcotc vdsalsns

 

sc hnaco pnsnr ltrn vcz plr c` fd`trl ec pu`del hcahl ec p`nans ec ac`u`lsn, `ls aun`cs c`dkdono `ns ò`tdkns pnrtëau`ns fdonkcotc suspcoedens. Ecspuäs ec `n aloacotrnadño `ns sl`uadlocs ec gc`ntdon slo slkctdels n uon cstcrd`dznadño ec scgurdene, `ucgl slo cofrdnens y sl`dedfdanens. Nsd sc flrkno uon cspcadc ec "fdecls ec gc`ntdon" quc sc edstrdmuyco uodflrkckcotc n trnväs ec `n mnoen ec uon scanelrn. Nquë, `n gc`ntdon cs scanen alo ndrc fd`trnel, `nvnel, scanel y cstcrd`dznel. N` fdon` ec` scanel, `n gc`ntdon quc nhlrn cs eurn y qucmrnedzn sc trdturn y kuc`c pnrn scr trnosplrtnen co c` n`knaäo dotcrkcedl hnstn su usl plstcrdlr. Ecspuäs ec noî`dsds fësdals, quëkdals y mnatcrdl`ñgdals `ls `ltcs doedvdeun`cs slo nutlrdznels pnrn su plstcrdlr prlacsnkdcotl. Kl`cr, tnkdznr y kcza`nr slo `ns trcs ò`tdkns ctnpns ec prlacsnkdcotl co c` quc `n gc`ntdon sc scan ec naucrel n np`danadlocs cspcaëfdans y n `ns ocacsdenecs doedvdeun`cs ec anen a`dcotc. Ecspuäs ec ``conr `ls sd`ls, mdg mngs, snals l  ml`sns, y `n nutlrdznadño fdon` ec` `nmlrntlrdl, c` ecpnrtnkcotl ec cxpcedadlocs nsukc `n prcstnadño ec trnosplrtc pnrn c` a`dcotc.

VDDD. DDD. MDM DM@D @DLG LG]N ]NF FDN 

MNESD, E.Q. (=::6). ^uëkdan ec N`dkcotls. Cedtlrdn` Zcnrslo. Käxdal.

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N@VN]NEL, B. y NGSD@C]N, B. (=::>). Kätlels pnrn kcedr prlpdcenecs fësdans co doeustrdns ec n`dkcotls. Cedtlrdn` Nardmdn Q.N. Rnrnglzn. Cspnþn.

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N]LQ, B9 ]LE]DGSCR, L9 BDKCOCR, B9 UL@CEL, ]. (>445). Lmtcoadño ec hctcrlpl`dkcrls ec lrdgco al`îgcol n prtdr ec cstruaturns Lscns mlvdons. Acotrl Ucaol`ñgdal ec `n Anroc (AUA). Sodvcrsdene Nustrn` ec Ahd`c.

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WDQOC], Z, B. (>48=). Zrlacsnkdcotl ec sumprleuatls ec `n doeustrdn aîrodan. Acotrl ec Dovcstdgnadño y Ucaol`lgën ec anrocs (ADUCAN) ec` Qdstckn ec` Dostdtutl  Onadlon` ec Ucaol`lgën Doeustrdn` (DOUD). Doflrkc. Mucols Muc ols Ndrcs. Nrgcotdon. https2//www.gllg`c.alk.pc/scnrah< q;scoslrcs+ec+odvc`+ec+ngun&mdw;>166&mdh;661&slurac;`oks&tmk;dsah&sn

 

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N`kcden, Zl`dnon F., Qn``cs, Blsä N., Fnrdns, Uhdngl K., Aurvc`l, Blsä. =:>=. Nprlvcahnkdcotl ec Zntns ec Zl``ls alkl N`tcrontdvn pnrn edskdoudr ]csdeuls Gcocrnels co `ls Kntnecrls. Zrlgrnkn ec Kcstrnel ck Cogcohnrdn ec Zrleuçál, Sodvcrsdenec Olvc ec Bu`hl (SODOLVC).

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Kdnol, N`mcrtl9 ]lbns, Anrkco9 Mnrrnzn, Gnmrdc`n. Dof`ucoadn ec `n tckpcrnturn y tdckpl ec cxtrnaadño co `n fucrzn ec gc` y rcoedkdcotl ec gc`ntdon lmtcoden n pnrtdr  ec pdc` ec tl``l (Kustc`us kcotl). =:>5. Csauc`n ec Dogcodcrën Ngrldoeustrdn` y Alkcradl Cxtcrdlr, Fnau`tne ec Dogcodcrën, Sodvcrsdene Aäsnr Vn``cbl, Nv. @nral aunern >7, Urubd``l, Zcrò.

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Nshcr, E. >444. Uhc trnoskdssdm`c splogdflrk coacphn`lpnthy ngcots2 aloacros noe rcsploscs lf thc Sodtce Qtntcs rcgu`ntlry ngcoadcs do kndotndodog thc snfcty lf 

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 mdl`lgdas. Ecvc`lpkcots do Mdl`lgdan` Qtnoenredzntdlo >::2 >:1‑>>8. GKC. =::8. Gc`ntdo Knoufnaturcrs lf Curlpc. http2//www.gc`ntdoc.lrg/ Nkcr`dog, A., =::>. Ucaol`lgën ec `n anroc2 notl`lgën Frdtz, U.N (>484). Fnmrdanadño ec Hc`nels. Rnrnglzn, Cedtlrdn` Nardmdn. Zng. >73. G` G`da daisk iskno no,, K. >4 >464 64.. Guk Guk Ucah Ucahol ol`l `lgy gy do Fl Flle le Do Doeus eustr try. y. Fl Flle le Qa Qadc dcoa oacc no noee Ucahol`lgy. Ce.Mlnre. Nanecky Zrcss. Ocw Tlri. Gñkcz, K., Ct N`. =::=. Qtruaturn` noe physdan` prlpcrtdcs lf gc`ntdo cxtrnatce frlk edffcrcot knrdoc spcadcs2 N alkpnrntdvc stuey. Flle Hyerlal``ldes. >69 =3-15. @uoq @u oqud udst st,, N. >4 >47=. 7=. Uh Uhcc kn knou oufna fnatu turc rc lf gc` gc`nt ntdo do.. Gc`n Gc`ntd tdoo noe gc gc`` ``do dogg ng ngco cots ts.. Qykplsduk Zrlaccedog. @loelo. Ku`t Ku `tlo lo,, B.@ (>4 (>488) 88).. Nedtd Nedtdvl vlss y nu nuxd xd`d `dnrc nrcss ec fn fnmrd mrdan anad adño ño co do doeu eust strd rdns ns ngrlngrln`dkcotnrdns. Rnrnglzn, Cedtlrdn` Nardmdn. Zng >31. Laicrkno, H.W. Hnosco, A.@. >445. Doeustrdn`dznadño ec sumprleuatls ec lrdgco nodkn`. Cedtlrdn` Nardmdn, Q.N. Rnrnglzn - Cspnþn. Zcnrslo, E. >448. Uäaodans ec `nmlrntlrdl pnrn c` noî`dsds ec n`dkcotls, Rnrnglzn. Nardmdn. 11> p. Wlog, E. W. >443. ^uëkdan ec `ls n`dkcotls2 kcanodskl y tclrën. Rnrnglzn. Nardmdn. 576 p. Knrtëo Knr tëocz cz Gun Gunen` en`upc upc,, Srcstd Srcstd ]laël, ]laël, ]nkërc ]nkërczz Blsc, Blsc, Vc`nzqu Vc`nzqucz cz Glozn` Glozn`l. l. =:>>. =:>>. N`guons prlpdcenecs fdsdalquëkdans ec gc`ntdon ec pdc` ec truahn.