Plato, Aristotle and Socrates

Plato, Aristotle and Socrates Philosophy

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Contents Articles Socrates

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Plato

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Aristotle

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References Article Sources and Contributors

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

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Article Licenses License

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Socrates

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Socrates Socrates

Socrates Born

470/469 BC Deme Alopece, Athens

Died

399 BC (age approx. 71) Athens

Nationality

Greek

Era

Ancient philosophy

Region

Western philosophy

School

Classical Greek

Main interests

Epistemology, ethics

Notable ideas

Socratic method, Socratic irony

Part of a series on

Socrates "I know that I know nothing" Social gadfly · Trial of Socrates Eponymous concepts Socratic dialogue · Socratic method Socratic questioning Socratic paradox · Socratic problem Disciples

Socrates

2 Plato · Xenophon Antisthenes · Aristippus Related topics Megarians · Cynicism · Cyrenaics Platonism · Stoicism · The Clouds • • •

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Socrates (/ˈsɒkrətiːz/;[2] Greek: Σωκράτης, Ancient Greek pronunciation: [sɔːkrátɛːs], Sōkrátēs; 470/469 BC – 399 BC) was a classical Greek (Athenian) philosopher. Credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy, he is an enigmatic figure known chiefly through the accounts of later classical writers, especially the writings of his students Plato and Xenophon and the plays of his contemporary Aristophanes. Many would claimWikipedia:Avoid weasel words that Plato's dialogues are the most comprehensive accounts of Socrates to survive from antiquity. Through his portrayal in Plato's dialogues, Socrates has become renowned for his contribution to the field of ethics, and it is this Platonic Socrates who lends his name to the concepts of Socratic irony and the Socratic method, or elenchus. The latter remains a commonly used tool in a wide range of discussions, and is a type of pedagogy in which a series of questions is asked not only to draw individual answers, but also to encourage fundamental insight into the issue at hand. Plato's Socrates also made important and lasting contributions to the field of epistemology, and the influence of his ideas and approach remains a strong foundation for much western philosophy that followed.

Biography The Socratic problem An accurate picture of the historical Socrates and his philosophical viewpoints is problematic: an issue known as the Socratic problem. As Socrates did not write philosophical texts, the knowledge of the man, his life, and his philosophy is entirely based on writings by his students and contemporaries. Foremost among them is Plato; however, works by Xenophon, Aristotle, and Aristophanes also provide important insights.[3] The difficulty of finding the “real” Socrates arises because these works are often philosophical or dramatic texts rather than straightforward histories. Aside from Thucydides (who makes no mention of Socrates or philosophers in general) and Xenophon, there are in fact no straightforward histories contemporary with Socrates that dealt with his own time and place. A corollary of this is that sources that do mention Socrates do not necessarily claim to be historically accurate, and are often partisan (those who prosecuted and convicted Socrates have left no testament). Historians therefore face the challenge of reconciling the various texts that come from these men to create an accurate and consistent account of Socrates' life and work. The result of such an effort is not necessarily realistic, merely consistent. Plato is frequently viewed as the most informative source about Socrates' life and philosophy. At the same time, however, many scholars believe that in some works Plato, being a literary artist, pushed his avowedly brightened-up version of "Socrates" far beyond anything the historical Socrates was likely to have done or said; and that Xenophon, being an historian, is a more reliable witness to the historical Socrates. It is a matter of much debate which Socrates Plato is describing at any given point—the historical figure, or Plato's fictionalization. As Martin Cohen has put it, Plato, the idealist, offers "an idol, a master figure, for philosophy. A Saint, a prophet of the 'Sun-God', a teacher condemned for his teachings as a heretic."[4] It is also clear from other writings and historical artifacts, however, that Socrates was not simply a character, or an invention, of Plato. The testimony of Xenophon and Aristotle, alongside some of Aristophanes' work (especially The Clouds), is useful in fleshing out a perception of Socrates beyond Plato's work.

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Life Details about Socrates can be derived from three contemporary sources: the dialogues of Plato and Xenophon (both devotees of Socrates), and the plays of Aristophanes. He has been depicted by some scholars, including Eric Havelock and Walter Ong, as a champion of oral modes of communication, standing up at the dawn of writing against its haphazard diffusion.[5] Aristophanes' play The Clouds portrays Socrates as a clown who teaches his students how to bamboozle their way out of debt. Most of Aristophanes' works, however, function as parodies. Thus, it is presumed this characterization was also not literal. Socrates' father was Sophroniscus,[6] a sculptor,[7] and his mother Phaenarete,[8] a midwife. Socrates married Xanthippe, who was much younger than he and was characterized as undesirable in temperament. She bore for him three sons, Lamprocles, Sophroniscus and Menexenus. His friend Crito of Alopece criticized him for abandoning his sons when he refused to try to escape before his execution.

Carnelian gem imprint representing Socrates, Rome, 1st century BC-1st century AD.

Socrates initially earned his living as a master stonecutter. According to Timon of Phlius and later sources, Socrates took over the profession of stonemasonry from his father who cut stone for the Parthenon. There was a tradition in antiquity, not credited by modern scholarship, that Socrates crafted the statues of the Three Graces, which stood near the Acropolis until the 2nd century AD.[9] Ancient texts seem to indicate that Socrates did not work at stonecutting after retiring. In Xenophon's Symposium, Socrates is reported as saying he devotes himself only to what he regards as the most important art or occupation: discussing philosophy. In The Clouds Aristophanes portrays Socrates as accepting payment for teaching and running a sophist school with Chaerephon, while in Plato's Apology and Symposium and in Xenophon's accounts, Socrates explicitly denies accepting payment for teaching. More specifically, in the Apology Socrates cites his poverty as proof he is not a teacher. Several of Plato's dialogues refer to Socrates' military service. Socrates says he served in the Athenian army during three campaigns: at Potidaea, Amphipolis, and Delium. In the Symposium Alcibiades describes Socrates' valour in the battles of Potidaea and Delium, recounting how Socrates saved his life in the former battle (219e-221b). Socrates' exceptional service at Delium is also mentioned in the Laches by the General after whom the dialogue is named (181b). In the Apology, Socrates compares his military service to his courtroom troubles, and says anyone on the jury who thinks he ought to retreat from philosophy must also think soldiers should retreat when it seems likely that they will be killed in battle. In 406, he was a member of the Boule, and his tribe the Antiochis held the Prytany on the day the Generals of the Battle of Arginusae, who abandoned the slain and the survivors of foundered ships to pursue the defeated Spartan navy, were discussed. Socrates was the Epistates and resisted the unconstitutional demand for a collective trial to establish the guilt of all eight Generals, proposed by Callixeinus. Eventually, Socrates refused to be cowed by threats of impeachment and imprisonment and blocked the vote until his Prytany ended the next day, whereupon the six Generals who had returned to Athens were condemned to death. In 404, the Thirty Tyrants sought to ensure the loyalty of those opposed to them by making them complicit in their activities. Socrates and four others were ordered to bring a certain Leon of Salamis from his home for unjust execution. Socrates quietly refused, his death averted only by the overthrow of the Tyrants soon afterwards.[10]

Socrates

Trial and death Socrates lived during the time of the transition from the height of the Athenian hegemony to its decline with the defeat by Sparta and its allies in the Peloponnesian War. At a time when Athens sought to stabilize and recover from its humiliating defeat, the Athenian public may have been entertaining doubts about democracy as an efficient form of government. Socrates appears to have been a critic of democracy, and some scholars interpret his trial as an expression of political infighting. Claiming loyalty to his city, Socrates clashed with the current course of Athenian politics and society.[11] He praises Sparta, archrival to Athens, directly and indirectly in various dialogues. One of Socrates' purported offenses to the city was his position as a social and moral critic. Rather than upholding a status quo and accepting the development of what he perceived as immorality within his region, Socrates questioned the collective notion of "might makes right" that he felt was common in Greece during this period. Plato refers to Socrates as the "gadfly" of the state (as the gadfly stings the horse into action, so Socrates stung various Athenians), insofar as he irritated some people with considerations of justice and the pursuit of goodness. His attempts to improve the Athenians' sense of justice may have been the cause of his execution. According to Plato's Apology, Socrates' life as the "gadfly" of Athens began when his friend Chaerephon asked the oracle at Delphi if anyone were wiser than Socrates; the Oracle responded that no-one was wiser. Socrates believed the Oracle's response was a paradox, because he believed he possessed no wisdom whatsoever. He proceeded to test the riddle by approaching men considered wise by the people of Athens—statesmen, poets, and artisans—in order to refute the Oracle's pronouncement. Questioning them, however, Socrates concluded: while each man thought he knew a great deal and was wise, in fact they knew very little and were not wise at all. Socrates realized the Oracle was correct; while so-called wise men thought themselves wise and yet were not, he himself knew he was not wise at all, which, paradoxically, made him the wiser one since he was the only person aware of his own ignorance. Socrates' paradoxical wisdom made the prominent Athenians he publicly questioned look foolish, turning them against him and leading to accusations of wrongdoing. Socrates defended his role as a gadfly until the end: at his trial, when Socrates was asked to propose his own punishment, he suggested a wage paid by the government and free dinners for the rest of his life instead, to finance the time he spent as Athens' benefactor.[12] He was, nevertheless, found guilty of both corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens and of impiety ("not believing in the gods of the state"),[13] and subsequently sentenced to death by drinking a mixture containing poison hemlock.[14][15][16][17] According to Xenophon's story, Socrates purposefully gave a defiant defense to the jury because "he believed he would be better off dead". Xenophon goes on to describe a defense by Socrates that explains the rigors of old age, and how Socrates would be glad to circumvent them by being sentenced to death. It is also understood that Socrates also wished to die because he "actually believed the right time had come for him to die." Xenophon and Plato agree that Socrates had an opportunity to escape, as his followers were able to bribe the prison guards. There have been several suggestions offered as reasons why he chose to stay: 1. He believed such a flight would indicate a fear of death, which he believed no true philosopher has. 2. If he fled Athens his teaching would fare no better in another country, as he would continue questioning all he met and undoubtedly incur their displeasure. Bust of Socrates in the Vatican Museum 3. Having knowingly agreed to live under the city's laws, he implicitly subjected himself to the possibility of being accused of crimes by its citizens and judged guilty by its jury. To do otherwise would have caused him to break his "social contract" with the state, and so harm the state, an unprincipled act. 4. If he escaped at the instigation of his friends, then his friends would become liable in law.

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The full reasoning behind his refusal to flee is the main subject of the Crito. Socrates' death is described at the end of Plato's Phaedo. Socrates turned down Crito's pleas to attempt an escape from prison. After drinking the poison, he was instructed to walk around until his legs felt numb. After he lay down, the man who administered the poison pinched his foot; Socrates could no longer feel his legs. The numbness slowly crept up his body until it reached his heart. Shortly before his death, Socrates speaks his last words to Crito: "Crito, we owe a rooster to Asclepius. Please, don't forget to pay the debt." Asclepius was the Greek god for curing illness, and it is likely Socrates' last words meant that death is the cure—and freedom, of the soul from the body. Additionally, in Why Socrates Died: Dispelling the Myths, Robin Waterfield adds another interpretation of Socrates' last words. He suggests that Socrates was a voluntary scapegoat; his death was the purifying remedy for Athens’ misfortunes. In this view, the token of appreciation for Asclepius would represent a cure for Athens' ailments.

Philosophy Part of a series on

Plato

Plato from The School of Athens by Raphael, 1509 •

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Works

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Platonism

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Idealism / Realism

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Demiurge

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Theory of Forms

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Transcendentals

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Form of the Good

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Third man argument

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Euthyphro dilemma

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Ring of Gyges

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The sun

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The chariot Related articles

Socrates

6 Commentaries The Academy in Athens Socratic problem Middle Platonism Neoplatonism

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Socratic method Perhaps his most important contribution to Western thought is his dialectic method of inquiry, known as the Socratic method or method of "elenchus", which he largely applied to the examination of key moral concepts such as the Good and Justice. It was first described by Plato in the Socratic Dialogues. To solve a problem, it would be broken down into a series of questions, the answers to which gradually distill the answer a person would seek. The influence of this approach is most strongly felt today in the use of the scientific method, in which hypothesis is the first stage. The development and practice of this method is one of Socrates' most enduring contributions, and is a key factor in earning his mantle as the father of political philosophy, ethics or moral philosophy, and as a figurehead of all the central themes in Western philosophy. To illustrate the use of the Socratic method; a series of questions are posed to help a person or group to determine their underlying beliefs and the extent of their knowledge. The Socratic method is a negative method of hypothesis elimination, in that better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions. It was designed to force one to examine one's own beliefs and the validity of such beliefs. An alternative interpretation of the dialectic is that it is a method for direct perception of the Form of the Good. Philosopher Karl Popper describes the dialectic as "the art of intellectual intuition, of visualising the divine originals, the Forms or Ideas, of unveiling the Great Mystery behind the common man's everyday world of appearances."[19] In a similar vein, French philosopher Pierre Hadot suggests that the dialogues are a type of spiritual exercise. "Furthermore," writes Hadot, "in Plato's view, every dialectical exercise, precisely because it is an exercise of pure thought, subject to the demands of the Logos, turns the soul away from the sensible world, and allows it to convert itself towards the Good."[20]

Philosophical beliefs The beliefs of Socrates, as distinct from those of Plato, are difficult to discern. Little in the way of concrete evidence exists to demarcate the two. The lengthy presentation of ideas given in most of the dialogues may be deformed by Plato, and some scholars think Plato so adapted the Socratic style as to make the literary character and the philosopher himself impossible to distinguish. Others argue that he did have his own theories and beliefs, but there is much controversy over what these might have been, owing to the difficulty of separating Socrates from Plato and the difficulty of interpreting even the dramatic writings concerning Socrates. Consequently, distinguishing the philosophical beliefs of Socrates from those of Plato and Xenophon is not easy and it must be remembered that what is attributed to Socrates might more closely reflect the specific concerns of these thinkers. The matter is complicated because the historical Socrates seems to have been notorious for asking questions but not answering, claiming to lack wisdom concerning the subjects about which he questioned others.[21] If anything in general can be said about the philosophical beliefs of Socrates, it is that he was morally, intellectually, and politically at odds with many of his fellow Athenians. When he is on trial for heresy and corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens, he uses his method of elenchos to demonstrate to the jurors that their moral values are

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wrong-headed. He tells them they are concerned with their families, careers, and political responsibilities when they ought to be worried about the "welfare of their souls". Socrates' assertion that the gods had singled him out as a divine emissary seemed to provoke irritation, if not outright ridicule. Socrates also questioned the Sophistic doctrine that arete (virtue) can be taught. He liked to observe that successful fathers (such as the prominent military general Pericles) did not produce sons of their own quality. Socrates argued that moral excellence was more a matter of divine bequest than parental nurture. This belief may have contributed to his lack of anxiety about the future of his own sons. Also: There should be no doubt that, despite his claim to know only that he knew nothing, Socrates had strong beliefs about the divine. According to Xenophon, he was a teleologist who held that god arranges everything for the best. Socrates frequently says his ideas are not his own, but his teachers'. He mentions several influences: Prodicus the rhetor and Anaxagoras the philosopher. Perhaps surprisingly, Socrates claims to have been deeply influenced by two women besides his mother: he says that Diotima, a witch and priestess from Mantinea, taught him all he knows about eros, or love; and that Aspasia, the mistress of Pericles, taught him the art of rhetoric.[22] John Burnet argued that his principal teacher was the Anaxagorean Archelaus but his ideas were as Plato described them; Eric A. Havelock, on the other hand, considered Socrates' association with the Anaxagoreans to be evidence of Plato's philosophical separation from Socrates.

Socratic paradoxes Many of the beliefs traditionally attributed to the historical Socrates have been characterized as "paradoxical" because they seem to conflict with common sense. The following are among the so-called Socratic Paradoxes:[23] • • • •

No one desires evil. No one errs or does wrong willingly or knowingly. Virtue—all virtue—is knowledge. Virtue is sufficient for happiness.

The phrase Socratic paradox can also refer to a self-referential paradox, originating in Socrates' phrase, "what I do not know I do not think I know",[24] often paraphrased as "I know that I know nothing."

Knowledge One of the best known sayings of Socrates is "what I do not know I do not think I know". The conventional interpretation of this remark is that Socrates' wisdom was limited to an awareness of his own ignorance. Socrates believed wrongdoing was a consequence of ignorance and those who did wrong knew no better. The one thing Socrates consistently claimed to have knowledge of was "the art of love", which he connected with the concept of "the love of wisdom", i.e., philosophy. He never actually claimed to be wise, only to understand the path a lover of wisdom must take in pursuing it. It is debatable whether Socrates believed humans (as opposed to gods like Apollo) could actually become wise. On the one hand, he drew a clear line between human ignorance and ideal knowledge; on the other, Plato's Symposium (Diotima's Speech) and Republic (Allegory of the Cave) describe a method for ascending to wisdom. In Plato's Theaetetus (150a), Socrates compares himself to a true matchmaker (προμνηστικός promnestikós), as distinguished from a panderer (προᾰγωγός proagogos). This distinction is echoed in Xenophon's Symposium (3.20), when Socrates jokes about his certainty of being able to make a fortune, if he chose to practice the art of pandering. For his part as a philosophical interlocutor, he leads his respondent to a clearer conception of wisdom, although he claims he is not himself a teacher (Apology). His role, he claims, is more properly to be understood as analogous to a midwife (μαῖα maia). Socrates explains that he is himself barren of theories, but knows how to bring the theories of others to birth and determine whether they are worthy or mere "wind eggs" (ἀνεμιαῖον anemiaion). Perhaps

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significantly, he points out that midwives are barren due to age, and women who have never given birth are unable to become midwives; they would have no experience or knowledge of birth and would be unable to separate the worthy infants from those that should be left on the hillside to be exposed. To judge this, the midwife must have experience and knowledge of what she is judging.

Virtue Socrates believed the best way for people to live was to focus on the pursuit of virtue rather than the pursuit, for instance, of material wealth. He always invited others to try to concentrate more on friendships and a sense of true community, for Socrates felt this was the best way for people to grow together as a populace. His actions lived up to this: in the end, Socrates accepted his death sentence when most thought he would simply leave Athens, as he felt he could not run away from or go against the will of his community; as mentioned above, his reputation for valor on the battlefield was without reproach. The idea that there are certain virtues formed a common thread in Socrates' teachings. These virtues represented the most important qualities for a person to have, foremost of which were the philosophical or intellectual virtues. Socrates stressed that "the unexamined life is not worth living [and] ethical virtue is the only thing that matters."

Politics

Bust of Socrates in the Palermo Archaeological Museum.

It is argued that Socrates believed "ideals belong in a world only the wise man can understand",[25] making the philosopher the only type of person suitable to govern others. In Plato's dialogue the Republic, Socrates openly objected to the democracy that ran Athens during his adult life. It was not only Athenian democracy: Socrates found short of ideal any government that did not conform to his presentation of a perfect regime led by philosophers, and Athenian government was far from that. It is, however, possible that the Socrates of Plato's Republic is colored by Plato's own views. During the last years of Socrates' life, Athens was in continual flux due to political upheaval. Democracy was at last overthrown by a junta known as the Thirty Tyrants, led by Plato's relative, Critias, who had been a friend of Socrates. The Tyrants ruled for about a year before the Athenian democracy was reinstated, at which point it declared an amnesty for all recent events. Socrates' opposition to democracy is often denied, and the question is one of the biggest philosophical debates when trying to determine exactly what Socrates believed. The strongest argument of those who claim Socrates did not actually believe in the idea of philosopher kings is that the view is expressed no earlier than Plato's Republic, which is widely considered one of Plato's "Middle" dialogues and not representative of the historical Socrates' views. Furthermore, according to Plato's Apology of Socrates, an "early" dialogue, Socrates refused to pursue conventional politics; he often stated he could not look into other's matters or tell people how to live their lives when he did not yet understand how to live his own. He believed he was a philosopher engaged in the pursuit of Truth, and did not claim to know it fully. Socrates' acceptance of his death sentence after his conviction can also be seen to support this view. It is often claimed much of the anti-democratic leanings are from Plato, who was never able to overcome his disgust at what was done to his teacher. In any case, it is clear Socrates thought the rule of the Thirty Tyrants was also objectionable; when called before them to assist in the arrest of a fellow Athenian, Socrates refused and narrowly escaped death before the Tyrants were overthrown. He did, however, fulfill his duty to serve as Prytanis when a trial of a group of Generals who presided over a disastrous naval campaign were judged; even then he maintained an uncompromising attitude, being one of those who refused to proceed in a manner not supported by the laws, despite intense pressure.[26] Judging by his actions, he considered the rule of the Thirty Tyrants less legitimate

Socrates than the Democratic Senate that sentenced him to death. Socrates' apparent respect for democracy is one of the themes emphasized in the 2008 play Socrates on Trial by Andrew Irvine. Irvine argues that it was because of his loyalty to Athenian democracy that Socrates was willing to accept the verdict of his fellow citizens. As Irvine puts it, “During a time of war and great social and intellectual upheaval, Socrates felt compelled to express his views openly, regardless of the consequences. As a result, he is remembered today, not only for his sharp wit and high ethical standards, but also for his loyalty to the view that in a democracy the best way for a man to serve himself, his friends, and his city – even during times of war – is by being loyal to, and by speaking publicly about, the truth.”[27]

Covertness In the Dialogues of Plato, though Socrates sometimes seems to support a mystical side, discussing reincarnation and the mystery religions, this is generally attributed to Plato. Regardless, this view of Socrates cannot be dismissed out of hand, as we cannot be sure of the differences between the views of Plato and Socrates; in addition, there seem to be some corollaries in the works of Xenophon. In the culmination of the philosophic path as discussed in Plato's Symposium, one comes to the Sea of Beauty or to the sight of "the beautiful itself" (211C); only then can one become wise. (In the Symposium, Socrates credits his speech on the philosophic path to his teacher, the priestess Diotima, who is not even sure if Socrates is capable of reaching the highest mysteries.) In the Meno, he refers to the Eleusinian Mysteries, telling Meno he would understand Socrates' answers better if only he could stay for the initiations next week. Further confusions result from the nature of these sources, insofar as the Platonic Dialogues are arguably the work of an artist-philosopher, whose meaning does not volunteer itself to the passive reader nor again the lifelong scholar. According to Olympiodorus the Younger in his Life of Plato,[28] Plato himself "received instruction from the writers of tragedy" before taking up the study of philosophy. His works are, indeed, dialogues; Plato's choice of this, the medium of Sophocles, Euripides, and the fictions of theatre, may reflect the ever-interpretable nature of his writings, as he has been called a "dramatist of reason". What is more, the first word of nearly all Plato's works is a significant term for that respective dialogue, and is used with its many connotations in mind. Finally, the Phaedrus and the Symposium each allude to Socrates' coy delivery of philosophic truths in conversation; the Socrates of the Phaedrus goes so far as to demand such dissembling and mystery in all writing. The covertness we often find in Plato, appearing here and there couched in some enigmatic use of symbol and/or irony, may be at odds with the mysticism Plato's Socrates expounds in some other dialogues. These indirect methods may fail to satisfy some readers. Perhaps the most interesting facet of this is Socrates' reliance on what the Greeks called his "daemonic sign", an averting (ἀποτρεπτικός apotreptikos) inner voice Socrates heard only when he was about to make a mistake. It was this sign that prevented Socrates from entering into politics. In the Phaedrus, we are told Socrates considered this to be a form of "divine madness", the sort of insanity that is a gift from the gods and gives us poetry, mysticism, love, and even philosophy itself. Alternately, the sign is often taken to be what we would call "intuition"; however, Socrates' characterization of the phenomenon as "daemonic" may suggest that its origin is divine, mysterious, and independent of his own thoughts. Today, such a voice would be classified under the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders as a command hallucination.

Satirical playwrights He was prominently lampooned in Aristophanes' comedy The Clouds, produced when Socrates was in his mid-forties; he said at his trial (according to Plato) that the laughter of the theater was a harder task to answer than the arguments of his accusers. Søren Kierkegaard believed this play was a more accurate representation of Socrates than those of his students. In the play, Socrates is ridiculed for his dirtiness, which is associated with the Laconizing fad; also in plays by Callias, Eupolis, and Telecleides. Other comic poets who lampooned Socrates include Mnesimachus and Ameipsias. In all of these, Socrates and the Sophists were criticised for "the moral dangers

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Socrates inherent in contemporary thought and literature".

Prose sources Plato, Xenophon, and Aristotle are the main sources for the historical Socrates; however, Xenophon and Plato were direct disciples of Socrates, and they may idealize him; however, they wrote the only continuous descriptions of Socrates that have come down to us in their complete form. Aristotle refers frequently, but in passing, to Socrates in his writings. Almost all of Plato's works center on Socrates. However, Plato's later works appear to be more his own philosophy put into the mouth of his mentor.

The Socratic dialogues The Socratic Dialogues are a series of dialogues written by Plato and Xenophon in the form of discussions between Socrates and other persons of his time, or as discussions between Socrates' followers over his concepts. Plato's Phaedo is an example of this latter category. Although his Apology is a monologue delivered by Socrates, it is usually grouped with the Dialogues. The Apology professes to be a record of the actual speech Socrates delivered in his own defense at the trial. In the Athenian jury system, an "apology" is composed of three parts: a speech, followed by a counter-assessment, then some final words. "Apology" is a transliteration, not a translation, of the Greek apologia, meaning "defense"; in this sense it is not apologetic according to our contemporary use of the term. Plato generally does not place his own ideas in the mouth of a specific speaker; he lets ideas emerge via the Socratic Method, under the guidance of Socrates. Most of the dialogues present Socrates applying this method to some extent, but nowhere as completely as in the Euthyphro. In this dialogue, Socrates and Euthyphro go through several iterations of refining the answer to Socrates' question, "...What is the pious, and what the impious?" In Plato's Dialogues, learning appears as a process of remembering. The soul, before its incarnation in the body, was in the realm of Ideas (very similar to the Platonic "Forms"). There, it saw things the way they truly are, rather than the pale shadows or copies we experience on earth. By a process of questioning, the soul can be brought to remember the ideas in their pure form, thus bringing wisdom. Especially for Plato's writings referring to Socrates, it is not always clear which ideas brought forward by Socrates (or his friends) actually belonged to Socrates and which of these may have been new additions or elaborations by Plato – this is known as the Socratic Problem. Generally, the early works of Plato are considered to be close to the spirit of Socrates, whereas the later works – including Phaedo and Republic – are considered to be possibly products of Plato's elaborations.

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Legacy Immediate influence Immediately, the students of Socrates set to work both on exercising their perceptions of his teachings in politics and also on developing many new philosophical schools of thought. Some of Athens' controversial and anti-democratic tyrants were contemporary or posthumous students of Socrates including Alcibiades and Critias. Critias' cousin, Plato would go on to found the Academy in 385 BC, which gained so much renown that 'Academy' became the standard word for educational institutions in later European languages such as English, French, and Italian. Plato's protege, another important figure of the Classical era, Aristotle went on to tutor Alexander the Great and also to found his own school in 335 BC — the Lyceum — whose name also now means an educational institution.

Statue of Socrates in front of the Academy of Athens (modern)

While "Socrates dealt with moral matters and took no notice at all of nature in general", in his Dialogues, Plato would emphasize mathematics with metaphysical overtones mirroring that of Pythagoras – the former who would dominate Western thought well into the Renaissance. Aristotle himself was as much of a philosopher as he was a scientist with extensive work in the fields of biology and physics. Socratic thought which challenged conventions, especially in stressing a simplistic way of living, became divorced from Plato's more detached and philosophical pursuits. This idea was inherited by one of Socrates' older students, Antisthenes, who became the originator of another philosophy in the years after Socrates' death: Cynicism. The idea of asceticism being hand in hand with an ethical life or one with piety, ignored by Plato and Aristotle and somewhat dealt with by the Cynics, formed the core of another philosophy in 281 BC – Stoicism when Zeno of Citium would discover Socrates' works and then learn from Crates, a Cynic philosopher.

Later historical influence While some of the later contributions of Socrates to Hellenistic Era culture and philosophy as well as the Roman Era have been lost to time, his teachings began a resurgence in both medieval Europe and the Islamic Middle East alongside those of Aristotle and Stoicism. Socrates is mentioned in the dialogue Kuzari by Jewish philosopher and rabbi Yehuda Halevi in which a Jew instructs the Khazar king about Judaism. Al-Kindi, a well-known Arabic philosopher, introduced and tried to reconcile Socrates and Hellenistic philosophy to an Islamic audience, referring to him by the name 'Suqrat'. Socrates' stature in Western philosophy returned in full force with the Renaissance and the Age of Reason in Europe when political theory began to resurface under those like Locke and Hobbes. Voltaire even went so far as to write a satirical play about the Trial of Socrates. There were a number of paintings about his life including Socrates Tears Alcibiades from the Embrace of Sensual Pleasure by Jean-Baptiste Regnault and The Death of Socrates by Jacques-Louis David in the later 18th century. To this day, the Socratic Method is still used in classroom and law school discourse to expose underlying issues in both subject and the speaker. He has been recognized with accolades ranging from frequent mentions in pop culture (such as the movie Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure and a Greek rock band called Socrates Drank the Conium) to numerous busts in academic institutions in recognition of his contribution to education. Over the past century, numerous plays about Socrates have also focused on Socratess life and influence. One of the most recent has been Socrates on Trial, a play based on Aristophanes' Clouds and Plato's Apology, Crito, and Phaedo, all adapted for modern performance.

Socrates

Criticism Evaluation of and reaction to Socrates has been undertaken by both historians and philosophers from the time of his death to the present day with a multitude of conclusions and perspectives. Although he was not directly prosecuted for his connection to Critias, leader of the Spartan-backed Thirty Tyrants, and "showed considerable personal courage in refusing to submit to [them]", he was seen by some as a figure who mentored oligarchs who became abusive tyrants, and undermined Athenian democracy. The Sophistic movement that he railed at in life survived him, but by the 3rd century BC, was rapidly overtaken by the many philosophical schools of thought that Socrates influenced. Socrates' death is considered iconic and his status as a martyr of philosophy overshadows most contemporary and posthumous criticism. However, Xenophon mentions Socrates' "arrogance" and that he was "an expert in the art of pimping" or "self-presentation". Direct criticism of Socrates the man almost disappears after this time, but there is a noticeable preference for Plato or Aristotle over the elements of Socratic philosophy distinct from those of his students, even into the Middle Ages. Some modern scholarship holds that, with so much of his own thought obscured and possibly altered by Plato, it is impossible to gain a clear picture of Socrates amidst all the contradictory evidence. That both Cynicism and Stoicism, which carried heavy influence from Socratic thought, were unlike or even contrary to Platonism further illustrates this. The ambiguity and lack of reliability serves as the modern basis of criticism—that it is nearly impossible to know the real Socrates. Some controversy also exists about Socrates' attitude towards homosexuality[29] and as to whether or not he believed in the Olympian gods, was monotheistic, or held some other religious viewpoint.[30] However, it is still commonly taught and held with little exception that Socrates is the progenitor of subsequent Western philosophy, to the point that philosophers before him are referred to as pre-Socratic.

Notes [1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Socrates& action=edit [2] Jones, Daniel; Roach, Peter, James Hartman and Jane Setter, eds. Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary. 17th edition. Cambridge UP, 2006. [3] Many other writers added to the fashion of Socratic dialogues (called Sőkratikoi logoi) at the time. In addition to Plato and Xenophon, each of the following is credited by some source as having added to the genre: Aeschines of Sphettus, Antisthenes, Aristippus, Bryson, Cebes, Crito, Euclid of Megara, and Phaedo. It is unlikely Plato was the first in this field (Vlastos, p. 52). [4] Martin Cohen, Philosophical Tales (2008) ISBN 1-4051-4037-2 [5] Ong, pp. 78–79. [6] Plato, Laches 180d (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0176:text=Lach. :section=180d), Euthydemus 297e (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0178:text=Euthyd. :section=297e), Hippias Major 298c (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0180:text=Hipp. + Maj. :section=298c) [7] G.W.F. Hegel (trans. Frances H. Simon), Lectures on History of Philosophy (https:/ / d396qusza40orc. cloudfront. net/ kierkegaard/ Lectures_on_the_History_of_Philosophy. pdf) [8] Plato, Theaetetus 149a (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0172:text=Theaet. :section=149a), Alcibiades 1 131e (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0176:text=Alc. 1:section=131e) [9] The ancient tradition is attested in Pausanias, 1.22.8 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Paus. + 1. 22. 1); for a modern denial, see Kleine Pauly, "Sokrates" 7; the tradition is a confusion with the sculptor, Socrates of Thebes, mentioned in Pausanias 9.25.3 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Paus. + 9. 25. 1), a contemporary of Pindar. [10] Encylopaedia Britannica, Socrates. [11] Here it is telling to refer to Thucydides ( 3.82.8 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Thuc. + 3. 82. 8)): "Reckless audacity came to be considered the courage of a loyal ally; prudent hesitation, specious cowardice; moderation was held to be a cloak for unmanliness; ability to see all sides of a question inaptness to act on any. Frantic violence, became the attribute of manliness; cautious plotting, a justifiable means of self-defense. The advocate of extreme measures was always trustworthy; his opponent a man to be suspected." [12] Brun (1978). [13] Plato. Apology, 24–27. [14] Fallon, Warren J. (2001). "Socratic suicide." (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 19681231) PubMed. PMID: 19681231. US National Library of Medicine. National Institutes of Health. 121:91-106. Retrieved September 12, 2013.

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Socrates [15] Linder, Doug (2002). "The Trial of Socrates" (http:/ / law2. umkc. edu/ faculty/ projects/ ftrials/ socrates/ socratesaccount. html). University of Missouri–Kansas City School of Law. Retrieved September 12, 2013. [16] "Socrates (Greek philosopher)" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 551948/ Socrates). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved September 12, 2013. [17] R. G. Frey (January 1978). Did Socrates Commit Suicide? (http:/ / journals. cambridge. org/ action/ displayAbstract;jsessionid=3457B5D495BA884D57867116985C0601. journals?fromPage=online& aid=3474668). Philosophy, Volume 53, Issue 203, pp 106-108. University of Liverpool. doi:10.1017/S0031819100016375. [18] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Platonism& action=edit [19] Popper, K. (1962) The Open Society and its Enemies, Volume 1 Plato, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, p133. [20] Hadot, P. (1995) Philosophy as a Way of Life, Oxford, Blackwells, p93. [21] Plato, Republic 336c & 337a, Theaetetus 150c, Apology 23a; Xenophon, Memorabilia 4.4.9; Aristotle, Sophistical Refutations 183b7. [22] Plato, Menexenus 235e [23] p. 14, Terence Irwin, The Development of Ethics, vol. 1, Oxford University Press 2007; p. 147, Gerasimos Santas, "The Socratic Paradoxes", Philosophical Review 73 (1964), pp. 147–64. [24] Apology of Socrates 21d (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0170:text=Apol. :section=21d). [25] Attributed to "Solomon" in [26] Kagen (1978). [27] Irvine, Andrew D. "Introduction," Socrates on Trial, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2008, p. 19. [28] Olympiodorus the Younger, Life of Plato, in The Works of Plato: A New and Literal Version Chiefly from the Text of Stallbaum, p. 234, Bohm, 1854. [29] W. K. C. Guthrie, Socrates (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?id=a-h35nyFR7IC& dq=), Cambridge University Press, 1971, p. 70. [30] A.A. Long "How Does Socrates' Divine Sign Communicate with Him?", Chapter 5 in: A Companion to Socrates (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?id=WwpZVuylPgYC& source=gbs_navlinks_s), John Wiley & Sons, 2009, p. 63.

References • Brun, Jean (1978 (sixth edition)). Socrate. Presses universitaires de France. pp. 39–40. ISBN 2-13-035620-6. (French)

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May, Hope (2000). On Socrates. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. ISBN 0-534-57604-4. Ong, Walter (2002). Orality and Literacy. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-28129-6. Kagan, Donald. The Fall of the Athenian Empire. First. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1987. Pausanias, Description of Greece (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Paus.+1.1.1). W. H. S. Jones (translator). Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. (1918). Vol. 1. Books I–II: ISBN 0-674-99104-4. Vol. 4. Books VIII.22–X: ISBN 0-674-99328-4. Thucydides; The Peloponnesian War. London, J. M. Dent; New York, E. P. Dutton. 1910. (http://www.perseus. tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Thuc.+toc) Vlastos, Gregory (1991). Socrates, Ironist and Moral Philosopher. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-9787-6. Bernas, Richard, cond. Socrate. By Erik Satie. LTM/Boutique, 2006 Bruell, C. (1994). “On Plato’s Political Philosophy”, Review of Politics, 56: 261-82. Bruell, C. (1999). On the Socratic Education: An Introduction to the Shorter Platonic Dialogues, Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. Grube, G.M.A.(2002). "Plato, Five Dialogues". Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. Hanson, V.D. (2001). "Socrates Dies at Delium, 424 B.C.", What If? 2, Robert Cowley, editor, G.P. Putnam's Sons, NY. Irvine, Andrew David (2008). Socrates on Trial: A play based on Aristophanes' Clouds and Plato's Apology, Crito, and Phaedo, adapted for modern performance. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-9783-5 (cloth); ISBN 978-0-8020-9538-1 (paper); ISBN 978-1-4426-9254-1 (e-pub)

• Kamtekar, Rachana (2004). Plato's Euthyphro, Apology, and Crito: Critical Essays. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-3325-5.

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Socrates • Kierkegaard, Søren (1968). The Concept of Irony: with Constant Reference to Socrates. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-20111-9. • Levinson, Paul (2007). The Plot to Save Socrates. New York: Tor Books. ISBN 0-7653-1197-6. • Luce, J.V. (1992). An Introduction to Greek Philosophy, Thames & Hudson, NY. • Maritain, J. (1930, 1991). Introduction to Philosophy, Christian Classics, Inc., Westminster, MD. • Robinson, R (1953). Plato's Earlier Dialectic. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-824777-7. Ch. 2: "Elenchus" (http://www.ditext.com/robinson/dia2.html), Ch. 3: "Elenchus: Direct and Indirect" (http://www. ditext.com/robinson/dia3.html) • Taylor, C.C.W., Hare, R.M. & Barnes, J. (1998). Greek Philosophers – Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, Oxford University Press, NY. • Taylor, C.C.W. (2001). Socrates: A very short introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

External links • Socrates (http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b007zp21) on In Our Time at the BBC. ( listen now (http:// www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/b007zp21/In_Our_Time_Socrates)) • Socrates (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/socrates) entry by Debra Nails in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy • Socrates (https://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/thinker/3919) at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project • Greek Philosophy: Socrates (http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/GREECE/SOCRATES.HTM) • Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Socrates, translated by Robert Drew Hicks (1925). •  Paul Shorey (1905). "Socrates". New International Encyclopedia. • Original Fresque of Socrates in Archaeological Museum of Ephesus (http://www.amengansie.com/sacrates. html) • Socrates Narrates Plato's The Republic (http://www.allphilosophers.com/index.html) • Apology of Socrates, by Plato. • Project Gutenberg e-texts on Socrates, amongst others: • The Dialogues of Plato (http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/authrec?fk_authors=93) (see also Wikipedia articles on Dialogues by Plato) • The writings of Xenophon (http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/authrec?fk_authors=543), such as the Memorablia and Hellenica. • The satirical plays by Aristophanes (http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/authrec?fk_authors=965) • Aristotle's writings (http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/authrec?fk_authors=2747) • Voltaire's Socrates (http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/4683) • A free audiobook of the Socratic dialogue Euthyphro (http://librivox.org/euthyphro-by-plato/) at LibriVox (http://www.librivox.org)

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Plato

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Plato Plato

Plato: copy of portrait bust by Silanion Born

428/427 or 424/423 BC Athens

Died

348/347 BC (aged c. 80) Athens

Nationality

Greek

Era

Ancient philosophy

Region

Western philosophy

School

Platonism

Main interests Rhetoric, art, literature, epistemology, justice, virtue, politics, education, family, militarism Notable ideas

Theory of Forms, Platonic idealism, Platonic realism, hyperuranion, metaxy, khôra

Plato (/ˈpleɪtoʊ/;[1] Greek: Πλάτων, Plátōn, "broad";[2] 428/427 or 424/423 BC[a] – 348/347 BC) was a philosopher in Classical Greece. He was also a mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his most-famous student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the foundations of Western philosophy and science. Alfred North Whitehead once noted: "the safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato."[3] Plato's sophistication as a writer is evident in his Socratic dialogues; thirty-six dialogues and thirteen letters have been ascribed to him, although 15–18 of them have been contested. Plato's writings have been published in several fashions; this has led to several conventions regarding the naming and referencing of Plato's texts.[4] Plato's dialogues have been used to teach a range of subjects, including philosophy, logic, ethics, rhetoric, religion and mathematics. Plato is one of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy. His writings related to the Theory of Forms, or Platonic ideals, are the basis for Platonism.

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Biography Part of a series on

Plato

Plato from The School of Athens by Raphael, 1509 Early life

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Works

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Platonism

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Epistemology

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Idealism / Realism

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Demiurge

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Theory of Forms

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Transcendentals

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Form of the Good

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Third man argument

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Euthyphro dilemma

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Five regimes

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Philosopher king Allegories and metaphors

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Atlantis

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Ring of Gyges

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The cave

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The divided line

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The sun

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Ship of state

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Myth of Er The chariot

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Related articles Commentaries The Academy in Athens Socratic problem Middle Platonism Neoplatonism

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Plato

Early life Little can be known about Plato's early life and education due to the very limited accounts. The philosopher came from one of the wealthiest and most politically active families in Athens. Ancient sources describe him as a bright though modest boy who excelled in his studies. His father contributed all which was necessary to give to his son a good education, and, therefore, Plato must have been instructed in grammar, music, gymnastics and philosophy by some of the most distinguished teachers of his era. Birth and family The exact time and place of Plato's birth are not known, but it is certain that he belonged to an aristocratic and influential family. Based on ancient sources, most modern scholars believe that he was born in Athens or Aegina[b] between 429 and 423 BC.[a] His father was Ariston. According to a disputed tradition, reported by Diogenes Laertius, Ariston traced his descent from the king of Athens, Codrus, and the king of Messenia, Melanthus.[5] Plato's mother was Perictione, whose family boasted of a relationship with the famous Athenian lawmaker and lyric poet Solon.[6] Perictione was sister of Charmides and niece of Critias, both prominent figures of the Thirty Tyrants, the brief oligarchic regime, which followed on the collapse of Athens at the end of the Peloponnesian War (404–403 BC).[7] Besides Plato himself, Ariston and Perictione had three other children; these were two sons, Adeimantus and Glaucon, and a daughter Potone, the mother of Speusippus (the nephew and successor of Plato as head of his philosophical Academy). According to the Republic, Adeimantus and Glaucon were older than Plato.[8] Nevertheless, in his Memorabilia, Xenophon presents Glaucon as younger than Plato.[9] The traditional date of Plato's birth (428/427) is based on a dubious interpretation of Diogenes Laertius, who says, "When [Socrates] was gone, [Plato] joined Cratylus the Heracleitean and Hermogenes, who philosophized in the manner of Parmenides. Then, at twenty-eight, Hermodorus says, [Plato] went to Euclides in Megara." As Debra Nails argues, "The text itself gives no reason to infer that Plato left immediately for Megara and implies the very opposite."[10] In his Seventh Letter, Plato notes that his coming of age coincided with the taking of power by the Thirty, remarking, "But a youth under the age of twenty made himself a laughingstock if he attempted to enter the political arena." Thus, Nails dates Plato's birth to 424/423.[11] According to some accounts, Ariston tried to force his attentions on Perictione, but failed in his purpose; then the god Apollo appeared to him in a vision, and as a result, Ariston left Perictione unmolested.[12] Another legend related that, when Plato was an infant, bees settled on his lips while he was sleeping: an augury of the sweetness of style in which he would discourse about philosophy.[13] Ariston appears to have died in Plato's childhood, although the precise dating of his death is difficult.[14] Perictione then married Pyrilampes, her mother's brother,[15] who had served many times as an ambassador to the Persian court and was a friend of Pericles, the leader of the democratic faction in Athens.[16] Pyrilampes had a son from a previous marriage, Demus, who was famous for his beauty.[17] Perictione gave birth to Pyrilampes' second son, Antiphon, the half-brother of Plato, who appears in Parmenides.[18] In contrast to his reticence about himself, Plato often introduced his distinguished relatives into his dialogues, or referred to them with some precision: Charmides has a dialogue named after him; Critias speaks in both Charmides and Protagoras; and Adeimantus and Glaucon take prominent parts in the Republic.[19] These and other references suggest a considerable amount of family pride and enable us to reconstruct Plato's family tree. According to Burnet, "the opening scene of the Charmides is a glorification of the whole [family] connection ... Plato's dialogues are not only a memorial to Socrates, but also the happier days of his own family."[20]

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Name According to Diogenes Laërtius, the philosopher was named Aristocles (Ἀριστοκλῆς) after his grandfather, but his wrestling coach, Ariston of Argos, dubbed him Platon, meaning "broad," on account of his robust figure.[21] According to the sources mentioned by Diogenes (all dating from the Alexandrian period), Plato derived his name from the breadth (πλατύτης, platytês) of his eloquence, or else because he was very wide (πλατύς, platýs) across the forehead.[22] Recent scholars have argued that the legend about his name being Aristocles originated in the Hellenistic age.[23] Plato was a common name, of which 31 instances are known at Athens alone.[24] Education Apuleius informs us that Speusippus praised Plato's quickness of mind and modesty as a boy, and the "first fruits of his youth infused with hard work and love of study".[25] Plato must have been instructed in grammar, music, and gymnastics by the most distinguished teachers of his time.[26] Dicaearchus went so far as to say that Plato wrestled at the Isthmian games.[27] Plato had also attended courses of philosophy; before meeting Socrates, he first became acquainted with Cratylus (a disciple of Heraclitus, a prominent pre-Socratic Greek philosopher) and the Heraclitean doctrines.[28] W. A. Borody argues that an Athenian openness towards a wider range of sexuality may have contributed to the Athenian philosophers’ openness towards a wider range of thought, a cultural situation Borody describes as “polymorphously discursive.”[29]

Plato and Socrates The precise relationship between Plato and Socrates remains an area of contention among scholars. Plato makes it clear in his Apology of Socrates, that he was a devoted young follower of Socrates. In that dialogue, Socrates is presented as mentioning Plato by name as one of those youths close enough to him to have been corrupted, if he were in fact guilty of corrupting the youth, and questioning why their fathers and brothers did not step forward to testify against him if he was indeed guilty of such a crime (33d-34a). Later, Plato is mentioned along with Crito, Critobolus, and Apollodorus as offering to pay a fine of 30 minas on Socrates' behalf, in lieu of the death penalty proposed by Meletus (38b). In the Phaedo, the title character lists those who were in attendance at the prison on Socrates' last day, explaining Plato's absence by saying, "Plato was ill." (Phaedo 59b) Plato and Socrates in a medieval depiction Plato never speaks in his own voice in his dialogues. In the Second Letter, it says, "no writing of Plato exists or ever will exist, but those now said to be his are those of a Socrates become beautiful and new" (341c); if the Letter is Plato's, the final qualification seems to call into question the dialogues' historical fidelity. In any case, Xenophon and Aristophanes seem to present a somewhat different portrait of Socrates from the one Plato paints. Some have called attention to the problem of taking Plato's Socrates to be his mouthpiece, given Socrates' reputation for irony and the dramatic nature of the dialogue form.[30]

Aristotle attributes a different doctrine with respect to the ideas to Plato and Socrates (Metaphysics 987b1–11). Putting it in a nutshell, Aristotle merely suggests that Socrates' idea of forms can be discovered through investigation of the natural world, unlike Plato's Forms that exist beyond and outside the ordinary range of human understanding.

Plato

Later life Plato may have traveled in Italy, Sicily, Egypt and Cyrene, Libya. Said to have returned to Athens at the age of forty, Plato founded one of the earliest known organized schools in Western Civilization on a plot of land in the Grove of Hecademus or Academus.[31] The Academy was "a large enclosure of ground that was once the property of a citizen at Athens named Academus (some, however, say that it received its name from an ancient hero).[32] The Academy operated until it was destroyed by Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 84 BC. Neoplatonists revived the Academy in the early 5th century, and it operated until AD 529, when it was closed by Justinian I of Byzantium, who saw it as a threat to the propagation of Christianity. Many intellectuals were schooled in the Academy, the most prominent one being Aristotle. Throughout his later life, Plato became entangled with the politics of the city of Syracuse. According to Diogenes Laertius, Plato initially visited Syracuse while it was under the rule of Dionysius.[33] During this first trip Dionysius's brother-in-law, Dion of Syracuse, became one of Plato's disciples, but the tyrant himself turned against Plato. Plato was sold into slavery and almost faced death in Cyrene, a city at war with Athens, before an admirer bought Plato's freedom and sent him home. After Dionysius's death, according to Plato's Seventh Letter, Dion requested Plato return to Syracuse to tutor Dionysius II and guide him to become a philosopher king. Dionysius II seemed to accept Plato's teachings, but he became suspicious of Dion, his uncle. Dionysius expelled Dion and kept Plato against his will. Eventually Plato left Syracuse. Dion would return to overthrow Dionysius and ruled Syracuse for a short time before being usurped by Calippus, a fellow disciple of Plato.

Death A variety of sources have given accounts of Plato's death. One story, based on a mutilated manuscript, suggests Plato died in his bed, whilst a young Thracian girl played the flute to him.[34] Another tradition suggests Plato died at a wedding feast. The account is based on Diogenes Laertius's reference to an account by Hermippus, a third-century Alexandrian.[35] According to Tertullian, Plato simply died in his sleep.

Philosophy

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Plato

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Recurrent themes Plato often discusses the father-son relationship and the question of whether a father's interest in his sons has much to do with how well his sons turn out. A boy in ancient Athens was socially located by his family identity, and Plato often refers to his characters in terms of their paternal and fraternal relationships. Socrates was not a family man, and saw himself as the son of his mother, who was apparently a midwife. A divine fatalist, Socrates mocks men who spent exorbitant fees on tutors and trainers for their sons, and repeatedly ventures the idea that good character is a gift from the gods. Crito reminds Socrates that orphans are at the mercy of chance, but Socrates is unconcerned. In the Theaetetus, he is found recruiting as a disciple a young man whose inheritance has been squandered. Socrates twice compares the relationship of the older man and his boy lover to the father-son relationship (Lysis 213a, Republic 3.403b), and in the Phaedo, Socrates' disciples, towards whom he displays more concern than his biological sons, say they will feel "fatherless" when he is gone.

Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, while holding a copy of his Nicomachean Ethics in his hand. Plato holds his Timaeus and gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in The Forms

In several of Plato's dialogues, Socrates floats the idea that knowledge is a matter of recollection, and not of learning, observation, or study. He maintains this view somewhat at his own expense, because in many dialogues, Socrates complains of his forgetfulness. Socrates is often found arguing that knowledge is not empirical, and that it comes from divine insight. In many middle period dialogues, such as the Phaedo, Republic and Phaedrus Plato advocates a belief in the immortality of the soul, and several dialogues end with long speeches imagining the afterlife. More than one dialogue contrasts knowledge and opinion, perception and reality, nature and custom, and body and soul. Several dialogues tackle questions about art: Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the muses, and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness (drunkenness, eroticism, and dreaming) in the Phaedrus (265a–c), and yet in the Republic wants to outlaw Homer's great poetry, and laughter as well. In Ion, Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the Republic. The dialogue Ion suggests that Homer's Iliad functioned in the ancient Greek world as the Bible does today in the modern Christian world: as divinely inspired literature that can provide moral guidance, if only it can be properly interpreted. Socrates and his company of disputants had something to say on many subjects, including politics and art, religion and science, justice and medicine, virtue and vice, crime and punishment, pleasure and pain, rhetoric and rhapsody, human nature and sexuality, as well as love and wisdom.

Metaphysics "Platonism" is a term coined by scholars to refer to the intellectual consequences of denying, as Plato's Socrates often does, the reality of the material world. In several dialogues, most notably the Republic, Socrates inverts the common man's intuition about what is knowable and what is real. While most people take the objects of their senses to be real if anything is, Socrates is contemptuous of people who think that something has to be graspable in the hands to be real. In the Theaetetus, he says such people are "eu a-mousoi", an expression that means literally, "happily without the muses" (Theaetetus 156a). In other words, such people live without the divine inspiration that gives him, and people like him, access to higher insights about reality. Socrates's idea that reality is unavailable to those who use their senses is what puts him at odds with the common man, and with common sense. Socrates says that he who sees with his eyes is blind, and this idea is most famously captured in his allegory of the cave, and more explicitly in his description of the divided line. The allegory of the

Plato cave (begins Republic 7.514a) is a paradoxical analogy wherein Socrates argues that the invisible world is the most intelligible ("noeton") and that the visible world ("(h)oraton") is the least knowable, and the most obscure. Socrates says in the Republic that people who take the sun-lit world of the senses to be good and real are living pitifully in a den of evil and ignorance. Socrates admits that few climb out of the den, or cave of ignorance, and those who do, not only have a terrible struggle to attain the heights, but when they go back down for a visit or to help other people up, they find themselves objects of scorn and ridicule. According to Socrates, physical objects and physical events are "shadows" of their ideal or perfect forms, and exist only to the extent that they instantiate the perfect versions of themselves. Just as shadows are temporary, inconsequential epiphenomena produced by physical objects, physical objects are themselves fleeting phenomena caused by more substantial causes, the ideals of which they are mere instances. For example, Socrates thinks that perfect justice exists (although it is not clear where) and his own trial would be a cheap copy of it. The allegory of the cave (often said by scholars to represent Plato's own epistemology and metaphysics) is intimately connected to his political ideology (often said to also be Plato's own), that only people who have climbed out of the cave and cast their eyes on a vision of goodness are fit to rule. Socrates claims that the enlightened men of society must be forced from their divine contemplations and be compelled to run the city according to their lofty insights. Thus is born the idea of the "philosopher-king", the wise person who accepts the power thrust upon him by the people who are wise enough to choose a good master. This is the main thesis of Socrates in the Republic, that the most wisdom the masses can muster is the wise choice of a ruler.

Theory of Forms The Theory of Forms (or Theory of Ideas) typically refers to the belief that the material world as it seems to us is not the real world, but only an "image" or "copy" of the real world. In some of Plato's dialogues, this is expressed by Socrates, who spoke of forms in formulating a solution to the problem of universals. The forms, according to Socrates, are archetypes or abstract representations of the many types of things, and properties we feel and see around us, that can only be perceived by reason (Greek: λογική). (That is, they are universals.) In other words, Socrates was able to recognize two worlds: the apparent world, which constantly changes, and an unchanging and unseen world of forms, which may be the cause of what is apparent.

Epistemology Many have interpreted Plato as stating—even having been the first to write—that knowledge is justified true belief, an influential view that informed future developments in epistemology.[36] This interpretation is partly based on a reading of the Theaetetus wherein Plato argues that knowledge is distinguished from mere true belief by the knower having an "account" of the object of her or his true belief (Theaetetus 201c-d). And this theory may again be seen in the Meno, where it is suggested that true belief can be raised to the level of knowledge if it is bound with an account as to the question of "why" the object of the true belief is so (Meno 97d-98a).[37] Many years later, Edmund Gettier famously demonstrated the problems of the justified true belief account of knowledge. That the modern theory of justified true belief as knowledge which Gettier addresses is equivalent to Plato's is accepted by some scholars but rejected by others.[38] Later in the Meno, Socrates uses a geometrical example to expound Plato's view that knowledge in this latter sense is acquired by recollection. Socrates elicits a fact concerning a geometrical construction from a slave boy, who could not have otherwise known the fact (due to the slave boy's lack of education). The knowledge must be present, Socrates concludes, in an eternal, non-experiential form. In other dialogues, the Sophist, Statesman, Republic, and the Parmenides, Plato himself associates knowledge with the apprehension of unchanging Forms and their relationships to one another (which he calls "expertise" in Dialectic), including through the processes of collection and division.[39] More explicitly, Plato himself argues in the Timaeus that knowledge is always proportionate to the realm from which it is gained. In other words, if one derives

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one's account of something experientially, because the world of sense is in flux, the views therein attained will be mere opinions. And opinions are characterized by a lack of necessity and stability. On the other hand, if one derives one's account of something by way of the non-sensible forms, because these forms are unchanging, so too is the account derived from them. That apprehension of forms is required for knowledge may be taken to cohere with Plato's theory in the Theaetetus and Meno.[40] Indeed, the apprehension of Forms may be at the base of the "account" required for justification, in that it offers foundational knowledge which itself needs no account, thereby avoiding an infinite regression.[41]

The state Plato's philosophical views had many societal implications, especially on the idea of an ideal state or government. There is some discrepancy between his early and later views. Some of the most famous doctrines are contained in the Republic during his middle period, as well as in the Laws and the Statesman. However, because Plato wrote dialogues, it is assumed that Socrates is often speaking for Plato. This assumption may not be true in all cases. Plato, through the words of Socrates, asserts that societies have a tripartite class structure corresponding to the appetite/spirit/reason structure of the individual soul. The appetite/spirit/reason stand for different parts of the body. The body parts symbolize the castes of society. • Productive, which represents the abdomen. (Workers) — the labourers, carpenters, plumbers, masons, merchants, farmers, ranchers, etc. These correspond to the "appetite" part of the soul.

Papirus Oxyrhynchus, with fragment of Plato's Republic

• Protective, which represents the chest. (Warriors or Guardians) — those who are adventurous, strong and brave; in the armed forces. These correspond to the "spirit" part of the soul. • Governing, which represents the head. (Rulers or Philosopher Kings) — those who are intelligent, rational, self-controlled, in love with wisdom, well suited to make decisions for the community. These correspond to the "reason" part of the soul and are very few. According to this model, the principles of Athenian democracy (as it existed in his day) are rejected as only a few are fit to rule. Instead of rhetoric and persuasion, Plato says reason and wisdom should govern. As Plato puts it: "Until philosophers rule as kings or those who are now called kings and leading men genuinely and adequately philosophise, that is, until political power and philosophy entirely coincide, while the many natures who at present pursue either one exclusively are forcibly prevented from doing so, cities will have no rest from evils,... nor, I think, will the human race." (Republic 473c-d)

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Plato describes these "philosopher kings" as "those who love the sight of truth" (Republic 475c) and supports the idea with the analogy of a captain and his ship or a doctor and his medicine. According to him, sailing and health are not things that everyone is qualified to practice by nature. A large part of the Republic then addresses how the educational system should be set up to produce these philosopher kings. However, it must be taken into account that the ideal city outlined in the Republic is qualified by Socrates as the ideal luxurious city, examined to determine how it is that injustice and justice grow in a city Plato in his academy, drawing after a painting by Swedish painter Carl Johan Wahlbom (Republic 372e). According to Socrates, the "true" and "healthy" city is instead the one first outlined in book II of the Republic, 369c–372d, containing farmers, craftsmen, merchants, and wage-earners, but lacking the guardian class of philosopher-kings as well as delicacies such as "perfumed oils, incense, prostitutes, and pastries", in addition to paintings, gold, ivory, couches, a multitude of occupations such as poets and hunters, and war. In addition, the ideal city is used as an image to illuminate the state of one's soul, or the will, reason, and desires combined in the human body. Socrates is attempting to make an image of a rightly ordered human, and then later goes on to describe the different kinds of humans that can be observed, from tyrants to lovers of money in various kinds of cities. The ideal city is not promoted, but only used to magnify the different kinds of individual humans and the state of their soul. However, the philosopher king image was used by many after Plato to justify their personal political beliefs. The philosophic soul according to Socrates has reason, will, and desires united in virtuous harmony. A philosopher has the moderate love for wisdom and the courage to act according to wisdom. Wisdom is knowledge about the Good or the right relations between all that exists. Wherein it concerns states and rulers, Plato has made interesting arguments. For instance he asks which is better—a bad democracy or a country reigned by a tyrant. He argues that it is better to be ruled by a bad tyrant, than be a bad democracy (since here all the people are now responsible for such actions, rather than one individual committing many bad deeds.) This is emphasised within the Republic as Plato describes the event of mutiny on board a ship.[42] Plato suggests the ships crew to be in line with the democratic rule of many and the captain, although inhibited through ailments, the tyrant. Plato's description of this event is parallel to that of democracy within the state and the inherent problems that arise. According to Plato, a state made up of different kinds of souls will, overall, decline from an aristocracy (rule by the best) to a timocracy (rule by the honorable), then to an oligarchy (rule by the few), then to a democracy (rule by the people), and finally to tyranny (rule by one person, rule by a tyrant).[43] Aristocracy is the form of government (politeia) advocated in Plato's Republic. This regime is ruled by a philosopher king, and thus is grounded on wisdom and reason. The aristocratic state, and the man whose nature corresponds to it, are the objects of Plato's analyses throughout much of the Republic, as opposed to the other four types of states/men, who are discussed later in his work. In Book VIII, Plato states in order the other four imperfect societies with a description of the state's structure and individual character. In timocracy the ruling class is made up primarily of those with a warrior-like character. In his description, Plato has Sparta in mind. Oligarchy is made up of a society in which wealth is the criterion of merit and the wealthy are in control. In democracy, the state bears resemblance to ancient Athens with traits such as equality of political opportunity and freedom for the individual to do as he likes. Democracy then degenerates into tyranny from the conflict of rich and poor. It is characterized by an undisciplined society existing in chaos, where the tyrant rises as popular champion leading to the formation of his private army and the growth of oppression.[44]

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Unwritten doctrines For a long time, Plato's unwritten doctrine[45][46][47] had been controversial. Many modern books on Plato seem to diminish its importance; nevertheless, the first important witness who mentions its existence is Aristotle, who in his Physics (209 b) writes: "It is true, indeed, that the account he gives there [i.e. in Timaeus] of the participant is different from what he says in his so-called unwritten teachings (ἄγραφα δόγματα)." The term ἄγραφα δόγματα literally means unwritten doctrines and it stands for the most fundamental metaphysical teaching of Plato, which he disclosed only orally, and some say only to his most trusted fellows, and which he may have kept secret from the public. The importance of the unwritten doctrines does not seem to have been seriously questioned before the 19th century. A reason for not revealing it to everyone is partially discussed in Phaedrus (276 c) where Plato criticizes the written transmission of knowledge as faulty, favoring instead the spoken logos: "he who has knowledge of the just and the good and beautiful ... will not, when in earnest, write them in ink, sowing them through a pen with words, which cannot defend themselves by argument and cannot teach the truth effectually." The same argument is repeated in Plato's Seventh Letter (344 c): "every serious man in dealing with really serious subjects carefully avoids writing." In the same letter he writes (341 c): "I can certainly declare concerning all these writers who claim to know the subjects that I seriously study ... there does not exist, nor will there ever exist, any treatise of mine dealing therewith." Such secrecy is necessary in order not "to expose them to unseemly and degrading treatment" (344 d). It is, however, said that Plato once disclosed this knowledge to the public in his lecture On the Good (Περὶ τἀγαθοῦ), in which the Good (τὸ ἀγαθόν) is identified with the One (the Unity, τὸ ἕν), the fundamental ontological principle. The content of this lecture has been transmitted by several witnesses. Aristoxenus describes the event in the following words: "Each came expecting to learn something about the things that are generally considered good for men, such as wealth, good health, physical strength, and altogether a kind of wonderful happiness. But when the mathematical demonstrations came, including numbers, geometrical figures and astronomy, and finally the statement Good is One seemed to them, I imagine, utterly unexpected and strange; hence some belittled the matter, while others rejected it."[48] Simplicius quotes Alexander of Aphrodisias, who states that "according to Plato, the first principles of everything, including the Forms themselves are One and Indefinite Duality (ἡ ἀόριστος δυάς), which he called Large and Small (τὸ μέγα καὶ τὸ μικρόν)", and Simplicius reports as well that "one might also learn this from Speusippus and Xenocrates and the others who were present at Plato's lecture on the Good".[49] Their account is in full agreement with Aristotle's description of Plato's metaphysical doctrine. In Metaphysics he writes: "Now since the Forms are the causes of everything else, he [i.e. Plato] supposed that their elements are the elements of all things. Accordingly the material principle is the Great and Small [i.e. the Dyad], and the essence is the One (τὸ ἕν), since the numbers are derived from the Great and Small by participation in the One" (987 b). "From this account it is clear that he only employed two causes: that of the essence, and the material cause; for the Forms are the cause of the essence in everything else, and the One is the cause of it in the Forms. He also tells us what the material substrate is of which the Forms are predicated in the case of sensible things, and the One in that of the Forms - that it is this the duality (the Dyad, ἡ δυάς), the Great and Small (τὸ μέγα καὶ τὸ μικρόν). Further, he assigned to these two elements respectively the causation of good and of evil" (988 a). The most important aspect of this interpretation of Plato's metaphysics is the continuity between his teaching and the neoplatonic interpretation of Plotinus[50] or Ficino[51] which has been considered erroneous by many but may in fact have been directly influenced by oral transmission of Plato's doctrine. A modern scholar who recognized the importance of the unwritten doctrine of Plato was Heinrich Gomperz who described it in his speech during the 7th International Congress of Philosophy in 1930.[52] All the sources related to the ἄγραφα δόγματα have been collected by Konrad Gaiser and published as Testimonia Platonica.[53] These sources have subsequently been interpreted by scholars from the German Tübingen School such as Hans Joachim Krämer or Thomas A. Szlezák.[54]

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Dialectic The role of dialectic in Plato's thought is contested but there are two main interpretations; a type of reasoning and a method of intuition.[55] Simon Blackburn adopts the first, saying that Plato's dialectic is "the process of eliciting the truth by means of questions aimed at opening out what is already implicitly known, or at exposing the contradictions and muddles of an opponent's position."[56] A similar interpretation has been put forth by Louis Hartz, who suggests that elements of the dialectic are borrowed from Hegel.[57] According to this view, opposing arguments improve upon each other, and prevailing opinion is shaped by the synthesis of many conflicting ideas over time. Each new idea exposes a flaw in the accepted model, and the epistemological substance of the debate continually approaches the truth. Hartz's is a teleological interpretation at the core, in which philosophers will ultimately exhaust the available body of knowledge and thus reach "the end of history." Karl Popper, on the other hand, claims that dialectic is the art of intuition for "visualising the divine originals, the Forms or Ideas, of unveiling the Great Mystery behind the common man's everyday world of appearances."[58]

The dialogues Thirty-six dialogues and thirteen letters have traditionally been ascribed to Plato, though modern scholarship doubts the authenticity of at least some of these. Plato's writings have been published in several fashions; this has led to several conventions regarding the naming and referencing of Plato's texts. The usual system for making unique references to sections of the text by Plato derives from a 16th-century edition of Plato's works by Henricus Stephanus. An overview of Plato's writings according to this system can be found in the Stephanus pagination article. One tradition regarding the arrangement of Plato's texts is according to tetralogies. This scheme is ascribed by Diogenes Laertius to an ancient scholar and court astrologer to Tiberius named Thrasyllus. In the list below, works by Plato are marked (1) if there is no consensus among scholars as to whether Plato is the author, and (2) if most scholars agree that Plato is not the author of the work. Unmarked works are assumed to have been written by Plato.[59] • • • • • • • • •

I. Euthyphro, Apology (of Socrates), Crito, Phaedo II. Cratylus, Theaetetus, Sophist, Statesman III. Parmenides, Philebus, Symposium, Phaedrus IV. First Alcibiades (1), Second Alcibiades (2), Hipparchus (2), (Rival) Lovers (2) V. Theages (2), Charmides, Laches, Lysis VI. Euthydemus, Protagoras, Gorgias, Meno VII. (Greater) Hippias (major) (1), (Lesser) Hippias (minor), Ion, Menexenus VIII. Clitophon (1), Republic, Timaeus, Critias IX. Minos (2), Laws, Epinomis (2), Epistles (1).

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Part of the series on:

The dialogues of Plato Early dialogues: Apology – Charmides – Crito Euthyphro – First Alcibiades Hippias Major – Hippias Minor Ion – Laches – Lysis Transitional and middle dialogues: Cratylus – Euthydemus – Gorgias Menexenus – Meno – Phaedo Protagoras – Symposium Later middle dialogues: Republic – Phaedrus Parmenides – Theaetetus Late dialogues: Clitophon – Timaeus – Critias Sophist – Statesman Philebus – Laws Of doubtful authenticity: Axiochus – Demodocus Epinomis – Epistles – Eryxias Halcyon – Hipparchus – Minos On Justice – On Virtue Rival Lovers – Second Alcibiades Sisyphus – Theages This box: • • •

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The remaining works were transmitted under Plato's name, most of them already considered spurious in antiquity, and so were not included by Thrasyllus in his tetralogical arrangement. These works are labelled as Notheuomenoi ("spurious") or Apocrypha. • Axiochus (2), Definitions (2), Demodocus (2), Epigrams (2), Eryxias (2), Halcyon (2), On Justice (2), On Virtue (2), Sisyphus (2).

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Composition of the dialogues No one knows the exact order Plato's dialogues were written in, nor the extent to which some might have been later revised and rewritten. A significant distinction of the early Plato and the later Plato has been offered by scholars such as E.R. Dodds and has been summarized by Harold Bloom in his book titled Agon: "E.R. Dodds is the classical scholar whose writings most illuminated the Hellenic descent (in) The Greeks and the Irrational [...] In his chapter on Plato and the Irrational Soul [...] Dodds traces Plato's spiritual evolution from the pure rationalist of the Protagoras to the transcendental psychologist, influenced by the Pythagoreans and Orphics, of the later works culminating in the Laws."[61] Lewis Campbell was the first[62] to make exhaustive use of stylometry to prove objectively that the Critias, Timaeus, Laws, Philebus, Sophist, and Statesman were all clustered together as a group, while the Parmenides, Phaedrus, Republic, and Theaetetus belong to a separate group, which must be earlier (given Aristotle's statement in his Politics that the Laws was written after the Republic; cf. Diogenes Laertius Lives 3.37). What is remarkable about Campbell's conclusions is that, in spite of all the stylometric studies that have been conducted since his time, perhaps the only chronological fact about Plato's works that can now be said to be proven by stylometry is the fact that Critias, Timaeus, Laws, Philebus, Sophist, and Statesman are the latest of Plato's dialogues, the others earlier.[63] Increasingly in the most recent Plato scholarship, writers are skeptical of the notion that the order of Plato's writings can be established with any precision,[64] though Plato's works are still often characterized as falling at least roughly into three groups.[65] The following represents one relatively common such division.[66] It should, however, be kept in mind that many of the positions in the ordering are still highly disputed, and also that the very notion that Plato's dialogues can or should be "ordered" is by no means universally accepted. Among those who classify the dialogues into periods of composition, Socrates figures in all of the "early dialogues" and they are considered the most faithful representations of the historical Socrates.[67] They include The Apology of Socrates, Charmides, Crito, Euthyphro, Ion, Laches, Lesser Hippias, Lysis, Menexenus, and Protagoras (often considered one of the last of the "early dialogues"). Three dialogues are often considered "transitional" or "pre-middle": Euthydemus, Gorgias, and Meno. Whereas those classified as "early dialogues" often conclude in aporia, the so-called "middle dialogues" provide more clearly stated positive teachings that are often ascribed to Plato such as the theory of forms. These dialogues include Cratylus, Phaedo, Phaedrus, Republic, Symposium, Parmenides, and Theaetetus. Proponents of dividing the dialogues into periods often consider the Parmenides and Theaetetus to come late in this period and be transitional to the next, as they seem to treat the theory of forms critically (Parmenides) or not at all (Theaetetus). The first book of the Republic is often thought to have been written significantly earlier than the rest of the work, although possibly having undergone revisions when the later books were attached to it.[68] The remaining dialogues are classified as "late" and are generally agreed to be difficult and challenging pieces of philosophy. This grouping is the only one proven by stylometric analysis. While looked to for Plato's "mature" answers to the questions posed by his earlier works, those answers are difficult to discern. Some scholars indicate that the theory of forms is absent from the late dialogues, its having been refuted in the Parmenides, but there isn't total consensus that the Parmenides actually refutes the theory of forms.[69] The so-called "late dialogues" include Critias, Laws, Philebus, Sophist, Statesman, and Timaeus.

Narration of the dialogues Plato never presents himself as a participant in any of the dialogues, and with the exception of the Apology, there is no suggestion that he heard any of the dialogues firsthand. Some dialogues have no narrator but have a pure "dramatic" form (examples: Meno, Gorgias, Phaedrus, Crito, Euthyphro), some dialogues are narrated by Socrates, wherein he speaks in first person (examples: Lysis, Charmides, Republic). One dialogue, Protagoras, begins in dramatic form but quickly proceeds to Socrates' narration of a conversation he had previously with the sophist for whom the dialogue is named; this narration continues uninterrupted till the dialogue's end.

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Two dialogues Phaedo and Symposium also begin in dramatic form but then proceed to virtually uninterrupted narration by followers of Socrates. Phaedo, an account of Socrates' final conversation and hemlock drinking, is narrated by Phaedo to Echecrates in a foreign city not long after the execution took place.[70] The Symposium is narrated by Apollodorus, a Socratic disciple, apparently to Glaucon. Apollodorus assures his listener that he is recounting the story, which took place when he himself was an infant, not from his own memory, but as remembered by Aristodemus, who told him the story years ago.

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Plato's Symposium (Anselm Feuerbach, 1873)

The Theaetetus is a peculiar case: a dialogue in dramatic form imbedded within another dialogue in dramatic form. In the beginning of the Theaetetus (142c-143b), Euclides says that he compiled the conversation from notes he took based on what Socrates told him of his conversation with the title character. The rest of the Theaetetus is presented as a "book" written in dramatic form and read by one of Euclides' slaves (143c). Some scholars take this as an indication that Plato had by this date wearied of the narrated form.[71] With the exception of the Theaetetus, Plato gives no explicit indication as to how these orally transmitted conversations came to be written down.

Trial of Socrates The trial of Socrates is the central, unifying event of the great Platonic dialogues. Because of this, Plato's Apology is perhaps the most often read of the dialogues. In the Apology, Socrates tries to dismiss rumors that he is a sophist and defends himself against charges of disbelief in the gods and corruption of the young. Socrates insists that long-standing slander will be the real cause of his demise, and says the legal charges are essentially false. Socrates famously denies being wise, and explains how his life as a philosopher was launched by the Oracle at Delphi. He says that his quest to resolve the riddle of the oracle put him at odds with his fellow man, and that this is the reason he has been mistaken for a menace to the city-state of Athens. If Plato's important dialogues do not refer to Socrates' execution explicitly, they allude to it, or use characters or themes that play a part in it. Five dialogues foreshadow the trial: In the Theaetetus (210d) and the Euthyphro (2a–b) Socrates tells people that he is about to face corruption charges. In the Meno (94e–95a), one of the men who brings legal charges against Socrates, Anytus, warns him about the trouble he may get into if he does not stop criticizing important people. In the Gorgias, Socrates says that his trial will be like a doctor prosecuted by a cook who asks a jury of children to choose between the doctor's bitter medicine and the cook's tasty treats (521e–522a). In the Republic (7.517e), Socrates explains why an enlightened man (presumably himself) will stumble in a courtroom situation. The Apology is Socrates' defense speech, and the Crito and Phaedo take place in prison after the conviction. In the Protagoras, Socrates is a guest at the home of Callias, son of Hipponicus, a man whom Socrates disparages in the Apology as having wasted a great amount of money on sophists' fees.

Unity and diversity of the dialogues Two other important dialogues, the Symposium and the Phaedrus, are linked to the main storyline by characters. In the Apology (19b, c), Socrates says Aristophanes slandered him in a comic play, and blames him for causing his bad reputation, and ultimately, his death. In the Symposium, the two of them are drinking together with other friends. The character Phaedrus is linked to the main story line by character (Phaedrus is also a participant in the Symposium and the Protagoras) and by theme (the philosopher as divine emissary, etc.) The Protagoras is also strongly linked to the Symposium by characters: all of the formal speakers at the Symposium (with the exception of Aristophanes) are present at the home of Callias in that dialogue. Charmides and his guardian Critias are present for the discussion in the Protagoras. Examples of characters crossing between dialogues can be further multiplied. The Protagoras contains the largest gathering of Socratic associates.

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In the dialogues Plato is most celebrated and admired for, Socrates is concerned with human and political virtue, has a distinctive personality, and friends and enemies who "travel" with him from dialogue to dialogue. This is not to say that Socrates is consistent: a man who is his friend in one dialogue may be an adversary or subject of his mockery in another. For example, Socrates praises the wisdom of Euthyphro many times in the Cratylus, but makes him look like a fool in the Euthyphro. He disparages sophists generally, and Prodicus specifically in the Apology, whom he also slyly jabs in the Cratylus for charging the hefty fee of fifty drachmas for a course on language and grammar. However, Socrates tells Theaetetus in his namesake dialogue that he admires Prodicus and has directed many pupils to him. Socrates' ideas are also not consistent within or between or among dialogues.

Platonic scholarship Although their popularity has fluctuated over the years, the works of Plato have never been without readers since the time they were written.[72] Plato's thought is often compared with that of his most famous student, Aristotle, whose reputation during the Western Middle Ages so completely eclipsed that of Plato that the Scholastic philosophers referred to Aristotle as "the Philosopher". However, in the Byzantine Empire, the study of Plato continued. The Medieval scholastic philosophers did not have access to most of the works of Plato, nor the knowledge of Greek needed to read them. Plato's original writings were essentially lost to Western civilization until they were brought from Constantinople in the century of its fall, by George Gemistos Plethon. It is believed that Plethon passed a copy of the Dialogues to Cosimo de' Medici when in 1438 the Council of Ferrara, called to unify the Greek and Latin Churches, was adjourned to Florence, where Plethon then lectured on the relation and differences of Plato and Aristotle, and fired Cosimo with his enthusiasm.[73] During the early Islamic era, Persian and Arab scholars translated much of Plato into Arabic and wrote commentaries and interpretations on Plato's, Aristotle's and other Platonist philosophers' works (see Al-Farabi, Avicenna, Averroes, Hunayn ibn Ishaq). Many of these comments on Plato were translated from Arabic into Latin and as such influenced Medieval scholastic philosophers.[74]

"The safest general characterisation of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato." (Alfred North Whitehead, Process and Reality, 1929).

Only in the Renaissance, with the general resurgence of interest in classical civilization, did knowledge of Plato's philosophy become widespread again in the West. Many of the greatest early modern scientists and artists who broke with Scholasticism and fostered the flowering of the Renaissance, with the support of the Plato-inspired Lorenzo de Medici, saw Plato's philosophy as the basis for progress in the arts and sciences. By the 19th century, Plato's reputation was restored, and at least on par with Aristotle's. Notable Western philosophers have continued to draw upon Plato's work since that time. Plato's influence has been especially strong in mathematics and the sciences. He helped to distinguish between pure and applied mathematics by widening the gap between "arithmetic", now called number theory and "logistic", now called arithmetic. He regarded "logistic" as appropriate for business men and men of war who "must learn the art of numbers or he will not know how to array his troops," while "arithmetic" was appropriate for philosophers "because he has to arise out of the sea of change and lay hold of true being." Plato's resurgence further inspired some of the greatest advances in logic since Aristotle, primarily through Gottlob Frege and his followers Kurt Gödel, Alonzo Church, and Alfred Tarski. Albert Einstein suggested that the scientist who takes philosophy seriously would have to avoid systematization and take on many different roles, and possibly appear as a Platonist or Pythagorean, in that such a

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one would have "the viewpoint of logical simplicity as an indispensable and effective tool of his research."[75] Many recent philosophers have diverged from what some would describe as the ontological models and moral ideals characteristic of traditional Platonism. A number of these postmodern philosophers have thus appeared to disparage Platonism from more or less informed perspectives. Friedrich Nietzsche notoriously attacked Plato's "idea of the good itself" along with many fundamentals of Christian morality, which he interpreted as "Platonism for the masses" in one of his most important works, Beyond Good And Evil (1886). Martin Heidegger argued against Plato's alleged obfuscation of Being in his incomplete tome, Being and Time (1927), and the philosopher of science Karl Popper argued in The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945) that Plato's alleged proposal for a utopian political regime in the Republic was prototypically totalitarian. The political philosopher and professor Leo Strauss is considered by some as the prime thinker involved in the recovery of Platonic thought in its more political, and less metaphysical, form. Deeply influenced by Nietzsche and Heidegger, Strauss nonetheless rejects their condemnation of Plato and looks to the dialogues for a solution to what all three latter day thinkers acknowledge as 'the crisis of the West.'

Textual sources and history Some 250 known manuscripts of Plato survive. The texts of Plato as received today apparently represent the complete written philosophical work of Plato and are generally good by the standards of textual criticism.[76] No modern edition of Plato in the original Greek represents a single source, but rather it is reconstructed from multiple sources which are compared with each other. These sources are medieval manuscripts written on vellum (mainly from 9th-13th century AD Byzantium), papyri (mainly from late antiquity in Egypt), and from the independent testimonia of other authors who quote various segments of the works (which come from a variety of sources). The text as presented is usually not much different than what appears in the Byzantine manuscripts, and papyri and testimonia just confirm the manuscript tradition. In some editions however the readings in the papyri or testimonia are favoured in some places by the editing critic of the text. Reviewing editions of papyri for the Republic in 1987, Slings suggests that the use of papyri is hampered due to some poor editing practices.[77] In the first century AD, Thrasyllus of Mendes had compiled and published the works of Plato in the original Greek, both genuine and spurious. While it has not survived to the present day, all the extant medieval Greek manuscripts are based on his edition.[78]

First page of the Euthyphro, from the Clarke Plato (Codex Oxoniensis Clarkianus 39), 895 AD. The text is Greek minuscule.

The oldest surviving complete manuscript for many of the dialogues is the Clarke Plato (Codex Oxoniensis Clarkianus 39, or Codex Boleianus MS E.D. Clarke 39), which was written in Constantinople in 895 and acquired by Oxford University in 1809.[79] The Clarke is given the siglum B in modern editions. B contains the first six tetralogies and is described internally as being written by "John the Calligrapher" on behalf of Arethas of Caesarea. It appears to have undergone corrections by Arethas himself.[80] For the last two tetralogies and the apocrypha, the oldest surviving complete manuscript is Codex Parisinus graecus 1807, designated A, which was written nearly contemporaneously to B, circa 900 AD.[81] A probably had an initial volume containing the first 7 tetralogies which is now lost, but of which a copy was made, Codex Venetus append. class. 4, 1, which has the siglum T. The oldest manuscript for the seventh tetralogy is Codex Vindobonensis 54. suppl. phil. Gr. 7, with siglum W, with a supposed

Plato date in the twelfth century.[82] In total there are fifty-one such Byzantine manuscripts known, while others may yet be found.[83] To help establish the text, the older evidence of papyri and the independent evidence of the testimony of commentators and other authors (i.e., those who quote and refer to an old text of Plato which is no longer extant) are also used. Many papyri which contain fragments of Plato's texts are among the Oxyrhynchus Papyri. The 2003 Oxford Classical Texts edition by Slings even cites the Coptic translation of a fragment of the Republic in the Nag Hammadi library as evidence.[84] Important authors for testimony include Olympiodorus the Younger, Plutarch, Proclus, Iamblichus, Eusebius, and Stobaeus. During the early Renaissance, the Greek language and, along with it, Plato's texts were reintroduced to Western Europe by Byzantine scholars. In 1484 there was published a Latin edition of Plato's complete works translated by Marsilio Ficino at the behest of Cosimo de' Medici.[85] Cosimo had been influenced toward studying Plato by the many Byzantine Platonists in Florence during his day, including George Gemistus Plethon. Henri Estienne's edition, including parallel Greek and Latin, was published in 1578. It was this edition which established Stephanus pagination, still in use today.[86]

Modern editions The Oxford Classical Texts offers the current standard complete Greek text of Plato's complete works. In five volumes edited by John Burnet, its first edition was published 1900-1907, and it is still available from the publisher, having last been printed in 1993.[87][88] The second edition is still in progress with only the first volume, printed in 1995, and the Republic, printed in 2003, available. The Cambridge Greek and Latin Texts and Cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries series includes Greek editions of the Protagoras, Symposium, Phaedrus, Alcibiades, and Clitophon, with English philological, literary, and, to an extent, philosophical commentary.[89][90] One distinguished edition of the Greek text is E. R. Dodds' of the Gorgias, which includes extensive English commentary.[91][92] The modern standard complete English edition is the 1997 Hackett Plato, Complete Works, edited by John M. Cooper.[93][94] For many of these translations Hackett offers separate volumes which include more by way of commentary, notes, and introductory material.[95] There is also the Clarendon Plato Series by Oxford University Press which offers English translations and thorough philosophical commentary by leading scholars on a few of Plato's works, including John McDowell's version of the Theaetetus.[96] Cornell University Press has also begun the Agora series of English translations of classical and medieval philosophical texts, including a few of Plato's.[97]

Notes a. ^ The grammarian Apollodorus of Athens argues in his Chronicles that Plato was born in the first year of the eighty-eighth Olympiad (427 BC), on the seventh day of the month Thargelion; according to this tradition the god Apollo was born this day.[98] According to another biographer of him, Neanthes, Plato was eighty-four years of age at his death. If we accept Neanthes' version, Plato was younger than Isocrates by six years, and therefore he was born in the second year of the 87th Olympiad, the year Pericles died (429 BC).[99] According to the Suda, Plato was born in Aegina in the 88th Olympiad amid the preliminaries of the Peloponnesian war, and he lived 82 years. Sir Thomas Browne also believes that Plato was born in the 88th Olympiad.[100] Renaissance Platonists celebrated Plato's birth on November 7.[101] Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff estimates that Plato was born when Diotimos was archon eponymous, namely between July 29, 428 BC and July 24, 427 BC.[102] Greek philologist Ioannis Kalitsounakis believes that the philosopher was born on May 26 or 27, 427 BC, while Jonathan Barnes regards 428 BC as year of Plato's birth.[103] For her part, Debra Nails asserts that the philosopher was born in 424/423 BC. According to Seneca Plato died at the age of 81 on the same day he was born.[104] b. ^ Diogenes Laertius mentions that Plato "was born, according to some writers, in Aegina in the house of Phidiades the son of Thales". Diogenes mentions as one of his sources the Universal History of Favorinus. According to Favorinus, Ariston, Plato's family, and his family were sent by Athens to settle as cleruchs (colonists retaining their

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Plato Athenian citizenship), on the island of Aegina, from which they were expelled by the Spartans after Plato's birth there.[105] Nails points out, however, that there is no record of any Spartan expulsion of Athenians from Aegina between 431–411 BC.[106] On the other hand, at the Peace of Nicias, Aegina was silently left under Athens' control, and it was not until the summer of 411 that the Spartans overran the island.[107] Therefore, Nails concludes that "perhaps Ariston was a cleruch, perhaps he went to Aegina in 431, and perhaps Plato was born on Aegina, but none of this enables a precise dating of Ariston's death (or Plato's birth). Aegina is regarded as Plato's place of birth by Suda as well.

Footnotes [1] Jones, Daniel; Roach, Peter, James Hartman and Jane Setter, eds. Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary. 17th edition. Cambridge UP, 2006. [2] Diogenes Laertius 3.4; p. 21, David Sedley, Plato's Cratylus (http:/ / assets. cambridge. org/ 052158/ 4922/ sample/ 0521584922ws. pdf), Cambridge University Press 2003; Seneca, Epistulae, VI, 58, 30: illi nomen latitudo pectoris fecerat. [3] Alfred North Whitehead, Process and Reality (New York: The Free Press, 1978), 39. [4] Irwin, T. H., "The Platonic Corpus" in Fine, G. (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Plato (Oxford University Press, 2011), pp. 63–64 and 68–70. [5] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, III * D. Nails, "Ariston", 53 * U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Plato, 46 [6] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, I [7] W. K. C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy', IV, 10 * A.E. Taylor, Plato, xiv * U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Plato, 47 [8] Plato, * U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Plato, 47 [9] Xenophon, Memorabilia, 3.6. 1 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0208& layout=& loc=3. 6. 1) [10] Nails, Debra (2002). The People of Plato: A Prosopography of Plato and Other Socratics. Hackett Publishing. ISBN 0-87220-564-9. p247 [11] Nails, Debra (2002). The People of Plato: A Prosopography of Plato and Other Socratics. Hackett Publishing. ISBN 0-87220-564-9, p 246 [12] Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, 1 * Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, I [13] Cicero, De Divinatione, I, 36 [14] D. Nails, "Ariston", 53 * A.E. Taylor, Plato, xiv [15] Plato, * D. Nails, "Perictione", 53 [16] Plato, * Plutarch, Pericles, IV [17] Plato, and * Aristophanes, Wasps, 97 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0044;query=card=#3;layout=;loc=54) [18] Plato, [19] W. K. C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, IV, 11 [20] C.H. Kahn, Plato and the Socratic Dialogue, 186 [21] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, IV [22] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, IV * A. Notopoulos, The Name of Plato, 135 [23] Tarán, L., "Plato's Alleged Epitaph" in Collected Papers (1962-1999) (Brill, 2001), p. 61. [24] Guthrie, W. K. C., A History of Greek Philosophy, vol. IV, Plato: the man and his dialogues, earlier period (Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 12 (footnote). [25] Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, 2 [26] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, IV * W. Smith, Plato, 393 [27] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, V [28] Aristotle, Metaphysics, 1. 987a (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0052& query=section=#15& layout=& loc=1. 987b) [29] W. A. Borody (1998), “Figuring the Phallogocentric Argument with Respect to the Classical Greek Philosophical Tradition”, Nebula, A Netzine of the Arts and Science, Vol. 13, pp. 1-27 (http:/ / kenstange. com/ nebula/ feat013/ feat013. html [30] Leo Strauss, The City and Man (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), 50–1.

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Plato [31] Huntington Cairns, Introduction to Plato: The Collected Dialogues, p. xiii. [32] Robinson, Arch. Graec. I i 16. [33] Platonica: the anecdotes concerning the life and writings of Plato, p. 73. [34] James V. Schall, S. J., "On the Death of Plato" (http:/ / www. morec. com/ schall/ docs/ dieplato. htm) — The American Scholar, 65 (Summer, 1996.) [35] Riginios, 195. [36] Fine, G., "Introduction" in Plato on Knowledge and Forms: Selected Essays (Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 5. [37] McDowell, J., Plato: Theaetetus (Oxford University Press, 1973), p. 230. [38] Fine, G., "Knowledge and Logos in the Theaetetus", Philosophical Review, vol. 88, no. 3 (July, 1979), p. 366. Reprinted in Fine (2003). [39] Taylor, C. C. W., "Plato's Epistemology" in Fine, G. (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Plato (Oxford University Press, 2011), pp. 176—187. [40] Lee, M.-K., "The Theaetetus" in Fine, G. (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Plato (Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 432. [41] Taylor, op. cit., 189. [42] Republic, p. 282 [43] Luke Mastin, Plato (2008). The Basics of Philosophy (http:/ / www. philosophybasics. com/ philosophers_plato. html) Retrieved on April 22, 2012. [44] Plato, Republic, translated with an introduction by Desmond Lee, Penguin Group (Second revised edition, 1974) pp.298-320. ISBN 0-14-044048-8 [45] Rodriguez- Grandjean, Pablo. Philosophy and Dialogue: Plato's Unwritten Doctrines from a Hermeneutical Point of View (http:/ / www. bu. edu/ wcp/ Papers/ Anci/ AnciRodr. htm), Twentieth World Congress of Philosophy, in Boston, Massachusetts from August 10–15, 1998. [46] Reale, Giovanni, and Catan, John R., A History of Ancient Philosophy, SUNY Press, 1990. ISBN 0-7914-0516-8. Cf. p.14 and onwards. [47] Krämer, Hans Joachim, and Catan, John R., Plato and the Foundations of Metaphysics: A Work on the Theory of the Principles and Unwritten Doctrines of Plato with a Collection of the Fundamental Documents, (Translated by John R. Catan), SUNY Press, 1990. ISBN 0-7914-0433-1, Cf. pp.38-47 [48] Elementa harmonica II, 30–31; quoted in Gaiser, Konrad, "Plato's Enigmatic Lecture 'On the Good'", Phronesis Vol. 25, No. 1 (1980), p. 5. [49] In Aristotelis Physica, p. 151, 6–11 Diels; quoted in Gaiser (1980), op. cit., pp. 8–9. Tarán says that Simplicius received the information concerning Speusippus and Xenocrates and the others from Porphyry, and that—although Porphyry also received much information about Plato's lecture from Alexander—this particular bit of information came from Dercyllides; see Tarán, Leonardo, Speusippus of Athens (Brill Publishers, 1981), p. 226. [50] Plotinus describes this in the last part of his final Ennead (VI, 9) entitled On the Good, or the One (Περὶ τἀγαθοῦ ἢ τοῦ ἑνός). Jens Halfwassen states in Der Aufstieg zum Einen (http:/ / ccat. sas. upenn. edu/ bmcr/ 2006/ 2006-08-16. html) (2006) that "Plotinus' ontology—which should be called Plotinus' henology - is a rather accurate philosophical renewal and continuation of Plato's unwritten doctrine, i.e. the doctrine rediscovered by Krämer and Gaiser." [51] In one of his letters (Epistolae 1612) Ficino writes: "The main goal of the divine Plato ... is to show one principle of things, which he called the One (τὸ ἕν)", cf. Marsilio Ficino, Briefe des Mediceerkreises (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=KuYYAAAAIAAJ), Berlin, 1926, p. 147. [52] H. Gomperz, Plato's System of Philosophy, in: G. Ryle (ed.), Proceedings of the Seventh International Congress of Philosophy (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=zN0MAAAAIAAJ), London 1931, pp. 426-431. Reprinted in: H. Gomperz, Philosophical Studies (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ox81AAAAIAAJ), Boston, 1953, pp. 119-24. [53] K. Gaiser, Testimonia Platonica. Le antiche testimonianze sulle dottrine non scritte di Platone, Milan, 1998. First published as Testimonia Platonica. Quellentexte zur Schule und mündlichen Lehre Platons as an appendix to Gaiser's Platons Ungeschriebene Lehre, Stuttgart, 1963. [54] For a brief description of the problem see for example K. Gaiser, Plato's enigmatic lecture "On the Good" (http:/ / www. ingentaconnect. com/ content/ brill/ phr/ 1980/ 00000025/ F0020001/ art00002), Phronesis 25 (1980), pp. 5-37. A detailed analysis is given by Krämer in his Plato and the Foundations of Metaphysics: A Work on the Theory of the Principles and Unwritten Doctrines of Plato With a Collection of the Fundamental Documents (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=T2k6edyBklwC), Albany: SUNY Press, 1990. Another good description is by Giovanni Reale: Toward a New Interpretation of Plato (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xmsGAAAACAAJ), Washington, D.C.: CUA Press, 1997. Reale summarizes the results of his research in A History of Ancient Philosophy: Plato and Aristotle (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=QfvRZSlJd3MC), Albany: SUNY Press, 1990. However the most complete analysis of the consequences of such an approach is given by Thomas A. Szlezak in his fundamental Reading Plato (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=x34szlJIRIgC), New York: Routledge, 1999. Another supporter of this interpretation is the german philosopher Karl Albert, cf. Griechische Religion und platonische Philosophie (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=5D4NAAAAIAAJ), Hamburg, 1980 or Einführung in die philosophische Mystik (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=VFvoAAAACAAJ), Darmstadt, 1996. Hans-Georg Gadamer is also sympathetic towards it, cf. J. Grondin, Gadamer and the Tübingen School (http:/ / www. philo. umontreal. ca/ prof/ documents/ GadamerandtheTubingenSchool2006. doc06. doc) and Gadamer's 1968 article Plato's Unwritten Dialectic reprinted in his Dialogue and Dialectic (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?hl=en& lr=& id=HfNUhz7T6ocC). Gadamer's final position on the subject is stated in his introduction to La nuova interpretazione di Platone. Un dialogo tra Hans-Georg Gadamer e la scuola di Tubinga (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=wNzXAQAACAAJ), Milano 1998. [55] Blackburn, Simon. 1996. The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 104 [56] Blackburn, Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, 104 [57] Hartz, Louis. 1984. A Synthesis of World History. Zurich: Humanity Press [58] Popper, K. (1962) The Open Society and its Enemies, Volume 1, London, Routledge, p. 133.

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Plato [59] The extent to which scholars consider a dialogue to be authentic is noted in John M. Cooper, ed., Complete Works, by Plato (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1997), v–vi. [60] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Dialogues_of_Plato& action=edit [61] Bloom, Harold (1982). Agon. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 5. [62] p. 9, John Burnet, Platonism, University of California Press 1928. [63] p. xiv, J. Cooper (ed.), Plato: Complete Works, Hackett 1997. [64] Richard Kraut, "Plato" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ plato/ ), Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, accessed 24 June 2008; Malcolm Schofield (1998, 2002), "Plato", in E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge.com (http:/ / www. rep. routledge. com/ article/ A088), accessed 24 June 2008; Christopher Rowe, "Interpreting Plato", in H. Benson (ed.), A Companion to Plato, Blackwell 2006. [65] T. Brickhouse & N. Smith, "Plato" (http:/ / www. iep. utm. edu/ p/ plato. htm), The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, accessed 24 June 2008. [66] See W. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, vol. 4, Cambridge University Press 1975; G. Vlastos, Socrates: Ironist and Moral Philosopher, Cambridge University Press 1991; T. Penner, "Socrates and the Early Dialogues", in R. Kraut (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Plato, Cambridge University Press 1992; C. Kahn, Plato and the Socratic Dialogue, Cambridge University Press 1996; G. Fine, Plato 2: Ethics, Politics, Religion, and the Soul, Oxford University Press 1999. [67] Dodds, E.R. The Greeks and the Irrational. [68] Brandwood, L., The Chronology of Plato's Dialogues (Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 251. [69] Constance Chu Meinwald, Plato's Parmenides (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991). [70] "The time is not long after the death of Socrates; for the Pythagoreans [Echecrates & co.] have not heard any details yet" (J. Burnet, Plato's Phaedo, Oxford 1911, p. 1.) [71] sect. 177, J. Burnet, Greek Philosophy, MacMillan 1950. [72] John M. Cooper, "Introduction" in Plato: Complete Works (Hackett, 1997), p. vii. [73] D. F. Lackner, "The Camaldolese Academy: Ambrogio Traversari, Marsilio Ficino and the Christian Platonic Tradition" in Allen and Rees (eds.), Marsilio Ficino: His Theology, His Philosophy, His Legacy (Brill, 2001), p. 24. [74] See: Burrell, D., "Platonism in Islamic Philosophy" in the Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Routledge, 1998); D. N. Hasse, "Plato arabico-latinus" in Gersh and Hoenen (eds.), The Platonic Tradition (De Gruyter , 2002), pp. 33-45. [75] Einstein, "Remarks to the Essays Appearing in this Collective Volume” in Schilpp (ed.), Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist, The Library of Living Philosophers, vol. 7. (MJF Books, 1970), pp. 683–684. [76] Irwin, T. H., "The Platonic Corpus" in Fine, G. (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Plato (Oxford University Press, 2011), pp. 64 & 74. See also Slings, S. R., "Remarks on Some Recent Papyri of the Politeia", Mnemosyne, vol. 40, no. 1 (1987), p. 34: "... primary MSS. together offer a text of tolerably good quality" (this is without the further corrections of other sources). [77] Slings, S. R., "Remarks on Some Recent Papyri of the Politeia", Mnemosyne, vol. 40, no. 1 (1987), p. 31. [78] John M. Cooper, "Introduction" in Plato: Complete Works (Hackett, 1997), pp. viii-xii. [79] Manuscripts - Philosophy Faculty Library (http:/ / www. ouls. ox. ac. uk/ philosophy/ collections/ manuscripts) [80] Dodds, E. R., Plato Gorgias (Oxford University Press, 1959), pp. 35-36. [81] Dodds, E. R., Plato Gorgias (Oxford University Press, 1959), p. 37. [82] Dodds, op. cit., p. 39. [83] Irwin, T. H., "The Platonic Corpus" in Fine, G. (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Plato (Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 71. [84] Slings, S. R., Platonis Rempublicam (Oxford University Press, 2003), xxiii. [85] Michael J. B. Allen, "Introduction" in Marsilio Ficino: The Philebus Commentary (University of California Press, 1979), p. 12. [86] Bernard Suzanna, Les dialogues de Platon: L'édition d'Henri Estienne... (http:/ / plato-dialogues. org/ stephanus. htm) [87] John M. Cooper, op. cit., pp. xii & xxvii. [88] Oxford Classical Texts - Classical Studies & Ancient History Series - Series - Academic, Professional, & General - Oxford University Press (http:/ / ukcatalogue. oup. com/ category/ academic/ series/ classicalstudies/ oct. do) [89] Cambridge Greek and Latin Classics - Series - Academic and Professional Books - Cambridge University Press (http:/ / www. cambridge. org/ ca/ knowledge/ series/ series_display/ item3936986/ Cambridge-Greek-and-Latin-Classics/ ) [90] Cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries - Series - Academic and Professional Books - Cambridge University Press (http:/ / www. cambridge. org/ ca/ knowledge/ series/ series_display/ item3936941/ Cambridge-Classical-Texts-and-Commentaries/ ) [91] Terence Irwin, "Preface" and "Introduction" in Plato, Gorgias (Oxford University Press, 1979), pp. vi & 11. [92] E. R. Dodds, Plato, Gorgias (Oxford University press, 1959). [93] Gail Fine, Plato 1 (Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 482. [94] Complete Works - Philosophy (http:/ / www. hackettpublishing. com/ philosophy/ complete-works) [95] http:/ / www. hackettpublishing. com/ catalogsearch/ result/ ?q=Plato [96] Clarendon Plato Series - Philosophy Series - Series - Academic, Professional, & General - Oxford University Press (http:/ / ukcatalogue. oup. com/ category/ academic/ series/ philosophy/ cps. do) [97] Cornell University Press : Agora Editions (http:/ / www. cornellpress. cornell. edu/ collections/ ?collection_id=137) [98] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, II [99] F.W. Nietzsche, Werke, 32 [100] T. Browne, Pseudodoxia Epidemica, XII

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Plato [101] [102] [103] [104] [105] [106] [107]

35 D. Nails, The Life of Plato of Athens, 1 U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Plato, 46 | birth_place = * Seneca, Epistulae, VI, 58, 31: natali suo decessit et annum umum atque octogensimum. Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, III D. Nails, "Ariston", 54 Thucydides, 5.18 | birth_place = * Thucydides, 8.92

References Primary sources (Greek and Roman) • Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, I. See original text in Latin Library (http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/apuleius/ apuleius.dog1.shtml). • Aristophanes, The Wasps. See original text in Perseus program (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0043:line=1). • Aristotle, Metaphysics. See original text in Perseus program (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0051:book=1:section=980a). • Cicero, De Divinatione, I. See original text in Latin library (http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/ divinatione1.shtml). • Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, translated by Robert Drew Hicks (1925). • Plato.  Charmides. Trans. Benjamin Jowett. Wikisource.. See original text in Perseus program (http://www. perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0175:text=Charm.:section=153a). • Plato.  Gorgias. Trans. Benjamin Jowett. Wikisource.. See original text in Perseus program (http://www. perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0177:text=Gorg.:section=447a). • Plato, Parmenides. See original text in Perseus program (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0173:text=Parm.:section=126a). • Plato.  The Republic. Trans. Benjamin Jowett. Wikisource.. See original text in Perseus program (http://www. perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0168). • Plutarch (1683) [written in the late 1st century]. "  Pericles". Lives. Trans. John Dryden. Wikisource.. See original text in Perseus program (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01. 0181:text=Per.:chapter=39:section=1). • Thucydides.  History of the Peloponnesian War. Trans. Richard Crawley. Wikisource., V, VIII. See original text in Perseus program (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0199). • Xenophon, Memorabilia. See original text in Perseus program (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0207:book=1:chapter=1:section=1).

Secondary sources • Browne, Sir Thomas (1646–1672). Pseudodoxia Epidemica IV.xii (http://penelope.uchicago.edu/pseudodoxia/ pseudo412.html#b26). • Guthrie, W.K.C. (1986). A History of Greek Philosophy: Volume 4, Plato: The Man and His Dialogues: Earlier Period. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-31101-2. • Kahn, Charles H. (2004). "The Framework". Plato and the socratic dialogue: The Philosophical Use of a Literary Form. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-64830-0. • Kierkegaard, Søren (1992). "Plato". The Concept of Irony. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-02072-3. • Nails, Debra (2006). "The Life of Plato of Athens". A Companion to Plato edited by Hugh H. Benson. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-4051-1521-1. • Nails, Debra (2002). "Ariston/Perictione". The People of Plato: A Prosopography of Plato and Other Socratics. Hackett Publishing. ISBN 0-87220-564-9.

Plato • Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm (1967). "Vorlesungsaufzeichnungen". Werke: Kritische Gesamtausgabe (in German). Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-013912-X. • Notopoulos, A. (April 1939). "The Name of Plato". Classical Philology (The University of Chicago Press) 34 (2): 135–145. doi: 10.1086/362227 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/362227). • "Plato". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2002. • "Plato". Encyclopaedic Dictionary The Helios Volume XVI (in Greek). 1952. • "Plato" (http://www.stoa.org/sol-bin/search.pl?search_method=QUERY&login=guest&enlogin=guest& page_num=1&user_list=LIST&searchstr=Plato&field=hw_eng&num_per_page=25&db=REAL). Suda. 10th century. • Smith, William (1870). "Plato" (http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/2725.html). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. • Tarán, Leonardo (2001). Collected Papers 1962-1999. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 9004123040. • Taylor, Alfred Edward (2001). Plato: The Man and his Work. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-41605-4. • Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Ulrich von (2005 (first edition 1917)). Plato: his Life and Work (translated in Greek by Xenophon Armyros). Kaktos. ISBN 960-382-664-2.

Further reading • Alican, Necip Fikri (2012). Rethinking Plato: A Cartesian Quest for the Real Plato. Rodopi. ISBN 978-90-420-3537-9. • Allen, R. E. (1965). Studies in Plato's Metaphysics II. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0710036264 • Ambuel, David (2006). Image and Paradigm in Plato's Sophist. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-04-9 • Arieti, James A. Interpreting Plato: The Dialogues as Drama, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0-8476-7662-5 • Bakalis, Nikolaos (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing ISBN 1-4120-4843-5 • Barrow, Robin (2007). Plato: Continuum Library of Educational Thought. Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-8408-5. • Cadame, Claude (1999). Indigenous and Modern Perspectives on Tribal Initiation Rites: Education According to Plato, pp. 278–312, in Padilla, Mark William (editor), "Rites of Passage in Ancient Greece: Literature, Religion, Society" (http://books.google.com/books?id=-0JVScga2oYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=rites+of+passage+ in+ancient+greece), Bucknell University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8387-5418-X • Cooper, John M. & Hutchinson, D. S. (Eds.) (1997). Plato: Complete Works. Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. ISBN 0-87220-349-2. • Corlett, J. Angelo (2005). Interpreting Plato's Dialogues. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-02-5 • Durant, Will (1926). The Story of Philosophy. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-69500-2. • Derrida, Jacques (1972). La dissémination, Paris: Seuil. (esp. cap.: La Pharmacie de Platon, 69-199) ISBN 2-02-001958-2 • Field, G.C. (Guy Cromwell) (1969). The Philosophy of Plato (2nd ed. with an appendix by R. C. Cross. ed.). London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-888040-5. • Fine, Gail (2000). Plato 1: Metaphysics and Epistemology Oxford University Press, USA, ISBN 0-19-875206-7 • Finley, M. I. (1969). Aspects of antiquity: Discoveries and Controversies The Viking Press, Inc., USA • Garvey, James (2006). Twenty Greatest Philosophy Books. Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-9053-0. • Guthrie, W. K. C. (1986). A History of Greek Philosophy (Plato - The Man & His Dialogues - Earlier Period), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-31101-2 • Guthrie, W. K. C. (1986). A History of Greek Philosophy (Later Plato & the Academy) Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-31102-0 • Havelock, Eric (2005). Preface to Plato (History of the Greek Mind), Belknap Press, ISBN 0-674-69906-8

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Plato • Hamilton, Edith & Cairns, Huntington (Eds.) (1961). The Collected Dialogues of Plato, Including the Letters. Princeton Univ. Press. ISBN 0-691-09718-6. • Harvard University Press publishes the hardbound series Loeb Classical Library, containing Plato's works in Greek, with English translations on facing pages. • Irvine, Andrew David (2008). Socrates on Trial: A play based on Aristophanes' Clouds and Plato's Apology, Crito, and Phaedo, adapted for modern performance. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-9783-5 (cloth); ISBN 978-0-8020-9538-1 (paper) • Irwin, Terence (1995). Plato's Ethics, Oxford University Press, USA, ISBN 0-19-508645-7 • Jackson, Roy (2001). Plato: A Beginner's Guide. London: Hoder & Stroughton. ISBN 0-340-80385-1. • Jowett, Benjamin (1892). [The Dialogues of Plato. Translated into English with analyses and introductions by B. Jowett.], Oxford Clarendon Press, UK, UIN:BLL01002931898 • Kochin, Michael S. (2002). Gender and Rhetoric in Plato's Political Thought. Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 0-521-80852-9. • Kraut, Richard (Ed.) (1993). The Cambridge Companion to Plato. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43610-9. • Krämer, Hans Joachim (1990). Plato and the Foundations of Metaphysics (http://books.google.com/ books?id=T2k6edyBklwC). SUNY Press. ISBN 0-7914-0433-1. • Lilar, Suzanne (1954), Journal de l'analogiste, Paris, Éditions Julliard; Reedited 1979, Paris, Grasset. Foreword by Julien Gracq • Lilar, Suzanne (1963), Le couple, Paris, Grasset. Translated as Aspects of Love in Western Society in 1965, with a foreword by Jonathan Griffin London, Thames and Hudson. • Lilar, Suzanne (1967) A propos de Sartre et de l'amour , Paris, Grasset. • Lundberg, Phillip (2005). Tallyho - The Hunt for Virtue: Beauty,Truth and Goodness Nine Dialogues by Plato: Pheadrus, Lysis, Protagoras, Charmides, Parmenides, Gorgias, Theaetetus, Meno & Sophist. Authorhouse. ISBN 1-4184-4977-6. • Melchert, Norman (2002). The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy. McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-19-517510-7. • Meinwald, Constance Chu (1991). Plato's Parmenides. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-506445-3. • Miller, Mitchell (2004). The Philosopher in Plato's Statesman. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-16-2 • Mohr, Richard D. (2006). God and Forms in Plato - and other Essays in Plato's Metaphysics. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-01-8 • Moore, Edward (2007). Plato. Philosophy Insights Series. Tirril, Humanities-Ebooks. ISBN 978-1-84760-047-9 • Nightingale, Andrea Wilson. (1995). "Genres in Dialogue: Plato and the Construct of Philosophy" (http://books. google.com/books?id=n3MeQikAp00C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0), Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-48264-X • Oxford University Press publishes scholarly editions of Plato's Greek texts in the Oxford Classical Texts series, and some translations in the Clarendon Plato Series. • Reale, Giovanni (1990). A History of Ancient Philosophy: Plato and Aristotle (http://books.google.com/ books?id=QfvRZSlJd3MC). SUNY Press. ISBN 0-7914-0516-8. • Reale, Giovanni (1997). Toward a New Interpretation of Plato (http://books.google.com/ books?id=xmsGAAAACAAJ). CUA Press. ISBN 0-8132-0847-5. • Sallis, John (1996). Being and Logos: Reading the Platonic Dialogues. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-21071-2. • Sallis, John (1999). Chorology: On Beginning in Plato's "Timaeus". Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-21308-8. • Sayre, Kenneth M. (2006). Plato's Late Ontology: A Riddle Resolved. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-09-4

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• Seung, T. K. (1996). Plato Rediscovered: Human Value and Social Order. Rowman and Littlefield. ISBN 0-8476-8112-2 • Smith, William. (1867 — original). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. University of Michigan/Online version. • Stewart, John. (2010). Kierkegaard and the Greek World - Socrates and Plato. Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-6981-4 • Szlezak, Thomas A. (1999). Reading Plato (http://books.google.com/books?id=x34szlJIRIgC). Routledge. ISBN 0-415-18984-5. • Taylor, A. E. (2001). Plato: The Man and His Work, Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-41605-4 • Thomas Taylor has translated Plato's complete works. • Vlastos, Gregory (1981). Platonic Studies, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-10021-7 • Vlastos, Gregory (2006). Plato's Universe - with a new Introducution by Luc Brisson, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-13-1 • Zuckert, Catherine (2009). Plato's Philosophers: The Coherence of the Dialogues, The University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-99335-5

External links • Plato (https://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/thinker/3724) at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project • Plato (http://philpapers.org/browse/plato) at PhilPapers • Works available on-line: • Works by Plato (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/searchresults?q=Plato) at Perseus Project - Greek & English hyperlinked text • Works of Plato (Jowett, 1892) (http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show. php?title=166&Itemid=99999999) • Works by Plato (http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Plato) at Project Gutenberg

• • • • • • •

• Spurious and doubtful works (http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/authrec?fk_authors=688) at Project Gutenberg Plato complete works, annotated and searchable, at ELPENOR (http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/ greek-texts/ancient-greece/plato/default.asp) Euthyphro (http://librivox.org/euthyphro-by-plato/) LibriVox recording Ion (http://librivox.org/ion-by-plato/) LibriVox recording The Apology of Socrates (http://librivox.org/apology-of-socrates-by-plato/) (Greek), LibriVox recording Quick Links to Plato's Dialogues (English, Greek, French, Spanish) (http://www.john-uebersax.com/plato/ tetral.htm) The Dialogues of Plato -5 vols (mp3) tr. by B. Jowett (http://www.archive.org/details/ DIALOGUES-OF-PLATO-BJ-V2-3ED) at archive.org The Dialogues of Plato with Apocryphal Works (http://demonax.info/doku.php?id=classical:plato) at demonax.info (http://demonax.info)

• Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: • • • •

Plato (http://www.iep.utm.edu/plato/) Plato's Organicism (http://www.iep.utm.edu/platoorg/) Plato's Phaedo (http://www.iep.utm.edu/phaedo/) Plato's Political Philosophy (http://www.iep.utm.edu/platopol/)

• Plato's Republic (http://www.iep.utm.edu/republic/) • Plato's Theaetetus (http://www.iep.utm.edu/theatetu/) • Plato's Academy (http://www.iep.utm.edu/academy/)

Plato

39 • Middle Platonism (http://www.iep.utm.edu/midplato/) • Neoplatonism (http://www.iep.utm.edu/neoplato/)

• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: • • • • • •

Plato (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato/) Plato's Ethics (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-ethics/) Friendship and Eros (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-friendship/) Middle Period Metaphysics and Epistemology (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-metaphysics/) Plato on Utopia (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-utopia/) Rhetoric and Poetry (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-rhetoric/)

• Other Articles: • Excerpt from W.K.C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, vol. IV, "Plato: the man and his dialogues, earlier period" (http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/greek-texts/ancient-greece/guthrie-plato.asp), Cambridge University Press, 1989, pp. 8–38 • Website on Plato and his works: Plato and his dialogues by Bernard Suzanne (http://plato-dialogues.org/ plato.htm) • Reflections on Reality and its Reflection: comparison of Plato and Bergson; do forms exist? (http://www.sfo. com/~eameece/rrr.html) • "Plato and Totalitarianism: A Documentary Study" (http://www.worldfuturefund.org/wffmaster/Reading/ Quotes/plato.htm) •  "Plato and Platonism". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913. • Online library "Vox Philosophiae" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080126175146/http://www.filozofie.eu/ index.php?option=com_docman&Itemid=34) • Comprehensive Research Materials: • Approaching Plato: A Guide to the Early and Middle Dialogues (http://campus.belmont.edu/philosophy/ Book.pdf) • Works by or about Plato (http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n79-139459) in libraries (WorldCat catalog) • Other sources: • Interview with Mario Vegetti on Plato's political thought. The interview, available in full on video, both in Italian and English, is included in the series Multi-Media Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences (http://www. conoscenza.rai.it/site/it-IT/?ContentID=850&Guid=d0e858c408994cdb8db858e320e6bece).

Aristotle

40

Aristotle Aristotle

Roman copy in marble of a Greek bronze bust of Aristotle by Lysippus, c. 330 BCE. The alabaster mantle is modern. Born

• • • •

384 BCE Stagira, Chalcidice (Chalkidiki), northern Greece

Died

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322 BCE (aged 62) Euboea, Greece

Nationality

Greek

Era

Ancient philosophy

Region

Western philosophy

School

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Peripatetic school Aristotelianism

Main interests

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Biology Zoology Physics Metaphysics Logic Ethics Music Poetry Theatre Rhetoric Politics Government

Aristotle

41 Notable ideas

• • • • • •

Golden mean Aristotelian logic Syllogism Hexis Hylomorphism Theory of the soul

Part of a series on

Aristotelianism

 Philosophy

portal • • •

v t

e [1]

Aristotle (/ˈærɪˌstɒtəl/;[2] Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης [aristotélɛːs], Aristotélēs; 384 – 322 BCE)[3] was a Greek philosopher born in Stagirus, northern Greece, in 384 BCE. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, whereafter Proxenus of Atarneus became his guardian. At eighteen, he joined Plato’s Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven (c. 347 BCE). His writings cover many subjects – including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theater, music, rhetoric, linguistics, politics and government – and constitute the first comprehensive system of Western philosophy. Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip of Macedonia, tutored Alexander the Great between 356 and 323 BCE. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, “Aristotle was the first genuine scientist in history. ... Every scientist is in his debt.”[citation needed] Teaching Alexander the Great gave Aristotle many opportunities and an abundance of supplies. He established a library in the Lyceum which aided in the production of many of his hundreds of books. The fact that Aristotle was a pupil of Plato contributed to his former views of Platonism, but, following Plato’s death, Aristotle immersed himself in empirical studies and shifted from Platonism to empiricism.[4] He believed all peoples' concepts and all of their knowledge was ultimately based on perception. Aristotle’s views on natural sciences represent the groundwork underlying many of his works. Aristotle's views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended into the Renaissance and were not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics. Some of Aristotle's zoological observations were not confirmed or refuted until the 19th century.Wikipedia:Please clarify His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic. In metaphysics, Aristotelianism profoundly influenced Judeo-Islamic philosophical and theological thought during the Middle Ages and continues to influence Christian theology, especially the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. Aristotle was well known among medieval Muslim intellectuals and revered as "The First Teacher" (Arabic: ‫)ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ‬.

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His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. All aspects of Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the object of active academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues – Cicero described his literary style as "a river of gold" – it is thought that only around a third of his original output has survived.[5]

Life Aristotle, whose name means "the best purpose", was born in 384 BCE in Stagira, Chalcidice, about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day Thessaloniki. His father Nicomachus was the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Although there is little information on Aristotle's childhood, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy.[6] At about the age of eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy. He remained there for nearly twenty years before leaving Athens in 348/47 BCE. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew Speusippus, although it is possible that he feared anti-Macedonian sentiments and left before Plato had died.[7] Aristotle and Plato's compatibility has been a strongly debated topic. Recently, Harold Cherniss summarized Aristotle's Platonism from the standpoint of classicist Werner Jaeger, stating that: "Jaeger, in whose eyes Plato's philosophy was the "matter" out of which the newer and higher form of Aristotle's thought proceeded by a gradual but steady and undeviating development (Aristotles, p. 11), pronounced the "old controversy", whether or not Aristotle understood Plato, to be "absolut verstandnislos". Yet this did not prevent LeisegangWikipedia:Avoid weasel words from reasserting that Aristotle's own pattern of thinking was incompatible with a proper understanding of Plato."[8][9] Contrary to Leisegang's sympathies, Jaeger was sympathetic to a compatible reading of Aristotle and Plato. Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor. There, he traveled with Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island. Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. Soon after Hermias' death, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander in 343 BCE.[10] Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During that time he gave lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander.[11] Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest and his attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants". By 335 BCE, Artistotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, Nicomachus. According to the Suda, he also had an eromenos, Palaephatus of Abydus.[12] This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BCE, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works. He wrote many dialogues of which only fragments have survived. Those works that

An early Islamic portrayal of Aristotle (right) and Alexander the Great.

Aristotle have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, De Anima (On the Soul) and Poetics. Aristotle not only studied almost every subject possible at the time, but made significant contributions to most of them. In physical science, Aristotle studied anatomy, astronomy, embryology, geography, geology, meteorology, physics and zoology. In philosophy, he wrote on aesthetics, ethics, government, metaphysics, politics, economics, psychology, rhetoric and theology. He also studied education, foreign customs, literature and poetry. His combined works constitute a virtual encyclopedia of Greek knowledge. Near the end of his life, Alexander became paranoid and wrote threatening letters to Aristotle. Aristotle had made no secret of his contempt for Alexander's pretense of divinity and the king had executed Aristotle's grandnephew Callisthenes as a traitor. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but there is little evidence.[13] Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BCE, Eurymedon the Hierophant denounced Aristotle for not holding the gods in honor, prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in Chalcis, explaining: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy"[14] – a reference to Athens's prior trial and execution of Socrates. He died in Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.[15] In general, the details of the life of Aristotle are not well-established. The biographies of Aristotle written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points.[16]

Memory According to Aristotle, memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in your mind and to have the ability to distinguish between the internal “appearance” and an occurrence in the past. In other words, a memory is a mental picture (phantasm) in which Aristotle defines in De Anima, as an appearance which is imprinted on the part of the body that forms a memory. Aristotle believed an “imprint” becomes impressed on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when a stimuli is too complex that the nervous system (semi-fluid bodily organ) cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, common sense, and thinking .[17] The mental picture imprinted on the bodily organ is the final product of the entire process of sense perception. It does not matter if the experience was seen or heard, every experience ends up as a mental image in memory Aristotle uses the word “memory” for two basic abilities. First, the actual retaining of the experience in the mnemonic “imprint” that can develop from sensation. Second, the intellectual anxiety that comes with the “imprint” due to being impressed at a particular time and processing specific contents. These abilities can be explained as memory is neither sensation nor thinking because is arises only after a lapse of time. Therefore, memory is of the past, [18] prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. The retrieval of our “imprints” cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in our past experiences, both for our previous experience and present experience. Aristotle proposed that slow-witted people have good memory because the fluids in their brain do not wash away their memory organ used to imprint experiences and so the “imprint” can easily continue. However, they cannot be too slow or the hardened surface of the organ will not receive new “imprints”. He believed the young and the old do not properly develop an “imprint”. Young people undergo rapid changes as they develop, while the elderly’s organs are beginning to decay, thus stunting new “imprints”. Likewise, people who are too quick-witted are similar to the young and the image cannot be fixed because of the rapid changes of their organ. Since intellectual functions are not involved in memory, memories belong to some animals too, but only those in which have perception of time.

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Aristotle

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Recollection Since Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and people perceive them as images or “imprints”, people are continually weaving together new “imprints” of things they experience. In order to search for these “imprints”, people search the memory itself. Within the memory, if one experience is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. Recollection occurs when one experience naturally follows another. If the chain of "images" is needed, one memory will stimulate the other. If the chain of "images" is not needed, but expected, then it will only stimulate the other memory in most instances. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they have stimulated the one that was needed .[19] Recollection is the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory "imprint" after some time has passed. Retrieval of stored information is dependent on the scope of mnemonic capabilities of a being (human or animal) and the abilities the human or animal possesses .[20] Only humans will remember "imprints" of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time will be able to retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed. Recollection of an "imprint" is when the present experiences a person remembers are similar with elements corresponding in character and arrangement of past sensory experiences. When an "imprint" is recalled, it may bring forth a large group of related "imprints" .[21] Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain “imprints”, was connected systematically in three sorts of relationships: similarity, contrast, and contiguity. These three laws make up his Laws of Association. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within our mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled .[22]

Thought Logic With the Prior Analytics, Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic,[23] and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th century advances in mathematical logic.[24] Kant stated in the Critique of Pure Reason that Aristotle's theory of logic completely accounted for the core of deductive inference. History Aristotle "says that 'on the subject of reasoning' he 'had nothing else on an earlier date to speak of'". However, Plato reports that syntax was devised before him, by Prodicus of Ceos, who was concerned by the correct use of words. Logic seems to have emerged from dialectics; the earlier philosophers made frequent use of concepts like reductio ad absurdum in their discussions, but never truly understood the logical implications. Even Plato had difficulties with logic; although he had a reasonable conception of a deductive system, he could never actually construct one, thus he relied instead on his dialectic.[25]

Aristotle portrayed in the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle as a scholar of the 15th century AD.

Plato believed that deduction would simply follow from premises, hence he focused on maintaining solid premises so that the conclusion would logically follow. Consequently, Plato realized that a method for obtaining conclusions would be most beneficial. He never succeeded in devising such a method, but his best attempt was published in his book Sophist, where he introduced his division method.

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Analytics and the Organon What we today call Aristotelian logic, Aristotle himself would have labeled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean dialectics. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, since it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into six books in about the early 1st century AD: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Categories On Interpretation Prior Analytics Posterior Analytics Topics On Sophistical Refutations

The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the Categories, the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in On Interpretation, to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the Analytics) and dialectics (in the Topics and Sophistical Refutations). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory stricto sensu: the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. There is one volume of Aristotle's concerning logic not found in the Organon, namely the fourth book of Metaphysics.

Aristotle's epistemology Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal. Aristotle's ontology, however, finds the universal in particular things, which he calls the essence of things, while in Plato's ontology, the universal exists apart from particular things, and is related to them as their prototype or exemplar. For Aristotle, therefore, epistemology is based on the study of particular phenomena and rises to the knowledge of essences, while for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal Forms (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these. For Aristotle, "form" still refers to the unconditional basis of phenomena but is "instantiated" in a particular substance (see Universals and particulars, below). In a certain sense, Aristotle's method is both inductive and deductive, while Plato's is essentially deductive from a priori principles. In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. In modern times, the scope of philosophy has become limited to more generic or abstract inquiries, such as ethics and metaphysics, in which logic plays a major role. Today's philosophy tends to exclude empirical study of the natural world by means of the scientific method. In contrast, Aristotle's philosophical endeavors encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry.

Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, while holding a copy of his Nicomachean Ethics in his hand, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in The Forms.

Aristotle

In the larger sense of the word, Aristotle makes philosophy coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science". Note, however, that his use of the term science carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science (dianoia) is either practical, poetical or theoretical" (Metaphysics 1025b25). By practical science, he means ethics and politics; by poetical science, he means the study of poetry and the other fine arts; by theoretical science, he means physics, mathematics and metaphysics. If logic (or "analytics") is regarded as a study preliminary to philosophy, the divisions of Aristotelian philosophy would consist of: (1) Logic; (2) Theoretical Philosophy, including Metaphysics, Physics and Mathematics; (3) Practical Philosophy and (4) Poetical Philosophy. In the period between his two stays in Athens, between his times at the "Aristotle" by Francesco Hayez (1791–1882) Academy and the Lyceum, Aristotle conducted most of the scientific thinking and research for which he is renowned today. In fact, most of Aristotle's life was devoted to the study of the objects of natural science. Aristotle's metaphysics contains observations on the nature of numbers but he made no original contributions to mathematics. He did, however, perform original research in the natural sciences, e.g., botany, zoology, physics, astronomy, chemistry, meteorology, and several other sciences. Aristotle's writings on science are largely qualitative, as opposed to quantitative. Beginning in the 16th century, scientists began applying mathematics to the physical sciences, and Aristotle's work in this area was deemed hopelessly inadequate. His failings were largely due to the absence of concepts like mass, velocity, force and temperature. He had a conception of speed and temperature, but no quantitative understanding of them, which was partly due to the absence of basic experimental devices, like clocks and thermometers. His writings provide an account of many scientific observations, a mixture of precocious accuracy and curious errors. For example, in his History of Animals he claimed that human males have more teeth than females.[26] In a similar vein, John Philoponus, and later Galileo, showed by simple experiments that Aristotle's theory that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect. On the other hand, Aristotle refuted Democritus's claim that the Milky Way was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out (correctly, even if such reasoning was bound to be dismissed for a long time) that, given "current astronomical demonstrations" that "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then ... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them."[27] In places, Aristotle goes too far in deriving 'laws of the universe' from simple observation and over-stretched reason. Today's scientific method assumes that such thinking without sufficient facts is ineffective, and that discerning the validity of one's hypothesis requires far more rigorous experimentation than that which Aristotle used to support his laws. Aristotle also had some scientific blind spots. He posited a geocentric cosmology that we may discern in selections of the Metaphysics, which was widely accepted up until the 16th century. From the 3rd century to the 16th century, the dominant view held that the Earth was the rotational center of the universe. Since he was perhaps the philosopher most respected by European thinkers during and after the Renaissance, these thinkers often took Aristotle's erroneous positions as given, which held back science in this epoch.[28] However, Aristotle's scientific shortcomings should not mislead one into forgetting his great advances in the many scientific fields. For instance, he founded logic as a formal science and created foundations to biology that were not superseded for two millennia. Moreover, he introduced the fundamental notion that nature is composed of things that

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change and that studying such changes can provide useful knowledge of underlying constants.

Geology As quoted from Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology: He [Aristotle] refers to many examples of changes now constantly going on, and insists emphatically on the great results which they must produce in the lapse of ages. He instances particular cases of lakes that had dried up, and deserts that had at length become watered by rivers and fertilized. He points to the growth of the Nilotic delta since the time of Homer, to the shallowing of the Palus Maeotis within sixty years from his own time ... He alludes ... to the upheaving of one of the Eolian islands, previous to a volcanic eruption. The changes of the earth, he says, are so slow in comparison to the duration of our lives, that they are overlooked; and the migrations of people after great catastrophes, and their removal to other regions, cause the event to be forgotten. He says [12th chapter of his Meteorics] 'the distribution of land and sea in particular regions does not endure throughout all time, but it becomes sea in those parts where it was land, and again it becomes land where it was sea, and there is reason for thinking that these changes take place according to a certain system, and within a certain period.' The concluding observation is as follows: 'As time never fails, and the universe is eternal, neither the Tanais, nor the Nile, can have flowed for ever. The places where they rise were once dry, and there is a limit to their operations, but there is none to time. So also of all other rivers; they spring up and they perish; and the sea also continually deserts some lands and invades others The same tracts, therefore, of the earth are not some always sea, and others always continents, but every thing changes in the course of time.'[29]

Physics Five elements Aristotle proposed a fifth element, aether, in addition to the four proposed earlier by Empedocles. • • • • •

Earth, which is cold and dry; this corresponds to the modern idea of a solid. Water, which is cold and wet; this corresponds to the modern idea of a liquid. Air, which is hot and wet; this corresponds to the modern idea of a gas. Fire, which is hot and dry; this corresponds to the modern ideas of plasma and heat. Aether, which is the divine substance that makes up the heavenly spheres and heavenly bodies (stars and planets).

Each of the four earthly elements has its natural place. All that is earthly tends toward the center of the universe, i.e., the center of the Earth. Water tends toward a sphere surrounding the center. Air tends toward a sphere surrounding the water sphere. Fire tends toward the lunar sphere (in which the Moon orbits). When elements are moved out of their natural place, they naturally move back towards it. This is "natural motion"—motion requiring no extrinsic cause. So, for example, in water, earthy bodies sink while air bubbles rise up; in air, rain falls and flame rises. Outside all the other spheres, the heavenly, fifth element, manifested in the stars and planets, moves in the perfection of circles. Motion Aristotle defined motion as the actuality of a potentiality as such.[30] Aquinas suggested that the passage be understood literally; that motion can indeed be understood as the active fulfillment of a potential, as a transition toward a potentially possible state. Because actuality and potentiality are normally opposites in Aristotle, other commentators either suggest that the wording which has come down to us is erroneous, or that the addition of the "as such" to the definition is critical to understanding it.

Aristotle Causality, the four causes Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active causal factors: • Material cause describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood, and the material cause of a car is rubber and steel. It is not about action. It does not mean one domino knocks over another domino. • The formal cause is its form, i.e., the arrangement of that matter. It tells us what a thing is, that any thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea existing in the first place as exemplar in the mind of the sculptor, and in the second place as intrinsic, determining cause, embodied in the matter. Formal cause could only refer to the essential quality of causation. A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create his drawings. • The efficient cause is "the primary source", or that from which the change under consideration proceeds. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, nonliving or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. So, take the two dominoes, this time of equal weighting, the first is knocked over causing the second also to fall over. • The final cause is its purpose, or that for the sake of which a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause or teleos is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve. This covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition, need, desire, ethics, or spiritual beliefs. Additionally, things can be causes of one another, causing each other reciprocally, as hard work causes fitness and vice versa, although not in the same way or function, the one is as the beginning of change, the other as the goal. (Thus Aristotle first suggested a reciprocal or circular causality as a relation of mutual dependence or influence of cause upon effect). Moreover, Aristotle indicated that the same thing can be the cause of contrary effects; its presence and absence may result in different outcomes. Simply it is the goal or purpose that brings about an event. Our two dominoes require someone or something to intentionally knock over the first domino, since it cannot fall of its own accord. Aristotle marked two modes of causation: proper (prior) causation and accidental (chance) causation. All causes, proper and incidental, can be spoken as potential or as actual, particular or generic. The same language refers to the effects of causes, so that generic effects assigned to generic causes, particular effects to particular causes, operating causes to actual effects. Essentially, causality does not suggest a temporal relation between the cause and the effect. Optics Aristotle held more accurate theories on some optical concepts than other philosophers of his day. The earliest known written evidence of a camera obscura can be found in Aristotle's documentation of such a device in 350 BC in Problemata. Aristotle's apparatus contained a dark chamber that had a single small hole, or aperture, to allow for sunlight to enter. Aristotle used the device to make observations of the sun and noted that no matter what shape the hole was, the sun would still be correctly displayed as a round object. In modern cameras, this is analogous to the diaphragm. Aristotle also made the observation that when the distance between the aperture and the surface with the image increased, the image was magnified.

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Chance and spontaneity According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things. It is "from what is spontaneous" (but note that what is spontaneous does not come from chance). For a better understanding of Aristotle's conception of "chance" it might be better to think of "coincidence": Something takes place by chance if a person sets out with the intent of having one thing take place, but with the result of another thing (not intended) taking place. For example: A person seeks donations. That person may find another person willing to donate a substantial sum. However, if the person seeking the donations met the person donating, not for the purpose of collecting donations, but for some other purpose, Aristotle would call the collecting of the donation by that particular donator a result of chance. It must be unusual that something happens by chance. In other words, if something happens all or most of the time, we cannot say that it is by chance. There is also more specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that can only apply to human beings, since it is in the sphere of moral actions. According to Aristotle, luck must involve choice (and thus deliberation), and only humans are capable of deliberation and choice. "What is not capable of action cannot do anything by chance".[31]

Metaphysics Aristotle defines metaphysics as "the knowledge of immaterial being," or of "being in the highest degree of abstraction." He refers to metaphysics as "first philosophy", as well as "the theologic science." Substance, potentiality and actuality Aristotle examines the concepts of substance and essence (ousia) in his Metaphysics (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form. In book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum, or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the potential house, while the form of the substance is the actual house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other differentia (see also predicables) that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.[32] With regard to the change (kinesis) and its causes now, as he defines in his Physics and On Generation and Corruption 319b–320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from:

Statue of Aristotle (1915) by Cipri Adolf Bermann at the University of Freiburg im Breisgau

1. growth and diminution, which is change in quantity; 2. locomotion, which is change in space; and 3. alteration, which is change in quality. The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is a property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (dynamis) and actuality (entelecheia) in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing, or being acted upon, if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (dynamei) plant, and if is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (poiein) or 'be acted upon' (paschein), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate –

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being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise – acting). Actuality is the fulfillment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (telos) is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to our previous example, we could say that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do. "For that for the sake of which a thing is, is its principle, and the becoming is for the sake of the end; and the actuality is the end, and it is for the sake of this that the potentiality is acquired. For animals do not see in order that they may have sight, but they have sight that they may see."[33] In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a final cause or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, "what is it that makes a man one"? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same thing.[34] Universals and particulars Aristotle's predecessor, Plato, argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property, or a relation to other things. When we look at an apple, for example, we see an apple, and we can also analyze a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, we can place an apple next to a book, so that we can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a proper universal form. Bertrand Russell is a 20th-century philosopher who agreed with Plato on the existence of "uninstantiated universals". Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated. Aristotle argued that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. According to Aristotle, if a universal exists, either as a particular or a relation, then there must have been, must be currently, or must be in the future, something on which the universal can be predicated. Consequently, according to Aristotle, if it is not the case that some universal can be predicated to an object that exists at some period of time, then it does not exist. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. As Plato spoke of the world of the forms, a location where all universal forms subsist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms.

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Biology and medicine In Aristotelian science, especially in biology, things he saw himself have stood the test of time better than his retelling of the reports of others, which contain error and superstition. He dissected animals but not humans; his ideas on how the human body works have been almost entirely superseded. Empirical research program Aristotle is the earliest natural historian whose work has survived in some detail. Aristotle certainly did research on the natural history of Lesbos, and the surrounding seas and neighbouring areas. The works that reflect this research, such as History of Animals, Generation of Animals, and Parts of Animals, contain some observations and interpretations, along with sundry myths and mistakes. The most striking passages are about the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and available from the catches of fishermen. His observations on catfish, electric fish (Torpedo) and angler-fish are detailed, as is his writing on cephalopods, namely, Octopus, Sepia (cuttlefish) and the paper nautilus (Argonauta argo). His description of the hectocotyl arm, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until its rediscovery in the 19th century. He separated the aquatic mammals from fish, and knew that sharks and rays were part of the group he called Selachē (selachians).[35]

Octopus swimming

Another good example of his methods comes from the Generation of Animals in which Aristotle describes breaking open fertilized chicken eggs at intervals to observe when visible organs were generated. He gave accurate descriptions of ruminants' four-chambered fore-stomachs, and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark Mustelus mustelus.[36]

Torpedo fuscomaculata

Classification of living things Aristotle's classification of living things contains some elements which still existed in the 19th century. What the modern zoologist would call vertebrates and invertebrates, Aristotle called 'animals with blood' and 'animals without blood' (he did not know that complex invertebrates do Leopard shark make use of hemoglobin, but of a different kind from vertebrates). Animals with blood were divided into live-bearing (humans and mammals), and egg-bearing (birds and fish). Invertebrates ('animals without blood') are insects, crustacea (divided into non-shelled – cephalopods – and shelled) and testacea (molluscs). In some respects, this incomplete classification is better than that of Linnaeus, who crowded the invertebrata together into two groups, Insecta and Vermes (worms). For Charles Singer, "Nothing is more remarkable than [Aristotle's] efforts to [exhibit] the relationships of living things as a scala naturae" Aristotle's History of Animals classified organisms in relation to a hierarchical "Ladder of Life" (scala naturae or Great Chain of Being), placing them according to complexity of structure and function so that higher organisms showed greater vitality and ability to move.[37] Aristotle believed that intellectual purposes, i.e., final causes, guided all natural processes. Such a teleological view gave Aristotle cause to justify his observed data as an expression of formal design. Noting that "no animal has, at the

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same time, both tusks and horns," and "a single-hooved animal with two horns I have never seen," Aristotle suggested that Nature, giving no animal both horns and tusks, was staving off vanity, and giving creatures faculties only to such a degree as they are necessary. Noting that ruminants had multiple stomachs and weak teeth, he supposed the first was to compensate for the latter, with Nature trying to preserve a type of balance.[38] In a similar fashion, Aristotle believed that creatures were arranged in a graded scale of perfection rising from plants on up to man, the scala naturae.[39] His system had eleven grades, arranged according "to the degree to which they are infected with potentiality", expressed in their form at birth. The highest animals laid warm and wet creatures alive, the lowest bore theirs cold, dry, and in thick eggs. Aristotle also held that the level of a creature's perfection was reflected in its form, but not preordained by that form. Ideas like this, and his ideas about souls, are not regarded as science at all in modern times. He placed emphasis on the type(s) of soul an organism possessed, asserting that plants possess a vegetative soul, responsible for reproduction and growth, animals a vegetative and a sensitive soul, responsible for mobility and sensation, and humans a vegetative, a sensitive, and a rational soul, capable of thought and reflection.[40] Aristotle, in contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain.[41] Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally went against previous philosophers, with the exception of Alcmaeon.[42] Successor: Theophrastus Aristotle's successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany—the History of Plants—which survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to botany, even into the Middle Ages. Many of Theophrastus' names survive into modern times, such as carpos for fruit, and pericarpion for seed vessel. Rather than focus on formal causes, as Aristotle did, Theophrastus suggested a mechanistic scheme, drawing analogies between natural and artificial processes, and relying on Aristotle's concept of the efficient cause. Theophrastus also recognized the role of sex in the reproduction of some higher plants, though this last discovery was lost in later ages.[43] Influence on Hellenistic medicine After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly.[44] It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found. The first medical teacher at Alexandria, Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between

The frontispiece to a 1644 version of the expanded and illustrated edition of Historia Plantarum (ca. 1200), which was originally written around 200 BC.

veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not.[45] Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of

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Christianity, natural theology) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. Ernst Mayr claimed that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance."[46] Aristotle's ideas of natural history and medicine survived, but they were generally taken unquestioningly.[47]

Psychology Aristotle's psychology, given in his treatise On the Soul (peri psyche, often known by its Latin title De Anima), posits three kinds of soul ("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. This kind of soul is capable of the same powers as the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and compare them. For Aristotle, the soul (psyche) was a simpler concept than it is for us today. By soul he simply meant the form of a living being. Since all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement).[48]

Practical philosophy Ethics Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the Nicomachean Ethics. Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (ergon) of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the psuchē (normally translated as soul) in accordance with reason (logos). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, eudaimonia, generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (ēthikē aretē), often translated as moral (or ethical) virtue (or excellence).[49] Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (phronesis) and their intellect (nous) can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher.[50] Politics Like Aristotle, conservatives generally accept the world as it is; they distrust the politics of abstract reason – that is, reason divorced from experience. — Benjamin Wiker In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled Politics. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part".[51] He also famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal". Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.

Aristotle The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (polis) which functions as a political "community" or "partnership" (koinōnia). The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together." This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with social contract theory, according to which individuals leave the state of nature because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences."[52] Rhetoric and poetics Aristotle considered epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry and music to be imitative, each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner.[53] For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.[54] Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankind's advantages over animals.[55] While it is believed that Aristotle's Poetics comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry.[56] The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes Poetics with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic.[57] Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the fables of Aesop.[58]

Views on women Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element. On this ground, feminists have accused Aristotle of misogyny and sexism. However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his Rhetoric that a society cannot be happy unless women are happy too.

Loss and preservation of his works Modern scholarship reveals that Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterization[59] from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with an intent for subsequent publication, the surviving works do not appear to have been so. Rather the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes unintended for publication. The authenticity of a portion of the surviving works as originally Aristotelian is also today held suspect, with some books duplicating or summarizing each other, the authorship of one book questioned and another book considered to be unlikely Aristotle's at all. Some of the individual works within the corpus, including the Constitution of Athens, are regarded by most scholars as products of Aristotle's "school," perhaps compiled under his direction or supervision. Others, such as On Colors, may have been produced by Aristotle's successors at the Lyceum, e.g., Theophrastus and Straton. Still others acquired Aristotle's name through similarities in doctrine or content, such as the De Plantis, possibly by Nicolaus of Damascus. Other works in the corpus include medieval palmistries and astrological and magical texts whose

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Aristotle connections to Aristotle are purely fanciful and self-promotional.[60] According to a distinction that originates with Aristotle himself, his writings are divisible into two groups: the "exoteric" and the "esoteric".[61] Most scholars have understood this as a distinction between works Aristotle intended for the public (exoteric), and the more technical works intended for use within the school (esoteric). Modern scholars commonly assume these latter to be Aristotle's own (unpolished) lecture notes (or in some cases possible notes by his students).[62] However, one classic scholar offers an alternative interpretation. The 5th century neoplatonist Ammonius Hermiae writes that Aristotle's writing style is deliberately obscurantist so that "good people may for that reason stretch their mind even more, whereas empty minds that are lost through carelessness will be put to flight by the obscurity when they encounter sentences like these."[63] Another common assumption is that none of the exoteric works is extant – that all of Aristotle's extant writings are of the esoteric kind. Current knowledge of what exactly the exoteric writings were like is scant and dubious, though many of them may have been in dialogue form. (Fragments of some of Aristotle's dialogues have survived.) Perhaps it is to these that Cicero refers when he characterized Aristotle's writing style as "a river of gold"; it is hard for many modern readers to accept that one could seriously so admire the style of those works currently available to us. However, some modern scholars have warned that we cannot know for certain that Cicero's praise was reserved specifically for the exoteric works; a few modern scholars have actually admired the concise writing style found in Aristotle's extant works.[64] One major question in the history of Aristotle's works, then, is how were the exoteric writings all lost, and how did the ones we now possess come to us?[65] The story of the original manuscripts of the esoteric treatises is described by Strabo in his Geography and Plutarch in his Parallel Lives.[66] The manuscripts were left from Aristotle to his successor Theophrastus, who in turn willed them to Neleus of Scepsis. Neleus supposedly took the writings from Athens to Scepsis, where his heirs let them languish in a cellar until the 1st century BC, when Apellicon of Teos discovered and purchased the manuscripts, bringing them back to Athens. According to the story, Apellicon tried to repair some of the damage that was done during the manuscripts' stay in the basement, introducing a number of errors into the text. When Lucius Cornelius Sulla occupied Athens in 86 BC, he carried off the library of Apellicon to Rome, where they were first published in 60 BC by the grammarian Tyrannion of Amisus and then by the philosopher Andronicus of Rhodes.[67][68] Carnes Lord attributes the popular belief in this story to the fact that it provides "the most plausible explanation for the rapid eclipse of the Peripatetic school after the middle of the third century, and for the absence of widespread knowledge of the specialized treatises of Aristotle throughout the Hellenistic period, as well as for the sudden reappearance of a flourishing Aristotelianism during the first century B.C." Lord voices a number of reservations concerning this story, however. First, the condition of the texts is far too good for them to have suffered considerable damage followed by Apellicon's inexpert attempt at repair. Second, there is "incontrovertible evidence," Lord says, that the treatises were in circulation during the time in which Strabo and Plutarch suggest they were confined within the cellar in Scepsis. Third, the definitive edition of Aristotle's texts seems to have been made in Athens some fifty years before Andronicus supposedly compiled his. And fourth, ancient library catalogues predating Andronicus' intervention list an Aristotelian corpus quite similar to the one we currently possess. Lord sees a number of post-Aristotelian interpolations in the Politics, for example, but is generally confident that the work has come down to us relatively intact. On the one hand, the surviving texts of Aristotle do not derive from finished literary texts, but rather from working drafts used within Aristotle's school, as opposed, on the other hand, to the dialogues and other "exoteric" texts which Aristotle published more widely during his lifetime. The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today.[69]

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Legacy More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived. He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher Bryan Magee, "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did". Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of formal logic,[70] pioneered the study of zoology, and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method. Despite these achievements, the influence of Aristotle's errors is considered by some to have held back science considerably. Bertrand Russell notes that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to Aristotle with a bust of Homer, by Rembrandt. begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell also refers to Aristotle's ethics as "repulsive", and calls his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell notes that these errors make it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembers how large of an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.

Later Greek philosophers The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school. Aristotle's notable students included Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Meno, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"[71]

Influence on Byzantine scholars Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were John Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and Stephen of Alexandria in the early seventh century.[72] John Philoponus stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought.[73] After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and Michael of Ephesus reappears in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by Anna Comnena.[74]

Influence on Islamic theologians Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early Islamic theology. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle,[75] as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists and scholars. Averroes, Avicenna and Alpharabius, who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced Thomas Aquinas and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. Alkindus considered Aristotle as the outstanding and unique representative of philosophy[76] and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the "exemplar" for all future philosophers.[77] Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First

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Teacher".[78] The title "teacher" was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of Dante) who were influenced by the tradition of Islamic philosophy. In accordance with the Greek theorists, the Muslims considered Aristotle to be a dogmatic philosopher, the author of a closed system, and believed that Aristotle shared with Plato essential tenets of thought. Some went so far as to credit Aristotle himself with neo-Platonic metaphysical ideas.

Influence on Western Christian theologians With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early medieval Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the Organon made by Boethius. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by Gerard of Cremona, and from the original Greek, such as those by James of Venice and William of Moerbeke. After Thomas Aquinas wrote his theology, working from Moerbeke's translations, the demand for Aristotle's writings grew and the Greek manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the Renaissance. Aristotle is referred to as "The Philosopher" by Scholastic thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas. See Summa Theologica, Part I, Question 3, etc. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. It required a repudiation of some Aristotelian principles for the sciences and the arts to free themselves for the discovery of modern scientific laws and empirical methods. The medieval English poet Chaucer describes his student as being happy by having at his beddes heed Twenty bookes, clad in blak or reed, Of aristotle and his philosophie,[79] The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in the first circles of hell, I saw the Master there of those who know, Amid the philosophic family, By all admired, and by all reverenced; There Plato too I saw, and Socrates, Who stood beside him closer than the rest.[80]

Post-Enlightenment thinkers The German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle.[81] However implausible this is, it is certainly the case that Aristotle's rigid separation of action from production, and his justification of the subservience of slaves and others to the virtue – or arete – of a few justified the ideal of aristocracy. It is Martin Heidegger, not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition. Ayn Rand accredited Aristotle as "the greatest philosopher in history" and cited him as a major influence on her thinking. More recently, Alasdair MacIntyre has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans.[82]

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List of works The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organization of Immanuel Bekker's Royal Prussian Academy edition (Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica, Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works.

Eponym The Aristotle Mountains along the Oscar II Coast of Graham Land, Antarctica, are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and call it "Antarctica".[83]

Notes and references [1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Aristotelianism& action=edit [2] "Aristotle" (http:/ / www. collinsdictionary. com/ dictionary/ english/ aristotle) entry in Collins English Dictionary, HarperCollins Publishers, 1998.

"ARISTOTLE" near the ceiling of the Great Hall in the Library of Congress.

[3] That these undisputed dates (the first half of the Olympiad year 384/383 BCE, and in 322 shortly before the death of Demosthenes) are correct was shown already by August Boeckh (Kleine Schriften VI 195); for further discussion, see Felix Jacoby on FGrHist 244 F 38. Ingemar Düring, Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition, Göteborg, 1957, . [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9]

Barnes 2007, p. 6. Jonathan Barnes, "Life and Work" in The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle (1995), . Anagnostopoulos, G., "Aristotle's Life" in A Companion to Aristotle (Blackwell Publishing, 2009), . Carnes Lord, introduction to The Politics by Aristotle (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984). Cherniss, Harold (1962). Aristotle's Criticism of Plato and the Academy, Russell and Russell, Inc., . Aristoteles: Grundlegung einer Geschichte seiner Entwicklung (1923; English trans. Richard Robinson (1902-1996) as Aristotle: Fundamentals of the History of His Development, 1934). [10] Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy, Simon & Schuster, 1972. [11] Peter Green, Alexander of Macedon, University of California Press Ltd. (Oxford, England) 1991, [12] William George Smith,Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, , (http:/ / www. ancientlibrary. com/ smith-bio/ 2421. html) [13] Peter Green, Alexander of Macedon, University of California Press Ltd. (Oxford, England), 1991, and 459. [14] Vita Marciana 41, cf. Aelian Varia historica 3.36, Ingemar Düring, Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition, Göteborg, 1957, T44a-e. [15] Aristotle's Will (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ifqGuiHo6eQC& pg=PA3862& dq=Antipater+ Aristotle+ will& sig=sQzQVBdRmk-spNdZnyd1MwzAPTc), Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt by Hildegard Temporini, Wolfgang Haase. [16] See Shields, C., "Aristotle's Philosophical Life and Writings" in The Oxford Handbook of Aristotle (Oxford University Press, 2012), . Düring, I., Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition (Göteborg, 1957) is a collection of [an overview of?] ancient biographies of Aristotle. [17] Bloch 2007, p. 61. [18] Bloch 2007, p. 25. [19] Warren 1921, p. 25. [20] Carruthers 2007, p. 19. [21] Warren 1921, p. 296. [22] Warren 1921, p. 259. [23] MICHAEL DEGNAN, 1994. Recent Work in Aristotle's Logic. Philosophical Books 35.2 (April, 1994): 81-89. [24] Corcoran, John (2009). “Aristotle's Demonstrative Logic”. History and Philosophy of Logic, 30: 1–20. [25] Bocheński, 1951. [26] Aristotle, History of Animals, 2.3. [27] Aristotle, Meteorology 1.8, trans. E.W. Webster, rev. J. Barnes. [28] Burent, John. 1928. Platonism, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 61, 103–104. [29] Charles Lyell, Principles of Geology (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=mmIOAAAAQAAJ& ), 1832, p.17

Aristotle [30] Physics 201a10–11, 201a27–29, 201b4–5 [31] Aristotle, Physics 2.6 [32] Aristotle, Metaphysics VIII 1043a 10–30 [33] Aristotle, Metaphysics IX 1050a 5–10 [34] Aristotle, Metaphysics VIII 1045a–b [35] Singer, Charles. A short history of biology. Oxford 1931. [36] Emily Kearns, "Animals, knowledge about," in Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed., 1996, p. 92. [37] Aristotle, of course, is not responsible for the later use made of this idea by clerics. [38] Mason, A History of the Sciences pp 43–44 [39] Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought, pp 201–202; see also: Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being [40] Aristotle, De Anima II 3 [41] Mason, A History of the Sciences pp 45 [42] Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy Vol. 1 pp. 348 [43] Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought, pp 90–91; Mason, A History of the Sciences, p 46 [44] Annas, Classical Greek Philosophy pp 252 [45] Mason, A History of the Sciences pp 56 [46] Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought, pp 90–94; quotation from p 91 [47] Annas, Classical Greek Philosophy, p 252 [48] Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, article "Psychology" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ aristotle-psychology/ ). [49] Nicomachean Ethics Book I. See for example chapter 7 1098a (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0054:bekker page=1098a). [50] Nicomachean Ethics Book VI. [51] Politics 1253a19–24 [52] For a different reading of social and economic processes in the Nicomachean Ethics and Politics see Polanyi, K. (1957) "Aristotle Discovers the Economy" in Primitive, Archaic and Modern Economies: Essays of Karl Polanyi ed. G. Dalton, Boston 1971, 78–115 [53] Aristotle, Poetics I 1447a [54] Aristotle, Poetics III [55] Aristotle, Poetics IV [56] Aristotle, Poetics VI [57] Aristotle, Poetics XXVI [58] Temple, Olivia, and Temple, Robert (translators), The Complete Fables By Aesop (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ZB-rVxPvtPEC& pg=PR3& source=gbs_selected_pages& cad=0_0) Penguin Classics, 1998. ISBN 0-14-044649-4 Cf. Introduction, pp. xi–xii. [59] Terence Irwin and Gail Fine, Cornell University, Aristotle: Introductory Readings. Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. (1996), Introduction, pp. xi–xii. [60] Lynn Thorndike, "Chiromancy in Medieval Latin Manuscripts," Speculum 40 (1965), pp. 674–706; Roger A. Pack, "Pseudo-Arisoteles: Chiromantia," Archives d'histoire doctrinale et littéraire du Moyen Âge 39 (1972), pp. 289–320; Pack, "A Pseudo-Aristotelian Chiromancy," Archives d'histoire doctrinale et littéraire du Moyen Âge 36 (1969), pp. 189–241. [61] Jonathan Barnes, "Life and Work" in The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle (1995), p. 12; Aristotle himself: Nicomachean Ethics 1102a26–27. Aristotle himself never uses the term "esoteric" or "acroamatic". For other passages where Aristotle speaks of exōterikoi logoi, see W. D. Ross, Aristotle's Metaphysics (1953), vol. 2, pp. 408–410. Ross defends an interpretation according to which the phrase, at least in Aristotle's own works, usually refers generally to "discussions not peculiar to the Peripatetic school", rather than to specific works of Aristotle's own. [62] Barnes, "Life and Work", p. 12. [63] p. 15 [64] Barnes, "Roman Aristotle", in Gregory Nagy, Greek Literature, Routledge 2001, vol. 8, p. 174 n. 240. [65] The definitive, English study of these questions is Barnes, "Roman Aristotle". [66] "Sulla." [67] Ancient Rome: from the early Republic to the assassination of Julius Caesar – Page 513, Matthew Dillon, Lynda Garland [68] The Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 22 – Page 131, Grolier Incorporated – Juvenile Nonfiction [69] Anagnostopoulos, G., "Aristotle's Works and Thoughts", A Companion to Aristotle (Blackwell Publishing, 2009), p. 16. See also, Barnes, J., "Life and Work", The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle (Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 10–15. [70] W. K. C. Guthrie (1990). " A history of Greek philosophy: Aristotle : an encounter (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=8EG0yV0cGoEC& pg=PA156& dq& hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false)". Cambridge University Press. p.156. ISBN 0-521-38760-4 [71] Plutarch, Life of Alexander [72] Richard Sorabji, ed. Aristotle Transformed London, 1990, 20, 28, 35–36. [73] Richard Sorabji, ed. Aristotle Transformed (London, 1990) 233–274. [74] Richard Sorabji, ed. Aristotle Transformed (London, 1990) 20–21; 28–29, 393–406; 407–408. [75] Encyclopedia of Islam, Aristutalis [76] Rasa'il I, 103, 17, Abu Rida

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Aristotle [77] Comm. Magnum in Aristotle, De Anima, III, 2, 43 Crawford [78] al-mua'llim al-thani, Aristutalis [79] Geoffrey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales, Prologue, lines 295–295 [80] vidi 'l maestro di color che sanno seder tra filosofica famiglia. Tutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno: quivi vid'ïo Socrate e Platone che 'nnanzi a li altri più presso li stanno; Dante, L'Inferno (Hell), Canto IV. Lines 131–135 [81] Durant, p. 86 [82] Kelvin Knight, Aristotelian Philosophy, Polity Press, 2007, passim. [83] Aristotle Mountains. (https:/ / data. aad. gov. au/ aadc/ gaz/ scar/ display_name. cfm?gaz_id=137410) SCAR Composite Antarctic Gazetteer.

Further reading The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following references are only a small selection. • Ackrill J. L. (1997). Essays on Plato and Aristotle, Oxford University Press, USA. • Ackrill, J. L. (1981). Aristotle the Philosopher. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. • Adler, Mortimer J. (1978). Aristotle for Everybody. New York: Macmillan. A popular exposition for the general reader. • Ammonius (1991). Cohen, S. Marc; Matthews, Gareth B, eds. On Aristotle's Categories. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-2688-X. • Aristotle (1908–1952). The Works of Aristotle Translated into English Under the Editorship of W. D. Ross, 12 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press. These translations are available in several places online; see External links. • Bakalis Nikolaos. (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing ISBN 1-4120-4843-5 • Barnes J. (1995). The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle, Cambridge University Press. • Bocheński, I. M. (1951). Ancient Formal Logic. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company. • Bolotin, David (1998). An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing. Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works. • Burnyeat, M. F. et al. (1979). Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy. • Cantor, Norman F.; Klein, Peter L., eds. (1969). Ancient Thought: Plato and Aristotle. Monuments of Western Thought 1. Waltham, Mass: Blaisdell Publishing Co. • Chappell, V. (1973). Aristotle's Conception of Matter, Journal of Philosophy 70: 679–696. • Code, Alan. (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76. • Ferguson, John (1972). Aristotle. New York: Twayne Publishers. • Frede, Michael. (1987). Essays in Ancient Philosophy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. • Fuller, B.A.G. (1923). Aristotle. History of Greek Philosophy 3. London: Cape. • Gendlin, Eugene T. (2012). Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima, Volume 1: Books I & II; Volume 2: Book III. Spring Valley, New York: The Focusing Institute. Available online in PDF. (http://www.focusing. org/aristotle/) • Gill, Mary Louise. (1989). Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity. Princeton: Princeton University Press. • Guthrie, W. K. C. (1981). A History of Greek Philosophy, Vol. 6. Cambridge University Press. • Halper, Edward C. (2007). One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 1: Books Alpha — Delta, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-21-6. • Halper, Edward C. (2005). One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 2: The Central Books, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-05-6. • Irwin, T. H. (1988). Aristotle's First Principles (http://www.cyjack.com/cognition/Aristotle's first principles. pdf). Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-824290-5. • Jaeger, Werner (1948). Robinson, Richard, ed. Aristotle: Fundamentals of the History of His Development (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.

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• Jori, Alberto. (2003). Aristotele, Milano: Bruno Mondadori Editore (Prize 2003 of the "International Academy of the History of Science") ISBN 88-424-9737-1. • Kiernan, Thomas P., ed. (1962). Aristotle Dictionary. New York: Philosophical Library. • Knight, Kelvin. (2007). Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre, Polity Press. • Lewis, Frank A. (1991). Substance and Predication in Aristotle. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. • Lloyd, G. E. R. (1968). Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of his Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., ISBN 0-521-09456-9. • Lord, Carnes. (1984). Introduction to The Politics, by Aristotle. Chicago: Chicago University Press. • Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. • McKeon, Richard (1973). Introduction to Aristotle (2d ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. • Owen, G. E. L. (1965c). "The Platonism of Aristotle". Proceedings of the British Academy 50: 125–150. [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R. R. K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). Articles on Aristotle Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.] • Pangle, Lorraine Smith (2003). Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Aristotle's conception of the deepest human relationship viewed in the light of the history of philosophic thought on friendship. • Plato (1979). Allen, Harold Joseph; Wilbur, James B, eds. The Worlds of Plato and Aristotle. Buffalo: Prometheus Books. • Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics. Indianapolis: Hackett. • Rose, Lynn E. (1968). Aristotle's Syllogistic. Springfield: Charles C Thomas Publisher. • Ross, Sir David (1995). Aristotle (6th ed.). London: Routledge. A classic overview by one of Aristotle's most prominent English translators, in print since 1923. • Scaltsas, T. (1994). Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. • Strauss, Leo (1964). "On Aristotle's Politics", in The City and Man, Chicago; Rand McNally. • Swanson, Judith (1992). The Public and the Private in Aristotle's Political Philosophy. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. • Taylor, Henry Osborn (1922). "Chapter 3: Aristotle's Biology" (https://web.archive.org/web/ 20060327222953/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0051.html). Greek Biology and Medicine (https:/ /web.archive.org/web/20060211201625/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/index.html). Archived from the original (http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/index.html) on 11 February 2006. • Veatch, Henry B. (1974). Aristotle: A Contemporary Appreciation. Bloomington: Indiana U. Press. For the general reader. • Woods, M. J. (1991b). "Universals and Particular Forms in Aristotle's Metaphysics". Aristotle and the Later Tradition. Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy. Suppl. pp. 41–56.

External links • Aristotle (http://philpapers.org/browse/aristotle) at PhilPapers. • Aristotle (https://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/thinker/2553) at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project. • At the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: • • • •

Aristotle (general article) (http://www.iep.utm.edu/aristotl/) Biology (http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-bio/) Ethics (http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-eth/) Logic (http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-log/)

• Metaphysics (http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-met/) • Motion and its Place in Nature (http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-mot/)

Aristotle

62 • Poetics (http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-poe/) • Politics (http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-pol/)

• From the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Aristotle (general article) (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle) Aristotle in the Renaissance (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotelianism-renaissance/) Biology (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-biology/) Causality (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-causality/) Commentators on Aristotle (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-commentators/) Ethics (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/) Logic (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/) Mathematics (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-mathematics/) Metaphysics (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/) Natural philosophy (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-natphil/) Non-contradiction (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-noncontradiction/) Political theory (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-politics/) Psychology (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-psychology/) Rhetoric (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-rhetoric/)

• General article at The Catholic Encyclopedia (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01713a.htm) • Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Aristotle, translated by Robert Drew Hicks (1925). • Works by Aristotle on Open Library at the Internet Archive. • Timeline of Aristotle's life (http://www.concharto.org/search/eventsearch.htm?_tag=timeline of aristotle& _maptype=0) • Aristotle (http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/Aristotle.html) at PlanetMath. • Works by or about Aristotle (http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n79-4182) in libraries (WorldCat catalog). Collections of works • At the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.html) (primarily in English). • (English) Project Gutenberg (http://www.gutenberg.org/browse/authors/a#a2747). • (English) (Greek) Perseus Project (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/perscoll?.submit=Change& collection=Any&type=text&lang=Any&lookup=Aristotle) at Tufts University. • At the University of Adelaide (http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/) (primarily in English). • (Greek) (French) P. Remacle (http://remacle.org/bloodwolf/philosophes/Aristote/table.htm) • The 11-volume 1837 Bekker edition of Aristotle's Works in Greek ( PDF (http://isnature.org/Files/Aristotle/) · DJVU (http://grid.ceth.rutgers.edu/ancient/greek/aristotle_greek/)) • Bekker's Prussian Academy of Sciences edition of the complete works of Aristotle at Archive.org: • • • • •

vol. 1 (http://www.archive.org/details/aristotelisopera01arisrich) vol. 2 (http://www.archive.org/details/aristotelisopera02arisrich) vol. 3 (http://www.archive.org/details/aristotelisopera03arisrich) vol. 4 (http://www.archive.org/details/aristotelisopera04arisrich) vol. 5 (http://www.archive.org/details/aristotelisopera05arisrich) • (English) Aristotle Collection (http://demonax.info/doku.php?id=classical:aristotle) (translation).

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Article Sources and Contributors Bowen, Chmarkine, Chochopk, Chodorkovskiy, Cholmes75, Chris 73, Chris G, Chris Howard, ChrisO, Christiangamer7, Christofurio, ChristopherWillis, Chronicler, Cimon Avaro, Clandarkfire, Cleared as filed, CloudNine, Clover-bergamot, Clrbear430, Cncmaster, Coasterlover1994, Cobored192, Codetiger, Cognition, Commander Keane, CommonsDelinker, Connection, Connormah, Contaldo80, Conversion script, Corey833, Cosprings, Cowgirl92, Cowlinator, Crazycomputers, Crazynas, Cremepuff222, Crescent66, Cresix, Cursorial, Cwoyte, Cyborg Ninja, Cyfal, D. Webb, DHN, DIEGO RICARDO PEREIRA, DJ Clayworth, DMacks, DRMAR777, DVD R W, DVdm, Da Vynci, Daddy Kindsoul, Dan100, DanMS, Dandrake, Danethol, DanielCD, DanielTom, Danny lost, Dar-Ape, Darivative, DarkLink, Darkbreed, Darry2385, Darth Panda, Dast, DaughterofSun, David.Monniaux, David12345, Davidiad, Dawillia, Dawn Bard, Dbachmann, Dcattell, Dchmelik, Debresser, Deflective, Defyn, DelianDiver, Delief, Delldot, Denisarona, DennisDaniels, Deor, DerHexer, Dessymona, Devbhargava, Dgfdgf, Diderot, DiogenesTCP, Dionysiaca, Discospinster, Djnjwd, Djsasso, Dmaftei, Dobrich, DocWatson42, Dominics Fire, Don Brillante, Donjanssen, Dorftrottel, Doug Coldwell, Dougofborg, Dougweller, Download, Dpol, Dr who1975, Dr.K., Drknow2000, Drunken Pirate, DubaiTerminator, Ducknish, Duke33, Dylan Lake, Dysepsion, EALacey, ELApro, ESkog, EWS23, Eameece, EamonnPKeane, Eastern Emperor, Eddiedog, Edgar181, Editor at work, Edivorce, Edwy, Eequor, Egil, Ejfox, Ekoontz, El C, Elakhna, Elard09, Eldredo, Ell90, Eloquence, Ency456, EntroDipintaGabbia, Epbr123, Er Komandante, Eric9876, Etexzan, Eudaemonia Noob, EurekaLott, Euryalus, Euthydemos, Everyking, Exiledone, Exir Kamalabadi, Ezhiki, FF2010, Farosdaughter, Favonian, FayssalF, Fcoulter, Fdt, FeanorStar7, Feitclub, FelisLeo, Felixfelis, Fghsfghsfghs, Fieldday-sunday, FilipeS, Finngall, FisherQueen, Fitzhugh, Fixer1234, Fleurstigter, Fludds, Fluffernutter, Flyguy649, Flyhighplato, FlyingWookieeofDoom, Flyingricepaddy, Fraggle81, Fram, Francis Schonken, FrancoGG, Frankenfingers, FranksValli, Freakofnurture, Fredmond4, FreeKresge, Freepunk, Frymaster, G Clark, Gaara42, Gaberdine2, Gabrichidze, Gail, Gaius Cornelius, Galactor213, Galoubet, Gareth E Kegg, Garion96, Garzo, Gavelboy, Gemtpm, General Wesc, Gennarous, Georgiamusic, Gheuf, Giftlite, Gilliam, Gimmetrow, Ginsuloft, Girolamo Savonarola, Gjd001, Go for it!, Godot13, GoetheFromm, Goethean, Gogo Dodo, Goldsmitharmy, Gott wisst, Gr8opinionater, Gracenotes, GraemeL, Graham87, Greentriangle86, Gregbard, Grim23, Grover cleveland, Gsimlote, Gtziavelis, Gubby, Guettarda, Gurch, Gwernol, HJ Mitchell, Hadal, Haiduc, Hairchrm, Hall Monitor, Hanshans23, Harryboyles, Harvest day fool, Harvester, Hashhagen, Headbomb, Heah, Heimstern, Hemmingsen, HenryLi, Hephaestos, Heptor, Heron, Hihi786, Himan12345, HistoryOne, Hoovernj, Hu12, Hullaballoo Wolfowitz, Hydrargyrum, Hydrogen Iodide, Hypotyposis, I am One of Many, IW.HG, Iamryan365, Ian13, Iapetus, Ibis3, Icelord1125, IdeArchos, Ideyal, Ig0774, Ihcoyc, Ilyushka88, Imaninjapirate, Immanuel goldstein, ImperatorExercitus, In Defense of the Artist, Inanygivenhole, Infosocialist, Ingolfson, Insanity Incarnate, Interstate295revisited, Intgr, Inwind, Ipsumesse, Irishguy, IronGargoyle, Ironholds, Isokrates, Itafroma, J Di, J. 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Connolley, William Pietri, Wimt, Winchelsea, WinedAndDined, Wingspeed, Wiooiw, Wizardman, Wknight94, Wmahan, Woland37, Wolfietrausch, Wolfling, Wran, X!, X2sherman, XJaM, XX55XX, Xcountry99, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yannismarou, Yintan, Yossiea, Yousou, ZBrannigan, Zap Rowsdower, Zapvet, Zazaban, Zenibus, Zenohockey, Zeusnoos, Ziel, Zoso101, ^demon, Δρακόλακκος, Ιωανης, Александър, Саша Стефановић, ‫ﺯﺭﺷﮏ‬, 2043 anonymous edits Aristotle  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=599357692  Contributors: 0measam, 1297, 1stBrigade, 200.191.188.xxx, 205.188.195.xxx, 24.58.228.xxx, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 3rdAlcove, 777sms, A Softer Answer, ADM, APH, Aarandir, Abdullais4u, AbhijayM., Abu-Fool Danyal ibn Amir al-Makhiri, Abune, Acroterion, Actipolak, Adam Bishop, Adam Conover, Adam Zivner, AdamSmithee, Adambondy, Adamoako221, Adashiel, Addshore, AdjustShift, Aelius28, AerobicFox, Aesopos, Aethralis, Aezram, Aflin, Afluent Rider, Afro Article, Afterwriting, Agentbla, Aghniyya, Ahmedoasis, Ahoerstemeier, Ais523, Aisteco, Aitias, Akamad, Akaszynski, Akhilleus, Ako221, Aksi great, Al Capwned, Al-Andalusi, Al.locke, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alba, Aldux, Alex S, Alex43223, Alexandra lb, Alexandria, AlexiusHoratius, Allen234, Allstarecho, Alpha Ralpha Boulevard, Alphachimp, Alrasheedan, Alsandair, Alsandro, Amatulic, Amaury, Amhboro1, Amicuspublilius, Andkore, Andre Engels, AndreasJS, Andres, Andrew Lancaster, Andrew Norman, Andries, Andy85719, Andyjsmith, Angel Alice, Angela, Animum, Aniras, Anjoe, Ankitsingh83, Anonymous Dissident, Antandrus, Anthony Appleyard, Anthony Mohen, AntonM, Antoni Barau, Anville, Apcbg, Aphaia, Apparition11, Aprock, Arakunem, Arbor to SJ, Arcadian, Arcataroger, AreJay, Argos'Dad, Aristophanes68, Aristotle07, Arjun01, Art LaPella, Artaxiad, Askahrc, Astrochemist, Atethnekos, Athkalani, Atomic theorist, Aubreybardo, AuburnPilot, Auntof6, Aursani, Auréola, Austin pp, Ava2083, Avicennasis, Avillia, Aviron, Awolf002, Awwiki, Az1568, Azamat Abdoullaev, BD2412, BOOLE1847, BVBede, Badgernet, Banno, Bardsandwarriors, Barneca, Baskaransri, Batneil, Bazuz, Bcrowell, Bdallen, Beaker342, Beardo, Beaumont, BehnamFarid, Bejnar, Beland, Ben Ram, Ben Standeven, Ben davison, Ben-T, Ben-Zin, BenKovitz, Bender235, Benhocking, Berek, Berkberk, Bethling, Bfjs123, Bgwhite, Bhvilar, Bibi Saint-Pol, Big m0ma123, BillMoyers, Binabik80, Binilmathew, Bite Jones, BlackAndy, Blackpower, Blehfu, Blueskyboris, Bmistler, BoNoMoJo (old), Bob duffy, BobTheTomato, Bobo192, Bobvila2, Boccobrock, Boffman, Boffob, Boing! said Zebedee, Bolchazy101, Bomas Hawkins, Bonfire of vanities, Bongwarrior, Br77rino, Brad7777, Brandon, Brayan Jaimes, Brian the Editor, Brian0918, Brianga, Briangotts, Briantw, BrokenSegue, Bronx Discount Liquor, Brutannica, Bryan Derksen, Bryan.kromenacker, Bubba hotep, Buridan, Byelf2007, CABlankenship, CCS81, CDThieme, CIS, CIreland, CJLL Wright, CJTweedy, CRGreathouse, CSvBibra, CTZMSC3, Cadre99, Cagnettaican, Calatayudboy, Caltas, Calvin 1998, Camembert, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianCaesar, CanadianLinuxUser, Canley, Cannolis, Cantdj, Captain panda, Careless hx, Carlo.Ierna, CaroleHenson, Casper2k3, Catalographer, Catgut, Causa sui, Cbrown1023, Celarnor, Cevlakohn, Ceyockey, Chairman S., Chaleyer61, Chalst, Chameleon, Charles Matthews, CharlotteWebb, Chicheley, Chickyfuzz123, Chinesearabs, Chiswick Chap, Chochopk, Chris Capoccia, Chris the speller, ChrisGualtieri, Chrisdyer666, Chrislk02, Christian75, Christina Silverman, ChristopherWillis, Chronicler, ChugiBear, CiaPan, Citador, Citizen Premier, Clinkophonist, Closedmouth, Clown in black and yellow, Cobi, Cognition, Cohesion, Colentava, Comrade42, Connor269, Connormah, Conny, Conversion script, Corpx, Corvus cornix, Cow turdy, Cowlinator, Cpiral, Craig Pemberton, Crawfwil, Crazy Boris with a red beard, Crazycomputers, Crazynas, Creektheleftcheeksneak, Cremepuff222, Crust, Cryptographic hash, Crystallina, Cshaw100, Cst17, Cuchullain, Cunado19, Cyberstrike3000X, Cynwolfe, Cyrusc, D prime, D. 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Article Sources and Contributors Eequor, El C, Eldredo, Elephantini4, ElizabethFong, Emeraldcityserendipity, Enochchan107067, Envee11, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Epeefleche, Eric Sellars, Ericamick, Erik.w.davis, ErikHaugen, Erkan Yilmaz, Esperant, Etacar11, Ethan Mitchell, Etz Haim, EugeneZelenko, Eukesh, Eumix, Eupator, EuropracBHIT, Euryalus, Ev, Evb-wiki, EvelinaB, Evercat, Everyking, Evil Monkey, Evolauxia, Excirial, Exlibris, Ezubaric, F Notebook, FF2010, Faded shado, Fadesga, Falcon8765, Fan-1967, Fang Aili, Faradayplank, Farosdaughter, Fconaway, FeanorStar7, FestivalOfSouls, Fieldday-sunday, Finnegar, FisherQueen, FitzColinGerald, Fixer1234, Flame89, Flauto Dolce, Fleiger, Floikas, Floorsheim, Fluence, FocalPoint, Fonzy, Footiemeister, FrancoGG, FrankSanMiguel, Frankieist, FranksValli, Freakofnurture, Fred Bauder, Fredmond4, Fredrik, FreplySpang, Frog23, Frogdoglogpog, FrozenPencil, Func, Funnybunny, Fyyer, G.W., GTBacchus, Gabby204, Gabr-el, Gail, Gaius Cornelius, Galwhaa, 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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors File:Socrates Louvre.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Socrates_Louvre.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Sting, User:Sting File:UWASocrates gobeirne cropped.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:UWASocrates_gobeirne_cropped.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Photograph by Greg O'Beirne. Cropped by User:Tomisti File:SocratesCarnelianGemImprintRome1stBCE1stCE.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SocratesCarnelianGemImprintRome1stBCE1stCE.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike  Contributors: PHGCOM File:Vatsoc.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vatsoc.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Wilson Delgado file:Plato-raphael.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Plato-raphael.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Aavindraa, Bibi Saint-Pol, Chris 73, Infrogmation, Maarten van Vliet, Mattes, Morio, Sailko, Tomisti, 3 anonymous edits File:Socrates.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Socrates.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Magnus Manske at en.wikipedia Later versions were uploaded by Optimager at en.wikipedia. File:Palermsoc.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Palermsoc.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Wilson Delgado File:Socrates by Leonidas Drosis, Athens - Academy of Athens-corte.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Socrates_by_Leonidas_Drosis,_Athens_-_Academy_of_Athens-corte.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Eugenio Hansen, OFS Image:wikisource-logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikisource-logo.svg  License: logo  Contributors: Guillom, INeverCry, Jarekt, Leyo, MichaelMaggs, NielsF, Rei-artur, Rocket000 File:Plato Silanion Musei Capitolini MC1377.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Plato_Silanion_Musei_Capitolini_MC1377.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: User:Jastrow Image:Socrates and Plato.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Socrates_and_Plato.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: FSII, Mattes, Tomisti Image:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Auntof6, Beria, Bibi Saint-Pol, G.dallorto, Jacobolus, Kentin, Mattes, MonteChristof, Sailko, Tomisti, Wutsje, 5 anonymous edits Image:POxy3679 Parts Plato Republic.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:POxy3679_Parts_Plato_Republic.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Image:Plato i sin akademi, av Carl Johan Wahlbom (ur Svenska Familj-Journalen).png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Plato_i_sin_akademi,_av_Carl_Johan_Wahlbom_(ur_Svenska_Familj-Journalen).png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Achird, Bibi Saint-Pol, Den fjättrade ankan, G.dallorto, Haiduc, LA2, Michael801, Soapstone, 2 anonymous edits Image:Plato-raphael.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Plato-raphael.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Aavindraa, Bibi Saint-Pol, Chris 73, Infrogmation, Maarten van Vliet, Mattes, Morio, Sailko, Tomisti, 3 anonymous edits Image:Anselm Feuerbach - Das Gastmahl. Nach Platon (zweite Fassung) - Google Art Project.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anselm_Feuerbach_-_Das_Gastmahl._Nach_Platon_(zweite_Fassung)_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: A. Wagner, Bukk, CommonsDelinker, Dcoetzee, DenghiùComm, Léna, Mattes, Ophelia2, Sitacuisses File:Herma of Plato - 0042MC.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Herma_of_Plato_-_0042MC.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Ricardo André Frantz (User:Tetraktys) File:Clarke Plato page 1 recto.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Clarke_Plato_page_1_recto.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Plato (Life time: Died circa 347 BC.) File:Wikisource-logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikisource-logo.svg  License: logo  Contributors: Guillom, INeverCry, Jarekt, Leyo, MichaelMaggs, NielsF, Rei-artur, Rocket000 File:Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Jastrow File:Aristoteles Louvre.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Sting, User:Sting File:Socrates blue version2.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Socrates_blue_version2.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Lobo, Lordwhizkid, Mac, Pasicles, VIGNERON, 1 anonymous edits File:Arabic aristotle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Arabic_aristotle.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Seyyed Hossein Nasr File:Aristotle in Nuremberg Chronicle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aristotle_in_Nuremberg_Chronicle.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Liondancer, Singinglemon, Tomisti File:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Auntof6, Beria, Bibi Saint-Pol, G.dallorto, Jacobolus, Kentin, Mattes, MonteChristof, Sailko, Tomisti, Wutsje, 5 anonymous edits File:Francesco Hayez 001.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Francesco_Hayez_001.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bukk, Emijrp, G.dallorto, Kimse, Mattes, Shakko, Tomisti, Trockennasenaffe File:Uni Freiburg - Philosophen 4.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Uni_Freiburg_-_Philosophen_4.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: sculptures:Photo: Michael Schmalenstroer File:Octopus3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Octopus3.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: albert kok File:Torpedo fuscomaculata2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Torpedo_fuscomaculata2.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Factumquintus, Haplochromis, 1 anonymous edits File:Triakis semifasciata.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Triakis_semifasciata.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Gdr, Haplochromis, Liné1, 1 anonymous edits File:161Theophrastus 161 frontespizio.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:161Theophrastus_161_frontespizio.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Henricus Laurentius (editor) File:Aristotle with a Bust of Homer.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aristotle_with_a_Bust_of_Homer.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ecummenic, Materialscientist, Rd232, Sridhar1000 File:Aristotle - Jefferson Building - Library of Congress.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aristotle_-_Jefferson_Building_-_Library_of_Congress.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Djembayz

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License Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 //creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/

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