Pesquisa Científica - Processadores (2009)

July 5, 2019 | Author: Antonio Vinicius Menezes Medeiros | Category: Memória de Acesso Aleatório, Memória de Somente Leitura, Computadores pessoais, Bit, Armazenamento de Dados de Computador
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Este trabalho apresenta os processadores para computadores pessoais baseados no IBM PC, seus componentes, seu funcioname...

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Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia de Sergipe Programa de Bolsas de Iniciação Científica Júnior – PBICJr 

Museu Web de Tecnologia  Antônio Vinícius Menezes Medeiros

Orientador: Heli Henriques Alcantara Nascimento

ARACAJU – SE

2009

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Resumo Este trabalho apresenta os processadores para computadores pessoais baseados no IBM PC, seus componentes, seu funcionamento, suas características e sua evolução. O trabalho apres apresent entado ado tem como como objeti objetivo vo princi principa pall auxil auxiliar iar a compr compreen eensão são do funcio funcionam namen ento to dos componentes do computador, em especial do processador, e esclarecer as diferenças entre as tecnol tecnologi ogias as que se encon encontra tram m hoje hoje dispo disponív níveis eis no mercad mercado. o. São coloca colocadas das consid considera eraçõe çõess referentes às características, inovações e funcionamento dos processadores, de modo que seja possível compará-los em termos de avanço tecnológico, desempenho e custo-benefício.

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Sumário 1 O Computador 1.1 Hardware 1.1.1 Processador 1.1.2 Placa-mãe 1.1.3 Memória 1.1.3.1 Memória principal 1.1.3.2 Memória secundária 1.1.3.3 Bits e Bytes 1.1.3.4 Medidas de Armazenamento 1.1.4 Periféricos (Dispositivos de Entrada e/ou Saída) 1.1.4.1 Dispositivos de Entrada 1.1.4.2 Dispositivos de Saída 1.1.4.3 Dispositivos de Entrada e Saída 1.1.5 Interfaces 1.1.6 Barramentos 1.1.6.1 Outra classificação para os barramentos 1.1.7 Outros Componentes 1.1.7.1 Gabinete 1.1.7.2 Fonte de Alimentação 1.1.7.3 Cooler 1.1.7.4 Estabilizador de tensão / No-break / Filtro de Linha 1.2 Software 1.2.1 Tipos de Software 1.2.2 Arquivos e pastas 2 O Processador (Unidade Central de Processamento) 2.1 Componentes de um Processador 2.1.1 Unidade Aritmética e Lógica (UAL) 2.1.1.1 Co-processador matemático 2.1.2 Registradores 2.1.3 Unidade de Controle (UC) 2.1.4 Relógio ou Clock 2.1.5 Decodificador de Instrução (DI) 2.1.6 Registradores com função de controle 2.1.6.1 Registrador de Instrução (RI) 2.1.6.1 Contador de Instrução (CI) 2.1.6.1 Registrador de Endereços de Memória (REM) e Registrador de Dados de Memória (RDM) 2.2 Instruções de Máquina 2.3 Funcionamento da UCP (Ciclo da Instrução) 2.3.1 Exemplo de funcionamento da UCP 2.3.1.1 Ciclo da instrução LDA Op. 2.3.1.2 Ciclo da instrução ADD Op.

1 3 3 5 6 6 8 9 11 12 12 16 18 29 30 32 32 32 34 34 35 36 37 38 40 42 44 46 46 50 51 53 54 55 55 55 58 60 61 64 67

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3.3 Largura do barramento de endereços 3.4 Capacidade de endereçamento 3.5 Clock interno e externo 3.6 Memória cache 3.6.1 O Princípio da Localidade e o funcionamento da memória cache 3.6.2 Níveis e evolução da memória cache 3.7 Número de registradores 3.8 Co-processador matemático 3.9 Execução de instruções em paralelo 3.9.1 Metodologia Tipo Linha de Montagem ou Pipelining 3.10 Análise de desempenho (benchmark) 4 A Evolução dos Processadores Referências bibliográficas

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Capítulo 1 – O Computador  Esta introdução se baseia no que foi visto em [LVC] e [MON01]. Como diz Monteiro [MON01], “Computar significa calcular, realizar cálculos matemáticos.” O primeiro computador foi criado para facilitar operações matemáticas, fornecendo os resultados das mesmas com rapidez e precisão. É a máquina que mais evoluiu desde a sua criação, adquirindo várias outras utilidades ao longo do seu desenvolvimento. Os computadores de hoje em dia servem não só para realizar cálculos matemáticos, eles podem fazer quase tudo que se possa imaginar para uma máquina fazer: textos, imagens, vídeos, músicas, jogos, aplicações multimídia, pesquisas, comunicação instantânea com qualquer lugar do mundo a qualquer dia e qualquer  hora; tudo isso é possível fazer com um apenas um aparelho chamado computador. computador. Pode-se definir computador  definir  computador como como uma máquina que trabalha com grande quantidade quantidade de informações, informações, capaz de receber, processar, armazenar e transmitir  dados. Há muito tempo atrás os computadores eram feitos de grandes empresas para grandes empresas. Eram máquinas enormes, que ocupavam muito espaço (logo os primeiros ocupavam uma biblioteca inteira), tinham funcionamento complexo e custavam muito caro. Não eram máquinas que podiam ser usadas por qualquer  pessoa.  Ao longo da história história dos computadores computadores estes foram foram tornando-se menores, mais baratos e foram surgindo várias facilidades no uso, como o sistema operacional, a interface gráfica e o mouse, que possibilitaram sua popularização, principalmente principalmente após a invenção dos primeiros computadores pessoais na década de 70, como o  Altair e o Macintosh. Macintosh.

Figura 1.1. O Altair 8800 (1975, à esquerda) foi o primeiro computador pessoal comercializado. Já o Macintosh (1984) foi o primeiro computador a usar  interface gráfica e mouse. Imagens retiradas da Internet. Disponíveis em e . Acesso em 21/07/2007. Na década de 80 a IBM, a maior empresa de informática da época, que ainda

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Figura 1.2. IBM PC (1981). Em pouco tempo ele se tornou o padrão para a criação de novos computadores pessoais. Imagem retirada da Internet. Disponível em . Acesso em 27/06/2007. Há muito tempo a IBM já não é mais a única empresa a fabricar PCs. Esses computadores adotaram padrões para a fabricação de suas peças e hoje qualquer  pequena empresa pode desenvolver produtos para serem utilizados nesses computadores computadores ou mesmo fabricar computadores. Muitas pessoas que possuem conhecimento técnico sobre o assunto também montam seus próprios PCs (a expressão “montar um computador” é utilizada para indicar que uma pessoa escolheu no mercado as peças de sua preferência, comprouas, e montou seu próprio equipamento. equipamento. Empresas que não fabricam computadores também podem vender computadores montados com peças de outras empresas). Diferentemente Diferentemente do IBM PC, o Macintosh (também chamado por seus usuários de MAC) continuou sendo fabricado e desenvolvido exclusivamente exclusivamente pela sua fabricante, a Apple. Somente ela fabrica hardware e software para esses computadores computadores (ou se alguma outra empresa fabrica, faz isto sobre o controle da  Apple). Assim, Assim, a Apple desenvolve desenvolve uma arquitetura arquitetura “fechada”, pois pois os usuários de de seus computadores só podem comprar os produtos da fabricante e as pessoas não podem montar seus próprios computadores baseados nessa arquitetura.

Figura 1.3. Um PC e um MAC atuais. Imagens retiradas da Internet. Disponíveis em e

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Este trabalho se concentra exclusivamente exclusivamente nos computadores computadores de arquitetura aberta, que são os mais usados atualmente, baseados no IBM PC. Nessa primeira parte, serão vistos os componentes que formam esses computadores. Eles podem ser  software. divididos em dois grandes grupos: hardware e software.

1.1 Hardware Hardware é um termo em inglês que não tem uma tradução específica, deriva da palavra hard em inglês, que significa duro. É usado para definir todos os componentes componentes físicos (mecânicos, (mecânicos, magnéticos e eletrônicos) de um computador, computador, ou seja, a máquina propriamente dita, formada pelo microcomputador e seus periféricos (impressoras, (impressoras, monitores de vídeo, scanners, mouses, entre outros). [VIP], [MON01] O hardware de um computador pode ser dividido em quatro categorias funcionais: funcionais: processador processador (ou UCP), placa-mãe, memória e periféricos (também chamados de dispositivos de entrada e saída). Existem ainda alguns componentes que não se encaixam em nenhuma dessas categorias funcionais e, no entanto, continuam sendo componentes componentes físicos do computador. Estes serão vistos em Outros componentes.

Figura 1.4. Alguns componentes de um computador: Monitor (1), placa-mãe (2), processador (3), memória RAM (4), placas de expansão (5), fonte de alimentação (6), unidade de CD/DVD (7), disco rígido (8), teclado (9) e mouse (10).

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Figura 1.5. Intel 386 (1988). Esse foi o primeiro processador de 32 bits para PCs. Imagem retirada da Internet. Disponível em . Acesso em 01/07/2007. O processador é quem efetivamente executa todas as operações no computador, sendo considerado o “cérebro” da máquina. Essas operações são muito simples, consistem basicamente em operações matemáticas e lógicas, além de operações de busca, leitura e gravação de dados na memória. No entanto, tudo o que o computador faz (como já foi f oi mencionado na introdução, acesso à Internet, edição de textos, imagens, jogos, etc.) se resume basicamente a essas operações (isso será explicado explicado com mais detalhes no tópico de Software).  A velocidade velocidade do processador processador é um fator determinante determinante no desempenho desempenho geral do do computador. Tanto é que muitas pessoas descrevem o computador que usam se referindo ao modelo e velocidade do processador que ele possui (por exemplo, “eu uso um Athlon 64” ou “eu uso um Pentium 100 MHz”). Grosso modo, pode-se dizer que um processador que opere a 100 MHz, como o Pentium do exemplo, realiza 100 milhões de operações por segundo. Essa é a forma como é medida a velocidade de um processador: através da quantidade de operações que ele consegue realizar em um segundo. A unidade utilizada para essa medida é o MHz (Megahertz ou milhões de ciclos por segundo) ou em GHz (Gigahertz ou bilhões de ciclos por segundo) nos processadores mais novos. Vale ressaltar que outro computador equipado com um processador idêntico a este pode apresentar um desempenho diferente, isso porque existem outros fatores que influenciam na velocidade do processamento, como por exemplo, a qualidade da placa-mãe ou a velocidade de acesso à memória.

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Figura 1.6. Processadores da Intel e da AMD. Imagens retiradas da Internet. Disponíveis em , , e . Acesso em 01/07/2007.

1.1.2 Placa-mãe [LVC02], [MOR02], [EMER05]  A placa-mãe (do (do inglês Motherboard), também chamada placa de CPU por ser a placa que acomoda o processador, ou ainda mainboard , por ser a principal placa do computador, é a responsável pela interconexão de todos os dispositivos que formam o computador. Se o processador é o “cérebro” do computador, pode-se dizer que a placa-mãe é o sistema nervoso.

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“Ela não é apenas o componente mais complexo, mas também o que mais influencia influencia a estabilidade estabilidade e as possibilidades possibilidades de expansão do sistema. Portanto, usar  uma placa de CPU de baixa qualidade (e em conseqüência, de baixa confiabilidade) coloca a perder toda a confiabilidade e desempenho do computador.” Na placa-mãe há encaixes para todos os componentes do computador. O processador fica encaixado em um soquete próprio para ele (nesse modelo de placamãe ele possui cor branca, está na parte superior). Os pentes de memória são encaixados encaixados ao lado do processador (nos soquetes azuis e pretos). As placas de expansão são encaixadas nos slots mais embaixo. Há também um bloco de conectores para os periféricos (todos esses componentes serão vistos com detalhes mais adiante). No mercado existem placas-mãe de várias marcas e modelos, com preços e qualidades qualidades diferentes. Algumas das marcas mais conhecidas são: Asus, Abit, Gigabyte, Soyo, PC Chips, MSI, Intel e ECS.

1.1.3 Memória O estudo dos diferentes tipos de memória que compõem um computador se baseia em [LVC02], [EMER04], [EMER07], [MICMEMO], [INFO] e [VIP]. Em informática, fazem parte da memória de um computador todos os dispositivos que são usados para armazenar dados e instruções, seja de forma temporária ou permanente. Pode-se dizer que depois da UCP, a parte mais importante de um computador é a memória. Em um mesmo computador existem vários tipos de memórias, organizadas organizadas hierarquicamente hierarquicamente de acordo com três características: custo, velocidade velocidade de acesso (a velocidade com que os dados armazenados na memória são acessados pelo processador) e capacidade de armazenamento (a quantidade de informações que a memória pode armazenar). Pode-se dividi-las em dois grandes grupos principais de memória: a memória principal e a memória secundária.

1.1.3.1 Memória principal  A memória principal principal é aquela aquela que é acessada acessada diretamente pelo pelo processador processador e armazena os dados de forma eletrônica. É formada por diversos tipos de memórias, entre as quais as tão faladas memórias RAM e ROM. “Se o processador é o principal componente de qualquer computador, a memória RAM é a sua principal ferramenta de trabalho.” A memória RAM (do inglês Random Access Memory  – Memória de Acesso Aleatório) armazena as informações que estão sendo utilizadas pelo processador. “Este tipo de memória permite tanto a leitura como a gravação e a regravação de dados.” Os módulos, também chamados

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 A quantidade quantidade de memória RAM de de um computador computador é um fator bastante bastante importante. Quanto mais RAM o computador possuir, mais rápido será o seu funcionamento funcionamento e mais facilmente ele suportará a execução de vários programas ao mesmo tempo, do mesmo jeito que quanto mais avançados (ou “pesados”, como os usuários dizem) são os programas que queremos utilizar, mais memória RAM será necessária. Outra característica da RAM é a sua volatilidade, ou seja, “ela precisa ser  constantemente constantemente reenergizada para conservar os dados gravados.” Quando o computador é desligado, todos os dados armazenados na memória RAM são apagados. Por essa razão, antes de desligar o computador, se o usuário não quiser  perder seus dados, é necessário que ele os guarde ("salve") em um disco, que é uma forma de memória permanente.

Figura 1.8. Pente de memória RAM. Imagem retirada da Internet. Disponível em . Acesso em 21/07/2007.  A capacidade capacidade da memória RAM RAM é medida em megabytes (MB) ou gigabytes (GB), no caso das memórias RAM mais novas (MB e GB são duas medidas de capacidade, capacidade, elas serão explicadas mais adiante). Pode-se encontrar no mercado módulos de memória com capacidades variadas, que vão de 32 MB até 2 GB. Módulos com menores capacidades estão obsoletos, sendo bastante difíceis de encontrar. “No início dos anos 80, 1 MB de memória era uma capacidade extremamente elevada para os programas simples que eram usados.” Os programas atuais são muito mais complexos e exigem computadores que possuam no mínimo 256 MB ou mais de memória.

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 A atualização atualização da BIOS é feita através através de programas programas apropriados, apropriados, usando comandos de hardware especiais, por meio de disquete ou até mesmo pelo sistema operacional, dependendo dos recursos disponibilizados pelo fabricante da placa-mãe em questão. Não é só o computador que possui memória ROM. Vários aparelhos, como leitores de DVD, tocadores de MP3, placas de computador, taxímetros, celulares também possuem memória ROM. Dentro da memória ROM destes aparelhos, é gravado um software necessário ao seu funcionamento, chamado de firmware . Ele é, para o aparelho, o que um sistema operacional é para um computador e, assim como a BIOS gravada na ROM do computador, pode ser atualizado caso seja necessário.

Figura 1.9. Um chip de memória ROM na placa-mãe. Imagem retirada da Internet. Disponível em . Acesso em 04/07/2007. “A placa de UCP contém quase toda a memória de um PC, mas outras placas

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 A memória de massa não é formada formada por chips, e sim sim por dispositivos dispositivos que utilizam outras tecnologias tecnologias de armazenamento. armazenamento. Os discos rígidos, assim como os disquetes e as unidades de fita, usam a tecnologia magnética para armazenar dados, e por isso são classificados classificados como discos magnéticos. Os discos óticos usam tecnologia tecnologia ótica.  As unidades unidades de memória de massa, massa, por serem também também consideradas consideradas dispositivos dispositivos de entrada e saída de dados, serão vistas com mais detalhes em Unidades de Armazenamento. Armazenamento.

1.1.3.3 Bits e Bytes Os seres humanos estão acostumados a utilizar o sistema decimal de numeração, numeração, que usa 10 algarismos para formar todos os números: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, e 9. Esse sistema de numeração usa exatamente 10 algarismos devido ao fato dos seres humanos terem 10 dedos. “Historicamente o número 10 foi escolhido, pois os números eram usados na vida cotidiana para contar. Contar carneiros, bois, pães, pessoas, etc. Nada mais natural que contar com os dedos.” Se uma pessoa perguntar a uma criança de três anos a sua idade, ela verá que a criança responde mostrando três dedos da mão.

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Sempre que um processador, uma memória ou outro chip qualquer precisar  receber ou transmitir dados, esses dados são representados na forma de bits. Entretanto, um bit é muito pouco, já que pode representar apenas apenas dois valores. Os computadores computadores trabalham com agrupamentos de bits. Nos PCs, os bits são transmitidos em grupos de 4, 8, 16, 32 ou 64 bits simultâneos. simultâneos. Quando se diz que um computador possui processador processador 32 bits, significa dizer que dentro dele trafegam 32 bits de uma só vez. Logo, esse processador é mais rápido que outro processador de, por exemplo, 16 bits.

Figura 1.11. Toda informação colocada dentro do computador é representada por uma seqüência de 0s e 1s. Imagem retirada da Internet. Disponível em . Acesso em 05/07/2007. Quanto à forma como são armazenados armazenados os dados dentro de um computador,

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Por isso bytes são considerados unidades completas de informação. Com eles é possível representar uma informação completa completa (seja ela uma letra, um número, etc.). Com um bit ainda não é possível representar nenhuma informação. É importante ressaltar que existem outras tabelas de codificação de caracteres, como o BCD, a EBCDIC, a UNICODE, no entanto a tabela ASCII ainda é a mais utilizada nos computadores de hoje. Pode-se fazer uma analogia do conceito de bits e bytes com o conceito de letras e palavras, que são usadas pelos seres humanos. É curioso notar que na informática também surgiu o conceito de palavra, no entanto este é bastante diferente do conceito de palavra para a linguagem humana. É um conceito muito importante para o estudo dos processadores e suas características. Segundo Monteiro [MON01], pode-se definir a palavra como “um conjunto de bits que representa uma informação útil para os computadores. Desse modo, uma palavra estaria associada ao tipo de iteração entre memória principal e UCP, que é individual, individual, informação por informação. Ou seja, a UCP processa instrução por  instrução (cada uma estaria associada a uma palavra), armazena ou recupera número a número (cada um estaria associado a uma palavra), e assim por diante.” Tem-se o exemplo do processador de 32 bits citado anteriormente. A palavra desse processador processador é de 32 bits e, com isso, ele consegue processar 32 bits de uma vez só.

1.1.3.4 Medidas de Armazenamento Em Informática é muito importante considerar a capacidade de armazenamento, armazenamento,  já que quando quando se faz algo no computador, computador, trabalha-se trabalha-se com arquivos arquivos que ocupam ocupam certo espaço em disco. Assim como a água é medida em litros ou o açúcar é medido em quilos, os dados de um computador são medidos em bits e bytes. E assim como o litro, o grama e qualquer outra medida, o byte também possui seus múltiplos. Resumidamente, Resumidamente, tem-se: •

1 bit (ou b) é a menor unidade de informação, que corresponde a um dígito binário

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Da mesma forma, o multiplicador “M”, que normalmente normalmente vale 1.000.000, na computação vale 1.048.576. Somente para efeitos práticos, pode-se dizer que 1 kB é aproximadamente mil bytes. De qualquer forma o uso incorreto dessas medidas pode causar muita confusão. Um exemplo cotidiano ocorre quando o usuário vai comprar um HD. Está escrito na embalagem que sua capacidade é de 80 gigabytes, quando na verdade ele é um pouco menor. Isso ocorre porque os fabricantes entendem 1 gigabyte como 1 bilhão de bytes, quando o correto seria 1.073.741.824 1.073.741.824 bytes. Essa pequena diferença faz com que o disco rígido tenha uma capacidade aproximadamente 6,87% menor do que a anunciada na embalagem, ou seja, um suposto disco rígido de 80 gigabytes possui na verdade 5,5 gigabytes a menos do que a capacidade anunciada. Os bytes e seus múltiplos são associados à capacidade de armazenamento de dados (exemplo: um disco rígido com capacidade de 20 gigabytes). gigabytes). Já na transmissão de dados entre computadores, geralmente usa-se medições relacionadas a bits e não dados). Assim, um modem 14400 bps, por exemplo, a bytes (as medidas de fluxo de dados). transmite dados a uma velocidade de 14400 bits por segundo. Existem também para essas medidas os múltiplos do bit: • • •

1 Kilobit (ou Kb) = 1024 bits 1 Megabit (ou Mb) = 1024 Kilobits 1 Gigabit ou (Gb) = 1024 Megabits

Notar que quando a medição é feita em bytes, o “B” da sigla é maiúsculo, como ocorre, por exemplo, em gigabytes gigabytes (GB); quando a medição é feita em bits, o “B” da sigla fica em minúsculo, como em gigabits (Gb).

1.1.4 Periféricos (Dispositivos de Entrada e/ou Saída) Para permitir a comunicação entre o processador e os demais componentes componentes do computador, assim como entre o computador e o meio externo (entre os computadores computadores e os usuários ou outros computadores), temos os Dispositivos de

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1.1.4.1.1 Teclado

Todos os teclados modernos são derivados do IBM Enhanced Keyboard, lançado nos anos 80. Semelhante ao de uma máquina de escrever, com algumas teclas adicionais necessárias necessárias ao computador, o t eclado é usado para dar a entrada manual nas informações. Possui pouco mais de 100 teclas, entre letras, números, símbolos especiais e funções, que possibilitam não só a escrita de textos, como também o controle das funções de um computador e seu sistema operacional. operacional. Alguns teclados possuem ainda botões para controle de áudio, acesso à Internet e ainda botões para ligar, desligar e ativar o modo de espera do computador. São chamados de “teclado multimídia”, ou “teclados para Internet”.

Figura 1.12. Um teclado comum (à esquerda) e um teclado multimídia (à

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Figura 1.13. Um mouse comum (à esquerda). Ele movimenta um cursor na tela do computador e permite selecionar comandos na tela (à direita). A imagem do mouse foi retirada da Internet. Disponível em . Acesso em 22/07/2007. 1.1.4.1.3 Microfone

O microfone converte ondas sonoras em dados digitais que o computador é

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Figura 1.15. Um scanner. Imagem retirada da Internet. Disponível em . Acesso em 22/07/2007. Uma fotografia em papel, por exemplo, pode ser digitalizada, digitalizada, passando a poder  ser exibida na tela, enviada a outras pessoas pela Internet ou duplicada em uma impressora.

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1.1.4.1.6 Joystick 

O joystick desempenha uma função semelhante a do mouse, porém é usado principalmente para melhorar o desempenho do usuário em jogos: ele permite movimentar de forma mais eficiente as imagens dos objetos na tela e acionar efeitos especiais especiais dos jogos (giros, tiros, etc.). Faz lembrar um controle de videogame e tem o mesmo funcionamento funcionamento deste. Existem joysticks especiais com formato de volante de carro e de manche de avião.

Figura 1.17. Vários tipos de joystick. Da esquerda para a direita: o joystick do videogame Playstation 2, um joystick de computador, um volante e um

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Figura 1.18. Um monitor CRT (à esquerda) e um monitor LCD (à direita). Imagens retiradas da Internet. Disponíveis em , . Acesso em 22/07/2007.  A tecnologia tecnologia LCD (Liquid (Liquid Cristal Display, Display, tela de cristais líquidos) líquidos) é mais usada usada em microcomputadores microcomputadores portáteis (laptops, notebooks, hand-helds, hand-helds, etc) e apresenta

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Uma impressora ou dispositivo de impressão serve para registrar a saída dos dados de forma permanente, em papel, imprimindo textos, gráficos, fotos ou qualquer  outro resultado de uma aplicação. Herdando a tecnologia das máquinas de escrever, as impressoras sofreram várias mudanças ao longo dos tempos. Também, com o evoluir da informática, as impressoras foram-se especializando, especializando, adquirindo as mais diversas funções. Assim, encontram-se impressoras impressoras de todos os tipos: especializadas especializadas em desenho vetorial (Plotters), em impressão de cupons fiscais e extratos bancários (impressoras (impressoras térmicas), otimizadas para impressão de texto (impressoras (impressoras laser), entre outras. 1.1.4.2.3 Caixa de Som / Fone de Ouvido

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 A princípio, as placas placas de expansão expansão são aquelas aquelas que expandem expandem as possibilidades do computador, como o próprio nome sugere. Elas conectam os dispositivos dispositivos de entrada e saída ao processador. Assim, o monitor é ligado em um conector na placa de vídeo. Quando o processador processador quer enviar um texto ou uma imagem para ser exibida na tela, ele envia à placa de vídeo. Esta vai processar as informações e enviá-las ao monitor que, finalmente, exibe o conteúdo desejado na tela. Elas são encaixadas nos slots na placa-mãe. Existem, no entanto, placas de expansão que já se tornaram quase indispensáveis para o funcionamento do computador, como a placa de vídeo e a placa de som. Com o passar do tempo, os circuitos dessas placas passaram a ser incorporados na placa-mãe, dispensando o uso dessas placas. Diz-se então que a placa-mãe possui dispositivos onboard  (o

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Se o desempenho gráfico não for muito importante e o custo baixo for uma necessidade, necessidade, o vídeo onboard é a melhor opção. Os PCs destinados a aplicações simples, como edição de texto e acesso à Internet, podem funcionar bem com circuitos de vídeo de baixo desempenho, sem comprometer a sua funcionalidade. funcionalidade. Se o desempenho gráfico for uma necessidade, a exemplo de um computador que vai ser  usado para aplicações gráficas profissionais, jogos ou qualquer tipo de programa que gere imagens complexas, é preciso usar uma placa de vídeo avulsa. Placa de Som É uma placa de circuito capaz de gerar e captar diversos tipos de sons, tornando possível assim a saída (através de caixas de som, fones de ouvido, headphones ou

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Placa de Rede Permite que várias máquinas trabalhem interligadas, trocando dados entre si, através de um cabo apropriado, formando assim uma rede local de computadores, também chamada de LAN (sigla de Local Area Network). É muito útil interligar vários computadores próximos, próximos, principalmente principalmente em empresas ou escritórios. Desta forma os computadores podem trocar dados entre si e compartilhar compartilhar recursos. Por exemplo, uma impressora cara pode ser compartilhada entre vários computadores, o que a torna economicamente economicamente viável. Para permitir a formação de redes, os computadores precisam ter uma placa de rede, que vai controlar todo o envio e recebimento de dados através da rede.

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 A palavra modem modem é a junção da abreviatura de de "modulator" com com "demodulator", "demodulator", ou codificador e decodificador. O modem converte as mensagens emitidas do sinal digital (linguagem (linguagem do computador), transformando-as transformando-as em sinais analógicos, que podem ser transportados por um sistema de telecomuni t elecomunicação. cação. Na chegada, outro modem converte os sinais analógicos, analógicos, da linha telefônica, em digitais, fazendo-os retornar à sua forma original, que pode ser entendida pelo computador que os recebe. Os primeiros modems eram aparelhos externos. Hoje é mais comum encontrar  os modems internos, que são na verdade placas de fax/modem, que são usadas para acesso discado. O prefixo Fax se deve ao fato de que muitos dos modems também servem para transmitir e receber fax através do computador. Ainda podemos encontrar modems externos atualmente, atualmente, como os usados para acesso em banda larga. Eles diferem dos modems para acesso discado porque não precisam converter 

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Há vários tipos de unidades de armazenamento: discos rígidos, disquetes, discos óticos (CDs e DVDs), ZIP Drives, Pen Drives e outros. Existem, portanto,

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Discos Rígidos (Hard Disks ou HDs)

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gravação (nesse caso, o laser) não fica muito próximo da superfície do disco, não há o risco dele tocar a superfície do disco causando danos ao mesmo.

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Disco

Informações sobre o disco

Capacidade

Compatibilidade

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Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.

Trusted by over 1 million members

Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.

Trusted by over 1 million members

Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.

Trusted by over 1 million members

Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.

Trusted by over 1 million members

Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.

Trusted by over 1 million members

Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.

Trusted by over 1 million members

Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.

Trusted by over 1 million members

Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.

Trusted by over 1 million members

Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.

Trusted by over 1 million members

Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.

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