Peruvian Whistling Vessels

The Peruvian Whistling Vessels of the Museum of Ethnology Berlin A Research from the Acoustic and Technological Point of View Friedemann Schmidt

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Im Ethnologischen Museum Berlin, SMB-PK (EMB) befinden sich 326 Pfeifgefäße aus unterschiedlichen vorspanischen Kulturen Perus. Ausgehend von diesen Objekten, von denen ca. 100 funktionsfähig sind, wird der Versuch unternommen, eine Systematik der Pfeifgefäße zu erstellen und die konstruktiven Voraussetzungen für die unterschiedlichen Pfeiftöne, Triller und Intervallsprünge zu erläutern. Für die Untersuchung werden Pfeifgefäße aus folgenden Kulturen ausgewählt: Vicús, Moche, Chimú, Lambayeque und Recuay. Im ersten Teil werden die Pfeifgefäße als Problem archäologischer Forschung dargestellt. Im zweiten Teil wird eine Systematik der Pfeifgefäße unter akustischen Gesichtspunkten diskutiert. Im dritten Teil wird die Technologie und Akustik der Pfeifgefäße untersucht. Im vierten Teil werden die Ergebnisse zusammengefasst: In allen Pfeifgefäßen befinden sich kugelförmige Pfeifen. Diese Globularpfeifen gehören zur Familie der gedackten Labialflöten mit allen typischen Merkmalen dieser Familie, d. h., sie entsprechen ihnen in der Tonerzeugung und in der Partialtonreihe. Pfeifgefäße können beim Entleeren einer Flüssigkeit keinen Ton erzeugen, weil alle akustischen Voraussetzungen dafür fehlen. Das Trillern einiger Pfeifgefäße mit zwei Kammern beruht auf dem differenzierten Zusammenspiel der Querschnitte von Kernspalt und Verbindungsröhre. Der Intervallsprung bei einigen Pfeifgefäßen mit integrierter Pfeife entsteht durch die Kopplung der Frequenzen von Primärresonator und Sekundärresonator, der die Funktion eines Helmholtz-Resonators erfüllt.

botella silbato, botella silbadora, silvador, chiflador, vaso silvador (Spanish). English terms are whistling vessel, whistling bottle, whistling pot and whistling jar. In this essay the term whistling vessel will be used. The whistling vessels have been produced for a period of around 2000 years in different cultures in Mesoamerica and South America. The objects of our research are whistling vessels of Peru from the following cultures: the Vicús, the Moche, the Chimú, the Lambayeque and the Recuay (Fig. 1). In their specific form they cannot be found in any other part of the world. While the outer form of the whistling vessels is modified in the different cultures, the acoustic foundations remain unchanged for over 2000 years. There is no information about the total number of whistling vessels in the museums all over the world. In the Museum of Ethnology Berlin, SMB-PK (EMB), 326 whistling vessels are preserved, around one hundred of them still sounding. All of these whistling vessels were found in tombs, but widely were not recognised as sounding tools and therefore cleaned only on the exterior. Soiling, like bits of earth inside the acoustic system of the whistling vessels, is the most common reason why they may be unable to produce a sound. Most objects in the museums and on the market lack specific information about the place where the object was found and the circumstances of the excavation. The objects are isolated from their archaeological contexts, which makes it difficult to date them and to assign their former function to them1. This may be the reason for the fact that their regional origin, their genealogy and their usage have not been

1. WHISTLING VESSELS IN THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXT In secondary literature the following terms can be found: Pfeifgefäß, Pfeiftopf, Pfeifkopf (German),

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Hickmann 1990, 8.

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explained convincingly up to now2. In the extensive ‘library of ceramics’ of the Moche, so far no illustrations of whistling vessels have been found either. After the fall of the Inka Empire apparently only few objects of this kind were produced and/ or used in public. In the Spanish reports, however, they are not mentioned. Only few reports on the use of the whistling vessels in our time exist. Andritzky3 mentions them in connection with healing ceremonies in Peru. Garrett and Stat4 analyse the psychological effect which happens when several whistling vessels of the Chimú culture are played simultaneously. Both authors mention the whistling vessels in connection with shamanistic rituals which aim to change the state of consciousness. All whistling vessels are made out of clay. The quality of the clay is poor, the colour of the clay depends on its region of origin, whereas the colour of the objects is not always identical with the colour of the clay, for engobe (a clay suspension) is used for the painting of the vessels. Usually the painting is ensued before the firing of the clay and either a reserve technique is used (Vicús, Recuay) or the paint is applied directly with a brush (Moche). With the ceramics of the Moche black outlines are often found, too, but these are applied after the firing. The objects of the Chimú culture are usually unpainted. They are produced from dark clay and are probably fired in a reducing atmosphere. The whistling vessels are generally polished with care, so that their surface obtains a dull lustre. The vessels show very thin walls, which are usually five to six millimetres thick. The seams observed inside the vessels indicate that they were produced from moulds5. The Museum for Ethnology Berlin owns a completely preserved two-piece mould of the Lambayeque culture that is open at the bottom, a form which is typical of the model technique of this region (EMB VA 47728, Fig. 2). The whistling vessels are presumably fired at a low temperature (about 650 to 850 degree Celsius), therefore the clay is porous; it is permeable to water, no matter whether it is fired in an reducing or in an oxidizing manner. Whistling vessels consisting of one or two chambers do not exceed the following measures: height and axial width 30 centimetres, depths 15 centimetres. Listing all these problems shows that a lot of questions are answered only insufficiently. This chiefly applies to the questions concerning the purpose and the use of the whistling vessels in the social context. But furthermore, questions concerning the acoustics have not been clarified completely either. The secondary literature available is primarily interested in measuring the frequency, whereas it pays less attention to the question how the tones are produced depending on the construc-

tional preconditions. Therefore the experiments carried out in the Museum of Ethnology Berlin focus on acoustic questions, as these have only received little attention up to now. The following questions are to be answered: How exactly is the tone produced with whistling vessels? Are whistling vessels able to produce a tone when a liquid is poured out of them? Why are some whistling vessels able to trill? Why do some whistling vessels produce a pitch jump – that is to say two different tones – although they only have one single whistle? 2

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Hickmann 1990, 324: „Eine chronologische Ordnung der Pfeiftöpfe ist in Form einer typologischen Seriation nicht zu erstellen“. Caso/Bernal/Acosta 1968, 164: The authors discuss the dating and the genealogy. For the authors (citation: Martí 1970, 154) „[…] ist es schwer zu entscheiden, ob die Pfeifgefäße in Mittelamerika älter sind als im Andenraum. Dort treten sie in der Proto-Chimú-Periode in Erscheinung, für die es eine Carbon-14-Datierung von 373 v. Chr. gibt […].“ The pre-classic period of Monte Alban starts at around 500 AD, so that the date from the Andean region mainly agrees with the date of Monte Alban. Schuler 1980: „Die Pfeifgefäße spielten höchstwahrscheinlich eine Rolle im Kult, jedoch lassen sich nur Vermutungen über ihre genaue Bestimmung und Bedeutung anstellen. Sollte z. B. durch das Lautgeben das Gefäß magisch belebt werden oder sollten dadurch bei der Darbietung eines Trankopfers Götter oder Tote auf die Gabe aufmerksam gemacht werden?“ Weiß 1979, 108: „Das aufmodellierte Tier stimmt mit den Pfeiftönen überein. Es ist meistens ein Vogel oder eine Maus. Es wurde festgestellt, daß die Tonfrequenz dieser Pfeifgefäße mit 2400 Hz in einem besonders sensitiven Hörbereich liegt, der starke psychologische Effekte auslösen kann. Daraus wird geschlossen, daß sie rituellen und spirituellen Zwecken dienten.“ Martí 1970, 154: Explanation to image 135, two-chambered whistling vessels: „ […] Form und Verzierung des Gefäßes werden durch die Nachbildung der Hohlmuschel als Symbol des Regens bestimmt. Der von dem Instrument erzeugte Pfiff kann demzufolge als Ruf an die regenbringenden Wolken gedeutet werden […]. Pfeifgefäße fanden bei magisch-rituellen Anlässen Verwendung und wurden deshalb auch nie in großen Mengen hergestellt.“ Andritzky 1999, 191 mentions the usage of a whistling vessel in the context of a mesa-ceremony. The healer (Ruberto from Chiclayo) carries on his mesa a pre-Columbian silvador that is regarded as an object of power. During a susto-healing rite he makes the whistling vessel sound by blowing at it and he moves it from feet to head across the body of a patient lying down. The tone of the whistling vessel is supposed to call on the patient’s stolen soul asking it to return into the patient’s body. Garrett/Stat 1977. Stat 1979, 4 is convinced that the whistling vessels were used to produce psycho-acoustic effects, which result in the human brain from the interaction of frequencies situated very close to one another (Binaural Beat Technology). If both signals are less then 20 Hz apart from each other, they produce beat effects in the brain, which can be proved by variations of voltage in the EEG. The beat frequency is the difference of the two original signal frequencies. Stat uses whistling vessels of the Chimú culture, which he produces as replicas and makes them sound in groups consisting of four to seven persons who bring them to sound by blowing at them. The event is described as “[…] an extreme centering of the consciousness or Zenlike state of clarity” (Stat 1979, 4). Bankes 1980, 14.

The Peruvian Whistling Vessels of the Museum of Ethnology Berlin

2. CONCEPTION OF A SYSTEM OF THE WHISTLING VESSELS FROM AN ACOUSTIC POINT OF VIEW The tone of all whistling vessels is produced by a whistle in the shape of a ball, the so called globular whistle. This whistle is a reduced form of the globular flute, a type of flute common in Middle America and South America. It can be found in the form of a vessel-whistle, a vessel-whistle in the shape of a figure and as an ocarina. The tones may be cross blown or may be generated by an air duct. According to the classification of Hornbostel/ Sachs6 the whistling vessels are listed as 4. Aerophones. Hickmann7 divides the whistling vessels according to their outer form of appearance into three subgroups: Single-chambered whistling jars 413.11, double-chambered whistling jars 413.12 and triple-chambered whistling jars 413.13. If one regards the number of chambers as an essential feature, this system seems to be consistent. If one looks at the whistling vessels from an acoustic point of view, however, one has to establish a subgroup for the single-chambered-whistling jars and for the double-chambered-whistling jars respectively. In each subgroup the position of the whistle has to be considered, since its position is the essential criterion for differentiation. Therefore the system of the whistling vessels from an acoustic point of view is developed according to the position of the whistle. Further features are submitted to this principle, such as the number and the position of the chambers, stirrup spout handle and other special forms which have no principal influence on the tone. The whistling vessels show two different positions of the whistles: It is either enclosed or exposed. Objects with an enclosed whistle I will name type A, since they represent the earlier form of the Peruvian whistling vessels8. The enclosed whistle is placed in a cavity that is often moulded as the head of a bird. This cavity functions as a secondary resonator and influences the sound of the whistle. The whistling vessels of different cultures, like the Virú, the Vicús and the Moche, belong to this type. TYPE A (objects with an enclosed whistle) A 1: One chamber plus an enclosed whistle that is only able to produce one single tone. The whistling vessel is often moulded as a cavity in the shape of a bird (EMB VA 64767, Vicús, Fig. 3), the tail is designed as an intake tube. The whistle is integrated inside the head. If the cavity is filled with water and blown at by mouth, a trilling resounds. A 2: Two chambers plus an enclosed whistle that is able to produce one single tone. The figure

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on the whistling vessel has a human shape (EMB VA 64 753, Vicús, Fig. 4). A 3: Two chambers plus an enclosed whistle that is able to produce a trill on one tone if the instrument is used as a swinging-vessel. This type appears frequently with the Moche and Vicús culture; the whistling chamber is often designed as a bird (EMB VA 5989). A 4: Two chambers plus an enclosed whistle producing a pitch jump and a trill (EMB VA 598, Moche, Fig. 5). A characteristic whistling vessel of type A 4 consists of two bottle-shaped cavities, the whistling chamber and the intake chamber, which are connected at the bottom by a lateral tube, and at the top by a handle (Fig. 6). The whistling chamber is modelled as a cavity and carries a figure on its top. Inside the head of this figure, a small globular whistle is situated. The head always has air vents, their shape, size and arrangement, however, may be very different: e.g. they may be shaped as circular holes (of a diameter of about 6 mm) and be situated at the neck or the back of the head, or they may be irregular openings following the shape of the beak. The intake chamber ends at the top in a vertical tube, in some cases the tube has a conic tendency. If you pour water into the intake chamber, both chambers form a system in the sense of communicating tubes. Filled with water to the half, the liquid may flow from one chamber into the other, if the vessel is tilted axially. The water flowing into the whistling chamber compresses the air which is forced through a narrow canal (the air duct) to the rim (the edge) of the circular window of a globular whistle9. The whistle sounds as long as the complete liquid has flown into the whistling chamber and the air compression has thus come to an end. If the whistling 6 7 8

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Hornbostel/Sachs 1914. Hickmann 1990, 53. Hickmann 1990, 323: „Früheste Pfeiftöpfe Perus konstruierten Träger der Kultur Vicús.“ Garrett/Stat 1977 look at 69 whistling vessels, 20 of them of type A and 49 of them of type B. The aim of their research is to measure the frequency of the whistling vessels of eight pre-Columbian cultures. The average frequency of Type A, which features objects of the Virú, the Viús and the Moche is listed with 1320 Hz. The reference tone would be e’’’ with a frequency of 1320 Hz. The pitch jump (“double-noted whistle”) of 14 objects of this group is not explained any further: “Fourteen whistles produced two distinct tones depending on the blowing pressure applied at the spout.” The average frequency of type B, featuring objects of the Chimú and the Inka is listed with 2670 Hz. The reference tone would be e’’’’ with 2637 Hz. The average frequency of Recuay is listed with 2000 Hz. The reference tone is h’’’ with 1980 Hz. The frequencies are interpreted as attributes specific for the respective culture. All the measurements undertaken in the Museum for Ethnology Berlin stay within the limits of the experiments of Garrett/Stat. Olson 2002, 129.

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vessel is moved in a slow axial swinging motion, both cavities are filled and emptied in turns and a rhythmic whistling develops [CD I, sound sample 1]. The system of the connected cavities merely serves to produce the air compression. The size of the cavities has no effect on the sound of the whistle, as Hickmann assumes10. The air compression depends on the pace of the movement, therefore we may hear variations of tone in a scope of around 50 cents. TYPE B (objects with an exposed whistle) The exposed whistle is visible from outside and its sound may unfold freely in the open space (Fig. 7). It is either integrated in the handle or the body of an animal, e.g. the body of a monkey or the head of a bird, serves as a globular whistle. Whistling vessels of later cultures like of the Chimú, the Lambayeque and the Inka represent this type, but we find this type also with the Recuay culture11. B 1: One chamber plus an exposed whistle that is situated under the animal sculpture and has a separate globular shape. The spout is funnelshaped. Filled with water and blown at by mouth, a trilling tone resounds (EMB VA 48308, Recuay, Fig. 8). B 2: Two chambers plus an exposed whistle which is situated in the handle. The object whistles, if it is filled with water and is moved in a swinging motion ( EMB VA 17209, Chimú). B 3: Two chambers plus an exposed whistle inside the handle producing a trill on one tone (EMB VA 48022, Chimú, Fig. 9). Because the connecting tube is high situated in the center of the chambers you can receive a good sound only by blowing. B 4: Two chambers plus an exposed whistle; at the top, the whistling chamber carries a plastic figure ( EMB VA 16939, Lambayeque, Fig. 10). The head of the bird is the whistle. The object may sound as a swinging-vessel but much better by blowing at it. B 5: Whistling vessel consisting of four chambers plus a whistle inside the handle. Sounded by blowing you can hear a trill (EMB VA 65824, Lambayeque, Fig. 11). B 6: Whistling vessel consisting of a ring-shaped intake chamber plus a whistle inside the handle. Sounded by blowing you can hear a trill (EMB VA 835). B 7: Whistling vessel in the shape of a ring with four pigeons sitting on top of the ring whose heads are modelled as exposed whistles, which sound one after another, if the water inside of the ring is moved (EMB VA 18277).

Museum for Ethnology Berlin. They particularly illustrate the manifold variants of type 413.12 double-chambered whistling-jars appearing as type A and type B. Triple-chambered whistling-jars 413.13 and all other types consisting of more than two chambers always show an exposed whistle and thus belong to type B. The analysis of the whistling jars from an acoustic point of view opens up to a dimension that is both historical as cultural. The early cultures like the Virú, the Vicús and the Moche preferred type A. The later cultures like the Chimú and the Inka preferred type B.

3. TECHNOLOGY AND ACOUSTICS OF THE WHISTLING VESSELS 3.1 THE PHYSICAL CONDITIONS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF SOUND IN GLOBULAR FLUTES Globular whistles belong to the family of the labial flutes12. Every labial flute consists of three parts13: (a) of an air duct where the air is moulded into a sheet of air, (b) of an edge where the sheet of air oscillates periodically, and (c) of a resonator, which limits the standing wave and thus designates the frequency of the tone essentially. (a) together with (b) form the initiator of vibration, which gets the energy it needs to build up a standing wave by the air pressure the player of the whistle produces by blowing at it14. The initiator of vibration (the edge-tone) is nothing but a ‘white noise’, because no frequency is selected on the cavity of a resonator. (c) is the producer of vibration which sees to it that the periodical vibrations, which have developed inside the resonator, may unfold in the open air, reach the eardrum and may be thus perceived as a tone. All whistling vessels show globular resonators. The window is always circular, the air duct may be sickle-shaped (with whistles of the Moche) or circular (with whistles of the Chimú, the Recuay and the Lambayeque). The angle in which the sheet of 10

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The whistling vessels described above represent only a small choice of the whistling vessels of the

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Hickmann 1990, 436: You can hear deep tones if the intake chamber is sounded by cross blowing. „Tiefe, dunkle Töne erklingen, die m. E. nicht ohne Einfluß auf die gesamte Klangentwicklung sein können. Eventuelle Wechselwirkungen mit der Tonerregung im Pfeifenaufsatz sind bisher nicht untersucht.“ Hickmann 1990, 324: „Und scheint auch die verdeckte Pfeifvorrichtung früher als offene konstruiert worden zu sein, so ist doch festzustellen, daß beide Arten der Klangerzeugung in verschiedenen Kulturen nebeneinander vorkamen (Bahia, Moche, Chimú).“ Stauder 1990, 81. Ruf 1991, 392. Stauder 1990, 82; Fletcher/Rossing 1991, 433.

The Peruvian Whistling Vessels of the Museum of Ethnology Berlin

air hits the edge is very difficult to perform with globular whistles15. The shape and the cross-section of the air duct influence the sound. The sickle-shaped air duct common with the Moche results in a softer vibration of the tones than common with Chimú whistles. The sound spectrum of this kind of whistles may be compared to the sound of the stopped organ-pipes, which means that all uneven partials may be formed within the sound spectrum, while all even partials are suppressed16. Especially the dominance of the third and the fifth partial add a hollow, gloomy and dull character to the sound. The keynote always sounds one octave lower than with an open flute having the same resonator volume. In secondary literature we often find the assertion that a whistling vessel is also able to produce a tone if the liquid is poured out17. This assertion, which apparently goes back to Squier, has already been contradicted by Wilson18. With all the whistling vessels tested in the Museum of Ethnology Berlin and with all the replicas, no tone could be produced by pouring out water either. If the whistling chamber is emptied no tone is produced, because the physical conditions for the production of a tone are lacking. The gurgling noises and the sucking in of air via the narrow air duct that one can hear during the emptying of the whistling chamber must not be denoted as a concrete tone. It rather sounds like the noisy breathing of a living creature19. The process of sound production is not reversible with globular whistles, because the initiation of vibration always has to precede the production of vibration.

is blown at the intake chamber by mouth. The duration of breath decides the length of the tone. If the intake chambers are half-filled with water, all whistling vessels trill, no matter in which manner they are constructed. Whistling vessels with one chamber were probably always brought to sound in this manner only, as, by the mere movement of water in one chamber, no continuous air compression may be produced20. Because of their special type of construction featuring a narrow air duct, all whistling vessels may as well be blown by circular breathing21. Using this technique, the air pressure produced by blowing at the whistling vessel can be maintained for a fairly long period of time, so that the whistling vessels are whistling or trilling for minutes without interruption. In addition to that, the sound may be shaped additionally by simultaneous singing, talking and rhythmic pulsating of the breath [CD I, sound sample 2]. Another possibility to generate sound is to boil the water inside of a whistling vessel. Then, the

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3.2. THE SHAPING OF SOUND IN WHISTLING VESSELS The air compression inside the whistling chamber is the precondition for the tone of the whistling vessels. If the whistling vessels are moved when filled with water, the air compression is regulated by the air duct and the diameter of the connection tube. A large air duct in combination with a wide connection tube is able to produce a single short tone only. A large cross section of the connection tube in combination with a narrow air duct is responsible for the trilling of the whistling vessels. The trilling is produced because the air accumulates in the whistling chamber and then, in periodic turns, recedes backwards into the intake chamber. The air escapes in bubbles and this process is audible as a trilling, since the continuous compression is interrupted. This principle holds both with exposed whistles (EMB VA 7687, Chimú) as with enclosed whistles (EMB VA 62149, Moche). A whistling vessel may also be brought to sound, if it

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Hickmann 1990, 53. Ruf 1991, 150. EMB, object number 12 of the Gildemeister collection shows a whistling vessel of the Chimú culture, a doublechamber with the head of a parrot: „Beim Ausgießen von Flüssigkeiten wird durch die Luftführung im Inneren des Gefäßes ein Pfeifgeräusch erzeugt.“ Display box: Artisan techniques in pre-Spanish Peru. Object number 5, Vicús culture: „In das Doppelgefäß ist ein Mechanismus eingebaut. Beim Ausgießen erzeugt die eindringende Luft einen Pfeifton.“ Schuler 1980. „Im Kopf der Figur ist eine Pfeife eingearbeitet, über die beim Füllen oder Entleeren des Gefäßes und beim Bewegen des Flüssigkeitsspiegels im Inneren die Luft in einem scharfen Luftzug hinwegstreicht und dadurch Töne erzeugt.“ Inka-Peru 1992, 138: „Der Pfeiflaut entsteht beim Ausgießen von Flüssigkeiten durch die dabei auftretende Luftzirkulation in einer bestimmten Vorrichtung im Kopf des Tieres.“ Anton 2001, 22: „ Eine Kuriosität in allen Perioden sind die Doppelgefäße mit Pfeifvorrichtung, Silvador genannt. Beim Ein- oder Ausgießen des Wassers wird die Luft verdrängt, bzw. sie strömt ein und erzeugt dabei einen leisen Pfeifton.“ Squier 1877, 179. “[…] so that, in pouring water out of the vessel, air is not only admitted to supply the vacuum, but in passing in or out often causes a sound imitating the note or cry of the bird or animal represented.” Wilson (1898, 653) contradicts this statement: “[…] the author has not been able to obtain any sound by pouring the water out.” Wilson notes that “[…] their sounds or notes are given while the air is forced out by the incoming water.” Olson 2002, 132. Ransom 1998, 12. Garrett/Stat 1977 are convinced that the whistling vessels (filled with water or containing no water) were brought to sound by blowing at them by mouth, for under these conditions only the authors’ concept of the psycho-acoustic relevance of the whistling vessels may be realised. To measure the frequencies, they therefore use a mechanic blowing construction. In this way, however, they oversaw the fact that many whistling vessels of different cultures are able to produce a trill in an autonomous manner, if the air compression is produced by the movement of the water. One should note, however, that the use of circular breathing has not been proved yet with pre-Spanish cultures.

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steam escapes through the air duct and generates a sound such as in a tea kettle. The technique can be applied to whistling vessels with two or more chambers and type A and type B whistles. Whistling vessels with a single chamber do not show the effect, as the steam escapes through the infill tube. This phenomenon of generating sounds with steam has been studied recently with replicas of Moche and Lambayeque whistling vessels.

3.3 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY RESONATORS AS A COUPLED SYSTEM The pitch depends on the volume of the resonator of the whistle, and with integrated whistles in addition to that, on the volume of the secondary resonator where the whistle is located. If a whistle is added to the secondary resonator, this results in a rise of frequency of around 100 cents, a phenomenon that was noted with the replication of whistling vessels of the Moche culture22. The emitted sound does not have the frequency of the whistle, but its frequency is the coupling frequency of the producer of vibration and the secondary resonator. The secondary resonator thus influences oscillating motion of the sheet of air at the edge of the labium. All primary resonators of whistling vessels have a very small volume. Small resonators generate fast oscillations, and thus result in a high-pitched sound. The pitches range from the fourth octave to with objects of the Chimú to the third octave with objects of the Moche. A characteristic feature of all wind-instruments is their selective resonance; which means that in the resonator only one single tone can be amplified. With some whistling vessels of the integrated type, however, we hear a second tone. Various authors observed this pitch jump, but found no explication for it23. The air contained in a cavity of any shape when set in vibration will give a tone. If a whistling vessel is supposed to produce a second tone, the globular whistle has to be placed into a secondary resonator that starts to resonate, if a periodic force builds up to a vibrating system that has the natural frequency of the volume of the secondary resonator. This secondary resonator follows the principle of the Helmholtz resonator24, which is characterised by an unspecific resonance; it also amplifies tones that are neighbouring its natural frequency25. With a low blowing pressure, first of all, in the primary resonator, only the so called low Maultöne26 build up, which lie beneath its actual initiating frequency. The second tone of some whistling vessels of the Moche – which is often a major third or approximately a fifth lower than the first tone – results from the natural tone

of the secondary resonator that is generated by the Maultöne. If the blowing pressure goes up, the lower tone that was produced with less energy, is superimposed by the higher tone and finally extinguished. If we look at the relation between the single tones of the pitch jumps, we note that they often obey the laws of the harmonic series. With globular whistles the Maultöne also include the uneven frequency components of the partials of the primary resonator. Mainly the fifth and the third as third partial and fifth partial including their octaves produce dominating components in the frequency group of the Maultöne. If the secondary resonator of a whistling vessel is blown at like an ocarina27, the low tone of the pitch jump resounds. This observation proves the thesis of the function of the secondary resonator which starts to sound if a periodic force builds up to a vibration in the field of its natural frequency. No pitch jumps less than a third or more than a fifth were measured. If the frequency of the primary resonator is more than a fifth or less than a major

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Rawcliffe 1992, 61: “The pitch of the primary whistle is usually flattened when placed into the secondary chamber.” Wilson 1898, 656; Garrett/Stat 1977; Rawcliffe 2002, 258. Wilson 1898, 656: The author describes a whistling vessel of type A: “The whistle is inside the head of a parrot.” The documented pitch jump is that of a major third (c’’’–e’’’). The pitch jump happens “[…] without any intermediate sound.” Rawcliffe 2002, 258 describes a whistling vessel of the enclosed type: “This whistle within a chamber is thus a pitch jump whistle.” Rawcliffe 1992, 50: “My own experiments with sound production in these instruments lead to the hypothesis that the pitch of the generating whistle must be at an appropriate frequency to activate one of the secondary chamber’s partials.” Helmholtz 1863, 6. Ausgabe 1913, 73–76. Pierce 1985, 39: „Wenn die Schallquelle Frequenzkomponenten erzeugt, die weitgehend mit der Resonatorfrequenz des Hohlraumresonators übereinstimmen, dann wird er diese Harmonische verstärken und man hört nur noch sie.“ Wood 1965, 27: “We have seen that if a series of tuningforks is held successively over the air in a bottle the response is greatest to the fork whose pitch is that of the air in the bottle. But if we try the experiment out carefully we shall find that the resonance is not sharp – i.e., we not only get a response to the correctly tuned fork, but we get a response, less marked it is true, but quite appreciable, to forks a semiton, a tone, or even a third or fourth from the correct pitch.”. Stauder 1990, 82: „Ist der Winddruck sehr schwach, so ertönen zunächst nur die tiefen sogenannten Maultöne, deren Höhe mit steigendem Winddruck ebenfalls ansteigt, bis die tiefste Eigenfrequenz der Röhre (i.e. hier des Primärresonators) erreicht ist.“ Fletcher/Rossing 1991, 449: “[…] the ocarina, an instrument in which the resonator is a globular vessel that acts as a single-mode Helmholtz resonator the frequency of which is raised as holes are opened, […].” The tone is produced by using a flexible air duct (e.g. a straw) and by blowing at the edge of an air vent or at the edge of the opening in the beak.

The Peruvian Whistling Vessels of the Museum of Ethnology Berlin

third above the natural tone of the secondary resonator, no standing wave is build up inside the secondary resonator, because the components of the frequency lie beyond the natural tone of the secondary resonator. The air vents inside the secondary resonator fulfil a double function: they allow the tones to escape into the surrounding space28, and at the same time, they decide the natural tone of the secondary resonator. If single air vents are closed, the natural tone gets lower. With a whistling vessel of type A (EMB VA 589), for the secondary resonator a’’ is listed, the pitch jump is a’’–e’’’. When both air vents on the neck are closed, F sharp’’ is measured with the secondary resonator and just the tone e’’’ resounds. The secondary resonator consequently is not able to start to resonate, as the distance from its natural tone is more than a fifth, and thus the secondary resonator loses its function as Helmholtz resonator. The pitch jump does not take place and the whistling vessel solely produces the tone of the enclosed globular whistle. The primary resonator and the secondary resonator form a coupled system which is very prone to disturbance and only allows minor changes of its constituting factors. This connection has to be taken into account when producing replicas of the whistling vessels. Whistling vessels of type A with pitch jump we find in the cultures of the Vicús and the Moche. The accordance of the natural tone of the secondary resonator with the low tone of the pitch jump was observed with various original objects in the Museum of Ethnology Berlin (EMB VA 598, EMB VA 5662, EMB VA 48118). This connection was also noted during the replication of whistling vessels (Fig. 12). Both observations can be taken as a confirmation of the thesis that the pitch jump can be explained on the basis of Helmholtz’s analysis of the resonance of acoustic systems29.

4. SUMMARY At the end of this paper, let us sum up the results of the analysis: The globular whistles belong to the family of the stopped labial flutes and share all the characteristic features of this family, which means that they correspond with the stopped labial flutes in their way producing sound and in their partials. Whistling vessels with two chambers cannot produce a sound by pouring out water, because for this effect the acoustic conditions are lacking. The trill of the double-chambered whistling vessels is based on the differentiated interplay of the cross sections of the air duct and the connection tube.

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The pitch jump results from the coupling of the frequencies of the primary resonator and the secondary resonator, which functions as a Helmholtz resonator. Analysing the whistling vessels we realised that we are dealing with very complex systems. In their production not only ceramic know-how is required, but also knowledge of the interaction of the constructional measures and of their acoustic effects. If one wants to analyse a complex system, it is essential to develop a concept whose constituting elements can be looked at separately. Therefore with type A an experimental whistling vessel was produced (Fig. 13). The whistles and the secondary resonators may be exchanged. Thus all possibilities of how to produce a tone may be demonstrated with this one object. In a pilot scheme different constructional conditions are combined which produce different tones by interaction: When a whistle is built inside the secondary resonator, the frequency rises around 100 cents, no matter which tone was measured with the whistle beforehand. If we put a whistle with a wide air duct inside the secondary resonator, we receive a simple tone. If we put a whistle with a narrow air duct inside the secondary resonator, we receive a tone with a trill. A whistle whose difference in frequency to the natural tone of the secondary resonator fulfils the conditions of the fifth – third, produces a second tone inside the secondary resonator. We hear a pitch jump. This connection could only be noted with whistles whose frequency lies in the field of the third octave. Replicating instruments of sound, their specific sound always has to be in the foreground. The artisan must be able to differentiate between essential and marginal elements of an instrument. Concerning whistling vessels only two possibilities for the production of sound exist (type A or type B), in spite of the great diversity of their outer shape. The different functionality of these two types forms the essential difference of these instruments of sound. The instrument builders’ credo (in Germany) is: Erst kapieren, dann kopieren (“first of all, understand it, then copy”), which means that only the person who has understood the construction and the physical precondition of the sound is able to produce a copy. Although moulds were used, the production of the thin-walled cavities without a potter’s wheel and connecting these cavities with a tube and a handle is a technical and artistic performance on a very high level. The different shrinkage of the cav-

28 29

Olson 2002, 129. Pierce 1985, 38–39.

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ities and of the massive elements has to be taken into account when connecting the single parts. The joining of the single elements (cavity, massive handle or stirrup handle, connection tube, globular whistle) can only take place in a leathery stage of the clay, otherwise the thin-walled cavities would be deformed. The connection was probably realised using a kaolin clay suspension, a special suspension produced from coloured clay. This suspension also forms the basic material of the painting. For the production of globular whistles one could probably refer to handed down knowledge. This knowledge included the right conduction of air through a tubular air duct plus the right blowing angle in which the air hits an edge of the circular window. The whistles of the Recuay, the Chimú and the Inka follow this principle. The whistles of the Moche, however, seem to have been developed particularly for their own characteristic whistling vessels of the enclosed type. With their whistling vessels, the air duct is sickle shaped slit and the sheet of air is conducted very flatly above the circular window. This constructional means results in a soft, keynote sound. Apart from the whistling vessels, this variant of globular whistle has not been found anywhere else. The described construction simplifies the production of a whistle, and besides that, the shrinking processes effect only a minor influence on the cross section of the air duct. As an integrated whistle cannot be modified after it is placed into the secondary resonator, the construction described above provides a high measure of certainty that the whistling vessels do function after the firing. The question, whether a technological problem or an ideal of sound is the reason for this construction, cannot be answered definitely. With another phenomenon of the whistling vessels of type A, the speculation that the ceramist wanted to fulfil an ideal of sound comes to ones mind. The phenomenon referred to is the pitch jump. It is quite possible that the acoustic conditions for a pitch jump happened by accident during the production of whistling vessels. The pitch jump may be witnessed with many whistling vessels30; therefore we can assume that in pre-Spanish Peruvian cultures there already existed some knowledge of the causal connection between the constructional proportions and acoustic phenomena. All the whistling vessels in the Museum for Ethnology Berlin with a pitch jump from the culture of the Moche have further features in common: the head of a parrot in their outer shape and their ability to trill31. The idea that there might be a connection between the sound and the animal figure shaping the whistling vessels comes to one’s mind. This assumption was discussed in detail with an ornithologist of the Zoologischer Garten, Berlin, but it could not be con-

firmed. Thus we cannot assume an imitating intention. With all other whistling vessels there is no connection between sound and the depicted animal or other figure either32. We started from the idea that the double chambered whistling vessels were brought to sound by the movement of liquid inside of them33. If we look at the constructional conditions of this type of sound production, which is based on the movement of liquid and the compression of air inside the whistling chamber, we note that with some whistling vessels of the Moche culture, this constructional challenge was solved particularly well. In this case, we can suppose that their form was developed from their function, which is to say that form followed function. This type is represented in different collections by various objects34. Characteristic features are the small intake chamber, the large whistling chamber, the whistle placed high up inside the head and the stirrup spout (EMB VA 62140, Fig. 14). The liquid inside the small intake chamber never reaches the whistle high up inside the head; even if the vessel is tilted extremely, the water never pours out of the stirrup spout. This construction thus avoids all the problems which may happen while the vessel is swung back and forth by hand. Here a deliberate idea of design that cared for the optimal function of the instrument seems to have produced this special form of whistling vessel. It would be interesting to prove in a comparing investigation if all these sounding tools can be assigned to one and the same ceramist. When we compare type A to type B, we realise that on the whole a development from complex to simple can be noted. This holds both for the acoustic conditions as for the ceramic production. Type A with its integrated whistle is far more difficult to produce, for in its production complex acoustic conditions have to be considered. And furthermore, type A is painted with great care, and thus its production takes more time than the pro30

31

32

33 34

Garrett/Stat 1977 report on fourteen whistling vessels with pitch jump. In the Museum of Ethnology Berlin four objects of type A with a pitch jump are preserved. The constructional conditions for trilling might have been discovered by accident, too. When replicating whistling vessels, the author of this paper became aware of the connection explained in the text merely by accident. Four of these whistling vessels are in the Ethnologisches Museum Berlin: EMB VA 48118, EMB VA 5662, EMB VA 62140, EMB VA 598. One whistling vessel Wilson 1898, 656 describes belongs to this type as well: “The whistle is inside the head of a parrot.” Amaro 1996, 133; Olson 2002, 130: “Very dissimilar figures such as, for example, human beings, felines, monkeys, ducks or parrots emit very similar sounds.” Olson 2002, 132. Hickmann 1990, 209, Fig. P 67: In the Museum of Ethnology Berlin three objects of this type are preserved: EMB VA 62140, EMB VA 48118, EMB VA 18249.

The Peruvian Whistling Vessels of the Museum of Ethnology Berlin

duction of type B. With type B of the Chimú culture and the Lambayeque culture, the cavities are joined together from single ready-made moulds. The Chimú whistling vessels demonstrate no painting, as the surface has already been designed as a relief when moulded and during the firing process a uniform black colour of the objects is achieved. By individual manual labour only the handle with the whistle inside of it is joined in between the intake chamber and the whistling chamber. Because of its simple production technique, the type described above is suitable for mass production. In the Museum of Ethnology Berlin the majority of the 326 whistling vessels belongs to type B; only 76 belong to type A. With type B the traces of modelling are very often removed only carelessly, while in contrast to that the surface of type A is treated with great care. The differences between type A and type B can be explained on the basis of technological and acoustic differences. Further research is necessary, however, if one wants to find the reasons which led to the changes of the different types.

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METHODS All frequencies were measured with a KORG AT1, 440 HZ A-calibrated. When moving the vessel in slow axial swinging motions, the generated sound often wavers in a range of approximately 100 cents. In this case, the tone of the highest air pressure was recorded.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I owe special thanks to Dr. Manuela Fischer of the Museum of Ethnology Berlin and Dr. Adje Both for the interest in my project and their great support in all matters.

ABBREVIATIONS SMB-PK EMB

Staatliche Museen zu Berlin-Preußischer Kulturbesitz Ethnologisches Museum Berlin

BIBLIOGRAPHY AMARO, I. 1996 Símbolo y sonido: Los instrumentos musicales figurativos del Perú antiguo, in: K. Makowski, /I. Amaro/M. A. Hernándes (ed.): Imágenes y mitos, 115–141. Lima. ANDRITZKY, W. 1999 Traditionelle Psychotherapie und Schamanismus in Peru. Berlin. ANTON, F. 1995 Azteken, Maya, Inka und ihre Vorläufer. Iphofen. ANTON, F. 2001 Die Bedeutung der Mochica innerhalb der präkolumbischen Kulturen Alt-Perus, in: Gold aus dem alten Peru: Die Königsgräber von Sipan, 10–38. Bonn. BANKES, G. 1980 Moche Pottery from Peru. London. CASO, A./BERNAL, I./ACOSTA, J. 1968 La cerámica de Monte Alban. México. DONNAN, CH. B./MACKEY, C. J. 1978 Ancient Burial Patterns of the Moche Valley, Peru. Austin. DONNAN, CH. B. 1992 Die Ikonographie von Moche, in: Inka Peru: 3000 Jahre indianische Hochkulturen, 100–108. Tübingen. EISLEB, D. 1975 Altperuanische Kulturen I. Veröffentlichungen des Museums für Völkerkunde Berlin, Neue Folge 31. Berlin.

EISLEB, D. 1987 Altperuanische Kulturen IV: Recuay. Veröffentlichungen des Museums für Völkerkunde Berlin, Neue Folge 44. Berlin. FLETCHER, N. H./ROSSING TH. D. 1991 The Physics of Musical Instruments. New York. GARRETT, S./STAT, D. K. 1977 Peruvian Whistling Bottles, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, Vol. 62, No. 2, 449–453. HELMHOLTZ, H. VON 1863 Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen. Braunschweig. Zitiert nach 6. Ausgabe 1913, Nachdruck 1983. Hildesheim. HICKMANN, E. 1990 Musik aus dem Altertum der Neuen Welt. Frankfurt/Main. HORNBOSTEL, E. M. VON/SACHS, C. 1914 Systematik der Musikinstrumente. Ein Versuch, ZfE, 46. Jg., H. IV und V, 553–590. INKA-PERU 1992 3000 Jahre indianische Hochkulturen. Katalog. Haus der Kulturen der Welt Berlin. Berlin. JORALEMON, D. 1984 Symbolic Space and Ritual Time in a Peruvian Healing Ceremony. San Diego Museum of Man, Ethnic Technology Notes, No. 19. San Diego. MARONN, E. 1964 Untersuchung zur Wahrnehmung sekundärer

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Tonqualitäten bei ganzzahligen Schwingungsverhältnissen. Beiträge zur Musikforschung, Vol. 30. Regensburg. MARTI, S. 1970 Musikgeschichte in Bildern. Bd. II: Musik des Altertums. Vol. 2, Lieferung 7: Alt-Amerika. Leipzig. MUSEO CHILENO DE ARTE PRECOLOMBINO 1990 Ausstellungskatalog. Santiago de Chile. MUSIKINSTRUMENTE DER WELT 1979 Ausstellungskatalog. Gütersloh. OLSON, D. A. 2002 Music of El Dorado: The Ethnomusicology of Ancient American Cultures. Gainesville. PIERCE, J. R. 1985 Klang: Musik mit den Ohren der Physik. Spektrum-Bibliothek, Vol. 7. Heidelberg. RANSOM, B. 1998. The Enigma of Whistling Water Jars in PreColumbian Ceramics, in: Experimental Musical Instruments, Vol. 14, No. 1, 12–15. RAWCLIFFE, S. 1992 Complex Acoustics in Pre-Columbian Flute Systems, in: C. E. Robertson. Musical Repercussions of 1492, 35–62. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. RAWCLIFFE, S. 2002 Sounding Clay: Pre-Hispanic Flutes, in: E. Hickmann/A. D. Kilmer/R. Eichmann (eds.), Studien zur Musikarchäologie II. OrientArchäologie 10, 255–267. Rahden/Westf.

ROEDERER, J. G. 2000 Physikalische und psychoakustische Grundlagen der Musik. Berlin. RUF, W. (ed.) 1991 Musikinstrumente. Mannheim. SCHULER, I. VON 1980 Abbildungsblatt der Staatlichen Museen Preußischer Kulturbesitz. Berlin VII, Blatt 040a, Abteilung Alt-Amerika. Berlin. SIMBRIGER, H./ZEHELEIN, A. 1951 Handbuch der musikalischen Akustik. Regensburg. SQUIER, E. G. 1877 Peru: Incidents of Travel and Exploration in the Land of the Incas. London. STAT, D. K. 1979 Ancient Sound: The whistling vessels of Peru, El Palacio. Journal of the Museum of New Mexico, Vol. 85, No. 2, 2–7. STAUDER, W. 1990 Einführung in die Akustik. Wilhelmshaven. WEISS, G. 1979 Alte Keramik neu entdeckt. Berlin. WILSON, TH. 1898 Prehistoric art; or the origin of arts as manifested in the works of prehistoric man. Washington. WOOD, A. 1965 The Physics of Music. London.

The Peruvian Whistling Vessels of the Museum of Ethnology Berlin

Fig. 1 Five prehispanic cultures of Peru, where whistling vessels investigated in this paper were produced; drawings: F. Schmidt.

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Fig. 2 Two-piece mould of the Lambayeque culture. The moulds were produced with the help of an already existing vessel: The clay was pressed around the pot and divided in two pieces when it was dry enough; SMB-PK (EMB V A 47728); photograph: F. Schmidt, 2005.

Fig. 3 One-chambered whistling vessel of type A from the Vicús culture with ten air vents in the secondary resonator; SMB-PK (EMB V A 64767); photograph: F. Schmidt, 2005.

The Peruvian Whistling Vessels of the Museum of Ethnology Berlin

Fig. 4 Double-chambered whistling vessel of type A produced by the Vicús culture. The eyeholes are the air vents of the secondary resonator; SMB-PK (EMB V A 64753); photograph: F. Schmidt, 2005.

Fig. 5 Double-chambered whistling vessel of type A. The white ornament on red clay is typical of the Moche culture. A cross section of this sounding tool is shown in Fig. 6; SMB-PK (EMB V A 598); photograph: F. Schmidt, 2005.

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Fig. 6 Type A cross section of a double-chambered whistling vessel with an enclosed whistle. The air vents in the neck and in the beak tune up the own proper pitch of the secondary resonator.

Fig. 7 Type B cross section of a whistling vessel with exposed whistle in the flat handle. This type is characteristic of objects of the Chimú culture as shown in Fig. 9; drawings: F. Schmidt.

Fig. 8 This one-chambered whistling vessel of type B belongs to the Recuay culture. The globular whistle is situated separately between the legs of the little animal; SMB-PK (EMB V A 48308); photograph: F. Schmidt, 2005.

The Peruvian Whistling Vessels of the Museum of Ethnology Berlin

Fig. 9 Type B double-chambered whistling vessel typical of the Chimú culture. The exposed whistle is situated in the handle; SMB-PK (EMB V A 48022); photograph: F. Schmidt, 2005.

Fig. 10 Type B double-chambered whistling vessel of the Lambayeque culture. The head of the little bird serves as a globular whistle; SMB-PK (EMB V A 16939); photograph: F. Schmidt, 2005.

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Fig. 11 Whistling vessel of the Lambayeque culture with four connected chambers and an exposed whistle in the handle; SMB-PK (EMB V A 65 824); photograph: F. Schmidt, 2005.

Fig. 12 Replica of a whistling vessel of the Moche culture made by F. Schmidt emitting a trill and a pitch-jump. Six replicas of this Moche whistling vessel are sounded experimentally [CD I, sound sample 1]; photograph: F. Schmidt, 2005.

The Peruvian Whistling Vessels of the Museum of Ethnology Berlin

Fig. 13 With this experimental set the whistles and the secondary resonators can be exchanged. Furthermore a whistle can be tested separately before the insertion in the secondary resonator; photograph: F. Schmidt, 2005.

Fig. 14 Double-chambered whistling vessel of the Moche culture with stirrup spout handle. In the large air vent of the secondary resonator you can see the enclosed globular whistle; SMB-PK (EMB V A 62140); photograph: F. Schmidt, 2005.

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