Pengembangan Komunitas Dan Kelompok

 

MEMAHAMI K O M U NI T A S Kuliah ke -3 Intervensi Kelompok: Psikoedukasi dan Komunitas Dr.. Amir Nuyman S., M.Psi Dr

 

UNDERSTANDING INDIVIDUALS WITHIN ENVIRONMENT

 

OPENING EXERCISE What do you recall about the college as a setting— about its atmosphere and its “feel” for you as an individual?

Did you sense that people like you live, study, or work here or did you feel dierent in some important way? Think about how and where you carry out tasks of student life.

On your campus, where is a place you like to socialize? A quiet place to study?

A place and person you would seek for help with a personal problem?

 

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Ecological context consists of the physical and social aspects of environments that inuence individuals.

Persons and contexts inuence each other.

Community psychologists seek to understand the interplay of ecological context and individual life and to nd ways to create or alter contexts to enhance individuals’ quality of life.

 

FOUR ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

Kelly and associates proposed four ecological principles for describing contexts in community psychology. •

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Interdependence refers to the extent of interconnections among persons and among settings. Cycling of resources calls attention to how tangible and intangible resources are dened, created, exchanged, and conserved. Adaptation refers to the demands made on individuals by the setting and how individuals cope with those demands. Settings also adapt to the individuals within them and in relationships with other settings. Succession refers to how settings are created, maintained, and changed over time.

 

Rudolf Moos and colleague argued that many psychological eects of environments are best assessed in terms of persons’ perceptions of the environment and the meaning people attach to it (e.g., Moos, 1973, 2003)

SOCIAL CLIMATE DIMENSION

Perceptions of social climates can aect social relationships and organizational functioning. Studying social climates of settings has been important for understanding how individuals cope and identifying which aspects of settings can help promote well-being (Holahan, Moos, & Bonin, 1997; Moos & Holahan, 2003). Rudolf Moos developed the idea of measuring the social climate of environments through the perceptions of their members. In Moos’s approach, social climates have three basic dimensions: 1.

Relationship,

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Personal Development, and

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System Maintenance and Change.

Social climate scales have been related in research to many measures of setting qualities and individual functioning

 

SOCIAL REGULARITIES

EDWARD SEIDMAN DEVELOPED THE CONCEPT OF A SOCIAL REGULARITY, EDWARD SEIDMAN (1988, 1990) PROPOSED THAT SETTINGS BE UNDERSTOOD IN TERMS OF THESE SOCIAL REGULARITIES, DEFINED AS THE ROUTINE PATTERNS OF SOCIAL RELATIONS AMONG THE ELEMENTS (E.G., PERSONS) WITHIN A SETTING (SEIDMAN, 1988, PP. 9–10).

SEIDMAN’S FOCUS IS NOT ON INDIVIDUAL PERSONALITIES BUT ON RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS. THE PATTERNS OF SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS IN COMMUNITIES CAN AFFECT DISTRIBUTION OF RESOURCES, ACCESS TO OPPORTUNITIES, AND AUTHORITY TO ADDRESS SOCIAL ISSUES.

SOCIAL REGULARITY IS A PREDICTABLE PATTERN OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN A SETTING— OFTEN A ROLE RELATIONSHIP, SUCH AS TEACHER-STUDENT. SOCIAL REGULARITIES INVOLVE DIFFERENCES IN POWER BETWEEN THE ROLES, HOW DECISIONS ARE MADE IN THE SETTING, AND HOW RESOURCES ARE DISTRIBUTED AMONG MEMBERS.

SEIDMAN’S FOCUS IS NOT ON INDIVIDUAL PERSONALITIES BUT ON RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS. THE PATTERNS OF SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS IN COMMUNITIES CAN AFFECT DISTRIBUTION OF RESOURCES, ACCESS TO OPPORTUNITIES, AND AUTHORITY TO ADDRESS SOCIAL ISSUES.

 

ECOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR SETTING

BARKER’SWAS ECOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY DEVELOPED TO STUDY SOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN EVERYDAY CONTEXT.

BARKER AND PROPOSED THEASSOCIATES CONCEPT OF BEHAVIOR SETTING, COMPRISED OF A PHYSICAL PLACE, TIME, AND PROGRAM OR STANDING PATTERN OF BEHAVIOR.

BEHAVIOR SETTINGS HAVE PROGRAM CIRCUITS, AGENDAS FOR THE SETTING, AND GOAL CIRCUITS TO SATISFY INDIVIDUAL NEEDS.

THEY EMPLOY VETOING CIRCUITS TO EXCLUDE SOME PERSONS AND DEVIATION-COUNTERING CIRCUITS TO TEACH I NDIVIDUALS THE SKILLS NEEDED TO PARTICIPATE PARTICIPA TE IN THE SETTING

 

ECOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR SETTING

BARKER AND ASSOCIATES ALSO PROPOSED THE CONCEPTS OF UNDERPOPULATED AND OPTIMALLY POPULATED SETTINGS.

OPTIMALLY POPULATED SETTINGS ENGAGE ONLY SOME PERSONS BY USING VETOING CIRCUITS TO EXCLUDE OTHERS.

SOMEWHAT UNDERPOPULATED SETTINGS REQUIRE PARTICIPATION FROM MANY INHABITANTS TO FILL NEEDED ROLES AND THUS CONTRIBUTE TO GREATER SKILL DEVELOPMENT AND MUTUAL COMMITMENT. THEY DEVELOP SKILLS AND INVOLVEMENT WITH DEVIATIONCOUNTERING CIRCUITS RATHER THAN VETOING

 

O’Donnell and associates proposed the concept of activity setting that takes subjective experiences of setting participants into account more than behavior setting concepts. O’Donnell and colleagues were inuenced by the Russian developmental theorist Lev

ACTIVITY SETTING

Vygotsky, by the contextualist epistemologies that we described in Chapter 3, and by working in Hawaiian and Paci c cultural contexts. contexts. An activity setting is not simply a physical setting and not just the behavior of persons who meet that theredevelop but alsothere the subjective meanings among setting participants, especially intersubjectivities: beliefs, assumptions, values, and emotional experiences that are shared by setting participants.

 

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Key elements of an activity setting include the physical setting, positions (roles), people and the interpersonal relationships they form, time, and symbols that setting members create and use.

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Intersubjectivity develops over time as persons in the setting communicate, work together, and form relationships. They develop symbols, chiey language but also visual or other images, to express what they have in common. This perspective calls attention to cultural practices used in the settings and meanings that members attach to them.

 

ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

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Environmental psychology examines the inuence of physical characteristics of a setting

Environmental Stressors A major focus of environmental psychology is the study of the psychological

Environmental Design Environmental psychologists also study the psychological eects of

(especially built environments) on behavior (Timko, 1996; Winkel, Saegert, & Evans, 2009

eects of environmental stressors, such as noise, air pollution, hazardous waste, and crowded housing (Rich, Edelstein, Hallman, & Wandersman, 1995; Winkel, Saegert, & Evans, 2009).

architectural and neighborhood design features. Examples include studies of enclosed workspaces, windows, and aspects of housing design (Sundstrom, Bell, Busby, & Asmus, 1996)

 

UNDERSTANDING COMMUNITY

 

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Coba tebak, kira kira apa yang Anda pikirkan tentang orang dalam percakapan ini. Tebak setingnya dan apa yang dia bicarakan

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“I mean can me talkwhen to them andto they there to Ihelp I need talkare to someone…For example…my father is very close to dying right now… they have all talked with me about it and have been a great deal of comfort to me.”

OPENING EXERCISE

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 is in reference to an online gaming community (Roberts, Smith, & Pollock, 2002, p. 236);

 

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Community psychologists believe that people have emotional relationships with their communities, and we believe that the quality of those a ective relationships has important implications for wellbeing and happiness. We call that aective relationship sense of community.

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Sarason dened community as “a readily available, mutually supportive network of relationships on which one could depend”  (p. 1). Sarason argued

WHAT IS COMMUNITY

that the “absence or dilution of the psychological sense of community is the most destructive dynamic in the lives of people in our society.” Its development and maintenance is “the keystone •

value ” for a community psychology (p. x). He applied the term community to localities, community institutions, families, street gangs, friends, neighbors, religious and fraternal bodies, and even national professional organizations (pp. 131, 153).

 

SENSE OF COMMUNITY

David McMillan and David Chavis (1986) reviewed research in sociology and social psychology on the sense of community and group cohesion. Their denition of sense of community resembled Sarason’s:

a feeling that members have of belonging, a feeling that members matter to one another and to the group, and a shared faith that members’ will be met through theirneeds commitment to be together. (McMillan & Chavis, 1986, p. 9)

 

UNDERSTANDING HUMAN DIVERSITY

 

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What is your gender? How does this inuence, for example, your everyday behavior, your career planning, or your approach to emotions, friendships, or intimate relationships?

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What is your culture or nationality? What is your rst language? How do these factors aect your values, career planning, family relationships, and friendships?

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How do socioeconomic factors aect your life? How did they aect the nature and quality of education in your home community, your choice of college, or your experiences in college? Has a need to hold a timeconsuming job or another economic stressor interfered with your schooling?

OPENING EXERCISE 4.

What is your sexual orientation? How does your orientation aect your everyday life, friendships, career plans, and other choices?

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How would you describe your race and ethnicity? How does it inuence your life, interactions with strangers or friends, life planning, choice of college, and friendships? How many meaningful relationships do you have with others of a dierent race or ethnicity?

 

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It should not be surprising to you now that community psychologists view diversity not simply as a discussion of individual dierences; instead, we consider diversity of people in dierent contexts and between contexts.

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Depending on the context, we emphasize dierent dimensions of diversity. A community psychology approach encourages us to view multiple dimensions of diversity in the dierent contexts in which we live

 

NOW CONSIDER T QHUEESSET I O N S FOR INTEGRATIVE REFLECTION:

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Which of these dimensions of human diversity are most important for understanding your experiences in college? Which dimensions are important for people to understand you at work? Which dimensions do you need to consider in understanding your classmates and coworkers’ perspectives?

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How would you characterize your network of friends in terms of these dimensions? How would you characterize your sources of support—the people to whom you would turn in a crisis?

 

KEY DIMENSIONS OF HUMAN DIVERSITY FOR COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY

Important dimensions of human diversity for community psychology include: culture, race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status or social class, ability/disability, age, and spirituality. These dimensions can be separated conceptually, but they converge in community life. Pluralism involves the assumption that everyone has a position somewhere dimensions and that each position is on to these be understood in its own terms. Intersectionality examines how these dimensions overlap.

 

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“Cultural diversity” has become a buzzword as the world’s societies have become more interdependent. The term culture has been stretched to refer not only to ethnic and cultural groups but also to nation-states, religious groups, racial groupings, and corporations (Betancourt & Lopez, 1993).

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Race Race has long occupied a quasi-biological status in Western psychological thought (Zuckerman, 1990). That quasibiological denition of race has often provided an intellectual basis for assumptions of racial superiority •

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Race is not simply ethnicity. Race is “socially dened on the basis of physical criteria” (Van den Berghe, cited in Jones, 1997, p. 347). That is, people make racial distinctions based on assumptions about observable physical qualities, such as skin color. Ethnicity is “socially dened on the basis of cultural criteria” (Van den Berghe, cited in Jones, 1997, p. 358) such aslittle language, origin, customs, and values, having to do national with physical appearance.

 

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Ethnicity Ethnicity can be dened as a social identity, based on one’s ancestry or culture of origin, as modied by the culture in which one currently resides (Helms, 1994; Jones, 1997). The term is related to the Greek ethnos, referring to tribe or nationality. Ethnicity is dened by language, customs, values, social ties, and other aspects of subjective culture

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Gender Perceived dierences between females and males provide a distinction that has been the basis of socially constructed concepts and denitions of “sexual” dierences.

Gender refers to our understanding of what it means to be female or male and how these categories are interpreted and reected in attitudes, social roles, and the organization of social institutions. Gender is not simply a demographic category but represents important psychological and social processes, including the distribution of resources and power (Gridley & Turner, 2010; Mulvey, Bond, Hill, & Terenzio, 2000).

 

DIMENSIONS OF DIVERSITY RECEIVING GREATER ATTENTION IN COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY

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Social Class. While this dimension may be dened primarily in terms of income or material assets (socioeconomic status [SES]), it is usually used to state, either explicitly or implicitly, where one belongs in society.

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Ability/Disability. Most persons will experience a physical or mental disability at some time in their lives. However, we often overlook the discrimination and barriers to participation in community life that many persons with disabilities face. While disabilities have implications for physical or cognitive functioning, community psychologists focus on the social experience of ability and disability (White, 2010).

 

DIMENSIONS OF DIVERSITY RECEIVING GREATER ATTENTION

6. Sexual Orientation This is best understood as a spectrum from exclusively heterosexual to exclusively homosexual, with intermediate points. It refers to an underlying orientation, involving sexual attraction, romantic aection, and related emotions. 7. Age Children, adolescents, and younger and older adults dier in psychological and health-related concerns, developmental transitions, and community involvement. Similarly, aging also brings changes in relationships and power dynamics for families, communities, workplaces, and societies (Gatz & Cotton, 1994; Cheng & Heller, 2009).

IN COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOG

8. Spirituality and Religion Spirituality and religion concern community psychology because of their importance for personal well-being and the importance of spiritual institutions and communities (Pargament & Maton, 2000; Kelly, 2010). As we noted in Chapter 6, we use the inclusive terms spirituality and spiritual to refer to religious traditions and to other perspectives concerned

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with transcendence.

 

Dierences among localities aect individual lives in many ways, creating dierences in life experiences that comprise a form of human diversity. Localities are often said to dier along a dimension of rural/suburban/urban communities. An example of how locality aects personal life or community action is that rural areas are often marked by geographic dispersion, limited access to health care and other human services, and stable, insular social networks that can make it dicult to be dierent or for newcomers or outsiders to establish trust (Bierman et al., 1997; Muehrer, 1997).

LOCALITIES

Transportation is a challenge for almost any community innovation.

 

Community psychology’s value on social justice often leads to an examination of social conditions and opportunities within community settings. Social inequality within and between communities may not be thought of as diversity on an individual level of analysis but becomes clearer when diversity is examined at multiple levels of analysis. Social inequities occur when the lack of social and economic resources available to particular groups lead to reduced opportunities for education, health care, or work. In more extreme cases, a group’s reduced social status can lead to group members having their property rights, voting rights, freedom of speech and assembly, and

SOCIAL INEQUITIES

citizenship challenged.

 

I D E N T I T Y D E V E L O P M E N T A N D A C C U L T U R AT I O N Persons are socialized into cultural communities, and this socialization process strongly impacts who we are and how we understand ourselves and others. One important dimension of this socialization process across cultures is individualismcollectivism. This includes conceptions of a more independent self or interdependent self. Individual and group thinking, emotions, and behavior are inuenced by whether a culture is more individualistic or collectivistic, although all cultures must deal with tensions between individual and collective identities. However, the individualism-collectivism concept is useful only for describing broad themes of cultural dierences, not for understanding any specic person, group, or culture well

 

To understand more specic processes of socialization and identity development, social identity development models have been proposed. Most assume stages of identity that include an opening stage of unexamined identity, followed by stages of exploration, often within one’s own group, and higher stages of forming a social (e.g., racial) identity and learning to relate to both one’s own group and the wider world. Many people do not follow the stage sequence, so the “stages” might better be considered “states.”

 

ACCULTURATION

The acculturation perspective concerns individual adaptation to the interaction of two cultures or groups. Four acculturative strategies can be identied:separation, assimilation, marginality, and biculturality (or integration). (See Table 7.1.) Acculturation refers to changes in individuals related to the contact between two (or more) cultures that the person experiences (Birman, Trickett, & Buchanan, 2005; Sonn & Fisher, 2010). In some elds, acculturation has meant identication with the dominant or host culture and loss of ties to one’s culture of origin. Following Berry (1994, 2003) and Birman (1994), we will term that loss of one’s host culture as assimilation. Also, enculturation refers to developing within one’s culture of origin, not involving change through relations with another culture (Birman, 1994).

 

Bicultural competence refers to skills and conditions needed for eective adaptation to a second or dominant culture while retaining identication with one’s culture of origin. Its eight factors are summarized in Table 7.2. Although evidence supports the value of the bicultural strategy in many circumstances, it is not always the wisest acculturative strategy

BICULTURAL COMPETENCE

 

OPPRESSION

Power and access to resources also create group dierences. The liberation perspective describes social systems of oppression and aims of liberation. Oppression creates an inequality of power between a dominant, privileged group and an oppressed, subordinated group, often on grounds of factors such as gender or race that an individual cannot change. Oppression is more than prejudice; it is based in social systems that aect privileged and subordinated groups regardless of whether they like it or not. There are multiple systems of oppression (e.g., racism, sexism) working at multiple ecological levels (e.g., social myths, mass media stereotypes). Key elements of liberation theory are summarized in Table 7.3.

 

When culture and liberation conict, attention to values is needed, and change needs to come from persons and values within the culture. Every culture has some diversity of values, and they change over time; these can be the bases for cultural challenge and transformation Cultural competence for community psychologists consists of qualities that promote genuine understanding and collaboration with members of a culture. Culturally sensitive community programs address the surface structure and deep structure of a culture.

 

Understanding and respecting human diversity does not mean moral relativism; one can hold strong values while seeking to understand other views. Better understanding of multiple forms of human diversity is needed

 

UNDERSTANDING STRESS AND COPING IN CONTEXT

 

Pikirkan tentang pengalaman stres yang penting dalam hidup Kalian. Misalnya,

OPENING EXERCISE

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Contohnya mungkin terkait: penyakit atau cedera serius atau gagal dalam ujian penting. Transisi kehidupan/ major life events: mulai kuliah atau sekolah pascasarjana, perceraian, kehilangan pekerjaan, kehilangan orang yang dicintai, atau menjadi orang tua. Berkaitan dengan situasi jangka panjang: hidup dengan penghasilan rendah, penyakit kronis, pelecehan, atau harus menyeimbangkan beberapa peran yang menuntut.

 

STRESS AND COPING: AN ECOLOGICALCONTEXTUAL MODEL

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Bab ini menandai titik transisi dalam buku komunitas yang kita pelajari. Bab ini memperkenalkan beberapa cara berpikir kritis tentang bagaimana intervensi dapat dikembangkan dan kemudian disajikan contoh bagaimana intervensi tersebut dapat diterapkan

 

REFERENCES

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Community Psychology: Lingking Individuals and Communities  3rd  Edition, Bret Kloos, Jean Hill, Elizabeth Thomas, Abraham Wandersman and James H. Dalton. (Ebook)