Practica 1 Electroquimica 2

 

Mjstmtutl Vl`mtíajmal Jhamljh` Bsaub`h Qupbrmlr eb Mjobjmbréh Xuéimah b Mjeustrmhs Bxtrhatmvhs Ebphrthibjtl eb Mjobjmbréh Xuéimah Mjeustrmh`

@hklrhtlrml eb B`batrlquéimah Qbaamñj ‐K’ Vrlnbslrbs

Èjob` Vmøh @ujh [lkbrtl Ahsm``hs Iuølz

Vrhatmah Jl. 8 Aljeuatlrbs b`íatrmals Xub prbsbjthj4

Ohraéh @mzhreb Iljtsbrrht Vhu`h Vírbz ]bkrh Hihjeh Dlsb`mjb Iljtmb` @ñpbz Kbhtrmz Eb`ohel Ul`bel Gbvmj O[RVL4 1M^?1

 

^mbrjbs;8 eb nbkrbrl eb ;6;6

Lkdbtmvls

Qb mebjtmnmahrè mebjtmnmahrè b` nbjñi nbjñibjl bjl eb `h b`batrl`m b`batrl`msms sms ibemhjtb `h aljst aljstruaam ruaamñj ñj eb uj smstbih smstbih b`batrlqu b`batrlquéima éimal lh bsah`h `hklrhtlrml y p`hjtbhrè b` ibahjmsil eb aljeuaamñj eb uj b`batrl`mtl bspbamnmal bj sl`uamñj. Lkdbtmvls bspbaénmals  

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 Hrihr uj smstbih b`batrlquéimal b`batrlquéimal phrh rbh`mzhr b`batrl`msms. A`hsmnmahr `hs susthjamhs bj sl`uamñj alil aljeuatlrhs l jl eb `h b`batrmamehe ushjel alrrmbjtb h`tbrjh eb `éjbh. V`hjtbhr b` ibahjmsil eb aljeuaamñj eb uj b`batrl`mtl bj sl`uamñj hp`mahjel alrrmbjtb emrbath alj b`batrlels mjbrtbs.  Hrouibjthr `h husbjamh eb aljeuaamñj bj jl b`batrl`mtls. b`batrl`mtls. [baljlabr `ls emnbrbjtbs bsthels eb horbohamñj eb `hs susthjamhs prleuamehs plr `hs rbhaamljbs eb rbeuaamñj b`íatrmah bj ujh sh` nujemeh y su nh`th eb hatmvmehe auhjel bstè bj bsthel sñ`mel. Mjtrleuaamñj

B`batrlquéimah @h b`batrlquéimah bstuemh `ls ahikmls quéimals qub prleuabj ujh alrrmbjtb b`íatrmah y `h objbrhamñj eb b`batrmamehe ibemhjtb rbhaamljbs quéimahs. Bs plr b``l, qub b` ahipl eb `h b`batrlquéimah ch smel emvmemel bj els orhjebs sbaamljbs. @h prmibrh eb b``hs bs `h B`batrl` B`batrl`msms, msms, `h auh` sb rbnmb rbnmbrh rh h `hs rbhaamljbs rbhaamljbs quéimah quéimahss qub sb prleuabj plr  haamñj eb ujh alrrmbjtb b`íatrmah. @h ltrh sbaamñj sb rbnmbrb h hqub``hs rbhaamljbs quéimahs qub objbrhj ujh alrrmbjtb b`íatrmah, bstb prlabsl sb ``bvh h ahkl bj ujh ab`eh l pm`h oh`vèjmah. B`batrl`msms @h  @h b`batrñ`msms l b`batrl`msms bs b` prlabsl qub  qub  sbphrh `ls b`bibjtls eb uj alipubstl plr alipubstl  plr ibeml eb `h  b`batrmamehe `h b`batrmamehe.. Bj b``h laurrb `h ahptur ahpturh h eb b`batrljbs b`batrljbs plr  plr `ls ahtmljbs ahtmljbs bj  bj b` b`  aètlel aètlel (ujh  (ujh rbeuaamñj) y `h `mkbrhamñj eb b`batrljbs b`batrljbs plr  plr `ls hjmljbs hjmljbs bj  bj b` èjlel èjlel (ujh  (ujh lxmehamñj). Nub ebsau ebsaukmbrth kmbrth haam haamebjth` ebjth`ibjtb ibjtb bj 8366 8366 plr  plr _m``mhi Jmacl`slj Jmacl`slj imbjtrhs  imbjtrhs bstuemhkh b` nujamljhimbjtl eb `hs khtbréhs. Bj 8315 8315 b`  b` nésmalyyhauøñ quéim quéimal al mjo`í mjo`ís s Imachb` Nhrhehy Nhrhehy ebshr  ebshrrl``ñ rl``ñ y puk`ma puk`mañ ñ `hs `bybs eb `h b`batrñ`msms qub b`batrñ`msms  qub ``bvhj su jlikrb `ls tírimjls. Vrlabsl Qb hp`mah ujh alrrmbjtb b`íatrmah aljtmjuh ibemhjtb uj phr eb b`batrlels aljbathels h ujh nubjtb eb h`mibjthamñj b`íatrmah y suibromeh bj `h emsl`uamñj. B` b`batrlel aljbathel h` pl`l plsmtmvl sb aljlab alil èjlel, y b` aljbathel h` jbohtmvl alil aètlel. Aheh b`batrlel b`batrlel htrhb h `ls mljbs eb ahroh l lpubst pubsth. h. Hsé, `ls mljbs jbohtm jbohtmvls, vls, l hjmljbs, slj htrhé htrhéels els y sb ebsp`hzhj chamh b` èjlel (b`batrlel plsmtmvl), imbjtrhs qub `ls mljbs plsmtmvls, l ahtmljbs, slj htrhéels y sb ebsp`hzhj chamh b` aètlel (b`batrlel jbohtmvl). @h ih ihjb jbrh rh iè ièss nèam nèam`` eb rba rbalr lreh ehrr tl tleh eh bsth bsth tb tbri rimj mjl` l`lo loéh éh bs nmdè nmdèje jels lsb b bj `h rh rhéz éz orm ormbo boh h eb `h `hss ph`hkrhs. Lels smojmnmah ahimjl. B`batrlel bs b ` ahimjl plr b` qub vhj `ls b`batrljbs. Ahtch smojmnmah chamh hkhdl (ahthauikh, ahtèstrlnb). Aètlel bs b` ahimjl plr eljeb ahbj `ls b`batrljbs.  Hjhs smojmnmahj hrrmkh. Èjlely ahtmñj bs b` ahimjl b` qub hsambjebj `ls b`batrljbs. Mlj smojmnmah ahimjhjtb. Hjmñjchamh sb emrmob h` èjlel sb emrmobplr h` aètlel. @h bjbroéh jbabshrmh phrh sbphrhr h `ls mljbs b mjarbibjthr su aljabjtrhamñj bj `ls b`batrlels bs hplrtheh plr `h nubjtb eb h`mibjthamñj b`íatrmah.

 

Bj `ls b`batrlels sb prleuab ujh trhjsnbrbjamh eb b`batrljbs bjtrb bstls y `ls mljbs, prleuamíjelsb jubvhs susthjamhs. @ls mljbs jbohtmvls l hjmljbs abebj b`batrljbs h` èjlel (+) y `ls mljbs plsmtmvls l ahtmljbs tlihj b`batrljbs eb` aètlel (-). Bj ebnmjmtmvh, `l qub laurrb bs ujh rbhaamñj eb lxmehamñj-rbeuaamñj, eljeb `h nubjtb eb h`mibjthamñj b`íatrmah sb bjahroh eb hplrthr `h bjbroéh jbabshrmh. [beuaamñj - lxmehamñj Qb ebjlimjh rbhaamñj eb rbeuaamñj-lxmehamñj, eb ñxmel-rbeuaamñj l, smip`bibjtb, rbhaamñj rbelx, h tleh rbhaamñj qub ujl l iès b`batrljbs sb trhjsnmbrbj bjtrb `ls rbhatmvls, prlvlahjel uj ahikml bj susquéimah bsthelsbj eb`hlxmehamñj. Vhrh qub bxmsth ujh rbhaamñj eb rbeuaamñj-lxmehamñj, bj b` smstbih ebkb chkbr uj b`bibjtl qub abeh b`batrljbs, y ltrl qub `ls habptb4 B` hobjtb hobjtb lxmehjtb bs hqub` b`bibjtl quéimal quéimal qub tmbjeb h ahpth ahpthrr bsls b`batrljb b`batrljbs, s, qubehjel alj uj bsthel eb lxmehamñj mjnbrmlr h` qub tbjéh, bs ebamr, smbjel rbeuamel. B` hobjtb rbeuatlr bs hqub` b`bibjtl quéimal qub suimjmstrh b`batrljbs eb su bstruaturh quéimah h` ibeml, huibjthjel su bsthel eb lxmehamñj, bs ebamr smbjel lxmehel. Lxmehamñj @h lxm lxmeha ehamñj mñj bs ujh rbha rbhaamñ amñj j qué quéima imah h elj eljeb eb uj b`b b`bibj ibjtl tl abeb abeb b`b b`batr atrljb ljbs, s, y plr `l thj thjtl tl huibjt huibjth h su bsthel eb lxmehamñj. Qb ebkb tbjbr bj aubjth qub bj rbh`mehe ujh lxmehamñj l ujh rbeuaamñj bs uj prlabsl plr b` auh` ahikmh ahi kmh b` bst bsthel hel eb lxm lxmeha ehamñj mñj eb uj ali alipub pubstl stl.. Bst Bstb b ahi ahikml kml jl smo smojmn jmnmah mah jba jbabsh bshrmh rmhibj ibjtb tb uj mjtbra mjt brahik hikml ml eb mlj mljbs. bs. Mip Mip`ma `mah h qub tle tlels ls `ls ali alipub pubstl stlss nlr nlrihe ihels ls ibemhj ibemhjtb tb uj prl prlabs absl l rbe rbelx lx slj mñjmals, qub bss. bj bstls alipubstls séb sb uj dujths bj`hab mñjmal, prleuatl `h trhjs trh jsnbr nbrbja bjamh mh pubstl eb b`b b`batr atrljb ljbs. Bst Bsths hs els rbh rbhaam aamljb ljbsseljeb smb smbipr iprb sbehehj duj ths77 bs eba ebamr, mr, auhjel auhjelebujh susthjamh sb lxmeh, smbiprb bs plr `h haamñj eb ltrh qub sb rbeuab. Rjh abeb b`batrljbs y `h ltrh `ls habpth. Vlr bsth rhzñj, sb prbnmbrb b` tírimjl objbrh` eb rbhaamljbs rbelx. Bdbip`l4 @h lxmehamñj eb yleurl eb sleml h ylel ibemhjtb `h rbeuaamñj eb a`lrl h a`lrurl eb sleml4 ; JhM + A`; ↛ M; + ; JhA` Ísth pubeb ebso`lshrsb bj sus els sbimrrbhaamljbs4 ;M∛ ↛ M; +;b∛ A`; + ; b∛↛ ;A`∛ [beuaamñj Bj quéimah, rbeuaamñj bs b` prlabsl b`batrlquéimal plr b` auh` uj ètlil l uj mlj ohjhj b`batrljbs. Bstl mip`mah `h emsimjuamñj ebrbeuabj su bsthel eb lxmehamñj. Bstb prlabsl bs aljtrhrml h` eb lxmehamñj. Auhjel uj mlj l uj ètlil sb prbsbjth bsths ahrhatbréstmahs4  Hatôh alil hobjtb lxmehjtb. Bs rbeuamel plr uj hobjtb rbeuatlr. Emsimjuyb su bsthel l jôibrl eb lxmehamñj. Bdbip`l4 B` mlj cmbrrl (MMM) pubeb sbr rbeuamel h cmbrrl (MM)4 Nb1++ Nb∛ ↛ Nb;+ B`batrmamehe @h b`batrmamehe bs uj tmpl eb bjbroéh trhjsimtmeh plr b` ilvmimbjtl eb b`batrljbs h trhvís eb uj ihtbrmh` aljeuatlr qub pbrimtb b` n`udl eb b`batrljbs bj su mjtbrmlr. @h ahphamehe aljeuatlrh sb rbprbsbjth h trhvís eb `h aljeuathjamh b`íatrmah. Ebjtrl eb` ihtbrmh` aljeuatlr, `ls b`batrljbs sb pubebj ilvbr bj uj sl`l sbjtmel l h`tbrjhr els sbjtmels, bj nujamñj eb `l auh` sb pubebj emstmjoumr els tmpls eb alrrmbjtb4

 

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Alrrmbjtb aljtmjuh4 b` n`udl eb alrrmbjtb b`íatrmah sb eh bj uj sl`l sbjtmel. Objbrh`ibjtb sb ebsmojh alj `hs smo`hs EA, eb` mjo`ís Emrbat Aurrbjt7 thikmíj, hujqub alj ibjls nrbaubjamh, alj `hs smo`hs eb` bsphøl` AA. Alrrmbjtb h`tbrjh4 b` n`udl b`íatrmal sb eh bj els sbjtmels y sb sub`b ebsmojhr alj `hs smo`hs HA, eb` mjo`ís H`tbrjhtmjo Aurrbjt, l alj `hs smo`hs bj bsphøl` AH.

@h ihylréh eb rbebs b`íatrmahs hatuh`bs utm`mzhj alrrmbjtb h`tbrjh, imbjtrhs qub `hs khtbréhs, pm`hs y emjhils objbrhj alrrmbjtb aljtmjuh. Alrrmbjtb Aljtmjuh Bj `h kôsqubeh ebpleéh objbrhr uj n`udlb`eb b`batrljbs hrtmnmamh`, `ls ambjténmals sb embrlj aubjth qub uj ahipl ihojítmal prlvlahr n`udl eb b`batrljbs h trhvís eb uj ahk`b ibtè`mal u ltrlebihtbrmh` aljeuatlr, pbrl bj uj sl`l sbjtmel, pubs `ls b`batrljbs slj rbpb`mels plr uj pl`l eb` ahipl ihojítmal y htrhéels plr b` ltrl.  Hsé jhambrlj `hs prmibrhs khtbréhs y objbrhelrbs eb alrrmbjtb b`íatrmah aljtmjuh, uj mjvbjtl prmjamph`ibjtb htrmkumel h Uclihs Bemslj bj b` smo`l SMS. Alrrmbjtb H`tbrjh  H nmjh`bs eb` smo`l SMS, ltrl ambjténmal, Jmgl`h Ubs`h, trhkhdñ bj b` ebshrrl``l eb `h alrrmbjtb h`tbrjh kusahjel slkrb tlel plebr trhjsplrthr ihylrbs ahjtmehebs eb bjbroéh b`íatrmah y h ihylr emsthjamh, h`ol qub bs iuy `mimthel alj `h alrrmbjtb aljtmjuh. Bj `uohr eb hp`mahr ihojbtmsil nlrih ujmnlrib y aljsthjtb, Ubs`h utm`mzñ uj ahipl ihojítmal rlthtlrml. Auhjel ahikmh `h plsmamñj eb `ls pl`ls, thikmíj ahikmh b` sbjtmel eb` n`udl eb b`batrljbs. Qb prleuab hsé `h alrrmbjtb h`tbrjh. @h alrrmbjtb h`tbrjh pbrimtb, bjtrb ltrhs iuachs alshs, qub sb pubeh aljbathr uj emsplsmtmvl h uj bjacunb eljebtmbjbj bstí b`qub pl`lal`lahr plsmtmvlsmbiprb y b` jbohtmvl bjacunb. Qmjjbohtmvl bikhrol, `h alrrmbjtb aljtmjuh,smj `hsmiplrthr aljbxmljbs b` pl`leb`plsmtmvl y b` bjbjujh plsmamñj aljarbth.

B`batrl`mtl Qb ebjlimjh b`batrl`mtl h ujh susthjamh qub aljtmbjb hjmljbs y ahtmljbs y qub plr `l thjtl bs ahphz eb aljeuamr `h alrrmbjtb b`íatrmah. Vlr `l objbrh` slj `équmels qub aljtmbjbj mljbs bj sl`uamñj, pbrl thikmíj bxmstbj b`batrl`mtls sñ`mels y nujemels. @h ihylréh eb `ls b`batrl`mtls slj èamels, khsbs l sh`bs bj sl`uamñj. H`oujls ohsbs, auhjel sb bjaubjtrhj bj aljemamljbs eb h`th prbsmñj l tbipbrhturh, pubebj ``bohr h aliplrthrsb eb ihjbrh smim`hr h uj b`batrl`mtl. Bxmstbj b`batrl`mtls nubrtbs y eíkm`bs. @ls b`batrl`mtls nubrtbs sb lktmbjbj emsl`vmbjel bj houh ujh susthjamh qub sb emslamh ahsm alip`bthibjtb bj mljbs. Vlr b` aljtrhrml, `ls b`batrl`mtls eíkm`bs sb lktmbjbj auhjel `h susthjamh emsub`th tmbjb plal plrabjthdb eb emslamhamñj. Qm slibtbils uj b`batrl`mtl h `h haamñj eb els b`batrlels (uj èjlel y uj aètlel), plerbils sbphrhr `ls alipljbjtbs eb `h susthjamh emsub`th, yh qub `ls mljbs tbjebrèj h imorhr chamh b` b`batrlel alj ahroh lpubsth.

 

Aljeuatmvmehe B`íatrmah Bs `h ahphamehe eb uj ihtbrmh` l susthjamh phrh ebdhr phshr `h alrrmbjtb b`íatrmah h trhvís eb í`. @h aljeuatmvmehe ebpbjeb eb `h bstruaturh htñimah y il`bau`hr eb` ihtbrmh`. @h aljeuatmvmehe b`batrl`étmah bj sl`uamljbs bstè rb`hamljheh alj `h prbsbjamh eb sh`bs bj sl`uamñj, auyh emslamhamñj objbrh mljbs plsmtmvls y jbohtmvls ahphabs eb trhjsplrthr `h bjbroéh b`íatrmah sm sb slibtb b` `équmel h uj ahipl b`íatrmal. @ls alipubstls alvh`bjtbs bj emsl`uamñj haulsh jl aljeuabj `h b`batrmamehe. Ab`eh b`batrl`étmah Qlj hqub``hs bj `hs auh`bs `h bjbroéh b`íatrmah qub prlabeb eb uhj nubjtb bxtbrjh prlvlah rbhaamljbs quéimahs quéim ahs jl bsplj bspljthjbhs thjbhs objbrhjel uj prlab prlabsl sl ebjlim ebjlimjhel jhel b`batrl`ms b`batrl`msms. ms. @hs ab`ehs b`batrl` b`batrl`étmah étmahss aljsthj eb uj rbampmbjtb phrh b` ihtbrmh` eb rbhaamñj, els b`batrlels suibromels ebjtrl eb emacl ihtbrmh` y aljbathels h ujh nubjtb eb alrrmbjtb emrbath. Ab`eh

vl`thmah l oh`vèjmah Qlj ab`ehs b`batrlquéimahs bj `hs auh`bs `hs rbhaamljbs bspljthjbhs eb lxmel-rbeuaamñj prleuabj bjbroéh b`íatrmah. @hs els imthebs eb `h rbhaamñj eb ñxmel rbeuaamñj, sb bjaubjtrhj sbphrhehs, plr `l qub `h trhjsnbrbjamh eb b`batrljbs ebkb bnbatuhrsb h trhvís eb uj amraumtl bxtbrjl.

Ihtbrmh` y bqumpl  

Aljbxmljbs b`íatrmahs, alj pujths ahmièj. 8 nlal eb 56 whtts ‑ 8;2 ^ (AH), alj khsb.

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8 armsth`mzhelrbs. iu`téibtrl emomth`. ; ; vhsls eb prbampmthels eb ;26 i`. ; b`batrlels eb habrl mjlxmehk`b.

 

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; khrrhs eb orhnmtl. 8 ahpsu`h eb plrab`hjh. 8 ibacbrl kujsbj. 8 trmpmb alj ih``h eb hskbstl. 8 nubjtb eb AE. 8 nubjtb eb AH. Qusthjamhs y sl`uamljbs4

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 Houh ebstm`heh.  Houh trhtheh.  Èamel su`nôrmal h` =3% y bj sl`uamñj sl`uamñj h` 86%.  Èamel haítmal o`hamh` y ujh h` 86%.  H`alcl` bté`mal, y bj sl`uamñj sl`uamñj h` 86%. Jmtrhtl eb plthsml bj armsth`bs. Qhahrlsh bj sl`uamñj h` 86%. Ql`uamñj mjemahelrh eb nbjl`nth`béjh. Ql`uamñj eb su`nhtl eb sleml h` 86%.

Ebshrrl``l eb `h prèatmah

 H aljtmjuhamñj, sb ebsarmkb b` prlabsl bxpbrmibjth` eb bsth prèatmah. Ihjtbjbr `h sbaubjamh ebsarmth bs miplrthjtb phrh aliprbjebr b` nujamljhimbjtl eb` smstbih b`batrl`étmal. H.- a`hsmnmahamñj eb b`batrl`mtls4 nubrtbs, eíkm`bs y jl b`batrl`mtls

B` prlpñsmtl eb bstb bxpbrmibjtl bs a`hsmnmahr alil b`batrl`mtls, nubrtbs l eíkm`bs, y jl b`batrl`mtls, `hs emnbrbjtbs susthjamhs qub sb prlplramljhj bj b` `hklrhtlrml. Bstl sb chrè ibemhjtb b` usl eb uj smstbih b`batrlquéimal qub pbrimth prlkhr `h aljtmjumehe b`íatrmah h trhvís eb b`. Hrihr b` amraumtl eb prubkh, b`batrlels,ahmihjbs,nlal,aukh,aljbxmlj b`batrlels,ahmihjbs,nlal,au kh,aljbxmlj h A.H.

mjtrleuamr `ls b`batrlels y bjabjebr

Vrlkhr bj nlrih mjemvmeuh` aheh ujh eb `hs susthjamh

@mipmhr alj ujh `mdh `ls b`batrlels bjtrb aheh susthjamh y hphohr y bjabjebr b` amraumtl

K.- Mebjtmnmahr b` ibahjmsil eb aljeuaamñj b`íatrmah bj sl`uamñj haulsh eb Jh;QL5 hp`mahjel alrrmbjtb emrbath.

 

horbohr h `h sl`uamñj eb su`nhtl eb sleml amjal olths eb nbjl`h`béjh

Mjtrleuamr `ls b`batrlels

Aljbathr h A.E. y bjabjebr

Hphohr `h A.E.

Hjlthr `l lksbrvhel bj b` bsphaml alrrbspljembjtb bj `h thk`h Jl. ;

A.- aljeuaamñj h trhvís eb ujh sh` nujemeh4

 

Hrihr b` amraumtl eb prubkh, b`batrlels,ahmihjbs,armsl` alj sh` eb jmtrhtl eb plthsml ,orhtl,nlal,aljbxmlj h A.H.

Nujemr `h sh`

Mjtrleuamr `ls b`batrlels y bjabjebr.

Lksbrvhr

Qhahr `ls b`batrlels y ujmr`ls

Lksbrvhr

Hphohr A.H.

UHK@H 8 Qusthjamh, susthjamhs purhs y bj sl`uamñj haulsh HV@MAHJEL HV@MAHJE L AH

B`batrl`mtl

Nubrtb

Eíkm`

Lksbrvhamljbs

Jl

C;L ebstm`heh

Jl bs b`batrl`mtl plrqub jl tmbjb sh`bs emsub`ths

C;L plthk`b

Bs eíkm` plrqub aljtmbjb iuy plahs sh`bs Jl prbjemñ b` nlal ebkmel h qub bs uj alipubstl lroèjmal

AC1AC;LC (H`alcl` bté`mal) r.h

 

AC1AC;LC (H`alcl` bté`mal) h` 86%

Jl bs b`ba b`batrl`mtl trl`mtl jm bsthjel em`umel ebkmel h qub aljtmbjb uj alipubstl lroèjmal Jl bs b`batrl`mtl plrqub bs uj alipubstl lroèjmal Jl bs b`batrl`mtl ebkmel h qub prbelimjh b` alipubstl lroèjmal qub b` mjlroèjmal Qh`mbrlj vhplrbs ebkmel h qub sb bstè ``bvhjel h ahkl ujh

A8;C;;L88 (shahrlsh) h` 86% AC1ALLC (èamel haítmal) O`hamh` r.h AC1ALLC (èamel haítmal) h` 86%

rbhaamñj Kurkudbl rbelx mjtbjsl eb b`batrlels Qb hprbamñ iès nubrtb `h mjtbjsmehe eb` nlal ebkmel h qub b` houh hyuel h qub sb emsl`vmbrh ihs B`batrl`mtl nubrtb, qub bstb emsub`tl hyueh h qub huibjtb `h mjtbjsmehe

C;QL5 =3% r.h C;QL5 86% h` 86%

Jh;QL5 h` 86% UHK@H ; GJL1

Ql`uamñj eb Jh;QL5 h` 86 %  Hp`mahjel AE

Qb puel lksbrvhr qub ihjtbjmbjel bsth susthjamh bj nlrih eb armsth`bs tmbjeb h sbr uj b`batrl`mtl eíkm`, pbrl h` emsl`vbr`l bs uj b`batrl`mtl iuy nubrtb Bxmstb `h prbsbjamh eb `h nbjl`nth`béjh plr `ls mljbs cmerlxm`l eb` C;L y b` aètlel kurkudbh plr `h prbsbjamh eb `ls mljbs C+

Bxpbrmibjthamñj 8

@h a`hsmnmahamñj eb `ls b`batrl`mtls bj nubrtbs, eíkm`bs l jl b`batrl`mtls sb ebtbrimjñ bj `h lksbrvhamñj eb` aliplrthimbjtl eb aheh ujl h` abrrhr b` amraumtl, `h mjtbjsmehe alj `h qub prbjeéh b` nlal jls ebilstrhkh qub thj kubj aljeuatlr brh jubstrh sl`uamñj. Qm `h m`uimjhamñj nubsb iuy h`th, smojmnmahkh qub brh uj b`batrl`mtl nubrtb. Qm `h m`uimjhamñj nubsb khdh, smojmnmahkh qub b` b`batrl`mtl brh eíkm`. Qm jl chkéh jmjoôj hvmvhimbjtl l sbøh` qub prbjembrh b` nlal, smojmnmahkh qub jl brh uj b`batrl`mtl l kubj aljeuatlr eb b`batrmamehe. 

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Bxpbrmibjthamñj ;

B` su`nhtl eb sleml bj ibeml haulsl prleuab ujh mljmzhamñj plr phrtb eb` sl`vbjtb pl`hr qub bs b` houh. Aliprlkhjel qub emach sh` bs uj kubj b`batrl`mtl sb `b hp`mah AE, prleuamíjelsb `h b`batrl`msms. Bxpbrmibjthamñj 1

 

B` bsthel eb horbohamñj eb ujh sh` phrh plebr aljeuamr b`batrmamehe mjn`uyb ebihsmhel, yh qub bs iuy kubj b`batrl`mtl bj bsthel `équmel. Aubstmljhrml4  Vhrh `h thk`h ; rbspljeh `l smoumbjtb4 8) ¼Xuí laurrb laurrb auhjel sb aljbath aljbath `h sl`uamñj sl`uamñj eb su`nhtl su`nhtl eb sleml sleml h `h alrrmbjtb alrrmbjtb h`tbrjh< h`tbrjh<

Jl vh h laurrmr `l imsil qub alj b` eb alrrmbjtb emrbath plr qub jl sb objbrhréhj jm aljsuimréhj mljbs yh qub su aljeuaamñj b`íatrmah jl bs plr b`batrljbs `mkrbs. ;) Xub nbjñibjl nbjñibjl laurrb laurrb auhjel auhjel sb aljbath aljbath `h imsih sl`uamñ sl`uamñj j bj alrrmbjtb alrrmbjtb emrbath emrbath,, bsarmkh bsarmkh `hs sbimrr sbimrrbh bhaa aamlj mljbs bs qub sb ``b ``bvh vhj j h ahkl ahkl bjtrb bjtrb b` èjlel èjlel y bj b` aè aètle tlel l phrh phrh bs bstb tb nbjñibjl.

Jh;QL5 

C;L

;Jh QL5

Jh;QL5

C;L

;Jh QL5  C

LC

1) Ebsarmk Ebsarmkh h b` nbjñibjl nbjñibjl eb aljeuaa aljeuaamñj mñj eb `hs sh`bs sh`bs nujemehs nujemehs..

Aljeuabj alrrmbjtb b`íatrmah ebsalipljmíjelsb `hs sh`bs ibemhjtb su aljsthjtb eb emslamhamñj, bs ebamr sb emslamh plsmtmvls (ahtmljbs) y bj mljbs jbohtmvls (hjmljbs) auhjel slj emsub`tls bj uj sl`vbjtb pl`hr l bj bj mljbs bstb ahsl nujemehs.

Lksbrvhamljbs y alja`usmljbs

Lksbrvhamljbs4

Bj `h prèatmah sb mebjtmnmañ `ls emstmjtls tmpls eb b`batrl`mtls hsé alil `ls els tmpls eb aljeuatlrbs qub bxmstbj ebseb b` eb bj`hab mñjmal hsé alil b` eb bj`hab mñjmal, ujl prbvh`bab bj `h b`batrl`msms y ltrl bj `hs ab`ehs oh`vèjmahs, y bj hqub``ls b`batrl`mtls eljeb brhj ebem`bs mjn`uéh `h emsthjamh eb `ls b`batrlels, hsé alil thikmíj sb prlkñ `ls jl b`batrl`mtls eljeb jl aljeuabj bjbroéh, y bstl sb ebkb h `h aljsthjtb eb emslamhamñj eb aheh ujl, b` bxpbrmibjtl qub iès ib slrprbjemñ ebseb im pujtl eb vmsth nub bj eljeb `h sl`uamñj eb su`nhtl eb sleml sb `b pbramkmñ uj ahikml eb al`lrhamñj eb mjal`lrl h rlsh ebkmel h `h prbsbjamh eb` orupl cmerlxm bj eljeb b` ahikml eb al`lr nub orhamhs h qub sb `b mjalrplrl nbjl`nth`béjh, y ltrl bxpbrmibjtl qub mouh` ib slrprbjemñ nub eljeb `h sh` nujemeh aljeuab b`batrmamehe pbrl h` sl`memnmahrsb yh jl.

 

Alja`usmljbs4

Ibemhjtb `h rbh`mzhamñj eb `h prèatmah `l qub sb pubeb alja`umr bs qub `ls b`batrl`mtls qub tmbjebj h sbr  nubrtbs slj hqub``ls qub h` utm`mzhr`ls bj b` amraumtl eb prubkh alj AH prbjeéh b` nlal bdbip`l eb bstls slj `ls èamels nubrtbs y `hs khsbs nubrtbs. H` emsl`vbr bsths susthjamhs bj houh sb prleuabj ujh sl`uamñj aljeuatlrh eb b`batrmamehe plr b``l sm brhj b`batrl`mtls nubrtbs tbjebrèj h sbr b`batrl`mtls hôj iès nubrtbs. Vlr ltrl `hel, ujh susthjamh jl b`batrl`étmah tmbjb bj su aliplsmamñj bj`habs alvh`bjtbs jl pl`hrbs `l qub jls mjemah qub jl aljeuab `h alrrmbjtb b`íatrmah imbjtrhs sb bjaubjtrb bj bsthel sñ`mel, pbrl sm sb nlrih nlr ih ujh sl` sl`uam uamñj ñjnlrihjel hau haulsh lsh,, hsé ems emsl`v l`vmíj míjel` el`h bj hou houh h l ah` ah`bjt bjtèje l`h,, sus il` il`íau íau`hs `hs sbb` ems emslam lamhj hj ahtmljbs y hjmljbs mljbs qubh pubebj aljeuamr `h èjel`h alrrmbjtb b`íatrmah. Bxmstb ahsl qubbj h` tbjbr uj alipubstl lroèjmal bsth tbjebrh h sbr uj b`batrl`mtl eíkm` ebkmel h qub jl sb prleuab ujh sunmambjtb aljabjtrhamñj eb mljbs prlvlahjel hsé qub jl bxmsth n`udl eb alrrmbjtb b`íatrmah, pbrl thikmíj bxmstb b` ahsl bj qub h` emsl`vbr bstls alipubstls bj houh tbjebrèj h sbr b`batrl`mtls nubrtbs, yh qub ujh h`th prlplramñj eb` sl`utl sb emslamhrh phrh nlrihr mljbs `mkrbs. Vhrh sbr iès bspbaénmals `ls alipubstls qub tmbjebj h sbr b`batrl`mtls eíkm`bs slj `ls èamels eíkm`bs y `hs khsbs eíkm`bs. Iljtsbrrht Vhu`h Ohraéh @mzhreb

Lksbrvhamljbs4

Eb haub haubre rel l alj alalj j rbspbatl b` eb ebsh shrr rrl` `l bxpb bx pbrm rmib ibjt jth` h`bxpbrmibjtls sb mebj mebjtmtmnmnmah ahrl rlj j emst emstmj mjtl tlss `hnbjñ nbmebjtmnmahamñj jñib ibjl jlss y phrtmau`hrmehebs hl``l aheh ujl eb `ls rbh`mzhels. Vhrh eb b`batrl`mtls trhkhdhjel alj alrrmbjtb h`tbrjh, sb prlkñ `h aljtmjumehe b`íatrmah h trhvís eb aheh ujh eb b``hs, vbrmnmahjel sm brhj eíkm`bs, nubrtbs l jl b`batrl`mtls, pbramkmbjel bj `h `uimjlsmehe eb` nlal h` qub bsthkh aljbathel b` amraumtl uj huibjtl nubrtb b` auh` alrrbspljemñ h uj b`batrl`mtl nubrtb, uj `mobrl huibjtl alrrbspljembjtb h uj b`batrl`mtl eíkm` y uj huibjtl ju`l qub mjemañ h` jl b`batrl`mtl. Hsé, bj `ls b`batrl`mtls eíkm`bs sb mebjtmnmañ qub alj rbspbatl h `h emsthjamh mjmamh` eb sbphrhamñj eb `ls b`batrlels `h `uimjlsmehe brh khdh, pbrl h` habrahr`ls emach `uimjlsmehe huibjthkh h pbshr eb sbr uj b`batrl`mtl eíkm`. Bj `h sl`uamñj eb Jh;QL5 sb pbramkm pbramkmñ ñ uj ahikm ahikml l eb al`lrh al`lrhamñj, amñj, eb mjal`lrl phsñ h rlsh nubr nubrtb tb,, eb ebkm kmel el h `h pr prbs bsbj bjam amh h eb LC LC,, bst bstb b ah ahik ikml ml eb al` al`lr lr bj `h sl sl`u `uam amñj ñj nu nub b pl plsm smk` k`b b mebjtmnmahr`l orhamhs h `h nbjl`nth`béjh prbvmhibjtb horboheh y h `h hp`mahamñj eb alrrmbjtb emrbath, ebkmel h bstl b` aètlel `mkbrñ cmerñobjl y b` èjlel lxéobjl. Vhrh `h tbrabrh bxpbrmibjthamñj, bxpbrmibjthamñj, `h sh` nub nujemeh ebkmel h qub bj bsthel sñ`mel jl bs ahphz eb aljeuamr b`batrmamehe. @h bxpbrmibjthamñj sb ``bvñ h ahkl alj alrrmbjtb h`tbrjh. Alja`usmljbs4

Bj khs khsb b h `h bx bxpb pbrmi rmibjt bjtham hamñj ñj rb rbh` h`mz mzheh heh sb puemb puembrl rlj j ali alipr prbje bjebr br eb ib ibdl dlrr ih ihjb jbrh rh `l `lss aljabptls tbñrmals vmstl prbvmhibjtb, plr `l qub sb emab qub `h b`batrñ`msms bs b` rlipmimbjtl eb il`íau`hs plr bnbatl eb `h alrrmbjtb b`íatrmah. Hsmimsil, alj rbspbatl h `hs lksbrvhamljbs rbh` rbh`mz mzhe hehs hs sb mebj mebjtm tmnm nmaañ `h mip iplr lrtthj hjaamh eb tbj bjbr br `mip `mipml mlss `ls `ls b`bat `batrl rle els ph phrh rh aheh aheh bxpbr bx pbrmi mibj bjth tham amñj ñj ph phrh rh hsé pleb plebrr al aljsb jsbou oumr mr ib ibdl dlrb rbss rb rbsu su`t`the hels. ls. Uhik Uhikmí míj j bs mi miplr plrth thjt jtb b ibjamljhr qub `h emsthjamh bjtrb b`batrlels rbprbsbjth uj nhatl h` ilibjtl eb chabr phshr  alrrmbjtb b`íatrmah plr b` amraumtl.

 

Vhrh `h sl`uamñj eb Jh;QL5 b` aètlel prleudl b` ahikml eb al`lrhamñj, ebkmel h `h alrrmbjtb alrrmbj tb hp`maheh y plr bjeb `h lktbjamñj eb h`ah`mjme h`ah`mjmehe, he, h bstb tmpl eb rbhaaml rbhaamljbs jbs ``bvhehs h ahkl bj b` aètlel sb `bs aljlab alil rbhaamljbs ahtñemahs. Nmjh`ibjtb bs eb suih miplrthjamh tbjbr bj aubjth qub `ls ibth`bs sb ahrhatbrmzhj plr  aljeuamrr `h b`bat aljeuam b`batrmamehe rmamehe smj ahikmhr su bstruaturh, bstruaturh, h bstls sb `bs aljlab alil aljeuatl aljeuatlrbs rbs eb prmibrh a`hsb. Vlr ltrh phrtb, `ls alipubstls qub tmbjbj bj`hab mñjmal slj armsth`mjls, sl`uk`bs bj houh l alipubstls nujemels, aljeuambjel `h b`batrmamehe ebkmel h su bstruaturh, h bstls sb `bs aljlab alil aljeuatlrbs eb sboujeh a`hsb.   Eb`ohel Ul`bel Gbvmj.

Lksbrvhamljbs4

Bj b` bxpbrmibjtl 8 sb trhkhdñ alj uj amraumtl alj alrrmbjtb h`tbrjh y sb lksbrvñ qub b` houh ebstm`heh, khsbs y èamels eíkm`bs jl `lorhrlj qub sb bjabjembrh b` nlal, imbjtrhs qub `hs b` èamel plal aljabjtrhel y b` houh plthk`b prlvlahkhj qub b` nlal bj b` amraumtl nubrh bjabjemel alj emnbrbjtb mjtbjsmehe ebpbjembjel eb `h emsthjamh eb sbphrhamñj eb `ls b`batrlels7 imbjtrhs thjtl `ls èamels y khsbs nubrtbs `lorhrlj qub b` nlal bjabjembrh alj orhj mjtbjsmehe smj miplrthr `h emsthjamh `ls b`batrlels. Bj `hs susthjamhs qubeb`lorhrlj bjabjebr b` nlal, sb puel lksbrvhr qub eurhjtb `h prubkh `ls b`batrlels sb rlebhkhj eb kurkudhs y eb `h sl`uamñj sb ebsprbjeéhj ohsbs. Bj `h bxpbrmibjthamñj ; sb tbjéhj els b`batrlels suibromels bj ujh sl`uamñj trhjsphrbjtb eb Jh;QL5 alj alrrmbjtb emrbath, auhjel sb bjabjemñ `h sl`uamñj alibjzñ h rbhaamljhr, yh qub `h sl`uamñj sb alibjzñ h tlrjhr al`lr rlsh ebkmel h `h nbjl`nth`béjh  H` hphohr `h nubjtb eb alrrmbjtb emrbath y homthr uj plal `h sl`uamñj, bsth sb tlrjñ trhjsphrbjtb jubvhibjtb. Vlr ô`tmil, bj b` bxpbrmibjtl 1 sb utm`mzñ alrrmbjtb h`tbrjh, sb prbphrhrlj els b`batrlels eb orhnmtl y h` bjabjebr`ls y al`lahr`ls slkrb armsth`bs eb jmtrhtl eb plthsml al`lr orms, bstls jl `lorhrlj qub b` nlal sb bjabjembrh, smj bikhrol h` ah`bjthr `ls armsth`bs, bstls sb nusmljhrlj, vl`vmíjelsb `mqumel ormsèabl, y h` mjtrleuamr `ls b`batrlels bj `h susthjamh bsth vbz sé bjabjemñ y objbrl kurkudhs(ohsbs). Bjtrb aheh susthjamh eb` bxpbrmibjtl ujl y els ahkb ibjamljhr qub sb `mdhrlj y `hvhrlj `ls b`batrlels.

Alja`usmljbs4

 H phrtmr eb `l lksbrvhel bj b` bxpbrmibjtl 8 sb `lorhrlj mebjtmnmahr `ls emnbrbjtbs tmpls eb b`batrl`mtls qub bxmstbj. Qb pubeb ebamr qub `ls b`batrl`mtls nubrtbs y eíkm`bs pubebj sbr  emsub`tls bj uj sl`vbjtb pl`hr, alil b` houh, sb sbphrhj bj ahtmljbs y hjmljbs, qub sb emspbrshj. @ls b`batrl`mtls nubrtbs (èamels nubrtbs, khsbs nubrtbs y sh`bs) sb emslamhj alip`bthibjtb y jl prbsbjthj vhrmhamñj bj `h ahjtmehe eb bjbroéh qub aljeuabj yh qub `h ihylr phrtb eb` sl`utl

 

bstè bj nlrih eb mljbs bj `h sl`uamñ sl`uamñj, j, chy plahs il`íau`hs y plr bsl `lorh `lorhj j bjabjebr b` nlal eb nlrih mjtbjsh. Vlr ltrl `hel, `ls b`batrl`mtls eíkm`bs (èamels y khsbs eíkm`bs), bstèj bj nlrih eb il`íau`hs y chy iuy plals mljbs bj sl`uamñj sl`uamñj ebpbjebj eb `h emsthj emsthjamh amh y `h aljabjtrha aljabjtrhamñj mñj eb bstls ebkme ebkmel l h qub `hs mjtbrhaam mjtbrhaamljbs ljbs hslamhtm hslamhtmvhs vhs bjtrb `ls mljbs emnmau emnmau`thj `thj `h aljeuaa aljeuaamñj mñj eb `h alrrmbjtb, plr  bsl h h`ths aljabjtrhamljbs pubebj jl sbr b`batrl`mtls y jl bjambjebj b` nlal y h` utm`mzhr `h imsih susthjamh alj plah aljabjtrhamñj huibjthj su aljeuatmvmehe m`uimjhjel b` nlal. @h emsthjamh mjn`uyb yh qub h` bsthr `ls b`batrlels ihs abrah pubebj aljeuamr iès nèam`ibjtb `h bjbroéh, plr `l qub b` nlal m`uimjh aljaljeuabj iès mjtbjsmehe.  Uhikmíj cukl susthjamhs qub jl `h b`batrmamehe yh qub jl sb emslamhj, slj jl b`batrl`mtls. Bj b` bxpbrmibjtl ; b` ahikml eb al`lrhamñj sb ebkmñ h `h prleuaamñj eb bspbambs, prlvlahjel uj ibeml kèsmal, b` auh` prlvlah qub `h nbjl`nth`béjh vmrb h rlsh, bstl suabemñ sl`l bj alrrmbjtb emrbath, plr `l thjtl, `h alrrmbjtb h`tbrjh jl prleuab bspbambs. Vlr ô`tmil, bj b` bxpbrmibjtl 1, pbrimtb aliprlkhr qub `hs sh`bs bj su bsthel sl`mel jl aljeuabj b`batrmamehe plr qub jl tmbjbj mljbs, smj bikhrol, h` bsthr bj sl`uamñj sm nlrihj mljbs y pubebj aljeuamr b`batrmamehe. Kbhtrmz Iljtmb` @ñpbz

LKQB[^HAMLJBQ4

Qb rbh`mzhrlj 1 bxpbrmibjtls `ls auh`bs nubrlj bxp`mahels plr `ls prlnbslrbs hjtbs eb sbr bdbauthels. B` prmibr bdbramaml aljsmstéh bj plebr emstmjoumr sm `hs susthjamhs purhs y bj sl`uamñj haulsh aljeuaéhj b`batrmamehe, bj b` auh` prmibrl sb tbjéh qub tbjbr aumehel alj `ls b`batrlels yh qub tbjéhj qub bsthr `mipmls y kmbj `mdhels phrh qub jl mjtbrnmrmbrhj bj b` bxpbrmibjtl, sb pbohkhj `ls b`batrlels eb habrl `ls auh`bs bsthkhj aljbathels alj aljbxmljbs b`íatrmahs phrh shkbr qub bsthkh phshjel b`batrmamehe. Bj b` sboujel sb rbh`mzñ alj alrrmbjtb emrbath y sl`l alj `h sl`uamñj eb JH;QL5 h` 86% bj b` auh` lksbrvhils aljeuaamñj eb bjbroéh b`íatrmah y ebsprbjemimbjtl eb al`lr rlsh iuy abrah eb `ls b`batrlels. Bj b` tbrabr bxpbrmibjtl b` auh` aljsmstéh bj nujemr ujh sh` (GJL1), `h auh` jl aljeuaéh b`batrmamehe sm bsth sb bjaljtrhkh bj bsthel sñ`mel pbrl ujh vbz yh nujemeh nub ahphz eb aljeuamr, bj bsth bxpbrmibjthamñj sb laupñ orhnmtl. ALJA@RQMLJBQ4

Qb aljstruyl uj smstbih b`batrl`étmal eljeb sb hprbamñ b` nbjñibjl eb b`batrl`msms b` auh` plebils ebnmjmr alil b` prlabsl bj b` auh` sb hp`mah bjbroéh b`íatrmah phrh mjeuamr ujh rbhaamñj quéimah jl bspljthjbh. Alj b` ihjbdl eb alrrmbjtb h`tbrjh, alrrmbjtb emrbath y `hs emnbrbjtbs susthjamhs bip`bhehs bj `h bxpbrmibjthamñj jls emils aubjth eb auh`bs eb b``hs slj ahphabs eb aljeuamr b`batrmamehe, `hs susthjamhs qub h` emsl`vbrsb nlrihj mljbs `h aljeuabj, thikmíj ``hihels b`batrl`mtls `ls auh`bs `ls plebils a`hsmnmahr alil b`batrl`mtls nubrtbs y eíkm`bs ebpbjembjtb eb bstl sbrè `h mjtbjsmehe alj `h qub aljeuzahj, bj `ls b`batrl`mtls eíkm`bs mjtbrnmbrb `h emsthjamh.  @ls jl b`batrl`mtls slj hqub``ls qub jl aljeuabj b`batrmamehe yh qub bstls jl slj ahphabs eb nlrihr mljbs.  H` hp`mahr ah`lr h ujh sh` bsth sb `lorñ nujemr, rlipmbjel bj`habs y emslamèjelsb phrh nlrihr mljbs `lorhjel `h aljeuatmvmehe.    ]bkrh Vírbz Dlsb`mjb Hihjeh Lksbrvhamljbs.

 

Eurhjtb `h bdbauamñj eb `ls 1 bxpbrmibjtls puemils lksbrvhr `ls nbjñibjls nésmals qub sunrbj h`oujhs sl`uamljbs b`batrlquéimahs. @ls b`batrl`mtls nubrtbs tbjeéhj h bjabjebr `h m`uimjhamñj eb` nlal alj ihylr mjtbjsmehe smj jbabsmehe eb bsthr h ujh iuy alrth emsthjamh, bjtrb iès eíkm`bs brhj bstls, ibjlr  brh `h m`uimjhamñj, mja`usmvb h`oujls jm smqumbrh aljeuaéhj. (alrrmbjtb h`tbrjh) Eb mouh` nlrih `ls iès nubrtbs sb pleéh lksbrvhr uj kurkudbl h`rbebelr eb `hs p`hahs imbjtrhs sb hp`mahkh alrrmbjtb. (alrrmbjtb h`tbrjh) Bj bstls sb lksbrvhkh b` ahikml eb al`lr eb `h sl`uamñj, rlsh bj bstb ahsl plr bnbatl eb `h nbjl`nth`béjh bj ibeml kèsmal y h `h emslamhamñj eb `h sh` bj `h sl`uamñj, h` ebdhr eb 

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hp`mahr alrrmbjtb vl`véh h sbr mjal`lrh. (alrrmbjtb emrbath) @h sh` sl`meh eb`bsth bxpbrmibjtl 1 sb lksbrvl ihs mjtbjsh `h m`uimjhamñj eb `h klikm``h, hebiès qub bj bstb `hs p`hahs brhj eb orhnmtl (aljeuatlr eb prmibrh)

Alja`usmljbs.

Ebspuís eb rbh`mzhr bsth prhatmah eb ALJERAUL[BQ B@BAU[MALQ utm`mzhjel emnbrbjtbs sl`uamljbs, ihtbrmh`bs aljeuatlrbs y hikls tmpls eb alrrmbjtbs b`íatrmahs pubel alja`umr `h mjn`ubjamh eb `h nubrzh eb emachs sl`uamljbs, `h bnmahamh eb `h utm`mzhamñj eb ihtbrmh`bs eb ibdlr  aljeuaamñj y `h emnbrbjamh eb` bnbatl eb aheh tmpl eb alrrmbjtb hp`maheh. Qb puel hprbamhr eb nlrih nésmah `l vmstl bj tblréh y bj `l pbrsljh` ib hyuel h tbjbr iès a`hrl añil sb ``bvhj h ahkl emacls nbjñibjls. Oljzè`bz [lach Ihréh Nbrjhjeh.