Planifiaction Et Installation de Chantier

 

 

^QGCLCLB, MLBCLMMQCLB, NMVMD@UCLB  ’  ’  I`lsudtclb  

***

Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  Kãtj`nms nm pdglcfcigtc`l nms trgvgux nm i`lstruitc`l  Udgl n–clstgddgtc`l nm ijgltcmr nm aátckmlt  Gutmur ?  GJKMN GJKMN H@]^@]Y   Clbãlcmur n–Mtgt ml Bãlcm Icvcd 

*** N@KGCLM NM F@QKG^C@L Bãlcm Icvcd 

UQ@FCD VCYM ^mijlcicml Ypãicgdcsã

 

© 1572

 

 

 Gvmrtcssmkmlt

***

Im n`iukmlt mst rãgdcsã pgr d–gutmur kmltc`llã ngls dg pgbm nm brgnm p`ur sms ãtuncglts mt stgbcgcrms. ^`utm utcdcsgtc`l sgls gut`rcsgtc`l prãgdgadm mst strcitmkmlt cltmrnctm. Dms utcdcsgtmurs nu prãsmlt n`iukmlt pmuvmlt l`us i`kkulcqumr t`utms rmkgrqums mt subbmstc`ls p`uvglt mlrcijcr mt gkãdc`rmr s`l i`ltmlu. Im n`iukmlt pmut i`ltmlcr nm pmtctms mrrmurs nums gux icri`lstglims nm s`l ãdga`rgtc`l. Ugr i`lsãqumlt, dms f`rkgtmurs quc d–utcdcsmr`ls s`lt clvctãs å rmitcfcmr ims mrrmurs gvglt `u nm dms scblgdmr gux ãtuncglts-stg ãtuncglts-stgbcgcrms bcgcrms.. Ugr gcddmurs, l`us scblgd`ls qu–ulm kcsm-å-o`ur pãrc`ncqum nm im n`iukmlt mst s`ujgctgadm p`ur prmlnrm ml i`lscnãrgtc`l dms l`uvmgutãs nu n`kgclm nu bãlcm icvcd.

7

 

 

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

Y`kkgcrm *** Cltr`nuitc`l

>

Bãlãrgdctãs

=

7.

Cltãrït nm dg pdglcfcigtc`l

=

1.

Nãr`udmkmlt bãlãrgd n–ul pr`omt nm i`lstruitc`l

=

9.

Ujgsms nm prãpgrgtc`l n–ul ijgltcmr

:

>.

^ypms nm pdgllclb

3

=.

Mdga`rgtc`l n–ul pdgllclb

75

Udglcfcigtc`l `pãrgtc`llmddm

77

7.

L`tc`l nm táijm

77

1.

I`ltrgcltms

77

9.

Udglcfcigtc`l `pãrgtc`llmddm

77

Udglcfcigtc`l nms trgvgux nm i`lstruitc`l

76

7.

@aomitcf

76

1.

Udgllclbs bãlãrgux

76

9.

Udgllclbs pgrtciudcmrs

15

>.

Mxmricim

16

Dms cltmrvmlglts ngls dms ijgltcmrs

12

7.

Dm kgìtrm n–`uvrgbm

12

1.

Dm kgìtrm n–řuvrm

12

9.

Dm aurmgu n–ãtunm tmijlcqum

1:

>.

Dm aurmgu nm i`ltrþdm

1:

=.

D–mltrmprmlmur

1:

6. Kcssc`ls nu i`lnuitmur nm trgvgux Mtunm nms ams`cls ml rmss`urims

97 99

7.

Ij`cx nu k`nm i`lstruitcf

99

1.

Ams`cls ml kgcl-n–řuvrm

9>

9.

Ams`cls ml kgtãrcgux

92

>.

Ams`cls ml kgtãrcmds

>5

=.

Qãsmgux nm ijgltcmr

>9

6.

Dg idþturm nu ijgltcmr

>>

Udgl n–clstgddgtc`l n–ul ijgltcmr

>6

7.

Nãkgrijm bãlãrgdm

>6

1.

Glgdysm nms i`ltrgcltms nm sctm

>6

9.

Mdga`rgtc`l nm pdgl n–clstgddgtc`l

>6

1

 

  Udglcfcigtc`l nm pcqumtgbm

>:

7.

Nmsircptc`l bãlãrgdm

>:

1.

Ijgcsms n–gdcblmkmlt

=5

^rgvgux ncrcbãs

=7

Qãfãrmlims

65 

9

 

 

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

Cltr`nuitc`l *** Ijgqum pr`omt nm i`lstruitc`l pgssm pgr ulm pjgsm n–ãtunm mt ulm pjgsm n–mxãiutc`l. Dg pjgsm n–ãtunm pmrkmt nm f`urlcr dms n`iukmlts lãimssgcrms p`ur kmlmr å acml d–mxãiutc`l nms trgvgux. D–mltrmprcsm nm i`lstruitc`l n`ct rmspmitmr dms mxcbmlims nu kgìtrm n–`uvrgbm mt rãgdcsmr dms prmsircptc`ls n`lt mddm g prcs ijgrbm ngls dms kmcddmurs nãdgcs. Imic lm pmut pgs sm fgcrm sgls ulm pdglcfcigtc`l ãdga`rãm gu prãgdgadm. Gvglt dm nãkgrrgbm nms trgvgux, d–mltrmprcsm n`ct prãpgrmr mt pr`iãnmr å d–clstgddgtc`l nu ijgltcmr. Ngls im k`nudm, d–`aomitcf d–`aomitcf mst nm i`llgìtrm dms rêbdms n–clstgddgtc`l n–clstgddgtc`l mt nm dms gppdcqumr gppdcqumr sur ul pr`omt nm i`lstruitc`l rãmd ml ãdga`rglt ul pdgl n–clstgddgtc`l nm ijgltcmr. Ngls im n`iukmlt, d–`aomitcf mst nm i`llgìtrm dms kãtj`nms nm pdglcfcigtc`l dms pdus prgtcqu prgtcquãms, ãms, nm dcrm, cltmrprãtmr mt mxpd`ctmr ul pdgllclb.

JKMN H@]^@]Y   G JKMN

 G BGNCQ, BGNCQ, Ymptmkarm Ymptmkarm 1576  1576 

>

 

 

Bãlãrgdctãs ]l pr`omt nm i`lstruitc`l n`ct, ml bãlãrgd, ïtrm rãgdcsã ngls ul nãdgc fcxã pgr dm kgìtrm n–`uvrgbm ml gii`rn gvmi dm kgìtrm n–řuvrm. Im nãdgc mst clncquã ngls dm igjcmr nms idgusms gnkclcstrgtcvms gnkclcstrgtcv ms pgrtciudcêrms ((IIGU). IIGU). @l rgppmddm qum dg fgâ`l nm ngls nãi`kptmr dms nãdgcs, pgrim qu–mddm pmut ïtrm d–`iigsc`l nm dctcbms, g ãtã ãbgdmkmlt nãfclcm i`ltrgitumddmkmlt ?     Dm igjcmr nms idgusms gnkclcstrgtcvms bãlãrgdms gppdcigadms gux trgvgux nm

aátckmlt fgcsglt d–`aomt nm kgrijãs prcvãs 8

    Dm igjcmr nms idgusms gnkclcstrgtcvm gnkclcstrgtcvmss bãlãrgdms nu i`nm nms kgrijãs puadcis.

Im nãdgc mst i`ltrgitumd, t`ut rmtgrn p`uvglt mltrgìlmr nms pãlgdctãs fclglicêrms. Impmlnglt, sc dm ijgltcmr mst tmrkclã ml gvglim nms prckms s`lt vmrsãms pgr dm kgìtrm n–`uvrgbm å d–mltrmprcsm. Dm nãdgc (ml k`cs `u ml smkgclms) fgct d–`aomt n–ul grtcidm nm d–gitm n–mlbgbmkmlt `u nu igjcmr nms idgusms gnkclcstrgtcv gnkclcstrgtcvms ms pgrtciudcêrms. @r, d–mxãiutc`l n–ul pr`omt nm i`lstruitc`l mxcbm ul brgln l`karm nm trgvgux nm lgturms três vgrcãms, fgcsglt cltmrvmlcr ul brgln l`karm nm pgrtcicpglts. Ml pdus, dms táijms nms uls mt nms gutrms s`lt dm pdus s`uvmlt dcãms dcãms,, v`cr i`lnctc`llãms dms ulms pgr dms gutrms. Cd mst n`li ckpãrgtcvmkmlt lãimssgcrm n–`rn`llmr dms gitc`ls nm ijgiul mt nm kgtãrcgdcsmr ngls ul dglbgbm gppr`prcã dms nãicsc`ls prcsms mt dms i`lsãqumlims quc ml nãi`udmlt. Dm dglbgbm ij`csc mst dm « dglbgbm brgpjcqum  ¸ mt dms n`iukmlts kcs gu p`clt s`lt dms « pdgllclbs  ¸.  ¸. 7. 

Cltãrït nm dg pdglcfcigtc`l

Gvglt dm dglimkmlt nms trgvgux, dm pdgllclb i`lstctum ul `utcd nm sckudgtc`l, ngls dg kmsurm `ó cd pmrkmt n–ãtgadcr ulm prãvcsc`l mt nm sckudmr dm nãr`udmkmlt nms trgvgux gfcl nm vãrcfcmr dm rmspmit nms nãdgcs, nms ignmlims n–mxãiutc`l, nms ijgrbms nm kgcl n–řuvrm, nm kgtãrcgux mt nm kgtãrcmd. Umlnglt dm nãr`udmkmlt nms trgvgux, cd s–gbct pd Umlnglt pdutþt utþt n–ul `utcd nm i``rnclgtc`l pucsqu–cd pmrkmt gux ncffãrmlts rmsp`lsgadms mt mxãiutglts n–cltmrvmlcr p`ur prmlnrm dms nãicsc`ls sur dm dglimkmlt nms táijms mt d–mkpd`c nms rmss`urims jukgclms mt kgtãrcmddms. Ml br`s, `l pmut rãsukmr d–utcdctã nms pdgllclbs ngls dms p`clts sucvglts ?     Urãv`cr ? Mtgadcr ul pr`brgkkm 8     @rbglcsmr ? Kmttrm ml pdgim dms k`ymls p`ur rãgdcsmr dms trgvgux 8     I`kkglnmr ? Nãidmlijmr d–mxãiutc`l nms pjgsms nm trgvgux mt ãvgdumr dms mlijgìlmkmlts 8     I``rn`llmr ? Qmdcmr mltrm dms pjgsms nm rãgdcsgtc`l 8     I`ltrþdmr ? vãrcfcmr mt ãtgadc ãtgadcrr dms acdgls nm kgcls n–řuvrm, nm kgtãrcgux, mti. 1. 

Nãr`udmkmlt Nãr`udmkm lt bãlãrgd n–ul pr`omt nm i`lstruitc`l

]lm `pãrgtc`l nm i`lstruitc`l i`lscstm å trgnucrm ml rãgdctã dms s`ujgcts mt dms ams`cls mxprckãs pgr nms idcmlts `u pgr nms futurs `iiupglts, ml tmlglt i`kptm nm pduscmurs i`ltrgcltms tmijlcqums,, ãi`l`kcqums mt rêbdmkmltgcrms tmijlcqums rêbdmkmltgcrms.. =

 

 

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

D–`rbglcbrgkkm sucvglt cddustrm dms ãtgpms nm nãr`udmkmlt n–ulm `pãrgtc`l nm i`lstruitc`l ?

7

Fcburm  ? Nãr`udmkmlt bãlãrgd n'ulm `pãrgtc`l nm i`lstruitc`l

6

 

 

Ugr rgpp`rt gu kgìtrm n–`uvrgbm ’ puadci `u prcvã ’ `l pmut br`upmr t`utms ims ãtgpms, ml qumdqums pjgsms ncstclitms. N–`ó dm sijãkg sucvglt ?

Fcburm 1 ? Ujgsms nm nãr`udmkmlt bãlãrgd n'ulm gffgcrm

2

 

  9. 

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

Ujgsms nm prãpgrgtc`l n–ul ijgltcmr

@l rãsukm dms pjgsms nm prãpgrgtc`l n–ul ijgltcmr ngls tgadmgu sucvglt ?

Fcburm 9 ? Ujgsms nm prãpgrgtc`l n–ul ijgltcmr :

 

 

Dg prãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr cltmrvcmlt, gprês gttrcautc` gttrcautc`ll nu k kgrijã, grijã, nmux `u tr`cs k`cs gvglt dm i`kkmlimkmlt nms trgvgux. Dg prãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr g p`ur `aomitcfs nm ?     Kmttrm ml ãvcnmlim t`us dms pr`adêkms ãvmltumds nm rãgdcsgtc`l mt nm y tr`uvmr nms s`dutc`ls `ptckgdms 8     Dckctmr dms tmkps ckpr`nuitcfs `u dms tmkps k`rts, gfcl n–`atmlcr ul i`øt nm rmvcmlt kclckgd 8     Dcvrmr gu ijgltcmr dm kgtãrcmd strcitmkmlt lãimss lãimssgcrm gcrm mt oustm å tmkps, mti. U`ur prãpgrmr ul ijgltcmr, ijgltcmr, `l pmut sucvrm dms ãtgpms sucvgltms ?     Qmimlsm Qmimlsmrr dms pr`adêkms å s`dutc`llmr 8     Cnmltcfcmr t`utms dms i`ltrgcltms i`llums `u supp`sãs, susimptcadms n–clfdumlimr dm f`litc`llmkmltt nu ijgltcmr 8 f`litc`llmkml     @rn`llmr imddms-ic nm pdus ckp`rtgltms gu pdus kclckms 8     Qmijmrijmr pgr gppr`ijms suiimsscvms dms s`dutc`ls prmlglt ml i`kptm dms mxcbmlims nu n`sscmr kgrijã, dms p`sscacdctãs nm d–mltrmprcsm ml nãa`uijglt sur dm i`øt nm rmvcmlt dm pdus ags, ngls dms kmcddmurs nãdgcs, gvmi dg kmcddmurm qugdctã nm rãgdcsgtc`l 8     Qmdmvmr dms ãigrts nurglt d–mxãiutc`l nu ijgltcmr mltrm dm nãr`udmkmlt prãvcsc`llmd mt dm nãr`udmkmlt rãmd nms trgvgux t rgvgux 8     Mtgadcr ul acdgl bãlãrgd quc smrvcrg n–jyp`tjêsm n–ãtunm p`ur dms ijgltcmrs udtãrcmurs,, mti. udtãrcmurs Urgtcqumkmlt, dg prãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr n`ct pmrkmttrm nm ?     I`lstrucrm ul pdgllclb typm Bgltt å pgrtcr nm dg kãtj`nm nms p`tmltcmds 8     Ij`cscr dm kgtãrcmd dm kcmux gngptã gu pr`adêkm p`sã 8     Mtgadcr ul pdgllclb nm r`tgtc`l nms kgtãrcmds nm i`ffrgbm mt nm sãiurctã 8     Nãfclcr dms igrgitãrcstcqums nms kgtãrcmds nm ? dmvgbm, aãt`llgbm, trglsp`rt lãimssgcrms gu ijgltcmr 8     Nãtmrkclmr dms ams`cls ml kgcl-n–řuvrm pgr `uvrgbm 8     Qãgdcsmr ul pdgllclb nm kgcl-n–řuvrm ncrmitm mt clncrmitm 8     Nãtmrkclmr dms qugltctãs nm kgtãrcgux mt nm kgtãrcmds pgr `uvrgbm 8     Mdga`rmr dm pdgllclb nm dcvrgcs`l mt n–utcdcsgtc`l nms kgtãrcgux mt nms kgtãrcmds 8     Mdga`rmr ul pdgllclb o`urlgdcmr nms táijms gii`kpdcms, mti. >. 

^ypms nm pdgllclb

@l ncstclbum nmux typms nm pdgllclb ? dms pdgllclbs bãlãrgux mt dms pdgllclbs pgrtciudcmrs. Ml im quc i`limrlm dms pdgllclbs bãlãrgux, nmux kãtj`nms s`lt utcdcsãms p`ur dmur ãdga`rgtc`l. Dms kãtj`nms dclãgcrms mt dms kãtj`nms nms rãsmgux. Wuglt gux pdgllclbs pgrtciudcmrs cds s`lt ãtgadcs p`ur dg bmstc`l nm dg pr`nuitc`l mt nm dg kgcl n–řuvrm, mt p`ur dg bmstc`l fclglicêrm. >.7. 

Udgllclbs bãlãrgux

Ugrkc dms pdgllclbs dclãgcrms, dclãgcrms, `l ictm dms mxmkpdms sucvglts ?     Dm   pdgllclb pdgllclb å agrrms (ncgbrgkkm nm Bgltt) ? i–mst dm pdgllclb dm pdus utcdcsã nu fgct qu–cd sckpdm å dcrm 8     Dm pdgllclb Ijmkcl nm Fmr  ? utcdcsã p`ur dg prmkcêrm f`cs pgr YLIF (s`icãtã lgtc`lgdm nms ijmkcls nm fmr, Frglim) p`ur rmprãsmltmr dg kgrijm nms trgcls.     Dm pdgllclb k`uvmkmlt nms tmrrms  ? utcdcsã p`ur dm dmss trgvgux å iyidm rrãpãtctcfs, ãpãtctcfs, l`tgkkmlt dms trgvgux nm tmrrgssmkmlt. 3

 

 

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

Wuglt gux pdgllclbs s`us f`rkms nm rãsmgux, `l ncstclbum ?     Dm brgpjm (`u rãsmgu) UMQ^ (Ur`brgk Mvgdugtc`l gln Qmvcmw ^mijlcqum) 8     Dm brgpjm (`u rãsmgu) p`tmltcmds-táijms, nãrcvã nu rãsmgu UMQ^ 8     Dm brgpjm nms táijms i`kp`sãms, utcdcsã p`ur dms trgvgux å iyidms rãpãtctcf. >.1. 

Udgllclbs pgrtciudcmrs

Ngls dm ignrm nm dg bmstc`l nm dg pr`nuitc`l, `l tr`uvm ? (prãfgarcigtc`l, tc`l, p`sm, st`ih) 8     Dms i`urams nm pr`nuitc`l (prãfgarcig     Dms pdgllclbs n–gppr`vcsc`llmkmlt nms kgtãrcmds mt nms kgtãrcgux 8     Dms pdgllclbs nm r`tgtc`l nms kgtãrcmds. U`ur dg bmstc`l nm dg kgcl n–řuvrm, l`us gv`ls ?     Dms i`urams nms mffmitcfs 8     Dms i`urams nms jmurms iukudãms 8     Dm pdgllclb nm dg kgcl n–řuvrm. I`limrlglt dg bmstc`l fclglicêrm, `l g ?     Dm pdgllclb n–gi`kptm 8     Dms i`urams fclglicêrms (nãpmlsms mt rmimttms). =. 

Mdga`rgtc`l Mdga`rg tc`l n–ul pdgllclb

Dms pdgllclbs nm trgvgux pmuvmlt ïtrm ãdga`rãs ml sucvglt dms pjgsms sucvgltms ? =.7. 

Dm rmiumcd nm n`llãms

Cd s–gbct nm i`lsudtmr ul mlsmkadm nm n`iukmlts (pdgls, nmvcs nmsircptcf, mti.) p`ur nãtmrkclmr dms nãdgcs, dms cltmkpãrcms, dms i`ltrgcltms n–`rn`llglimkmlt, dms k`ymls kcs ml řuvrm pgr dms mxãiutglts mt dms tmkps ulctgcrms n–mxãiutc`l. =.1. 

D–glgdysm tmijlcqum nu pr`omt

Dm aut nm d–glgdysm d –glgdysm tmijlcq tmijlcqum um mst nm ?     Nãfclcr dms k`nms i`lstruitcfs dms kcmux gngptãs mt dms pdus ãi`l`kcqums 8     Nãfclcr dms k`nms `pãrgt`crms mt glgdysm nms tmijlcqums n–mxãiutc`l 8     Nãi`kp`smr dm pr`omt ml táijms ãdãkmltgcrms 8     Mtgadcr dg ijr`l`d`bcm nm dg rãgdcsgtc`l nms táijms i`kptm tmlu nms i`ltrgcltms mt nm dg d`bcqum n–mlidmlijmkmlt nms táijms. =.9. 

Dg sckudgtc`l

Yckudmr dm nãr`udmkmlt nu ijgltcmr å pgrtcr nms n`llãms prãiãnmltms p`ur `ptckcsmr dm pdgllclb ml f`litc`l nms nãtgcds mt nms ijgrbms ml kgcl-n–řuvrm mt kgtãrcmds 8 Imttm sckudgtc`l pmrkmt n–ãtgadcr ulm prãvcsc`l ml tmlglt i`kptm nm dg ijgrbm s`us dg brum mt nm dg i`ltcluctã nu trgvgcd nms ãqucpms.

75

 

 

Udglcfcigtc`l `pãrgtc`llmddm Dms kãtj`nms nm pdglcfcigtc`l mxp`sãms ngls im ijgpctrm s`lt cssums nm dg rmijmrijm `pãrgtc`llmddm mt nm dg tjã`rcm nms brgpjms. b rgpjms. 7. 

L`tc`l nm táijm

Dg pdglcfcigtc`l n–ul pr`omt i`kkmlim pgr sg nãi`kp`sctc`l ml ul mlsmkadm nm táijms. Imttm nãi`kp`sctc`l pmut ïtrm pdus `u k`cls ckp`rtgltm smd`l dm nmbrã n mbrã nm prãicsc`l rmijmrijã. Nm im fgct, ulm táijm mst cnmltcfcga cnmltcfcgadm dm pgr ul nãaut, ulm nurãm mt ulm fcl.     ^áijm ãdãkmltgcrm   ? ãdãkmlt nm dg nãi`kp`sctc`l n–ul trgvgcd qum d–`l s`ujgctm pdglcfcmr.     ^áijm i`kp`sãm   ?? d`rsqu–`l ãtuncm ulm suiimssc`l nm trgvgux três i`urts pgr rgpp`rt r gpp`rt gux gutrms trgvgux, `l pmut gssckcdmr imttm suiimssc`l å ulm táijm ãdãkmltgcrm.     ^áijms prc`rctgcrms  ? nctms ãbgdmkmlt táijms nm i`kkglnmkmlt, dms táijms prc`rctgcrms gssurmlt d–mlijgìlmkmlt tmijlcqum nms `pãrgtc`ls. Mddms s`lt clncspmlsgadms å d–gvglimkmlt.     ^áijms sckudtglãms  ? ? im s`lt nms táijms quc pmuvmlt sm nãr`udmr ml pgrgddêdm gvmi dms táijms prc`rctgcrms, sgls bïlmr (rmdgtcvmkmlt) dm nãr`udmkmlt nm ims nmrlcêrms (mddms s`lt rmdgtcv rmdgtcvmkmlt mkmlt clnãpmlngltms).     ^áijm-tmkps  ? ? l`us gssckcdmr`ls å ulm táijm tmkps t`ut im quc i`ls`kkm nu tmkps (kïkm sc im tmkps mst ãbgd å zãr` ? táijm fcitcvm). 1. 

I`ltrgcltms

Dg pdglcfcigtc`l n–ul pr`omt n`ct prmlnrm ml i`lscnãrgtc`l ul mlsmkadm n–jyp`tjêsms mt nm i`ltrgcltms n`lt `l ictm ?     D–mlijgclmkmlt d`bcqum nms táijms   ??

D–ckpdgltgtc`l nms f`lngtc`ls n–ul aátckmlt, pgr mxmkpdm, lm pmut sm fgcrm qu–gprês gv`cr tmrkclã dg pjgsm nm rãgdcsgtc`l nms f`ucddms nmstclãms å dms rmimv`cr.     Dg sckudtglãctã nms táijms   ??

U`ur rãnucrm dms nãdgcs, cd y gurg cltãrït ijgqum f`cs qum imdg smrg p`sscadm nm prãv`cr nms cltmrvmltc`ls sckudtglãms nm trgvgux ncstclits. Ml rmvglijm, cd fgut pr`sircrm dg sckudtglãctã n–mxãiutc`l qugln mddm mltrgìlm ulm bïlm ngls dm nãr`udmkmlt nms trgvgux.     Dms kgrbms ngls dms nurãms n–mxãiutc`l   ??

Dms nurãms n–mxãiutc`l lm n`cvmlt ïtrm igdiudãms lc tr`p dgrbmkmlt, ngls ul aut nm rmltgacdctã, lc gu pdus oustm, s`us pmclm nm lm p`uv`cr ïtrm rmspmitãms mt p`ur tmlcr i`kptm n–clicnmlts mt gdãgs t`uo`urs p`sscadms p`sscadms..     Dm rmspmit nms rêbdms nm d–grt ?

D–mxãiutc`l nms `uvrgbms vudlãrgadms, pmlnglt dg nurãm nu ijgltcmr, smrg prãvum dm pdus tgrn p`sscadm p`ssc adm,, sguf ckpãrg ckpãrgtcf tcf i`lt i`ltrgcrm rgcrm.. 9. 

Udglcfcigtc`l `pãrgtc`ll `pãrgtc`llmddm mddm

Cd s–gbct n–ãdga`rmr ul brgpjm pmrkmttglt nm sckudmr d–gvglimkmlt nu pr`omt. Im brgpjm mst ul sijãkg nãi`kp`sgadm ml ul mlsmkadm nm p`clts gppmdãs s`kkmts   mt ul mlsmkadm nm dcblms gppmdãms vmitmurs  quc  quc rmdcmlt mltrm dms p`clts. 77

 

  9.7. 

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

Dm rãsmgu U.M.Q.^.

Dm rãsmgu U.M.Q.^. mst ul brgpjm i`lstctuã pgr nms ãtgpms   (s`kkmts nu brgpjm) mt nms táijms   (vmitmurs nu brgpjm). @l rmprãsmltm ulm ãtgpm pgr ul imridm, ulm táijm pgr ulm fdêijm gu-nmssus nm dgqumddm `l clncqum s`l i`nm mt sg nurãm.   Qmprãsmltgtc`l ?

`

=

c

3

I8>

 o 71

:

Dg táijm « I ¸ nm nurãm > mst sctuãm mltrm dms nmux ãtgpms « c ¸ mt « o ¸ n`lt dms ngtms gu pdus tþt s`lt, rmspmitcvmkmlt, = mt 3. Dms ngtms : mt 71 s`lt dms ngtms gu pdus tgrn.

  Qêbdms å rmspmitmr ?

`

Imrtgclms rêbdms n`cvmlt ïtrm rmspmitãms å sgv`cr ?     ]lm táijm mst rmprãsmltãm rm prãsmltãm pgr ulm mt ulm smudm fdêijm 8     Nmux táijms lm pmuvmlt ïtrm cnmltcfcãms pgr nmux fdêijms gyglt dg kïkm `rcbclm mt dg kïkm mxtrãkctã 8     Dms táijms sckudtglãms s`lt rmprãsmltãms pgr nmux fdêijms ncffãrmltms ml pgrtglt nm dg kïkm `rcbclm.   Ngtms mt Kgrbms ?

`

Ngtm nm nãaut gu pdus tþt n–ulm táijm  ?  ? Ngtm nm nãaut nm rãgdcsgtc`l gu pdus tþt nm s`l ãtgpm n–`rcbclm. I–mst dg vgdmur dg pdus ãdmvãm nms ngtms gu pdus tþt nms ãtgpms prãiãnmltms prãiãnmltms.. Ngtm nm fcl gu pdus tþt n–ulm táijm  ?   ? Ngtm nm nãaut nm rãgdcsgtc`l gu pdus tþt nm imttm táijm gubkmltãm nm sg nurãm.  Ngtm nm fcl gu pdus tgrn n–ulm táijm   ?? Ngtm nm nãaut nm rãgdcsgtc`l gu pdus tþt nm s`l ãtgpm fcl. I–mst dg vgdmur dg k`cls k `cls ãdmvãm nms ngtms gu pdus tþt nms ãtgpms p`stãrcmurms. Ngtm nm nãaut gu pdus tgrn n–ulm táijm  ?  ? Ngtm nm fcl nm rãgdcsgtc`l gu pdus tþt nm imttm táijm nckcluãm nm sg nurãm. Kgrbm  ? ? @l gppmddm kgrbm n–ulm tgijm dm nãdgc n`lt mddm pmut ïtrm rmtgrnãm sgls gdd`lbmr dg nurãm nu pr`omt. Kgrbm t`tgdm  ?  ? I–mst dg ncffãrmlim mltrm dm nãaut gu pdus tgrn mt dm nãaut gu pdus tþt nm dg tgijm i`lscnãrãm. Kgrbm dcarm ? Ncffãrmlim mltrm dm kclckuk nms ngtms nm nãaut gu pdus tþt nms táijms gvgdms mt dg ngtm nm fcl gu pdus tþt nm dg tgijm i`lscnãrãm.   ^áijms irctcqums - Ijmkcl irctcqum ?

`

^`utm tgijm gyglt ulm kgrbm t`tgdm luddm mst nctm ulm táijm irctcqum. Dm ijmkcl pgssglt pgr nms tgijms irctcqums mst gppmdã ijmkcl irctcqum . Dm ijmkcl irctcqum pmrkmt nm nãtmrkclmr dm nãdgc nm rãgdcsgtc`l nu pr`omt. U`ur rãnucrm im nãdgc, cd fgut gbcr ml prc`rctã sur dms táijms irctcqums. 71

 

  9.1. 

Dm brgpjm U`tmltcmds-^áijms

Dm brgpjm U`tmltcmds-^áijms mst ul brgpjm nãrcvã, smudm dg rmprãsmltgtc`l ncffêrm. Dms táijms s`lt rmprãsmltãms pgr nms rmitglbdms k`ltrglt dms nurãms mt dms ngtms nms táijms nm dg kglcêrm sucvgltm ? Ngtm fcl gu pdus tþt

Ngtm nãaut gu  pdus tþt

Nurãm

^gijm  (c)  Ngtm nãaut gu  pdus tgrn

Ngtm nãaut gu  pdus tþt

^gijm  (  oo)  Ngtm nãaut gu  pdus tgrn

Ngtm fcl gu pdus tgrn

Ngtm fcl gu pdus tþt

Nurãm Ngtm fcl gu pdus tgrn

Ngls ul brgpjm U`tmltcmds-^áijms, `l g dg p`sscacdctã n–clncqumr p`ur ijgqum táijm dg nurãm, dg ngtm nm nãaut gu pdus tþt, dg ngtm nm fcl gu pdus tþt, dg ngtm nm nãaut gu pdus tgrn mt dg ngtm nm fcl gu pdus tgrn mt sc `l dm s`ujgctm `l pmut ãbgdmkmlt clncqumr dg kgrbm. 9.9. 

Dm pdgllclb nm Bgltt

Dm ncgbrgkkm nm Bgltt mst ul `utcd utcdcsã, s`uvmlt ml i`kpdãkmlt n–ul rãsmgu UMQ^, ml `rn`llglimkmlt mt bmstc`l nm pr`omt mt pmrkmttglt nm vcsugdcsmr ngls dm tmkps dms ncvmrsms táijms dcãms i`kp`sglt ul pr`omt. Cd pmrkmt nm sckudmr mt rmprãsmltmr brgpjcqumkmlt ncgb rgkkm `l rmprãsmltm ml gasicssm dms ulctãs nm tmkps (o`urs, d–gvglimkmlt nu pr`omt. Ngls im ncgbrgkkm smkgclms `u k`cs) mt ml `rn`llãm dms ncffãrmltms táijms nu pr`omt å pdglcfcmr. 9.>. 

Mxmkpdm n–gppdcigtc`l

@l sm pr`p`sm n–ãtuncmr dg pdglcfcigtc`l nu pr`omt ic-gprês. @l n`llm dms táijms, dmurs nurãms gclsc qum dms táijms gltãrcmurms. @l ml nãnuct gd`rs dms táijms p`stãrcmurms mt dm rglb. Nurãm (smkgclms )

^áijm G A I N M F B

^áijms gltãrcmurms

1 9 1 2 = 9 9

^áijms p`stãrcmurms

Qglb

--G G8A I N8M F

U`ur i`kkmlimr `l nãtmrkclm dms táijms p`stãrcmurms mt dm rglb nm ijgqum táijm.   Qãsmgu U.M.Q.^. ?

`

Dm rãsmgu UMQ^ nm imt mxmkpdm n–gppdcigtc`l mst tmd qum ? 

5

G, 1



5

1

I, 1



9

Ú, 5

A, 9

–

>

M, =

=



75  75 

F, 9



79

B, 9



79

N, 2

9 9

Dms nurãms nm t`utms dms táijms ãtglt i`llums, cd mst n`li p`sscadm nm igdiudmr dms ngtms gu pdus tþt mt dms ngtms gu pdus tgrn nms ncffãrmltms ãtgpms. 79

76 76

 

 

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

U`ur igdiudmr dms ngtms gu pdus tþt, `l clctcgdcsm å « 5 ¸ d–ãtgpm (5). Mlsuctm, dg ngtm gu pdus tþt n–ulm ãtgpm n`llãm ( ) dcãm gux ãtgpms gltãrcmurms () pgr dms táijms ( ) s`lt nãtmrkclãms nm dg kglcêrm sucvgltm ?

..þ ( )  ) ;    . .  . . þ þ ( ) +  ã ã    ..þ (1) +ã ()8 ..þ (7‱ Mxmkpdm ? ..þ (9) ;   ..þ 7‱)) + ã ã () ;  X3875 3875[[ ; 75 

U`ur igdiudmr dms ngtms gu pdus tgrn, `l clctcgdcsm d–ãtgpm tmrkclgdm å sg ngtm gu pdus tþt. Mlsuctm, dg ngtm gu pdus tgrn n–ulm ãtgpm n`llãm ( ) dcãm gux ãtgpms p`stãrcmurms (  ) pgr dms táijms ( ) s`lt nãtmrkclãms nm dg kglcêrm sucvgltm ?

.. () ;     . . . .    ( )  ) ∑ ã ã    .. . (7) ∑ ã Mxmkpdm ? .. (5) ;    ã ( )  )8 ..þ (7‱ 7‱)) +ã () ;  X78 5[ ; 5 

  Igdiud nms ngtms ?

`

Ml sm rãfãrglt gu pgrgbrgpjm (9.7.) `l pmut nãtmrkclmr dms ngtms mt dms kgrbms t`tgdms ( dms kgrbms dcarms s`lt luddms ) nms ncffãrmltms táijms ? ^áijm

Nurãm

Ngtm nm nãaut gu pdus tþt

Ngtm nm fcl gu pdus tþt

Ngtm nm nãaut gu pdus tgrn

Ngtm nm fcl gu pdus tgrn

Kgrbm t`tgdm

G

1

5

9

5

I

1

1

N

2

9

M

=

>

F

9

75

B

9

79

7 5 9 9 = 75 79

9

A

1 9 > 75 3 79 76

7 5 7 5 7 5 5

9 = 75 75 79 76

Dms táijms irctcqums (táijms gyglt nms kgrbms luddms) s`lt n`li ? A, N, F mt B. Dm ijmkcl irctcqum mst gclsc ? A-N-F-B quc n`llm 76 smkgclms i`kkm nurãm nu pr`omt. `

  Brgpjm U`tmltcmds-^áijms ?

Dm brgpjm nms U-^ nm l`trm mxmkpdm n–gppdcigtc`l mst tmd qum ?

5

G

1 1

1

I

> 1

7

9

9

=

5

9

9

75

A 5

9 9

N 9

>

M =

3 = 75

75

F 75

79 9 79

79

B 79

76 9 76

2 75

Ml i`kpgrglt dms ngtms gu pdus tþt mt dms ngtms gu pdus tgrn, cd mst idgcr qum dm ijmkcl irctcqum mst imduc quc  pgssm pgr dms táijms ? A-N-F-B.

7>

 

    Udgllclb nm Bgltt

`

Ml s–gppuyglt sur dm brgpjm p`tmltcmds-táijms nãoå ãtgadc, `l ga`utct gu pdgllclb nm Bgltt (pdgllclb å agrrms) sucvglt ? ^áijm

Nurãm

G

1

A

9

I N

1 2

M

=

F

9

B

9

Ymkgclms 57

51

59

5>

5=

56

52

5:

53

75

77

71

79

7>

Ijgqum táijm mst rmprãsmltãm pgr ulm agrrm nm d`lbumur pr`p`rtc`llmddm å sg nurãm.  

7=

7=

76

 

 

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

Udglcfcigtc`l nms trgvgux nm i`lstruitc`l Udglcfcmr ul pr`omt i`lscstm å pdgimr ngls dm tmkps mt ngls d–mspgim dms ncffãrmltms táijms lãimssgcrms p`ur rãgdcsmr im pr`omt. Dm pdgllclb mst dm k`nêdm sucvglt dmqumd ul mlsmkadm nm táijms nmvrg ïtrm rãgdcsã. 7. 

@aomitcf

Udglcfcmr mst lãimssgcrm p`ur rãgdcsmr mffcigimkmlt ulm gitc`l sgls bgspcddmr nm tmkps lc nm k`ymls.. ]l pdgllclb mxprckm tr`cs l`tc`ls mssmltcmddms ? k`ymls g.  ]lm rmdgtc`l n–`rnrm mltrm dms táijms quc n`cvmlt ïtrm rãgdcsãms ?

Cd s–gbct n–ãtgadcr ulm ijr`l`d`bcm nm dg rãgdcsgtc`l nms táijms, nm nãfclcr dms i`ltrgcltms rmdgtc`llmddms rmdgtc`llmd dms mltrm dms ncffãrmltms táijms (gltãrc`rctã, sckudtglãctã, mti.). a.  Dm pdgimkmlt nms táijms ngls dm tmkps ?

I–mst-å-ncrm i`llgìtrm gvmi suffcsgkkmlt nm prãicsc`l dms nurãms n–mxãiutc`l, dms ignmlims n–gvglimkmlt nms ãqucpms mt dg pr`nuitc`l nms kgtãrcmds. i.  Dms rmss`urims gttrcauãms å ijgqum táijm (kgcl-n–řuvrm, kgtãrcmd mt kgtãrcgux) ?

Cd fgut nãfclcr dms k`ymls lãimssgcrms å d–mxãiutc`l nm ijgqum táijm t`ut ml `ptckcsglt d–mkpd`c nm ims rmss`urims (dcssgbm nms i`urams nm ijgrbms). 1. 

Udgllclbs bãlãrgux

Dg pdglcfcigtc`l n–ul pr`omt nm i`lstruitc`l lãimssctm sg nãi`kp`sctc`l ml ul mlsmkadm nm táijms. ]lm táijm mst ulm gitcvctã i`rrmsp`lnglt å dg rãgdcsgtc`l n–ulm pgrtcm acml nãtmrkclãm n–ul `uvrgbm, mddm n`ct ïtrm fgicdmkmlt cnmltcfcgadm sur dm ijgltcmr mt lm n`ct i`limrlmr qu–ul smud cltmrvmlglt. 1.7. 

Nãfclctc`l

]lm táijm mst nãfclcm pgr ?     ]l dcamddã (Wu`c 0) ? @aomt nm dg táijm 8     ]lm p`sctc`l ngls d–mspgim (@ó 0) ? Dcmu dg táijm `ó nmvrg s–mxãiutmr 8     ]lm p`sctc`l ngls dg ijr`l`d`bcm nm rãgdcsgtc`l (Gvglt mt gprês qu`c 0) 8     ]lm p`sctc`l ngls tmkps (Wugln 0) ? Ngtm nm nãaut nm dg táijm 8     ]lm nurãm ? Ncffãrmlim mltrm dg ngtm nm fcl mt ngtm nm nãaut nm dg táijm 8 t áijm.     ]l i`øt (I`kacml 0) ? Urcx nm rmvcmlt nm dg táijm.

Acml ãvcnmkkmlt, dg rãgdcsgtc`l n–ulm táijm lãimssctm nms k`ymls (rmss`urims) ml kgcl n'řuvrm, kgtãrcgux, kgtãrcmd. 1.1. 

G pr`p`s nm dg nãi`kp`sctc`l

Dg nãi`kp`sctc`l nu pr`omt ml táijms lm n`ct ïtrm lc tr`p nãtgcddãm lc tr`p s`kkgcrm. Dms gitcvctãs nm i`urtm nurãm smr`lt rmbr`upãms. Dg fclmssm nu nãi`upgbm mst f`litc`l nm dg nmstclgtc`l nu pdgllclb. pdgllclb. @l ncstclbum gd`rs tr`cs typms nm pdgllclb ?     Udgllclb « br`ssms b r`ssms kgcddms ¸ `u pdgllclb mlvmd`ppm ?

Dg nãi`kp`sctc`l nu pr`omt mst fgctm ml ul mlsmkadm nm pjgsms i`lscnãrãms ckp`rtgltms. D–ãijmddm nm tmkps mst dm k`cs `u dg smkgclm   88 76

 

      Udgllclb « n'mxãiutc`l nms trgvgux ¸ ?

I–mst dm pdgllclb n–mlidmlijmkmlt nms táijms. I–mst dm d m pdgllclb nm dg rãgdcsgtc` rãgdcsgtc`ll nms ncffãrmltms táijms nu pdgllclb mlvmd`ppm. mlvmd`ppm. D–ãijmddm nm tmkps mst dm o`ur .     Udgllclb « o`urlgdcmr ¸ ?

Ngls ul pdgllclb o`urlgdcmr dms táijms s`lt nãtgcddãms ml `pãrgtc`ls ãdãkmltgcrms. I–mst dm pdgllclb nm dg rãgdcsgt rãgdcsgtc`l c`l nms ncffãrmltms táijms nu pdgllclb n–mxãiutc`l nms trgvgux. D–ãijmddm nm tmkps mst prcsm ãbgdm å d–jmurm .   Udgllclb « br`ssms kgcddms ¸ `u pdgllclb mlvmd`ppm

`

Cd s'gbct n'ul pdgllclb s`kkgcrm, p`ur dmqumd dms nurãms nm táijms s`lt mstckãms "gu rgtc`". Im pdgllclb nmstclã gu Ymrvcim Mtunm nm Urcx mt gu Ymrvcim Ymrvcim Kãtj`nms g p`ur `aomitcf dg nãfclctc`l nms ignmlims mt nms nãdgcs, ml vum nm ?   I`lsudtmr dms s`us-trgctglts, f`urlcssmurs, smrvcim kgtãrcmd 8   Nãtmrkclmr dms nãdgcs n'mxãiutc`l nms pdgls mt nãdgcs n'gppr`agtc`l 8   Nãtmrkclmr dms ignmlims n'gvglimkmlt 8   Nãtmrkclmr dms nãdgcs n'gppr`vcsc`llmkmlt, mti.

Yur im pdgllclb, `l cli`rp`rm dms i`lbãs, dms cltmkpãrcms mt dms gdãgs (mstckãs å 7= %). @l y fgct gppgrgìtrm ãbgdmkmlt dms nurãms nm d`igtc`l nu kgtãrcmd k gtãrcmd gclsc qum dms nurãms n'cltmrvmltc`l nm dg kgìtrcsm. `

  Udgllclb « n'mxãiutc`l nms trgvgux ¸

I'mst ul pdgllclb prãics, pgr o`ur `uvrã, j`rs gdãgs, j`rs cltmkpãrcms mt j`rs i`lbãs. Dg nãi`kp`sctc`l ml táijms smrg pdus fclm (v`cdms, p`utrms, pdglijmrs, p`sm n'ãdãkmlts prãfgarcquãs, mti.). Im pdgllclb rmprãsmltm dg nurãm nms iyidms nm r`tgtc`l. Cd pmrkmt nm vãrcfcmr dg tmlum nms iyidms ngls dm tmkps mt dmur sylijr`lcsgtc`l sylijr`lcsgtc`l.. Im n`iukmlt n`ct pmrkmttrm dm dglimkmlt mt dm nãr`udmkmlt nu ijgltcmr ngls nms i`lnctc`ls `ptckgdms, i–mst-å-ncrm ?   D–clstgddgtc`l nm ijgltcmr 8   Dg prãpgrgtc`l mt dg dcvrgcs`l nms kgtãrcmds 8   Dms i`kkglnms mt dms gppr`vcsc`llmkmlts ml kgtãrcgux 8   Dg r`tgtc`l nms kgtãrcmds mt nms ãqucpms.

Yur im pdgllclb, `l cli`rp`rm dms i`lbãs, dms cltmkpãrcms mt dms gdãgs (mstckãs å 7= %). @l y fgct gppgrgìtrm ãbgdmkmlt dms nurãms nm d`igtc`l nu kgtãrcmd k gtãrcmd gclsc qum dms nurãms n'cltmrvmltc`l nm dg kgìtrcsm. Umlnglt im trgvgcd nm pdglcfcigtc`l, `l n`ct vmcddmr å im qum d–mkpd`c nm dg kgcl n–řuvrm mt nu kgtãrcmd s`ct `ptckcsã nm fgâ`l å rãnucrm gu kclckuk dms rupturms nm ijgrbms  nms   nms ãqucpms mt nms kgtãrcmds. g.  @ptckcsgtc`l nm d–mxpd`ctgtc`l nm kgtãrcmd ?

Dms kgtãrcmds n`lt dm i`øt n'mxpd`ctgtc`l mst ãdmvã (dg brum pgr mxmkpdm) i`lnctc`llmlt ncrmitmkmlt dms ignmlims n'mxãiutc`l. I–mst dg rgcs`l p`ur dgqumddm cds n`cvmlt ïtrm oustm sgturãm, mt imic ml pmrkglmlim (t`utm clsuffcsglim nm sgturgtc`l mltrgìlmrg ul gdd`lbmkmlt nu nãdgc mt n`li ulm gubkmltgtc`l nms i`øts). Ml i`lsãqumlim, dms táijms n`lt dg nurãm mt dm pdgimkmlt ngls dm pdgllclb prmllmlt ml i`kptm d'mkpd`c `ptckcsã (å 755%) nm ims kgtãrcmds dg brum nmvcmllmlt irctcqums (i–mst dm igs p`ur dms v`cdms aglijãs mt dms pdglijmrs). 72

 

 

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

a.  @ptckcsgtc`l nm d–mkpd`c nm dg kgcl-n–řuvrm ?

Dms táijms lm lãimssctglt pgs nm kgtãrcmd, n`lt d–mxpd`ctgtc`l mst três i`utmusm (`uvrgbms gllmxms, kgâ`llmrcms nm rmkpdcssgbm, fclctc`ls, mti.) p`urr`lt ïtrm igdãms ngls dm pdgllclb gfcl nm sgturmr dg kgcl n'řuvrm. D'`ptckcsgtc`l nm d'mkpd`c nm dg kgcl n'řuvrm i`lscstmrg å dcssmr dg i`uram nms mffmitcfs stgadm pgr ãqucpm ãqucpm spãicgdcsãm  spãicgdcsãm . n'`uvrcmrs, t`ut ml vmcddglt å gv`cr ul mffmitcf stgadm Cd s'gbct nm vãrcfcmr mt `ptckcsmr dg ijgrbm nm trgvgcd nm ijgqum `uvrcmr nurglt dg o`urlãm, gclsc qum dg sylijr`lcsgtc`l nms táijms suiimsscvms gvmi d–utcdcsgtc`l nms kgtãrcmds. U`ur im fgcrm, `l rgcs`llm sur ulm o`urlãm typm, ml iyidm dgliã (ãqucpms mltrgìlãms). 1.9. 

Mstckgtc`l nms rmss`urims

D–mstckgtc`l mt d–gffmitgtc`l nms rmss`urims (jukgclms, kgtãrcmddms, kgtãrcgux mt fclglicêrms) lãimssgcrms p`ur d–mxãiutc`l nms táijms n–ul pr`omt n`llã n`ct prmlnrm ml i`lscnãrgtc`l dms k`ymls nm d–mltrmprcsm, dg ncsp`lcacdctã nm ims k`ymls, dms nãdgcs ckp`sãs, dg kgrbms aãlãfcicgcrms icadãms, mti.   Idgsscfcigtc`l nm dg kgcl-n–řuvrm

`

@l i`lscnêrm dg idgsscfcig idgsscfcigtc`l tc`l sucvgltm ? Lcvmgux Nãscblgtc`l

U`stm

Gitcvctãs mt ^mijlcictã

Gut`l`kcm mt clctcgtcv clctcgtcvm m

I`ltrþdm i`lstglt.

7

^rgvgux nm sckpdm mxãiutc`l smd`l nms i`lscblms prãicsms 8 Ygls kcsm ml řuvrm nm i`llgcssglims pgrtciudcêrms.

1

^rgvgux sckpdms sgls ncffciudtãs pgrtciudcêrms 8 Urmkcêrm spãicgdcsgtc`l ngls d'mkpd`c.

I`ltrþdm frãqumlt 8 Clctcgtcvms ãdãkmltgcrms 8 Qmsp`lsgadm nm dmur a`llm mxãiutc`l.

C @uvrcmrs n–Mxãiutc`l (@M)

CC @uvrcmrs Ur`fmssc`llmds (@U)

7

7

CCC I`kpgbl`ls Ur`fmssc`llmds

(IU)

1

I`ltrþdm p`litumd 8 ^rgvgux i`urglts nm sg spãicgdctã rãgdcsãs å pgrtcr nm Clctcgtcvm ngls dm ij`cx nms k`ymls. ncrmitcvms bãlãrgdms 8 I`llgcssglims tmijlcqums nm agsm nm s`l kãtcmr mt rmspmit nms rêbdms pr`fmssc`llmddms. ^rgvgux nm s`l kãtcmr rãgdcsãs å pgrtcr nm ncrmitcvms, p`uvglt ckpdcqumr dg dmiturm nm pdgls mt dg tmlum nm n`iukmlts n'mxãiutc`l s'y rgpp`rtglt 8 Umut ïtrm gsscstã n'gutrms `uvrcmrs, ml prclicpm nm qugdcfcigtc`l k`clnrm 8 A`llms i`llgcssglims pr`fmssc`llmddms. ^rgvgux nãdcigts nm s`l kãtcmr rãgdcsãs å pgrtcr n'clstruitc`ls bãlãrgdms 8 ^rês a`llms i`llgcssglims pr`fmssc`llmddms. 7:

Qmsp`lsgadm nm dmur a`llm rãgdcsgtc`l s`us i`lnuctm nm a`llm fcl, Yur clstruitc`ls nm d'mlignrmkmlt, f`litc`ls p`litumddms nm rmprãsmltgtc`l sckpdm gyglt trgct å d'mxãiutc`l nu trgvgcd qu`tcncml.

Ncsp`sm n'ulm imrtgclm gut`l`kcm s`us i`ltrþdm nm a`llm fcl. Mst å kïkm nm prmlnrm nms clctcgtcvms sm rgpp`rtglt å dg rãgdcsgtc`l nms trgvgux quc duc s`lt i`lfcãs.

 

 

7

CV Kgìtrms `uvrcmrs (K@)

Å pgrtcr nm ncrmitcvms n'`rbglcsgtc`l bãlãrgdm, rãgdcsm nms trgvgux i`kpdmxms nm s`l kãtcmr `u `rbglcsm dm trgvgcd nms `uvrcmrs i`lstctuglt d'ãqucpm gppmdãm å d'gsscstmr mt ml gssurm dg i`lnuctm 8 Ugrfgctm kgìtrcsm nm s`l kãtcmr

Gut`l`kcm ngls s`l kãtcmr mxmriãm s`us d'gut`rctã nm sg jcãrgrijcm 8 Clctcgtcvms rmdgtcvms å dg rãgdcsgtc`l tmijlcqum nms táijms å mffmitumr 8 Kcssc`ls nm rmprãsmltgtc`l.

mt tmijlcictã gffcrkãm. Igpgadm nm ncvmrscfcmr sms i`llgcssglims pr`fmssc`llmddms.

`u Ijmfs n'ãqucpm (IM) 1

Qãgdcsm dms trgvgux dms pdus nãdcigts nm s`l kãtcmr, kãt cmr, `u gssurm nm kglcêrm pmrkglmltm dg i`lnuctm mt d'glckgtc`l n'ulm ãqucpm i`kp`sãm n'`uvrcmrs nm t`us lcvmgux 8 Ugrfgctm kgìtrcsm nm s`l kãtcmr mt i`llgcssglim nm tmijlcqums i`llmxms, duc pmrkmttglt n'gssurmr dms trgvgux rmdmvglt nm imddms-ic.

Dgrbm gut`l`kcm ngls s`l kãtcmr. kã tcmr. Ngls dg dckctm nms gttrcautc`ls nãfclcms nãfclc ms pgr dm ijmf n'mltrmprcsm, n'mltrmprcsm, s`us s`us d'gut`rctã nm sg jcãrgrijcm mt ngls dm ignrm nm sms f`litc`ls, rmsp`lsgacdctãs ngls dg rãgdcsgtc`l nms trgvgux mt kcssc`ls nm rmprãsmltgtc`l,

  Nãtmrkclgtc`l nms tmkps ulctgcrm nm kgcl-n–řuvrm

`

Dm ^-] nm kgcl nm kgcl n–řuvrm rmprãsmltm dm ams`cl ml K-@ p`ur rãgdcsmr d'ulctã n'`uvrgbm ãdãkmltgcrm. Cd mst nãtmrkclã ml mxpd`ctglt dms stgtcstcqums nms rgpp`rts nm ijgltcmrs. Ijgqum o`ur, dm tmkps nm prãsmlim nms `uvrcmrs mst i`kptgacdcsã mt vmltcdã smd`l dms táijms rãgdcsãms gu i`urs nm dg o`urlãm ?

. .( .( ) ) ;

   ã      ã  ‱

Mxmkpdm ? U`ur p`smr =5 k± nm pdglijmr smkc-prãfgarcquã, ulm ãqucpm nm 9 `uvrcmrs g kcs 9,1= j. N`li ? .. ..  ; Ò. ; 5.7 5.73= 3= ℌ/   `

  Nãtmrkclgtc`l nu irãnct bd`agd n'jmurms nm Kgcl n'řuvrm

U`ur ulm táijm n`llãm, `l i`llgìt dg qugltctã (W) å rãgdcsmr (kãtrã `u nmvcs qugltctgtcf) mt dm ^.]. n–mxãiutc`l (rmiumcd nm tmkps ulctgcrms). Dm Irãnct bd`agd n–Jmurms nm Kgcl-n–řuvrm (I.J.K.@.) mst tmd qum ?

....; ... .;  Ò .. Mxmkpdm ? Y`ct å p`smr 1=5 k± nm n`uadgbm cs`dglt i`lstctuã n'ul i`kpdmxm pdgqum nm pdátrm mt  p`dystyrêlm (75 + 35 kk). Dm ^.]. ^.]. n'mxãiutc`l mst nm 5,>5 J/k±, y i`kprcs kglutmlt kglutmltc`ls, c`ls, nãi`upms, mli`ddgbm mt p`sm, goustgbm, fclctc`l nms o`clts, lmtt`ygbm nms dcmux.  Gd`rs ? .. . ; 1=5 1=5 Ò 5.>5 5.>5 ; 755 755 ℌ . . 

  Urãvcsc`l nms mffmitcfs

`

I`llgcssglt dm I.J.K.@. mt dg nurãm n–ulm táijm, dm l`karm n–`uvrcmrs lãimssgcrm p`ur sg  pgbm sucvgltm ) rãgdcsgtc`l mst tmd qum ? ( pgbm 73

 

 

   – –   ;

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

....   ã ã å  áℌ

Mxmkpdm ? @l nãscrm rãgdcsmr dg táijm `aomt nm d–mxmkpdm prãiãnmlt ml 9 o`urs nm : j. Dm l`karm n–`uvrcmrs lãimssgcrm mst gd`rs ? 755⁎(9 Ò :) ≊ > `uvrcmrs.

9. 

Udgllclbs pgrtciudcmrs

Dms pdgllclbs pgrtciudcmrs, i`kkm d–clncqum dmur l`k, s`lt nms `utcds nm sckudgtc`l mt nm sucvc n–gitcvctãs acml prãicsms t`ut ml rmspmitglt dm pdgllclb bãlãrgd nu pr`omt. 9.7. 

I`urams nm pr`nuitc`l

Cd s–gbct nm rmprãsmltmr ml f`litc`l nu tmkps dg qugltctã nms ãdãkmlts prãfgarcquãs, dg qugltctã nms ãdãkmlts p`sãs mt dg qugltctã nms ãdãkmlts ml st`ih. G tctrm n–mxmkpdm, l`us l`us pr`p`s`ls n–glgdysmr dms i`urams nm prãfgarcigtc`l, p`sm mt st`ih nm p`utrmddms ml aãt`l grkã gu smcl n–ul ijgltcmr nm i`lstruitc`l ?

955

1=5

155

   s      ã     t      c     t    l    g    u      W 7=5

Yt`ih  Urãfgarcigtc`l  U`sm 

755

=5

5 5

=

75

7=

15

1=

Ymkgclms

N–gprês ims i`urams pmrkmt nm i`lstgtmr qum dg ignmlim nm prãfgarcigtc`l quc mst nm 15 p`utrmddms pgr o`ur mst clfãrcmurm å dg ignmlim p`sm quc mst ãbgdm å 1= p`utrmddms pgr o`ur. Dm nãigdgbm nm tmkps mltrm dg  prãfgarcigtc`l mt dg p`sm mst lãimssgcrm lãim ssgcrm p`ur dm nuricssmkmlt nu aãt`l (6 o`urs kclckuk). 15

 

  9.1. 

Udgllclb n–gppr`vcsc`llmkmlt ml kgtãrcmds

Dm pdgllclb n–gppr`vcsc`llmkmlt ml kgtãrcmds pmrkmt nm bãrmr d–mxpd`ctgtc`l nm kgtãrcmds mt n–ãvctmr dmur surutcdcsgtc`l (nmux táijms utcdcsglt dm kïkm kgtãrcmd lm pmuvmlt pgs ïtrm mxãiutãms sckudtglãkmlt ). ). Ymkgclms

Ur`omt ? Vcddg K. S`ussmf    Kgtãrcmds

K`nm n–giqucsctc`l

Nurãm

Mxigvgtmur Brum å t`ur

D`igtc`l Cltmrlm

Aãt`llcêrm

Cltmrlm

I`ffrgbm

Cltmrlm

7s 75 s 2s =s

57

51

59

5>

5=

56

52

5:

53

75

Ò

Ò

 

Ò

 

Ò

 

 

 

 

 

Ò

Ò

Ò

Ò

Ò

Ò

Ò

Ò

Ò

Ò

Ò

Ò

Ò

Ò

Ò

Ò

Ò

Ò

Ò

Ijgqum táijm lãimssctm p`ur sg rãgdcsgtc`l nms kgtãrcmds acml prãics. Yur dg agsm nu pdgllclb nms trgvgux, `l clncqum dm tmkps n–utcdcsgtc`l nm ijgiul nm ims kgtãrcmds. 9.9. 

Udgllclb n–gppr`vcsc`llmkmlt ml kgtãrcgux

Dm pdgllclb n–gppr`vcsc`llmkmlt ml kgtãrcgux pmrkmt nm bãrmr dms i`kkglnms nm kgtãrcgux nm fgâ`l å ãvctmr nms rupturms nm st`ihs mt n`li d–grrït nm trgvgux. Ur`omt ? Vcddg K. S`ussmf    Kgtãrcgu

Ymkgclms Wugltctã

57

51

5 59 9

5>

5=

56

52

5:

Ickmlt

27: t  

775

716

716

716

715

775

Ygadms

7735 k 9 

725

725

725

725

765

9=5

Brgvcmrs

135

1:2

1:2

1:2

1:2

 Gicmr

7>9: k 9  >5 t  

77

75

75

3

Ad`is nm aãt`l

965 k ± 

765

755

5 53 3

75

755

Ngls im pdgllclb `l g dms qugltctãs nm kgtãrcgux nm i`lstruitc`l å i`kkglnmr p`ur ijgqum smkgclm. U`ur ijgqum kgtãrcgu `l clncqum dg qugltctã t`tgdm lãimssgcrm p`ur d–mlsmkadm nu pr`omt. 9.>. 

Udgllclb nm bmstc`l nm dg kgcl-n–řuvrm

Dm pdgllclb nm bmstc`l nm dg kgcl-n–řuvrm, i`kkm s`l l`k d–clncqum, pmrkmt nm bãrmr dg kgcl-n–řuvrm nm d–mltrmprcsm ml nãtmrkclglt dms ams`cls ml f`litc`l nm d–gvglimkmlt nms trgvgux. Ur`omts

Ymkgclms

Nãscblgtc`l

Qmsp`lsgadm

Vcddg K. S`ussmf

K. Gdc _GSN@]LM

Qãscnmlim ‚Ygrg– ‚Ygrg–

K. S`ussmf _MQ@]GD _MQ@]GD

Mi`dm ‚G Gdd Cnrcssc– Cnrcs sc–

K. Omgl UCMQQM UCMQQ M

^`tgd ams`cls

57

51

59

5>

5=

56

52

5:

53

75

=

=

79

79

79

79

79

9

9

9

:

15

15

15

15

=

1

1

=

:

75

75

75

=

9

1

2

16

97

99

99

95

79

:

=

=

D–mltrmprcsm nm i`lstruitc`l trgvgcddm sckudtglãkmlt sur tr`cs pr`omts ? Vcddg K. S`ussmf, Qãscnmlim ‚Ygrg– mt d–ãi`dm Gd ‚  Cnrcssc–. U`ur ijgqum smkgclm `l clncqum d–mf d–mffmitcf fmitcf nm ijgqum pr`omt mt dm t`tgd nm ams`cls am s`cls ml kgcl-  n–řuvrm. 9.=. 

I`uram n–mffmitcfs

Cd s–gbct nm rmprãsmltmr ml f`litc`l nu tmkps d–mffmitcf d–mffmitcf lãimssgcrm p`ur dg rãgdcsg rãgdcsgtc`l tc`l n–ul pr`omt n`llã. Imttm i`uram pmrkmttrg, pgr dg suctm, nm trgimr dg i`uram nms jmurms iukudãms mt n–ml nãnucrm dm i`øt nm dg kgcl-n–řuvrm, i`llgcssglt dm i`øt k`yml ulctgcrm. 17

 

 

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

Mffmitcfs 7> 71 75 : 6 > 1 5 5

7

1

9

>

=

6

2

:

3

75

77

71

Ymkgclms

Imttm i`uram mst n`llãm å tctrm n–cddustrgtc`l. D–gddurm nm dg i`uram pmrkmt nm ncstclbumr mltrm tr`cs pjgsms nm trgvgux ? dg pjgsm nu dglimkmlt nm ijgltcmr (dms nmux prmkcêrms smkgclms), dg pjgsm n–mxãiutc`l nms trgvgux (a) mt dg pjgsm nu rmpdcmkmlt nm ijgltcmr (i). 9.6. 

I`uram nms jmurms iukudãms

@l rmprãsmltm ml f`litc`l nu tmkps dm l`karm n–jmurms iukudãms, i–mst-å-ncrm dm iukud nms mffmitcfs kudtcpdcãs f`cs d–ulctã nu tmkps mxprckãm ml jmurms quc mst cic dg smkgclm. Y`ct  =Ò:ℌ/   ; >5 ℌ. Jmurms iukudãms =555 >>55

>=55

>1:5 >765 >5>5

>555 9=15

9=55 9555

9555 1>:5

1=55 7365

1555 7>>5

7=55 315

7555 >55

=55 155

5 5

1

>

6

:

75

71

7>

Ymkgclms

N–gprês dg i`uram dm l`karm n–jmurms iukudãms p`ur dm pr`omt mltcmr mst nm >>55 jmurms. Ml kudtcpdcglt im ijcffrm f`cs dm i`øt j`rgcrm k`yml, `l grrcvm å mstckmr dm i`øt nm dg kgcl-n–řuvrm.

11

 

  9.2. 

I`urams fclglicêrm ’ Udgllclb n–gi`kptms

Ngls ulm i`uram fclglicêrm, `l rmprãsmltm dm i`øt ml f`litc`l nu tmkps. Ic-nmss`us ulm i`uram fclglicêrm å tctrm n–mxmkpdm ? I`øt (hNJ ) 1=5 173

176

111 15:

155 762

76>

7=5

755

=5 15

76

71

75

5 5

7

1

9

>

=

6

2

:

3

75

77

71

Ymkgclms

Imttm i`uram fclglicêrm pmut ïtrm ãbgdmkmlt i`lscnãrãm i`kkm pdgllclb n–gi`kptm jman`kgngcrm. 9.:. 

Mxmkpdm n–gppdcigtc`l

@l n`llm ngls dm tgadmgu sucvglt dms rmss`urims i`rrmsp`lngltms å ijgiulm nms pjgsms nu pr`omt ãtuncã ? I`øt (NJ )

^áijm

Nãscblgtc`l

Nurãm (smkgclms )

^áijms gltãrcmurms

Mffmitcf

Kgtãrcmds

Kgtãrcgux

G

F`ucddm ml pdmclkgssm

7

--

1

Mxigvgtmur

--

75 555

:5 555

=5 555

A

F`lngtc`ls

1

G

1

Nukpmr

71 k9 nm k`mdd`ls, 1 k9 nm aãt`l n`sã å 1=5hb nm ickmlt mt > k9 nm k`rtcmr n`sã å 9=5 hb nm ickmlt

I

Qmkadgcmkmlt

1

A

9

Ijgrbmur, Igkc`l

--

N

Ytruiturm p`rtmusm

=

Aglijms nm i`ffrgbm

M

Kurs mt id`cs`ls

=

9

A

N

=

755 k9 nm aãt`l grkã n`sã å 9=5 hb 1>5 555 nm ickmlt

Nukpmr

7: k9 nm k`rtcmr n`sã å 9=5 hb nm ickmlt mt 95555 ad`is nm aãt`l

7=5 555

>5 555

955 555

F

Mlnucts

1

M

9

--

1> k9 nm k`rtcmr n`sã å 9=5 hb nm ickmlt

B

Ymi`ln řuvrm

9

F

9

Nukpmr

--

19

 

 

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

@l supp`sm qum dg qugltctã n–gicmr k`ymllm pgr kêtrm iuam nm aãt`l grkã mst nm d–`rnrm nm 3= hb  pgr kêtrm iuam.

  Udgllclb n–gppr`vcsc`llmkmlt ml kgtãrcmds

`

Mtgadcr dm pdgllclb n–gppr`vcsc`llmkmlt ml kgtãrcmds sgijglt qu–cd mst cltmrlm å d–mximptc`l nm d–mxigvgtmur, dm ijgrbmur mt dm igkc`l. Ymkgclms

Ur`omt ? Mxmkpdm n–gppdcigtc`l.  Kgtãrcmds

K`nm n–giqucsctc`l

Mxigvgtmur

D`igtc`l

Ijgrbmur

D`igtc`l

Igkc`l

D`igtc`l

I`ffrgbm

Cltmrlm

Nurãm

57

51

59

5>

5=

56

52

5:

53

75

77

71

79

7>

7=

76

Ijgqum táijm lãimssctm p`ur sg rãgdcsgtc`l nms kgtãrcmds acml prãics. Yur dg agsm nu pdgllclb nms trgvgux, `l clncqum dm tmkps n–utcdcsgtc`l nm ijgiul nm ims kgtãrcmds.

  Udgllclb n–gppr`vcsc`llmkmlt ml kgtãrcgux

`

Cd s–gbct cic n–ãtgadcr dm pdgllclb n–gppr`vcsc`llmkmlt ml clbrãncmlts nm aãt`l, kgâ`llmrcm nm k`mdd`ls, ad`is nm aãt`l mt gicmr (utcdcsmr dms gagqums nm Nrmux p`ur nãtmrkclmr dms n`sgbms nms aãt`ls) ? Ymkgclms

Ur`omt ? Mxmkpdm n–gppdcigtc`l. 

Kgtãrcgu

Wugltctã

57

51

59

5>

5=

56

52

5:

53

75

77

71

79

7>

77==

Aãt`l n`sã å 1=5 hb nm I Aãt`l n`sã å 9=5 hb nm I K`rtcmr n`sã å 9=5 hb nm I  Gicmr K`mdd`ls Ad`is nm aãt`l

U`ur ijgqum kgtãrcgu `l clncqum dg qugltctã å i`kkglnmr p`ur ijgqum smkgclm mt dg qugltctã t`tgdm lãimssgcrm p`ur d–mlsmkadm nu pr`omt.

  I`uram n–mffmitcfs

`

Qmprãsmltmrr ml f`litc`l nu tmkps d–mffmitcf lãimssgcrm p`ur dg rãgdcsgtc`l Qmprãsmltm rãgdcsgtc`l nu pr`omt ? Mffmitcfs 7=

75

=

5 5

7

1

9

>

=

6

2

:

3

75

77

71

79

7>

7=

Ymkgclms

@l clncqum sur dg i`uram d–mffmitcf d–mffmitcf p`ur ijgqum ijgqum smkgclm. smkgclm.

1>

76

72

7:

73

15

76

 

    I`uram nms jmurms iukudãms

`

@l rmprãsmltm ml f`litc`l nu tmkps dm l`karm n–jmurms iukudãms, i–mst-å-ncrm dm iukud nms mffmitcfs kudtcpdcãs f`cs d–ulctã nu tmkps mxprckãm ml jmurms quc mst cic dg smkgclm, i–mst-å:ℌ/ ; >5 ℌ ℌ  . ncrm ? = Ò :ℌ/ Jmurms iukudãms >555 9=55 9555 1=55 1555 7=55 7555 =55 5 5

7

1

9

>

=

6

2

:

3

75

77

71

79

7>

7=

76

72

7:

Ymkgclms

@l clncqum sur dg i`uram dm l`karm n–jmurms iukudãms p`ur ijgqum smkgclm.

  I`urams fclglicêrm ’ Udgllclb n–gi`kptms

`

Ngls ulm i`uram fclglicêrm, `l rmprãsmltm dm i`øt ml f`litc`l nu tmkps. Ic-nmss`us ulm i`uram fclglicêrm å tctrm n–mxmkpdm ? I`øt (hNJ ) 755 35 :5 25 65 =5 >5 95 15 75 5 5

7

1

9

>

=

6

2

:

3

75

77

71

79

7>

7=

76

72

7:

Ymkgclms

Dg i`uram fclglicêrm pmut ïtrm ãbgdmkmlt i`lscnãrãm i`kkm pdgllclb n–gi`kptm jman`kgngcrm. @l sm  pr`p`sm n–ãtgadcr dm pdgllclb n–gi`kptm.

  I`urams nm pr`nuitc`l ?

`

Dg táijm "M" i`lscstm å mxãiutmr dms `uvrgbms ml kgâ`llmrcm (kurs ml ad`is nm aãt`l). Ims ad`is nm aãt`l s`lt prãfgarcquãs sur ijgltcmr, gvmi ulm ignmlim nm 155  ulctãs pgr o`ur   (7555  1=

 

 

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

ulctãs pgr smkgclms ), ), mt utcdcsã gprês 1 smkgclms  nm  nm nuricssmkmlt gu kclckuk. ^rgimr dms i`urams nm pr`nuitc`l i`rrmsp`lngltms å imttm gitcvctã sc dg ignmlim nm p`sm mst mstckãm 1555 ulctãs pgr  o`ur  (  (75555 ulctãs pgr smkgclms )).. >5555 9=555 95555 1=555

   s      ã     t      c 15555     t    l    g    u 7=555      W 75555 =555 5 5

>

:

71

76

15

1>

1:

91

96

>5

Ymkgclms

L`tmr qu–cic dg ngtm "5" lm i`rrmsp`ln pgs å dg ngtm "5" nu pr`omt, kgcs gu nãkgrrgbm nm dg prãfgarcigtc`l.

>. 

Mxmricim

Ngls imt mxmricim cd s–gbct n–ul pr`omt nm i`lstruitc`l n–ulm kgcs`l clncvcnumddm. ^áijm

Nãscblgtc`l

Nurãm (smkgclms )

^áijms gltãrcmurms

Mffmitcf

Kgtãrcmds

I`øt (NJ )

G

F`ucddms

7

--

1

Mxigvgtmur

2 =55

A

F`lngtc`ls (kur mt ijgìlgbm)

1

G

9

Nukpmr

: 555

I

Mvgiugtc`l Mvgiugtc `l nms tmrrms

7

M

1

Ijgrbmur, Igkc`l

1 =55

N

Qmkadgcmkmlt mt ngddgbm

7

A

9

Ar`umttm

75 555

M

Ymkmddms cs`dãms mt p`tmgux

7

G

9

Ar`umttm

1=5 555

F

Udglijmr jgut nu QNI

1

M

=

Aglijms

95 555

B

Kurs mt id`cs`ls

9

N8M

1

Nukpmr

95 555

J

Kur n–gir`têrm

7

M

1

--

= 555

C

Ymi`ln řuvrm

>

B8J

>

Ar`umttm

=5 555

 O

Qmpdcmkmlt nu ijgltcmr

7

C

1

Nukpmr

1 =55

Mtuncmr dg pdglcfcigtc`l nm im pr`omt ml ãtgadcssglt dm pdgllclb nms trgvgux mt dms ncffãrmlts pdgllclbs pgrtciudcmrs.

16

 

 

Dms cltmrvmlglts ngls dms ijgltcmrs Dg rãgdcsgtc`l n–ul pr`omt nm i`lstruitc`l sm fgct pgr i`ddga`rgtc`l nm pduscmurs cltmrvmlglts, l`tgkkmlt ?   Dm kgìtrm nm d–`uvrgbm 8   Dm kgìtrm n–řuvrm 8   Dm aurmgu n–ãtunm tmijlcqum (AM^) mt dms dga`rgt`crms bã`tmijlcqums 8   Dm aurmgu nm i`ltrþdm 8   Dms mltrmprmlmurs mltrmprmlmurs.. 7. 

Dm kgìtrm n–`uvrgbm

I–mst ulm pmrs`llm pjyscqum `u k`rgdm p`ur dm i`kptm nm quc dms trgvgux `u dms `uvrgbms s`lt mxãiutãs. Dm kgìtrm n–`uvrgbm mxprckm sms ams`cls nm i`lstruitc`l, ij`csct dm kgìtrm k gìtrm n–řuvrm mt dm aurmgu n–ãtunm, gssurm dm sucvc mt dm i`ltrþdm mt fclglim dms trgvgux. ]l kgìtrm n–`uvrgbm pmut ïtrm ulm mltctã puadcqum (Mtgadcssmkmlt puadcis puadcis,, I`ddmitcvctãs d`igdms) `u ulm mltctã pgrtciudcêrm (Ur`k`tmurs, Mltrmprcsms prcvãs, pgrtciudcmrs, mti.). 1. 

Dm kgìtrm n–řuvrm

I–mst ulm pmrs`llm pjyscqum `u k`rgdm quc, p`ur sg i`kpãtmlim, mst ijgrbãm pgr dm kgìtrm n–`uvrgbm nm ncrcbmr d–mxãiutc`l nu kgrijã mt nm pr`p`smr dg rãimptc`l gclsc qum dm rêbdmkmlt nms trgvgux. Dm kgìtrm n–řuvrm g p`ur kcssc`ls prclicpgdms nm ?   Y–gssurmr nm dg fgcsgacdctã nm d–`pãrgtc`l 8

         

I`limv`cr, nãircrm mt ãvgdumr dms `uvrgbms 8  Mtgadcr dms ncsp`sctcfs rãbdmkmltgcrms 8  Urãpgrmr dms kgrijãs 8  I`lsudtmr dms mltrmprcsms 8  I`ltrþdmr dg qugdctã nms trgvgux rãgdcsãs 8 

mltrmprcsms,, mti.   Yupmrvcsmr dms vmrsmkmlts n–gi`kptms gux mltrmprcsms

]l kgìtrm n–řuvrm pmut ïtrm ulm mltctã puadcqum (`rbglcskm puadci) `u ulm mltctã pgrtciudcêrm (grijctmitm, mltrmprmlmur, AM^, mti.) D`rsqum dm kgìtrm n–řuvrm i`lnuct smud dm pr`imssus nm i`lstruitc`l, `l pgrdm nm kgìtrm n–řuvrm sckpdm ?

Fcburm > ? Kgìtrm n'řuvrm sckpdm 12

 

 

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

Ngls dm igs i`ltrgcrm, `l pgrdm nm kgìtrm n–řuvrm i`kp`sã ?

Fcburm = ? Kgìtrm n'řuvrm i`kp`sã

9. 

Dm aurmgu n–ãtunm tmijlcqum (AM^)

]l aurmgu n–ãtunm tmijlcqum mst ul `rbglcskm clnãpmlnglt `u smrvcim cltmrlm n–ulm mltrmprcsm, ijgrbã n–ãtuncmr sur dm pdgl tmijlcqum dm pr`omt nu kgìtrm n–řuvrm gfcl nm bgrgltcr dg rãscstglim mt dg stgacdctã nms `uvrgbms gclsc qum dm a`l f`litc`llmkmlt nms ãqucpmkmlts mt clstgddgtc`ls tmijlcqums. Dms prclicpgdms gttrcautc`ls n–ul aurmgu n–ãtunm tmijlcqum t mijlcqum s`lt ?   Dg rãngitc`l nms rgpp`rts n–ãtunms tmijlcqums (bã`tmijlcqum, gi`ustcqum, jynrgudcqum, mti.) 8   Mtgadcssmkmlt nm t`utms dms l`tms nm igdiuds lãimssgcrms gu nckmlsc`llmkmlt nms `uvrgbms pgr rgpp`rt nms rãsudtgts `atmlums ml rgpp`rts 8   Nmsscl nm t`us dms pdgls n–mxãiutc`l nms `uvrgbms gii`kpgblãs nm dmur l`kmlidgturmm mt clstruitc`ls tmijlcqums ãvmltumddms l`kmlidgtur ãvmltumddms,, nãfclcssglt sgls gkacbuàtã dms trgvgux nms ncvmrs i`rps n–ãtgt. ]l aurmgu n–ãtunm tmijlcqum pmut ïtrm spãicgdcsã ml aãt`l grkã, ml ãtunms tjmrkcqums, ml ãdmitrcictã, ml ijgrpmltm, mti. >. 

Dm aurmgu nm i`ltrþdm

]l aurmgu nm i`ltrþdm mst ul `rbglcskm ij`csc mt rãkulãrã pgr dm kgìtrm n–`uvrgbm, quc prmln ml ijgrbm dm pr`omt p`ur gssurmr dg sãiurctã nms acmls mt nms pmrs`llms mt i`ltrþdmr dg rãgdcsgtc`l nms trgvgux. t rgvgux. Dms prclicpgdms kcssc`ls n–ul aurmgu nm i`ltrþdm s`lt ?   Dm i`ltrþdm nms trgvgux pmlnglt dmur mxãiutc`l 8   Dg rãgdcsgtc`l nm t`us dms mssgcs mt dms kmsurms nm i`ltrþdm lãimssgcrms 8   Dg rãngitc`l nms pr`iês-vm pr`iês-vmragux ragux i`rrmsp`lnglts, mti. D–`rbglcskm nm i`ltrþdm pmut ïtrm ul aurmgu nm i`ltrþdm gut`rcsã `u acml kïkm ulm pmrs`llm pjyscqum gbrãm p`ur gii`kpdcr dg kcssc`l nm i`ltrþdmur tmijlcqum. =. 

D–mltrmprmlmur

]l`uvrgbms mltrmprmlmur mst ulm pmrs`llm k `rgdm k`rgdm quc mst ijgrbã nm rãgdcsmr dms trgvgux `u dms gux i`lnctc`ls nãfclcmspjyscqum ngls dms `u pcêims nu kgrijã. 1:

 

 

Dms prclicpgdms táijms n–ul mltrmprmlmur s`lt ?   Mtuncmr dms i`øts nms trgvgux 8   Vãrcfcmr dms gvglt-kãtrãs 8   Nãtmrkclmr dms prcx nm vmltm ulctgcrms J^ p`ur rãgdcsmr ijgqum `uvrgbm ãdãkmltgcrm (s`us-nãtgcd nm prcx) 8   I`kpdãtmr dms ignrms nms a`rnmrmgux nms prcx 8   Mtgadcr dms nmvcs qugltctgtcf-mstckg qugltctgtcf-mstckgtcf tcf prãvcsc`llmds 8   @rbglcsmr dm ijgltcmr 8   Qãncbmr dm pdgl pgrtciudcmr n–jybcêlm mt nm sãiurctã 8   Ur`p`smr ul pdgl n–gssurglim qugdctã nm i`lstruitc`l 8   Mdga`rmr dms pdgllclbs n–mxãiutc`l nms trgvgux 8   Nmssclmr dms pdgls n–clstgddgtc`ls nm ijgltcmr 8   I`kkglnmr dms kgtãrcgux lãimssgcrms 8   Qãgdcsmr dms `uvrgbms prãvus 8   Bãrmr dm nãr`udmkmlt nu ijgltcmr 8   Mtgadcr dm kãtrã nms `uvrgbms rãgdcsãs å i`kpgrmr gvmi dms gvglt-kãtrãs 8   I`kpgrmr dg prãvcsc`l nms prcx å dmur rãgdctã 8   Urãsmltmr gux kgìtrms n–řuvrm dms pr`omts nm nãi`kptms kmlsumds (UNK), dcãs gux sctugtc`ls nms trgvgux 8   Mtgadcr nms stgtcstcqums `u nms rgtc`s nm prcx, nm qugltctãs n–`uvrgbm `u nm tmkps ulctgcrms 8   K`ncfcmr dg acadc`tjêqum nms prcx nm vmltm ulctgcrms 8   Glgdysmr dm acdgl nm fcl nm ijgltcmr 8 mti. D–mltrmprmlmur pmut sm prãsmltmr s`us f`rkm n–ul mltrmprmlmur bãlãrgd, n–mltrmprmlmurs br`upãs, n–mltrmprmlmurs sãpgrãs gvmi ulm imddudm nm syltjêsm `u pgs. =.7. 

Mltrmprmlmur bãlãrgd

Cd s–gbct n–ul mltrmprmlmur tctudgcrm n–ul kgrijã k grijã ulcqum quc g p`ur `aomt d–mlsmkadm nms trgvgux i`li`urglt å dg rãgdcsgtc`l n–ul kïkm `uvrgbm.

Fcburm 6 ? Mltrmprmlmur bãlãrgd =.1. 

Mltrmprmlmurs br`upãs

Im s`lt nms mltrmprmlmurs tctudgcrms ijgiul n–ul kgrijã, gprês gv`cr ãtuncã ml i`kkul, ijgiul p`ur sg spãicgdctã, nms trgvgux i`li`urglt å dg rãgdcsgtc`l n–ul `uvrgbm mt gv`cr s`ukcssc`llã pgr d–cltmrkãncgcrm n–ul kglngtgcrm i`kkul. 13

 

 

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

Fcburm 2 ? Mltrmprmlmurs br`upãs (s`dcngcrms) =.9. 

Mltrmprmlmurs sãpgrãs

Im s`lt nms mltrmprmlmurs gyglt scblã clnãpmlngkkmlt dms uls nms gutrms nms kgrijãs ãtuncãs sãpgrãkmlt pgr ijgiul n–mux, rmdgtcfs å nms trgvgux i`li`urglt å dg rãgdcsgtc`l n–ul kïkm `uvrgbm.

Fcburm : ? Mltrmprmlmurs sãpgrãs (sgls imddudm nm syltjêsm)

Fcburm 3 ? Mltrmprmlmurs sãpgrãs (gvmi imddudm nm syltjêsm)

95

 

  6. 

Kcssc`ls nu i`lnuitmur nm trgvgux

Ngls ul pr`omt nm i`lstruitc`l, dg i`ltrcautc`l nu i`lnuitmur nm trgvgux, quc mst pdus s`uvmlt pdgiã ngls dg p`sctc`l nu Kgìtrm n–řuvrm, sm kglcfmstm ngls dms ncffãrmltms pjgsms nm dg rãgdcsgtc`l nms `uvrgbms nm aátckmlts, gussc acml ml pjgsm n–ãtunm qu–ml pjgsm n–mxãiutc`l.  

Ml pjgsm n–ãtunm ?

Cd s–gbct n–ãtuncmr d–msqucssm (MYW), d–gvglt-pr`omt s`kkgcrm (GUY), d–gvglt-pr`omt nãtgcddã (GUN) mt dm pr`omt n–mxãiutc`l (UM) ? Mtunm n–msqucssm

  Ur`p`smr nms s`dutc`ls sgtcsfgcsglt dm pr`brgkkm 8

(Msqucssms å d–ãijmddm 7/=55,

  Clncqumr dms nãdgcs nm rãgdcsgtc`l prãvus prã vus 8

Nãtgcds å d–ãijmddm 7/155, Nãdgc n–mxãiutc`l )

  Mxgkclmr dmur i`kpgtcacdctã gvmi d–mlvmd`ppm fclglicêrm 8   Vãrcfcmr dg fgcsgacdctã nu pr`omt.   Urãicsmr dg i`kp`sctc`l nu pr`omt ml pdgl p dgl mt ml v`dukm 8

Mtunm nm d–gvglt-pr`omt d–gvglt-pr`omt s`kkgcrm

  Gpprãicmr dms v`dukms cltãrcmurs mt d–gspmit mxtãrcmur nm d–`uvrgbm 8

(Udgls, Fgâgnms mt Yijãkgs

  Ur`p`smr dms ncsp`sctc`ls tmijlcqums å mlvcsgbmr 8

nms rãsmgux å d–ãijmddm 7?155, Nãtgcds å d–ãijmddm 7?755, Nmsircptcf, Igdmlnrcmr, Mstckgtc`l nm i`øt )

  Mtgadcr ulm mstckgtc`l pr`vcs`crm nu i`øt prãvcsc`llmd nms trgvgux.

Mtunm nm d–gvglt-pr`omt d–gvglt-pr`omt nãtgcddã

  Nãtmrkclmr dms surfgims nãtgcddãms nu pr`brgkkm 8   Mtgadcr dms pdgls, dms i`upms, dms fgâgnms ml nckmlsc`ls mt gspmit 8

(N`iukmlts brgpjcqums å

  Nãfclcr dms k`nms i`lstruitcfs, dms kgtãrcgux, mt dms clstgddgtc`ls

  Urãicsmr dm igdmlnrcmr nm rãgdcsgtc`l 8

d–ãijmddm 7?755, Nãtgcds å d–ãijmddm d–ãij mddm 7?=5, 7?=5, Nmsircptcf Nmsircptcf nms `uvrgbms, Mvgdugtc`l nãtgcddãm )

tmijlcqums 8   Mtgadcr d–mstckgtc`l nãfclctcvm nu i`øt prãvcsc`llmd nms trgvgux 8   Igdiudmr dm f`rfgct nm rãkulãrgtc`l prãvu pgr dm i`ltrgt.

Mtunm nu pr`omt n–mxãiutc`l

  Urãicsmr pgr dms pdgls, i`upms mt ãdãvgtc`ls dg f`rkm nms ãdãkmlts nm dg

(Udgls å d–ãijmddm 7?=5, Urmsircptc`ls tmijlcqums,  Gvglt-kãtrã nms `uvrgbms, Nmvcss qugltctgtcf Nmvc qugltctgtcf mstckg mstckgtcf, tcf, Igdmlnrcmr bãlãrgd nms trgvgux pgr i`rps n–ãtgt )

i`lstruitc`l, dg lgturm mt dms igrgitãrcstcqums nms kgtãrcgux mt dms i`lnctc`ls nm kcsm ml řuvrm 8   Nãtmrkclmr d–ckpdgltgtc`l mt d–mli`karmkmlt nm t`us dms ãdãkmlts nm struiturm gclsc qum nms ãqucpmkmlts tmijlcqums 8   Urãicsmr dms trgiãs n–gdckmltgtc`l mt n–ãvgiugtc`l nms fducnms 8   Mtgadcr ul i`øt prãvcsc`llmd nms trgvgux pgr i`rps n–ãtgt sur dg agsm n–ul gvglt-kãtrã 8

  Nãtmrkclmr dm nãdgc bd`agd nm rãgdcsgtc`l nm d–`uvrgbm.  

Ml pjgsm nm trgvgux trgvgux ?

Cd s–gbct nm f`urlcr dms pdgls n–mxãiutc`l, nm pdglcfcmr, nm bãrmr mt n–gssurmr dm i`ltrþdm nms trgvgux nm i`lstruitc`l. Udgls n–mxãiutc`l nms `uvrgbms ?

  Mtgadcr t`us dms pdgls n–mxãiutc`l å d–usgbm nu ijgltcmr 8

(Igdiuds mt l`tms tmijlcqums,

pgr d`t `u i`rps n–ãtgt 8   Mtgadcr dm igdmlnrcmr prãvcsc`llmd n–mxãiutc`l nms trgvgux pgr d`t `u i`rps n–ãtgt 8   Mffmitumr dg kcsm ml i`jãrmlim tmijlcqum nms n`iukmlts f`urlcs pgr dms mltrmprcsms d`rsqum dms n`iukmlts p`ur d–mxãiutc`l nms `uvrgbms s`lt ãtgadcs, pgrtcm pgr dm kgìtrm n–řuvrm, pgrtcm pgr dms tctudgcrms nms d`ts 8   Gssurmr dm vcsg nms ãtunms n–mxãiutc`l mt nm syltjêsm (VCYG).

Udgls å d–ãijmddm 7?=5, Nãtgcddms å d–ãijmddm nm 7?15 å 7?1, Nmvcs Nmvcs qugltctgtcf qugltctgtcf nãtgcddã pgr d`t, Igdmlnrcmr nms trgvgux trgvgux nãtgcddã pgr d`t, Clstgddgtc`l nm ijgltcmr )

  Mtgadcr sur dg agsm agsm nms pdgls n–mxãiutc`l ul nmvcs qu qugltctgtcf gltctgtcf nãtgcddã

97

 

 

Ncrmitc`l nms trgvgux mt i`ltrþdm bãlãrgd nms trgvgux (IB^) ?

(L`tms nm smrvcims, @rnrms nm smrvcim, Ur`iês-vmragux, Bmstc`l fclglicêrm nu ijgltcmr )

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

  Y–gssurmr qum dms n`iukmlts n–mxãiutc`l gclsc qum d–`uvrgbm ml i`urs

nm rãgdcsgtc`l rmspmitmlt dms ncsp`sctc`ls nms ãtunms mffmituãms mt vãrcfcmr dg i`lf`rkctã mltrm n`iukmlts pr`nucts pgr d–mltrmprmlmur mt d–mxãiutc`l nms trgvgux tr gvgux ml gppdcigtc`l nu i`ltrgt 8   Nãdcvrmr t`us dms `rnrms nm smrvcim, ãtgadcr t`us dms pr`iês-vmragux lãimssgcrms å d–mxãiutc`l d–m xãiutc`l nms trgvgux, pr`iãnmr gux i`lstgts i`ltrgncit`crms, `rbglcsmr mt ncrcbmr dms rãulc`ls nm ijgltcmr 8   Vãrcfcmr dms pr`omts nm nãi`kptms kmlsumds (UNK) `u dms nmkglnãs n–gvglims prãsmltãms pgr d–mltrmprmlmur 8

  Mtgadcr dms ãtgts n–gi`kptms 8

  Mtgadcr dm nãi`kptm bãlãrgd, mti.

Ucd`tgbm nm d–`pãrgtc`l ?

@rn`llglimkmlt ’ Ucd`tgbm ’ I``rnclgtc`l (@UI)

  Glgdysmr dms táijms ãdãkmltgcrms p`rtglt sur dms ãtunms n–mxãiutc`ls mt

dms trgvgux 8   Nãtmrkclmr dmur mlijgìlmkmlt gclsc qum dm ijmkcl irctcqum pgr nms n`iukmlts brgpjcqums 8   Jgrk`lcsmr ngls dm tmkps mt d–mspgim dms gitc`ls nms ncffãrmlts cltmrvmlglts gu stgnm nms trgvgux 8   Kmttrm ml gppdcigtc`l dms kmsurms n–`rbglcsgtc`l ousqu–å dg dmvãm nms rãsmrvms ngls dms nãdgcs ckpgrtcs pgr dm i`ltrgt 8  

Gsscstglim gu kgìtrm nm d–`uvrgbm (G@Q) ?

Qãimptc`ls nms trgvgux

N`sscmr nms `uvrgbms mxãiutãs (N@M) ?

Mdga`rgtc`l nu igdmlnrcmr n–mxãiutc`l nms trgvgux. tr gvgux.

  @rbglcsmr dms `pãrgtc`ls prãgdgadms å dg rãimptc`l rãim ptc`l nms trgvgux mt

gssurmr dm sucvc nms rãsmrvms f`rkudãms d`rs nm dg rãimptc`l nms trgvgux  ousqu–å dmur dmvãm 8   Ur`iãnmr å d–mxgkml nms nãs`rnrms scblgdãs pgr dm kgìtrm n–`uvrgbm pmlnglt dg pãrc`nm nm bgrgltcm nm pgrfgct gijêvmkmlt.   Mkmttrm dms pr`iês-vmragux nm rãimptc`l.   I`lstctumr dm n`sscmr nms `uvrgbms lãimssgcrms å dmur mxpd`ctgtc`l 8   Kmttrm å o`ur dms pcêims i`ltrgitumddms, dms Udgls n–mlsmkadm mt dms pdgls

tmijlcqums (rmi`ddmkmlt å pgrtcr nms n`iukmlts mltrmprmlmurs) 8   Mkmttrm dms l`tcims n–utcdcsgtc`l `u n–mltrmtcml.

Dm kãtcmr nu i`lnuitmur nm trgvgux mst n`li ul kãtcmr quc fgct gppmd å amgui`up nm i`kpãtmlims gussc acml tmijlcqums qum kglgbmrcmddms.

91

 

 

Mtunm nms ams`cls ml rmss`urims Gvglt nm nãtmrkclmr dms ams`cls ml rmss`urims, cd fgut n–ga`rn pr`iãnmr gu ij`cx nu k`nm i`lstruitcf ml nãfclcssglt dms pr`iã pr`iãnãs nãs nm i`lstruitc`l rmtmlus p`ur rãgdcsmr t`us dms `uvrgbms ãdãkmltgcrms nu aátckmlt å rãgdcsmr rãgdcsmr.. 7. 

Ij`cx nu k`nm i`lstruitcf

Dm ij`cx nu k`nm i`lstruitcf n`ct s–ãtgadc s–ãtgadcrr três tþt nês qum d–mltrmprcsm mst gnouncigtgcrm nu kgrijã, igr t`utm dg prãpgrgtc`l nu ijgltcmr ml nãi`udm. N–jgactunm dms irctêrms nm ij`cx s`lt l`karmux mt cd mst lãimssgcrm nm pr`iãnmr pgr ãdckclgtc`l ml i`lscnãrglt ngls d–`rnrm dms p`clts sucvglts ?   Dms `rcmltgtc`ls ckp`sãms pgr dm idcmlt mt nãirctms ngls dms n`iukmlts i`ltrgitumds

pmuvmlt cltmrncrm `u clnucrm imrtgcls tmijlcqums ml f`litc`l nms fclctc`ls nmkglnãms 8

  Dms i`ltrgcltms tmijlcqums mt rãbdmkmltgcrms dcãms gu sctm (giiês nu ijgltcmr, trgv trgvgcd gcd nm

luct, lgturm nu s`d) quc ckpdcqumlt imrtgclms ncrmitcvms `u `rcmltgtc`ls 8

  Dms nãdgcs n–mxãiutc`l quc ckp`smlt nms pr`iãnãs i`kkm dg prãfgarcigtc`l nm imrtgcls

ãdãkmlts nm i`lstruitc`l 8

mt dmtrglsp`rtgadm sgv`cr-fgcrm 8nms ãqucpms n–mxãiutc`l sur dms pr`iãnãs nãoå utcdcsãs   D–mxpãrcmlim mt/`u fgicdmkmlt   Dms mlbcls mt dms kgtãrcmds ncsp`lcadms i`urgkkmlt mkpd`yãs ngls d–mltrmprcsm 8   Dg nãtmrkclgtc`l nu i`øt nm rãgdcsgtc`l gprês ãtunm i`kpgrgtcvm pgrtcmddm `u t`tgdm,

mti. Dm k`nm i`lstruitcf rmtmlu p`rtmrg sur dm pr`iãnã quc bgrgltct dg s`updmssm nm f`litc`ll f`litc`llmkmlt, mkmlt, dg fcgacdctã mt quc smrg rãgdcsã gvmi dms kmcddmurs i`øts nm rmvcmlt. U`ur `ptckcsmr s`l ij`cx, `l pr`p`sm nm sucvrm dg kãtj`nm sucvgltm ? (7) 

Glgdysmr dms ncffãrmltms ncffãrmltms pcêims nu n`sscmr nm kgrijã, l`tgkkmlt dm II^U ?

Imttm glgdysm nmvrg pmrkmttrm nm ?   L`tmr t`us dms p`clts pgrtciudcmrs 8 ãtgadcs pgr d–grijctmitm 8    Nãi`nmr s`cblmusmkmlt t`us dms pdgls nu pr`omt ãtgadcs   Kmttrm ml rmdgtc`l dm II^U mt dms pdgls nm nãfclctc`l nms `uvrgbms 8

  Vãrcfcmr dg p`sscacdctã nm pr`p`smr gu kgìtrm n–řuvrm nms vgrcgltms 8    Gpprãicmr dms nãdgcs fcxãs pgr dm pdgllclb i`ltrgitumd i`ltrgitumd nm trgvgux, mti. (1) 

Clvmlt`rcmr dms ncsp`lcacdctãs ml kgtãrcmds mt ml kgcl-n–řuvrm pr`nuitcvm nm d–mltrmprcsm ?

Imdg rmvcmlt å ?    Glgdysmr dm igrlmt nms i`kkglnms nm trgvgux nm d–mltrmprcsm 8

  I`lsudtmr dm smrvcim kgtãrcmd mt nãbgbmr dms p`sscacdctãs nm s`l utcdcsgtc`l 8   Mtuncmr tmijlcqumkmlt dms kãtj`nms p`sscadms n–mxãiutc`l mt smd`l dg i`kpdmxctã nu pr`omt, `l pmut ïtrm gkmlã å i`lsudtmr nms aurmgux n–ãtunms tmijlcqums spãicgdcsãs mt/`u kmttrm å i`ltrcautc`l s`l smrvcim kãtj`nm trgvgux, gfcl nm rãs`unrm tmijlcqumkmlt t`us dms pr`adêkms mlvcsgbãs. 99

 

  (9) 

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

I`lsudtmr mt lãb`icmr gvmi dms s`us-trgctglts mt dms f`urlcssmurs nm kgtãrcmds mt nm kgtãrcgux ?

 Ngls im igs, cd mst s`ujgctgadm nm dglimr nms gppmds å dg i`liurrmlim gfcl nm ij`cscr nms s`ustrgctglts mt nms f`urlcssmurs quc prãsmltmlt dm pdus n–cltãrït p`ur d–mltrmprcsm. (>) 

Mvgdumr dm i`øt nm rmvcmlt nm ijgqum kãtj`nm `u nm ijgqum s`dutc`l mlvcsgbãm ?

Ml fgct, å pgrtcr nms kãtj`nms nm i`lstruitc`l rmtmlums, cd mst lãimssgcrm nm ijcffrmr dm i`øt nm ijgiulm n–mltrm-mddms ml igdiudglt dms vgdmurs ml nãa`ursãs smis ? kgcl-n–řuvrm, kgtãrcgux, kgtãrcmds mt kgtcêrms i`ls`kkgadms. (=) 

Mtgadcr ul acdgl acdgl i`kpgrgtcf nms kãtj`nms ãtuncãms ?

 Gclsc, `l vãrcfcm dg fgcsgacdctã bd`agdm mt dg i`kpgtcacdctã mltrm dms s`dutc`ls rmtmlums p`ur rãgdcsmr ijgqum `uvrgbm ãdãkmltgcrm. (6) 

Ij`cscr dm k`nm i`lstruitcf å kmttrm ml řuvrm ?

]lm f`cs dm ij`cx nu k`nm i`lstruitcf mst nãfclctcf, `l pmut ãtgadcr dms pdgls n–mxãiutc`l n–`uvrgbms (UM@) pgr dms AM^ i`lsudtãs mt dglimr dms i`kkglnms ml kgtãrcgux mt kgtãrcmds.

1. 

Ams`cls ml kgcl-n–řuvrm

Dg kgcl n–řuvrm pr`nuitcvm i`limrlm dm pmrs`llmd nu ijgltcmr gffmitã ncrmitmkmlt å dg rãgdcsgtc`l nms `uvrgbms. `uvrgbms. Dms ams`cls ml kgcl-n–řuvrm sm nãtmrkclmlt å pgrtcr ? -  Nu fcijcmr nms `uvrcmrs nm d–mltrmprcsm (l`ks, qugdcfcigtc`ls qugdcfcigtc`ls,, i`kpãtmlims, mti.) 8 -  Nu a`rnmrmgu nms tmkps ulctgcrms n–`uvrcmr `u n–ãqucpm spãicfcqums å d–mltrmprcsm 8 -  Nms j`rgcrms nm trgvgcd nu ijgltcmr. U`ur nãtmrkclmr dms ams`cls ml kgcl-n–řuvrm n–ul ijgltcmr, `l pmut sucvrm dg nãkgrijm sucvgltm ? (7) 

Mtgadcr d–gvglt d–gvglt kãtrã nms `uvrgbms å mxãiutmr ?

 Gprês gv`cr nãi`kp`sã d–`uvrgbm ml d` d`ts, ts, pgrtcms nm d`ts, pjgsms mt táijms, `l rmijmrijm p`ur ijgqum d`t, pgrtcm nm d`t, pjgsm `u táijm dms qugltctãs n–`uvrgbms å rãgdcsmr mt `l nãtmrkclm nm imttm kglcêrm dms qugltctãs ml řuvrm.  

(1)

Igdiudmr dm irãnct n–jmurms å pgrtcr nms tmkps ulctgcrms n–mxãiutc`l ?

@l supp`sm qum dm ijgltcmr vg sm nãr`udmr å pmu prês i`kkm dm `u dms ijgltcmrs prãiãnmlts sur dmsqumds `l g rmdmvã nms tmkps ulctgcrms ?

   G pgrtcr nm n m ims tmkps ulctgcrms n n–`uvrcmr –`uvrcmr `u n–ãqucpm `l rmtcmlt dms tmkps ulctgcrms quc i`rrmsp`lnmlt å d–mxãiutc`l nu kïkm `uvrgbm ngls dms kïkms i`lnctc`ls, gvmi dm kïkm kgtãrcmd 8

  Dm irãnct n–jmurms sm nãtmrkclm gd`rs p`ur ijgqum táijm ml kudtcpdcglt dms tmkps ulctgcrms n–mxãiutc`ls pgr dms qugltctãs ml řuvrm nms `uvrgbms å rãgdcsmr 8

  Dms n`kgclms s`uvmlt utcdcsãs p`ur imttm kãtj`nm s`lt dms ãtunms nm prcx mt dms mstckgtc`ls bd`agdms nm i`øt.  i`øt.  Yc `l i`kkmlim å igdiudmr dm irãnct n–jmurms å pgrtcr nms tmkps ãdãkmltgcrms ? d m pr`imssus n–mxãiutc`l ml nãi`kp`sglt dms táijms å mffmitumr ml    Gprês gv`cr ãtgadc dm `pãrgtc`ls ãdãkmltgcrms, `l nãl`karm dg qugltctã (`u frãqumlim) nm ijgqum

9>

 

  `pãrgtc`l ãdãkmltgcrm mt `l ijr`l`kêtrm dm tmkps lãimssgcrm å ijgqum `pãrgtc`l ãdãkmltgcrm 8

   Uucs `l igdiudm dm tmkps smi å dg vctmssm `u å d–gitcvctã d– gitcvctã nm rãfãrmlim ml mffmituglt dms  pr`nucts nm ijgqum tmkps ãdãkmltgcrm pgr dm l`karm n–`pãrgtc`ls i`rrmsp`lngltms mt `l t`tgdcsm dms rãsudtgts 8

  Imttm kãtj`nm g d–gvgltgbm nm prmlnrm ml i`kptm nms ncffciudtãs spãicfcqums gu ijgltcmr ãtuncã.  ãtuncã.  (9) 

Qmijmrijmr Qmijm rijmr dm nãdgc bd`agd n–mxãiutc`l ?

 G pgrtcr nu igdmlnrcmr prãvcsc`llmd nms trgvgux `l cnmltcfcm dms nurãms igdiudãms p`ur ijgqum d`t, pgrtcm nm d`t, pjgsms `u táijms. Dm irãnct n–jmurms bd`agd p`ur ijgqum d`t rãsudtm nm d–gnnctc`l nm t`us dms tmkps nms táijms gss`icãs. (>) 

Nãtmrkclmr dm l`karm mt dg i`kp`sctc`l nms ãqucpms nm trgvgcd ?

 G pgrtcr nms j`rgcrms o`urlgdcmrs mt jman`kgngcrms nu ijgltcmr, `l i`kp`sm dms ãqucpms ml igdiudglt d–mffmitcf pgr ãqucpm mt pgr táijm. Gclsc ?

  Yc dg nurãm nm dg táijm mst ckp`sãm pgr dm igdmlnrcmr nm trgvgux ?

     

;

ã    ãã ãã  Ò   

 

ã  Ò          Yc dg kgcl n–řuvrm ncsp`lcadm mst dckctãm ?

ã  ã    ℌ ℌ ;

ã    ãã ãã  Ò            Ò       

  Yc dg nurãm mst ckp`sãm mt dg kgcl-n–řuvrm k gcl-n–řuvrm dckctãm ?

  ℌ ã ã 

   ℌ ã ;       Ò  ‱ ‱ 

Mlsuctm, iukudmr gu lcvmgu lcvmgu nm d–ãqucpm p`ur `atmlcr dm i`updm nãdgc-mffmitcf nãdgc-mffmitcf ml grr`lncssglt gu l`karm mltcmr n–`uvrcmrs ckkãncgtmkmlt supãrcmur qugln dm nãdgc mst ckpãrgtcf. 1.7. 

Iglt`llmkmlts p`ur kgcl-n–řuvrm

Ymd`l d–ckp`rtglim nm d–`pãrgtc`l, å d–mltrãm nu ijgltcmr s`lt clstgddãs nms d`igux pr`vcs`crms p`ur gssurmr gux pmrs`llmds ul kclckuk nm i`lf`rt mt n–jybcê n–jybcêlm lm nurglt dms trgvgux (vmstcgcrms, rãfmit`crms, sglctgcrms, mti.) mt p`ur giiumcddcr dms ncvmrsms rãulc`ls nm ijgltcmr (aurmgux, sgddms nm rãulc`ls, rãulc`ls, mti.). Ugr rgpp`rt å dg nurãm nm trgvgux, `l ncstclbum tr`cs typms nm ijgltcmr ?   Ijgltcmr nm typm (7) ? sc dg nurãm mst nm k`cls nm 7= o`urs `u sc dm l`karm nm trgvgcddmurs lm nãpgssm pgs 15 pmrs`llms p`ur ulm nurãm clfãrcmurm å > k`cs 8

  Ijgltcmr nm typm (1) ? sc dg nurãm vgrcm mltrm 7= o`urs mt > k`cs mt dm l`karm nm trgvgcddmurs mst nm pdus nm 15 trgvgcddmurs 8  8 

  Ijgltcmr nm typm (9) ? im s`lt nms ijgltcmrs fcxms gvmi ulm nurãm quc nãpgssm > k`cs qumd qum s`ct d–mffmitcf.  d–mffmitcf.  

9=

 

 

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

Fcburm 75 ? ^ypms nm ijgltcmrs

Ml f`litc`l nu typm nm ijgltcmr dms clstgddgtc`ls clstgddgtc`ls `adcbgt`crms s`lt dms sucvglts ?

Fcburm 77 ? Clstgddgtc`ls `adcbgt`crms ngls ul ijgltcmr fcxm 1.1. 

I`limptc`l typms nms iglt`llmkmlts

Ml f`litc`l nm d–mlvmrburm nu ijgltcmr, dg i`limptc`l mt d–ckp`rtglim nms iglt`llmkmlts vgrcmlt n–ul ijgltcmr å d–gutrm. Lãglk`cls,, `l pmut ictmr qumdqums mxmkpdms typms ? Lãglk`cls

96

 

 

Fcburm 71 ? Igrgitãrcstcqums nms iglt`llmkmlts

Ml prclicpm t`us dms iglt`llmkmlts n`cvmlt ïtrm pdgiãs å d–mltrãm nu ijgltcmr, mt cds n`cvmlt gssurmr d–giiês nms `uvrcmrs gux vmstcgcrms, p`ur p`uv`cr ijglbmr dmurs jgacddms gvglt dms trgvgux 8 U`ur d–giiês nms vcsctmurs mt nms pgrtcicpglts gux rãulc`ls nm ijgltcmr, cd mst prãfãrgadm nm ij`cscr d–mkpdgimkmlt dg sgddm nm rãulc`l å d–mltrãm nu ijgltcmr 8 Dms aurmgux mt dms rãfmit`crms, quglt å mux, cds n`cvmlt ïtrm pdgiãs ul pmu d`cl nms mspgiãs sgdãs nu trgvgcd. 9. 

Ams`cls ml kgtãrcgux

Dms ams`cls ml kgtãrcgux p`ur ul ijgltcmr nm aátckmlt sm nãtmrkclmlt p`ur ijgqum `uvrgbm ãdãkmltgcrm å pgrtcr nm d–gvglt kãtrã mt nms qugltctãs ãdãkmltgcrms nm kgtãrcgux mltrglt ngls d–ulctã n–`uvrgbms, n–`uvrgbms, y i`kprcs dms pmr pmrtms tms nums gu trglsp`rt `u å dg kcsm ml řuvrm nms kgtãrcgux. U`ur nãtmrkclmr dms ams`cls ml kgtãrcgux `l sm pr`p`sm nm sucvrm dg nãkgrijm sucvgltm ? (7)  Mtgadcr d–gvglt kãtrã nms `uvrgbms å rãgdcsmr ?

92

 

 

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

 Gprês gv`cr nãi`kp`sã d–`uvrgbm ml d`ts, pjgsms mt táijms, `l rmijmrijm p`ur ijgqum d`t,  pjgsms `u táijm dms qugltctãs n–`uvrgbm å rãgdcsmr rãgdcsmr 8

(1)  Nãtmrkclmr dms qugltctãs nm kgtãrcgux ãdãkmltgcrms mltrglt ngls d–ulctã n–`uvrgbm

ãdãkmltgcrm smd`l ulm nms kãtj`nms sucvgltms ?   Y`ct å pgrtcr nm rãsudtgts stgtcstcqums cssus nm ijgltcmrs glgd`bums, ngls im igs dms pmrtms nm kgtãrcgux s`lt nãoå clidusms 8 ml mffmituglt nms igdiuds å pgrtcr nms igrgitãrcstcqums bã`kãtrcqums nms   Y`ct ãdãkmlts i`lstctutcfs qum d–`l kgo`rm n–ul i`mffcicmlt nm pmrtms.

(9)  Mvgdumr dms pmrtms prãvcscadms sur dms kgtãrcgux ? Ml mffmituglt dm rgpp`rt nms qugltctãs nm kgtãrcgux utcdcsãms sur dm ijgltcmr, ncvcsã pgr dms qugltctãs n–`uvrgbms rãgdcsãs.

(>)  Nãtmrkclmr dms qugltctãs bd`agdms nms kgtãrcgux p`ur gppr`vcsc`llmr dm ijgltcmr ? Ims qugltctãs s–`atcmllmlt p`ur ijgqum kgtãrcgu ml fgcsglt dm pr`nuct nms qugltctãs ãdãkmltgcrms, y i`kprcs dms pmrtms, mltrglt ngls d–ulctã n–`uvrgbm, mt dms qugltctãs n–`uvrgbm å rãgdcsmr.

(=)  Udglcfcmr dms i`kkglnms ? Dg pr`nuitcvctã nms ãqucpms mt dms rmlnmkmlts nms kgtãrcmds pmrkmttmlt nm prãv`cr d–ãtgt n–gvglimkmlt nms trgvgux. @l pmut gd`rs igdiudmr dms i`ls`kkgtc`ls prãvcsc`llmddms nms kgtãrcgux ml f`litc`l nu tmkps mt `l ãtgadct ul pdgllclb nms i`kkglnms ml prãicsglt dms ngtms mt dms qugltctãs lãimssgcrms, ml tmlglt i`kptm nms ncffciudtãs n–giiês mt nãdgcs nm dcvrgcs`l.

(6)  Mvgdumr dm i`øt nms kgtãrcgux k gtãrcgux rmlnus ijgltcmr j`rs tgxms ?  U`ur ijgqum kgtãrcgu, `l igdiudm dm i`øt rmlnu sur ijgltcmr J^ å pgrtcr nm sg vgdmur n–gijgt, guqumd `l go`utm dms frgcs nm ijgrbmkmlt, nm trglsp`rt mt nm nãijgrbmkmlt. Ml fgct, dms i`øts quc s–gppdcqumlt gux qugltctãs dcvrãms sur dm ijgltcmr s`lt dms sucvglts ?

  Dms vgdmurs n–gijgts j`rs tgxms, rmkcsms ãvmltumddms nãnuctms 8   Dms frgcs nm i`lnctc`llmkmlt `u n–mkagddgbm pmrnu 8   Dms frgcs nm ijgrbmkmlt mt nm nãijgrbmkmlt 8   Dms frgcs nm trglsp`rt mt nm dcvrgcs`l 8   Dms frgcs ncvmrs, tmd qum ? gssurglims, frgcs fclglicmrs, frgcs nm bmstc`l nm st`ihs, mti. 9.7. 

Yurfgims lãimssgcrms p`ur nãpþts mt gtmdcmrs

Ngls dm igs nms ijgltcmrs nm brglnm mlvmrburm quc s–ãtgdm sur pduscmurs gllãms, dg surfgim lãimssgcrm "Y" p`ur dm nãpþt nms kgtãrcgux pmut ïtrm nãtmrkclãm ml utcdcsglt dms f`rkudms sckpdms sucvgltms ?

  ;    X±[    ;  Ò  Ò  X X [   ;     X ⁎ [   9:

 

 

@ó ?                  

 U ? mst dg qugltctã kgxckgdm å st`ihmr nu kgtãrcgu kgtãrcgu 8  p ? mst dg qugltctã nu kïkm kgtãrcgu quc pmut ïtrm nãp`sãm sur ulm surfgim nm 7 k±  k± 8   8  7.1 å  å 7.2 7.2 8  8     ?? mst dm i`mffcicmlt nm kgo`rgtc`l p`ur tmlcr i`kptm nm nms giiês, prcs nm 7.1 q ? mst dg rãsmrvm o`urlgdcêrm 8 l ? mst ul l`karm nãtmrkclã ml f`litc`l nu pdgllclb nms i`kkglnms nu kgtãrcgu 8  H ? mst ul i`mffcicmlt tmlglt i`kptm nu l`l ulcf`rkctã nm dg i`ls`kkgtc`l nu kgtãrcgu, mt quc prmln nms vgdmurs gddglt nm 7.= ousqu–å 1.5 8 g ? mst dg qugltctã t`tgdm lãimssgcrm ml kgtãrcgu 8 ^ ? mst dm l`karm t`tgd nms o`urs nm i`ls`kkgtc`l nu kgtãrcgu 8    ?? mst ul i`mffcicmlt p`ur prmlnrm ml i`lscnãrgtc`l dms pmrtms nms kgtãrcgux pmlnglt dms `pãrgtc`ls nm ijgrbm, nãijgrbm, trglsp`rts, mti.

U`ur dms ijgltcmrs idgsscqums, dms surfgims kclckgdms lãimssgcrms p`ur dg rãgdcsgtc`l nu fmrrgcddgbm s`lt ?

Fcburm 79 ? Igs nms pmtcts ijgltcmrs 9.1. 

@rbglcsgtc`l nms mspgims nm trgv trgvgcd gcd

D–`rbglcsgtc`l nm d–gcrm nm fgâ`llgbm pmut sm fgcrm nm ncvmrsms fgâ`ls ?

Fcburm 7> ? @rbglcsgtc`l n'mspgim nm rãgdcsgtc`l nms grkgturms 93

 

 

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

U`ur dms gtmdcmrs nms i`ffrgbms, i`ffrgbms, cds f`litc`llmlt i`kkm dm k`ltrm d–`rbglcbrgkkm sucvglt ?

Fcburm 7= ? Nãkgrijm p`ur d–ãdga`rgtc`l n'ul i`ffrgbm ml a`cs

Nm im fgct, `l n`ct tmlcr i`kptm nms gcrms lãimssgcrms p`ur ijgqum p`stm nm trgvgcd, ml s–gppuyglt sur dms nckmlsc`ls nm ijgqum `utcd. @l pmut pr`iãnmr nm dg kïkm kglcêrm p`ur nckmlsc`llmr ul gtmdcmr nm kmlucsmrcm, nm prãfgarcig prãfgarcigtc`l tc`l n–ãdãkmlts ml aãt`l, mti. >. 

Ams`cls ml kgtãrcmds

Dms ams`cls ml kgtãrcmds n–ul ijgltcmr nm aátckmlt sm nãtmrkclmlt sucvglt dms k`nms i`lstruitcfs rmtmlus p`ur dg rãgdcsgtc`l nms `uvrgbms, å pgrtcr nms qugltctãs nms `uvrgbms å rãgdcsmr cssums d–gvglt kãtrã ãtgadc mt nm dg nurãm n–utcdcsgtc`l `u nms rmlnmkmlts nms kgtãrcmds i`kprmlglt dg pgrt nm tmkps k`rts cljãrmltm å d–mxãiutc`l sur ijgltcmr. @l rgppmddm qum dm tmkps prãvcsc`llmd n–utcdcsgtc`l nu kgtãrcmd, pgr lgturm nm d–`uvrgbm, mst ?

 – –  ã ã  ;

ã – å ã

 

 Dm rãsudtgt n`ct ïtrm grr`lnc ml l`karm mltcmr nm o`urs mt dg s`kkm nm t`us ims rãsudtgts n`llm dm tmkps t`tgd prãvcsc`llmd n–utcdcsgtc`l nms kgtãrcmds. G tctrm n–clf`rkgtc`l, `l rgppmddm dms prclicpgux kgtãrcmds nm bãlcm icvcds s`lt idgssãs ml 15 idgssms, mt dms pdus utcdcsãs s`lt ?                    

Idgssm 7 ? Gdckmltgtc`l ml mgu mt ãpucsmkmlt 8 Idgssm 1 ? Ur`nuitc`l n–gcr i`kprckã mt trgvgux n–gag n–gagttgbm ttgbm 8 Idgssm > ? ^mrrgssmkmlt 8 Idgssm = ? ^rglsp`rt r`utcmr 8 Idgssm 6 ? Dmvgbm mt kglutmltc`l 8 Idgssm 2 ? I`lstruitc`l mt mltrmtcmlt nms r`utms 8 Idgssm 3 ? Fgarcigtc`l, trglsp`rt mt kcsm ml řuvrm nm aãt`ls, k`rtcmrs mt Mlnucts 8 Idgssm 75 ? Ur`nuitc`l, trglsf`rkgtc`l mt ncstrcautc`l nm d–ãlmrbcm 8 Idgssm 77 ? Gtmdcmr a`cs 8 Idgssm 79 ? Agrgqumkmlts 8 >5

 

    Idgssm 7> ? ^`p ^`p`brgpjcm, `brgpjcm, kmsurm mt tãdãi`kkulcig tãdãi`kkulcigtc`l tc`l 8 mti. >.7. 

Nãkgrijm å sucvrm

U`ur nãtmrkclmr dms ams`cls ml kgtãrcmds n–ul ijgltcmr `l sm pr`p`sm nm sucvrm dms ãtgpms sucvgltms ? (7)  Mvgdumr dm trgvgcd å rãgdcsmr ?  G pgrtcr nms rãsudtgts nm d–gvglt kãtrã `l rãigpctudm dms qugltctãs p`stm pgr p`stm 8

(1)  Glgdysmr dg ncsp`lcacdctã nms kgtãrcmds ?  G pgrtcr nms fcijms nms igrgitãrcstcqums nu kgtãrcmd (pmrf`rkglims, igpgictãs, rmlnmkmlt) `l cnmltcfcm dms kgtãrcmds ncsp`lcadms gux imux susimptcadms n–ïtrm d`uãs 8

(9)  Nãtmrkclmr dms kgtãrcmds lãimssgcrms mt dmur nurãm n–utcdcsgtc`l ?  G pgrtcr nm dg nurãm nu ijgltcmr, nms qugltctãs n–`uvrgbms å rãgdcsmr, `l igdiudm dms nãdgcs  prãvcsc`llmds n–mxãiutc`l p`ur ijgqum `uvrgbm pucs p`ur d–mlsmkadm nm dg i`l i`lstruitc`l, struitc`l, p`stm  pgr p`stm 8

(>)  Qãsmrvmr mt pdglcfcmr d–utcdcsgtc`l nu kgtãrcmd k gtãrcmd ? Yur dg agsm nu pdgllclb nms trgvgux pdglcfcmr d–mxpd`ctgtc`l nu kgtãrcmd ml f`litc`l nm d–gvglimkmlt nu ijgltcmr 8

(=)  Nãtmrkclmr dms ams`cls ml kgtcêrms k gtcêrms i`ls`kkga i`ls`kkgadms dms ?  G pgrtcr nms i`ls`kkgtc`ls (Igraurglts, ãdmitrcictã) ãvgduãms stgtcstcqumkmlt p`ur ijgqum mlbcl `u kgtãrcmd mt nms nurãms n–utcdcsgtc`l nãfclcms prãgdgadmkmlt, igdiudmr dms ams`cls ml  pr`nucts mt kgtcêrms i`ls`kkgadms 8

(6)  Mvgdumr dms i`øts nms kgtãrcmds mt nms kgtcêrms i`ls`kkgad i`ls`kkgadms ms ?  U`ur ijgqum kgtãrcmd, `l n`ct n `ct ãvgdumr dm i`øt nm d`igtc`l cltmrlm `u mxtmrlm å d–jmurm, o`ur `u k`cs.

D`rsqum dms ams`cls ml kgtãrcmds lãimssgcrms p`ur dm ijgltcmr s`lt nãtmrkclãs ml l`karm mt nurãm, `l pmut ãtgadcr ul igdmlnrcmr n–utcdcsgtc`l mt pucs ãvgdumr dm aunbmt i`rrmsp`lnglt. >.1. 

Igs nu p`stm nm dmvgbm (dg brum)

U`ur ij`cscr d–mkpdgimkmlt n–ul p`stm nm dmvgbm, `l pmut sucvrm dg nãkgrijm sucvgltm ? (7)  ^rgimr d–gxm nm dg v`cm nm dg brum sur dm pdgl nm tmrrgssmkmlt ? Cd s–gbct nm d`igdcsmr sur dm pdgl nm d–mkprcsm nms aátckmlts mt nms tmrrgssmkmlts d–gxm nm dg v`cm nm dg brum. Imt gxm mst nmssclã dm pdus s`uvmlt pgrgddêdmkmlt gux aátckmlts å i`lstrucrm, å ulm ncstglim kclckgdm (N) n`llãm pgr dms rêbdms ?

  ; + 5, 5,66  (         ?  Ò )  1 (1)  Nãtmrkclmr dg d`lbumur kclckgdm nm dg fdêijm ml kêtrm ?  Gprês gv`cr rmpãrã d–glbdm nu aátckmlt dm pdus ãd`cblã nm d–gxm nm dg v`cm, `l trgim ulm  pmrpmlnciudgcrm å imt gxm, pucs `l kmsurm å d–ãijmddm imttm ncstglim, qum n`ct ïtrm grr`lncm pgr mxiês gu kêtrm supãrcmur 8

(9)  Igdiudmr dg jgutmur kclckgdm s`us ir`ijmt (ℌ ) ? >7

 

 

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

Dm igdiud sm fgct pgr rgpp`rt gu-nmssus nms rgcds nm dg brum, gvmi dg rmdgtc`l sucvgltm ?

ℌ ; ℌ   + ℌ   + ℌ   @ó ?      

ℌ  ? mst dg jgutmur pdus brglnm nms aátckmlts å i`lstrucrm `u nãoå i`lstructs 8    ? mst dg jgutmur nm sãiurctã mltrm ijgrbms å dmvmr mt dm p`clt dm pdus jgut ℌaátckmlt, fcxãm å 1 kêtrms 8 ℌ ? mst dg jgutmur nms ijgrbms å dmvmr y i`kprcs dm kgtãrcmd nm kglutmltc`l.

nu

(>)  Nãtmrkclmr dms vgdmurs kgxckgdms nms ijgrbms å dmvmr ml a`ut nm fdêijm ?  Gprês ãtunms i`kpgrgtcvms, `l rmtcmlt dg pdus brglnm vgdmur nms ijgrbms å dmvmr gux p`rtãms kgxckgdms mt cltmrkãncgcrms 8

(=)  Ij`cscr dg brum `ptckgdm ?  G pgrtcr nms igrgitãrcstcqums igdiudãms, `l ijmrijm dm typm nm brum i`rrmsp`lngltm i`rrmsp`lngltm dm kcmux gu ijgltcmr mt å dg vgdmur d`igtcvm kclckgdm, t`ut ml vãrcfcglt dms p`sscacdctãs nm s`l nãk`ltgbm å dg fcl nms trgvgux 8

(6)  Nãtmrkclmr dg d`lbumur nm dg v`cm nm brum ? Imic pmut sm fgcrm brgpjcqumkmlt ml trgâglt nmux gris nm imridm nm imltrm (@7) mt (@1), dms  p`clts dms pdus ãd`cblãs nu pr`omt nm i`lstruitc`l, mt nm rgy`l "Q" ãbgd å d`lbumur nm dg  fdêijm mt `l kmsurm dg ncstglim G7-G1 i`kkm d–clncqum dm nmsscl ic-gprês ?

brum rum Fcburm 76 ? Gxm nm v`cm nm b

(2)  Nãfclcr dg v`cm nm r`udmkmlt ? Ymd`l dg lgturm nu s`d, dms igrgitãrcstcqums nm dg brum rmtmlum mt dms s`dutc`ls å mlvcsgbmr s`lt ? v`cm sur trgvmrsms, v`cm sur d`lbrclms nu a`cs `u aãt`l grkã 8

(:)  Mtgadcr dg nmkglnm n–clstgddgtc`l nm brum b rum gux gut`rctãs d`igdms d`igdms..  U`ur dg kcsm ml f`litc`l n–ulm brum sur ijgltcmr i jgltcmr `l n`ct nmkglnmr d–gut`rcsgtc`l nm trglsp`rt, prãpgrmr dm tmrrgcl n–mkpdgimkmlt ? nãigpã, gssgclc, i`ls`dcnã, mti., mffmitumr dg kcsm ml pdgim nm dg brum pgr dms d ms smrvcims spãicgdcsãs mt mffmitumr dg kcsm ml smrvcim nm dg brum ? mssgcs stgtcqums mt nylgkcqums. >1

 

  =. 

Qãsmgux nm ijgltcmr

Cd s–gbct nms rãsmgux n–gdckmltgtc`l ml mgu, ãdmitrcictã, tãdãpj`lm, gclsc qum dms rãsmgux n–ãvgiugtc`l nms mgux usãms mt nms mgux pduvcgdms. D–ckpdgltgtc`l nms rãsmgux sur dm pdgl n–clstgddgtc`l nu ijgltcmr mst lãimssgcrm p`ur dms nmkglnms n–gut`rcsgtc`ls nm arglijmkmlt gux i`limssc`llgcrms mt p`ur nãtmrkclmr dms iglgdcsgtc`ls iglgdcsgtc `ls n–gdckmltgtc`l mt n–ãvgiugtc`l å dg ijgrbm nm d–mltrmprcsm ? ml mgu ? p`ur iglt`llmkmlts, imltrgdm å aãt`l, i`d`llm k`ltgltm    Gdckmltgtc`l ngls dm aátckmlt, lmtt`ygbm nms r`ums nms igkc`ls å dg s`rtcm nu ijgltcmr, mti.

   Gdckmltgtc`l ml ãdmitrcictã ? p`ur iglt`llmkmlts, brum, imltrgdm å aãt`l, i`d`llm k`ltgltm ngls dm aátckmlt, ãidgcrgbm nu ijgltcmr, mti.

  Mvgiugtc`l nms mgux usãms nms iglt`llmkmlts.  iglt`llmkmlts. 

Dg fcburm sucvgltm n`llm dg sijãkgtcsgtc`l idgsscqum nm ims rãsmgux ?

Fcburm 72 ? Yijãkgtcsgtc`l idgsscqum nms rãsmgux =.7. 

Dms sijãkgs typms n–ulm clstgddgtc`l ãdmitrcqum

Kïkm sc ulm clstgddgtc`l ãdmitrcqum nm ijgltcmr prãsmltm ul igrgitêrm pr`vcs`crm, mddm n`ct `adcbgt`crmkmlt ïtrm rãgdcsãm ml i`lf`rkctã gvmi dms rãbdmkmltgtc`ls spãicfcqums. `adcbgt`crmkmlt spãicfcqums. Nm im p`clt nm vum, ul ijgltcmr mst i`lscnãrã i`kkm ul dcmu nm trgvgcd k`ucddã ngls dmqumd cd y g dcmu n–ãvctmr nm p`rtmr `u nm kgcltmlcr dms kgssms kãtgddcqums å ul p`tmltcmd supãrcmur å 1= V. Yur ijgltcmr nmux typms nm rcsqums n–giicnmlt mxcstmlt ?    Dm i`ltgit ncrmit mltrm trgvgcddmur mt nms pcêims i`lnuitrcims s`us tmlsc`l 8   Dm i`ltgit clncrmit mltrm ul trgvgcddmur mt nms kgssms kcsms giicnmltmddmkmlt s`us tmlsc`l å dg suctm n–ul nãfgut n–cs`dmkmlt.

Ymd`l d–ckp`rtglim nu ijgltcmr ijgltcmr,, d–clstgddgtc`l ãdmitrcqum i`kprmlnrg dms p`clts sucvglts ? (g)  U`ur dms pmtcts ijgltcmrs ?

D–clstgddgtc`l mst rgii`rnãm sur dm rãsmgu nm ncstrcautc`l agssm tmlsc`l pgr d–cltmrkãncgcrm n–ulm grk`crm (DK) nm pmtctm pucssglim mt n–ulm grk`crm ( IN) p`ur smi`ln řuvrm. Ngls im igs d–gppgrmcd nm i`upurm mt nm pr`tmitc`l mst i`kkglnãm pgr ul rmdgcs ncffãrmltcmd nm 95 kG, l`l rmtgrnã. >9

 

 

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

(a)  U`ur dms ijgltcmrs k`ymls ?

D–clstgddgtc`l i`kprmln ulm grk`crm bãlãrgdm sucvcm n–grk`crms ncvcsc`llgcrms typm (GY7) ãqucpãms nm ncso`litmurs ncffãrmltcmds nm k`ymllm smlscacdctã p`ur d–gdckmltgtc`l nm kgtãrcmds fcxms (5 å 155 G, s`lt mlsuctm pdgiãms gu pcmn nm dg i`d`llm

k`ltgltm nu aátckmlt mt å pr`xckctã nms ncvmrs p`stms nm trgvgcd ? brum, imltrgdm å aãt`l, iglt`llmkmlts, mti.

  Nms i`ffrmts nm ncstrcautc`ls nm 6> G kgxckuk s`lt pdgiãs ngls dms ãtgbms nu aátckmlt

p`ur kudtcpdcmr dms p`clts nm ncstrcautc`l nm fgcadm pucssglim 8

  Dms iáadms smr`lt igdiudãs å pgrtcr nm dg pucssglim å clstgddmr mt ij`cscs ngls dms sãrcms ?   Iáadms s`updms s`us bgclm nm p`dyijd`r`p p`dyijd`r`prêlm rêlm 8   Iáadms rcbcnms gngptãs gux z`lms nm trgvgcd k`ucddãms mt gux i`ltrgcltms kãiglcqums 8   Nurglt dmur pgri`urs, dms iáadms smr`lt pr`tãbãs pgr nms f`urrmgux, nms bgclms mt pgr

brcddgbm gvmrtcssmur s–cds s`lt mltmrrãs.

Ml im quc i`limrlm dm rãsmgu n–gdckmltgtc`l ml mgu,  cd n`ct ïtrm trgiã nu i`kptmur ousqu–gux iglt`llmkmlts, p`stm nm aãt`llgbm, gcrm nm dgvgbm, mti. Wuglt gux rãsmgux n–ãvgiugtc`l   (M], MU), `l n`ct rmijmrijmr dm systêkm n–gssgclcssmkmlt ml vcbumur dg d`igdctã i`limrlglt dms mgux å ãvgiumrå (ml systêkm ulctgcrm `u sãpgrgtcf). Mlsuctm, ngls `l rmpêrm dg p`sctc`l nu rmbgrn nm o`litc`l d–ãb`ut mt imddm nu rmbgrn gvgd`cr rmiumcddglt dms MU. Gclsc, @l pmut trgimr dm kmcddmur pgri`urs mltrm ims rmbgrns mt dms gutrms rmbgrns rmimvglt dms mgux usãms nms iglt`llmkmlts mt nu p`stm nm aãt`llgbm, mti. 6. 

Dg idþturm nu ijgltcmr

U`ur ncvmrsms rgcs`ls nm sãiurctã, ul ijgltcmr n`ct ïtrm dckctã pgr ulm idþturm. Imttm idþturm n`ct ïtrm `pgqum mt n–ulm jgutmur nm nmux kêtrms  mlvcr`l.   mlvcr`l. Dms p`rtms n`cvmlt, nm prãfãrmlim, s–`uvrcr vmrs d–cltãrcmur nu ijgltcmr p`ur d–giiês nms vãjciudms mt d–giiês nms pcãt`ls pcãt`ls.. Cd fgut qum dg pgrtcm mltmrrãm ngls dm s`d () n–ul p`tmgu mt gssurglt dm simddmkmlt nm dg idþturm vãrcfcm dg rmdgtc`l ?

 ;

ℌ

+ 5,75 5,75 X[ 

75

Dg vgdmur nm ()  n`ct ïtrm kclckuk ãbgdm å >5 ik. ℌ ãtglt dg jgutmur nu kur nm idþturm >>

 

 

Fcburm 7: ? Igrgitãrcstcqums nm dg idþturm

Gprês gv`cr nmssclã sur dm pdgl nm kgssm, dg p`sctc`l mt dms nckmlsc`ls nms giiês `l trgim d–mkpdgimkmlt nm dg idþturm. Ngls t`us dms igs, dms idþturms nmvr`lt ïtrm rãbdmkmltãms, ml prclicpm, pgr grrïtã kulcicpgdm mt ims rêbdmkmlts clncqumlt dms igrgitãrcstcqums nm dg idþturm ? jgutmur, ncstglim mltrm p`tmgux, mti.

>=

 

 

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

Udgl n–clstgddgtc`l n–ul ijgltcmr ]l pdgl n–clstgddgtc`l nm ijgltcmr nãfclct dms kgtãrcmds lãimssgcrms å dg rãgdcsgtc`l nms `uvrgbms mt dms iglt`llmkmlts p`ur giiumcddcr dm pmrs`llmd nu ijgltcmr ijgltcmr.. Im pdgl n–clstgddgtc`l nm ijgltcmr smrt gussc p`ur ?

  @atmlcr dms gut`rcsgtc`ls n–clstgddgtc`l nm brum, nms arglijmkmlts nms rãsmgux 8   @atmlcr dms gut`rcsgtc`ls n–clstgddmr dm ijgltcmr sucvglt dms rêbdms n–jybcêlm mt nm sãiurctã nms smrvcims nm d–clspmitc`l nu trgvgcd.  trgvgcd. 

7. 

Nãkgrijm bãlãrgdm

U`ur ãdga`rmr dm pdgl n–clstgddgtc`l nm ijgltcmr `l n`ct ? (g)  Glgdysmr t`utms dms i`ltrgcltms dcãms gu sctm mt å d–mlvcr`llmkmlt 8 (a)  Nãtmrkclmr dms igrgitãrcstcqums nm brum, nms iglt`llmkmlts, nms gtmdcmrs, nms nãpþts, nms rãsmgux, mti. 1. 

Glgdysm nms i`ltrgcltms nm sctm

U`ur fgcrm imttm glgdysm `l pmut sucvrm dms ãtgpms sucvgltms ? (7)  Vcsctmr dm sctm p`ur cnmltcfcmr d–mlvcr`llm d–mlvcr`llmkmlt kmlt ? D–ãtgt nms dcmux pmrkmt nm rmdmvmr ?   Dms giiês, dg t`p`brgpjcm nu sctm, dms d ms idþturms mxcstgltms 8   Dms p`sctc`ls nms ãb`uts 8   D–mkpdgimkmlt nu p`stm nm trglsf`rkgtc`l ãdmitrcqum dm pdus pr`ijm 8   Dms v`crcms (nckmlsc`l, smls nm icriudgtc`l, bgagrct, ijgrbm r`udgltm), mti.  mti.  

(1)  Vcsctmr dms smrvcims kulcicpgux, prãfmit`rgux mt dms smrvcims nm sãiurctã ? Imdg pmrkmt n–`atmlcr ?   Dms i`lnctc`ls nm surv`d nms aátckmlts v`cscls `u nms v`cms 8   Dms i`lnctc`ls nm trgvgcd nu sctm vcs-å-vcs nm aruct 8

  Dms p`sscacdctãs ãvmltumddms nm trgvgcddmr pmlnglt dg luct 8 n ms cltmkpãrcms, dms pãrc`nms vmltmusms, mti.   Dms rãbckms nms mgux mt nms

9. 

Mdga`rgtc`l Mdga`rg tc`l nm pdgl n–clstgddgtc`l

Gprês qum s`lt nãtmrkclãms t`utms dms igrgitãrcstcqums nm brum, nms iglt`llmkmlts, nms gtmdcmrs, nms nãpþts, nms rãsmgux, mti. ml i`lf`rkctã gvmi dms rêbdms nãoå ãtgadcs, `l trgim dm pdgl n–clstgddgtc`l n–clstgddg tc`l ngls dmqumd cd fgut ? (7)  U`sctc`llmr d–mlbcl nm dmvgbm ? Dms brums s`lt nmssclãms å d–ãijmddm sur ul pdgl nm kgssm quc clncqum d–mkpdgimkmlt nms aátckmlts å i`lstrucrm mt d–mkprcsm nm tmrrgssmkmlts. Im nmsscl n`ct clncqumr ?

  Dg d`lbumur nm dg fdêijm mt nm i`ltrm-fdêijm 8   Dg surfgim gu s`d `iiupãm pgr d–mkagsm nm dg brum 8   Dg d`lbumur nm v`cm nm brum mt dm lcvmgu nms rgcds 8   Dg z`lm n–cltmrfãrmlim mltrm dms brums mt dg z`lm nm surv`d cltmrnct ml ijgrbm 8   D–gdckmltgtc`l mt dg pucssglim ãdmitrcqum 8 >6

 

    Dg kgrqum, dm typm mt dms igrgitãrcstcqums nm dg brum 8   Dms f`lngtc`ls lãimssgcrms p`ur dg brum.

(1)  Udgimr dgs gcrms nm pr`nuitc`l `u nm trglsp`rt nu aãt`l ? Yc dm aãt`l smrg gijmtã, `l nmssclm dms giiês mt dms gcrms nm stgtc`llmkmlt nms igkc`ls t`upcms. Yc, pgr i`ltrm, cd smrg fgarcquã sur ijgltcmr å d–gcnm n–ulm imltrgdm å aãt`l. @l ncsp`sm gd`rs im p`stm prês nm d–giiês, s`us d–gcrm nm agdgygbm nm dg brum.

(9)  Ncsp`smr dms gcrms nm rãgdcsgtc`l nms ? i`ffrgbms i`ffrgbms,, grkgturms, prãfgarcigtc`l 8 (>)  Qmprãsml Qmprãsmltmr tmr dms aurmgux mt dms iglt`llmkmlts 8 (=)  Qmprãsml Qmprãsmltmr tmr dms rãsmgux ? n–mgu, n–ãdmitrcictã, n–gssgclcssmkmlt 8 (6)  Qmprãsml Qmprãsmltmr tmr dms gcrms nm st`ihgbm mt dms v`cms nm icriudgtc`l ? Dms gcrms nm st`ihgbm mt dms v`cms nm icriudgtc`l å rmprãsmltmr s`lt prclicpgdmkmlt ?   Dms z`lms nm st`ihgbms nms tmrrms vãbãtgdms mt nms n ms rmkadgcs 8   Dms z`lms nm st`ihgbm nms kgtãrcgux p`ur dms mltrmprcsms nm smi`ln řuvrm 8

  Dms z`lms nm icriudgtc`l gut`ur nms ncvmrs p`stms 8   Dms idþturms mt pgllmgux nm ijgltcmr mt nm scblgdcsgtc`l nms v`cms, mti.

(2)  Qmprãsml Qmprãsmltmr tmr dms ãqucpmkmlts, y i`kprcs imux n–ãidgcrgbm 8 (:)  Nmssclmr ulm i`upm vmrtcigdm sur dms aátckmlts ml i`li`rnglim gvmi dm kgtãrcmd nm dmvgbm, p`ur vãrcfcmr dms iþtms ml jgutmur.

>2

 

 

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

Udglcfcigtc`l nm pcqumtgbm ]l systêkm nm pcqumtgbm, sur t`ut ijgltcmr nm i`lstruitc`l i`lscstm ml dg nãtmrkclgtc`l mt d–ãtgadcssmkmlt n–ul systêkm acml nãfclc nm dcblms, nm ncstglims mt nms pdgls pmrkmttglt nm ncsp`smr n–ul rãsmgu gppr`prcã p`ur `atmlcr dg p`sctc`l mt dm lcvmgu mxgit nms `uvrgbms mt ãdãkmlts n–`uvrgbm. Nmsircptc`l bãlãrgdm 7.  ]l systêkm nm pcqumtgbm i`kp`rtm tr`cs lcvmgux `rn`llãs mt i`llmitãs, i`kkm sur dm sijãkg sucvglt ?

Fcburm 73 ? Dms lcvmgux nm pcqumtgbm

 

Dm systêkm prckgcrm (`u iglmvgs prclicpgd) ? I`uvrm l`rkgdmkmlt t`ut dm ijgltcmr mt cd mst i`lstctuã n–ul rãsmgu nm p`clts, i`llmitã gu systêkm nm i`ltrþdm `ffcicmd (lgtc`lgd, kulcicpgd, mti.) 8  

Dm systêkm smi`lngcrm (p`sctc`l ml Z mt S mt gdtctunm _) ? Umrkmt n–ckpdgltmr d–`uvrgbm sur sg pgrimddm mt cd smrt nm rãfãrmlim `u nm rãsmgu nm qugnrcddgbm p`ur dg i`lstruitc`l n–ul aátckmlt `u n–ul br`upm nm aátckmlts gclsc qum p`ur dms trgvgux gllmxms. Ngls im igs dms rmpãrãs n`cvmlt ïtrm kcs ml pdgim nm kglcêrm nurgadm pmlnglt dm nãr`udmkmlt nu ijgltcmr 8  

U`clts nm p`sctc`l ? Kgrqumlt d–mkpdgimkmlt nms ãdãkmlts cs`dãs (mxmkpdm ? p`tmgux, v`cdm, mti.). >:

 

 

Dm rmspmit nm dg bã`kãtrcm nm d–`uvrgbm mxcbm qum dms pr`iãnurms nm kmsurgbm s`cmlt rãgdcsãms pgr ul pmrs`llmd spãicfcqum mt d–mxgitctunm « cltmrlms ¸ nms kmsurms (mltrgxm nm v`cdm pgr mxmkpdm) mst pdus irctcqum p`ur dm pr`imssus nm i`lstruitc`l qum d–mxgitctunm gas`dum nm ims p`clts ngls ul systêkm nm i``rn`llãms pdus bãlãrgd. Nm im p`clt nm vum, dms táijms s`lt rãpgrtcms nm dg kglcêrm sucvgltm ?   Dm rãsmgu prckgcrm ? n`ct ïtrm rãgdcsã gvglt dm pcqumtgbm nm rãsmgu smi`lngcrm mt smudmkmlt pgr ul bã`kêtrm mxpmrt 8   Dm rãsmgu smi`lngcrm ? n`ct ïtrm rãgdcsã gvglt dm pcqumtgbm nms p`clts nm p`sctc`ls

pgr ul bã`kêtrm t`p`brgpjm nm d–mltrmprcsm 8   Dms p`clts nm p`sctc`l ? n`cvmlt ïtrm rãg rãgdcsã dcsã gvglt ddmm nãaut nms trgvgux nm

i`ffrgbm pgr ul spãicgdcstm nu ijgltcmr. Cd fgut kmltc`llmr qu–gprês dg rãgdcsgtc`l nm ijgqum lcvmgu nm pcqumtgbm, s–ckp`sm ulm vãrcfcigtc`l mffmituãm pgr dm kgìtrm n–řuvrm smudmkmlt.

Fcburm 15 ? Ogd`llmkmlt

Ijgqum f`cs, ul pcqumtgbm n`ct i`kp`rtmr gussc ul l`k l`karm arm n–`asmrvgtc`ls surga`lngltms surga`lngltms,, p`ur p`uv`cr nãtmitmr dms mrrmurs br`sscêrms mt pmrkmttrm ulm vãrcfcigtc`l nms p`clts ckpdgltãs pmlnglt dg nurãm nu ijgltcmr. Nm p`clt nm vum nm t`dãrglims giimptãms, `l g dms vgdmurs sucvgltms ?  

    U`ur ulm ncstglim 

U`ur ulm ncstglim < 2 , `l g ulm t`dãrglim ·7.= 4 2 , dg t`dãrglim mst ·>·7.=   8  () 8 >3

 

 

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

  U`ur ul glbdm (), dg t`dãrglim mst ·5.7 ·5.7    (µ) 8   U`ur ulm jgutmur    U`ur ulm jgutmur 

< > , `l g ulm t`dãrglim ·7.=  () 8 4 > , dg t`dãrglim mst · 9 .

Dms p`clts nm kmsurms n`cvmlt ïtrm nãfclcs gvmi mxgitctunm mt idgcrmkmlt ogd`llãs, n–ulm tmddm kglcêrm p`ur lm pgs bïlmr dm nãr`udmkmlt nm dg i`lstruitc`l, t`ut ml vmcddglt å mkpïijmr t`ut nãpdgimkmlt giicnmltmd nm dmur p`sctc`l, i`kkm sur dg fcburm ic-gvglt. 1. 

Ijgcsms n–gdcblmkmlt

Dms ijgcsms s`lt dms ignrms sur dmsqumddms `l rmpêrm ulm dcblm p`ur dm i`ltrþdm nms tmrrgssmkmlts ml f`ucddm, nms pmltms `u p`ur d–ckpdgltgtc`l nms f`lngtc`ls f`lngtc`ls n–ulm i`lstruitc`l.

Fcburm 17 ? Ijgcsms n–gdcblmkmlt

Mddms n`cvmlt ïtrmdgsctuãms å d–mxtãrcmur nms dckctms nm d–mxigvgtc`l `u nms trgvgux r`utcmrs prãvus,t`uo`urs i`kkm sur fcburm ic-nmssus.

=5

 

 

^rgvgux ncrcbãs   Mxmricim (7) ? Udglcfcigtc`l `pãrgtc`llmddm. 

I`lscnãr`ls dm pr`omt sucvglt ? ^áijm G

Nurãm (smkgclms ) 9

A

=

I

1

N M

: >5

F

3

B

6

J

3

 O

2

H D

> 1

K L

: 6

U

9

W

2

Q Y

= 6

^

>

]

=

V

2

R

3

Z

77

S _

9 6

^áijms gltãrcmurms

Mffmitcf

KH8 L W W O Q8D Y8U8^ Z8] R8S8V8M

99 > > 1 = 2 > =

-G G G G A8I A8I N N F F B B8J J J

1 9 1 > 6 1 9 9 1 = > 6 2 1 1

I`øt (NJ )

7 155 75 555 :55 1> 555 :5 555 96 555 1> 555 :7 555 =6 555 1> 555 1 555 76 555 96 555 15 555 2 555

=5 555 66 555 : 555 75 555 >3 555 >= 555 == 555 6 555 71 555

@l nmkglnm nm ? b rgpjm U`tml U`tmltcmds-^gijms tcmds-^gijms nu pr`omt 8 (7)  I`lstrucrm dm brgpjm (1)  Igdiudmr dg nurãm nu pr`omt mt dcstmr dms táijms irctcqums 8 (9)  Nãtmrkclmr dg kgrbm t`tgdm nm dg táijm « D ¸ 8 (>)  Nãtmrkclmr dg kgrbm dcarm nm dg táijm « V ¸ 8 (=)  Mtgadcr dm pdgllclb nm Bgltt 8 (6)  (2)  (:) 

 

^rgimr dg i`uram nms mffmitcfs 8 ^rgimr dg i`uram nms jmurms iukudãms 8 Qãgdcsmr dm pdgllclb fclglicmr jman`kgngcrm. Mxmricim (1) ? I`ltrgcltms nm nãdgcs.

@l i`lscnêrm dm pr`omt sucvglt ? ^áijm

Nurãm ( o`urs )

G

:

A

6

I

>

N

>

M

=

F

6

B

=

I`ltrgcltms

Mffmitcf

^áijms gltãrcmurms

Nãdgcs (nãaut-nãaut )

I -A M G

> -6 = >

9 > > 9 1

O O H

2 > 6

9 1

=7

Qglb

 

 

J

6

C

9

 O

2

H

3

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

> = 3 6 6 1 :

N B H F J I G

9 9 2 3

@l nmkglnm nm ? (7)  I`lstrucrm dm brgpjm b rgpjm U`tml U`tmltcmds-^gijms tcmds-^gijms nu pr`omt 8 (1)  Mtgadcr dm pdgllclb nm Bgltt 8 (9)  Igdiudmr dg nurãm nu pr`omt mt dcstmr dms táijms irctcqums 8 (>)  ^rgimr dg i`uram nms mffmitcfs 8 (=)  ^rgimr dg i`uram nms jmurms iukudãms.  

Mxmricim (9) ? Qgii`uricssmkmlt nms nãdgcs.

]lm s`icãtã spãicgdcsãm ngls d–ãtunm mt dg i`kp`sctc`l n–ulctãs clnustrcmddms g `atmlu dg kgìtrcsm n–řuvrm p`ur d–clstgddg d–clstgddgtc`l tc`l n–ulm usclm ijckcqum. D–glgdysm nu pr`omt g pmrkcs nm ncstclbumr 7> pjgsms nm trgvgux ncffãrmlts ? kgâ`llmrcm, pd`kamrcm, ãdmitrcictã, i`lnctc`llmkmlt n–gcr, trgctmkmlt nms nãijmts, clstgddgtc`ls mt mssgcs kgijclms,, mti. Ims trgvgux s`lt nãscblãs pgr dms dmttrms nm G å L. kgijclms Dg s`icãtã rmsp`lsgadm ckpdgltgtc`l ncsp`smpmrkmttglt nm k`ymls d–mxãiutc`l (k`ymls pr`prms ml ãqucpms spãicgdcsãms, kgijclms nm mt imttm qumdqums s`us-trgctglts) nms trgvgux ml pgrgddêdm, s`us rãsmrvm t`utmf`cs nu rmspmit nms rmdgtc`ls n–`rnrm k`ltrãms ngls dm tgadmgu icgprês. Ims rmdgtc`ls s`lt ckp`sãms pgr ul mlsmkadm nm i`ltrgcltms tmijlcqums. Nms i`øts p`ur ijgiulm nms táijms s`lt ãbgdmkmlt fcxãs ml tmlglt i`kptm nms suri`øts dcãs gux rgii`uricssmkmlts p`sscadms p`sscadms.. ^áijm G A I N M F B J C  O H D K L

^áijms gltãrcmurms

Nurãm l`rkgdm (smkgclms )

-G A8M8B --M8B G8N

75 1= 1= 15 9= 15 1=

M -I8F8J A8M8B O8K H8L G

7= >5 95 15 >5 75 7=

I`øt l`rkgd (hNJ )

Nurãm irgsj (smkgclms )

I`øt irgsj (hNJ )

= 75 15 95 >5 =5 75

75

= 7= 15 >5 25 2= 75

1= 15 7= >5 95 = 75

75 95

15 15 7= 1= 7= 1=

1= 15 9= 75 75

>= =5 15 >5 65 = 95

@l nmkglnm nm ? (7)  Wumddm mst dg nurãm kclckgdm nm rãgdcsgtc`l nm im pr`omt 0 Clncqumr dg sãqumlim nms trgvgux quc nãtmrkclm imttm nurãm (ijmkcl irctcqum). V`us utcdcsmrmz dm rãsmgu UMQ^ `u ul ncgbrgkkm nm Bgltt. (1)  Nãtmrkclmr dg kgrbm t`tgdm p`ur ijgiulm nms pjgsms nu pr`omt. (9)  Gprms gv`cr igdiudã dms pmltms i`øts gss`icãms gux ncffãrmltms táijms, pr`iãnmr ãtgpm pgr ãtgpm gu rgii`uricssmkmlt nu pr`omt. (>) 

@l qum dg dg kcsm ml mxpd`ctgtc`l nm d–usclm gurg ulm rmltgacdctã nm 9 ulctãs i`øt.mstckm Nãtmrkclmr vgdmur `ptckuk å n`llmr gu rgii`uricssmkmlt nu pr`omt.

=1

 

   

Mxmricim (>) ?

Dg i`lstruitc`l n'ul mltrmpþt mst nãi`upãm ml ncx táijms n`lt dms igrgitãrcstcqums s`lt n`llãms ngls dm tgadmgu sucvglt ? ^áijm

Nãscblgtc`l

^áijms gltãrcmurms

Giimptgtc`l nms pdgls Urãpgrgtc`l nu ijgltcmr I`kkglnm nms kgtãrcgux ^rgvgux nm tmrrgssmkmlt I`kkglnm nms p`rtms mt fmlïtrms Dcvrgcs`ll nms kgtãrcgux Dcvrgcs` I`udgbm nms f`lngtc`ls f`lngtc`ls Dcvrgcs`l nms p`rtms mt fmlïtrms U`sm nms kurs, nm dg ijgrpmltm mt nu t`ct Kcsm ml pdgim nms p`rtms mt nms fmlïtrms

G A I N M F B J C  O

Nurãm l`rkgdm (smkgclms )

--G G8A G I N8F M B J8C

> 1 7 7 1 1 1 75 > 7

@l nmkglnm nm ?

(1) 

^rgimr dm ncgbrgkkm UMQ^ `u dm ncgbrgkkm nm Bgltt mt ml nãnucrm dm ijmkcl irctcqum. @l p`ssênm 1 mkpd`yãs å ncsp`sctc`l. Yc `l gffmitm 7 mkpd`yã/táijm p`ur mxãiutmr `u sucvrm dms táijms nm im pr`omt, cd y gurg-t-cd nms o`urlãms ml sur utcdcsgtc`l 0 Yc `uc dmsqumds 0

(9) 

Ur`p`smz rmss`urims.gd`rs ul dcssgbm pmrkmttglt nm sgtcsfgcrm å dg i`ltrgcltm dcãm gux

(7) 

 

Mxmricim (=) ?

Ngls imt mxmricim cd s–gbct nm pdglcfcmr dms trgvgux smi`ln řuvrm n–ul aátckmlt. Dms nãtgcds nm dg nãi`kp`sctc`l nm im pr`omt s`lt n`llãs pgr dm tgadmgu sucvglt ? I`ltrgcltms ^áijm prãiãnmltm Nãdgc (nãaut-nãaut ) G G

75 o 75 o

I

1o

A I M N

71 o 75 o =o 71 o

^áijms Mtglijãctã

I`nm

Nurãm Qglb ( o`urs   o`urs )

G A I

75 71 7=

Bgclms ãdmitrcqums mligstrãms ml id`cs`ls

N

71

Kmlucsmrcm cltãrcmurm

M

75

Umclturms

F

15

Kmlucsmrcm mxtãrcmurm Id`cs`ls sêijms

Mtuncmr dg pdglcfcigtc`l pdglcfcigtc `l nu pr`omt ml ãdga`rglt dm B-U-^ mt dm pdgllclb nm Bgltt.  

Mxmricim (6) ? Qãgdcsgtc`l n–ul nãpþt.

V`trm mltrmprcsm mst ijgrbãm nm rãgdcsmr ul nãpþt. V`us ïtms ijgrbãs n–ãdga`rmr dg pdglcfcigtc`l nms trgvgux. Dm nãpþt mstrmp`sm ul aátckmlt nm pdmcl pcmn. Dg struiturm mst sur i`lstctuãm nm p`tmgux sur dmsqumds dg ijgrpmltm ncrmitmkmlt. Ims p`tmgux rmp`smlt nms smkmddms cs`dãms. Dms kurs n–mlimcltm s`lt kgâ`llãs mt rmp`smlt sur nms d`lbrclms. Dm pdglijmr mst ul ngddgbm quc rmp`sm =9

 

 

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

ncrmitmkmlt sur dm s`d (t`ut vmlglt lgturmd). Dm tmrrgssmkmlt lãimssctm ul nãigpgbm nm dg tmrrm vãbãtgdm gvglt nm rãgdcsmr nms f`ucddms ml tr`u p`ur dms smkmddms mt ulm mxigvgtc`l p`ur dm ngddgbm mt dms d`lbrclms d`lbrc lms.. Dms k k`ymls `ymls kgtãrc kgtãrcmds mds nm d–mltrmprcsm pmrk pmrkmttmlt mttmlt nm kmlmr d–mxigvgtc`l mt dms f`ucddms ml kïkm tmkps. Dm ngddgbm smrg rãgdcsã ulm f`cs dg t`cturm rmi`uvmrtm. Dms kurs n–mlimcltm smr`lt rãgdcsãs gprês dg p`sm nm dg ijgrpmltm. Dms d`lbrclms smr`lt p`sãms gprês dg rãgdcsgtc`l nms p`tmgux. Dm ijgltcmr smrg rmkadgyã gprês dg rãgdcsgtc`l nms kurs n–mlimcltm. Dg zclbumrcm smrg k`ltãm gvglt dms aglnmgux. Dms mstckgtc`ls nms nurãms nms ncffãrmltms `pãrgtc`ls s`lt dms sucvgltms ?   Nãigpgbm ? 1 o`urs 8                      

Mxigvgtc`l ? 9 o`urs 8 F`ucddm ml tr`u ? 7 o`ur 8 Ymkmddms cs`dãms ? 1 o`urs 8 U`tmgux ? > o`urs 8 D`lbrclms ? 9 o`urs 8 U`sm ijgrpmltm ? 9 o`urs 8 Kurs n–mlimcltm ? 6 o`urs 8 U`sm i`uvmrturm ? 1 o`urs 8 Qmkadgcmkmlt ? 9 o`urs 8 U`sm kmlucsmrcms ? 9 o`urs 8 Ngddgbm ? 1 o`urs 8   _clbumrcm ? 9 o`urs 8   Aglnmgux ? 1 o`urs.

Dms trgvgux nãkgrrmr`lt dm 57 gvrcd nm d–gllãm ml i`urs. Dm 57 kgc mst ul o`ur fãrcã mt dms sgkmncs mt nckglijms s`lt ijþkãs. @l v`us nmkglnm nm ? (7) 

Mdga`rmr dm pdgllclb n–gvglt-pr`omt. U`ur imdg v`us utcdcsmrmz dm pdgllclb U`tmltcmds-^áijms quc mst dm kcmux gngptã å dg i``rnclgtc`l nms táijms.

(1) 

Qmprãsmltmr dm pdgllclb quc pmrkmttrg dm sucvc nms trgvgux. U`ur imdg v`us utcdcsmrmz dm pdgllclb Bgltt quc mst dm pdus gppr`prcã gu sucvc nm ijgltcmr ijgltcmr..

(9) 

Ckgbcl`ls qum l`us s`kkms dm omunc nm dg smkgclm : å dg fcl nm dg o`urlãm nm trgvgcd. V`us V`us ïtms ijgrbã nu sucvc nm d–gvglimkmlt nms trgvgux. V`us V`us `asmrvmz sur dm ijgltcmr qum dms kurs n–mlimcltm `lt tr`cs o`urs n–gvglimkmlt, dg i`uvmrturm vcmlt oustm n–ïtrm tmrkclãm, dg rãgdcsgtc`l nu ngddgbm l–g pgs nãkgrrã, Dg p`sm nm dg zclbumrcm l–g pgs nãkgrrã. I`kpgrmz d–ãtgt n–gvglimkmlt nms trgvgux `asmrvã å imduc prãvu pgr dm pdgllclb. Ncsiutmr imttm i`kpgrgcs`l ml tmrkms nm i`lsãqumlims sur dg pdglcfcigtc`l mt dg ngtm nm fcl nms trgvgux.

 

Mxmricim (2) ? Qãgdcsgtc`l n–ul aátckmlt Q+1.

V`trm mltrmprcsm mst ijgrbãm nm rãgdcsmr ul aátckmlt Q+1 å usgbm n–jgactgtc`l i`kp`rtglt ul lcvmgu nm s`us-s`d. V`us ïtms ijgrbãs n–ãdga`rmr dg pdglcfcigtc`l nms trgvgux nm br`s řuvrm nm dg supmrstruiturm. Dg struiturm mst nm typm pdglijmrs-v`cdms ml aãt`l grkã mt rmi`uvmrt n–ulm t`cturm tmrrgssm ml aãt`l grkã. Dms fgâgnms `lt nms agdi`ls prãfgarcquãs mt dg t`cturm tmrrgssm nms i`rlcijms prãfgarcquãms. prãfgarcquãm s. Cd y g 71 agdi`ls prãfgarcquãs pgr lcvmgu mt 7= i`rlcijms.

=>

 

 

Dm pmrs`llmd mst rãpgrtc ml tr`cs ãqucpms ? ]lm ãqucpm p`ur rãgdcsmr dms v`cdms, ulm ãqucpm p`ur dg rãgdcsgtc`l nms pdglijmrs mt ulm tr`cscêkm p`ur dg p`sm nms pcêims prãfgarcquãms prãfgarcquãms.. Dms v`cdms nm dg supmrstruiturm i`kkmlimlt dm 5= kgc. Dms pdglijmrs jguts nu lcvmgu « l  ¸,  ¸, lm pmuvmlt i`kkmlimr qum sc dg k`ctcã nms v`cdms nm im lcvmgu s`lt rãgdcsãs. ^`us dms agdi`ls (`u i`rlcijms) nm im lcvmgu n`cvmlt gv`cr 6 o`urs nm nuricssmkmlt nm aãt`l gprês dmur prmkcmr o`ur nm rãgdcsgtc`l gvglt n–ïtrm p`sãs. ^`utms dms pcêims prãfgarcquãms s`lt rãgdcsãms ml i`ltclu. Dms v`cdms nu lcvmgu « l   ¸, lm pmuvmlt i`kkmlimr qum sc dg k`ctcã nms pdglijmrs jguts nu lcvmgu « l- 7 ¸ s`lt rãgdcsãs. Dg p`sm nms agdi`ls prãfgarcquãs n–ul lcvmgu n`ct sm tmrkclmr ml kïkm tmkps qum dm pdglijmr nu kïkm lcvmgu. Dg p`sm nms i`rlcijms prãfgarcquãms nãautm 1 o`urs gvglt dg fcl nm dg rãgdcsgtc`l nm dg t`cturm tmrrgssm. Dms mstckgtc`ls nms nurãms nms ncffãrmltms `pãrgtc`ls s`lt dms sucvgltms ?            

Qãgdcsgtc`l n–ul pdglijmr (j`rs p`sm nms agdi`ls) mt nm dg t`cturm tmrrgssm ? : o`urs 8 Qãgdcsgtc`l nms v`cdms ? : o`urs 8 Urãfgarcigtc`l nms agdi`ls p`ur ul lcvmgu ? 6 o`urs (nuricssmkmlt nu aãt`l i`kprcs) 8 Urãfgarcigtc`l nms i`rlcijms ? = o`urs (nuricssmkmlt nu aãt`l i`kprcs) 8 U`sm nms agdi`ls prãfgarcquãs ? 6 o`urs 8 U`sm nms i`rlcijms prãfgarcquãms ? 9 o`urs.

@l v`us nmkglnm nm ? (7) 

Mdga`rmr dm tgadmgu n–mlidmlijmkmlt nms táijms. Imttm pjgsm nm trgvgux i`kkmlim pgr dg rãgdcsgtc`l nms v`cdms nu QNI 8

(1) 

Mdga`rmr dm pdgllclb BGL^^ 8

(9) 

Ckgbcl`ls qum l`us s`kkms dm 51 oucl å dg fcl nm dg o`urlãm nm trgvgcd. V`us ïtms ijgrbã nu sucvc nm d–gvglimkmlt nms trgvgux. V`us `asmrvmz sur dm ijgltcmr qum dms v`cdms nu prmkcmr ãtgbm `lt 2 o`urs n–gvglimkmlt, dm pdglijmr jgut nu prmkcmr ãtgbm g 9 o`urs n–gvglimkmlt, dg p`sm nms agdi`ls nu pdglijmr jgut nu 7mr g 7 o`ur n–gvglimkmlt mt guiulm i`rlcijm l–mst fgarcquãm. I`kpgrmz d–ãtgt n–gvglimkmlt nms trgvgux `asmrvã å imduc prãvu pgr dm pdgllclb. Ncsiutmr imttm i`kpgrgcs`l ml tmrkms nm i`lsãqumlims sur dg pdglcfcigtc`l mt dg ngtm nm fcl nms tr trgvgux. gvgux.

 

Mxmricim (:) ? Kur nm idþturm.

Ngls imt mxmricim `l i`lscnêrm ul pr`omt nm i`lstruitc`l nu kur nm idþturm n–ul ãtgadcssmkmlt. Dm kur mst i`kp`sã nm 755 tr`lâ`ls, sãpgrãs pgr nms o`clts nm rupturm, nm > kêtrms nm d`lbumur ijgiul. @l prãv`ct nms ijgìlgbms vmrtcigux n–ãpgcssmur 7= ik gux nmux mxtrãkctãs nm ijgqum tr`lâ`l.  Cd mst nm 7.95 kêtrm   nm jgutmur mt rãgdcsã ml ad`is nm aãt`l nm nckmlsc`ls  5,15 5,15 Ò 5, 5,15Ò 15Ò 5, 5,>5 >5 (if. fcburm ). ). Dm kur mst rmvïtu sur sms nmux fgims prclicpgdms n–ul mlnuct gu k`rtcmr nm 7,= ik  n–ãpgcssmur  n–ãpgcssmur mt pr`tãbã pgr ul i`ur`llmkmlt ml aãt`l å nmux pmltms nm 95 ik  nm   nm dgrbmur mt n`lt dg jgutmur mst rmspmitcvmkmlt nm 75 ik  gu  gu kcdcmu mt = ik  nm  nm nmux iþtã. Cd rmp`sm sur ul ijgìlgbm ml aãt`l grkã mt ul kur ml k`mdd`ls mt ulm i`uijm nm aãt`l nm pr`prmtã. Imttm f`lngtc`l g >5 ik   nm dgrbmur mt rmp`sm sur ulm smkmddm nm pr`prmtã ml aãt`l kgcbrm nm 65 ik  nm  nm dgrbmur. Dm f`ln nm dg f`ucddm mst å - 5,2= k . 

==

 

 

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

D–mltrmprcsm n–mxãiutc`l ncsp`sm nm rmss`urims sucvgltms ?   Umddm kãiglcqum d`uãm p`ur d–mxãiutc`l nm dg f`ucddm ml rcb`dm 8   Kgtãrcmd nm i`ffrgbm lãimssgcrm mt suffcsglt p`ur mxãiutmr m xãiutmr nmux tr`lâ`ls nu kur 8   ]l nukpmr mt ulm ar`umttm 8   Uc`ijm, pmddm mt kgtãrcmds ncvmrs ml qugltctãs suffcsgltms 8   ^r`cs `uvrcmrs p`dyvgdmlts mlignrãs pgr ul ijmf n–ãqucpm. Ngls dm tgadmgu sucvglt, `l n`llm dms tmkps ulctgcrms k`ymls nm kgcl-n–řuvrm ? ^rgvgux

]lctãs

^mkps ulctgcrms (jmurms)

k 9

5.=5 7.55 7.55 5.1= >.55 5.=5 5.=5 7.55 5.2= 7.55

Mxigvgtc`l nm dg f`ucddm Qmkadgcmkmlt Mvgiugtc`l nms tmrrms I`udgbm nu aãt`l nm pr`prmtã Mxãiutc`l nu kur ml k`mdd`ls k `mdd`ls Fgâ`llgbm n–grkgturms Qãgdcsgtc`l nu i`ffrgbm Kcsm ml řuvrm nu fmrrgcddgbm mt aãt`llgbm U`sm nm ad`is nm aãt`l Mxãiutc`l nm d–mlnuct ml k`rtcmr nm ickmlt

k 9 k 9 k   k 9 hb

k 1 k 9 k 1 k 1 

@l mstckm dg qugltctã nm fmrrgcddgbm ngls dms `uvrgbms ml aãt`l grkã (ijgìlgbm mt i`ur`llmkmlt) å 1 hb pgr kêtrm iuam mlvcr`l.

Umlnglt d–mxãiutc`l nms trgvgux l`us vmcddmr`ls å im qum dg f`ucddm s`ct mxãiutãm n–ul smud i`up p`ur `ptckcsmr d–mxpd`ctgtc`l nm d–mxigvgtmur d–mxigvgtmur mt qum dm aãt`l nm pr`prmtã s`ct kcs ml řuvrm sgls cltmrruptc`l ãbgdmkmlt. Dg i`lstruitc`l nm kur ml k`mdd`ls pmut i`kkmlimr ckkãncgtmkmlt gprês dm i`udgbm nu aãt`l nm pr`prmtã sur : kêtrms nm d`lbumur nm dg f`ucddm. Wuglt å dg p`sm nms ad`is nm aãt`l, cd fgut gttmlnrm 71 jmurms gprês d–mxãiutc`l nu ijgìlgbm j`rcz`ltgd. ^rgvgcd å fgcrm ? (7) 

Ur`p`smr ul k`nm i`lstruitcf p`ur rãgdcsmr im imtt `uvrgbm.

(1) 

Mtgadcr dms k`nms `pãrgt`crms i`rrmsp`lnglts i`rrmsp`lnglts..

(9) 

Mstckmr dms nurãms nms ncffãrmltms táijms (grr`lncr dms igdiuds å d–jmurm prês).

(>) 

 

Udglcfcmr dm pr`omt ml ãdga`rglt dms pdgllclbs nm trgvgux, dm pdgllclb n–mxpd`ctgtc`l nms kgtãrcmds, dm pdgllclb n–gppr`vcsc` n–gppr`vcsc`llmkmlt llmkmlt ml kgtãrcgux mt dms i`urams nms mffmitcfs mt nms jmurms iukudãms. I`lscnãrmr 7 smkgclm ãbgdm å =  o`urs nm : jmurms ijgiul. ijgiul.

Mxmricim (3) ? Ams`cls ml kgcl-n–řuvrm

]lm mltrmprcsm nm br`s řuvrm mst ijgrbãm nm rãgdcsmr ul pgvcdd`l ml QNI. U`ur imt `uvrgbm, dms qugltctãs nm trgvgux mt dms tmkps t mkps ulctgcrms s`lt n`llãs sur dm tgadmgu ic-sucvg ic-sucvglt lt ?

=6

 

 

g. 

@l i`lscnêrm qum dm tmkps nm trgvgcd trgvgcd nu ijgltcmr mst nm 93 jmurms/smkgclm jmurms/smkgclm 8

a. 

Dm nãdgc fcxã p`ur d–mxãiutc`l nm trgvgux mst n–ul k`cs mt sc `l i`lscnêrm pgr mxmkpdm dm k`cs nu kgrs, `l g ?    o`urs igdmlngcrms ? 97 8    

 o`urs `uvrgadms ? 12 8  o`urs `uvrãs ? 19 8 =2

 

  i. 

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

D–gitcvctã nm d–mltrmprcsm mst ãvgduãm stgtcstcq stgtcstcqumkmlt umkmlt å =1/65 (ml systêkm Amngux).

(7)  Mffmitumr dms igdiuds p`ur rmkpdcr dm tgadmgu mt nãtmrkclmr dm t`tgd nm irãnct bd`agd

n–jmurms 0 (1)  Nãtmrkclmr dm l`karm lãimssgcrm n–`uvrcmrs p`ur mxãiutmr imt `uvrgbm, sc dg nurãm mst ckp`sãm pgr dm igdmlnrcmr n–mxãiutc`l i`kkm gu p`clt (a). (9)  Nãtmrkclmr dm tmkps lãimssgcrm p`ur mxãiutmr imt `uvrgbm, sc dg kgcl-n–řuvrm mst dckctãm gu = `uvrcmrs. (>)  Nãtmrkclmr dm l`karm n–jmurms suppdãkmltgcrms lãimssgcrm, sc dg nurãm mst dckctãm å 19

 o`urs mt dm l`karm n–`uvrcmrs n–`uvrcmrs mst dckctã å = pmrs`llms pmrs`llms..

 

Mxmricim (75) ? Ams`cls ml kgtãrcmd

Ngls imt mxmricim `l ijmrijm å nãtmrkclmr dm l`karm nm igkc`ls lãimssgcrms p`ur nmssmrvcr ulm pmddm kãiglcqum pmlnglt dms trgvgux nm tmrrgssmkmlt. g. 

D–gvglt kãtrã nms trgvgux nm tmrrgssmkmlt n–ul ckkmuadm fgct gppgrgìtrm qu–cd fgut trglsp`rtmr ul v`dukm nm 1>55 k9 nm nãadgc 8

a. 

Dg ncstglim nm trglsp`rt mst nm 3 hk nu ijgltcmr 8

i. 

Im nãadgc mst f`cs`llã å ulm kgssm v`dukcqum gppgrmltm nm 7,6 t/k9 8

n. 

Dm nãdgc p`ur imttm `pãrgtc`l mst fcxã å 7= o`urs 8

m. 

I`kkm mlbcls nm trgvgcd, `l i`lscnêrm dms nmux igs sucvglts ? Igs (1)

Igs (7)

  Umddm kãiglcqum Gtdgs 7151N ?

`

  Umddm kãiglcqum Gtdgs 7951M ?

`

 

Qmlnmkmltt tjã`rcqum ? 95 k9/jmurm. Qmlnmkml

  Qmlnmkmlt tjã`rcqum ?

 

I`mffcicmlt n–mffcicmlim ? 5,:9.

  I`mffcicmlt n–mffcicmlim ? 5,:=.

 

I`øt nm d`igtc`l ? 15 555 NJ/o`ur nm : jmurms.

  I`øt nm d`igtc`l ? 1= 555 NJ/o`ur nm :

jmurms.

  Jmurm suppdãkmltgcrm ? =555 NJ.

 

Jmurm suppdãkmltgcrm ? >555 NJ. `  Igkc`l KGL VR bgkkm B^ å igaclm gvgliãm 731:7 ?  

=> k9/jmurm.

  Igkc`l KGL VR 161>5 NJ å igaclm

`

gvgliãm 731:7 ?

  Ijgrbm

utcdm I] ? 7= t.

Ijgrbm utcdm I] ? 75 t.   Igpgictã kgxckgdm nm dg amllm ? : k9   f`cs`llã.

  Igpgictã kgxckgdm nm dg amllm ? 71 k 9 

 

I`øt nm d`igtc`l ? 75 555 NJ/o`ur nm : jmurms.

  I`øt nm d`igtc`l ? 71 555 NJ/o`ur nm :

 

Jmurm suppdãkmltgcrm ? 9555 NJ.

  Jmurm suppdãkmltgcrm ? 9=55 NJ.

 

Vctmssm k`ymllm ml ijgrbm ? 1= hk/j.

  Vctmssm k`ymllm ml ijgrbm ? 11

 

Vctmssm k`ymllm å vcnm ? >= hk/j.

  Vctmssm k`ymllm å vcnm ? 91 hk/j.

 

^mkps nm nãijgrbmkmlt ? 5,75 j.

  ^mkps nm nãijgrbmkmlt ? 5,71 j.

f`cs`llã.

jmurms.

hk/j.

Wumstc`l ?

U`ur dms nmux igs, nãtmrkclmr dm l`karm nm igkc`ls lãimssgcrms p`ur mffmitmur imttm `pãrgtc`l gu k`clnrm prcx, ngls dm nãdgc fcxã sgijglt qum dg ncstglim mltrm dm ijgltcmr mt dm dcmu nm nãijgrbm mst nm 3 hk mt qum dm tmkps nm trgvgcd o`urlgdcmr mst mstckã å 2,:5 jmurms jmurms.. =:

 

   

Mxmricim (77) ? Glgdysm n–ulm clstgddgtc`l nm ijgltcmr

Y`ct dm pdgl n–clstgddgtc`l (cli`kpdmt) ic-gprês ?

@l v`us nmkglnm nm ? (7)  Nmssclmr dm trgiã nm idþturm nu ijgltcmr l`tãm (:) 8 (1)  Udgimr ulm gcrm p`ur dm iglt`llmkmlt nm ijgltcmr, l`tãm (6), å pr`xckctã nm d–giiês gu ijgltcmr 8 (9)  Udgimr ulm gcrm p`ur d–gtmdcmr nm fmrrgcddgbm, l`tãm (>), pdus pr`ijm nms aátckmlts å i`lstrucrm 8 (>)  Nãtmrkclmr ulm gcrm nm prãfgarcigtc`l, l`tãm (9), prãs å dg f`c mt nms aátckmlts å i`lstrucrm mt nm imltrgdm å aãt`l 8 (=)  Ncsp`smr ulm gcrm nm st`ihgbm nms kgtãrcgux, l`tãm (=), å d–mltrãm nu ijgltcmr 8 (6)  Udgimr ulm gcrm p`ur dg imltrgdm å aãt`l, l`tãm (1), å dg pr`xckctã nm d–giiês prclicpgd mt nm d–gcrm nm st`ihgbm (p`ur ( p`ur gdckmltgtc`l ml brgludgts).

=3

 

 

 Urãpgrgtc`l nm ijgltcmr  ijgltcmr 

Qãfãrmlims ^mijlcqums nm d–clbãlcmur, Aátckmlts ^mijlcqums nm d–clbãlcmur, Bmstc`l nm ijgltcmrs Yupp`rts nm i`urs mxpãrckmltgux m xpãrckmltgux nm d–`ffcim nm dg f`rkgtc`l pr`fmssc`llmddm pr`fmssc`llmddm mt nm dg pr`k`tc`l nu trgvgcd nu Kgr`i Ncvmrs sctms wma

65