PDFs_Fire Prevention and Firefighting

FIRE PREVENTION AND FIREFIGHTING

02 – 206 – Basic Safety Course: FIRE PREVENTION AND FIREFIGHTING

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Course Outline Module 1

Module 2

Minimize the Risk of Fire      

Maintain A State of Readiness to Respond to Emergency Situations Involving Fires     

Module 3

The Fire Triangle Properties of Flammable Materials Sources of Ignition Fire Spread Safe Practices Fire Hazards

Organization of Shipboard Fire Fighting Location of Fire-fighting Appliances and Emergency Escape Routes Fire Spread in Different Parts of a Ship Fire and Smoke Detection Measures on Ships and Automatic Alarms Classification of Fires and Applicable Extinguishing Agents

Fight and Extinguish Fires   

Fire-fighting Appliances and Equipment Precautions For and Use of Fixed Installations Use of Breathing Apparatus for Fighting Fires

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Introduction: Safety and Principles Course Objectives At the end of the course, trainees will be able to: • raise the alarm • use the portable fire extinguishers • identify ways took minimize the risk of fire and maintain a state of readiness to respond to emergency situations involving fire • fight and extinguish fires Principles of Survival in Relation to Fire • regular training and drills • preparedness for any fire emergency • knowledge of actions to be taken when called to fire stations • knowledge of escape routes • knowledge of dangers of smoke and toxic fumes

COMPETENCE 1 Minimize the Risk of Fire Theory of Fire For a fire to occur, the following conditions should be present: • presence of materials which acts as a fuel • a source of ignition (chemical, biological or physical) • the presence of oxygen

Chemistry of Fire Oxidation is a chemical process in which a substance combines with oxygen. During this process, energy is given off usually in the form of heat. Fire or combustion is rapid oxidation (the burning substance combines with oxygen at a very high rate). Energy is given off in the form of heat and light. Because this energy production is so rapid, we can feel the heat and see the light as flames.

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The Fire Triangle Three things are required for combustion or fire: fuel (to vaporize and burn), oxygen (to combine with fuel vapor) and heat (to raise the temperature of the fuel vapor to its ignition temperature). The fire triangle illustrates these requirements. It also illustrates two facts of importance in preventing and extinguishing fires: • If any side of the fire triangle is missing, a fire cannot start. • If any side of the fire triangle is removed, the fire will go out. The Fire Tetrahedron The fire tetrahedron (below) is a better representation of the combustion process. A tetrahedron is a solid figure with four triangular faces. It is useful for illustrating and remembering the combustion process because it has room for the chain reaction and because each face touches the other three faces. The tetrahedron illustrates how flaming combustion is supported and sustained through the chain reaction. The chain reaction face keeps the other three faces from falling apart. This is an important point because the extinguishing agents used in many modern portable fire extinguishers, automatic extinguishing systems and explosion suppression systems directly attack and break down the chain reaction sequence. Properties of Flammable Materials • flammability - the degree of proneness of a material to catch fire • ignition point - The ignition point or temperature of a substance is the lowest temperature at which sustained combustion will occur without the application of a spark or flame. • burning temperature - The lowest temperature at which a substance will burn without continued application of an ignition source. • burning speed - The art by which the object burns and usually depends on the configuration of the substance. Solid fuels in the form of dust or shavings will burn faster than bulky materials (small wood chips will burn faster than a solid wooden beam).

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Measure of Hazard • flash point of liquid fuels • flammable range of gaseous and liquid fuels • thermal value Flash Point The flash point of a liquid fuel is the temperature at which it gives off sufficient vapor to form an ignitable mixture near its surface. The mixture is capable of being ignited but is not capable of sustaining combustion. If a liquid has no flash point, it is not flammable. Lower flash point indicates increased susceptibility to ignition. Flammable Range • It is the proper proportion of a flammable gas (or flammable vapor of a liquid) and air to make an ignitable mixture. • lower explosive limit (LEL) - The smallest percentage of a gas (or vapor) that will make an ignitable air-vapor mixture. If there is less gas in the mixture, it is too lean to burn. • upper explosive limit (UEL) - The greatest percentage of a gas (or a vapor) in an ignitable air-vapor mixture. If a mixture contains more gas than the UEL, it is too rich to burn. • explosive range - The range of percentages between the lower and

Thermal Conductivity The ability of a substance to conduct heat. Finely divided fuels have a much larger surface area exposed to the heat. Therefore, heat is absorbed much faster and vaporization is more rapid. More vapors are available for ignition so it burns with great intensity and the fuel is quickly consumed. On the other hand, a bulky fuel will burn longer than a finely divided fuel. Thermal Value The thermal value of a fuel is a measure of the heat released by the combustion of a given mass of substance. The thermal value of wood is about 8,000 BTUs/pound; the thermal value of crude oil is about 20,000 BTUs/pound. Pound for pound, petroleum fuels produce about 2.5 times as much heat as wood does.

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Thermal value, as well as the amount of fuel, must be considered in determining how much heat a fuel will produce if burned. Auto-ignition (spontaneous ignition) Some fires start without an external heat source or by auto-ignition. This will happen when the flash point of the fuel is relatively low; ignition temperature is low than usual and the air-vapor mixture is at explosive range. Static Electricity - How it occurs? While static electricity may not seem an obvious source of ignition, it does present a hazard. Static electricity is generated when two things made of different materials rub together. Petroleum fuels flowing through hoses can build up a charge which can cause a spark. If the proportion of vapor in the air is in the flammable range and the spark has enough energy, a fire or explosion can occur. Reactivity Reactivity is the reaction of certain materials against certain elements. For example, chlorine produces a violent reaction when it combines with finely divided metals or certain organic materials particularly acetylene, turpentine and gaseous ammonia. Caution: stow in well-ventilated space. Stow away from organic materials. Examples: The metals, sodium and potassium react with water. Cautions: segregation same as for flammable solids labeled “Dangerous When Wet”. Ignition Sources • flame of a match • sparks caused by ferrous metals striking together • heat generated by friction • lighting (naked) • flame from any cutting torch or welding machine • electric short circuit • electric arc between conductors • heat generated by an overheated electrical conductor or motor • spontaneous ignition (auto-ignition)

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Fire Spread (Methods of Heat Transfer) Heat from a fire is transferred by one or more of three methods:

Conduction It is the transfer of heat through a solid body. For example on a hot stove, heat is conducted through the pot to its contents. Wood is ordinarily a poor conductor of heat but metals are good conductors. Since most ships are constructed of metal, heat transfer by conduction is a potential hazard. Fire can move from one hold to another, one deck to another and one compartment to another via heat conduction. Convection It is the transfer of heat through the movement of heated gases and liquids. The smoke, heated air and gases and flying embers produced by a fire are lighter than cool air. They rise to the highest point that they can reach. If their upward movement is blocked, they will move horizontally until they find an upward pathway. On a ship, heat from a fire on a lower deck will travel horizontally along passageways and upward through stairways and ladder and hatch openings. Heat radiation It is the transfer of heat from a source across an intervening space (no material substance is involved). The heat travels outward from the fire in the same manner as light (in straight lines). This is how we receive heat from the sun. Radiant heat from a fire in one area of a cargo hold can raise the temperature of a substance on the opposite side of the hold to the point where it vaporizes and the fuel vapors ignite. Spread of Fire Spread of fire occurs as a result of equalization in temperature between fire and surroundings via conduction, radiation and convection currents. If a fire is attacked early and efficiently, it can easily be confined to the area in which it started. If it is allowed to burn unchecked, it can generate great amounts of heat that will

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travel away from the fire area, igniting additional fires wherever fuel and oxygen are available and both are in plentiful supply throughout most ships. Steel bulkheads and decks and other fire barriers can stop or delay the passage of heat to some extent but not completely. As the original fuel source is consumed, the heat and the fire will extend to new fuel sources. Phases of Fire Development Fire development in a contained space such as a room or a cargo hold follows four stages:

1. ignition stage (incipient) - The four elements of the fire tetrahedron come together, and the fire begins. 2. developing stage - The fire is releasing increasing amounts of heat. As the temperature rises, increasing amounts of vapor are being released and ignited. The rate of the chain reaction increases and the fire burns more intensely and grows rapidly. The smoke produced by the fire rises and forms a hot gas layer below the ceiling. 3. absolute fire stage - Fully developed, all flammable substances in the space are burning. The amount of vapor released from the fuels reaches a maximum rate and begins to level off producing a steady rate of burning. This usually continues until most of the fuel has been consumed. 4. burning out stage - There is fewer vapors to oxidize and less heat is produced. Now, heat production begins to break down and the fire begins to die out. A solid fuel may leave an ash residue and continue to smolder for some time. A liquid or gaseous fuel usually burns up completely. Safe Practices - General Safety Procedures • no smoking in hazardous areas • maintain cleanliness • ensure good housekeeping • recognize fire hazards and take the necessary steps to prevent fires Safety in the Engine Room • ensure insulation and lagging are kept in good condition • eliminate oil leaks and prevent accumulation of oil • take proper fire precautions when welding or burning is being carried out • check that caps and cocks for sounding pipes to oil tanks are closed

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maintain a clean engine-room, remove oil-soaked rags

Safety in the Galley • keep extraction fan and flue-gas duct clean • ensure cooking oils do not spill on top of the stove or overheat in electrical cooking pans • keep electrical installations well maintained Safety in the Accommodation • no smoking in bed • no unauthorized electrical fittings • no emptying of ashtrays into wastepaper bins without ensuring all cigarette ends are extinguished Safety in the Cargo Area • ensure hatches are correctly cleaned • ensure cargoes are stowed and ventilated in accordance with the rules • prohibit smoking during cargo-working periods • secure cargo • inert the atmosphere in cargo compartments when required • ensure hold /cargo compartment lights are switched off and cargo clusters disconnected, removed and stored away after use and before closing of hatches Need for Constant Vigilance Prevention is by far the best method of combating fire and this can be achieved through the following: • constant vigilance • preparedness • fire patrol • proper watch keeping • maintenance of equipment Fire Hazards on Ship Most hazards on a ship are fuel sources or ignition sources. The air usually provides enough oxygen for fire. Fire Hazards in the Engine Room • combustible liquids like fuel and lubricating oils • oil leaks and oil-soaked insulation • hot surfaces, e.g. exhaust pipes, engine parts overheating • defects in lagging • hot work, e.g. welding, cutting by oxy-acetylene torch • auto-ignition, e.g. oil dripping on hot surface

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Fire Hazards in the Galley • combustible liquids, e.g. cooking oil, hot fat • hot surfaces, e.g. ovens, frying pans, flues • defective electrical connections Fire Hazards in Accommodation • combustible materials, e.g. furnishings, personal effects • carelessness with cigarettes and matches, setting fire to bedclothes, wastepaper bin contents and furnishings • defective electrical connections Fire Hazards from Cargoes • self-heating cargo and spontaneous combustion • oxidizing cargoes and organic peroxides • compressed flammable gas • explosives

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COMPETENCE 2 Maintain A State of Readiness to Respond to Emergency Situations Involving Fires Organization of Shipboard Fire Fighting General Emergency Alarm Consist of seven short blasts followed by one long blast on the ship‟s whistle and bells. This special alarm signal activated from the navigating bridge summons/calls the crew to fire stations. Other Fire Alarm The ship has other fire alarms installed as well. • CO2 alarm -Evacuation alarms warn people to leave spaces that are about to be flooded with a fire-extinguishing material such as carbon dioxide, halon, or foam • manually operated fire alarm such as „PULL BOXES‟, are located throughout the ship • UMS fire-detection system -automatic fire detection alarms are activated by smoke, flame, and heat detectors. The alarms consist of bells and lights on a remote control panel Fire Control Plan It is a diagram of the ship showing the various fire protection features: • decks • control stations • fire detection and alarm systems • sprinkler installations • ventilation systems • fire zones • access routes and escape routes • fire-fighting equipment

Fire control plans are usually kept in well-marked red cylinders mounted in the bridge and in other prominent locations. A copy of the plan is also kept in a cylinder on the main deck for the benefit of land-based fire-fighting personnel.

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Muster List Also known as „station bill‟, muster list is a ship document which lists and describes assigned special duties and duty stations to crewmembers during emergency situation. The muster list also lists the ship‟s emergency equipment and alarms. Muster list is posted at the bridge and at all duty stations. There is only one muster list, but all crewmembers are given individual „station card‟ listing their own specific duties. Only the Master can override the muster list instructions. However, other officers may give you additional tasks during an emergency. Communications Effective communication throughout the ship is vital during emergency like fire. Passengers and crews have to be informed. Fire-fighting operations need to be coordinated. Methods of communication used during a fire emergency are: • messengers • telephones • two-way radios • ship-to-shore VHF radios • public address system Communication with the M aster should be established by phone or by messenger. Communication with firefighting teams must also be established and maintained. Messengers would be best for this purpose since telephone lines might be destroyed by the fire and firefighters would be moving constantly. An internal two-way radio system, if available, could be used to coordinate firefighting efforts. Personnel Safety Procedures Firefighting Team An emergency squad or fire party is a group of crewmen selected by the master for their special training to deal with emergency like fire. The chief officer (assisted by the boatswain) is normally in command of the team. The rest of the team should be made up of crewmen trained in the use of fire and rescue equipment. Candidates for the fire party would be crew members who are highly knowledgeable in emergency procedures and have earned certificates for their proficiency. Staging area The staging area should be established in a smoke-free area, as near as possible to the fire zone. An open deck location windward of the fire would be ideal. However, if the fire is

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deep within the ship, the staging area should be located below deck. A location near a ship‟s telephone, if feasible, would be helpful in establishing links. All supplies needed to support the firefighting effort should be brought to the staging area. These would include backup supplies of hose, nozzles and axes, spare cylinders for breathing apparatus and portable lights. The staging area should also be used as the first aid station. The equipment required to render first aid to injured crewmen should be set up there. Entering fire zone Do not enter the fire zone where the fire is burning until the team leader gives the order. You must familiarize yourself with the fire zone first and escape routes. During fire, the fire zone can be sealed off. Knowing the location and layout of the fire zones will improve your emergency response. Shipboard drills Shipboard drills are simulated emergency situations. During fire drill, firefighting team as well as the rest of the crew learns how to coordinate their emergency efforts. They also learn the necessary knowledge and skills in using the equipment properly. Likewise, during this drill, a crewmember learns his fellow crew emergency duties. This will make him flexible in filling vacancies of key personnel in the fire party. The typical exercises during fire drills are: • extinguishing a fire in a deep fryer • entering a closed room that is on fire • rescuing an unconscious person from a smoke-filled space • extinguishing a major deck fire. During drills, always follow your muster list duties unless the Master orders otherwise. Location of Fire-fighting Appliances and Emergency Escape Routes Basic Principles The following basic principles having regard to the type of ship and the potential fire hazards involve: • division of ship into main vertical zones by thermal and structural boundaries; • separation of accommodation spaces from the remainder of the ship by thermal and structural boundaries; • restricted use of combustible materials; • detection of any fire in the zone of origin; • containment and extinction of any fire in the space of origin; • protection of means of escape or access for firefighting; • availability of fire-extinguishing appliances; and • minimization of possibility of ignition of inflammable cargo vapors.

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Bulkheads The cargo deck, cofferdams, paint store, chemical store and machinery compartments are classed as hazardous areas. These areas are isolated from the accommodation by A - 60 bulkheads. An A-60 bulkhead or deck is constructed of 4.5 mm thick steel suitably stiffened. The steel is then insulated with 50 mm of glass wool. This type of bulkhead or deck will provide a minimum of 60 minutes protection from smoke or flames. There is an A-60 deck between the accommodation and the machinery compartments, the accommodation and the bridge. This will ensure that the accommodation will not be affected by fire from either the machinery compartments or the cargo deck. The bridge is also protected from an accommodation fire. The accommodation is classed as a non-hazardous area. The corridors are made from B-0 class panels. These are 1.6 mm thick steel panels with 50 mm of mineral wool to provide insulation. They will provide 30 minutes protection from smoke or flames. The cabin walls are made from C - class panels which are sandwich panels of galvanized steel coated with a PVC film. They have 50 mm of rock wool insulation. These panels will provide 30 minutes protection from smoke and heat. The accommodation, engine room, emergency exit and stairways are surrounded by A-60 bulkheads to ensure an adequate escape route. Fire Doors Doorways between A-60 bulkheads are A class doors fitted with a self-closing device. Doorways in the accommodation corridor are fitted with B class doors and magnetic self closing devices linked to the fire alarm panel. Cabin doors are B class doors. Inert Gas System Although the inert gas system is not a fire extinguishing system, it is designed to prevent fires and explosions. With few exceptions, every tank ship of 100,000 or more dead weight tonnage and with a keel-laying date of January 1, 1975 or later must have an inert gas system. Inert gas system was developed to reduce the oxygen content in the cargo tanks. Hydrocarbon gas will not normally burn in an atmosphere with less than 11% of oxygen by volume. Therefore, to prevent an explosion or fire in the cargo tanks, the vapor space oxygen content is kept below 8% by using inert gas from the boilers or an inert gas generator. It must be operated as necessary to maintain an inert atmosphere in the cargo tanks except during gas freeing operations.

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The inert gas system is composed of a gas generator, a scrubber, blowers, distribution lines, valves, instrumentation, alarms and controls. When cargo is loaded, the inert gas is shut down and the tanks are vented. Once loaded, a positive pressure is maintained in the ullage space to prevent the ingress of air. While discharging, the inert gas keeps pace with the falling level of liquid. To prevent hydrocarbon gases returning to the uptakes, a non-return valves and a water seal are placed in the system. The system is continuously monitored in the Cargo and Engine Control Room with a repeater on the bridge. Alarms will sound if oxygen content is above 5%, low water seal level and low/high pressure (200/1260 mm H.G.) Fixed Fire-Extinguishing Arrangements in Cargo Spaces Cargo spaces of ships of 1000 gross tonnage and above are protected either by a fixed gas fire-extinguishing system or by foam fire-extinguishing system. Cargo spaces of ships of 2000 gross tonnage and above are exempted from the above provision if they are provided with steel hatch covers and effective means of closing all ventilators and other openings leading to the hold. Emergency Fire Pump The emergency pump is use if the main fire pumps, their sources of power or their controls are damaged or inaccessible. The emergency pump must be capable of pumping enough water (50 psi) to operate two hoses. Fire pumps are the only means for moving water through the fire-main system when the ship is at sea. On cargo ships, if a fire in any one compartment could disable all the fire pumps, there must be a fixed emergency pump with an independent source of power. The emergency pump must be located in a space that does not share a common boundary with spaces containing: • the main fire pumps • internal combustion machinery • oil-fired boilers • oil fuel preparation units Emergency Escape Routes In and from all passenger and crew spaces and in spaces in which the crew is normally employed other than machinery, stairways and ladders, have a ready means of escape to the lifeboat and liferaft embarkation deck. • Below the bulkhead deck, two means of escape (at least one of which is independent of watertight doors) are provided for each watertight compartment or similarly restricted space. • Above the bulkhead deck, there are at least two means of escape from each main vertical zone wherein one of it gives access to a stairway. • Two means of escape are provided for each machinery space.

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• Two sets of steel ladders widely separated from each other, with one leading to the doors in the upper part of the space. • One steel ladder leading to a door in the upper part of the space from which access is provided to the embarkation deck. • A steel door capable of being operated from each side and which provides a safe escape route to the embarkation deck is provided. Emergency escape routes are well marked showing arrows and symbols. They are provided also with an emergency lighting system. Fire Spread in Different Parts of a Ship A fire in machinery space will be contained in the machinery space itself and will not spread to accommodation as accommodation is separated from machinery space by structural and thermal protection boundaries. A fire in cargo pump room will be contained in the cargo pump room itself and will not spread to accommodation as accommodation is separated from cargo pump room by structural and thermal protection boundaries. All A-60 doors separating machinery space and cargo pump room will be shut in case of fire in respective spaces. All ventilation flaps will be closed in case of fire in machinery space and cargo space. The accommodation fire should be contained in accommodation itself and should not be allowed to spread in machinery space and cargo pump by similar arrangements as stated above. The accommodation fire originating in galley, laundry, linen locker, common public spaces, and living spaces should be contained in the space of origin of fire and should not be allowed to spread to other parts of accommodation by using thermal protection and ventilation flaps/draught stops. A fire in any cargo hold should be contained in the affected cargo itself by shutting hatch covers, ventilator flaps and cooling boundary bulkheads. The fire in isolated spaces such as wheel house, radio room, chart room, forepeak area, i.e. paint locker etc. and steering gear compartment should be contained in the space of origin itself by shutting doors, ventilator flaps and using the fixed installation and other firefighting appliances where provided. Fire Detection A well-designed fire detection system, properly installed and maintained, will give an early warning of the presence and location of a fire in the protected area. A fire detector gives a warning when fire occurs in the area protected by the detector. A fire detection system,

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including one or more types of detectors, sounds the alarm in the affected areas and alerts those responsible for fire-fighting operations. Automatic Fire Detection Systems An automatic fire detection system is made up of: • Normal and emergency power supplies • Fire detection control unit • Fire detectors • Light and bell signals. Fire Detection Control Unit The fire detection control unit consists of a control panel containing the fire alarm signal, as well as trouble alarm and power alarm failure devices. These devices provide both visible and audible signals. The control unit also contains a power supply transfer switch to engage the emergency power supply if the normal power supply fails. The control unit is normally located in an area that is safe from flammable gases and vapors, while control panels may be located throughout the ship, such as on the bridge. Fire detectors sense and initiate a signal in response to heat, smoke, flame or some other indication of fire, and initiate an appropriate signal. When fire is detected, lights are automatically activated: • Indicator lights on the control unit and control panels • Alarm lights in the affected areas. Alarm bells or tones are sounded: • On the control unit and control panels • In the engine room • In the affected areas. These lights and alarms can be shut off only by their respective manual resetting devices. Fire Detectors There are three main types of automatic fire detectors: • Heat-activated fire detectors • Smoke detection systems • Flame detectors. Two non-automatic systems are: • Manual fire alarm systems • Supervised patrols and watchmen‟s systems.

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Heat-Activated Fire Detectors Heat-activated fire detectors are activated by the heat of a fire, and include: • Fixed-temperature detectors • Rate-of-rise detectors • Combined fixed-temperature and rate-of-rise detectors • Automatic sprinkler systems. Fixed-Temperature Fire Detectors A fixed-temperature fire detector activates a fire alarm when the temperature of the device reaches a predetermined value. Because the heat transfer from the air to the device takes time, by the time the fixed-temperature detector activates, the surrounding air is always hotter than the detector. This delay is called thermal lag. Automatic Sprinkler System Automatic sprinkler systems are both fire detection and fire extinguishing systems. The system piping is usually charged with water to the sprinkler heads. The water is held back by a fixed-temperature seal in each head. The seal is either a piece of fusible metal or a liquid-expansion bulb. Either one will allow water to flow through the sprinkler head when the temperature reaches a preset value. Aboard ship, automatic sprinkler systems are arranged so that the release of water from a sprinkler head automatically activates visible and audible alarms in the bridge or fire control station. Manual Fire Alarm System Manual fire alarm systems consist of normal and emergency power supplies, a fire control unit to receive the alarm and the necessary fire alarm boxes. The fire control unit is similar to the automatic fire detection control unit (it must contain means for receiving alarm signals and translating these signals into audible and visible alarms). It must also have provision for registering trouble signals. Similar to automatic system, vibrating bells are required for engine room notification. Manual alarm systems are usually combined with automatic detection systems. If the automatic system fails, a crewman who discovers a fire can promptly send an alarm via the manual alarm system. In addition, the manual system is important even when the automatic system is functioning properly. If a manual alarm is received on the bridge shortly after an automatic alarm, the watch officer can be fairly certain that there is an actual fire and not a false alarm.

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Alarm Boxes There is at least one manual fire alarm box in each fire zone on the vessel. Framed charts or diagrams in the bridge and fire control station adjacent to the fire alarm receiving equipment should indicate the locations of the fire zones in which the alarm boxes are installed. Manual fire alarm boxes are usually located in main passageways, stairway enclosures, public spaces and similar areas. They should be readily available and easily seen in case of need. Manual alarm boxes must be placed so that any person evacuating a fire area will pass one on the way out. Smoke Detection Systems A complete smoke detection system aboard a ship includes: • A means for continuously exhausting air samples from protected places • A means of testing air for contamination by smoke • A visual, or visual and audible, means for indicating the presence of smoke. Types of Smoke Detectors A smoke detector is a device that tests air samples for smoke. Available types of smoke detectors include: • Photoelectric smoke detector • Ionization smoke detector • cloud chamber smoke detector Flame Detectors Flame detectors are designed to recognize flames. Although flame detectors are sometimes used in shore side buildings, they are rarely used on ships, due to frequent false alarms in the shipboard environment. Classification of Fires and Appropriate Extinguishing Agents Class A Fire Ordinary combustible material; carbonaceous or deep seated; ex: wood, cloth, paper, mattress Extinguishing Agents: • water (cooling; red cylinder) • foam • dry chemical powder Class B Fire Flammable liquid (gasoline, diesel) and or flammable gas (LPG, acetylene) Extinguishing Agents • foam (smothering; pale cream cylinder) • CO2 • dry chemical powder • shut off supply fuel (starving)

02 – 206 – Basic Safety Course: FIRE PREVENTION AND FIREFIGHTING

Class C Fire Energized electrical equipment Extinguishing Agents • CO2 (Oxygen dilution; black cylinder) • dry chemical powder • shut off power supply Class D Fire Combustible metal: ex.: magnesium, potassium, sodium Extinguishing Agents • dry powder (inhibiting; French blue cylinder) • dry sand

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COMPETENCE 3 Fight and Extinguish Fire Fire-fighting Appliances and Equipment Fire Hoses and Nozzles Every ship should be provided with appliances whereby at least two powerful jets of water can be rapidly and simultaneously directed into any part of the ship, at least one of which shall be from a single length of hose; such appliances should include at least two pumps operated by power and at least three fire hoses; at least one fire hose should be provided for every 30m in length of the ship or fraction thereof. For each length of hose required, one hose nozzle of dual-purpose type capable of delivering a solid stream or a spray and incorporating a shut-off should be available. Joining Hoses Hoses are often linked together to give firefighters a greater range of mobility. Hoses are joined manually by threaded couplings. One end of the hose is male, and the other end is female.

The male coupling is threaded on the outside. The female coupling is always threaded on the inside, and is often called the swivel coupling. Hydrant Connecting a hose to a hydrant is exactly the same as joining hoses together. To fit nozzle to the fire hose, the same arrangement of threaded coupling is used. The male end of the hose fits in the female end of the nozzle. Mobile Apparatus Mobile apparatus are semi-portable fire extinguisher or an extinguishing system wherein a hose can be run out to the fire. Semi-portable system provides a way of getting a sizable amount of extinguishing agent to a fire rapidly. This allows the operator to make a sustained attack.

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Types of Mobile Apparatus • carbon dioxide cylinders • powder containers with propellant gas • foam-making equipment Semi-portable systems are usually set up to protect the same areas as fixed systems. Where possible, a fire is first attacked with the semi-portable system. If this attack controls or extinguishes the fire, then the large fixed system need not be activated. Semi-portable systems may also be used as primary extinguishing system. Since they are initial attack systems, it is essential that they be backed up with additional firefighting equipment. Portable Fire Extinguisher Portable fire extinguishers are an excellent first line of defense when a fire breaks out. They are light and easy to use but also fast to dispense extinguishing agents. Types of Portable Fire Extinguishers Stored-Pressure Water Extinguisher • Absorbs heat and cool burning material. • Fights class A fires. • Have a range of 30 to 40 feet. • Lasts for about 55 seconds. • Can be recharged on board with water. The stored-pressure water extinguisher is the most commonly used portable firefighting appliance. The 9.5 liter size has an NFPA rating of 2A. It weighs about 13. 6 kg. (30 lb) and has a horizontal range of 10.7 -12.2 m. In continuous operation, it will expand its water in about 55 seconds. However, it may be used intermittently, to extend its operational time. The container is filled with water or an anti-freeze solution to within about 15 cm of the top. The extinguisher is pressurized through the air valve with either air or an inert gas such as nitrogen. The normal charging pressure is about 690 kilopascals (100 psi). The gauge allows the pressure within the extinguisher to be checked at any time. Most gauges are color coded to indicate normal and abnormal pressures. The extinguisher is carried to the fire and the ring pin or other safety device is removed. The operator aims the nozzle with one hand and squeezes the discharge lever with the other hand. The stream should be directed at the seat of the fire. It should be moved back and forth to ensure complete coverage of the burning material. Short bursts can be used to conserve the limited supply of water.

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As the flames are knocked down, the operator may move closer to the fire. By placing the tip of one finger over the nozzle the operator can obtain a spray pattern that will cover a wider area. Foam Extinguishers • Primary “SMOTHERING” agent • The best extinguishing agent for Class “B” liquid fire • Aggregations of small bubbles or tiny bubbles • Foam Extinguishers Foam extinguishers are similar in appearance to water extinguisher but they have a greater extinguishing capability. The most common size is 9.5 liters, with an NFPA rating of 2A:4B. This indicates that the extinguisher may be used on both class A and class B fires. It has a range of about 9.2 - 12.2 m and a discharge duration of slightly less than a minute. The extinguisher is charged by filling it with two solutions that are kept separated (in the extinguisher) until it is to be used. These solutions are commonly called the A and B solutions (their designations have nothing to do with fire classifications). The foam extinguisher is carried to the fire right side up and then inverted. This mixes the two solutions producing a liquid foam and CO2 gas. The CO2 acts as the propellant and fill the foam bubbles. The liquid foam expands to about 8 times its original volume (this means the 9.5 liter extinguisher will produce 68 -76 liters foam). The foam should be applied gently on burning liquids. This can be done by directing the stream in from of the fire to bounce the foam onto the fire. The stream also may be directed against the back wall of a tank or a structural member to allow the foam to run down and flow slowly. For this reason, the stream must be directed to the fire from several angles for complete coverage of the burning materials. Foam extinguishers are subject to freezing and cannot be stowed in temperature below 4.4 °C. Once activated, these extinguishers will expel their entire foam content which should all be directed onto the fire. Maintenance consists mainly of annual discharging, inspection, cleaning and recharging. Dry Powder • Primary inhibiting agent • The best extinguishing agent for Class “D” Dry powder (not dry chemical) is the only extinguishing agent that may be used on combustible-metal (class D) fires. Class D extinguisher has a range of only 1.8 - 2.4 m. The extinguishing agent is sodium chloride, which forms a crust on the burning metal.

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The nozzle is removed from its retainer and the puncture lever is pressed. This allows the propellant gas (CO2 or nitrogen) to activate the extinguisher. The operator then aims the nozzle and squeezes the grips to apply the powder to the surface of the burning metal. The operator should begin the application of dry powder from the maximum range 1.8 - 2.4 m. Dry Chemical • It has a smothering effect to fire • Can be used in Class “A,B,C” • Non conducting extinguishing agent Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers • Smother fires by diluting the oxygen supply • Fight class B and C fires • Have a range of 5 feet The extinguisher is carried to the fire in an upright position. The short range of the CO2 extinguisher means the operator must get fairly close to the fire. The extinguisher is placed on the deck and the locking pin is removed. The discharge is controlled either by opening a valve or by squeezing two handles together. The operator must grasp the hose handle and not the discharge horn. The CO2 expands and cools very quickly as it leaves the extinguisher. The horn gets cold enough to frost over and cause severe frostbite. When a CO2 extinguisher is used in a confined space, the operator should guard against suffocation by wearing breathing apparatus. Using Portable Fire Extinguishers

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PULL the pin: This unlocks the operating lever and allows you to discharge the extinguisher. Some extinguishers may have other lever-release mechanisms.

AIM low: Point the extinguisher nozzle (or hose) at the base of the fire.

SQUEEZE the lever above the handle: This discharges the extinguishing agent. Releasing the lever will stop the discharge. (Some extinguishers have a button instead of a lever.)

SWEEP from side to side: Moving carefully toward the fire, keep the extinguisher aimed at the base of the fire and sweep back and forth until the flames

Portable Foam Applicator In addition to fire extinguishers, there are other types of portable equipment such as portable foam applicators (also called in-line proportioners). The in-line proportioners give the nozzle men more freedom of movement than the nozzle with pickup tube. The proportioners may be installed anywhere in the hose line between the fire main and the foam nozzle. It also feeds mechanical foam to the nozzle but it may be placed at a convenient distance from the heat of the fire. The in-line proportioner is a light weight venture device. It uses the water-stream pressure to draw foam concentrate from a 19-liter container through a pickup tube and into the water stream in the proper proportion.

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The pickup tube is screwed into the top center of the proportioner. The female end of the firefighting hose is screwed into the male end of the proportioner. The male end of the firefighting hose is advanced to the fire, and mechanical foam nozzle is screwed on. The firefighting hose should not be longer than 45.7 m from proportioner to nozzle. Personal Equipment Fireman‟s Outfit Ships must carry at least two outfits. The outfits constitute three sections as: • personal equipment • breathing apparatus • fireproof lifeline with snaphook and harness Breathing apparatus (BA) is designed to enable seamen to enter such as hostile environment with some degree of protection for the respiratory system. Two types of breathing apparatus: • self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) • hose masks (fresh air breathing apparatus) A self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) is excellent for fire fighting and rescue because the apparatus is mounted at the user‟s back, thus, providing freedom of movement. The SCBA unit is heavy and is dependent on the user‟s rate of breathing. It supplies air for only 20 to 30 minutes. The SCBA unit is equipped with a „Personal Alarm Safety System‟ (PASS) which alerts others if the wearer is immobilized or still for a period of time. Hose Mask (fresh air breathing apparatus) Here, the user wears a facepiece that is connected to a pump through a long hose. Air is pumped to the user, whose mobility is limited by the length and weight of the hose. The device can be used for extended period of time. The use of fresh air breathing apparatus is limited mainly by hose length. When the hose is longer than 132 ft., the pump may not be able to supply enough air to the user. Requirements for a Lifeline (Regulation 14 SOLAS) “For each breathing apparatus, a fireproof lifeline of sufficient length and strength shall be provided capable of being attached by means of a snap hook to the harness of the apparatus or to a separate belt in order to prevent the breathing apparatus from becoming detached when the lifeline is operated.”

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The lifeline guides the firefighter out of the fire area. It is important to take the same path in and out so the lifeline is not caught on obstructions. The lifeline is also for communication between the firefighter and the person outside the fire area who monitors the lifeline. Signals are sent back and forth by tugging on the line. 1.

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Fire Blanket The complete extinguishing equipment comprises an attractively designed synthetic cupboard containing a neatly folded fire blanket which is surrounded by a metal bracket. The fire blanket only requires a space of 7 cm in depth for storage. When the lid is opened, the fluff free fiber glass blanket is automatically ejected and ready for use. The rescuer can immediately insert his hands into the pockets at either side of the blanket and release the blanket from the bracket. The blanket unfolds in such a manner that the rescuer can cover either the person or object and extinguish the starting fire without any danger to himself. The operational use of the fire blanket cupboard enables the prevention of serious personal injury or extensive damage in an efficient manner. Fire Safety Arrangements Alarms Each fire zone has at least one manual fire alarm box. Manual fire alarms are in accommodation spaces, service spaces and control stations. Each exit to the outdoors has a manual alarm. Location of alarms is posted in the fire control stations. Emergency controls During emergency like fire, it is necessary to shut off engines, fuel lines and oil pumps. To isolate the fire zone, you simply pull the emergency control to shut off equipment in an emergency.

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You will find emergency controls near the equipment that they control. They may be located outside the door of the engine room or cargo space or in a nearby control station. Fire Alarms and First Actions The following actions should be immediately taken by the person who discovers fire: 1. Activate the alarm. 2. Inform control station (bridge). 3. Restrict. 4. Try to extinguish the fire. Fire Fighting Factors to consider when deciding on fire-fighting methodology: • accessibility of the location of the fire • personnel present at the location of the fire • reactions with the cargo / burning material • equipment and fire-fighting agents appropriate to the fire Fire Fighting Medium • water (in the form of solid jet, spray, fog or flooding) • foam (as high, medium and low expansion) • carbon dioxide • steam • dry chemical powders Fire Fighting Procedures When the fire alarm is given, fire procedures and emergency stations procedures are put into effect: 1 Crew assemble at the designated fire stations as given in muster list 2 The fire parties assemble, on orders from the bridge and carry out their tasks aimed at containing the fire and extinguishing it. 3 The pumps are started to supply extinguishing water. 4 The Master decides the most appropriate method for fighting the fire. The Master controls the fire-fighting operations from the bridge. When the fire is extinguished, a fire watch is kept. An investigation into the cause of fire is initiated by the Master to avoid recurrence. If the fire is in port, the shore authorities are informed immediately. Precautions For and Use of Fixed Installations General Requirement for a Fixed System • The medium used must not produce toxic gases • The quantity of the medium must be adequate for the spaces which are to be protected

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• The piping system must have control valves • The release of a gas medium must not be automatic • The order to release the medium must be given by the Master or a senior officer Fixed fire systems are designed and installed in a ship as a part of its original construction. The ship‟s Master, officers and crew members rarely have any influence on the type of firefighting systems employed. Marine and fire protection engineers generally make these decisions to conform with SOLAS provisions. Types of Fixed Installations • carbon dioxide • sprinkler (wet and dry risers) • foam (low expansion) • foam (high expansion) • fire mains, hydrants • emergency generators, fire and bilge pumps • pressure water spray in special category spaces • chemical powder applicants Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Fire Extinguishing System Carbon dioxide is used as a smothering agent in engine room, pump room, inert gas fan room, emergency generator room and incinerator room When the CO2 control box is opened, alarms are actuated in the engine room and pump room to warn the crew that the CO2 is about to be released. The air conditioning fans will automatically stop and the vents will close for that area of the ship. A head count should be taken before discharging the system. In addition to the main CO2 system, there are separate systems for the inert gas fan room, emergency generator room and the incinerator. These systems comprise of four CO2 gas cylinders that are manually operated. Foam Fire Extinguishing System Foam is a blanket of bubbles that extinguishes fire mainly by smothering. The bubbles are formed by mixing water and a foam-making agent (foam concentrate). The result is called a foam solution. The various foam solutions are lighter than the lightest of flammable oils. Consequently, when applied to burning oils they float on the surface of the oil. Extinguishing Effects Firefighting foam is used to form a blanket on the surface of flaming liquids including oil. The blanket prevents flammable vapors from leaving the surface and prevents oxygen from

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reaching the fuel. Fire cannot exist when the fuel and oxygen are separated. The water in the foam also has a cooling effect which gives foam its class A extinguishing capability. The ideal foam solution should flow freely enough to cover a surface rapidly, yet stick together to provide and maintain a vapor-tight blanket. The solution must retain enough water to provide a long-lasting seal. Rapid loss of water would cause the foam to dry out and break down from the high temperatures associated with fire. The foam should be light enough to float on flammable liquids yet heavy enough to resist winds. Types of Foam Chemical foam Chemical foam is formed by mixing an alkali (sodium bicarbonate) with an acid (aluminum sulfate) in water. This mixture is in a sealed airtight container. A stabilizer is added to make the foam tenacious and long-lived. When this chemicals react, they form a foam or froth of bubbles filled with carbon dioxide gas. The carbon dioxide in the bubbles has little or no extinguishing value. Its only purpose is to inflate the bubbles from 7 to 16 volumes of foam are produced for each volume of water. Many chemical foam systems are still in use both aboard ship and in shore installations. However, they are being phased out in favor of the newer mechanical foam or as it are sometimes called, air foam. Mechanical (air) foam Mechanical foam is produced by mixing a foam concentrate with water to produce a foam solution. The bubbles are formed by the turbulent mixing of air and the foam solution. As the name air foam implies, the bubbles are filled with air. Aside from the workmanship and efficiency of the equipment, the degree of mixing determines the quality of the foam. The design of the equipment determines the quantity of foam produced. There are several types of mechanical foams. They are similar in nature but each has its own special firefighting capabilities. They are produced from proteins, detergents (which are synthetics) and surfactants. The surfactants are large group of compounds that include detergents, wetting agents and liquid soaps. Surfactants are used to produce aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF). Foam Systems Foam may be generated chemically or mechanically. Chemical foam is produced by chemical reactions taking place in water. The foam bubbles are filled with CO2. Mechanical foam is produced by mixing foam concentrate with water to produce a foam solution then mixing air with the foam solution. The bubbles are thus filled with air.

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Foam systems are acceptable as fire protection for boiler rooms, machinery spaces and pump rooms on all vessels. Mechanical foam systems may be installed in these spaces instead of other approved systems such as CO2. Deck foam systems must be installed on tankers constructed after January 1, 1970 as fire protection for flammable-liquid cargo. Some older vessels may have foam systems protecting flammable-liquid cargo holds (foam systems are no longer employed for this purpose). Chemical Foam System Chemical foam is produced by the reaction of bicarbonate of soda with aluminum sulfate (or ferric sulfate). A foam stabilizer is added to improve its extinguishing properties. Chemical foam has more body than mechanical foam and will build a stouter blanket. A continuous type chemical foam generator is shown below. The generator may be fixed or portable. It consists of a hopper with a foam ejector at the bottom (its function is to dissolve the dry foam chemicals in a stream of water). The generator inlet is connected to a hose line or piping to the fire main. The continuous-type generator uses foam chemical at a rate of about 45.4 kg./min (100 lb/min) with either fresh or salt water at 21.1°C (70° F). Since 0.45 kg. (1 lb) of foam powder produces about 30 liters (8 gal) of foam, the unit produces about 3000 liters / min (800 gal / min) of foam. In one minute this quantity of foam can cover an area of 37 m2 (400 ft2) to a thickness of 76.2 mm (3 in). This area is equivalent to a square 6.1 m (20 ft) on each side.

Mechanical Foam Systems Mechanical foam concentrate is available in 3% and 6% concentrations. It may be mixed with either fresh or salt water to produce foam solution: • 12 liters (3 gal) 3% concentrate, mixed with 367 liters (97 gal) of water produces 379 liters (100 gal) foam solution • 2.3 liters (6 gal) 6 % concentrate, mixed with 356 liters (94 gal) water produces 379 liters (100 gal) foam solution

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When the foam solution is mixed with air, it expands. The expansion ratio of the foam indicates the proportions of air and water it contains. Thus, for example a 4:1 foam expansion ratio is defined as the quantity of moisture contained in a given quantity of foam. In 1000 : 1 high expansion foam, there is one gallon of moisture in 1000 gallons of the high expansion foam. A 100 : 1 expansion ratio means the foam contains 99 volumes of air for each volume of water. The air is introduced into the foam solution at a foam spray nozzle, monitor or turret nozzle. In fixed foam extinguishing systems, the air-to-water ratio is set to obtain the desired foam properties. In general, the lower the expansion ratio the wetter, the more fluid, the heavier the more heat resistant is the foam. Foam Fire Fighting System The foam system on most ships is used for fighting a fire on the cargo deck. The system comprises: • foam bulk storage tank • foam pump • variable flow injector (proportioner) The foam system is operated from the FGFC room. The foam bulk storage tank contains 4m3 of fluoro-protein foam with an additional 100 L tank used for exercises. The foam is pumped from the tank by an electrically driven pump. The foam concentrate is admitted to the foam main via the variable flow injector where it mixes with sea water at 3 % (fed from the fire pumps). The foam main feeds seven monitors on the cargo deck and seven foam valves, for use with portable foam making equipment. The foam mixture is aerated at the monitors with an expansion rate 12:1. This produces low expansion foam, which is laid across the cargo deck. Low expansion foam is used to give a good throw and make the foam resistant to wind drift. Cooling Effect Systems Sprinklers Sprinkler systems are generally used to protect living quarters, adjacent passageways, public spaces and vehicular decks on roll-on / roll-off (ro-ro) vessels and ferryboats. Sprinkler systems may extinguish fire in these spaces. However, their primary function is to protect the vessel‟s structure, limit the spread of fire and control the amount of heat produced. They also protect people in these areas and maintain escape routes.

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How the System Works Heat from the fire melts the fusible links of one or more sprinkler heads. The heads open allowing water to flow. The initial supply of water comes from the piping and then from the pressure tank. As water flows out of the tank, its pressure is reduced. This pressure drop causes a pressuresensitive switch to electrically activate the sprinkler water pump and the alarm bells. The sprinkler pump takes over as the water source supplying water from a fresh water holding tank. Check valves in the piping ensure that the water flows from the pump to the sprinkler heads rather than into the pressure tank. When the holding tank water supply is depleted, the pump suction must be manually shifted to seawater. Crewmen should not depend on an automatic sprinkler system as the sole method of extinguishment. As in all fire attack operations, the initial attack (by the sprinkler system) should be backed up with charged hose lines. An activated sprinkler should not be shut down until the fire is at least knocked down and hose lines are in position to extinguish any remaining fire. It is important to prevent unnecessary water accumulation but the primary objective is to get the fire out. If an automatic sprinkler system is shut off too soon, heat from the continuing fire can cause many more sprinkler heads to open. The additional open heads can put an excessive load on the system beyond the capability of the sprinkler pump. The result would be reduced pressure in the system and insufficient water flow from the sprinkler heads. The heads then would not be able to form the spray pattern necessary to achieve extinguishments. After the fire is extinguished the sprinkler system should be restored to service. The sprinkler heads that were opened should be replaced with heads of the same temperature rating and deflector type. A supply of heads of the proper types should be kept on board for this purpose. The pressure tank should be refilled and pressurized and the valves reset. Manual Sprinkler Systems In a manual or dry riser sprinkler system, the sprinkler heads are normally open and there is no water in the piping. When a fire is discovered, the fire pumps are started and a control valve is manually opened, supplying water to all the heads in the system. The manual system supplies a larger volume of water to a protected area than the automatic system does.

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Fire Mains System

The fire-main system is the ship‟s first line of defense against fire. It is required no matter what other fire extinguishing systems are installed. Every crew member can expect to be assigned to a station requiring knowledge of the use and operation of the ship‟s fire main. Fire-main system supplies water to all areas of the vessel. Fortunately the supply of water at sea is limitless. The movement of water to the fire location is restricted only by the system itself, the effect of the water on the stability of the ship and the capacity of the supply pumps. The fire-main system is composed of the following: • fire pumps • piping (main and branch lines) • control valves • hose and nozzles Different Streams (used in fire-fighting) • solid-jet (straight stream) • For hard to reach area/structure above; cannot be used for Class B (liquid fire) because it will splash and scatter and make the condition worse • semi-fog stream (60 degrees) - for extinguishment and cooling • full fog stream (180 degrees) For shielding / protection; use for attacking and back outing the fire Hydrants and Piping The piping directs firefighting water from the pumps to hydrants at the fire stations. The piping must be large enough in diameter to distribute the maximum required discharge from two fire pumps operating simultaneously. The water pressure in the system must be approximately 50 psi at the two hydrants that are highest or furthest for cargo and miscellaneous vessels and 75 psi for tank vessels. This requirement ensures that the piping is large enough in diameter so that the pressure produced at the pump is not lost through friction in the piping.

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The piping system consists of a large main pipe and smaller branch lines leading off to the hydrants. The main pipe is usually 4 - 6 inches in diameter. The branch lines are generally 1½ - 2½ inches in diameter. Although the smaller branch lines reduce the flow of water, they make it easier to maintain the required pressure at the fire stations. Branch lines may not be connected into the fire-main system for any purpose other than firefighting and deck washing. All sections of the fire-main system on weather decks must be protected against freezing. For these purpose, they may be fitted with isolation and drain valves so that water in the piping may be drained in cold weather. The schematic diagram on the previous page shows the fire main and pumps on a ship. It comprises of two fire pumps (fire and deluge pumps) and an emergency pump. The pumps are electric centrifugal self-priming pumps. The main fire pumps draw sea-water from a separate sea chest than the emergency pump. All fire pumps can be started from the following places: • bridge • cargo and engine control room • fire control center • pump side The fire main feeds ten hydrants in the engine room (two per deck). At the accommodation, the main branches feed the port and starboard sides. There are two valves per deck located at the entrances to the accommodation. The fire main also runs down the cargo deck feeding hydrants on the port and starboard sides. There are hose reels placed throughout the ship; two per deck in the engine room, one per deck in the accommodation and seven on the cargo deck. The International Shore Connection can be found on the upper deck, port and starboard sides. This provides protection against a cargo deck fire. A sprinkler system is also provided for the chemical stores in the engine room, paint stores in the engine room and fore peak. International Shore Connection At least one shore connection in the fire-main system is required on each side of the vessel. Each shore connection must be in an accessible location and must be fitted with cutoff and check valves. A vessel on an international voyage must have at least one portable international shore connection available to either side of the vessel. International shore connections may be connected to matching fittings that are available at most ports and terminals throughout the world.

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These enable the crew to take advantage of the pumping capability of the shore installation or fire department at any port. The required international shore connections are permanently mounted on some vessels. Use of Breathing Apparatus for Fighting Fires Self-contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) These devices provide air or oxygen to the user, who wears the entire device. The user is thus, completely mobile. However, the device can supply air or oxygen for limited amount of time only. There are two kinds of SCBAs: • oxygen breathing apparatus (OBA)- these devices provide oxygen chemically. • demand units - these devices provide air or oxygen from a supply carried by the user.

Self-contained Demand-Type Breathing Apparatus Demand-type breathing apparatus is being used increasingly aboard merchant ships. Its popularity stems from its convenience, the fact that it supplies the user with cool fresh air, the speed with which it can be put into service and its versatility. The demand-type apparatus gets its name from the function of the regulator which controls the flow of air to the face piece. The regulator supplies air „on demand‟; i.e. it supplies the user with air when he needs it and in the amount that his respiratory system requires. It thus, supplies different users with air at different rates, depending on their „demand‟. Newer model demand-type breathing apparatus are being supplied with a „positive flow‟ to the face piece. The slight pressure in the face piece prevents contaminated air from entering the face piece and getting into the respiratory tract. This positive air pressure lessens the critical nature of the face piece fit against the user‟s face. Donning of Breathing Apparatus • Loosen straps and place the apparatus with the cylinder valve facing upward preparation for its donning.

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• Place the neck strap of the face piece on your neck then don breathing apparatus by means of over head. • Adjust shoulder straps firmly and comfortably, buckle up the waist, inserting the male buckle on the back of the female buckle to lock it • Lean forward when the cylinder is released so that the cylinder will not slide down the back. • Tighten waist strap by pulling either side for comfortable fit. Bear in mind that waist carries the whole weight of breathing apparatus. • Put on the spiromatic mask by means of one hand technique. Place first the face piece on your chin then move the mask towards face totally and give a deep breath. The breathing valve will open automatically.

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Steps for Putting on the Facepiece

Removing and Restowing Backpack Unit

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