Phys1121 Notes
Short Description
enjoy...
Description
UNSW Phys1121 Course Notes George O’Connell 2016
Headings Converting Units
Notes ● ● ● ● ●
Kinematics (Taken from Wiley’s Powerpoint Notes & Joe Wolfe’s Lecture slides)
Kinematics study of motion Measure lengths to get relative positions usually very inaccurate, because of special relativity. *Count from zero 0, 1, 2, 3…. We always measure average velocity change in position: /\s / /\t Vectors and components ○ vectors have direction and magnitude, ie. displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, spin ○ vectors can be given as a on the laptop (see notebook for other writings)
Measurement ● Given engineering and physics use precise measurements of physical quantities, we need ways for measurement and comparison as well as units for the measurement ○ Units: unique name assigned to a quantity ○ Corresponds to a standard with a value of 1.0 usually the S.I. Units but can be imperial. ○ There are many different quantities that are base units, but some are independent (e.g. speed distance/time) ● S.I. Units ○ There are base standards which make the fundamentals of all quantities the main for mechanics being length (m), time (s) and mass (kg). ○ All base quantities have been assigned standards and assume the building blocks of other units. 22 ■ E.g Joules: 1J = 1kgm s , Watts: 1W = 1J/s ● Scientific notation is often employed to describe large numbers. ● A conversion factor is a method of changing units: ○ 2 min = (2min)(1) = (2min)(60s/1min) = 120s (cancel out the mins) ● Must be very accurate today, the meter is defined by the length of the path light takes whilst travelling in a vacuum for 1/299 792 458 of a second. ● Significant figures how many figures are shown in your calculations it is always the smallest amount of sig figs found in the input data. ● Time ○ Time follows a similar conversion method of length ○ One second is the time taken for 9 192 631 770 oscillations of light of a specified wavelength emitted by a cesium133 atom ● Mass ○ A standard kilogram is a cylinder of platinum and iridium. ○ Atomic mass unit is also used for measuring the mass of atoms and molecules. ○ Density is p = m/v Motion Along a Straight Line ● Kinematics is the classification and comparison of motion ● We consider straight line motion to be of a particle, ie. an electron or a molecule with no rotation or stretching. ● Position is measured relative to a reference point: the origin or zero point of an axis direction can be identified as positive or negative, where positive is in the direction of increasing numbers ● The change of position in a particle is called the displacement:
○ ○ ○
●
∆x = x x 2 1 Displacement is a vector quantity, ie. it has both direction (+/) and magnitude As it is a vector quantity, it can be written as x or x on the computer, or with an arrow over the top on paper ○ By taking the absolute value of x, we get simply the magnitude, which is the distance: | x |, which is written with a small ‘x’ Velocity is the ratio of the displacement (∆x) to the time interval (∆t) ○ V = ∆x ÷ ∆t average 1 ○ Average velocity has the units of metres per second (ms ) ○ On a graph of x:t, the velocity is the slope of the straight line that connects two given points. ○ Average speed is the total distance covered over a given time interval. ○ Instantaneous velocity, or simply the velocity (v) is the velocity at a single moment in time. It can be found on a displacement time graph by taking the derivative of the graph at a single point.
○
●
In a velocity time graph, the velocity is depicted by a single point and its value, the slope is the acceleration and the area underneath the graph is the total displacement (the integral of the graph) Acceleration is the change in a particle’s velocity over time
○ ○ ○
○
Acceleration is a vector quantity positive time means positive direction hence 2 gravity (9.8ms ) is always negative. If the signs of the velocity and acceleration are the same the speed is increasing. If one is negative, then the speed is decreasing. In an acceleration time graph, ■ When acceleration is 0, velocity is a constant ■ When the acceleration is positive, the velocity is increasing and vice versa for the negative. ■ The steeper the gradient, the larger the amount of the acceleration. (velocity time) When the acceleration is constant,
○ ○
●
These two equations can also be obtained by integrating a constant acceleration Free fall acceleration is the rate at which an object accelerates downwards in the absence of air resistance. ■ Varies with latitude and elevation 2 ■ Written as g, with a value of 9.8ms ■ It is independant on the properties of the object shape, mass, size, density. Take the integral of v v to find the acceleration over a period of two given values same o thing with the distance but with x replacing v.
Vectors ● A vector is a mathematical object with size and direction ● A vector quantity is a quantity that can be represented by a vector, ie. position, velocity, acceleration. ● A scalar quantity has a magnitude but no direction, ie. distance, speed, time ● Displacement vector: if a particle moves from A to B, then it is represented by an arrow pointing from A to B. ○ The displacement is the most direct path there could by many different paths with varying distances between two given points, but the displacement will always remain the same. ○ The vector sum comes from vector addition adding two vectors together ■ S = a + b
■
○ ○
Vector addition is commutative (it can be added in any order) and it is associative (can group addition in any way)
A negative sign reverse the direction of the vector, ie b + b = 0 This becomes the bases of vector subtraction
○
●
These rules hold for all vectors, whether its displacement, velocity or acceleration Rather than using graphical methods, vectors can be found by splitting them into their components a component is when a vector is projected onto an x and y axis, ie. finds the x and y distances of the original vector. ○ Components in two dimensions are given by:
○ ○
Here, theta is the angle the vector makes with the positive side of the x axis. The length and angle of the vector can be found if both components are known using basic trig and pythagoras’ theorem:
○ ○
In three dimensions, we need the z vector, ie. we need a , a and a x y z Angles are measured in degrees or radians (push for radians due to the use in o maths) a full circle is 360 or 2pi radians.
●
Unit vectors ○ Unit vectors have a magnitude of 1, has a particular direction, but lacks both dimension and unit
○ ○ ○
We use the right hand coordinate system (see above) The quantities a i and a j are vector components x y Vectors can be added by components:
○
●
Vectors are independent of the coordinate system used to measure them ie. rotating the coordinate system will not mean the vector will move. Multiplying vectors ○ Multiplying a vector z by a scalar c will produce a new vector whose magnitude is the multiplication of z by | c |. Its direction is the same as z or the opposite if the scalar is negative. ○ To achieve this we must multiply each of the components of the vector by c ○ Dot Product
○
Cross product ■ Produces a new vector in the perpendicular direction ■ Direction is determined by the right hand rule.
Motion in Two and Three Dimensions ● A position vector locates a particle in space and it extends from a reference point known as the origin: r = xi + yj + zk ● A change in the position vector means displacement has occurred and is written as r = r r 2 1 or ∆r = ∆xi + ∆yj + ∆zk ● Average velocity us the above equation divided by the change in time (∆t) ● The instantaneous velocity is given by:
●
The average acceleration in unit vectors is given by:
●
Projectile Motion ○ A projectile is a particle moving in a vertical plane, which has an initial velocity 2 and acceleration is constant downwards given by the value g 9.8ms ○ Below are the components of the initial velocity, with V being this initial velocity 0
○ ○
○
○
The horizontal motion ■ No acceleration, hence velocity is a constant Vertical Motion ■ Acceleration always is g
The projectile's trajectory is the path it travels through space which is a parabola. It is found by simultaneously solving the equations for the horizontal and vertical displacement components. The horizontal range is the maximum distance the projectile travels in x by the time
o it returns to its original height. R is a maximum at an angle of 45 (see exercise book for working)
○
●
If a bullet is fired from a gun and dropped at the same time, they will hit the ground at the same time as there is identical vertical acceleration and as the components of projectiles can be treated separately, they will hit the ground at the same time, regardless of horizontal velocity ○ In three dimensions; split motion into its x y and z components and work from there easier than visualising it and working with the trajectory as a whole. Uniform Circular Motion ○ A particle is in circular motion if it travels in a circle or circular arc at a constant speed. ○ Since the velocity is constantly changing, then the particle is said to be accelerating, hence velocity and acceleration have a constant magnitude but changing direction. ○ The acceleration is called the centripetal acceleration and always points directly inwards (to the circle centre). ○ Period of evolution is the time taken to complete a circle once. ○ Equations: ■ Θ = ωt 2 2 ■ a = v ÷ r = ω r 2 ■ a = ω r ■ ω = 2ᵰ ÷ 2
● ●
●
Relative motion in one dimension: measurement of position and velocity depend on the reference frame of the measurer In two dimensions, it is given by:
Forces and Motion ● Newton’s Laws of Motion ○ A force is a push or pull on an object that causes acceleration. It is generalised as an approximation of general relativity ○ Newtonian mechanics hold for everyday situations, however it varies as the speed 1 of an object/particle approaches the speed of light (3.0 E8ms ) and for miniscule structures ie. at an atomic level. 2 ○ The unit of force is Newton (N), ie. 1N = 1 kg ms ○ The net force is the vector sum of all forces acting on an object. ○ First Law: If no net force acts on a body (∑F = 0), then the body’s velocity cannot change or accelerate. ■ If ∑ F = 0, there exist reference frames in which a = 0, called Inertial frames.
■ ■ ○
○
○
○
○
○
“Every body persists in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed on it” This is not true in all frames of reference; only inertial frames, as all of newton's laws hold in an inertial frame of reference
Mass ■ “The mass of a body is the characteristic that relates a force on the body to the resulting acceleration” ■ Mass measures the resistance a body has to changing motion. Second Law: The net force on a body is equal to the product of the body’s mass and acceleration ■ “To any body may be ascribed a (scalar) constant, mass, such that the acceleration produced in two bodies by a given force is inversely proportional to their masses” ■ This law (along with the first law) is represented by ∑ F = ma ■ The acceleration along a given axis (ie. in a single direction) is only caused by the net force from the sum of the forces travelling on the same axis ■ If the net force on a body is zero, the acceleration is zero & the external forces are in equilibrium. Solving problems ■ Best thing to do is to draw a free body diagram, ie. just the forces. Here, we can generally graphically tell the magnitude and direction of forces, however if it is simply two or three forces, then we can determine using simple algebra. Never have acceleration as part of a free body diagram. ■ If a system consists of two or more bodies, the forces the outside exert on the bodies are called external forces and the forces between the bodies are internal forces. The net force is the sum of the external forces. Gravitational force ■ This is a pull that acts on a body, which is directed towards a second body (typically Earth) ■ It is given by two different equations: ● F = mg g 2 ● F = Gm m /d (where G = 6.67E11, d is the distance between 1 2 mass one and two) ■ This force is always acting on a body except when the body is an infinite distance away from the second body, meaning it is outside of its gravitational field. It is always acting on a body at rest. Weight force ■ The name of the gravitational force that one body (like Earth, the moon, mars, etc.) exerts on an object. ■ It is measured in Newtons and is directed to the centre of the planet. ■ It is generally given by W =mg ■ Weight is not the same as mass; it can be measured using special scales which have springs that adjust the calculations due to the gravitational force, or it can be easily calculated using the above formula. ■ Weight must be measured when the object is not accelerating vertically, ie. a person in a lift will have a changing weight depending on its acceleration. Normal Force ■ The normal force comes as a result of newton's third law. It is a newtonian pair with the weight force, ie it adds to zero (same magnitude, opposite direction).
■
○
When a body presses against a surface, the surface deforms and pushes back on the body. This reaction force is the normal force and is perpendicular to the surface. Tension Force ■ When a rope or cord is pulled/stretched (examples typically include between two bodies like pulleys or train carriages), the cord is under tension. ■ The external forces that cause the tension pull the rope, so the direction of the force is typically toward the end of the rope, however the internal forces are newtonian pairs which resist this motion and are directed towards the centre of the rope. ■ In tension problems, treat the string as rigid and inextensible. ■ When the mass of a string, coupling, etc is negligible, forces at opposite ends are equal and opposite called tension. ■ Hooke's Law: F = kx ● This is a measure of the elasticity of an object how much it stretches. Hooke’s law is when stress is proportional to the strain. ● K is a constant as it is linear elasticity, which is very important on a molecular scale.
○
●
Newton’s Third Law: When two bodies interact, the forces of the bodies on each other are always equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction . ■ "To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction; or the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal and directed to contrary parts" ■ Ie. F = F this is called a third law force pair or newtonian pair. AB BA ■ F = F AB BA ■ Internal forces of a system add to zero. Types of forces ○ Frictional Force ■ This occurs when an object slides or attempts to slide over another, ie. there is relative motion b/n the two. ■ It is a surface force in the opposite direction, aiming to oppose motion. ■ Frictional forces are essential in everyday life; picking things up, building things, braking on bikes, walking, etc. ■ Overcoming friction is also an issue when we want things in motion to increase maximum efficiency of a system.
■ ■
■
■
■ ■
■
There are two types of friction: static and kinetic. Static Friction: (no relative motion) ● The opposing force that prevents an object from moving ● Can have any magnitude (depending on the mass of the object) until a maximum and when it hits this max, the object gives in and begins to slide. ● The magnitude of static friction only equals uN when it is at its limiting friction point (point before moving). This means it is generally given by: Kinetic Friction: (relative motion) ● The opposing force that resists the motion of an object. ● Does not have a changing value and is generally smaller than the static friction force.
At a microscopic level, every surface is rough, some surfaces to a greater degree than others. When two surface rub together, there is constant catching and resistive forces which is essentially what friction is. In some circumstances there is so much contact forces that it is near impossible for movement to occur (e.g. cold welded metals). The greater the normal force, the greater the frictional force, as there is more pressure for the surface, resulting in increased catching, meaning greater friction. Properties of friction: ● If the body does not move, then the applied force and the frictional force are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction (friction resists motion) ● The F has a max, given by: (where u is the coefficient of friction) s s,
○ If the force is greater than f , then sliding occurs smax Once sliding occurs, the frictional force decreases as it becomes kinetic friction (as seen above right). ■ Magnitude of the normal signifies how strongly the surfaces are pushed together. ■ The magnitude of the coefficients of friction are dependant on the situations, unitless and must be determined through experiments. Drag force/terminal speed ■ A fluid is anything that can flow when there is relative motion between a body and a fluid, then there exists a drag force which, like friction, opposes the relative motion. ●
○
■
It is given by the equation:
Here, D is the drag, C is the drag coefficient (determined through experiments and can change due to the velocity), p is the density of the fluid and A is the cross sectional area of the body (perpendicular to the motion). The drag force opposes the gravitational (weight) force of a body that is in freefall. The terminal speed is the constant speed that comes when a body’s drag is equivalent to its gravitational force, resulting in a zero net force. ●
■ ■
●
Uniform circular motion ○ Centripetal forces accelerate a body by changing its direction and maintaining a constant speed. ○ This force is in the direction of the centre of the circle and is given by:
Kinetic Energy and Work ● Kinetic Energy ○ Energy is a scalar term and is required for any sort of motion ○ It is conserved in all closed systems, ie. E = E (law of conservation of energy) in out ○ It is required for any form of motion ○ Kinetic energy is the amount of energy an object in motion contains. The faster the object is moving, the greater the amount of kinetic energy this also means if the object is not moving, then it will have no kinetic energy. 2 ○ The S.I. unit for energy is the Joule (J), 1J = 1kg.ms ○ When the velocity of the object is not comparable to the speed of light, the formula for the kinetic energy is:
●
Work ○ Changes in kinetic energy come from the energy being transferred to or from an
○
○ ○
object. “Work (W) is energy transferred to or from an object by means of a force acting on the object. Energy transferred to the object is positive work and energy transferred from the object is negative work.” In a transfer of energy from a force, work is done on the object by the force. There are three eqs that define the work left is simple, middle is when there is an angle between the force and the displacement and the right is written in vector form
○
●
●
For all the equations, the force is constant, the object is rigid (ie. no elasticity/absorption of energy) ○ The S.I. unit for work is also the joule (J). ○ A force does positive work when it has a vector component in the same direction as the displacement ○ For more than one force, the net work is taken on the object, which is the sum of all the works. It can be taken by summing each work caused by each force, or finding the net force on the object and from there, working out the work (easier method). Workkinetic energy theorem: ○ The change in kinetic energy is equal to the total net work done.\
○ It can also be rearranged to be read as such: K = K + W f i ○ Holds for positive and negative work. Work done by the gravitational force. ○ Here, we simply substitute F = mg into the work g
○ ○
●
equation: For a rising object, mgd is negative (mgd) and for a falling, it is positive. This means that down is the positive direction. When we are lifting an object, we are lifting it against the gravitational work, therefore W + W = 0 and W = W a g a g
Work done by a spring force ○ A spring is a variable force given from a spring.
○
○
When no force is applied to a spring, it rests in a relaxed state. If the string is stretched or compressed, it exerts a restoring force, attempting to return the spring back to the relaxed state. The spring force is given by Hooke’s law: ■ The negative represents how the spring force is always in the opposite direction to the displacement vector. ■ The constant ‘k’ is a measure of the rigidity of the spring. ■ As it is a variable force (the function of the position), then there is a linear relationship between the force and the distance. ■ Along the x axis, the d can be replaced with x. The work is found by integrating this equation:
■
●
●
Work can be either positive or negative, depending on the net energy transfer. ■ When the displacement is zero and the initial and final kinetic energies are zero, then the work is given by: W = W a s Work done by a variable force ○ This is found by integrating the work equation ie. work is the area under the graph for a given function.
Power ○ Power is the work done over a period of time. Its S.I. unit is the Watt (W) 1W = 1J/s. This means that workenergy can be written as power times time. ○ The equation for power varies on the specificity required and the information given. The average power is on the left and below it is the instantaneous power, which is in respect to distance. You can also get power with respect to velocity which is on the right.
Potential Energy
●
● ●
●
Potential energy (U) is energy that can be associated with the configuration of objects that exert a force on one another. This includes gravitational potential energy, which accounts for the kinetic energy of a falling object and elastic potential energy, which accounts for the negative acceleration of a falling object. For objects being lowered or raised, the change in gravitational potential energy is equal to the negative work done, which also does apply to elastic springs. A system consists of two or more object, where a force acts between a particle and the rest of the system. When this configuration changes, this force does work on the system, changing kinetic energy to another form of energy. When the configuration is reversed, the force reverses the energy transfer, again doing work. ○ An example of this is lifting and object then dropping it. When it is being lifted, negative gravitational work is being done, but the kinetic energy used in lifting it transferred to potential energy and when it is dropped, positive work is done and this new potential energy is transferred back to kinetic energy, Conservative and nonconservative forces: ○ Conservative forces are forces where the positive work is always equal to the negative work, ie. W = W 1 2 ■ “Zero work around a closed path” ■ Examples gravitational force (see above), spring force. ■ When conservative forces act on a particle, the problem can be simplified, ie. the net work done by a conservative force around any closed path is zero. This means that if there is a conservative force between two points, any choice of path between the two points gives the same amount of work.
○
●
Nonconservative forces are forces where the positive work is not equal to the negative work. ■ This includes a kinetic friction force, drag force, etc. ■ Friction force: The kinetic energy of a moving particle is transferred to heat due to the frictional force. This thermal energy cannot be recovered by the particle, hence the thermal energy is not a potential energy Equations for potential energy:
○
On the top right of the above equations is the gravitational potential energy when y = 0 is the reference point. Similarly below it are the elastic potential energy
●
equations on a horizontal axis, where x = 0 is the reference point. Potential Energy Curve ○ In one dimension, force and potential energy are represented by: ○ This means that on a potential energy curve, the force is the derivative. ○ The potential energy relates to the mechanical energy as such:
○
○
●
Work done by an external force ○ Work is energy transferred to or from a system by means of an external force. ○ For a system without friction, the work is equal to the sum of the changes of potential and kinetic energies:
○
●
When the kinetic energy is zero, then they are represented by turning points on the graph. It is in equilibrium when the potential energy is zero and is in a neutral equilibrium if it is stationary, but there is potential energy but no force. Stable and unstable equilibrium are represented as such:
For a system with friction, some of the energy is lost due to the friction here the kinetic energy is transferred to thermal energy. This thermal energy comes from the forming and breaking of welds on a surface. It is given by the equations:
Conservation of Energy ○ The energy transferred in a system can always be accounted for. ○ The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy E of a system can only change by amounts of energy that are transferred to or from the system. ■ It concerns the total energy which includes mechanical, thermal and other energies.
○
An isolated system allows no energy to be transferred from external sources. This means that the total energy of an isolated system cannot change.
○ The power of a system is given by the change in energy over the change in time. Centre of Mass ● The centre of mass (denoted com) of a system of particles is the point that moves as though all of the system’s mass is concentrated there and all external forces are applied there ● For two particles that are a given distance apart and the reference point is the origin, it is given by the equation on the left. When the reference point is not the origin, it gives the equation on the right:
●
The centre of mass will always be the same regardless of which reference point you take.
●
For many particles, the centre of mass can be generalised using a geometric series:
● ●
○ Here, M is the sum of all the masses and x is the distance from a given point. The centre of mass equation given above can be split into the x y and z components when in three dimensions. Newton's second law for a system of particles ○ The centre of mass of a motion continues to be as such regardless of the external forces (unless there is a mass change more ambiguous at high speeds). ○ Newton's second law for a system of particles is given by the equation: ■ F = M a net com ○ Again, this can be broken up into each component in three dimensions. ○ The net force is the sum of all external forces, the M is the total mass of the closed system and the acceleration is the centre of mass acceleration
Momentum ● Linear Momentum ○ The momentum has the same directional component of the velocity and it can only be changed through an external force. ○ “The time rate of change of the momentum of a particle is equal to the net force
○
acting on the particle and is in the direction of the force” UCF physics This means newton's second law can be given by the derivative of momentum over time:
○
●
For a system of particles, the M is the total mass and the v is the centre of mass (com) ○ The net external force changes linear momentum. Without this force, the total momentum of a particles does not change. Collision and Impulse ○ In a collision, the momentum of a particle can change. The impulse is is the change of momentum of a particle in a system:
○ ○ ○
Like other vector equations, this can be broken down into the individual components. The impulse is also given by: J = F *Δt ave Collisions of more than one particles: ■ For a steady stream of projectiles, each undergoes a change in momentum (n is the amount of projectiles)
■ ■
●
●
The Δv changes depending on the type of collision if the particle stops, Δv = v, but if it bounces back with the same velocity, Δv = 2v It is summarised by the equation:
Conservation of linear momentum ○ For a closed system and an impulse of zero, then P is a constant. This says that “if no external force acts on a system of particles, the total linear momentum, P of the system cannot change.” This is known as the law of conservation of momentum. ○ If the component of the net external force on a closed system is zero along an axis, then the component of the linear momentum of the system along that axis cannot change. ○ Internal forces can change the momenta of parts of a system, but not the total linear momentum Momentum and kinetic energy in collisions ○ There are three types of collisions: ■ Elastic total kinetic energy is conserved (unchanged) it can be a useful
■
■
●
approximation all collisions in real life situations transfer energy. Inelastic collisions some energy is transferred
Completely inelastic collisions the objects stick together this is the greatest loss of kinetic energy.
○ The centre of mass of all velocity remains unchanged Elastic collisions ○ One dimension ■ “In an elastic collision, the kinetic energy of each colliding body may change, but the total kinetic energy of the system does not”, ie. total kinetic energy is conserved.
■
●
If the masses are equal, then the final velocity of the first object will be zero. ■ If m is much, much larger than the first object, then the first object 2 bounces back, the speed almost unchanged (e.g. bouncing a ball against the surface of the Earth) ○ Two dimensions ■ Apply the conservation of momentum along each axis and conservation of energy for elastic collisions Systems with a varying mass (rocket) ○ The rocket and exhaust form an isolated system, which conserves momentum (P = i P ) f
○
This gives the first rocket equation: fuel consumption.
, where R is the mass rate of
○ ○
The left side of the above equation is the thrust (T) Deriving the velocity change gives the second rocket equation:
Rotation ● For rotation, the same laws of physics apply, however there are new quantities invented to express them. ● A rigid body rotates as a unit and we look at this rotation around a fixed axis. This fixed axis is known as the axis of rotation the reference line that is perpendicular to the axis had a zero angular displacement. ● Angular displacement ○ The angle looks like (and hence angular displacement on the right):
○
●
Here, theta is in radians, which are unitless. The equation is derived from the length of an arc, where the length of the arc is the displacement the object undergoes in this rotation. ○ One full revolution is equivalent to 2π radians. It does not reset to zero after a full rotation. ○ Angular displacement is positive for the anticlockwise direction. Angular velocity ○ The angular velocity is the rate of change of the angular displacement in a time interval:
○
●
●
This gives the average angular velocity the instantaneous angular velocity is found by taking the limit as ∆t → 0 of the average angular velocity. ○ If the body is rigid, these calculations hold for every location on the body. ○ He angular speed is the magnitude of the angular velocity. Angular acceleration ○ This follows the same pattern as the velocity above. The average is given below, with the instantaneous taken by the limit of the angular velocity as ∆t → 0. ○ It also holds true for every point on a rigid body. ○ By using the right hand rule, the direction for the velocity and acceleration may be calculated.
Rotation with constant angular acceleration
●
●
Relating linear and angular variables ○ Position (if Θ is in radians), then s = Θr ○ Speed (if ω is measured from radians), then v = ωr ○ The period can also be expressed in radians: T = 2π ÷ ω ○ Tangential acceleration is a = αr t 2 ○ Radial acceleration is a = ω r r Kinetic energy of rotation ○ The kinetic energy of a point particle and sum of all particles is given by the equation on the right. ○ This can then be written as:
○ ○ ○
Here, the value in the parenthesis on the final equation is called the rotational inertia or the moment of inertia and is donated by ‘ I ’ I is a constant for a rigid body and the axis it rotates around must always be specified This gives us two more equations:
○
●
Rotational inertia is a measure of difficulty in changing the state of rotation. This state of rotation includes speeding up, slowing down or changing the axis. Calculating rotational inertia
○
If we can find the inertia at the centre of mass, we can use the parallel axis theorem. This theorem
●
allows us to calculate another axis, given that it is parallel (must be parallel) to the axis through the centre of mass. Torque: ○ The force necessary to rotate an object depends on the angle o the force relative to the surface of the object and where it is applied.
○ ○ ○ ○ ○
A line extended through the applied force is the ‘line of action’ and the perpendicular distance of this line to the axis is the ‘moment arm’ Torque is measured in Newtonmetres (Nm) Torque is positive if it is causing movement in the counterclockwise direction (unless specified in the other direction to be positive) The net torque is the sum of the individual torques (like moments in engineering studies HSC) Torque for an individual particle moving along any path relative to a fixed point (direction is determined by the right hand rule):
■
The net external torque t acting on a system of particles is equal to the net time rate of change of the system’s total angular momentum L (see angular momentum below)
●
Newton's second law for rotation ○ F = ma can be rewritten as: (note it is the torque that causes angular acceleration)
○
●
Newton's second law in angular form ■ The vector sum of all the torques acting on a particle is equal to the time rate of change of angular momentum of that particle, ie.
Work and rotational kinetic energy
●
Rolling ○ In first year physics, we only take into account the objects that roll smoothly, ie, do not slip. ○ The centre of mass moves in a straight line parallel to the surface and the object rotates around this centre of mass. ○ The equations for rolling are as such
○
Forces and kinetic energy ■ A rolling object has two types of kinetic energy rotational kinetic energy due to its rotation about the com and translational kinetic energy due to the translation of its com.
■
●
If a wheel accelerates, its angular speed changes and a force must act to prevent a slip. ■ For smooth rolling down a ramp, the gravitational force acts vertically down, the normal force is perpendicular to the ramp and the friction force is up the slope Angular Momentum ○ A particle does not need to rotate around O to have angular momentum.
○ ○ ○
2 Angular momentum is measured in kg ms or Js The direction again uses the right hand rule The magnitude can be represented as such:
○
Angular momentum only has meaning when it is with respect to a specified origin
○ ○
or point of rotation. The angular momentum is denoted by the letter l. Momentum of a rigid body
■ ■
○
Above is the equation for a system of particles it adds each single momentum of a particle. The torque and angular momentum must be measured relative to the same origin and if the centre of mass is accelerating, then that origin must be the centre of mass.
■ The angular momentum can be summed as such: Conservation of angular momentum ■ If the net external force acting on a system is zero, the angular momentum of the system remains constant, no matter what changes take place within the system. ■ As it is a vector, it can be broken down to its components and the same can be applied if the net torque for a single component is zero, then the angular momentum is zero for that component.
Gravitation ● Context in Physics ○ Gravity is one of the four fundamental forces defined by the standard model of matter and it is suggested that it acts through the force particle gravitons. ○ Of the four forces, gravity and the electric force have an infinite range (macroscopic), and gravity is the weakest but dominates on a large scale. ○ History denotes that things fall to the ground in their ‘natural’ state and that planets and everything move for a variety of independent reasons. ● Newton's laws of gravity ○ Newton's could calculate the centripetal acceleration of the moon from the equation 2 α = r ω . He found he could also do this with an apple, and as such, he figured m m that these two particles can accelerate by the same law, and every body in the universe attracts another ○ This allowed him to come up with the formula’s:
●
Cavendish measures G ○ Cavendish was the first person to measure a value for the universal gravitational
○
constant and hence the mass of the Earth. He set up his experiment as such:
■
○
●
Gravitational field ○ The gravity between two objects on Earth is so small, it is negligible it only is taken into account when one of the masses is of an astronomical size. ○ When there are more than three bodies, we take into account the superposition principle: F all objects together = Σ F individual ○ Gravity near Earth’s surface ■ This is found by substituting f = ma (W = mg) into Newton's universal gravitation formula. ■ There are two formulas however, as we assume the radius of the Earth is constant, but it is always changing due to a shift in altitude, ie. is not uniform, Earth is not spherical and Earth is constantly rotating. This means that the weight force doesnt go through the centre of the planet, unless one is at the poles. This more exact formula is on the right.
○
●
From the deflection and spring constant and by calculating F, m and m 1 2 are known, hence a value of G could be calculated. This allowed him to calculate the mass of the Earth:
The gravitational field: a field is a ratio of force on a particle to one of its properties in the case of gravity, it is the mass of the particle. g (r) is a vector quantity. Gravitational Potential Energy ○ For a conservative force (F), where the work is the work done against it, allows us to define potential energy as U or ΔU = W against
○ ○
●
Taking r being infinity, we produce: i This means the gravitational potential energy is the work done to move one mass from infinity to a given radius (or vice versa) in the field of another. It is always negative, as you approach an infinite distance from the body, the potential energy is increasing, but once it is an infinite distance, it is outside the field and hence is zero. This means it is increasing towards a value of zero and hence is always negative. Escape velocity ○ Escape velocity is the minimum speed required to escape a masses gravitational field. ○ Remembering that a projectile in space has no nonconservative forces, hence its mechanical energy is conserved, allowing K + U = K + U . As K and U are zero, i i f f f f, we can substitute in the formulae for K and U to produce the equation for the escape velocity:
○
●
The radius of a black hole can be calculated if the escape velocity is the speed of light 3E8. For earth this turns out to be 9mm, the sun would be 3 km Planetary motion ○ Leucippus and Democritus theorized in C5 BCE that we had a heliocentric universe, ie. the sun was at the centre. ○ Hipparchus and Ptolemy suggested it was a geocentric universe everything rotated around Earth. ○ Brahe in the 16th century took many observations, which was then empirically backed up by Kepler with his own laws: ■ All planets move in elliptical orbits, with the sun at the focus. With the exception of pluto, these orbits are approximately circles. ■ A line joining the planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal time: ■ The square of the period of rotation is proportional to the cube of the radius
○
●
Newton’s cannon: Newton theorised if you put a cannon on the top of a mountain and fired it with a low velocity, then the projectile will go through the air and land some distance away. If the velocity was increased, then the distance where it lands is increased. If it is fired at such a large velocity, then potentially the projectile will never reach the Earth’s surface and remain in orbit around the planet. Orbits and energy ○ Non conservative forces do no work, so there are only conservative forces and hence mechanical energy is conserved. ○ Large orbits (large r) are slower (low K)
○
Use kepler’s law to work out problems.
Thermal Physics and Waves (Taken from Wiley’s Powerpoint Notes & Michael Burton’s Lecture slides)
Temperature ● There are three key states of any element which is based off temperature they are solid, o liquid and gas state. Water, at 0 C can exist as all three water in a lake, ice on a mountain and vapour (gas) in the clouds. ● We often associate temperature with our senses, which provides a qualitative indication of the temperature. ● Thermal contact ○ Two objects are in thermal contact with each other if energy can be transferred between them ○ It is usually in the form of heat or electromagnetic radiation ○ The energy is exchanged due to a temperature difference ○ They two objects do not have to be in physical contact if they are in thermal contact. ● Thermal equilibrium ○ Thermal equilibrium occurs when two objects would not exchange any net energy if the two objects are put in thermal contact. ○ This can be produced after contact and it reaches an equilibrium state. ● The zeroth law of thermodynamics ○ If objects A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with object C, then A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other. ○ Hence, there is no energy between them. ● Temperature ○ Temperature is the property that determines whether an object is in thermal equilibrium with another object. ○ Conversely, if two objects are not the same temperature, they are not in thermal
●
equilibrium with each other. Thermometers ○ A thermometer is a device that measures the temperature of a system. ○ They are based on the principle that some physical property changes with the temperature. This includes the volume of a liquid, dimensions of a solid, pressure of gas at a constant volume, volume of gas at a constant pressure, electrical resistance of a conductor and the colour of an object (e.g. planets) ○ Possibly the most common type of thermometer is the liquid in glass. The liquid material in a capillary tube expands as it is heated. This liquid is generally mercury or alcohol. ○ Thermometers can be calibrated by placing it in a natural system with a constant temperature, or it uses the ice point (mixture of ice and water at 1 atm) and the steam point (mixture of steam and water at 1 atm) of water. o ■ The ice point of water is defined at 0 C o ■ The steam point of water is defined at 100 C ■ The area between the two are incremented, each increment representing a degree. ○ Problems with thermometers ■ The alcohol and mercury thermometers may only be true for the calibration o points (0100 C) ■ The discrepancies are large when beyond the calibration points. ■ They have a limited range which they can measure ie. mercury is above o o 30 C as it would otherwise be a solid, alcohol must be below 85 C otherwise it would be a gas. ○ Constant Volume Gas thermometer ■ The physical change is the expansion of gas (ie. the increase in pressure) with a fixed volume. ■ The volume is kept constant by changing the level of the reservoir at B raise or lower depending on the temperature.
■
●
It is calibrated again using the ice and steam point of water it is placed in an ice bath and then a steam bath and the pressures are recorded in each situation
Absolute Zero ○ The pressure is always zero at absolute zero o ○ This temperature is 273.15 C or 0K ○ Absolute zero is the basis of the absolute temperature scale, more commonly known as Kelvin (K) it is the temperature at which a gas exerts no pressure.
○ ○ ○
●
The size of a single degree is the same as that of celsius. T = T 273.15 C K Celsius and kelvin have the same sized degrees, but different starting points. Celsius and Fahrenheit have different sized degrees and different starting points o ■ T = (9/5)T + 32 F F C ○ Energy at absolute zero ■ Classical physics dictates that the energy (specifically kinetic) of a gas is zero when the temperature is absolute zero. This means the molecular motion would stop, resulting in the molecules falling to the the bottom of a container. ■ Quantum theory counters this and says there is a discrete amount of energy left this is called zeropoint energy. Thermal expansion ○ Thermal expansion is the increase in the size of an object due to an increase in temperature ○ It comes as a result of the the average separation between atoms in an object, ie as there is more energy, there is increased molecular movement (oscillations), resulting in a larger distance b/n atoms. ○ If the expansion is small in comparison to the original dimensions of the object, then the expansion in any direction is roughly proportional to the change in temperature. ○ In the example on the right, the cavity expands with materials, allowing us to see that the expansion is linear. ○ Linear expansion ■ If an object has an original length of L , then L I I increases by ΔL as the temperature changes by ΔT. ■ The coefficient of linear expansion is defined o 1 as (units are C ):
■
Many materials expand along one direction, but contract along another as if steel is being stretched and it necks down. Since the linear dimensions
○
○
change, so too should the volume and surface area. Volume expansion ■ The volume expands such that the original volume is proportional to the change in volume and the change in temperature. ■ It is given by the following equation (where β = 3α):
Area expansion ■ The area expands such that the original area is proportional to the change in area and the change in the temperature:
○
●
When both sides of a bimetallic strip (strip with two metals pasted back to back) are heated, each metal expands a different amount due to the coefficient of thermal expansion. An application that uses this is the thermostat. Water’s Unusual behaviour o o ○ As the temperature increases from 0 C to 4 C, water contracts and its density increases. o ○ Above 4 C, the water expands with increasing temperature, allowing its density to decrease. o 3 ○ The density is at its maximum at 4 C, where it is 1.000 g/cm
Kinetic Theory of Gases ● Change in volume for a gas ○ Volume expansion (as seen higher up on the page) requires and initial volume for temperature changes ○ With gases, the forces that hold the atoms in place are very weak and are often negligible, meaning there is no ‘equilibrium’ separation (like the oscillations of atoms in a lattice structure), resulting in no standard volume of a gas. ○ This means the volume of a gas is defined by the container it lies within. ○ As a result, the volume for gases being a variable, with its change denoted by ΔV. ● Gas equation of state ○ Shows how the volume (V), pressure (P), temperature (T) of a gas with a mass (m) are related ○ It is a rather complex equation, but if the gas is maintained at a low pressure and/or low density, then it becomes relatively simple. ○ The ideal gas requires molecules not interacting with each other, with the exception of collisions. ● The mole ○ The amount of gas in a given volume can be expressed in moles. ○ One mole of a substance is that amount of substance that contains Avogadro’s Number (6.022E23) of particles (can be atoms or molecules). ○ The number of moles is defined by the formula n = m/M . ■ M being molar mass of the substance. ■ m being the mass. ■ And n being the number of moles.
●
Boyle’s Law Apparatus ○ One of a range of experiments done when investigating the behaviour of gases here the volume of the air is measured on the scale, and the gauge measures the pressure. As the pressure is increased, the volume becomes smaller and smaller. ○ This produces a relationship that can be quantified ~ the pressure times the volume is a constant this relationship is known as the ideal gas law.
●
Ideal Gas law ○ The equation of state for an ideal gas is PV = nRT ■ n is the number of moles of the gas ■ R is a constant Universal gas constant R = 9.314 J/mol *K ○ Means the gases are moving independently unless they collide with each other. ○ The ideal gas law is often expressed in terms of the number of molecules present in the sample (N) ■ PV = nRT = (N/N )RT = Nk T A b ■ K = 1.38E23 J/K is Boltzmann’s constant = R/N b A ○ It is common to call P, V and T the thermodynamic variables of an ideal gas. ○ As you decrease the size of a container, the molecules are still moving at the same rate, but they collide more with the walls, which means there is a greater force on the container, resulting in an increased pressure. ○ If the temp of a house goes up, the air expands, causing air to leave the house. This can also be shown by the ideal gas law as the pressure is constant and the volume is the same, then as the temp goes up, the number of moles must go down. ○ Gas particles colliding is an elastic collision, so the momentum is conserved and as a result, one could calculate the force that the molecule has when it collides. ○ Assumptions ■ The number of molecules in the gas is large, and the average separation between the molecules is large compared with their dimensions, ie. they are essentially points. ● The molecules occupy a negligible volume within the container ■ The molecules obey Newton’s laws of motion, but as a whole they move freely and randomly unless the collide. ● Any molecule can move in any direction at any speed. ● At any given moment a certain percentage move at high speeds and a certain move at low speeds
■
○
The molecules interact only by shortrange forces during elastic collisions ● Consistent with the macroscopic model ■ Molecules make elastic collisions with the walls ■ The gas under consideration is a pure substance all molecules are identical. Pressure and kinetic energy ■ Assume a container is a cube with edge length d. ■ The motion of the molecule with mass m has velocity in terms of its components v , v ,v ; xi yi zi ■ Look at at the momentum and average force ~ p and F i i ■ Assuming perfectly elastic collisions and applying newton's laws to the collisions, we can determine the relation between the gas pressure and the molecular kinetic energy:
■
■
■
■
Above left: This is the relationship between pressure and kinetic energy. The interpretation is that the pressure is proportional to the number of molecules per unit volume (N/V) and to the average translational kinetic energy of the molecules. Note: the V with the line above is the mean value of the speed squared. Above centre left & right: The molecular interpretation of temperature the temperature is hence a direct measure of the average molecular kinetic energy. On the right of it is the simplified version of the equation. It can be expressed as each component of the velocity v , v and v x y z Above right: The total kinetic energy of a gas it is simply N times the kinetic energy of each molecule n being the amount of moles. If it is a gas with only translational energy, Root mean square speed ● The root mean square (rms) speed is the root of the average of the square of the speeds:
●
Here m is the M is the molar mass and it equals mN A
Heat and the First Law of Thermodynamics (CH18) ● Historical background ○ Thermodynamics and mechanics are separate branches of physics until 1850, when James Joule proved a relationship through numerous experiments. ○ This relationship was found between the transfer of energy in thermal processes and the transfer of work in mechanical processes ■ Caused the concept of energy to apply to internal forces too. ■ The law of conservation of energy became a universal law of nature. ● Internal Energy ○ Internal energy is all the energy contained within a system that is associated with its microscopic components (generally considered to be atoms and molecules). ○ It is viewed from a stationary reference with respect to the centre of mass of a system. ○ The kinetic energy from the motion through space is not considered (as it is external). It does however consider the general translational, rotational and vibrational motion. ○ It includes potential energy between molecules.
●
Heat ○ ○ ○
Heat is the transfer of energy across the boundary of a system due to a difference in temperature from the system to its surroundings. The term heat also expresses the amount of energy that is transferred. Heat is not how hot something is.
○
●
Changing internal energy can be done through heat and work. Heat is not necessarily needed work can change the internal energy of a system. ○ Heat is measured using the S.I. unit Joule (J), however it may appear in places as Calorie (cal)(1 calorie is the amount of energy needed to increase the temperature o o of 1 gram of water from 14.5 C to 15.5 C. ■ 1 Calorie = 4.1868 Joules. Heat Capacity/Specific Heat ○ Heat capacity (C) is the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of a different sample by one degree (it changes for each material). ○ If energy produces a change in temp, then:
○
Specific heat (c) is the heat capacity per unit mass, ie. c = C/m ■ If energy transfers to the sample and results in a change in temperature, then it is given the equation:
■
■
■
■
The specific heat measures how insensitive a substance is to the addition of energy. The more insensitive, the higher the c value and hence the more energy is required to result in an increase in temperature. Some common values are given below:
Keep in mind if the temperature increases, Q and delta T are positive as energy is transferred into the system. If the temperature decreases, then Q and delta T are negative as energy transfers out of the system. Specific heat varies with temperature:
●
For small temperature changes, it is negligible.
■
○
○
The specific heat of water is the highest of common materials, and this property is responsible for much of the weather. Calorimetry ■ This is a technique for measuring specific heat. This involves heating a material, adding it to a sample of water and determining the final temperature. This is all done in a device called a calorimeter ■ Assuming the calorimeter loses no energy, the energy is conserved, and as such, all the energy that’s transferred from the hot material to the water is absorbed by the water. ■ By equating the two specific heats, you can calculate the heat capacity of the sample: (subscript ‘s’ is sample and ‘w’ is water). Specific Heat for a gas ■ Changes depending on how it is heated. ● Q = nc ∆T for constant volume V ● Q = nc ∆T for constant pressure P ■ This also gives us two constants:
■
●
For monatomic gases (left), for diatomic gases (right)
Phase Changes ○ When a substance changes from one form to another ○ Common changes are solid to liquid (melting) and liquid to gas (freezing). ○ During a phase change, there is no change in temperature of the substance any energy put in will result in the change of molecular structure, not the temperature ○ The amount of energy required to effect the change is called ‘latent heat’ ○ Latent Heat ■ Different substances react differently to the energy added or removed during phase changes ■ It also depends on the mass of the sample ■ Given by the relationship L = Q/m ● The quantity L is the latent heat (latent means hidden). It also depends on the substance as well as the phase change. ● The energy required to change the phase is Q = + mL ■ The latent heat of fusion is used when the phase change is from solid to liquid ■ Latent heat of vaporisation is used when the phase changes from liquid to gas. ■ The positive sign is used when when energy is transferred into the system (result in melting or boiling) ■ The negative sign is used when energy is transferred from the system (resulting in freezing or condensation)
○
From ice to steam ■ Part A: (63 J) o. ● The change in temperature is 30 C. ● Use specific heat formula, with a heat capacity of ice (c ) i ■ Part B: (333 J) o ● At 0 C, there is a phase change temperature hence stays fixed ,so used the latent heat formula, where you use L as latent heat of fusion. ■ Part C: (419 J) o o ● B/n 0 C and 100 C, there is no phase changes, hence the energy added increases the temperature. ● Use the specific heat formula, with the heat capacity of water ■ Part D: Boiling water (2260 J) o ● At 100 C, a phase change occurs, meaning temperature does not change and hence in the equation, the latent heat of vaporisation of water should be used.
■
○
Part E: Heating steam (40J) ● If all the water is converted to steam, then the steam will heat up as no phase change occurs. ● Use specific heat with a heat capacity of steam. Molecular view of Phase changes ■ Can be described in terms of the rearrangement of atoms
■
■
■ ●
Heat Transfer ○ The energy transfer, Q, into or out of a system also depends on the process. ○ The energy reservoir is a source of energy that is considered to be so great that a finite transfer of energy does not change its temperature. ○ Examples ■ 1. As a piston is pulled upwards, gas is doing work on the piston. ■ 2. Second example has the same initial volume temp and pressure. It is thermally insulated however. The membrane is broken and the gas expands rapidly. The Volume doubles and pressure reduces, but there is no temperature change
■
●
Liquid to gas phase change: Molecules in a liquid are close together. The forces between them are stronger than the bonds of gas, hence work must be done to separate the molecules. The latent heat of vaporisation is the energy required per unit mass to separate Solid to Liquid phase change: The addition of energy will cause the amplitude of vibration of the molecules to increase. At melting point, this amplitude is big enough to cause the bonds to break, allowing the molecules to move around. The bonds in the liquid are less strong than the solid. The latent heat of fusion is the energy per unit mass to go from solid to liquid. The latent heat of vaporisation is greater than the latent heat of fusion ~ it takes more energy to break the bonds than to change the type of bonds
Initial values of P, V, n and T are the same in both cases. The n and V are the same final values for both cases. ■ T = T in both cases so no change in internal energy change in in final mechanical energy is zero. ■ Thus from the ideal gas equation, final values of P the same in both cases where it is half the initial, therefore all the values are the same ■ Example 1: Work done by the gas, and heat flows into it change in work is equal to the change in heat. ■ Example 2: no work is being done and no heat flows into the system. ■ Initial and final states in PV diagram are the same. Energy transfers by heat, like the work done, depend on the initial, final and intermediate states of the system. Both work and heat depend on the path taken. Neither can be solely by the end points of the thermodynamic process. First law of thermodynamics ○ A special case of conservation of energy. It takes into account changes in internal
○ ○
○ ○
○
○
energy and energy transfers by heat and work Although Q and W are dependent on the path, Q + W is independent of the path The first law of thermodynamics states that:
■ Q is the energy transfer of the system ■ W is the work done on the gas. ■ Delta E is the change in the internal energy One consequence is that there must exist a known quantity known as internal energy which is determined by the state of the system. Isolated systems: An isolated system is one that does not interact with its surroundings. No energy transfer by heat takes place, work done on the system is zero, so Q = W = 0, so the change in internal energy is zero. Cyclic Prcoess: A cyclic process is one that starts and end in the same state.It is not isolated and on a PV diagram, it is a closed curve. The net work done is the area enclosed by the curve.. The change in internal energy must be serco since it is a state variable
Processes: ■ Adiabatic: No energy leaves or enters, Q = 0. If you make a change very rapidly, there is no time for a change of thermal energy or it can be achieved by thermally insulating the walls of the system
●
■
■
If the gas compresses, W is positive and so the internal energy change is positive and so the temperature of the gas increases. ● If the gas expands quickly, the temperature of a gas decreases. ● Examples of everyday adiabatic processes include the expansion of hot gases in an internal combustion engine, liquefaction of gas in cooling processes and the compression stroke in a diesel engine ● The example b from above was an adiabatic free expansion as it takes place in an insulated container. No work is done and Q = 0 then there is no change in the internal energy Isobaric: Constant pressure (P = constant). The values of heat and the work terms are generally both nonzero
Isothermal: Constant temperature (T = constant). Since the volume doesnt change, W = PdV = 0, and then from the first law, the change in internal energy is equal to Q.
■
●
Isovolumetric: Constant Volume (V = constant). Since there is no change in the temperature, there is no change in the internal energy. This means that any energy that enters the system by heat must leave by work
Mechanisms for heat transfer ○ There are various mechanisms for heat transfer: conduction, convection or radiation. ○ Conduction ■ Whilst viewing from an atomic scale, we see an exchange of energy to and from particles from collisions (particles could be atoms, molecules or free electrons). ■ Less energetic particles gain energy from the collision form more energetic particles. ■ Molecules vibrate around their equilibrium point and particles near a heat source vibrate with a larger amplitude, which collides with nearby molecules and transfers this heat energy. ■ The rate of conduction depends on the properties of the material ● Metals are typically good conductors as they contain a sea of delocalised electrons, which more readily can transfer the heat throughout the sample. ● Poor conductors include asbestos, gases and paper. ● Conduction can only occur if there is a temperature difference between two sections of the conducting medium
●
● ●
It is given by the formula above, where A is the cross sectional area, dx is the thickness of the slab and dT is the difference in temperature. P is power, not pressure and is measured in Watts (if Q is in joules). ϰ is the thermal conductivity of the materials (good conductors, it is high, bad is low). The value |dt/dx| is the temperature gradient, measures the rate at which temperature changes with position For a rod, the formula is such:
●
○
○
Some common values are:
Convection ■ Comes from the energy transferred through the movement of a substance. ■ When the movement is as a result of density, it is natural convection, if it is forced, say by a fan or a pump, then it is forced convection. Radiation ■ Radiation requires no physical contact. ■ All objects radiate heat in the form of electromagnetic radiation (EMR), its rate can be calculated by Stefan’s law:
● ● ● ●
■
Power is the rate of energy transfer (equals energy over time) 2 4 σ = 5.6696E8 W/m K A is the surface area E is a measure of the emissivity (or absorptivity) and it varies between 0 and 1. ● T is the temperature in kelvin. With its surroundings, Stefan’s law can be altered:
●
■
■
If it is in thermal equilibrium with the surroundings, then it radiates and absorbs at the same rate and as such, the T will be 0. Ideal absorbers absorb all the energy hitting it the value of e is 1, and it is commonly referred to as a black body. It is also considered to be an ideal radiator. An ideal reflector has an e value of 0 and it absorbs none of the energy that hits it.
Oscillatory Motion ● Periodic Motion
○
●
Periodic motion is the motion of an object that repeats regularly, ie. it returns to the same point after a fixed time interval. ○ Simple Harmonic motion is when the force acting proportional to the position relative to the origin and is directed toward it, ie. F = k.x ○ Hooke’s Law for the stretched spring F = k.x s ■ Here, F is the restoring force, which is always directed towards the s equilibrium point and opposite the displacement from the equilibrium ■ K is the force or spring constant ■ X is the displacement from the equilibrium position. Acceleration ○ The force from hooke’s law is the net force from newton’s second law. This gives the following relationship:
○
●
●
Here, the acceleration is proportional to the displacement of the block, has the direction opposite that of the displacement. It is not a constant for simple harmonic motion as the directions are changing. This means linear equations with constant acceleration cannot be applied. Vertical Orientation ○ When a block is hung from a vertical spring, its weight will cause the string to stretch. If the resting equilibrium position is given by y = 0, then:
Simple Harmonic Motion ○ Mathematical interpretation ■ Assuming the block is a particle, and the axis it moves along is the x axis ■ Applying newton’s second law gives us:
■
The equation
is an example solution
●
○
A is the amplitude of the motion the maximum position of the particle (in the positive or negative direction) 1 ● ω is the angular frequency (radians.s ) ● Φ is the phase constant or initial phase angle. ● From the above eq, Φ and A are determined by the position of the particle at t = 0. ● The phase of the motion is ωt + Φ ● x(t) is periodic and repeats every 2π radians. Periodicity and Frequency ■ The period T is the time interval for the particle to go through one full
cycle of motion. ● x(t) = x(t + T) & v(t) = v(t + T)
○
■
● The inverse of the period is the frequency it is the number of oscillations per time interval
■ ■
Units are in cycles per second or Hertz (Hz).
■
Frequency and period depend only on the mass and the force constant of the spring. If k is large, or m is small, then the frequency increases).
Energy of the SHM oscillator ■ Assume a spring mass system is moving on a frictionless surface total energy is a constant ■ Kinetic energy can be found by: ■ Elastic potential energy can be found by:
■
■
The total mechanical energy is a constant as seen above. It is also proportional to the square of the amplitude, and the energy is constantly being transferred between potential and kinetic energy. Summary of the stages are seen below
○
SHM and circular motion ■ A particle moves along a circle with a constant angular velocity given by ω. The line OP gives the angle theta, anticlockwise from the x axis.
■
●
SHM in a straight line can be represented as the diameter of SHM of a circle. Uniform circular motion is a representation of SHM in the x and y o directions, however they are out of phase by 90 . The simple pendulum ○ The motion is in the vertical plane and motion comes as a result of the gravitational force. It is very close to the SHM oscillator for small angles. ○ The forces acting are T (string tension) and mg (weight force). ○ As the length of the pendulum is constant, and the angle is small, gives the equation:
○
This gives up multiple more equations; the function of theta, the angular frequency and the period of the pendulum
●
The Physical Pendulum ○ The gravitational force provides a torque around the axis, its value being mgdsin(theta). This means I is the moment of Inertia about the axis through the origin. This gives a period of:
●
Damping of oscillations ○ If friction is significant in a system and the mechanical energy diminishes over time, then the system is said to be damped. ○ The amplitude of damped motions decrease over time. In the diagram below, the envelope is given by the blue line.
○
○
Examples are usually given by immersing a spring in a thick (viscous) liquid). The retarding force can be expressed as R = bv, where b some positive damping coefficient. ■ By newton's second law, F = k.x b.v = m.a Types of damping
■
○
As , is the natural frequency of a system. ■ If bv kA, then the system is overdamped. max Forced Oscillations ■ It is possible to overcome the loss of energy in a damped system by introducing a force ■ The amplitude of motion remains steady if the energy loss is matched by the input energy.
■
●
This gives the equation:
Resonance pendulum ○ When the frequency of the driving force is near the natural frequency (ω approx= ω ), an increase in amplitude occurs. This increase is called resonance. o ○ Resonance (maximum peak_) occurs when the driving frequency equals the natural frequency. The amplitude increases with decreased damping. As seen below, the shape of the resonance curve depends on b.
Waves ● General Waves ○ There are two main types of waves: mechanical and electromagnetic. ○ Mechanical ■ Some physical medium is being disturbed ■ The wave is a propagation of this disturbance through a medium ■ Mechanical waves require three key things; a source of the disturbance, a medium that can be disturbed and a physical way elements of a medium can influence each other (e.g. clapping hands 10 metres away, through the medium of air, and the air particles oscillate and collide, transferring energy). ○ Electromagnetic ■ No medium is required ○ Features ■ Energy is transferred over a distance, but matter is not. ■ All waves carry energy; the amount and the method of propagation differ for each wave. ● Pulse on a rope ○ If a rope is held taught, and the person flicks their wrist, a wave is generated. It however is just a single bump called a pulse, which travels to the other end of the
rope. Important to note the string is in tension. The rope is the medium through which the pulse travels. ○ The pulse has a definite height and speed of propagation ○ By continuously moving the rope up and down, multiple pulses are made, which forms a wave. Transverse Waves: A travelling wave that causes elements of a medium to move perpendicular to the direction of motion is a transverse wave (as shown on the right, where the particle motion is blue arrow and propagation is the red arrow). Longitudinal Waves: A wave or pulse that causes the elements of the medium to travel parallel to the direction of motion. Ie. the displacement of the coil below is parallel to the propagation. ○ ○
●
●
● ●
Complex Waves: these waves are a combination of longitudinal and transverse waves, Travelling pulse ○ Below is a pulse at two times, t = 0 and another time t = T
○ ○ ○ ○
●
y = f (x) represents the position of y with respect to x at time of zero The speed of the pulse is v and in time t, it covers the distance (s) vt. The shape does not change, but the equation is now y = f (xvt) For a pulse travelling to the right, this is y (x,t) = f (xvt) and to the left it is given by y (x,t) = f (x+vt). ○ Y (x,t) is the wavefunction. The y coordinate is the transverse position. At a fixed time t, it is called the waveform. Reflection of a wave ○ Fixed end ■ Say a rope is connected to a wall, when a pulse set from the other end of the string reaches the wall, it reflects and travels back down along the string. ■ This is called the reflection of a pulse. Important to note that the pulse is also inverted ○ Free end ■ A free end involves an end that can move vertically up and down. ■ The pulse from a rope is reflected, but not inverted.
●
Transmission of a wave ○ When a wave reaches the boundary of a medium, part of the energy of the incident (initial) pulse is reflected and the rest undergoes transmission into the next medium, where some energy passes through this boundary.
○
○
●
Heavy to light string ■ Part of the incident pulse is transmitted, some is reflected, but the reflection is not inverted. ■ It is only in light to heavy strings, as seen above, where the pulse is inverted.
Conservation of energy ■ The conservation of energy applies to all waves and wave boundaries the sum of the energies of the reflected plus inverted pulses must equal the energy of the incident pulse. Sinusoidal waves ○ The curve of sin(theta) ○ It is the simplest example of a periodic continuous wave, which can be used to build more complex waves. ○ Each element moves up and down in simple harmonic motion ○ The wave moves to the right. ○ Amplitude and Wavelength ■ The crest of the wave is the maximum displacement from the normal position of the wave (x=0). ■ This distance is the amplitude, and the wavelength is the distance between two crests. Wavelength is given by: λ
○
Wavelength and period ■ The wavelength is the minimum distance between any two identical points on adjacent waves. ■ The period, T, is the time interval for two identical points on a wave to pass the same position.
○
Frequency ■ The frequency is the number of crests (or any point on the wave) that passes a given point in a given time interval ■ The time is generally measured in seconds. ■ It is measured in Hertz (Hz) Wave function ■ The wave function of a sinusoidal wave is given by:
○
■ Here, the wavenumber is k = 2π/λ and the angular frequency is ω=2π/T Sinusoidal wave on a string ■ If a string is moving with a sinusoidal wave, it creates identical waveforms, and each element is acting in SHM which is identical to the source. ■ The transverse speed of the wave is given by v = dy/dt [this is different to y the wave speed which is λ/T] Speed of a wave ○ On a string ■ It depends on the physical characteristics of the string and the tension it is subjected to. ■ The equation below makes two assumptions; the tension is not affected by the pulse and the pulse does not assume any shape. ○
●
○
For a spring
■
Here, alpha is ½ and beta is ½ , showing that solutions exist only in the form:
●
●
●
Energy in Waves in a string ○ Waves transport energy when they propagate through a medium. As every element of a sinusoidal wave is in simple harmonic motion. This means that every element has the same total energy ○
If each element has mass Δm, then Δm = the equation:
and the kinetic energy is given by
○
As the length shrinks towards zero, we obtain a new equation for the kinetic energy:
○
2 By integrating cos x between lambda and 0, we obtain equations for total kinetic energy and total potential energy and hence mechanical energy.
○
The power is given by:
Waves vs particles ○ Particles have zero size, multiple particles must exist at different places, never the same place, and they always exist ○ Waves have a specific size their wavelength. Multiple waves can combine at one point in the same medium and only certain frequencies can exist (ones that are quantised) Superposition ○ If two or more waves are travelling in the same spot in the medium, then they superposition, ie. add together algebraically. ○ This happens if they are linear waves mechanical waves have an amplitude that is much smaller than the wavelength. ○ Two travelling waves can intersect without being destroyed or altered. ○ The resultant wave of two waves joining is called interference. ○ The process of superpositioning is given below:
○
○
Types of interference ■ Constructive ● Occurs when the displacement caused by the two waves are in the same direction. ● The resultant pulse is larger than the original pulses ■ Destructive ● Occurs when the displacement caused by the two waves are in the opposite direction ● The resultant pulse is less than the original pulses. Sinusoidal waves
■ ■ ■ ■
Which is sinusoidal, has the same frequency and wavelength of original waves. The amplitude is 2Acos(phi/2) and the phase is (phi/2) When the phase is zero, the amplitude is 2A, ie. the crests of one wave coincide with another) When the phase is Pi/2, then the amplitude is zero, resulting in destructive interference. When the phase is not zero or Pi, then the resultant interference wave has
○
an amplitude between 0 and 2A. Standing waves ■ Assume two waves have the same amplitude, frequency and wavelength, travelling in opposite directions in a medium. ■ Their equations are given by:
■
And their superposition:
■ ■
This is the wave function of a standing wave In standing waves, the elements of a medium alternate at extremes:
■
A node occurs at a point of zero amplitude
■
An antinode occurs at a point of maximum displacement, 2A
■
●
Every element in the medium oscillates in SHM with a frequency ω, however the amplitude depends on the location of an element in the medium. ○ Amplitudes of waves ■ Amplitude of individual waves is A ■ Amplitude of SHM of elements in a medium is 2Asin(kx) ■ Amplitude of a standing wave is 2A Standing waves in a string ○ If a string is fixed at both ends and with length L, a standing wave is created through the reflection at each end, with continuous superpositioning. This means the end of the strings at each fixed ends must be nodes. ○ A harmonic describes the amount of ‘loops’ as shown below. The wavelength is defined by every two loops:
○
The natural frequencies are given by:
○
Quantization: Only certain frequencies of oscillation are allowed. Common when waves are subject to boundary conditions. Harmonic series ■ The fundamental frequency occurs at n = 1, the rest are multiples of this. ■ Frequencies that exhibit this relationship are called harmonic series
○
Sound Waves ● Introduction to sound waves ○ Sound waves are longitudinal waves that can travel through any material medium. The wave speed depends on the properties of the medium ○ Three types of categories ■ Audible waves within sensitivity of the human ear 20Hz to 20kHz. ■ Infrasonic below the sensitivity of the human ear ■ Ultrasonic above the sensitivity of the human ear ○ Compressions waves ■ Sound waves are compression waves, which can easily be expressed through the model of an undisturbed gas in a piston. ■ There is a compressible gas with uniform density. If the piston is suddenly moved to the right, the gas at the front is compressed. The compressed region then moved to the right of this original region appearing to be a wave. ■ Corresponds to a compression pulse moving through the tube with velocity v. Note the speed of the piston is not the same as the speed of the wave.
●
Speed of sound waves ○ The speed of sound waves depends on the compressibility and density of the medium. The speed of all mechanical waves follow the general formula:
○
Speed of sound in liquids or gases. ■ The bulk modulus of the material, B is given by:
■
○
Speed of sound in a solid ■ The young's modulus of a material, Y is given by:
■
○
The density is given by ⍴ and hence the speed of sound in a liquid of gas is
he density is given by ⍴ and hence the speed of sound in a solid is
Speed of sound in air ■ Also depends on the temperature of the medium, which is very essential with gases.
■
The relationship is given by:
o T is the temperature of the air in degrees Celsius and at 0 C, the speed is c 331 metres per second. Periodic sound waves ○ A compression moves through a material as a pulse, continually compressing the material in front of it. ○ The areas of lower pressure and density are called rarefactions. ○ These areas move at a speed that is equal to the speed of sound in the medium. ○ A periodic sound wave, using the piston example above uses an oscillating piston, where the distance between two compressions or rarefactions is the wavelength. The speed of sound in this example depends on the frequency and wavelength [v=fλ], rather than the speed of oscillations.
■
●
○
Displacement ■ Each element of the medium moves in SHM parallel to the direction of the wave. ■ It moves with the equation:
● ○
Pressure ■ The variation in pressure is also periodic
■
○ ○
S is the maximum position from the equilibrium position and is max known as the displacement amplitude of the wave.
ΔP is the pressure amplitude max ● ΔP = ⍴vωS max max ● K is the wave number ● ω is the angular frequency ■ The pressure is π/2 radians out of phase with the displacement. A sound wave may be considered to be either a displacement or pressure wave. Energy of periodic sound waves
○
■ ■ ■
A piston transmits energy to the element of air in the tube The energy is propagated away from the piston via sound wave This gives rise to numerous equations:
■
The total PE and KE for one wavelength is given by
■
The power is the energy over time, so it is given by the formula
Intensity of a periodic sound wave ■ The intensity is the power per unit area, ie. the rate at which energy is transported by the waves passing through a given area, A and perpendicular to the direction of the wave. ■ For air,
■
■
A point source will emit sound waves equally in all directions, resulting in a spherical wave. The power is distributed evenly around the area of a the source. It is given by the inverse square law:
■ ■
The range of intensities detected by the human ear is very large. It is converted to a logarithmic scale to determine the intensity level, β
●
I is the reference intensity. It is taken to be the threshold of o hearing:
●
β is measured in decibels
Lab
●
Why are uncertainties important? ○ It won't always be accurate, and with this repetition must occur for reliability and averaging to make a more accurate answer ○ Random Uncertainties: have a zero mean . overestimating the actual value rather than underestimating it. Systematic uncertainties is when you do something systemically wrong, ie. they have a non zero mean. This is often caused by poor technique, calibration errors and zero errors. ○ Measuring the time a ball takes to fall to the ground ■ If it is one person constantly, it will be systematic ■ If there are more than one person on different devices, therefore it with be systematic and random. ○ How do you account for systematic uncertainties ■ error = range/2 = (biggest smallest)/2 ■ Ie. if the average is 0.67s and the highest was 0.81 and the lowest was 0.50, then the error is approx 0.155, therefore it would be 0.67+ or 16s ■ Sig fig is important past the decimal place typically. ○ Dependant errors: these come from the same source, ie. if you use the same piece of equipment to make a measurement then the errors are dependent ○ Independent Errors: These come from different sources. If two different pieces of equipment are used then the errors are independent ○
●
View more...
Comments