Pneumatika I Hidraulika

 

^EJZKLTFOL DABFSLE@J F ^RF^RJKL PRLOL

Oakprjsarf Z oakprjsarfkl sj vrŬf prjtvarbl kjhlefċoj jejrmf`j u jejrmf`u stilċjeam zrlol, dao sj u  pejukltsofk katarfkl ablvi`l trlescarklgf`l jejrmf`j u suprateak sk`jru. Oakprjsarf f  pejukltsof katarf prfegfpf`jiea sj bftea ej rlzifou`u l oaestruogf`sof sj rlzifou`u slka u djtli`fkl djtl i`fkl.. ĉjsta fstf stra` kaŵj rldft rldftff ola oakprjs oakprjsar ar fif katar, katar, zlvf zlvfsea sea ad umrlde`j umrlde`j ade.  pavjzfvle`l u sustlv. sustlv. Aseavel pad`jil oakprjsarl `j pad`jil el vaiukjtrfċoj oakprjsarj f turbaoakprjsarj. Z pejukltfgf sj matava fsoi`uċfva oarfstj vaiukjtrfċof oakprjsarf. E`fhav  prfegfp rldl blzfrl sj el rldea` oakarf prak`jei`fvam abu`kl (epr. (epr. gfifedlr s oifpak). Wkle`j Wkl e`je`j e`jk k abu abu`kl `kl rld rldej ej oakarj oakarj skl skle`u e`u`j `j sj f vai vaiukj ukjee zrl zrlol ol u e`a e`a`,`, Ŭta uzrao uzraou`j u`j admavlrl`učf prfrlst tilol zrlol. ^ad`jil vaiukjtrfċofh oakprjsarl0 ratlgf`sof( ofief, vf`ċlef, zupċlstf), kjkbrlesof, Oifpef oakprjsarf.

WuŬje`j / hilĜje`j Z pejukltsofk uprlvi`lċofk f fzvrŬefk jijkjetfkl ej skf`j sj dapustftf oaedjezlgf`l vilmj fz zrlol. Plta sj suvfŬel vilml karl fzdva`ftf, l ta sj vrŬf el fzilzu oakprjsarl. ^astupgf suŬje suŬje`l `l su0 ojkf` ojkf`sof sof fif lps lpsarp arpgf` gf`sof sof,, cfz cfzfol folief ief fif ldsarp ldsarpgf` gf`sof sof f tjrkfċof tjrkfċof fif pastup pastuplo  lo   pathilefvle`l.

 

Tilċel pasudl (sprjkefo) Wvrh Wv rhl0 l0 sk skfrf frfvl vle` e`jj tilċ tilċef efhh udlr udlrll oi oifp fpea eamm oa oakp kprj rjsa sarl rl,, ovli ovlift ftjt jtef ef`l `l us usoi oilef lefvl vle` e`jj rldl rldl oakprjsarl f patraŬe`j, prjuzfkle`j vrŬej patraŬe`j, fzdvl`le`j vadj f oakprjsarsoam ui`l fz stilċjeam zrlol.

Wvlol tilċel pasudl karl fkltf0 prfoi`uċlo zl davad stilċjeam zrlol, prfoi`uċlo zl advad stilċjeam zrlol, prfoi`uċlo zl rjmuiltar oakprjsarl, vjetfi zl amrlefċje`j tilol (sfmureasef), kleakjtlr, silvfeu zl fspuŬtle`j oaedjezltl fif lutakltsof advl`lċ oaedjezltl, atvar zl i`udj (zl ċfŬčje`j), zlparef vjetfi prjkl krjŵf, tilċef prjofdlċ

Advl`lċ oaedjezltl Advl`lċ oaedjezltl pastlvi`l pastlvi`l sj el el`efŵfk k`jstfkl u g`jvavadea` krjŵf f fsprjd uzilzefh dfaefgl.prjoa Eloupi`jef oaedjezl oaedjezlt t patrjbea rjdavfta fspuŬtltfadvl`lċf prf`j ejma sj ċlŬfgl zl oaedjezlt elpuef azelċjej mrlefgj. ĉjsta sj`joarfstj lutakltsof oaedjezltl.

^rfprjkl zrlol ^r ^rf` f`jj ui uils lsol ol u peju pejukl klts tsoj oj urje urjel` l`j, j, st stil ilċj ċjef ef zr zrlo lo `j pa patr trjb jbea ea prfp prfprj rjkf kftf tf,, t` t`.. fz fzvr vrŬf Ŭftf tf00  praċfŬčlvle`j zrlol, zrlol, zlui`fvle zlui`fvle`j `j zrlol, rjmuilgf`u tilol tilol zrlol. sj adola cfitrl, rjmuiltarl tilol f klzlifgj (zlui`fvlċ, ui`fia). @jdfefgl zl prfprjku zrlol Cfitlr f rjmuiltar tilol ċjsta sjslsta`f fsparuċu`u `jdfestvjef pejukltsof jijkjet.

Cfitlr ^rf`j uilsol u pejukltsoj urjĜl`j patrjbea `j jifkfefrltf ejċfstačj (vadu ‗ olpi`jvfeu f plru, oakprjsarsoa ui`j, prlŬfeu, praduotj oarazf`j). Oakprjsarsoa ui`j fziaŵjea `j rjiltfvea vfsa vfsaof ofk k tjkp tjkpjr jrlt ltur urlk lkll u oa oakp kprj rjsa saru ru (aos (aosfd fdlg lgf` f`l) l) f ef ef`j `j pama pamade deaa zl padk padklz lzfv fvle le`j `j  pejukltsofh urjĜl`l. urjĜl`l.

 

Rjmuiltar tilol Rjmuiltar tilol asfmurlvl stlbfile ŵji`jef (padjŬjef) rldef tilo. W `jdej strlej, ae ejutrlifzfrl asgfilgf`j tilol zbam prak`jei`fvj patraŬe`j zrlol (parjkjčl` el fzilzea` strlef rjmuiltarl). W drumj strlej, u e`jku sj tilo fz milveam vadl (abfċea 8ý blr) rjdugfrl el patrjbeu vrf`jdeast rldeam tilol (abfċea :ý3 blr).

Klzlifgl Klzlifgl (zlui`fvlċ) trjbl ui`j rlsprŬftf u cfeu klmiu u stru`f zrlol. Pl ubrfzmlvle`j ui`l oarfst oar fstff sj prf prfegf egfpp j`j j`jota otarl. rl. Pl pas pastfz tfzle` le`jj cfe cfejj klmij klmij (sf (sftej tej ol olpf) pf) pat patrjb rjbel el `j pasjbe pasjbell oaestr oae struog uogf`l f`l.. ^ej ^ejukl ukltso tsoff jij jijkj kjetf etf su tvarefċ tvarefċof of pad padkl klzle zleff (6> (6>% % trl trl`ea `eastf stf u rldu rldu bjz zlui`fvle`l zrlol). Loa sj `jdeak zlpaċej sl zlui`fvle`jk zrlol, tvarefċoa padklzfvle`j sj elruŬf (adejsj), pl sj zlui`fvle`j vfŬj ej skf`j abustlvftf. Plui`fvle`j zrlol euŵea `j zl katarj vjifoam prak`jrl fif vjifoj brzfej rldl.

Gfifedrf Z pejukltsofk sustlvfkl gfifedlr `j el`ċjŬčf fzvrŬef jijkjet. Z prfegfpu mfble`j gfifedrl `j trlesilgf`soa, `jdfea `j oad zlorjtefh gfifedlrl ratlgf`soa. ^ad`jij gfifedlrl0 prjkl elċfeu d`jiav d`j iavle` le`l(` l(`jde jdearl arldef def,, dva dvarld rldef) ef),, zl pa pasjb sjbej ej fzv fzvjdb jdbj(v j(vfŬj fŬjpai paiaŵl aŵl`ef `ef,, tji tjijs jsoap oapsof sof,, bj bjzz oifpe`lċj), udlref. Gfifedrf kamu bftf `jdearldef f dvarldef. @jdearldef gfifedrf vrŬj oarfstle rld slka u `jdeak sk`jru, l dvarldef u abl sk`jrl ‗ murl`u f vuou. ^rjkl fzvjdbf0 oifpef f kjkbrlesof. Df`jiavf gfifedrl0 pilŬt gfifedrl, oifp, oifpe`lċl, strlŵe`f paoiaplg, prjde`f paoiaplg, vadfifgl,Ŭfpol zl spl`le`j, kltfgj zl spl`le`j, prfoi`uċgf zl zrlo. @jdearldef gfifedrf SrŬj oarfstle rld slka u `jdeak sk`jru, prfoi`uċlo zrlol elilzf sj slka el prjde`a` strlef,  pavrltea orjtle`j el`ċjŬčj sj astvlru`j aprumak (ael amrlefċlvl klosfklief had oifpl atprfifoj el > kk) fif tjŵfeak tjrjtl. Oarfstj sj zl prftjzle`j f fzblgfvle`j fzrltol, utfsofvle`j (ŵfm), dadlvle`j, pakfgle`j ftd., old ef`j bftel brzfel pavrlteam orjtle`l oifpl.

 

Kjkbrlesof gfifedrf Z adeasu el oifpej, kjkbrlesof gfifedrf akamučlvl`u vjčj sfij uz orlčj hadavj f efŵj  putu`učl˛. ^rjtjŵea sj oarfstj crjovjegf`j rldl. ^asta`j dvf`j fzvjdbj kjkbrlej, tle`urlstl f ˛ putu`u  `jdearldef kjkbrlesof gfifedrf f ta s tle`urlstak kjkbrleak. Tlolv gfifedlr fzvadf sj zl sfij da 4>> oE (tledjk-fzvjdbl) uz had ad klos. 8> kk. Klos. had gfifedrl s ˛putu`učak˛ kjkbrleak fzeasf aoa 2>> kk. Dvarldef gfifedrf Dvarldef gfifedrf vrŬj oarfstle rld u abl sk`jrl (murl`u f vuou), l prfoi`uċgf zl zrlo (prjde`f f strlŵe`f) elilzj sj s ab`j strlej oifpl. Pl paorjtle`j oifpl stilċjef zrlo davadf sj u oakaru s  `jdej strlej oifpl, oifpl, l fstavrjkjea sj oakarl el supratea` strlef karl rlstjrjtftf (adzrlċftf ade. spa`ftf s ltkascjrak).

Gfifedlr s dvastrleak (prailzeak) oifpe`lċak Oifpe`lċl sj elilzf s ab`j strlej gfifedrl, `jdeloj su pavrŬfej ( W >> aor/kfe. Oad losf`liefh oifpefh katarl prjtvlrle`j prlvagrteam mfble`l oifpl u oruŵea mfble`j vrltfil astvlru`j sj elmfbeak fif asgfifrl`učak piaċak (losf`lief josgjetlr). Rldf`lief oifpef katarf fkl`u vle`sof kfru`učf josgjetlr pa oa`jk sj oifŵu oifpavf oa`f ratfrl`u zl`jdea s biaoak katarl. Ilkjief katar Oad ilkjieam katarl ratar sj pastlvi`l josgjetrfċea u adeasu el stltar. Prlo `j zlrabi`je u  prastaru fzkjeu ilkjil, pavrŬfej ratarl f pavrŬfel stltarl (gfifedlr f 2 baċej pavrŬfej). ^aejold sj f oad ilkjiefh katarl oarfstj dvf`j rldej oakarj f gjetrlief paiaŵl` ratarl. Ejoj fzvjdbj fkl`u el srjdfef hadl dadltef atvar zl adzrlċfvle`j. Zabfċl`jej brzfej vrte`j su 3>>>ý7>>>> aor/kfe. Ak`jr selmj f klsj avfh katarl `j rjiltfvea vjifo. ^ejuka-hfdrluifċof jijkjetf Z pejuka-hfdrluifċofk jijkjetfkl vrŬf sj prak`jel rldeam kjdf`l, selml sj ad zrlol  prjdl`j el hfdrluifċoa ui`j oa`j sj oarfstf zl ablvi`le`j rldl. OarfŬtje`j hfdrluifċoam ui`l akamuču`j dl sj pastfmeu klij f `jdeaifċej brzfej orjtle`l f/fif vjifoj sfij. Aseavej mrupj  pejuka-hfdrluifċofh jijkjeltl su0 prjtvlrlċ tilċeam kjdf`l, ui`ef oaċfaef gfifedlr gfifedlr,, pa`lċlia tilol. Sjetfif Sjetfif ‗ pejukltsof uprlvi`lċof jijkjetf ‗ su urjĜl`f zl rjmuilgf`u f usk`jrlvle`j rldeam kjdf`l. Kamučj cueogf`j vjetfil uoi`uċu`u0 prapuŬtle`j, zlustlvi`le`j f prak`jeu sk`jrl kjdf`l? rjmuilgf`u prataol f tilol. Z pejukltsoak uprlvi`le`u vjetfif prjeasj jejrmf`u f/fif fecarklgf`u.

 

^ad`jil0 rlzvadefgf, zlparef vjetfif, tilċef vjetfif, prataċef vjetfif, oakbfefrlef vjetfif, gf`jvef zltvlrlċf.

Rlzvadefo  Rlzvadefgf usk`jrlvl`u tao rldeam kjdf`l ‗ prapuŬtle`jk, zltvlrle`jk, prak`jeak sk`jrl taol. Rlzvadefgf sj rlzifou`u pa si`jdjčfk olrlotjrfstfolkl0 tfp, vjifċfel, elċfe lotfvfrle`l, dui`fe dui `fell trl trl`le `le`l `l sfm sfmeli elil, l, oae oaestr struog uogf`l f`l.. Tfp rlz rlzvad vadefo efoll adr adrjeĜ jeĜee `j bra bra`jk `jk prfoi` prfoi`uċl uċlol ol f rlzvadefh paiaŵl`l (pai`l u sfkbaiu). Azelol tfpl rlzvadefol stlvi`l sj fsprjd elzfvl, epr. ’7/2 ’7 /2 rlz rlzvad vadefo efo‛. ‛. Lo Lotfv tfvfrl frle`j e`j kaŵj kaŵj bft bftff ej ejpas pasrjd rjdea ea f pas pasrjd rjdea ea (ejpas (ejpasrjd rjdef ef f pasrjd pasrjdef ef rlzvad rlz vadefg efgf). f). Kamučf Kamučf elċ elċfef fef (ej (ejpas pasrjd rjdea eam) m) lo lotfv tfvfrl frle`l e`l rlzvad rlzvadefo efoll su0 cfz cfzfċo fċoa, a, kjhlef kjhlefċoa ċoa,, til tilċea ċea,, jij jijotr otrfċe fċea, a, oak oakbfe bfefrl frlea. ea. ^rj ^rjkl kl dui dui`fe `feff trl trl`le `le`l `l sfm sfmel elil il patrjb patrjbea` ea` zl lot lotfvf fvfrle rle`j `j rlzvad rlz vadefo efol, l, rlzvad rlzvadefg efgff sj df`jij df`jij el0 rlz rlzva vadef defoj oj s trl`ef trl`efk k lotfvf lotfvfrle rle`jk `jk f rlzvad rlzvadefo efojj s trjeutefk lotfvfrle`jk Oaestruogf`l `j bftel u pamijdu trl`eastf, sfij patrjbej patrjbej zl lotfvfrle`j, lotfvfrle`j, vjifċfej, elċfel lotfvfrle`l, adrŵlvle`l, pauzdleastf rldl rlzvadefol ftd. ^rjkl oaestruogf`f rlzvadefgf sj df`jij el0 rlzvadefoj sl s`jdfŬtjk(rlvef, oaeusef, oumilstf) f rlzvadefoj s oifzefk prjorfvle`jk(oifpef, piaċlstf, ouifsef). Plparef vjetfi Plparef vjetfif ej dapuŬtl`u pratao u `jdeak sk`jru (zltvlrl`u), l prapuŬtl`u u suprateak sk`j sk `jru ru (ola (ola dfad dfadl) l).. ^a ^avj vjčl čle` e`jj tilo tiloll el fzil fzilze zea` a` st strl rlef ef pa patp tpak aklŵ lŵjj zlpa zlpare reuu cueo cueogf gf`u `u (brtvi`je`j). ^ad`jil0 ejpavrltef, uv`jtea zlparef, elfzk`jefċea zlparef, brzafspusef. Ejpavrltef vjetfi ^atpuea zltvlrl`u pratao u `jdeak sk`jru, l u suprateak prapuŬtl`u kjdf` uz kfefkliea kamučf pld tilol (klif atpar). Zv`jtea zlparef vjetfi (F-vjetfi) Zv`jtea zlparef vjetfi astvlru`j iamfċou F-cueogf`u. Sjetfi sj zltvlrl loa tilo d`jiu`j el bfia oa`jk uilzeak prfoi`uċou, lif sj ej kaŵj zltvarftf old d`jiu`j el abl.

Elfzk`jefċea zlparef vjetfi (FIF-vjetfi)  Elfzk`jefċea zlparef vjetfif astvlru`u iamfċou FIF cueogf`u. Tilo sj prjeasf el fzilzef  prfoi`uċlo, old tilo d`jiu`j el `jdle (bfia oa`f) uilzef prfoi`uċlo, l fstavrjkjea sj drumf (adzrlċjef) uilzef prfoi`uċlo zltvlrl. Loa tilo d`jiu`j el abl uilzel prfoi`uċol, atvarje `j oraz `jdle ad e`fh (fif oraz abl) prailz prjkl fzilzeak prfoi`uċou.

Brzafspusef vjetfi Brzafs Brz afspus pusef ef vjetf vjetfif if oarfst oarfstjj sj zl ubr ubrzl zle`j e`j prlŵe prlŵe`je `je`l `l gfi gfifed fedrl, rl, ċfk ċfkjj sj pavjčl pavjčlvl vl brz brzfel fel orjtle`l oifpl. Gfifedlr sj prlzef prjoa prjoa brzafspuseam vjetfil. Brzafspusef vjetfi fkl rjiltfvea vjifof prataċef prjs`jo f prjdstlvi`l kle`f atpar stru`le`u kjdf`l oa`f fzilzf fz gfifedrl ejma rlzvadefo. TloaĜjr, TloaĜjr, u siuċl`u prlŵe`je`l gfifedrl oraz rlzvadefo, el rlzvadefou sj `lvi`l buol zbam prfmuŬfvle`l zrlol.

 

Tilċef vjetfi Tilċef vjetfif oarfstjtilol. sj zlTilċef rjmuilgf`u rldeam ola f tilol, zl efzsfmureasef drumfh cueogf`l  blzfrlefh el rlzfef vjetfiftilol df`jij sj el0ciufdl, rjmuiltarf vjetfi,  prasi`jdef tilċef vjetfi. vjetfi.

Wfmureasef vjetfi Wfmureasef vjetfif (vjetfif zl amrlefċje`j tilol) asfmurlvl`u dl ej daĜj da prjoarlċje`l tilol u davadeak vadu. Loa tilo u davadeak vadu parlstj fzeld elk`jŬtjej vrf`jdeastf, davad sj spl`l s adzrlċefk advadak svj dao tilo ej pldej fspad elk`jŬtjej vrf`jdeastf.

^rasif`jdef tilċef vjetfif Oaestruogf`l vjetfil fstl `j ola oad sfmureasefh vjetfil, lif `j elk`jel rlzifċftl. El e`fkl `j fzilz (prjkl drumfk urjĜl`fkl) atvarje slka dao `j tilo el uilzu vjčf ad elk`jŬtjej vrf`jdeastf. ^rataċef vjetfif ^rataċef vjetfif d`jiu`u el pratao rldeam ciufdl, l pasrjdea f drumj vjifċfej oa`j zlvfsj ad  prataol ade. brzfej ciufdl. Oarfstj sj dvl tfpl prataċefh vjetfil0 prfmuŬef f `jdeask`jrea prfmuŬef. ^rfmuŬ ^rf muŬea ea d`jiav d`jiavle` le`jj as astvl tvlru` ru`jj sj su suŵje ŵje`jk `jk (prfmu (prfmuŬef Ŭefgl gl,, bij bijedl edl)) oa` oa`jj prj prjdst dstlvi lvi`l `l atpar  atpar  stru`le`u ciufdl (fzlzfvl pld tilol). @jdeask`jrea prfmuŬef vjetfif elzfvl`u sj `aŬ ejpavrltea prfmuŬef f prfmuŬea-ejpavrltef. prfmuŬea-ejpavrltef.

Oakbfefrlef vjetfif Rjlifzfrl`u sj slstlvi`le`jk jijkjeltl (vjetfil) fz ejoaifoa elvjdjefh mrupl vjetfil. ^rfk`jrf oakbfefrlefh vjetfil0 vrjkjesof ċile, dlvlċ tlotl, pejukltsol kjkarf`l, jijkjetf tloteam ilegl, rlzvadefo s kfefkliefk tiloak zl lotfvfrle`j. ^akačef jijk jijkje jetf tf00  prfoi`uċej f kaetlŵej piaċj, prfmuŬfvlċf buoj, fedfoltarf, bra`lċf,  prjtvlrlċ sfmelil, sfmelil, pejukltsol pa`lċlil, pejukltsof pejukltsof bjzoaetlo bjzoaetlotef tef sjezarf. Zprlvi`lċoj shjkj ^ejukltsoj uprlvi`lċoj shjkj su cueogfaeliej shjkj ‗ prfolzu`u elċfe cueogfaefrle`l sustlvl f vjzj kjeu jijkjetfkl, l ej e`fhav cfzfċof sk`jŬtl`.

 

Aseavef prabi Aseavef prabijk jk oad uprlvi`le uprlvi`le`l `l prjd prjdstlvi stlvi`l `l biao biaofrl`uč frl`učff (prjorfvl` (prjorfvl`učf) učf) sfmel sfmeli.i. Ta `j sfmeli sfmeli oa`f drŵf rlzvadefo u `jdeak rlzvadeak paiaŵl`u, pl tfkj aejkamučlvl prak`jeu paiaŵl`l u ċlsu ċlsu old oldll `j ael patrjb patrjbel el u rld rldeak eak pra pragj gjsu. su. Avl Avl`` pra prabij bijk k r`jŬl r`jŬlvl vl sj pat patfso fsofvl fvle`j e`jk k fif  paefŬtlvle`jk  paefŬtlvle`j k biaofrl`učjm sfmelil. Pl fsoi`uċfvle`j ejpaŵji`eam sfmelil (paefŬtlvle`j sfmelil) oarfstj sj0 , l usparjea orjtle`j (prfmuŬeaejpavrltef vjetfi) pad outak ad 7> . >

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Olsoldel kjtadl Oad olsoldej kjtadj abustlvi`l sj elpl`le`j (mrupl) rlzvadefol oad oa`fh sj pa`lvi`u`j  biaofrl`učf sfmeli. ^rlvfil ^rlvfil pra`jotfrle`l pejukltsoam pejukltsoam uprlvi`le uprlvi`le`l `l pakaču olsoldej olsoldej kjtadj0 , l prf fzvilċje`u fedjos < 4. Orum sj zltfk rlzdf`jif el fs`jċoj (zrlolkl fz gjetrl) u oa`fkl sj `jdle gfifedlr skf`j  pa`lvftf slka `jdle `jdle putl. Wvlof fs fs`jċlo `jċlo oruml prjdstl prjdstlvi`l vi`l `jdeu olsoldu. olsoldu.

 

:.Wvlof rlzvadefo ueutlr olsoldj dfrjotea uoi`uċu`j uoi`u ċu`j mfble`j oifpe`lċj admavlrl`učjm gfifedrl  prjkl rjdasif`jdu advf`le`l. Ta sj prfolzu`j pavilċje`jk strjifgl ad rlzvadefol da admavlrl`učfh gfifedlrl u cueogf`soak orumu. 3.^asi`jde`f rlzvadefo u olsoldf ej dl`j fkpuis zl mfble`j si`jdjčjm gfifedrl, vjč lotfvfrl si`jdjču olsoldu. Ta sj u cueogf`soak orumu azelċlvl strjifgak ad pasi`jde`jm rlzvadefol  prjkl paċjtou eavj olsoldj. Fstavrjkjea fsoi`uċu`j sj prjthadel olsoldl ade. e`jea elpl`le`j. =.^rva lot =.^rva lotfvf fvfrle rle`j `j orjtle orjtle`l `l gfifed gfifedrl rl u olsol olsoldf df vrŬf vrŬf sj ols olsold oldefk efk rlzvad rlzvadefo efoak ak.. Ta sj u cueogf`soak orumu azelċlvl strjifgak ad paċjtol olsoldj prjkl gfifedru oa`f sif`jdf prjkl rjdasif`jdu advf`le`l. 8. Wvf rlzvadefgf oa`j lotfvfrl`u gfifedrf elpl`l`u sj prjoa olsoldj (plsfvel rjlifzlgf`l Fcueogf`j), l ej dfrjotea. Elpl`le`jk olsoldl uprlvi`l`u olsoldef rlzvadefgf. 6. Wfmeli rlzvadefol oa`f sj lotfvfrl pasi`jde`f u gf`jiak gfoiusu (ta kaŵj bftf mrlefċef fif olsoldef rlzvadefo) rlzvadefo) sjrf`sof sj spl`l (plsfvef spa`) el rlzvadefo zl stlrt.

Oakprjsarsol stlefgl

 

HFDRLZIFOL ^ZK^J ^ukpj (grpoj) su stra`jvf u oa`fkl sj fzvlel davjdjel kjhlefċol jejrmf`l (rld pamaesoam stra`l) stra` l) trles trlescarkfr carkfrll u jej jejrmf` rmf`uu rldea rldeamm ciufdl. ciufdl. Ratl Ratlgf`so gf`soff hfdrluifċof hfdrluifċof katarf katarf su sifċef stra`jvf oad oa`fh sj trlescarklgf`l jejrmf`j ablvi`l u suprateak sk`jru (jejrmf`l ciufdl prjtvlrl sj u kjhlefċof rld). Plvfsea ad prfoi`uċfvle`l, ċjsta fstf stra` kaŵj rldftf ola pukpl fif katar (zl tlol tl olvv stra stra`` sj olŵj olŵj dl `j rjvj rjvjrz rzfb fbfi file le,, li liff rjvj rjvjrz rzfb fbfi fiea east st tl tloaĜj oaĜjrr ka kaŵj ŵj ze zelċ lċft ftff f sl slka ka kamučeast vrte`j u abl sk`jrl). Pl pamae pukpj abfċea sj oarfstj jijotrakatarf, l u kabfie kab fiea` a` hfd hfdrlu rluifg ifgff kat katarf arf s ueutrl ueutrlŬe` Ŭe`fk fk fzm fzmlrl lrle`j e`jk. k. ^uk ^ukpj pj sj df`jij df`jij u dvf dvf`j `j as aseav eavej ej ol oltjm tjmarf arf`j0 `j0 va vaiu iukj kjes esoj oj  pukpj (vaiukjtrfċoj) f dfelkfċoj  pukpj (el`ċjŬčj stru`ej t`. turbapukpj). Saiukjesoj pukpj trlespartfrl`u ciufd (astvlru`u pavjčle`j tilol f pratao)  putjk skle`je`l vaiukjel oakarl u pukpf, l oarfstj sj zl rjiltfvea klij prataoj uz rjiltfvea vjifoj vfsfej dablvj.

^ad`jil vaiukjesofh pukpf0 Pupċlstl(s vle`sofk azubi`je`jk, azubi`je`jk, s ueutlre`fk azubi`je`jk, sl zupċlstfk prstjeak), vf`ċlel, orfiel (s < oakarak, s vfŬj oakarl), oifpel( oifpea-losf`liel, oifpea-rldf`liel, s oai`jelstfk kjhlefzkak,, s ouifsefk kjhlefzkak), kjkbrlesol. kjhlefzkak Kjkbrlesoj pukpj, tj oifpej pukpj s oai`jefċlstfk kjhlefzkak f ouifsefk kjhlefzkak rf`jtoa sj oarfstj u hfdrluifgf. Pupċlstl pukpl Pupċlstl pukpl s vle`sofk azubi`je`jk Ciufd sj trlespartfrl oraz prastar fzkjeu zupċlefol f oučfŬtl el k`jstu fzilsol zupċlefol fz zlhvltl (atvlrl sj rldef vaiukje) ciufd sj usfslvl, l el k`jstu e`fhavam uilsol u zlhvlt (zltvlrl sj rldef vaiukje) ciufd sj tilċf. Olrlotjrfstfoj0 `jdeastlvel oaestruogf`l, efsol gf`jel, klil tjŵfel, Ŭfrao rlspae brzfel. Avjj pukpj Av pukpj fkl`u fkl`u prfifċe prfifċeaa vjifo vjifojj vai vaiukj ukjtrfċ trfċoj oj mubfto mubftojj (st (stupl uple` e` oar oarfse fseam am d`j d`jiav iavle le`l `l ν ; =:ý8:%) f stvlrl`u rjiltfvea vjifou buou. Efsu asabfta as`jti`fvj el ejċfstaču f zlhtf`jvl`u slka kfefkuk adrŵlvle`l. Rjiltfvea su ilmlej ‗ fkl`u elraċfta pavai`le adeas selmj f klsj pukpj, pl su pamadej zl prfk`jeu oad kabfiej hfdrluifoj (vazfil, mrlejvfesof f Ŭuklrsof stra`jvf). Pupċlstl pukpl s ueutrlŬe`fk azubi`je`jk ^rastar aoa vle`soam zupċlefol padf`ji`je `j el dvl df`jil ‗ usfsef f tilċef. ^rf fzilsou zupċl zu pċlefo efoll fz zl zlhvl hvltl tl ciu ciufd fd ora orazz atv atvarj arj u vle`s vle`soak oak zupċlef zupċlefou ou uil uilzf zf u prasta prastarr fzk fzkjeu jeu zupċlefol, s oa`fk sj orjčj uz ueutrlŬe`f dfa oučfŬtl ‗ prjmrldu ‗ oa`l siuŵf ola brtvl fzkjeu usfsej f tilċej strlej. Eloae prjilsol u tilċeu zaeu, zupċlefgf paeavea uilzj u zlhvlt,

 

fstfsou`učf ciufd oraz atvarj vle`soam zupċlefol. Adifou`j sj tfhfk rldak, lif `j siaŵjef`l ad  pukpj s ueutrlŬe`fk ueutrlŬe`fk azubi`je`jk azubi`je`jk,, pl sj zeltea kle`j kle`j oarfstf.

Pupċlstl pukpl sl zupċlstfk prstjeak Pupċlstl pukpl sl zupċlstfk prstjeak elzfvl sj `aŬ ratarel prstlstl pukpl fif pukpl s ueutrlŬe`fk azubi`je`jk bjz prjmrldj. Pupċlefo s ueutrlŬe`fk azubi`je`jk (zupċlstf prstje) fkl `jdle zub vfŬj ad zupċlefol s vle`sofk azubi`je`jk. Wvf zubf zupċlefol s vle`sofk azubi`je`jk sfkuitlea su u dadfru sl zupċlstfk prstjeak f tloa astvlru`u brtvi`je`j fzkjeu usfsej f tilċej strlej. Avl pukpl fkl efsou rlzfeu buoj f ej`jdeaifoastf prataol uz ejŬta silbf`j brtvi`je`j f vjču soiaeast hlble`u. Sf`ċlel pukpl Olrlotjrfstfoj0 tfhf rld, rlveak`jrle tilo f pratao, Ŭfrao df`lplzae prataol, rlveak`jrle  pamaesof kakjet.  Mubfgf zbam zrlċeastf rjiltfvea su vjifof (stuple` oarfseam d`jiavle`l ν98>%), pl sj pukpl u prlvfia oarfstf zl efŵj tiloavj (da K^l). Mrldj sj zl klij f vjakl vjif vj ifoj oj prat pratao aojj (p (prj rjta tavl vlrr tl tleo eojr jrll zl el elct ctu) u).. ĉj ĉjst staa sj oa oarf rfst stff u elct elctea ea`` fe fedu dust strf rf`f `f,, u iaoaka iao akatfv tfvlk lkl, l, ola pukpl pukpl zl trl trlesp espart art vfsoaz vfsoazefh efh ciu ciufdl fdl,, pakačel pakačel puk pukpl pl zl cfi cfitrfr trfrle` le`jj (pasjbef orum zl cfitrfrle`j).

Orfiel pukpl Orfiel fif ilkjiel pukpl el`ċjŬčj sj fzvadf s ilkjilkl u rataru. Ratar pukpj sk`jŬtje `j josgjetrfċea u stltar, stltar, tloa dl sj rldel r ldel oakarl pavjčlvl u prva` paiavfgf zlorjtl (>9μ9ώ, clzl usfsl), l skle`u`j u druma` paiavfgf zlorjtl (ώ 9μ92ώ, clzl tilċje`l). Rlzvadel piaċl (dfa stltarl) fkl usfsef f tilċef oleli u abifou paiuk`jsjgl (rlzvadel piaċl s padf`ji`jefk  prstjeak), ċfkj sj akamučlvl pue`je`j rldefh oakarl zl vrf`jkj pavjčlvle`l e`fhavam vaiukjel (u tak df`jiu pastlvi`je `j usfsef dfa prstjel) f prlŵe`je`j (u tilċef dfa prstjel) zl vrf`jkj skle`fvle`l vaiukjel. ^ratao `j kamučj kf`je`ltf prak`jeak josgjetrfgftjtl. EjŬta  `j siaŵjef`l fzvjdbl fzvjdbl orfiej pukpj s ilkjilkl u oučfŬtu oučfŬtu f oaestletefk prataoak, oa oa`l `l sj kaŵj fzvjstf ola `jdearldel fif vfŬjrldel (vfŬj oakarl). Orfiej pukpj adifou`u sj rjiltfvea tfhfk f kfrefk rldak (rjiltfvea `jdeaifo pratao, tilo, kakjet). Wtuple` oarfseam d`jiavle`l fzeasf ν ; 3>ý6>% ) ^ukpl s vle`sofk d`jiavle`jk Avl pukpl elzfvl f rldf`liel s taueutrlŬe`fk gfifedlrl kfru`j (stl (stlta tar) r).. Oifp Oifpav avff susj pa past stlv lvi` i`je jeff pukpl zv zv`j `jzd zdls lsta abzf abzfra rak k josgjetrak. el vrlt vrltfi fiaa sBiao brf` brf`jm jmak ak (vrl (vrltf tfia ia s josgjetrfgftjtak). josgjetrfgftjtak ). Zsfslvle`j f til tilċje`j ċje`j ciufdl advf`l sj prjoa slkarldefh ejpavrltefh vjetfil umrlejefh u oaestruogf`u gfifedrl. ^ukpl `j pamadel zl klij prataoj f vfsaoj tiloavj, l  prak`jel josgjetrfgftjtl josgjetrfgftjtl f admavlrl admavlrl`učl `učl rjmuilgf`l prataol ef`j kamučl.

Oifpel pukpl Oifpej pukpj sj rjdavfta fzrleu`u s ejplrefk bra`jk gfifedlrl (=, 6, K^l). ^ukpl s ueutrlŬe`fk d`jiavle`jk Avl pukpl `aŬ sj elzfvl elzfvl rldf`liel rldf`liel pukpl s vle`sofk vle`sofk josg josgjetra jetrak. k. Josgjetrf Josgjetrfgftjt gftjt fzkjeu stltarl f ratarl (biao gfifedlrl) adrjeu`j had oifpavl. Tf`joak `jdeam pueam aorjtl ratarl svlof oifp ablvf had elprf`jd-elzld (usfs f tilċje`j). Zsfsel f tilċel gf`jv sk`jŬtjej su u srjdfef ratarl f zlvrŬlvl`u s ejpaorjteak gfifedrfċeak rlzd`jieak piaċak oa`l pa abadu fkl  prstjelstf oleli padf`ji`je el usfsef f tilċef dfa. ^ratao sj kaŵj rjmuifrltf prak`jeak josgjetrfgftjtl.

^ukpl s vle`sofk d`jiavle`jk Avl pukpl elzfvl sj f rldf`liel pukpl s ueutrlŬe`fk josgjetrak. Biao gfifedlrl kfru`j (stl (stlta tar) r).. Oifp Oifpav avff su pa past stlv lvi` i`je jeff zv zv`j `jzd zdls lsta ta abzf abzfra rak k el vrlt vrltfi fiaa s brf` brf`jm jmak ak (vrl (vrltf tfia ia s josgjetrfgftjtak). josgjetrfgftjtak ). Zsfslvle`j f til tilċje`j ċje`j ciufdl advf`l sj prjoa slkarldefh ejpavrltefh vjetfil umrlejefh u oaestruogf`u gfifedrl. ^ukpl `j pamadel zl klij prataoj f vfsaoj tiloavj, l  prak`jel josgjetrfgftjtl josgjetrfgftjtl f admavlrl admavlrl`učl `učl rjmuilgf`l prataol ef`j kamučl. Rjmuilgf`l pukpf Pl rjmuilgf`u sj oarfstj kjhlefċof, hfdrluifċof fif jijotraefċof rjmuiltarf. ^rjkl rjmuifrlea` vjifċfef vjifċ fef rlzif rlzifou`u ou`u sj0 rjmuiltar rjmuiltarff prataol, prataol, rjmui rjmuiltarf ltarf tilol, tilol, rjmuiltarf rjmuiltarf selmj. selmj. Rjmu Rjmuiltar iltarff sj rjdavfta oarfstj zl pukpj rjiltfvea vjifoj selmj. Old ejkl rjmuiltarl, pukpl uvf`jo rldf  pueak selmak, l vfŬlo ciufdl sj prfmuŬu`j f vrlčl u sprjkefo. Oad svfh tfpavl pukpf pratao  sj kaŵj rjmuifrltf rjmuilgf`ak bra`l aorjtl`l. Rjmuilgf`l tilol d`jiu`j el pratao tloa dl sj  pratao skle`u`j s pavjčle`jk tilol. Rjmuilgf`l selmj trjbl asfmurltf dl praduot prataol f tilol (selml) budj oaestletle. ^rf pavjčle`u tilol patrjbea `j pastfčf admavlrl`učj skle`je`j  prataol. HFDRLZIF ĉOF KATARF Hfdrluifċo Hfdrl uifċoff katar katarff (hfdrakatarf, lotultarf) su hfdrluifċof fzvrŬef jijkjetf. Aef sj df`jij el ratlgf rat lgf`so `sojj kat katarj arj,, gfifed gfifedrj rj f zlo zlorjt rjtej ej kat katarj arj.. Gfifed Gfifedrf rf f zl zlorj orjtef tef kat katarf arf fkl fkl`u `u paklo  paklo  amrlefċje dv`jkl orl`e`fk taċolkl. Ratlgf`sof katarf Wuprat Wup ratea ea puk pukplk plkl, l, kat katarf arf prj prjtvl tvlrl` rl`uu je jejr jrmf` mf`uu ciu ciufdl fdl u kjh kjhle lefċof fċof rld. rld. Oae Oaestr struo uogf` gf`ll ratlgf`sofh u aseavf fdjetfċel pl sjbrzfef ċjsta vrte`j fstf stra` kaŵj prjkl patrjbf  sparahadef ef oarfstftf olakatarl pukplffifpukpf katar`j(rjvjrzfbfief stra`). ^rjkl rlzifou`u sj  sparahad

 

(da >> a/kfe) f brzah brzahadef adef katarf. ^rjilzlo fz rjŵfkl katarl u rjŵfk pukpj pastfŵj sj zlorjtle`jk bube`l, l gf`jil oaestruogf`l `j prfifċea oakpifgfrlel ade. soupl. Tlolv urjel` kaŵj sj zmadea oarfstftf zl dfzlifgj, tloa dl prf spuŬtle`u pukpl oaċf tjrjt f prf takj fsoarfŬtlvl rld tam spuŬtle`l.

^ad`jil ratlg ^ad`jil ratlgf`sof f`sofhh katar katarl0 l0 zupċ zupċlstf lstf ( s vle` vle`sofk sofk azubi`je` azubi`je`jk, jk, zupċlsta zupċlsta-prstl -prstlstf), stf), orfief (ilkjief), oifpef( oifpea-losf`lief, oifpea-rldf`lief).

Pupċlstf katar Brzfel vrte`j zupċlstfh katarl abfċea `j u rlspaeu :>> da 7:>> a/kfe, l rldef tiloavf  da 2>>  blr.. Zz oifpea‗losf`lief katar, ta `j `jdfef brzahadef katar  blr katar.. Pbam vjifofh  mubftlol  prapuŬtle`l rf`jtoa sj fzvadf ola IWHT IWHT-katar. -katar. Pl sparf`j brzfej vrte`j kaŵj  sj fzvjstf ola  brzahadef katar s rjduotarak. Rlzfel buoj pavjčlvl sj s brzfeak   vrte`j f tiloak. Plvfsea ad brtvjefh pavrŬfel, pasta`j dvf`j fzvjdbj0 s `jdefk sk`jrak vrte`j f dvl sk`jrl vrte`j. Oaest Oa estruo ruogf` gf`ll kat katarl arl  s vle`sofk azubi`je`jk  `j u aseavf fstl ola oad zupċlstj pukpj. Brtvjej pavrŬfej oučfŬtl su prjde`f f strlŵe`f paoiaplg, ola f pavrŬfej uz abad zupċlefol. Rlde Rl deff ci ciuf ufdd pad pad tilo tiloak ak orjč orjčjj sj pa abad abaduu zu zupċl pċlef efol ol prjk prjkll prfo prfoi` i`uċo uċouu ef efso soam am ti tilo lol, l,  patfsou`učf el tl` tl` elċfe zubj, Ŭta davadf davadf da ratlgf`j zupċlefol. zupċlefol.  ^rstlstf

katarf fkl`u pasjble abifo zubl (traghafdel orfvui`l) oa`f asfmurlvl fstavrjkjea

 brtvi`je`j svfhsparahadel zubl. ZeutrlŬe`f uvf`jo fkl‗ Mjratar `jdle zub kle`j ejma stltar stltar.. ^asta`j dvf`j fzvjdbj0 ‗ Arbftzupċlefo katar f brzahadel katar. Arbft katar fkl

stlgfaelref vle`sof zupċlefo f ueutrlŬe`f zupċlefo ‗ trolċ oa`f sj pilejtlrea mfbl uzfkl`učf u `jdeak aorjtu vjifof vaiukje pue`je`l, Ŭta ku dl`j vjifo rldef kakjet. Tilċel f usfsel strlel ejprjstlea sj kf`je`l`u. katar fkl jo katar josgj sgjetr etrfċea fċea pas pastlv tlvi`j i`jee ueu ueutrl trlŬe` Ŭe`ff zupċle zupċlefo fo f puea puea kl kle`f e`f vaiukj vaiukjee  pue`je`l. Abl zupċlefol ratfrl`u aoa cfosefh, josgjetrfċefh asf. ^rjdvfĜje `j zl vjifou brzfeu vrte`j uz ejŬta kle`f rldef kakjet. Mjrratar Mj atar

Orfief katar Orfief katar fkl klij mubftoj prapuŬtle`l, pl sj kaŵj oarfstftf zl efsoj brzfej, vjč ad a/kf a/kfe. e. Kl Klos osfk fkli lief ef rlde rldeff tilo tilo fzea fzeasf sf ao aoaa bl blrr. Ka Kaŵj ŵj sj fz fzvj vjst stff s prak prak`j `jei ei`f `fvfk vfk vaiukjeak.

 

Oifpef katar Oarfstj sj oifpea-losf`lief f oifpea rldf`lief katarf. Rldef vaiukje avfh katarl abfċea `j u mrlefg mrl efglkl lkl S ; -8> gk7, l kamu sj fzvjstf s prak`jei`fvfk rldefk vaiukjeak. Bra` aorjtl`l fzeasf e ; >,:ý7>>> a/kfe, klosfklief rldef tilo prjilzf 7>> blr, l kamu rlzvftf fzrlzfta vjifo kakjet (da K ; 72 oEk). l) Oifpea-losf`lief katar Oifpea-losf`lief katarf (s losf`liefk josgjetrak) fzvadj sj s oaestletefk fif prak`jei`fvfk vaiukj vai ukjeak eak pue pue`je `je`l `l (jo (josgj sgjetr etrfgf fgftjt tjtak) ak).. ^a ^asta sta`j `j dvf dvf`j `j aseave aseavejj oaest oaestruo ruogf` gf`j, j, katar katar  s elmfbeak piaċak f s elmfbeak asf. Katar s elmfbeak piaċak Pl rlzifou ad pukpj, fzvjdbl s oaestletefk elmfbak piaċj abzfrak el as ratlgf`j (s oaestletefk vaiukjeak pue`je`l) fkl elmfbeu piaċu f rlzvadeu piaċu oa`j sj aorjču, dao   biao gfifedlrl kfru`j. Rldef ciufd oraz rlzvadeu piaċu uilzf u gfifedrj patfsou`učf oifpavj oa`f prftfsoak el elmfbeu piaċu fzlzfvl`u e`jeu ratlgf`u. Avl` tfp katarl fkl ejŬta kle`f bra` aorjtl`l f rjiltfvea vfsao stuple` oarfseam d`jiavle`l. Oifpea losf`lief katar  sl zlorjteak  piaċak (prak`jei`fv vaiukje pue`je`l) pa fzvjdbf elifou`j pukpf sl zlorjteak piaċak. Ola f oad pukpj, biao gfifedlrl ratfrl dao elmfbel piaċl pia ċl f rlzvadel piaċl kfru`u. Mubfgf trje`l su zelċl`ef, pasjbea prf klifk brzfelkl vrte`j. Katar s elmfbeak asf arl s olrdle Avll oaestr Av oae struog uogf`l f`l kat katarl olrdlesof sofk k zmi zmiaba abak k (vrltf (vrltfiak iak)) akamučl akamučlvl vl rji rjiltf ltfvea vea vjifo  vjifo  vaiu vaiukj kjee pu pue` e`je je`l `l (f vj vjif ifoo zl zlor orjt jtef ef ka kakj kjet et). ). ^r ^rak ak`j `jel el vaiu vaiukj kjel el pue` pue`je je`l `l kaŵj kaŵj sj  `jdeastlvea rjlifzfrltf rjlifzfrltf prak`jeak outl eelmfbej lmfbej asf. b) Oifpea-rldf`lief katar Oi Oifp fpea ea-rl -rldf df`l `lie ieff kata katarf rf fzva fzvadj dj sj ol olaa ka kata tarf rf  s ueutrlŬe`fk d`jiavle`jk f  s vle`sofk d`jiavle`jk. Ola f oifpea-rldf`liej pukpj s ueutrlŬe`fk d`jiavle`jk, katarj s   ueutrlŬe`fk d`ji d`jiav avle le`j `jk k ka kaŵj ŵj sj fzvj fzvjst stff s prak prak`j `jei ei`f `fvf vfk k vaiu vaiukj kjea eak k pue` pue`je je`l `l  (prak`jei`fvfk josgjetrfgftjtak). Apčjefta oifpea-rldf`lief katarf kamu fkltf vria  vjifof vaiukje pue`je`l (zlorjtef kakjet). Hfdrluifċof gfifedrf Hfdrluifċof gfifedrf ej rlzifou`u sj bftea ad pejukltsofh gfifedlrl. Pbam vjčfh tiloavl f sfil karl`u bftf rabusef`j oaestruogf`j, l pavjčle `j f prabijk brtvi`je`l. Abzfrak  dl `j rldef kjdf` ui`j, pa`lvi`u`j sj f prabijk gurje`l gurje`l ui`l pradriam oraz brtvj, pl `j   patrjbea  patrjbea prjdvfd`jtf advad tam ui`l. Oaelċea, prf`j puŬtle`l u pamae   patrjbea `j gf`jiu hfdrluifċou festlilgf`u adzrlċftf. Plta hfdrluifċof gfifedrf fkl`u dvl  atvarl (pa `jdle el prjde`a` f strlŵe`a` strlef) zl adzrlċfvle`j. Oraz tj atvarj   adzrlċfvle`j sj vrŬf pakaču vf`ol fif lutakltsoam vjetfil zl adzrlċfvle`j. Hfdrluifċof gfifedrf oarfstj sj oad liltefh stra`jvl (stjzle`j fzrltol, mfble`j fzrltol f  liltl), u urjĜl`fkl zl trlespart (padfzle`j, utavlrfvle`j), paorjtefk stra`jvfkl (trlot (trlotarf arf,, blmjrf blmjrf ftd ftd.), .), zrloap zrloapiav iavfkl fkl (pa (pakfg kfgle le`j `j stl stl`ef `efhh trlpav trlpavl, l, zlorf zlorfilg ilgl), l), bra bradav davfkl fkl (zlorjtle`j oarkfil, orfil, jifsl) ftd. Gfifedrf kamu bftf  `jdearldef f dvarldef. Wvf hfdrluifċof gfifed gfifedrf rf fkl fkl`u `u abl prfoi`uċol, oad `jdearldefh gfifedlrl strlŵe`f prfoi`uċlo siuŵf zl advad  pradriam ui`l. Oad `jdearldefh gfifedlrl ui`j pad tiloak davadf sj slka s `jdej strlej oifpl oa`f vrŬf oarfstle rld slka u `jdeak sk`jru. ^avrltea orjtle`j astvlru`j sj aprumak fif tjŵfeak tjrjtl. Dvarldef gfifedrf vrŬj oarfstle rld u abl sk`jrl.

 

Tjijsoap jijsoapsof sof gfifed gfifedlr lr oarfstf sj old gf gfif ifed edrl rl sl  stupe`jvftfk (sif`jdefk)

`j patrjble dumf had gfifedrl. Fzvjdbl tjijsoapsoam fzvilċje`jk asfmurlvl dl sj el`prf`j da orl`l fzvuċj el`Ŭfrf gfifedlr, pl si`jdjčf pa Ŭfrfef ftd. Oad fzvjdbj s `jdeloaoarlċefk fzvilċje`jk fzvilċj ledjk gfi gfifed fedlr lr (dvl gfifedrl f dvl oifpl el fsta` oifpe`lċf) sj svf gfifed gfifedrf rf fstavr fstavrjkj jkjea. ea. Tledjk akamučlvl`u pastfzle`j pastfzle`j vjifoj sfij uz amrlefċjef prak`jr gfifedrl.

Plorjtef katarf Plorj Pl orjtef tef kat katarf arf fkl`u fkl`u amr amrlef lefċje ċje out zlo zlorjt rjtl, l, l zl zlorj orjtea tea orj orjtle tle`j `j astvlr astvlru`u u`u dfr dfrjot jotea ea fif fedfrjote fedfr jotea. a.  Dfrjotea zlorjtle`j astvlru`j sj pakaču orfil (paput orfieam katarl s `jdefk orfiak) ueutlr gfifedrl s cfoseak rldf`lieak prjmrldak fzkjeu tilċeam f usfseam df`jil. Klosfklief zlorjt tlovam katarl fzeasf aoa 7>>>. Fedfrjotea zlorjtle`j astvlru`j sj pakaču gfifedrl prjoa zubej ijtvj (azubefgj) f zupċlefol uz klosfklief zlorjt aoa =2>>.

SJETFIF Hfdrluifċof vjetfif df`jij sj el0 rlzvadefoj, ejpavrltej vjetfij, tilċej vjetfij, prataċej vjetfij. Rlzvadefgf ^rfegfp rldl hfdrluifċofh f pejukltsofh rlzvadefol matava `j fdjetfċle, l sfkbaif su prlotfċof fstf. Z hfdrluifgf sj uilzef prfoi`uċgf abfċea azelċlvl`u siavfkl ^ (tilċef ‗ if`jva), R (fif T zl advad ade. sprjkefo ‗ djsea), fzilzef (rldef) prfoi`uċgf siavfkl L, B, G, uprlvi`lċof siavfkl X fif V, l pakačef (zl pradria ui`j) siavak I. Avd`j sj pad rlzvadefoak padrlzukf`jvl dfmftl dfm ftliea iea pa paor orjtl jtlef ef rlzvade rlzvadefo fo oad oa` oa`jm jm sj oarfst oarfstjj slk slkaa orl orl`e` `e`ff paiaŵl paiaŵl`f `f 'at 'atvar varje jea' a' fif 'zltvarjea'. ^asta`j f oaetfeufrlea paorjtlef rlzvadefgf (prapargfaelief f sjrva-vjetfif) oa`f fzkjeu dvl orl`e`l paiaŵl`l oaetfeufrlea paprfkl`u ejof paiaŵl` uz admavlrl`učj prfmuŬea d`jiavle`j. Ovliftjtu rlzvadefol olrlotjrfzfrl`u ueutrlŬe`f atpar (pld tilol) f prapuŬtle`j (oa`f trjbl`u bftf Ŭta kle`f), tj brzfel rldl (crjovjegf`l uoi`uċfvle`l f fsoi`uċfvle`l ‗ trjbl bftf Ŭta vjčl). Apčjefta (ola f zl svlof drumf vjetfi), rldel olrlotjrfstfol rlzvadefol fkl tlolv abifo dl sj atpar (pld tilol) pavjčlvl s pavjčle`jk prataol oraz rlzvadefo. Aseavej olrlotjrfstfoj hfdrluifċofh rlzvadefol su0 oaestruogf`l, elzfvel vjifċfel, bra` kaŵj rldefhbftf paiaŵl`l, elċfe lotfvfrle`l, bra` hfdrluifċefh paiaŵl`l. Elċfe lotfvfrle`l (ejpasrjdef) ruċef, apruŵef, hfdrluifċof, pejukltsof f jijotraklmejtsof.

Ejpavrltef vjetfif Dazvai`lvl`u pratao slka u `jdeak sk`jru. ^ildle` vjetfil kaŵj fkltf abifo oumij, oaeusl, tle` tl e`ur urll fif fif ċl ċlhu hurj rj.. Sje jetf tfii ka kaŵj ŵj bftf bftf ej ejap aptj tjrjč rjčje je fi fiff ap aptj tjrj rjčj čjee (s apru apruma mak) k).. Sje jetf tfii s hfdrluifċofk djbiaofrle`jk earkliea dazvai`lvl pratao ad L prjkl B. Kjeutfk, old sj  prfoi`uċlo X davjdj pad tilo, akamučlvl sj pratao u suprateak sk`jru (ad B prjkl L). Avl` vjetfi akamučlvl biaofrle`j f djbiaofrle`j ŵji`jeam paiaŵl`l (epr. oad hfdrluifċoj dfzlifgj zl lutakabfi).

 

Tilċef vjetfif Tilċef vjetfif ut`jċu el tilo u sustlvu fif df`jiu sustlvl ‗ aef su fzvrŬef jijkjetf zl uprlvi`le`j f zl rjmuilgf`u tilol. ^rjkl cueogf`f df`jij sj el0 vjetfij zl amrlefċlvle`j tilol, rjdasi`jdej vjetfij, rjdugf`soj vjetfij. Sjetfif zl amrlefċlvle`j tilol(sfmureasef vjetfi) Asfmurlvl`u dl tilo u sustlvu ej prf`jej klosfkliea dapuŬtjeu vrf`jdeast. Oarfstj sj ola sfmureasef vjetfif (zl zlŬtftu ad prjoak`jream tilol), ola oaċef vjetfif (zl zlŬtftu ad tilċefh udlrl udl rl oa`f oa`f el elstl stl`u `u epr epr.. prf prfifo ifoak ak zl zltvl tvlrle rle`l `l rlz rlzvad vadefo efol) l) fif ola vj vjetf etfif if zl pra pratud tudrŵl rŵle`j e`j.. ^atrjbef su f prfsutef u svfk hfdrluifċofk sustlvfkl, tfpfċea sj pastlvi`l`u el fzilzu pukpj, zl zlŬtftu pukpj f sustlvl ad prjoak`jream tilol. tilol. Sjetfi Sjetfi zl amrlefċlvle`j tilol u earklieak  `j paiaŵl`u tilo zltvarje. El čj vjetfiu sj el sorlčfvle`jk/praduŵl sorlčfvle`jk/praduŵlvle`jk vle`jk ŵji`jef klosfklief prf oa`jk prftfslo pildle` vjetfil svildltf sfiu uaprumj apruzf,elk`jstf mureutf pildle` f el tl` elċfe atvarftf vjetfi. Tilo atvlrle`l vjčf `j ad tilol zltvlrle`l vjetfil zl -) azelċft čj sj s  p>, l kfefklief f klosfklief dapuŬtjef rldef tilo p< f  p2 rjspjotfvea (admavlrl`učf vaiukjef pifel su S < f S 2). Pl loukuiltarj s oifpak klosfklief ak`jr tiloavl  p>0  pp2 ; trjbl bftf : blr efŵf ad kfefklieam rldeam tilol ciufdl p,2 blr. Tilċef cfitlr   umrlĜu`j sj u tilċef vad, epr. fzl pukpj fif fsprjd sjrva-vjetfil. El`ċjŬčj sj umrlĜu umr lĜu`j `j ejpas ejpasrjd rjdea ea fsp fsprjd rjd upr uprlv lvi`lċ i`lċofh ofh fif rjmuil rjmuilgf` gf`sof sofhh urjĜl urjĜl`l, `l, zl e`f e`fhav havuu zlŬtf zlŬtftu. tu. Oaestruogf`l cfitrl karl bftf rabusel `jr `j fziaŵje klosfklieak tilou (rldef prftfslo cfitrl da 42> blr). Zabfċl`jej su cfeačj cfitrfrle`l ιk, l rldef tilo da 7> blr. Avf cfitrf su iloa prfstuplċef f ilof su zl adrŵlvle`j. Cfitlrsof jijkjet sk`jŬtl sj u iaelg oa`f sj vldf zl`jdea s jijkjetak, ċfkj sj spr`jċlvl pradar sloupi`jej ejċfstačj u sprjkefo. Dl sj fzb`jmej fsoi`uċfvle`j sustlvl prfifoak fzk`jej cfitlrsoam jijkjetl, oarfstj sj dva`ef cfitrf (dvl plrlijiea prfoi`uċjel cfitrl, svlof aprjki`je zlparefk vjetfifkl el uilzu f fzilzu).

ZRJĞL@F PL HILĞJE@J F MRF@LE@J Z hfdrluifċ hfdrluifċoj oj sj sustlvj umrlĜu umrlĜu`u `u hilde`lgf hilde`lgf fif mrf`l mrf`lċf. ċf. Ta avfsf a uv`jt uv`jtfkl fkl rldl sustlvl. sustlvl. Rlziam takj `j Ŭta ui`j karl fkltf adrjĜjeu vfsoazeast oloa bf rld sustlvl bfa fsprlvle. Zabfċl`jel tjkpjrlturl ui`l `j ad 4> aG da :>aG, l slka u fzefkefk siuċl`jvfkl f da 8> aG. Z sustlvfkl s klifk prataoak jejrmf`j davai`ea `j hilĜje`j u sprjkefou. Oad vjčfh selml, ola f u uv`jtfkl vfsaoj tjkpjrlturj aoaifŬl, umrlĜu`u sj hilde`lgf (el`ċjŬčj vadak hilĜjef). Z uv`jtfkl efsofh tjkpjrlturl, ui`j el paċjtou rldl sustlvl ejkl davai`eu vfsoazeast, pl sj stamll oarfs stam oarfstj tj mrf`l mrf`lċf. ċf. Ta su el`ċ el`ċjŬčj jŬčj jijotrfċef jijotrfċef mrf`l mrf`lċf ċf fif mrf`lċf mrf`lċf s vadjeak vadjeak plrak fif tapifk tapifk zrloak (umrlĜu`u sj u sprjkefoj ui`l).

 

HFDRLZIFĉOF G@JSASADF > dakatar 7:>>`ja/kfe, rldef tiloavf da 2>> blr. Rlzfe Rlzfel buoj pavjčlvl s brzfeak vrte`j f tiloak. Plvfsea ad brtvjefh pavrŬfel pasta`j dvf`j fzvjdbj0 s `jdefk sk`jrak vrte`j f dvask`jref.