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T H E A R T O F  P E R F O R M A N C E

 

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T HE

ART  O F

PERFORMANCE

HEINRICH SCHENKER

Edited  by Heribert Esser Translated   by  Irene Schreier Scott

N ew   York 

Oxford

Oxford  U niversi niversity ty Press 2000

 

Oxford  University Press Oxford   N ew   York Athens Auckla Auckland nd Bangkok Bogota Buenos Aires Ca Calcutta lcutta Town Chenna Chennaii  Dar es  es Salaam Delhi Florence  Florence  Hong  Cape   Town Cape Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi  Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi   Paris  Sao Paulo Singapore Taipei Tokyo Toronto Warsaw Nairobi

companies in an d  associated companies in Berlin   Ibadan

Copyright  ©  2000 by 2000 by Oxford University Press, Inc. Published b y Oxford  O xford University Press, Inc., 19 8  Madison Avenue, New  N ew   York, N ew   York 10016 Oxford is a  regi  registered stered trade mark o f  Oxford Univers University ity Press Al l rights  rights reserved.  reserved. N  N o part  part   of of this  this publication m publication m ay be be   reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, o  orr transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission  of of   Oxford University Press. Library  o f Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Schenker,   Heinrich, 1868-1935 Schenker,

 d es Vort  Vortrags. rags. English English]] [Kunst  des  Heinrich Schenker ; The art of   performance  ; Heinrich edited by  Heribert Esser ; translated b translated Sch reier Scott.  b y Irene Schreier p.   cm. cm . A n  unfinished work edited  from  from  the author's papers in the N ew   York Public Library and Library and the University the University of  of   California  at at Riverside.  Riverside.  bibliographical references  references an d index. Includes bibliographical Includes Contents: Musical ccompositio omposition n  and performance—Mode of  notation  and  performanceThe technique  of playing the piano—Nonlegato—Legato—Staccato— Fingering—Dynamics—Tempo and tempo modifications—Rests— The performance of older mus ic—On practicing.  019-512254-2 ISBN 019-512254-2 ISBN 1.   Piano — Performance.

—Interpret rpret ation (Phrasing, dynamics, etc.). 2.   Piano music —Inte I.   Esser Esser,, Heribert,  II.   Title. MT220.S24513   2000 MT220.S24513

786.2'193 786.2' 193 —dc 21  

99-10082

1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2

Printed  in the  United  United  States  of  America o n   acid-free paper

 

Contents Translator's Introduction  vii Editor's Introduction  xi Sources and Editorial Sources and  Editorial Procedure xvii Plates  xxiii Plates  ONE 

Music usical al Co Composition mposition  a n d Performance  3

TW O  

Mode  of   Notation  an d Performance  5

T H R E E   T h e  Technique  of   Playing th  t h e  Piano  7

Piano Singing 8 Proximity of the Piano to the  Orchestra  10 Pedal  10

Ha nd   Pedal  1 1 Ai Airr  Pedal  Pedal  12 Dynamic Separation  o f  Individual  Fingers  1 4

Octaves   1 4 Rendition  of the Bass  1 4

 

FOUR 

N on  on  Legato  Legato  1 9

FIVE 

Legato  21 Held Notes 21 Articulating Legato  2 4 Ways  of   Dissembling  25 Change of Finger on the Same Key 26 Legato   o f  Identical Notes  2 8

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Contents

SIX

Staccato 31

SEVEN 

Fingering  33

EIGHT 

Dynamics  39 piano and  forte  as as Basic  Basic Conditions  39  Indicated Shadings Specifically within piano an and d forte  forte   41 Freely Executed Shadings  a n d forte  4 2 within piano an forte-piano   4 3 Rhetorical Accents  44 Rahnwnanschlag   4 9

NINE 

Tempo  an d Tempo Modifications  5 3 Tempo Indication and Meter 53 Pushing Ahead—Holding Back  53 Newly Appearing Note Values 57 Allabreve   5 9 s f p )   on the  Weak Beat  6 1

TEN  

Rests  65

E L E V E N   Th The e  Performance  of Older Music  69

Older lder Works 69 Expression  and Freedom in O Expression  Improvisation: Fermatas and Cadenzas  70 Passagework  an and d  Scales  71 Practicing  75 T W E L V E   O n  Practicing  Appendixes Appendix A: On the Technique of the Piano in Particula Particularr 81 Appendix B: On the Degeneracy Degenera cy of the Virtuoso Vi rtuoso 83 Notes  8 5 Selected Bibliograph Bibliography y with Annotations 95 Works of Heinrich Sche Schenker nker 95 Related Works  96

Index of  Musical Examples  9 9

 

Translator's   Introduction

T H I S   is THE F I R S T  publication  of  Heinrich Schenker's  The Art of  P e r -

formance.  That  it itss appearance is in translation should  not  come  as a surprise. Interest in Schenker's work  is liveliest in the English-speaking world world at presen presentt and is no longer confined to theoreticians. This This practical volume, then,  may  serve as an introduction  to  Schenker, particularly directed to directed to practicing  practicing musicians. M y  personal introduction  to the  substance  o f  The Art of  P e r f o r mance  antedates by many years my  awareness  of its  existence. By chance  my first piano teacher w  was as Moriz Violin, a w  wonderfull onderfully y gifted pianist who also com composed. posed. Vio Violin lin was Heinrich Schenke Schenker's r's younger colleague   and closest friend, colleague  friend,   in whom Schenker confided an  and d with whom he shared his musical idea ideas. s. H Having aving in intuitively tuitively assimilated

these concepts, concepts, Violin impa imparted rted them in his own teaching along with a special, special, u unforgettable nforgettable approach to the piano. From From the age of six,   therefore, I was shown  a natural way of playing entirely at one with the music musi c and, perhaps because Violin had never taught taught a ch child ild before,  I was spared an  any y of the "piano methods" most beginners are taught. Later,  in my college years, I studied with Osw swald ald Jonas (who had meanwhile become my stepfather). Counterpo Counterpoint, int, figured bass, and analysis  played  a considerable role,  but I think it is fair  to say that what he cared about most of all were our lessons at the piano, with detailed coaching  of  every nuance. Certainly he  pointed  out the unique music musical al content  of each work and, in the most memorable vii

 

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Translator's  Introduction

moments, we made new discoveries; the emphasis, however, was on musical expression. Heinrich Schenker's deep concern  f o r perfor  performance— mance— for  th e execution of the works his analytical insights illuminated so profoundly —has become widely recognized. It is know known n that his own students  for the greater the greater part taught at the piano,   and anyone and anyone who  who has were for were taught at the piano, overheard a Schenker student in the  of process a piece of music—probing, playing  a segment a phrase phraof se analyzing ove overr an  and d over again,  first one,  of  notes—is aware emphasizing first emphasizing  one, then another note or note or group  group of that the actual actua l sou sound nd of the music and its appropriate expre expressi ssion on are essential to Schenker's approach  to music. In addition, the sections on performance perfor mance in most most of his w writin ritings gs and the many allusion allusionss to a forthcoming  publication  o f  D ie  Kunst  d e s  Vortrags  in  journals  an d books by Schenker Schenker scholars h have ave already served to introduce this volume. But music students and musicians with no direct experience  bitt as much  f o r with Schenker—and this this translation  is meant every bi them as for the initiated—may still be surprised at the practical, detailed tail ed technica technicall advice giv given en by the theoretici theoretician an they have o only nly associated with apparently esoteric, abstract graphic analyses. Thee   genesis  of Th of   The Art of  Performance (Die  Kunst des  Vortrags)  has ha s been described  in detail  in the editor's the editor's introduction. When I was first first  described in  detail in asked to translate it and reread the manuscript (not yet in its current form)  it seemed like an old friend,  and I ev  even en queried queried th e  usefulness  o f it itss  publication  a t a time when,  I thought, many  of its ideas had become widespread. Since then, however, I have taught  a w  wide ide variety va riety of students, and I find that the basic appro approach ach to the piano tak taken en by mos mostt students i  iss very different indeed from the one that spoke to me in a f ath e pages  o f  Vortrag.  Certainly, th e miliar languag language e from  the Certainly, pianists need  the ability to play many types and styles of music, including those unequivocally rejected b y Schenker. But the repertoire from, say, Bach t Brahm s (as (as  well as  a s much else ) is pla  its own ap played yed con convincin vincingly, gly, with its propriate propria te express expression, ion, o only nly when it sin sings gs and breathes. The means, the motions,, the physical approach described in the text that motions tha t follow followss can point the way to music making that is immediate, alive, spontaneous,  yet controlled.  In our more our more   and and more and yet and  controlled. In  more programmed world, such music making becomes profoundly meaningful.  o f preparing this translation  b y I have been helped in the process of the many  friends,   colleagues, and students whose enthusiasm for the  many friends, project  was an inspiration. Special thanks to John  Rothgeb, Carl Schachter,   a n d William Rothstein  f o r their valuable, expert ssug Schachter, ugge gesstions; to  Robert Lang an  a n d Sidney Berger of the  University Library, University Library,

 

Translator's   Introduction  Introduction 

ix

 off  California,  California,  Riverside, f o r their generosity  in  putting al  alll University o the materials material s in the Oswald Jonas Memorial emoria l C Collec ollection tion needed for f or the illustrations ill ustrations reproduced here, at my disposal; disposal; to Maribeth Payne o f   Oxford University Oxford University Press and her  staff  f o r making  th e  publication possible, with special special appreciation for Cynthia Garver who patiently and an d with expertise helped overcome overcome obstacles; to Andrew Lee for his painstaking, painstaking, careful  work,in preparing examples on sitive theive computer; and to careful work my husband, husband Dana Scott, all forthe hi hiss advice on sen sensit linguistic questions and for giving unstintingly of his time in helping in the final stages of organizing th  the e manuscript. I also particularly particula rly want to thank Richard Goode for his interest in this work.  Without  hi hiss forever,  the gentle nudging when  the preparation seemed  to  take  forever,  book might  still not be in print. I am especially happy that Oxford  University Pr Press ess undert undertook ook this publication during 1997,the centenary of Osw swald ald Jonas's birth. The memory  of his boun  boundless dless enthu enthusiasm siasm  for music was the inspiration one pa  to fo forr   my part in the realization of this project, one  particula rticularly rly clos close e to his heart. Pittsburgh  March 1998

 

I.S.S.

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Editor's   Introduction

IN   TH E  P R E F A C E  T Symphony (1912  TO O  hi hiss book  on  Beethoven's Ninth Symphony (1912

Heinrich Schenker writes (p. writes (p. 8): "Under  above-mentioned per8): "Under   the the above-mentioned formance rubric I have endeavored, without intending  to  encroach monograph raph 'Die Kunst des Vortrags' to be pubon the territory  of a monog lished in the foreseeable future,  to set  forth performance instructions insofar  as possible  generall principles principles an as possible in  in genera  and d rules." Where Whe re is this monograph? monogra ph? It was never com completed. pleted. Schenker had begun sketching  the  projected  The Art of  Performance  systematically in July 191 1911 1 but inte interrupt rrupted ed work on it a few weeks later. (See "Sources and Editorial Procedure.")  After some two years he took this material out of his desk, bu  butt  only to  "check through it and iimmprove prov e its organization organization." ." A considerable part of the usable usabl e mater material ial had  already been inclu included ded in earlier publications: i  in n A Contribution to the th e  Study  o f  Ornamentation (1904), in  J . S . Bach's  Chromatic Fantasy a n d Fugue   (1909),  (1909), and in the monograph previously quoted. quoted . We do not  know  why Schenker did not  continue work  on  this project begun so ene energeti rgetically. cally. It is ha hard rd to believe that probl problems ems in in-trinsic  to the  material were responsible.  One  might rather agree with t  the he reasons given by  by Oswald Jonas in an introduction written in alized version version of 1958  to a never-re a never-realized  of the  the  work: " In   th thee  above-mentioned  preface  [to the Ninth  Symphony]  it  furthermore  says  "I  believe, incidentally, that I am the first to   consider "I believe, similar  principles at all applicable to a material that appears to be in

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Editor's Introd uction a constant state of flux. of flux. Nat  Natura urall lly y I have als also o en endeavored, deavored, how however ever,, to

provide the rules in all cases with their  their psychological  psychological foundation  as thoroughly   as possible,  in order  to  shield  them  from even  the appearance of being merely accidental and arbitrary. For th  this is rreason eason  the rubric  of  performance would have automatically required still more exhaustive treatment;  but in view  of the greater importance  of the revelation  of content,  I had to satisfy  satisfy   myself  with less extensive commentary." Herein, simultaneously, lies the explanation for the  fact that "The Art of Performance" remained  a fragment: it was the  "the-

ory of  organic unity  in the  musical work  of  art"—the idea  of the "Ursatz   and its  prolongations" prolongations"—which —which Schenker consid considered ered  it his

mission  to present  and whose  formulation became  the  uppermost activity vity  as teacher, aim of his life's work. Added  to this his practical acti

his battle against the  obfuscation  of  source material (the entire current awareness  of the  significance of the  manuscript  for the  preparation of the printed text, after all, essentially stems from Schenker's

attempts an  and d admonitions)—if  one weighs  all this i  itt becom becomes es understandable that  the  "Vortrag," along with many other projects, had to take second place in his life-plan his life-plan and  and to remain  a fragment.

Many  yea  years rs later,  o n  December  6 ,  1930, 1930, Schenker dictates to his wife,  Jeanette, th  the e followin following g diary entry: "Ordere "Ordered d 'Vortrag' an  and d supplied it with  a sort of Index. Thus only th  the e  book itself remains, des from   th e  difficulties  o f  Free tined  to be a diversion  a n d distraction  distraction from Composition."  He had not completely lost sight of the old papers and their questions during the past twenty years; for this w  we e have proof in the  abundant number  of notes that ar  are e collected  in B of  "Sources a n d   Editorial P  foo r this and all following Procedure." rocedure." (See this this chapter cha pter f materials. ) N Now ow,, apparently, he had come references  to the Schenker materials.) to the conclusion conclus ion tosort tak take eofupresolution. that large piece of work once again ain and  tofirm bring it to some But this was not toag happen.  Indeed Indeed,, Schenke Schenkerr did f inish Free Com posit position ion to the extent that  it could be published—shortly after  his death—in 1935; but the book T he   Art of  Performance  remai remained ned unpublishe unpublished. d. Even Even i  inn its  fragmentary state, however,  however,  The Art of  Performance  presents i presents its ts   material  material  in such a  an n individual, individual, unconvention unconventional al manner a  an nd contains such a wealth of  valuable, stimulating ideas an  and d suggestions that  the  posthumous publication seems more than justifie  justified— d— even  if one  knows that  it can never be the "boo "book" k" Schenker intended to write. "Entwurf   (Versuch)  einer Lehre vo  v o m  Vortrag.  E in  Beitrag z u r  Verbesserung /Reform   des Klavierspiels  im Besonderen [Draft  of  (Essay  on) a Study

 

Editor'ss Introduction Editor' Introduction  

Performance . A Contributio ontribution n to the Imp Improveme rovement/Ref nt/Reform orm of o f   Performance. Piano Pi ano Playing Playing in Particul Particular] ar]—this —this annotation annotati on written on a scrap of paper pa per repre represents sents Sche Schenke nker's r's early searc searching hing for a title for the wor work. k. (See  Plate  1.) It was intended  to echo another  Essay:  that of his admired   and mired an d beloved  beloved   C. P. E. Bach On the True  A r t  o f  Playing  Keyboard Instruments— Instruments — a  work that Schenker knew as no one else did and which is  one of the foundations for his own  efforts. At the same time, we realize why the  Vortrag  is addressed almost exclusively to pianists. The Th e  pianist  is the one  Schenker considers  th the e  most  in  danger  of miscalculat culated ed perfor per formanc mance, e, sinc since e  for falling  into  the the ways of poor, miscal the purely mechanical activation  of the keys none  of the  natural constraints apply t  to o which singers or wind players are subject by the need t  to o breathe or string players by the motions of bowing. Schenker does n  not ot tire of admonishing  th the e pianist to "breathe,"  to bring  to his eyes  and ears the  model  of the  human voice  for for  "singing" playing and an d "speaking" articulation. In doing this Schenke Schenkerr continually holds up the   example given by J. S. Bach,  C. P. E. Bach, Mozart,  or Beethoven.

 his is original suggestions for a title in  in favor B y  abandoning h  favor   of the more general  The Art  o f  Performance  Schenker Schenker appea appears rs to  modify  h is stance; but since by far the greatest number of examples are taken from  the piano literature—especially by Beethoven and Chopin— he betrays  his true intention.  It would  of  course be entirely wrong to attribute this slant toward  the piano to one-sidedness on the author's part: what  he  says about  the piano here  can easily be applied to  other instruments.  Or better,  in  Schenker's  own own words  in The Masterwork   in Music,  Music, vol.1,  vol.1, p. 48: Whether written for organ, clavier or violin, music i  iss above al  alll music (when it is good)  and all instrumental peculiarities  are through its common characteristics  far more unified than they are separated  by variations in the constructions of the tool. And should  we wish to

contemplate an "ideal instrument" that i  in n a sense underlies  all actual ones, it would have to be the human voice,  which,  as the most nat diminution iminutionss an  and d voice-leading prolongations ural artistic tool, fills all d

with its soul, with the laws of its performance, however they are developed  and to  whatever  instrument  they  are applied.  . . . That is  of music as well. confirmed  by the history of

Even though  the  book  on  performance never took shape under Schenker's  hands, we have bee been n somewhat compensated by the sections on performance he added to h his is analyses. Outstanding examples examples

 

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Editor's Introdu ction

of   this a  are re Beethoven, Sonata o  op. p. 5 7 (Tonw ill ille, e, vol.  1 , 1924); Brahms,  Theme b  byy Handel,  op. 24 (Tonw ill Variations   o n a Theme ille, e, vol. 8/9,  1924); Moz ar t,  Symphony  in G   Minor,  K. 550  (The M asterwork asterwork  in   Music, vol.2).   The fingerings in Schenker's edition of the complete Beethoven  piano sonatas  alone represent  an  advanced  school  of  pernot  "explained,"  but they the player comformance;  they are they are not  "explained,"  but  they lead  lead  the player pellingly pellin gly iin n the right d dire irecti ction—as on—as C Carl arl Scha Schachter chter has con convinc vincing ingly ly demonstrated   in his introduction  to the  English edition. Furtherare   virtually inexhaustible riches contained  in Schenmore, there  there  are contained  in Schenker's  ow own n  music library (Oster Collection [OC]  and  Oswald Jonas the form of  of the  the  most detailed reMemorial Collection [OJMC]) in [OJMC]) in the form detailed remarks regarding performance, which  he  entered into  the  scores. William Rothstein's extens extensive ive study "Hein "Heinrich rich Schenker as an InterInterpreter o f  Beetho Beethoven's ven's P Piano iano Sonata Sonatas" s" affords u s a tantalizing glimp glimpse. se. A n d   last but not least, the Lesson Books should be mentioned, in which Schenker gives examples of the principles of good performance  in  relation to  unsuccessful ful achievemen achievements ts of in relation  to the  successful  or or unsuccess  of his students (OC, fil  files es 3, 16, 30, 38). Of particular interest are Schenker's remarks on musical  performance by artists of his own time. They can be found in the music reviews he published in various periodicals periodi cals between 1891 1891 and 190 1901, 1, collected by  Hellmuth Federhofer in Heinric  Heinrichh Schenker a ls Essayist u n d Kritiker.  Even more revealing ar revealing are  diary ry entries that follo followe wed d concerts e dia Schenker  had  attended  or  radio broadcasts he had  heard. Oswald Jonas, who own owned ed the diaries (no (now wp par artt of OJM JMC C), gav gave e severa severall excerpts from these  as far back as  1964 in his paper "Heinrich Schenker und grosse grosse Interpreten." Furthe Furtherr material can be found in Federhofer's  biography of Schenker. Of course we see in all these testimonials the high demands  and absolute standards w  we e have come  to expect  of Schenker.  Bu  will be surprised  by how many artist artistss Butt some won his approval and, often,   his enthusiastic praise. It  w  was as Schenker's  Schenker's unwavering conviction that only proper understanding of the content  of the musical work  of art could lead to its true execution. So it was only logical that, with the continuing development of his "theory of organic unity," performance demands also  took  on new dimensions. For this interaction of  theory  and practice it is noteworthy that  a number  o f  notes can be  found i  inn B that were originally clearly intended for what was later to become Performance— Free   Composition  b u t  then w were ere releg relegated ated  to  to  The Art  o f  Performance—  b e concluded from  th e alteration of the heading in a t  least this must be

 

Editor's Introduction  

some annotations. Let annotations. Let me quote one of these that with one stroke clearly illuminates Schenker's intentions: What is practical  in this book [i.e., Free Composition] lies less in th the e education  to genius, which  is anyhow impossible, than  in instructing composers in need of assistance to attain the means of extending the content; most  decisively,  however, it may serve the art of performance: here  the book may point the way to those absolute solutions that result compellingly from the unity of  synthe synthesis. sis. Thus par-

ticularly the art of performance, which up to now  everyone might ing to his personal conception, can here soli solidly dly find practice according practice accord its own own ground ground;; for one who can correctly re read ad [i.e., [i.e., understand understand]] a masterwork can surely summon the reproductive means of bringing it to  life. This part, then, can absolutely be taught and learned—

whereas instruction in progressing from ba  backgroun ckground d to  foreground, to diminutions in the foreground, must cease at the limits of talent.

Schenker does his utmost to guide the  interpreter. I  In n  The Master vol.  1, we rea read d on p. 37 how he imagines this—a  this—att leas leastt work in Music, vol. concerning dynamics: In my forthcomi f orthcoming ng treatise, "Th "The e Art of Performance," it wil willl be ssysystematically shown for the first time that dynamics, like voice-leading and diminution, d iminution, a are re organize organized d according to structural structur al leve levels, ls, genealoglevel el of voice-leading, whether background ically as it were. For each lev or foreground, and for each level of diminution, there is a corresponding dynamic level of the first order, second order, and so forth. Foregroun reground d Gra Graph, ph, these various le leve vels ls are sho shown wn separately: In the Fo the primary dynamic shading, which belongs to the first level of voice-leading and diminution is indicated, while the inner shadings, those that apply to diminutions of the third order that emerge only in the Foreground Gra Graph, ph, are gi given ven above the stave.

 an essay, "Schenker's Theory of  of Levels  and Musical Performance," In In an  Levels and  Musical  Performance," Charles Burkhart deals with this concept among others. One has to  Schenker silently agree with his feeling  that Schenker  silently gave up the idea at some

stage. However it may be, the implications of these and other theoretical insights from Schenker's later period are not  apparent in  The Art of   Performance,  if for no  other reason than that  the  greatest part greatest part of the material stems from  a time before  their formulation. Also in B there are only a handful  of examples influenced  by these insights, and

 

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Editor's  Introduction

the explanations given along with them  are so sparse tha that, t, for a thorough understanding, a commentary would be required that would by far exceed the framework of  this volum volume. e. Therefore, Theref ore, tthese hese examples have not been included herewith. At  this  point  I would like to commemorate the man whose name has been mentioned mentioned repeatedly a and nd without without whom this publication would hardly have come about: O  Oswald swald Jonas Jonas.. Only  a few months  after  Schenker's deat death, h, Mrs. Mrs. Schenker all ow owed ed Jonas to inspect  his teacher's  Nachlass. Jonas immediately recognized the exthe  material  material  f o r  The Art of  Performance. traordinary  significance  of the  B u t   only  after  the hiatus due to the upheaval  before  and during World  War II,  II,  after  after  his  emigration  and the gradual rebuilding  of his life, could he begin the extremely laborious task of deciphering and interpreting Schenker's notes. Bringing the  results of  these efforts  (C and D of  "Sources an  and d Editoria  Editoriall P Procedure") rocedure") into a shape appropriate for publication was a task to  whichJonas dedica dedicated ted him himself self with my assista assistance nce during his Europea  European n visi visits ts in the  1950s. Th  The e manuscript w  we e produc produced ed jointly, at tha thatt time in the fform orm of a "le "lexic xicon on," ,"

 roundabout bout way, with Schenker Schenker's 's old publisher, finally  landed, in a rounda finally landed, Universal Edition Vienna; it the  then n took Unive Universal rsal Edition a quarter of a century—not to publish it to  give up the  idea  and chose  a Although   I decided Although  decided   to  give up the  idea  of a lexicon  lexicon   and  chose a basically  different  fo r m at for the current publication, nevertheless I am  deeply indebted  to  Oswald Oswald Jonas for his preliminary work.  To him,   friend  and  teacher,  to his  memory this book  is dedicated in him, gratitude. This book  book  is th  publication t  come out the e first major publication  to o come  out of  of  Heinrich Schenker's  Nachlass.  That  it can be  presented now, nearly ninety years after its conception and more tha than n six sixty ty years after the death of its author, gives hope that it yet untapped may stimulatetreasures. interest in further publi untapped cations out of the wealth the wealth of  of yet Wolfenbilttel  September   1997

 

H. E.

Sources  a n d  Editorial  Procedure

The  Schenker Nachlass [OC] The  Oster Collection, N  New ew York  York  Public Library. R.   Kosovsky,  T he  Oster  Collection: Papers  of H.  Schenker.  A Finding List. N List.  Library,   1990. (Hereafter:  Finding  List)  N ew   York  Public  Public Library,

[OJMC]   Th The e  Oswald Jonas Memorial emoria l C Collection, ollection, Rivera  Rivera  Library, University of University  of  California  at Riverside. R .  Lang and  J . Kunselman, H .  Schenker, O.Jonas, M .  Violin: A  Checklist   of Manuscripts and  Other Papers  in th thee Oswald Jonas M emorial Collection.  University  University  o f  California Press, 1994. (Hereafter:  Checklist)

aterials ls Source Materia Source M A .   V o m   Vortrag M S   in Jeanette Schen Schenker's ker's handwriting,  with additions by Heinrich Schenker: 84 pp., numbered 11-86 86  (3 pp. are numbered twice; 1 p. was added).

O J MC   box 18, folder  1 0. Checklist, p. 51.

 

xviii  

Sources  and Editorial  Procedure

H .  Schenker, entries i inn his journal.  journal. OJMC  OJMC boxes  boxes 1-4 1-4..  Checklist, pp. 3-5 Relevant Quotations: 1 July 1911 1911.. Initial work on the essay "Kunst des Vo Vortrags." rtrags." 13  July 191 1911. 1. Except  for a few   notes, organized "Kunst  des de s Vortrags" for the first time (for th e present ) 29  July 1911 1911.. Dictated Dicta ted "Kunst de dess Vo Vortrags" rtrags" to the end. 1913. 3. Checked through the monograph on perf performanc ormance e 7  July 191 and improved improved organization . . .

B .  Fragmente  Fragmente   u n d  Notizen  (Fragments  a n d  Notes) A ll  written by Heinrich  and (from  (from dictation)  dictation) by Jea  Jeanett nette e Schen Schenker. ker. Some dated, other material in used envelopes o  orr between pages of periodicals, thereby allowing their time  of  origin or  organization to be  inferred: 1914-32, most  of the  notes probably 1926-29. OJMC  box 21, folders  7-21.  Checklist,  p p.   64-65.

C .  Schenker Vortrag.  Erster  Entwurf  u n d  Erganzungen (First  d r a f t  and an d  supplement).  Typescript  by  O.Jonas. First Draft:  examples   from  Draft:   Copy  o f A  with insertions  o f text  a n d examples B;  additional examples and comments by Jonas. Pagination  l-63a.

Supplement: Material from  B with additio additional nal material material   by Jonas. by Jonas. Pagination 1-45. H. Esser. Copy Copy in OC file 1 13/ 3/5. 5. Fin Finding ding List, p  pp. p. 45-46—ther 45-4 6—there e mi misstakenly attributed  to Ernst Oster.

D .  Schenker Vortrag. Zweiter Entwurf  u n d Erganzungen (Second   draft  a n d supplement). Typescript by O. Jonas. Co Copy py o f material   from  B. Paginat material Pagination ion 1-38. 1-38. OJMC  box 57, fi file le 3. C hecklis hecklist, t, p.  161. Copy in OC , fil filee 13/5. Finding  Finding List,  p. 4—there mistakenly attributed to E. Oster.

 

Sources  and Editorial  Procedure 

History of the Materials Jeanette e Schen Schenker ker A  and B  B were looked through and put in order in order by  by  Jeanett and an d  Oswald Oswald Jonas  on  October  18, 1935. All of this material is mentioned   as N No. o. 13 in the  Register  of  Heinrich Schenker's  Nachlass (copies  in  O J M C   box 35, file 2,  2,  Checklist,  Checklist,  p. 96, and in OC,  OC,  Finding  vi), which w which was  compiled on  November  7 , 1935; together with List, p. vi), as compiled  on November the  major  part of the  Nachlass  it was handed to Ernst Oster by Jeanette Schenker in 1938 and taken by him to New   York  when he immigrated there during  the same year. After   World  War II, Jonas received all the  material  from   Oster purpose  of  editing  and publishing  it. Jonas's task was f or   the the   purpose  of  editing  and   publishing  it. Jonas's   first  first  task was casually asually the  arduous one of deciphering  and interpreting  the  notes c scribbled on  hundreds   of  slips off paper. Next came the came the   preparation  on hundreds of  slips o of  a kind of  fair  copy: C and D. This served as a basis for the  manuscript   prepared for publication  that Jonas produced  together with script during  hi 1955 to   1958.  1958. In view  of the me   during  me hiss European visits  from   1955 to In   view  fragmentary  nat nature ure of the materia material, l, h he e decided on the the form of a lex lex-icon  for this: ordering  it by key  words alphabetically (copy  of the  p.  46 46—the —there re mis mistaktakM S  made by me in OC file 13/8, Finding List, p. enly attributed to Ernst Oster). Oster participated in the project at a distance   by correspondence,  giving  comments and corrections as distance  providing oviding furth fur ther er music musical al examples, examples, and so  forth. well as pr In  1958 a 1958 a private  private publisher conne connected cted   to a German  German   art  academy art academy wanted  to print the work; however, the difficulty  of reproducing the music mu sical al example exampless defea defeated ted the attempt attempt.. La Later ter Jonas gav gave e the MS to Universal Edition in Vienna, Schenker's old publisher. But not until  did d Universal Edition decide  to  publish after  Jonas's death  in  1978 di the work. On the advice of Jonas's stepdaughter and heir, Irene Schr Schreie eier r Scott, approached ched me with the request to revise the MS. Universal Edition approa Thinking about the material agai  again— n— after more than two decades  began to  have doubts about  about  the  usefulness of — I  began  to have the usefulness  of the  the  lexicon  fo r m . These  doubts intensified, leading to the decision to make a  fundamentally   different  mentally different  arra arrangement ngement of the material. materia l. This This new approach resulting  MS were accepted accepted   by  Universal Edition; it Edition; it is the and the  the  resulting  by Universal work at hand. Why nonetheless, it was not  published subsequently by Universal E Edition dition need not be dealt with in the present context.

 

xix

xx 

Sources  and Editorial  Procedure

Editorial Procedure T h e   fact that  the th e  material f  for or   The Art  o f  Performance  consists of  o f  fragments cannot  and should not be hidden.  No segment may be considered  a s a finished literary product; this  is true even for the  more extensive   chapters  in A. In  fact,  A was dictated  b y  Schenker  to his extensive future   wife  in the  short time  of  only  one month;  it  shows  all the  o f  such speed. Furthermore,  A  conadvantages  a n d  disadvantages of tains very very few pract practica icall examples, and of these only tw two o are written out in notation. For the remainder, Schenker contents himself with specific places or works in general. mere references to  to  specific places B,  even more than  A , gives  an   unfinished  impression, consisting of  hundreds  o f small scraps of paper  (Zettel)  o n which which Schenker jotjot ted te d  down h is ideas as  a s fast  a s the  they y occurred  to  h im—o ften only a few note heads with  one one  single word  or  musical  term  as comment  or casually tossed-awayunfinished sentences—trains of thought several  casually several merely hinted at by key words. On Only ly ra rarel rely y is an idea pu putt into broader con context; text; mo moreov reover, er, we find repetitions, overlaps overlaps,, co corrections, rrections, and such in abundance. T he   current version  of of   The Art of  Performance  is  based  on the slightly modified order and structure of the chapters in A; the material  from  B was  incorporated  a n d  integrated  into  th e  text  o f A where appropriate.  A s a basis  I used  n o t  only Schenker's originals but  also and most particularly the extensive preparatory work done by Jonas in C and D. It  is obvious  that  stylistic problems must occur under these circumstances. Since Schenker would not have considered publishing A   or B without  a thorough revision,  revision,   it would it would have been extraordinarily pedantic to present the sources literally in every detail. I rather   felt  the the need of handling e materialusable with  aedition. with   certainMay amount of freedom in need  order  of to handling th produce  the a practical, the reader, howe however ver,, be assured that the text in in front  front   of him has as much o f   Schenker's original wording  a s possible  and as few  additions  as necessary.   Nowhere is an attempt made to "correct" or "improve on" Schenker—not even in the frequently rather incomplete formulations of mulations very few or  of B. In general, In general, those chapters that contain very few no   examples  at all (1, 2, 4, 6, 11, 12) present Schenker's text  in its purest  form;  th thee  chapters  with  many examples  (3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10) needed  th the e greatest amount  of editorial revision. The small number of notes on the text serve the purpose of giving the reader essential information.  There are no notes pro-

 

Sources  and  Editorial Procedure 

vided in order to show which editorial decisions were made at any nott  only would  the  size  of the  book have given point; otherwise  no but  also  the  very "disorder" that  the  main increased substantially,  substantially, but  also  the  that  the  text attempts to remove would have returned to the bottoms of the pages. Two Tw o chapters contained  the  Technique contained  in A were omitted:  omitted:  "On the  of   th the e  Piano  in Particular" (originally chapter  4) and "On the DeThe  appendixes generacy  of the  Virtuoso" (originally chapter 12). The present summaries of both; their unabridged publication is planned in a different  different   context. chapter  "On does  not exist in A. Schenker's The Th e  chapter  "On  Practicing" does  not  exist in A. Schenker's di diverse statements  on that subject, which  are collected in B, are combined  an and d presented here  as chapter 12.  12. Furthermore,   I  decided—not lightly—to omit those  few examples  from   B  that could only  be  understood through  a  thorough knowledge  of  Schenker's later theories  as  they  are  formulated in Free C omposition. omposition. Their inclusion  is deemed inapprop inappropriate riate in the  more practical context of this work.

 

xxi

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Plates

 

These are some examples of the fragments and notes (see "Source  Notizen   [Fragments  an Materials   B , Fragmente  u n d Notizen andd Notes]")  on are based.  of the which parts of parts of this  this book  book  are  based. Notice that on that on most  most of scraps   o f paper Schenker indicates that  th e remark  is intended  f o r The Art of  Performance  (Vortrag  or  Vtg.)-

Plate  1   Toy To y fragment:  This clearly sh show owss Schenker Schenker's 's attempt attempt  to  formulate  a title. (See Editor's Introduction, p.  p . xii.) Lower  fragment: This concerns c oncerns Beethoven Beethoven's 's use of pedal in  Sonata o p .  3 1 , no  no.. 2,1. Se Seee  chapter 3, p. 6 p. 688 . xxiv

 

Plate  2  Upper right:  right: This  This  fragment  shows Example 3.5 and the remarks that immediately precede it. See chapter 3.  3 . Upper  left:   This fragment  (Example 3.9  3 .9)) sho shows ws more rema remarks rks on the peda pedal. l. Lower right: This  fragment shows  th e source  f o r Example 3 .8  that illustrates th  the e  "painting gestures" described in chapter 3,  A. Piano  Piano Singing Sing ing." ." Apparently written on a page-proof fra fragment. gment.

XXV

 

Plate 3  Top: The  source  for Example 9.2. B ot ottom: tom: Remarks  Remarks  on

Rahmenanschlag  that clearly show Example 8.20. xxvi

 

Plate 4   Upper fragment:  This sshow howss several independent notes  o n the back o  off a large envelope. On the bottom the source for Exam S ee  chapter  3 , Lower ragment:  In   Mrs. Schenker's ples 3.20 and  3.21. See handwriting, this shows "legato beigrossen Spriingen"  (legato in the  5 . case   o f large leaps),  et cetera.  S ee  chapter 5. case

xxvii

 

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T H E A R T O F  P E R F O R M A N C E

 

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ON E

Musical   Composition  a n d  Performance

B A S I C A L L Y ,   A  C O M P O S I T I O N  

does  n ot  require  a  performance  in order   to   exist. exist. Ju st  as an imagine  imaginedd sound appears real in the mind, the th e  reading of  o f a score is sufficient  to prove th  thee  existence of the composition.   T h e  me chanical realizati realization on of the work  of art can thus  b e considered  superfluous. place, o n e m ust reali realize ze that thereby Once  a performance  does take place, n e w   elements  a re  added  to a complet  completee w ork   o f  art:  th e  nature  o f the th e  instrument that is  being played; properties of the hall, th thee room, the audience; the mood of the pe rform er, technique, et cetera. N ow if   the th e  composition  is to be inviolate, kept  as it was prior to the performance,   it must not be compromised by these elements (which after  all are entirely foreign to   it).  In  other words: those properties must not be  given priority. Y et how   casually casually w il illl many man y  an  artist sacrifice  the th e  work   of art—which  never should  b e  sacrificed —to  th thee the audience, t  too his fingers H e  w ould to  imm ers hall,  to the audience, ould  d o better  better   to imm ersee himself   in the w or orkk  o  off  art, maintaini maintaining ng its  it s conceptual integrity integrity during the   performance. B u t  distorting  th e  composition  in   performance  obviously is easier than fulfilling  th thee very stringent conditions for fo r  an  app ropriate rrendition. endition. thee T o  master these  difficulties,  a superficial acquaintance w ith  th work   of art is insufficient.  What  is essential  is a  thorough knowledge of all la  law w s o  off composition.  Having enabled  the the composer  to create,  these laws,  laws, in a different  w ay, w il illl enable the perf orm er to recreate   th e  comp osition. osition. Inevitably Inevitably o n e  concludes that   a performer

 

 

4 

The Art of  Performance

who truly re-creates is indeed close to the creator. There  is thus no who  in my  claim that it is th the e great masters of composition  who who paradox in paradox must  be  considered  the  best performers We may be  sure that Chopin's renditions were better than Tausig's, and Beethoven's than Biilow's. Strange as it may seem, the better performer is not necessarily  the one who has made piano playing his profession  and earns h is  livelihood  livelihood   from it; from it; it may rather be the one who appears to be 1

doing itt "b doing i  "by y th  the e w ay. ay."" T o  the  same extent that  that  it surely is not  calling to in the same it   surely is not  everyone's calling to tensify   his involvem tensify  involvement ent with art to such a degree that he is willing to stand in the composer's while re-"creating" in the  the composer's shadow while re-"creating" the best sense of the word, to  that same extent, I claim, performa perf ormances nces hav have e al alway wayss taken a shape that  has nothing  to do with  a true reproduction. B  Beecause   what  ought  to be known in order to perform a sonata by  iss not not  known, the musical world found Beethoven i Beethoven world found it easy to assign a role to reproduction  in music that is in appalling contrast to its real origins. Undoubtedly, a   misconception  of the  significance  o f  performance   in music and uncertainty about how to  guarantee  a true  proliferation  led to decline rendition have  that  of our art. of performan perf ormances ces wh which ich is one of   the the  causes  of the One might object that only a connoisseur requires a perfect performance  and that for  f or th the e audience at large an inferior one might do. I s  saa y "No ," f  foo r precisely th  thee general public is most i  inn need of an auand perceptive in order  to be led to the work; the work;   the thentic   and thentic  perceptive rendition  rendition  in  order to knowledgeable listener can amply supplement shortcomings of the performer   through his own imagination. The general public will  faith; it simply accept a composition  on on faith;  it is easier to  doubt the quality  of the composition than to suppose that the performer might have totally misrepresented it.

 

TW O

Mode of  Notation  and Performance

W H A T   M U S T   B E  R E G A R D E D   as the  most  fateful  error  in the  per-

formance  of a m usical w ork  of art is the  general view view  on the meanhich is  decreed in the ing of a  composer's mod e  of  notation. That w hich notation is considered considered the unalter un alterable able w il illl of the composer, to be interpreted literally. Already  t  thh e  mere  fact  that  o u r  notation hardly  more than represents more represents  than neumes should lead the performer  to  search for   the behind  the largely beth e  meaning behind th e  symbols. This  is neglected, largely  b e of the  difficulty  o f understanding th  thee  composer's intentions. cause of cause If   o n e  were in the happy position  o f  reaching this goal, however, one w ould realize that the author's mo de of no tation does not indiindicate  h is directions for the  performance but, in a far more profo und sense,  represents th e effect  h e w ishes ishes t  too  attain. These  are two   sepa1

rate  things. L et  us  suppose the th e  composer w ri rites tes a sequence of  half notes with marcato signs. This does not at all show  the way the the sequence should b e  played b u t indicates th  thee  effect  th e composer  desires—leaving it up to the performer to find the means. In this particu particular lar case case the pianist w ould have to   sacrifice adhering precisely to the  printed text, namely holding  th  t h e half notes their full value; for the sake of a marcato   effect  h e m ust reduce reduce  the th e length  o f each note, precisely in oralone one can deder to  produce  th e  ma rcato. From this example alone the mode of  notation  can be  understood only  from  the the duce   that  the  literal al interp retation robs  o n e point  o f view  of the  desired effect.  A  liter o f  the very means leading to that  effect. 5

 

6 

The Art of  Performance

The effect  certainly must The  be completely  at one with t  the he execution. must be  completely at  execution. Whatever  one has done—added to or taken away from the  written note values—the final result, returning  to our  example, must give the impression of actual half notes. Herein lies the true secret of the art of performance: to find those peculiar ways of dissembling through which—via through  the detour of the effect—the the effect—the mode  mode of notation  which—via the is realized. is  realized.

In  what follows we shall see that such ways exist; to discuss them all,   however, would  be impossible. Anyone  who who  comes  to understand the secrets secrets of the mode of notat notation ion and of those as yet unrecognized means of dissembling, at last will also realize that our great masters were as inspired in their notation as they were in the actual composing.  I should almost like to say that there  is more to be admired in the notation notati on than iin n the comp compositio osition n  itself. What a pity that many editors misunderstand this, and simply do away with the composer's poser 's mode of notation Substi Substituting tuting an entirely  different  one one clearly leads to an entirely different entirely different   result. Just how  far-reaching  a relatively harmless (one m might ight supp suppose) ose) change in the mode of notation is can be seen in the general use of the double bar in newer editions. Th  The e manuscripts of the great masters up to Chopin do not show double bars before  a chang change e of key; the masters'  writing  continued without break,  and the  changed signature came after a single bar line. The typesetters' irritating custom of substituting  a double  bar for a single  bar has the result that the eye receives  the impressio impression n of a new beg beginn inning ing.. Inev Inevitably itably the perf performa ormance nce first movement must suffer  from this. from this. (The double bar in m  m.. 84 of the first of   Beethoven's Sonata fo  forr Piano  an andd Cello  op. op . 102, no. 2, is an an exam example:  this measure  is interpre an d played as if if it were  the th e  beginning  i nterpreted ted  and the e recapitulation, which actually only occurs si  six x measures later.) of   th One can already see from this example how urgent the need for an authentic text is: a text based on manuscripts and first editions, read not on only ly in a philolog philologically ically diplomaticall diplomatically y accurate manner but also musically. By the  exact realization of the masters' clearly felt  an d considered mode of notation one can then  achieve a plasticity of e piece  to   appear bodily, in light performance  that virtually allows th allows the  piece to bodily,  in light and shade. nott In  a final sense, how however, ever, all perf performanc ormance e com comes es from  from within,  within,  no from the outside.  The pieces breathe through their  own own lungs; they carry  their own bloodstream—even w  without ithout bein being g labeled with concepts  a n d names,  a s la  laymen ymen would would  like,  w h o demand: "Where is it written?"

 

THR

T h e   Technique  o f  Playing  t h e  Piano

A T   A L L T I M E S   T H E  N A T U R E   of the piano, more than  a n y  other  in -

strument such as violin or voice, has been misunderstood. The causes  of this misunderstanding are the f  following ollowing:: Inadeq dequate uate kno knowle wledge dge  of the  laws of  composition  by pi1.   Ina anists, who are thereby prevented from prevented from   expressing the composition's true content. 2.  2.   Th The e  nature  of  writing  for the  piano [i.e., multivoiced], which whic h ind indeed eed gi gives ves pianists a hard  harder er ta task sk tha than n either violinviolinists  or singers encounter in their single-voice writing. One has to consider that piano texture frequently includes orchestral elements; to master its melodic and harmonic demands far  are e necessary than for the purely horizontal line of a vimore skills ar olin or voice part. True understanding of the piano would h  have ave dema demanded nded of the player  that he remain in th the e proximity of string instruments and the voice  as well as of the  orchestra. T  The he  difficulty  inherent  in this approach, however, caused pianists t pianists to  make up o make  up for what for what they lacked, compensating for an inability by a manner of playing that wa  wass presented a  ass a new, special special piano style. The catchphrase ca tchphrase "pianistic  music"  "pianistic music" was invente  invented d to indicate an entire, sepa separat rate e regio region n of mus music ic litera litera-ture. There followed the development of a special "pianistic "pianistic tec techh which carefully avoided anything that mig might ht turn tu rn the piano nique," which nique,"  carefully   avoided into  a s expressive a n instrument as the violin or the voice. P recisel reciselyy

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The Art of  Performance

here the fundamental difference fundamental difference between  between the great masters of composition on the one hand and the pure "virtuosos" on the other became apparent: the for former mer used a piano techn technique ique that was identical 1 to all  all other iinstr nstruments uments'' regarding expres expressivene siveness. ss. In   th e  following  I shall  describe various technical means whose u s e  produces  effects  as w e know them  from  singer  a n d  instrumentalist  as  well  as  from orchestral sound.

Piano Singing [This   term, coined    coined  by  Schenker,  refers  to applying  principles  of the voice by Schenker, the voice   a n d string instruments to the piano.]

the  stroking  air  through up-and-down  moPiano singing is the  stroking  of the air  up-and-down  motions of the h a n d — a s the bow strokes the string: pressure  4 —   T   reflex. EXECUTION:

1 .   Depress key with  pressure. The key is not to be touched thought thou ghtlessly; lessly; the hand must drop appropriately as required b y  the "light-point."  refers to "light-point." [By this te term, rm, Schenker Schenker refers  to notes that require spe special cial e emphas mphasis. is. For a detailed explanation  se e chapter  8 ,  "Dynamics," particularly sections "Freely Executed Shadings within piano  piano   a n d forte,"  a n d "Rhetorical A ccents."] 2.   Short reflex 3.11 a Short reflex (Examples  (Examples 3.  ann d 3.2) Longer  reflex—release  gradually (Exam (Example ple3.3).

A specifi specificc  detail demands  a single thrusting of the hand. This must be prepared  prepared  from the from the outset, like bow strokes on strings and breathing in playing wind instruments; it must not be  attempted during a passage while moving,  from  tone to tone as it w were. ere. The hand sense sensess in  advance, parallel to the composer's thinking thinking ahead; it forms its ges ges tures accordingly. Thus  the meaning  of the  phrase determines  the position and motion of the hands (Example 3.4). The sixteenths of m. 55 are not to be attacked in the last instant but prepared in advance. Compare also Example 10.1: here the violinist continues th bow stroke through the air. But the pianist pianist,, too, can produce this effect:   h e  lifts  h is  hand  a n d lets it fly to the  eighth note, continuing a single impulse.

 

T he   Technique  o f  Playing  th thee  Piano 

Example 3.1 Beethoven, Sonata op. 53,1, mm. 3-4

Example 3.2  Ch Chopin, opin, Waltz op. 64, no.2, m.  33ff.

Example 3.3   Beethoven, Sonata op. Example 3.3 Sonata op. 13, II, mm mm..  66-67

Example 3.4 3 .4 Chopin, Berceuse op. 57, mm.  54-55

The  hand  may not  lie; it  must conform  to the  meaning  of the voice-leading.   It  voice-leading. lies  if in  Example  3.5  this  is violated  by It  lies  in  Example  3.5  this  is   violated  by   playing a 2 -a 1; the connection must  be f|2  and c|2. Certain painting gestures also belong among  the necessary hand motions—now to the right,  now to the  l ef t —i n  n  order  to separate motive mo tivess (Examples 3.6, 3 3.7, .7,  a n d 3.8).

 

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The Art of   Performance

Exam pl plee 3.5   Mozart, Sonata K. 331,1, Theme,  m m .  17-18 (see Plate 2)

Example 3.6   Chopin, Mazurka op. 30, no. no. 1, mm. mm.   29-32

Example  3 . 7  Chopin, Mazurka op. 24, no. 2, mm .  57-60

Example 3.8   Brahms, Waltz op. 39, no. 3, mm. 1-6 (see Plate 2  2))

Proximity of the Piano to the Orchestra Pedal pecial ial No matter how much  has been written and taught about this sspec mechanism of the piano, its true nature has remained concealed. underst and it by comparing  the piano with t One can best understand  the he orchestra. Since the piano cannot provide all sustaining voices as the orchestra can, pedal gives it the possibility  of  compensating  for these missing parts.  The damper pedal unshackles  the  overtones, whose radiance substitutes for the orchestra's sustaining voices. APPLICATION:

an d above additions  and an d gaps, 1.   B y connection  of  chords over  and thanks to the resonance, a hiatus is avoided (Examples 3.9 a n d  3.10). 2.  Separation of  chords b y releasing th e pedal creates crea tes shadows, (Example 3.11). define entities (Example 3.11). thereby  helping to   define entities

 

T he   Technique o f  Playing  th e Piano 

Sonata op. Plate 2) Example 3.9  3.9  Beethoven, Sonata o p. 13,1, mm  mm..  49-50 (see Plate 

Waltz z op. 42, mm.  Example 3.10  Chopin, Walt mm.  221-29

11 Brahms, Bra hms, Inter Intermezzo mezzo op. 1 117 17,, no no.. 1, mm mm.. 1-2 1-2,,  m. 21 Example 3.11 Example 3.

3.  Beethoven assigns  assigns a particularly  difficult  role to role to the pedal the pedal in  in his Sonata S onata op. 31, n no. o. 2,1, m  mm. m.  143-48 and 153-59: one sing;le pedal peda l (poetically exceeding the limits of the instrument), instr ument),  intimation   of a voice,  voice, a  message from  above, in above, in a dissoth the e intimation  a message a disso2 nant register, (see  (see P Plate late  2.) 2. )  Se  See e also Examples 3.12 an  and d 3.13, where only pedal can effect the coupling of identical notes in the same register over some distance. 4 .  Because  of the  pedal's role  o f  substituting  for the  filling voices  in  orchestral texture,  it is rather risky  to use it too

 a ccompanying anying woodwinds: this would double the much in accomp sustaining voices. Here the pianist is w  well-ad ell-advised vised to use the pedal sparingly. String instruments, however, less equipped 3 for sustaining than for  diminution,   are more compatible with th  the e piano's pedal  effect. Hand   Pedal often  is identical  to that  of  orchestral The path  of the diminutions  often  The sustaining  voices. It is peculiar to the pia  piano no that it can let the diminutions prevail while t while the orchestrall characteristics recede into into the he  orchestra  the back-

gr ound.  Of course this has the  drawback that a player without  imag-

 

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The Art of  P e r f o r m a n c e

12

Example 3.12 Beethove Beethoven, n, Sonata op. 31, 3 1, no no..  2, II,  II , mm mm..  98-103

Example 3.13 Haydn, Sonata H Hob. ob. XVI:  52, II, m mm. m.  51-54

 to find ways find ways  of bringing of bringing out  out the hidden the hidden riches. ination will be will be unable  unable to  Example 3.14a,  3.14a, a complete setting might look like ExIn  the  case of Example ample 3.14b, perhaps played by horns and a nd bassoons. The The pianist must let this implied realization sound through the figure of the two bars. Only by holding the keys down, down, thus letting the cho chords rds be fo formed rmed,, is this possi possible. ble. I su  suggest ggest calling th this is manner ma nner of  of playing, which produces a  pedal effect  through  the hand alone, hand pedal. It is a f orm ,  a substitute  for legatissimo,  a subtle augmentation  of  sound; it is not an and  3.16.) Compare Beethoven obbligato voice (See Exa Examples mples 3.15 and  Sonata op.  106, I, mm.  47-63: the  tones  are sustained by means  of hand pedal, as in a Fren  French-horn ch-horn setting (Example 3.17).

AirPokZ[Luftpedal] Woodwinds, singers singers,, and strings allow their brea breath th or bow strokes to fade  out when not  specifically heeding a composer's direction to end a  sound abruptly. This natural fading ou fading outt  continues through the air in space, regardless of meter or rhythm. The tone, as it were, "overflows" the limit of the actual note value. The notation is not thereby disregarded; it, too, is preserved preserved.. Th This is phenomenon, quite natura nat urall to singers an  and d woodwind  and string players, is  is still entirely unknown to the pianist. p ianist. The p poss ossibili ibility ty of shadin shading g the tone by mea means ns of ha hand nd movements that produce this kind   o f  fading  out—C.  P. E.  Bach  A rt  of Playing Keyboard Instruments  [hereafter  Essay], (Essay,   on the True Art

 

T he   Technique  o f  Playing  th e Piano

13

Example 3.14 Chopin, Chopin, N Noct octurne urne op op.. 15, no no.. 2, mm mm.. 1-2

Example 3.15 Chopin, Sonata op. 5 58, 8, III, II I, mm mm.. 1-2

Example   3.16 Chopin, Nocturne Nocturne   op. 27, no no.. 2, m. 1

Example 3.17 Beethoven, Sonata op.  106,1, mm  mm..  47-48ff.

chap.  3, §18) calls it "Ziehen" [slurring]—is foreign to him. Whether  slow   or fast tempo,  tempo, it possible to one is playing is playing i  in na a slow  it is  is always possible  to let even let even shortest note—a thirty-second,  thirty-second, a away. The the   shortest note—a the  a sixty-fourth  sixty-fourth— — fade  away. The shortest possible touch  touch  is  sufficient  to  is  sufficient  to  produce this  effect.  One might call it air pedal. When earlier composers asked for greater intensity  o n passing tones  a n d  dissonances, when,  f o r instance, Beethoven hove n always insiste insisted d (according to Schindler) that tha t all neighboring

 

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The Art of  Performance

notes should be emphasized in this way, the basis for this was the rule  that  light  an and d  shadow  are  necessary  in  instrumental  music, comparable to the natural fading out of voice or woodwind instru Examples 3.18  a n d  3.19.) Compare also Haydn, Fantasia ment.(See Examples ment.(See in C  M ajor ajor,, Hob.  XVII:4, m. 192: "tenuto intanto, fi  finche nche non si sente  ill suono"—until  suono"—until the piu piu i  the sound has died out Dynamic Separation o  off  Individual Fingers

In  order to produce the character of polyphony it frequently is necessary to essary  to  have  have different  different   dynamics in different  fingers— fingers— especial especially ly 5 of th e   left hand and 1 and 5 of the  right—in this way, different way, different orches orchestral instruments are sug sugge gested sted (Examples 3.20 and and   3.21).  When voices move in sixths or thirds a special effect  occurs, much lik like e an instrumental con conversatio versation. n. Under  certain certa in circumstances, inner voic voices es sho should uld be brought  ou outt  i n Example 3.2 3.22; 2; o other therwis wise e  the th e instead of the melody, as for instance in interaction becomes incomprehensible.  beats should usually b usually be Basses  that occur  after  the the beats e played louder than the melody; the special attraction  of this technique will otherwise wis e go unnoticed unnoticed (Example 3.23). Orchestral thinking also influence the splitting of a single chord (Example 3.24). (Example 3.24). Octaves of oct octaves aves must be given given particular parti cular att attenenIn  this context, the playing of tion. The two fingers never should be played with the same strength; depending dependin g on the register register,, either 1 or 5 h has as to lead lead.. In Example 3 3.25 .25 octave is the leading one. In Example  Example 3.26,  3.26, on the  contrary, th the e higher octave is the leading one. In the contrary, the lower octave should always lead.

 the e bass moves  in octaves,  th the e result often is a certain or  or-When th chestral interaction of registers, as if the lower note were played by the basses and the higher higher one by the cello cellos. s. C Compare ompare Example3.27; in this case, t  the he lower voice should be brought out. Rendition  of the Bass

T h e   most  effective  contribution  to a beautiful performanc performance e is an apLacking  full propriately played bass; precisely  that  is rarely  heard.  Lacking  awareness   of the  harmonic  a n d contrapuntal relationships, the piawareness anist tends  to  neglect th  t h e  left  hand hand,, w which hich generally sh show owss these these ele ele-

 

Example 3.18 Beethoven, Sonata  Sonata  op. 27, n no. o.  1,1, mm  mm..  79-81 (for explanation of arrows, see p. 54)

Example 3.19  Beethove Beethoven, n, Sonat Sonata a op op.. 90, II, mm mm..  209-11

Example 3.20 Chopin, Prelude Prelude   op. 28, no. 6, mm.  (see Plate  Plate 4) mm. 1-2 1-2 (see

Example 3.21   Brahms, Variations on a Theme by Paganini, op. 35, Example 3.21 var.  VI, m mm. m. 1-2 (see Plate 4)

Example 3.22 Beethoven,  Eroica Variations, op. 35,  35,  " A quattro," mm..  1-2 mm 1-2

Example 3.23 Beethoven, Sonata  op. 57 , II, mm .  17-20ff.

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The Art of   Performance

Example 3.24 3. 24 Chopin, Ball Ballade ade o op. p. 23, mm.  8-10, similar to m. 22 l.h.

Example 3.25 Mozart, Sonata  K.  331,1, var. 3, m. 17

Example 3.26 Beethoven, Sonata op  op..  106, III, mm mm..  22-23

Example 3.27 Mozart, Sonata Sonata K.  K. 331, II, mm mm.. 1-2

ments most clearly in favor in favor of  of the right, which usually leads melodically.   Thereby precisely that element  is  omitted which brings  the cally. piano close to the orchestra. The performer must understand understand that the bass  of the piano should rec receive eive as varied a treat treatment ment of d dynamic ynamic nuances as the bass line  of the  orchestra, which  has to  follow its own specially described shadings. Conductors cannot  be spared the criticism that, like bad pianists, they tend  to to   favor  favor  the  high register over the  low. Thereby  they deprive themselves  of the  most grandiose effects—effects   brought about  b y a nuanced,  nuanced, carefully  carefully   shaped bass.

 

The Technique of Playing the  Piano

17

Example 3.28 Chopin, Etude op. 25, no. 1, m.  Iff.

For all these reasons the pianist would be well-advised to pay the greatest attention  to the  left  hand.  In this context,  I should like  to point out a unique example (Example 3.28). (Example 3.28).   When one studies the original notation of this piece one notices that Chopin writes both large-  and and   small-sized notes, reserving  the   large  not  only  reserving  the large  not only  for the melody but for individual bass notes as well. Looking more closely at the notation of the bass, one one sees that among several identical identical bass notes, only one is emphasized by the large size while the rest are small. This particular mode of notation—how of notation—how inspired,  inspired, and what a

pity that other composers did not not use it as  as well —shows clearly vareven the fundamental tones of the bass should be played with that ied nuances.  to pursue  the   question  M ay  this example stimulate the stimulate the pianist  pianist to  pursue the question  of shaping the bass line, thereby preventing the bad effect  of a monoto He e should n  not ot wait for the instant a cantabile line nously nou sly played bass. H  nothing othing special special in is  taken over by the  left  hand—to bring hand—to bring this out is n itself—but  even in those places where where the basses are only supporting  passing they should be should be shaped  shaped in or passing or  in the most the most  careful manner.

 

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FOUR

N o n   Legato

 too the pianist, E X P L A I N I N G   T H E N A T U R E   o F n  non on legato, particularly t is  no  nott  easy. An exam ple from the orchestral literature literature may enlighte enlightenn him.  H e may observe  h o w  B rahms han handles dles th  t h e  instrumentation  o f the th e   fugue  in the third movement of his G erman Requie Requiem: m:  the strings d o  no  n o t  play lega  legato, to, w hereas th  t h e  woodwinds,  in  ex ecuti ecuting ng  the th e same motives simultaneously,  play legato.  T h e com bination bination  o f these  tw o is  w hat ha t  I recommend  to pianists  as a model  for a non  legato  effect. That  which  th thee  strings imply, namely separate  b o w   strokes  (i.e., pressure) on  each note, m ust become part of the final  effect  as  much as  the  the legato of the woodw ind inds. s. In other w ords: without being executed  as  a s a full legato, each no te mu st nevertheless nevertheless ca rry th thee pressure of  its own weight.

Comparison to violin further that  material for in  It technique is  commonbrings is    th thee  violin's structive distinctions. distinctions.  knowledge that sound depends   on the  length  of the bow   strokes used.  The art of perform ing, of expressing expressing sound-ideas, sound-ideas, llie iess in alternating alternating long and short  b o w  strokes  and in using  an  abundance of   nuances. Th  T h e same holds true for the the  "bowing technique" of the pianist's pianist's hand . Pianists Pianists,, too,  can and should make use of the longer  and an d shorter "bows"  the th e violinist violi nist uses. The identity of the tw o tech niques is such tha t the pianist's technique includes the imitation of a suddenly   broken-off b o w  stroke.  T h e violinist  must assure utm ost precision precision  in  stopping the bow, as  keeping it in  contact with with  th thee  string longer longer w ould prolong the sound beyo nd the desired limit. Likew ise, in non legato the 19

 

20  

The Art of  Performance

to  define  define  the limit of the sound's duration. The pianist has strictly to  pianist has correct execution will be ensured by a sudden jolt that leads  from elbow. w. Lacking such a such a specific terthe key to the lower the lower arm  arm and the  the  elbo mination of the sound, the pianist will fail to give the composer an effect not withheld by either violinist or singer.  consider   th  history of  musical technique, it technique, it becomes  becomes clear If  we  we consider the e history  of musical that  no non n  legato must have been  all the  more prevalent  in  earlier epochs when phrases generally lacked synthesis; that  is, they were short and undifferentiated.  [Transla [Translator's tor's note: "synthe "synthesis" sis" is Schenker's term for his concept of  o f organic unity, i.e., th e idea o  off a work of art in which every part  is organically related, supported  b y a single  unifying background structure. See quote from quote from   O. Jonas in Editor's E ditor's Introduction, p. xii.] Larger motivic units tha thatt give give the opportunity for contrasting groups  groups  of  connected notes and notes and of separate ones did not of connected of separate ones did exist.  The contrapuntal treatment used in oldest times shows that nearly all notes merely servin serving g as con  contrapuntal trapuntal part partss had equal aesthetic significance  and  equal function. Only later, with increasingly and equal rich tonal content, did differentiation  of notes appear, here joined in groups, there separated. Eventually that true legato developed which guaranteed the unity of a group of notes by using a single breath or bow stroke. The increasing use of legato simultaneously with increasin increasing g con con-tent can be appreciated most clearly in Beethoven, whose contemporaries admired  hi hiss  legato playing above all. Neither  his way of composing nor his playing would have created the sensation it did had he not introduced to a high degree that especially beautiful legato which could not have been composed  or played heretofore. From this it can be concluded that  the  works  of the masters  who who  Beethoven, particularly those  of J. S. Bach,  a re more  ap preceded Beethoven, preceded propriately performed in non legato than in legato.

 

FIVE

Legato

I N   C O N T R A S T   TO NON  L E G A T O ,  legato always represents  a  specific

act o act  off will, aimed at connecting small an and d smallest units [i.e., groups of   notes].  C. P. E. Bach's choice  of   words  (Essay,  chap.  3,  §18) indicates this fact:  "schleifen," "ziehen" [to slur, to slide]—these expressions certainly indic indicate ate a specific  a specific intention. Pressure a  and nd legato must be willed; lack of pressure and non legato are largely appropriate where  th the e  demands  of  synthesis  and  diminution  do not require pressure and legato. Legato technique  is by far the  most  difficult  a n d  complicated manner  of playing for the  pianist. Just as the  violinist  is enabled  to connect several notes by a continuous bow stroke on one string, as the singer can connect several notes with one breath, similarly a

quiet hand position is the only one that gives the possibility of playn notes otes   in  succession so  that they—melting into one into one in ing g  several in succession  so that another,  as i t w er e— for m a chain  o f notes with  th e  same  effect  a s a the violin or  or in singing. in singing. legato group on group on the violin Held   Notes Even more than on a quiet hand, hand, legato depends on a special special technique, which Example 5. Example 5.11 will clarify.  T he  sequence o f notes  at (a) is 1 an independent phenomenon the term known  as an  known phenomenon   by the  term  "portamento." In  order to  attain th  the e desired exp ressi ression, on, the  pianist must continue 2 holding the first note first note even after  the th e  d \ >  h a s been played—best if ar21

 

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The Art of  Performance

 op.. 57,1, m . 3 Example  5 .1   Beethoven, Beethoven, Sonata op

ticulated as in (b). Keeping one finger down while another key has already been struck assures the  effect  of a slide most readily. This same technique  can also be used for a larger sequence  of notes re off dissonances. gardless o The Th e pianist thus has a device, device, heretof heretofore ore unrec unrecogni ognized, zed, for giving the piano similarity to the orchestra: by holding down a key even without the composer's indication, that tone is raised to the rank of a  true sustaining note,  as in  Example 5.2. At times the  composer in  in-specifically requiring held notes (Examples 5.3, (Examples 5.3, dicates this effect  b y  specifically requiring 5.4,   and 5.5). In such cases, it would be an error to assume that  the written-out sustaining voices mean  more  than just that; it would therefore  be  wrong   to be wrong to   emphasize them—just as it would it would   be inapbe inappropriate   for the  propriate instruments  to do so, were the  orchestral instruments  so, were   th the e  piece arranged f o r orchestra. B y  using  the th e holding-down technique for a series o  off notes, a new voice can be generated on the piano that exceeds the  character o  off a and d becomes obbligato. If in Example 5.6 the finger fingerss sustaining sustai ning voic voice e an are held somewhat longer than written,  an obbligato voice appears that undoubtedly undoubted ly wou would ld be expressed by a different instrument in the orchestra.  When larger leaps make it impossible to hold the fingers down, t  the he impression of an obbligato voice must be created by varied 2  of touch  (Example 5.7). gradations of In  some instances, it proves to be appropriate in a longer series of notes to hold some fingers down longer than written (Example 5.8) The Th e purpose of this way of playing is n not ot so much the  the connection o  off adjacent   notes in the sense o adjacent  off a simple legato no  norr that of producing a   sustaining voice, but  rather that  of  ensuring  a quiet  and steady  off notes.  It then appears a s if if hand approp appropriate riate  to a longer sequence o  held fingers  protectively foster  the touch of the remaining th the e held  fingers protectively the equal touch of the remaining fingers. The note to be held is not always cho chosen sen according to ha harmonic rmonic or rnotivic principles—certainly the most plausible reason—for plausible reason—for  often th e  just-described procedure takes place only  a s a purely technical technical device.  (See Example 7.4.)

 

Example  5.2 (a) C. P. E. Bach, Essay on the True  Art of  Playing Keyboard   Instruments,  chap.  3 , §18, fig.  168; (b  (b))  Beethoven, Piano Quartet op. 16,1, mm  mm..  22-23

Example 5.3 J. S. Bach, English English Suite n o.   3, Sarabande, mm.  17-20

Example  5.4 J. S. Bach, Example  English Suite  Suite  no. 2, Prelude, S. Bach, English 2, Prelude, mm. 23-25

Example  5.5  Chopin, Nocturne  op. 62, no. 1, mm. 4-9

23

 

24

The Art of   Performance

Example  5 .6   Handel, Suite no. 1, Aria  con co n variazioni, var.  1 , m.l (a)and(b)

mm.   116-119 Example   5 .7   Chopin, Ballade op. 47, mm.

Example   5 .8  Chopin, Etude op. 10, no. 12, mm.  Example mm.   73-74

 rticul ting   Legato The  identity  of  legato technique  in violin, voice,  and piano can be The observed   in a particular typ observed typee  o f  legato. This consists o consists off  individual notes within  a group that recei receive ve pressure separately, notwith notwithstandstandlegato. Thh e violinist  violinist c individual ual notes ing a strictly a  strictly observed legato. T  can an  finger individ while continuing  to  draw his bow in  undulating motions without compromising th e legato. T h e  singer, similarly, is  i s able to  emphasize individual notes within  o n e  si singl nglee breath. breat h. Th  T h e same effect  can be at-

 

Legato

25

Example 5.9  Beethoven Beethoven,, Son Sonata ata op. 7, III (a) mm.  1-3,  (b) m mm. m.  25-28

tained by the pianist if he plays leg legato ato as desc described ribed prev previous iously ly with strictly   held keys,  simultaneously moving  the arm and hand in an motion  in  order  to  play the   following key following key  from   a elastic,  swaying motion  in  order  to  play the higher point than he would otherwise. Perhaps a  different image describes this technique more suitably: it is as if the arm were striding back and forth in the keys, which serve as its firm its firm   ground. The type o  off legato to be used depends on the place in the music in question, of course. Thus it is the desired expression that finally decides if further  nuances of the two main kinds of legato are to be used. Under certain circumstances—when appropriate—the hand that is to play legato must become quiet to the point o  off rigidity. Analogously, an actor's voice in a similar case would remain on one pitch in order to express great tension in a given situation. But how many nuances lie between rigidity and a relaxed, seemingly flowing quiet expressive ssive legato, by  contrast, permits countless The  other type  of  expre nuances that result  result  from the from the arm's being alternately raised and low while moving up moving up and down  keys. With each change—the efered while ered and down the  the keys. fect sho should uld not be underestimated —its own particula particularr express expression ion is  Compare the two situations shown in Example 5.9. achieved. Compare achieved.

W a y s   o f Dissembling At times certain ways of dissembling can help to give an impression legato is impossible.  impossible. Thus a Thus a of legato even where, strictly speaking, legato is legato  effect  is attained in Chopin's Etude op. 25, no. no. 8, by means of gliding elbows. Here,  in quickest  q uickest tempo, the gesture stands for the effect.   The  same means  is to be  used  in  Br ah m s,  Variations  on a

 

26

The Art of   Performance

Theme by  Handel, op. 24, var. 6. Likewise, dissembling  of a lower  the legato  of double notes or chords. In such cases, it order includes includes the is entirely  sufficient to use a legato fingering in the upper  or, or, where appropriate, lower voice of the interval in question. At any rate, this "one-sided" legato will simulate legato in all voic  voices, es, b benefiti enefiting ng also those notes that were not played legato. Where it is impossible to use such a one-sided fingering, a mere   of the  hand  can substitute for a true legato.  In this succesgesture sion  o f tones,  f o r instance,

the th e   ha hand nd mus mustt "dig "dig into" into" the D, from there moving on to f  with  a faint the e held-over sound thus provides the the legato. (See Plate 4.) motion;  th th e  left hand takes over t  thh e  sixteenth  c , holds it  i t In  Example 5.10,  the as  a whole note through the measure, mea sure, and thus assures legato to the next measure's chord. Chopin himself gives us an interesting examexample  (Example 5.11). (Example 5.11). Here  Here  the original fingering 1-1-1 produces an impression of held notes without further  indications by the  com2 poser.  Obviously resting  on the  fourth finger  (c ),   the hand easily takes  in stride the notes played by the thumb. For the   same reason  I recommend playing  a section from Men section   from Mendelssohn's "S  the notes  "Spring pring Song Song"" as in Example  Example 5.12,  5.12, where  where holding the is   that medium for the  illusion which leads to a legato  effect  even  the he opposite effect. Similarly though the fingering appears to produce t Example 5.13, Example  5.13, where through  a change of fingers the held  a t enables 2 1 the melody to produce the  the  effect  of a portamento from  a t  to bt  b t .  also  giving a  a portamento effect  c j t 1  to  b l > 2 .  Note that the efExample 5.14, giving fect  of portamento, imitating that of a singer or violinist, is not limited to the per perfor former mer but ine inevit vitably ably is trans transmitted mitted to the list listene ener. r. From all this the conclusion should be drawn that th  the e impression o f   legato  can be  created ev even en without actua actuall legato p playing laying  inasmuch as the possibility o  off appropriate ways o  off  dissembling exists.

Change   o f  Finger on the  Same K e y legato ato is changing the finger on A n  eminent aid in producing a true leg th thee  same key. Se  S e e Schumann's comment  o n Caprice III of the  Concert  Studies  o n Caprices  b y Pa ganini ganini::  "The editor  . . . points  out the silent  changing  of fingers on one  key, which  often  creates  a most beautiful  effect  in an Adagio . . ."  (Example 5.15).

 

Example 5.10 Chopin, Etude Etude op.  op. 10, no. 8, mm mm..  13-14

Example 5.11 Chopin, Three Etudes, no. 1, mm. mm.   46-47

Example 5.12  Mendelssohn,  Songs w it ithout hout  Words,  op. 62, no. 6  mm..  19-23 ("Spring Song"), mm

Example 5.13 Chopin, Waltz op. 42, mm.  244-246

no. 2, m. 39 Example  5.14 Beethoven, Ro Rondo ndo op. 51, no.

27

 

28

The Art of   Performance

Example 5.15   Schu Schumann, mann, Caprice III  III of the Concert Studies o  onn Caprices by  Paganini

Such  a  change o  itself gives a gives an similar to the  a change  off finger in  in itself n impression similar  sound transmitted by a singer or violinist. Just as the singer and the violinist continue, en violinist enliven livening ing the sound with, respec respectively, tively, a spunout breath or a bow stroke, the pianist gives an illusion of spinning th the e sound on by changing fingers  fingers on  on one note.  The The quick changing approximates  a  continuous presence;  without  finger o f   fingers  fingers  approximates  change, played only once, the sound appea appears rs fixed. The Th e most perfect legato  effect,  however, comes from  the continthe continuing dragging along of of one finger, for exampl example e 5-475-475-4  

o r 

4-374-374-3,

creating the  effect of a series of tones executed only by the fifth or fourth  finger. This way a special kind of unity develops through  the fingering  that resembles  a single breath or bow  stroke. Such  a finger technique allows  the  tones  to flow into  one  another with  an inti (Example 5.16).  5.16). macy unequaled by any other any other legato technique. (Example

Legato   o f  Identical Notes  be-In  spite of  their similar appearance, a distinction must be made be tween  the previous Examples and a ca  case se suc such h as Example 5.17: th  the e context proves that Beethoven's way of writing

 

Legato

29

Example 5  5.16 .16 Beethoven, Sonata o p.   110, III, 110, III, m .  5

Example 5.17  Beethoven, Symphony no. 3, op. 55 , II, mm .  217-18

on the downbeat of m. m.   21 8  in Example 5.17 does not mean merely rather, both sixteenths that follow the bar line must be articulated in 2 the strictest legatissi legatissimo mo.. In Example 5.18, too, the first two two   b s a  are re tied; nevertheles nevertheless, s, b both oth must be played. When Beethov Beethoven en writes as in  Example 5.19 (a), a  different  effect  is  created than  in  (b), which should rather  be played as in  (c). Beethoven's notation stands for a kind  ofportato  (d), but w with ith the the   difference  difference  that the strings do not

play  the three notes with one bow stroke, raising the bow after each note, but  change the bow thus:  n V  n  . It  It   was Beethoven who introduced this kind of portato of portato  with  bow  see Example 5.20, in expression to be played like changes. Also see

butt with  a change of bow. bu

 

Example 5.18 Chopin, Mazurka op. 17, no. 2, m. 4

Example 5.19  Beethoven, String Quartet  op. 59, no. 2,1, m. 59

Example 5.20 Beethoven, String Quartet  o p .  7 4 , II, m. 30

30

 

SIX

Staccato

F A R  F R O M   B O T H  L E G A T O  A N D

N O N  L E G A T O

StaCCatO   te hnique

serves th  the e pianist—as it does singer and violinist—to shorten the individual tone considerably. The prerequisite for this of course is the  the e single tone was meant to receive part condition that initially th particuicul a r  pressure. In this  case, however, even more than abbreviation itself,  the height to which the hand is raised or thrust  after  cutting short the tone in order to drop on the next k  key ey must be considered. In  either  either words:  words: also in  staccato a certain distance from  the key is related to a different  expression. One to observe furthermore that expression. One has to observe th the e height has a crucial effect for two  reasons: not not  only is the elasticity of rebounding  rebounding  from the from the key thereby expressed, but the strength o f   th the e  attack  of the  following  key is  determined simultaneously. Thus the height must represent a specific a specific point  point above the keys.  certain circumstances, particularly when  when  a crescendo  crescendo   or Under certain Under decrescendo is combined with this (as in Example  Example 6.1),  6.1), the pianist,

31

 

32

The Art of  Performance

 K. 331,1, Example 6.1  Mozart, Sonata K.  331,1, var. 5, m. 10

like the violinist, who can make a transition from longer  to  shorter bow strokes (or vice versa), can create a series of highlights  which— as the as  the following  following figure shows—can  shows—can run scale ale from   high  run in a gradual a gradual sc to low or from low to high

or

 

SEVEN

Fingering

IF   O N E C O N S I D E R S   T H A T   TH E polyphonic composing  of   a J. S. Bach

demanded all possible freedom  in fingering, and that the freedom in the masterworks of our Classical composers encouraged unfettered fingering as well, then it is hardly understandable that our generais behaving more  freely tion could delude itself into believing that it that it is  more freely and progressively in regard to fingering than the  Classical masters. Quite apart a part from the fact that it was the creation of their works that gave rise  rise to  to the art of fingering in the first place first place (for which reason  they may be  considered superior  to  performers),  and quite alone they alone apart from  the  fact that they frequently  left  documents  of  their  art specifically  stress that the content of their of  fingering, one must  must  specifically  work was always created according to the needs of synthesis, never 1 merely according to those of the hand.  From this alone it  follows thatt fingerings in their tha their works, give given n the nature na ture of the content, must be  more  difficult  than those  in  later works, which  often  merely which  often  arose from the hand. Only once, namely in Chopin, did the needs of his own, particular synthesis and those of the hand fuse  fuse   so perfectly that  synthesis never was sacrificed was sacrificed to  to the hand, or vice versa. Now considering that even  Chopin's genius shows considerably reduced potency comone e  should  not be  astonished pared  to  that  of our  great masters,  on thatt the com tha compos positio itions ns of all other composers, least of all excepting Liszt,   offer  n o more opportunities  f o r beautiful  fingerings, as here th thee  composition itself,  as it were, spoils fingering [but s  see e Schenker's 33

 

34  

The Art of  Performance

remarks  o n Brahms's piano style, p.  72].  72]. This  This m ay  explain why, for in-

not like  to play or,  or, rather, stance, Joachim  Joachim  did not  like to  rather, never could decide  decide  to play   Dvorak's chamber music: regardless of all the qualities that raised it far above the entire contemporary output, at the same time it offered it offered him no opportunities for that highest art of bow technique which he had to use in the performance of the Classical quartet. Freedom of Freedom  of fingering, as we admire it in the earliest piano methods  (before  Czerny), was as much a product of the general non legato technique  as of  expression. A ll the subtle  fingering  skills—far from   the  usual scale fingerings 1 1-22-3 3 -1 -1-2 -2-3 -3-4 -4  and  1-2-3—41-2-3—were  possible only within  the the  context of non  legato technique, which by its very nature can be quite well served by a certain degree of nonchalance. Later developments such as chordal writing, multivoiced spreadout reaches, specifically indicated legato (which often (which often because  because of the many voices cannot be carried out strictly), and pedal technique force   u s to use similarly free  fingering  today. Similar freedom,  differentt cause. en The  free mobility  of the  "soul" of a work of art ever art ever will  cause.  The  mobility of demand total freedom of fingering. position, centralizing the fingers 1-5 , is always The normal hand position, centralizing The the point of departure. Any other  position  is always "impromptu fingering." Larger reaches—the spreading  o u t of  the fingers—must be  technical need. In need. In Example  Example 7.1,  7.1, based on the synthesis the synthesis or  or at least at least o  on na a technical 2 3  iss played; th  the e  thumb rejoins  the c#  must  be  released the  instant  c t  i other fingers, other  virtually in  just   as  indicated by  fingers, virtually  in the span the span of  of a fifth, fifth, just as indicated  by the 3 2  t o  f t .   In  Example 7.2, it would  b e content, which moves  moves  from  c t  to 4 3 3 impossible to play c second nd beat with sufficient  sufficient   emem ctt -bl> - a t  on the seco phasis  were one to keep the hand streched out to the octave  c \ > 3 - c \ > 4 3 4 or to a diminished seventh  d -c\> .  Under no circumstances should the  lower fingering be used. Even with  the  upper one,  the  thumb 3

must release  release  the the position  position   of the d  immediately,  immediately, as  as the  the  hand must 4 2 contract to join the fifth finger on  c^ . Fingering also must be must be honest;  honest;   the hand—like the mouth—must speak the truth; truth; it must correspond to the voice-leadi voice-leading ng (Exam (Exam ple 7.3). In  Example 7.4, too,  in spite of the  slur, the fingering changes ac according to the change of the chord. See the original fingerings of the 3 masters in manuscripts and first editions and mixed  fingerings should  be used  in runs, Long, short,  short,  and  mixed fingerings  should be  used in  runs, thirds, sixths,  and arpeggios, depending on the chord—on its meaning in th e   sense  of the  synthesis.4  Long, f o r  example,  in  Example 7.5, b u t

 

Example  7 .1   Mozart, ozar t, P Piano iano C Concerto oncerto  K . 488, II, m.  93ff.

Example  7 .2   Beethoven, Sonata op  o p . 57,1, m. 60

Example 7.3 J. S. Bach, French Suite in E  M ajor, ajor, Allemande  Allemande m 20. The role played by the sixteenth as head-tone of a motive is more important than its function as ending of the accompanying bass line. Only Only the fingering 5 5 can separat separate e th the e two two..

Example 7.4  Brahms, Intermezzo  op op..  118, no. 1, mm mm..  14-15

35

 

36

The Art of  Performance

Example  7.5  Mozart, Rondo  K. 511, m. 147

Example 7.  7.6 6 C. P P.. E. Bach, P robesonate robesonate no. 4,1, m. 9,  original fingering

Example 7.7 C. P. E. Bach, Probesonate no  no..  4 , 1 ,  m. 16 original fingering. (1-2  for the neighboring-note motion around b, but 4-4-4 4-4 -4 quasi mo motivi tivic.) c.)

short in  in Example the movement. Sim Example 7.6, which closes a closes a section  section   of the movement. ilarly in Ex  Example ample 7 7.7. .7. Often  the  masters  specifically  asked for one  special  free  kind of fingering: the  sliding finger.  (Examples 7.8, 7.9, and 7.10 are  original fingerings.) See also Example 5 5.12. .12. Sliding Slidin g ffingers ingers 7.11.  in the  service  of the synthesis  are also required the case  of Example  The technical need for sliding thumbs in in lower voices of third, sixth, and octave passages as well as in chord progressions can equally serve to produce the most intense expressiveness, as, fo forr   instance, in Example  7.12. The fingering follows the upper line, the e melodic line. In bot that is, th both h releva relevant nt segme segments: nts:

 The e greatest advantage of Chopin use usess 3-4-5 on the first three tones. Th this is that also beyond these segments  th the e third finger falls on a black

 

Example  7.8 C. P. E. Bach, P robesonat robesonate, e, no. 6, Fantasia

Example   7 .9   Beethoven, Diabelli Variations, op  op..  120, 120, var var.. 8, mm. 17 and 24

Example 7.10 Chopin, Sonata op.  o p.  58,1, m m .  11 and 147

Example 7.11 Ch Chopin, opin, Noct Nocturne urne op. 9, no. 3, mm mm..  19-20; six  notes,  five fingers

Example 7.12 Chopin, Et Etude ude op. 25, no. 6, mm. 5-6

 7

 

38

The Art of   Performance

Example 7.13 Liszt, Soirees  de Vienne,  6 , 2d ed., m m .  291, 430, and 297

fourth on  white.   Th paid forr this advantage is advantage is a key and the  the  fourth o n a white. The e price paid fo rather minor one, namely that the two half steps in the lower voice that consist of two  succ successive essive white keys must be played by  1-1. the  fingerIt is always the required expression that must decide if the  ing in the  case of thirds should follow the  upper  or  lower line  or a combination of the two. This also holds true for sixths (Example  One uses a fingering that follows either the lower chromatic 7.13). One 7.13). line as far as possible, as in (a); or the upper one, as in (b); o  orr a combination, as in (c).

 

  IGHT

Dynamics

piano and  forte  as  Basic Conditions  a n d forte  only It  i  iss mistaken  to consider t  the he  dynamic concepts piano an eakk   and in one  single sense  as w ea an d strong, as if an absolute  an andd measurable quality   o f sound were meant  b y them. Rather, tw o  entirely different   meanings  ar  possible ssible::  at times, piano  and forte forte  indeed  ar aree po aree expressions  of   quantity  in a purely physical sense, comparable  to a orchestra (thus,/ in a particular place in large  num ber of parts iinn the orchestra the piano work corresponds to an orchestral  forte  with  full,  rere sounding instrumentation while p while  p corresponds  corresponds to a more modest ininstrume ntation) ; at other times, however however,, they have have a meaning that alw w ays overlooked. overlooked. This meaning, going well, be  be-is,  un fortu nately, al yond quantity, quantity,  refers  to a psychological quality  of  great elasticity  an andd relativity: relat ivity: thu s  occasionally forte  can be interpreted  as having emotional resonance   and an d piano  as being less less the  the low  point  of a physical 1 quantity than an intimate intimate  utterance. From  this double meaning it foll  follow ow s that only th  the e content of the cann decide which  is appropriate. Thus  alll composition   ca composition which  of the two is appropriate. Thus  al alike than  than  all pianos. Merely understood quantitafortes   are no mo re alike tively,   the th e  directive p   p  in  Example  8. 8.11 would lead  to a wrong interpretation. There   is no  doubt that  the th e second theme,  by its its very na  na-ture cantabil cantabilee  an  espressivo, sivo, mu st  be  played with intense, intimate  andd espres expressiveness,  coming  as it does after  the figurations of the modulation  section. If the pianist further  considers that  th e strong sound 39

 

4 0 

The Art of  Performance

Example  8.1 Beethove Beethoven, n, Sonata op. op.   110,1,  110,1, mm. mm. 20-21

Exam ple 8. 8.22   Chopin, Polonaise op. 26, no. 1, M  Men eno o mosso  mm. 1-4

of   the preceding figurations as a s well as the high register in which the new motive appears would give give a physically physically weak piano a yet weaker, paler appearance than would ordinarily be the case, then  he  must, fo forr   the sake of contrast and because of the high register, resort to playing the  piano in this spot with strength (in an inner sense) and with a full sound. Another example: the middle section of the Polonaise  in Example 8.2 contains the instruction  "p  con anima," which  piano. expresses th e wish for an enthu enthusiastically siastically played, intense intense piano. Pianissimo  under certa certain in circumstances means nothing nothing other tha than n stillness—that  parti  particula cularr kind of stilln stillnes esss which does not los lose e its character even if even if one or more voices float through  through space. Thus it does or more voices float it does no  nott depend  so much  on  dynamic weigh weightt  but but rather on the impression of stillness,  through which an in individual dividual voi voice ce m may ay yet sound penetrat penetr at-ingly. Stillness, too, lets voices be heard  clearly—in  a certain sense even  more clearly than does noise. Of course one has to be able to when the composer is describing that kind of  stillness. See sense  justbeginning Wagner, beginnin g and end of the Prelude to "Lohen "Lohengrin." grin." T he  Rhapsody op. 79, no. 1, by Brahms can  serve as an example o  off forte  in the psychological sense. Observe that here ff only bursts out in tw tw o  places (in  (in mm. 60 and 64  and, similarly, mm. 188 and  192) and an d that most  of the work takes place within/  From  its mere length, then, it can be deduced that what  is meant  is less a forte  in the physical ca l  sense (this would  be  unplayable or, if  played, would lead  to a monotonous, mindles mindlesss show o off st strength) rength) th than an a state of intense excitement  that, as the construction of the work shows, generates the rhapsodic momentum.

 

Dynamics  

Specifically Indicated Specifically  Indicated Shadings within  within piano  piano  a n d forte

41

Only if the preceding characterizations o f  piano and forte have been fully   assimilated can one  understand  the  often  often  ingenious, yes, in m f spired indications of nuances by our masters, who similarly want: mf or   m p , like the basic dynamic or dyna mic leve levels ls themselves, themselves, understood now in the spiritual, no now w in the physical, ssens ense, e, as appr appropria opriate. te. To det determine ermine whether q quantity uantity of sound or quality of emotio emotion n is to be emphasized, p cresc. f  must be examined. F  Far ar more interesting is the   nuance p  c r e . s c . p. It would  b e  worthwhile  to  trace it  i t back hishistorically in the  works of the  masters, as it  definitely  does not  antedate  C .  P. E. Bach. More than  an any y other nuance it seems to  attest to its origin in the emotions: a more or less passing intense agitation within a spiritually expressed p.  The uses of these written-out nuances are  manifold.  One can hardly express them  in a more subtly varied  w a y  than Beethoven does  in his  Sonata  o p .  109,  I, Second theme,  mm. mm.  9-13: f P   cresc.  cresc.  \f

P  cresc.  \Pcresc. 

f

P  cresc.  cresc. 

P  \f

tha n nuance nuancess within  within piano, F a r  more than  piano, those within forte  suffer  from being misunderstood; already the basic conception  of  forte,  which unfortunately  never is interpreted in any but the physical sense, is entirely erroneous.  As a result perfo pe rformers rmers have n nev ever er been particularly inclined to acknowledge or to carry out shadings within forte  forte— —  orr not. A  And nd while to a degree whether they are specifically indicated o performers  have concerned themselves with shadings within piano, they interpret forte  merely as a show  of physical strength. strength. Once they were guilty guilty of this, it was was ine inevit vitable able tha thatt they should misunders misunderstand tand even clearl  clearly y marked nuances, just ju st where these we were re at their most inspired. O  One ne need only see the many, ever-recurring shadings /  cresc. f Brahms—virtually  a hallmark o in the  Rhapsody op. 79, no.  1, by  by   Brahms—virtually   off to   p  cresc. p  again mean agitation this composer —which,  —which,  similar  to within  a general forte.  (See earlier discussion.) discussion.) Beethoven, Symphony no  no.. 7, op. 92,  IV ,  m m .  74-78: f

c r es c .  - f

mm. 427-43: - P   cresc.  - 

 

fff ff f

Beethoven, S  Strin tring g Quartet  op. 18, no. 6, IV mm mm..  29-34: P

f P 

f

P

f

P 

rf

 

42

The Art of   Performance

Haydn, Creation,  no. 19,  19, m. m. 27  27::

\ rf

(conceived  as  shadows within forte  as  well  as  descriptively: descriptively:

Schubert, Sonata D.  894, III: Schubert, Sonata

Brahms,  Piano Concerto op.  15,1,  mm. 1-25 (timpani).

Freely  Executed Shadings within  within pi  piano ano and forte However, nuances  are not  always specifically always specifically   indicated; more frefr equently they must be rea read d betw between een the lines lines,, as it were were.. Here again the curious  fact emerges that the pianist uses shadings within piano much more naturally than within forte; he should similarly force similarly force him himself   with strict  self-discipline  to carry out such subtle inflections 2 within forte  a s well.  Nuances  o f  this kind  are as thoroughly unde a s th e vibrations in the rise an finable  as  andd fall of the voice of an orator  o r actor and thus entirely defy a precise depiction. The attempt to add such shadings  shadings  to  editions  of error  of to  editions  of   older masterworks  is a grave a grave error   editors. Once th performer ormer see seess them written out, the mere certain editors. certain  the e perf  reflex t  tempts empts him to suc such h a degree that he w will ill exa exaggerate ggerate the optical reflex optical nuance where, left to his own resources, he would surely be more restrained. After all, something must  b e left  up to the performer thatt the wor works ks It  must be considered a counter re  action in our time tha o f   older composers  are  being restored precisely  to  their original state   after  s o many earlier distortions. However,  a far greater unde consequence occurs in occurs in the  markings of   modern works  works  (i.e., sirable consequence sirable the  markings of in  St Strauss rauss,, Reg eger, er, M Mahler, ahler, etc.) etc.).. The manner in wh which ich these com mark their wo works rks is with ith superfluous superfluous  deposers mark posers  is so tortured so tortured,, bursting w tail,  that  o n e senses their suspicion of the incompetence  o f their  fellow low musicians.

mm.  28-35 Example  8 .3   Beethoven, Egmont Overture,op.  84, mm. 

 

Dynamics 

The following principle  is thus valid: whether in forte  or in piano,

43

shadings are  necessary, similar  to the  play  of  light  and  shade  in legato and non legato. Even if not explicitly prescribed, they are part  performance in dissemblin mbling g ma manner nner (Example 8.3 8.3). ). of  the the performance  in a  a disse Schubert, Symphony no. 9, D. 944,1, mm.  1-2:

also  i n f f ,  m. 40:

Sources of light connect regions of light—thus energy is saved, and and understanding fostered: a single glance takes in the before  a n d  after.  we e have th  the e clumsy plodding  of  relentlessly heavy playIn  contrast w  op. p. 106,1, mm  mm..  112-21: ing. See also Beethoven, Beethoven, Sonata o

Also Beethoven, Also  Beethoven, Sonata op op.. I l l , I, mm.  146-52:

  s f  with rests in the  shade  of  the jf , increasing in  in density  to portato,

to half  to legato) then  to then   half notes, then to  legato) From these examples it can be seen that each unit requires light and shade but once once:: should should two points of emphasis appear to occur in the same motive, this would only be understandable  from   the 1 synthesi synt hesis, s, as in Example 8.4. 8. 4. Th The e g  of the second bar ought to be in it simultaneously the shade bu shade butt nonetheless  nonetheless  has an >  above it, above it, as it simultaneously is  th  the e  beginning of  something new.

forte-piano How the  directive f-p  is to be understood depends entirely on the meaning of the  composition.  In older works, by J. S. Bach, Handel, and their predecessors for example, it  often  often  means  a sudden alternation between forte  and piano, based  based on the so-called echo  effect. (See  J. S. Bach Partita III for Violin Solo, Prelude; it is obvious that in a  cas  a n y bridging b y means  o f a crescendo  o r  diminuendo  case e li like ke this an is is  inappropriate.)

 

 

The Art of  P e r f o r m a n c e

Example   8.4  Chopin, Mazurka op. 24, no. 1, mm mm.. 1-4

In   most cases, h howe owever, ver, /-p,  whether whether clos close e together  or  more widely separated, can only be evaluated and executed by means of the emotions for underly underlying ing reasons integra integrall to the compo composition. sition. Thus,   for example, Thus, instruction in the Menuet for example, Mozart's instruction in the Menuet of  of his String his String Quartet in G M aj ajor or (Example 8.5) cannot be understood  in the physical  sense  sense a  performe ormed d acco according rdingly, ly,  bu  rather in  and nd perf butt rather  in the sense the sense of  of a nonotation   o f  marcato signs  > , A , w hich were  not yet in general use. Sonata ata in G  M aj T he   excerpt from  C. P . E. Bach's Son ajor or is an  ingenious Similarly  the markings/(or s  that are example  (Example 8.6). Similarly example  sff ) andp  andp that  are  separated call for that  effect  to which we aspire with  barely separated barely : r > again not in the  sense o f a sudden contrast (Exam (Example ple 8.7). T h e execution  of   Example 8 .8 iiss difficult.  Dropping from^brte Dropping from^brte into  into piano,  in other words into negative physical strength,   on one e  must invest  the piano  with those qualities it lacks in relation to the preceding^orte. Suddenly more subdued, the intensity of emotion must attempt to replace   the  earlier forte  while not replace while not   exceeding piano. The  piano summons inner forces to a kind of climax, thus apparently contradicting what—seen superficially—it  actually asks for. T h e   w a y forte  a n d piano ca  c a n also color th  t h e individual sections  o f a phrase, particularly  in older music (in C. P. E. Bach, fo  forr example), I have  shown in my  Beitrag zu  zurr  Ornamentik.  extraordinarily cogent technique  technique  of our older The extraordinarily The our older masters  often  it different   dynamics in each hand, as shown shown in Exambrought with it p le   8.9. Thus  Thus    f o different  r  compositional reasons, editors  a s well  a s players who put uniform dynamics on the same beat are mistaken. A  curious example b (Example mple 8. 8.10) 10) sho shows ws  the two  byy C. P. E. Bach (Exa hands with opposite dynamics.

Example 8.5   Mozart, String Quartet  K. 387, II, II, mm. 1-8

 

Example  8.6 8.6 C. P. E. Bach,  Sonatas fo r  Connoisseurs a n d

Amateurs,   First C ollect ollection, ion, No. 6,1, m. 1 2

Example   8 .7  Example Quintet   K . 516, III,  III,  m m .  18-22 .7   Mozart, String Quintet

Example 8 .8   Beethoven, Beethoven, Stri String ng Q uarte t  o p.   130,1, m m .  15-16

Rhetorical Accents Tension-relaxation  =  light-shade  are as  essential  in  music  as in language, where they occur naturally   in  syllable  and an d sentence construction.   If our  manner  o f  speaking were continually  to   remain  o n o n e  pitch and the syllables w ere  the th e same length  w e would have no  n o andd thus  w e would lose  any an y possibility structure,   n o  differentiati differentiation, on,  an of   communication. Therefore, a  speak er giv gives es each syllabl syllable, e, w hether het her prefix   o r  root syllable,  a different  emphasis. A  Ann d  onl onlyy this con trast in   strength,  color, length  creates  differences,  interrelationships, continuity—in  other words, communication. 45

 

46

The Art of  P e r f o r m a n c e

Example  8 . 9   Mozart, Sonata K  K.. 310, II,  II, mm .  26-30

Example  8.10  C. P. E. Bach, Sonatas fo r  Connoisseurs  a n d Am ateurs ateurs,, First  Collection, no no..  6 ,1 , mm  mm..  89-90

In speech these conditions of light and shade are so familiar that they go unnoticed by speakers of the same language; in music, alas, we have no nott  come so far. In singing, again, it is the  syllable syllabless tha thatt preclude unshaded light.  Those  instrumentalists  who  come nearer  to speech through breath or bow technique also possess a greater abil to  differentiat and shade  The latter ity to ity differentiatee  light  light  and  shade than the than the pianist.  pianist. The  latter tends to touch the keys in an undifferen undifferentiated tiated  way on only ly beca because use they lie

there  in  front  of him; pressing them down is no  trouble, and he is spared any association  with  speech. The performance inevitably must  suffer  from  from  such  a misguided conception.  accents refer  refer  to  metric organizatio organization n (for example, example,  the Rhetorical accents Rhetorical upbeat), segments  of  f orm ,  and form as such. Only they can  clarify the rhythm: without the contras contrastt of rhetorical accents, spe special cial rhythm does not  exist, no  matter  how strictly player  or  conductor adheres to the  meter.  The  dotted rhythm in the first movement  of Symphony no. 7, o op. p. 92, by Beethoven

 

Dynamics  

can only b  be e made understandable through  the the disposition  of rhetorical accents; otherwise th  the e rhythm would die in itself. The eloquent

47

effect of emphasizing the weak beat in the second theme of the first movement  of Symphony no. 9, op.  125, by Beethoven (mm. 80-83) is  is   noteworthy:

 the e clumsiness a more usual accentuation: compare this with th  clumsiness   of a more

(See  also Example 8.11.) In  th the e widest sense, the frequent emphasis on the middle of a figu figure re also belongs among rhetorical  effects:

(Examples  8.12,  8.13,  a n d  8.14).  It is  noteworthy, however, that -==^C   H^=- in Beethoven not infrequently means a momentary halting, not an actual  ~=^i  ~=^i  ~^=~- in a dynamic sense. Certain laws are generally valid. In principle the following are to be emphasized: be  emphasized: 1. the head-tone of a motive  > 2.   a neighboring note

3.  an accen  a ccented ted passing note

4 .   a suspension

no..  1, Beethoven, Sonata f or Piano  and an d Violin op. 24, I 24, IVV ,  m m . R e   no 1 -2  (see Example 9.24).  In spite of the repeated notes in  m. 2, m. 1 has the main accent; the dotted half note in m. 3 is supported by the meter with no further Similarly y the opening no further   emphasis. Similarl the opening of  of the  fourth movement  o f Beethoven's Sonata op. 22 (Example 9.22).

 

Example 8.11 Chopin, Nocturne  op. 37, no. 2, mm mm..  44-48

Example 8.12 Beethoven, String Quartet op. Quartet op. 18, no. 6 , IX   m m .  77-78

Example 8.13 Beethoven, Sonata  op op.. 106, III, m. 4 m. 499

Example 8.14 Beethoven, Symphony  Symphony  no. 1, op. 21, II, II, mm.   35-39

 8

 

Dynamics

Example 8.15   Cho Chopin, pin, Scherzo o op. p. 54, mm. 460 460-66 -66

49

R e  no  no.. 4: The dissonance al always ways must be emphasized; the resolution always must be in the  shade. Examples  of resolutions  of suspensions  with  - el > - d  (which always carries with carries  itt a  3 Z^=- . This pattern more  or less repeats that of  with i mm. 1-2 of the variation (Example 8.19). In mm. 9-10, however,  th the e crescendo  is delayed delayed by one mea measure, sure, due to the bass dimin diminution, ution, and along with it the  sf, sf , which would be unthinkable, intolerable, above the th e   b t of the  bass on the  downbeat  of m. 10. Rahmenanschlag  also serves th  t h e  diminution:  the th e  large note  is high t h e small notes remain in the shade—a the shade—a manner o f playlighted while th in ingg  valid for all kinds  o f  ornaments,  f o r trills  a s well as for diminu-

 

50 50  

The Art of  P e r f o r m a n c e

tions, which can be considered embellishments  in the  widest sense must be as if the notes did exist at of  the word. the word.   Th The e  effect  must be the   small notes  did not  not  exist at

a ll.   One  example  may  stand  for  countless others—particularly  in

 Diminution iminutionss written in large notes should Chopin (Example 8.20). D be organized in the  same w  way ay (Examples  (Examples 8.21,  8.21,   8.22 8.22,, 8.23, and  8.24). A   trill should initially be attacked as if no trill were to  follow— fundamentally,  one is merely realizing the large writing (Example 8.25).

Example 8.16 Mozart, Symphony  K.  550, II, mm.  20-23. Se  See e Schenker's comment  in  Th The e M aster asterwork work  in M usi usic, c, vol. 2, p. 84: "The arpeggio is written as demisemiquaver [grace notes] [thirty-second notes; s  see ee translator's note following]. The p already appears  on the second crotchet (i.e., the third quaver), likewise in all parts and  from   the first to the second at all anal analagous agous places (O (Only nly with/p from crotchet will the  effect  in the orchestra be achi achieve eved d that corresponds approximately to the following pianistic  effect:

where it is essential to release th the e pedal at the p; in addition, Mozart's notation preserves the generally piano generally piano character  character of the second subject.)" [Translator's note: the British ter terms ms "minim, "minim,"" "crotchet," "quaver," "semiquaver," "semi-demi-quaver," etc. correspond to, respectively, half note, quarter note, eighth-note, sixteenth note, etc.]

 8.17 7 Mozart, Symphony Symphony K.  551, II, Example 8.1 Example  K. 551,  II, mm. 23-25

 

Example 8.18 Beethoven, Eroica Variations, op. 35, Var. 15, mm.  9-10

Example 8.19 Beethoven Beethoven,,  Eroica Variations, op. 35, 35, var. 15, mm mm.. 1-2

Example   8.20 Chopin, Nocturne op. 37, no. 1, m. 19  (See Plate 3)

Example 8.21 Mozart, Symphony  K . 551, II  II,, mm .  28-29

51

 

52

The Art of  P e r f o r m a n c e

Example 8.22 Beethoven, Sonata op. 2, no.  3,1,  mm. 1-2 no.  3,1, 

Example   8.23 Beethoven, Sonata op. 2, no. 3, II, m. 1 Example

Example 8.24 Brahms, Intermezzo  op. 76, no. 7, mm mm.. 6-8

Example 8.25 Beethoven, Rondo  Rondo  op. 51, no. 2, m. 1

A s  w e have seen,  Rahmenanschlag frequently i  iss used  f or   repeated notes.  It is a  different  matter  when  the  repeated notes  are to be

rhetorically infused with  life,  as in  Beethoven, Sonata  op .  110, III, Recitative (see Example  5.16),  o r  Chopin, Etude  Etude  op. 25, no.l,  m m . 1-2 (see Example 3.28). Here  the the  composer points out by means of organization anization that  the  repetitions  are not to be in the the  dynamic org shade  as is the the  case in  Rahm enanschl enanschlag. ag.

 

NINE

Tempo  Modifications Tempo   and Tempo  Tempo

Tempo Indication  and Meter Tempo indications  as  a s such belong  to that class o  off performance indications from tions  from which  which on  one e cannot deduce t  the he proper way of playing. Th  The e content   itself, r content itself, rath ather, er, should divulge divulge how the required impr impressio ession n is to be evoked. On the one hand, the tempo marking is the point of departure; on the other, th  thee goal. T he   allegro comodo in the fourth  fourth move movement  o f Brahms's P  Piano iano Quartet Quartet op. 6 0 in C  M  Minor inor,, f or  example: there  thing   as an  absolute  allegro  comodo—the is   n o  such thing comodo—the   content  of the 1 music alone alone must determine how it can serve to  attain allegro comodo. Tempo Tem po is also related to ttexture: exture: the same p piece iece must be execute executed d in a  different tempo depending  o n whether it is being played with  a heavy  or less heavy sound. One thing is e essential: ssential: in a given given piece, the tension must b be e maintained throughout. throughout. Th This is m must ust  no nott  result  in  using meter mechanithat at keep the piece cally  to ensure the  flow   of the music; the means th in  motion  are of an  inner nature,  not of a superficially metric one. The impulse must renew itself continually from continually from   within.

 back Pushing ahead—Holding  ahead—Holding back A  balanced tempo throughout  a piece does  n o t  exclude  freedom. Just  as in dynamics th  thee  contrast o f  pressure an  a n d  release, light  a n d 53

 

54 

T he  he  A rt  rt  o f  Performance

shade,  help  to  unify  th the e piece, similarly in tempo, balance is established through the contrast of pushing ahead /holding back.holding

 My y indications back/pushing ahead. M mean  up. p. Suc speed up —  s  slow low down down  | slow down —  speed u  Such h alterna alternation tion results in the illusion  of a strict tempo.  The principle may be  formulated as follows: what wa wass ta  taken ken away earlier must be re  returned turned later later.. Or in reverse: reverse: what is to be taken la later ter must be retur returned ned in advance. This is the  meaning of true  rubato. A particularly appropriate appropriate example of ttempo empo modificatio modification n tthrough hrough

speeding up occurs occurs in bars bar s 4-6 in Beeth Beethoven's oven's P Piano iano Trio op. 70, no.  1,  1.

If   these ba bars rs w were ere played strictly strictly in the chosen tempo, th e  effect  of an  the   fury  fury  of entirely unintended ritardando would occur. Following the the staccato eighths in the preceding bars, the sparse tones would simulate a slow  slowin ing g down, particula par ticularly rly since since the rests between them one from  another. To suggest that they should be radically separated one  up until the VI appears in counter this effect it is necessary to speed up

m. 6; not  until here  is balance achieved through  a  corresponding holding back (notice Beethoven's (notice Beethoven's explicitly  explicitly added Or imagin  imagine e a performer who played the cadence in mm mm.. 3-4 in Example 9 .1  entirely regularly, according to the bea b eat. t. He wou would ld have to admit in all honesty honesty that the  effect  of the  cadence is weaker than tha n if  he had increased the tempo. Should he point out that the  following measures require the regular tempo, one must reply that given their enhanced content,  mm. 5-6 are  convincing  in the  normal tempo without hurrying. In the two preceding measures, however, the quarter notes, given their lack of rhythmic variation, would appear rather empty and therefore weak. Thus we conclude that the

desired effect requires hurrying—a requirement that notation  is unable  to indicate. It  follows that there  are pa  particul rticular ar circu circumstanc mstances es in composition that oblige the performer to make tempo modifications. This is to avoid a  totally different  effect  from that intended by him him and by the  and d measure composer on the listener, who at all times is the object an thee  effect.  It is precisely such dissembling that  c a n  fulfill  the inof   th tended  effect. Repeated notes demand hurrying on to the next downbeat (Ex leads  to a "root syllable," ample 9.2). Spe Speedin eding g up of  repeated notes notes leads as   it were:

 

Tempo  and an d  Tempo Modifications

Example 9.1  Chopin, Polonaise op. 26, no. 1, mm. 3-6

55

Example 9.2  Beethoven, Symphony no. 5, op. 67,1, op. 67,1,  mm. 1-2 (see Plate  3)

Chopin, Etude op. 25, no.  1,  mm. 1-2

The Th e same is true for a repeated rhythmic pattern  as in the following: Chopin, Polonaise op. 40, m. 32

Mozart, Sonata  K. 331,  1,  mm. 3-4

Neighboring notes, chromatics, diminutions of the lowest order ahead—holding back, wantt exp wan expressi ressive ve trea treatment; tment; wit without hout pushing pushing   ahead—holding back, this would be impossible. In Ex  Example ample 9.3, speeding up in the left hand a t  t  the he beginning secures the the passing tone for the listener as well as for the performer, who now can execute the  embellishment  freely. Both together result in the illusion of freely  flowing rhyth rhythm, m, a an n impression impression brought broug ht about by the forward  motion of the left hand. The requirement requi rement tha thatt a co compo mpositio sition's n's form fo rm not be exposed too nakedly frequently  demands demand s consi considerably derably quicker quicker pl playing aying where the seam  occurs (Example 9.4).

 

Example  9 .3   Handel Suite no. 2 in F  M ajor m. 1 ajor,,  I,  I, m.  1

Example 9.4  Haydn, Sonata Hob.  XVI:35, II, mm mm.. 8-9

Example  9.5 Johann Strauss, Blue Danube Waltz, op. 314, mm. 1-2

Example  9 .6   Beethoven, Sonata op. 57, II, m.  4lff.  and m.  49ff.

Example  9.7 Beethoven, String Quartet  op. 59, no.  2,1, mm  mm.. 39-40

56

 

Tempo   a n d  Tempo  Tempo  Modifications 

Played  in way,  the sections  are  in   this way,  the  separate sections  are  pulled together, whereas without such a tempo deviation they would  fall  apart needneedlessly, compromising lessly,  compromising  the texture of the form.

57

Even the dance-waltz traditionally demands freedom of rhythm: by holding back (Example 9.5). It  would, however, be wrong to emphasize figures of no individtial significance (mere figurations or filling) by slowing down as, for instance, in instance,  in  Example 9.6.

However,, a certain linger However lingering ing is to be recommended on a trill trill:: precisely  that which the trill wants to express forces express forces one  one to give that expression  sufficient  space. Thus the trill—like sffy,  accents on weak beats  (see preceding discussion), arpeggios, suspensions,  etc.— to   those subtle means music uses  to break the  rigidity of belongs   to belongs uses  to  break   the  rigidity of motion and rhythm. Therefore even without a prescribed  ritenuto  to o execute  the he trill enough time should be should be taken  taken t  execute t  trill comfortably (Examcomfortably (Example 9.7). Th  The e  retarding effect  of suspension  and and arpeggio is based o  on n the harmony;   the arpeggio, the arpeggio, their very nature: the nature: the suspension  suspension delays  delays the harmony; the essential melody note. Indications such as  a s pesante (heavy) a n d sostenuto (held) refer  to the overall   of Thus  a formal but do n not ot  mean   ain   character section direction   slowing  of the tempo. the tempo.   the the general in Examdown of down Thus "Pesante" "Pesante"   Example 9.8 a-e refers  refers to  to the expression of: 1

ct  in the third quarter of m. 1; 1

e l*  in the  fourth quarter of m. 2; 1

gt  in the fourth quarter of m. 3; 1

f t   in the first quarter of m. 7; 1

dl-  in the f irst quarter  of m. 8. 2

The  marking "Sostenuto"  in  Example  9.9  refers  to f   in m. 1; The  inn m. 2; gt2 in m. 3; et2  i  inn m. 9; f 2 in m. 10; et cetera. at-bl>-al> i Frequently it is advisable to emphasize the return to the tempo after hold  holding ing back bac k by bringing the downbeat eve even ne earlier arlier tha than n would be permissible in strict time (Example 9.10).

Newly Appearing Note  Values Each   new new  rate  of  motion, sixteenths  after  eighths, thirty-seconds a — m u s t  b e introduced as after  sixteenths,  e t c e t e r a — a n d vice v e r s a—  a s clearly   a s possible. F o r this purpose it is necessary to   play  th e very

 

Example  9 .8   Chopin, Prelude  op. 28, no. 14, mm. 1, 3, 4, 7, 8

Example 9.9  Chopin, Prelude op. 28, no. 15, mm. 1-3 and  9-10

Example 9.10 Beethoven, Sonata  op op.. 101,1, mm  mm..  16-17

58

 

Tempo   an d  Tempo Modifications 

first   notes  of the new  rhythmic pattern  a little slower than the absolute strictness of strictness of the   demand. The  reason fo the  metronome would demand.  The reason  forr this rule, rule , whic which h has no exception, derives from derives from   the  effect on the lis-

59

tener:  if the  tempo were maintained with metronomic precision, without considering th the e listener, the ne  newly wly introduced motion would prevent his his immediate understa understanding nding precisely because of the regularity   of  tempo.  It is thus  the  listener  who who  requires  a comfortable moment's lingering in order to comprehend the change of rhythm. If   this is not  provided for him by the performer, his ear  cannot simsim2 ply adjust; ply  adjust;   he gets the impression that the performer is rushing.  It follows  that a performance in the strictest str ictest tempo d does oes not seem thus to the  listener; for psychological reasons, that which actually was rnetronomically perfect sounds hasty to him. Even  in midst midst the turmoil of the greatest passion one must not be  orr gloss over the beginning  of a new rate of mocarried away to rush o tion. Once the motion has been introduced, one   easily can give it free   rein, bu rein, butt  always relative to relative to the  expression the  appropriate required expression (Examples 9.11, 9.12, an d  9.13).

Alia breve

Alia   breve  § refers  to   meter,  b u t  not,  as is  generally believed,  to tempo. As used in earlier music, it serves to present the content in larger note va  values lues than would otherwise have been possi possible. ble. Two—  Two— if   not  f o u r — m e a s u r e s  equal one, had that one been written in smaller  note  values (Example  9.14).  One should be particularly warned against taking  taking  too  fast  a  tempo when  when  0 is is combined  with Presto. It is precisely  the use of  larger note values that causes the composer  to  write  Presto  as a  precaution, since  Allegro  might  be taken too taken  too  slowly. It does no nott  follow from follow from this  this that Presto in itself im  im--

motion;  it it rather  rather can  can be understood be understood   in in connection  connection with plies   a fast  motion;  the mode of notation and the reasons for it as shown previously. Thus  a tempo just  a little  little   faster  faster  than  a simple Allegro would be entirely appropriate. Se  See e also Example 9.15.

 

Example 9.11 Beetho Beethoven, ven, S Sonata onata op. 2, no.  1,1, mm. 18-21

Example  9.12  Beethoven, Sonata  for Piano  and Violin op. 9 6 ,1 , mm..  31-34 mm

Example 9.13 Beethoven, Sonata op. 10, no. 3, III, mm.  67-68

Example 9.14   Mozart, Sonata  K.  310, III, mm Example 9.14 mm.. 1-4

60

 

Tempo   a nd   Tempo Modifications 

Example 9.15  J. S. Bach,  The Art  o f  Fugue  (a (a)) original  (b (b))  printed version

61

s f p )   on the  Weak Beat

\Vlien   an  s f p )   occurs o  onn a weak beat it is usually advisable to  take that weak beat earlier than w ould be demanded in stri strict ct time; time; on e thee  tone  an d balance th  thee timing  on the should,   as it w ere, ere,  fall onto  th far   side of the  sf sf.. T he   reason fo  forr this: ordinarily the bar  organization  t h e player no  o pportunity  thee flow   o f time in an ungives  th pportunity  to  shape th usual  way; a  ann  sf  o n a weak bea t, however, gi gives ves  th thee  impression that  t o destroy th  thee norm during the th e  composer felt  compelled to during a particular moment   o f intense emotion.  It is thi thiss int intense ense em otion that deman ds its  equivalent on the part  of the  player. H o w   could it be expressed other than  b y hurrying, b y rushing to the weak  beat? After  th  — indow thee  weak   to not the  only   moving nexty to strong one   o nthe e — regm ust hesitate. This beat slowing slowing n serves onl restore ular  pace bu  butt  also, far  f ar more,  as a contrast  to the precedi  preceding ng rush ing (Example   9. 16) 16).. Example  9.17 is an intensificat intensification ion of  expression, expression, versus the version 3 without  sfp  as in m.  I .   In  relation  to  this this consider Ex ample 9.18. 9.18 .

 

62 

The Art of  Performance

Example 9.16 Mozart, Sonata Sonata K.  K. 332,1, m  mm. m.  94-100

Example 9.17 Beethoven, String Quartet op. 59, no. no.   1,1, m. 1,1, m. 38

Example 9.18 Moza ozart, rt, Strin String g Quartet   K. 421,1, m. 34

Compare also Beethoven, Sonata op.  op. 57,1, m. 42, 4 2, and III, mm.  98,102:

110 10:: mm.  104, 106, 108, 1

m .   142ff.:

 

Tempo   an d  Tempo Modifications 

Especially  noteworthy are Especially noteworthy  cases  in which  are cases in which   two or more or more  sfs  immediately follow one another: Beethoven, Symphony no. 9, op.   125,1, mm.. 31-34: mm

63

W ,   mm mm..  598-600 (i.e., mm 4-6 of the Andante maestoso):

Compare also Variat Variations ions op op.. 34, var. 1, mm mm..  10-11: it is as if each

sforzando   pre prepar pared ed the ffollowing ollowing one psycho psychologically, logically, as it were. T  To o

attain the desired expression  in this case, it is necessary to hurry  to 4 the second s/   (Example 9.19). (Example 9.19). Emphasis  on  weak beats must  not by any  means  be  avoided, whether  the composer explicitly demands this  or not. There are an infinite  number  of gradations  of such emphases, up to the limits o  off a  prescribed and similar symbols. Least of all may they be omitted when a new motive begins on the weak bea  beatt (Examp (Examples les 9.20 and 9.21). Similarly, consider con sider Example 9.22 9.22;; see also Example 3.14a.

Example 9.19 Beethoven, Varia Variations tions op. 34, var.  1, mm.  10-11

Example 9.20 Mozart, String Quartet  K . 387,1,  387,1, m.  m. 21. The indication ^/was added b  by y Schenker as elucidation Th The e Einstein-Novello edition has a p, taken  taken from  from   the the manuscript. The facsimile of the manuscript shows  a crossed-out  crossed-out  Jo  final   indication, Jorr or^p and, as final clearly  pia. The  The New Mozart Edition decided  onjp.

 

64  

The Art of  Performance

Example 9.21  Beethoven, Sonata fo  f o r Piano  an d Violin op. 24, 24, IV, mm..  1-2 mm

Example 9.22 Beethoven, Sonata op. 22, IV mm mm.. 1-2

Example 9.23 Beethoven, String Quartet op. 18, no. 1, II, mm. mm. 9-11

stress, whether within within   piano  or forte, needs to be anticiEach such stress, pated; thus the per  performer former must be prepared to anticipate th  the e main acshadows. This gives an impetus that aids both con cent with tent and form: vivid means such as this seem to set even the tiniest pa part rt of   the  whole  into  intense vibration;  the the  content, which otherwise would simply be annihilate  a nnihilated d by the metrical pattern, lives an and d breathes. In  Example 9.23, the entrance in m. 2, which comes "too early," then stops, is actually written  in this way by Beethoven. (In the first version of the String Quartet, both measures are the same, i.e., like the first ) Also listen to what Schindler says about Beethoven's playing of his Sonata op. 14. no.  no.  1,1, mm 1,1, mm..  12-13:

With   the th e  entrance  of the  second theme the dialogue became sentimental and the tempo an Andante,  but very fluct fluctuati uating, ng, as each voice  a mom entary hold hold,, approximately  thus: received a received  approximately thus: Example 9.24 Beethoven, Sonata   op. 14 14,, no.  1,1, m  mm. m.  12-13

 

TEN

Rests

A   P H R A S E   S U C H   A S Example 10.  thh e  pianist  an  opportunity 10.1 1 give givess t

to use a technique learned by violinists. A violinist will continue the motion  of the bow through  the  eighth rest  to the d2 that follows after  he releases the  string.  Th The e pianist can produce  a similar  effect 2 by using the hand's impulse after being hurled from hurled from  the  f j   to reach 2 the  d .   Lowering the hand because of the rest would be counterproductive  a n d give  a n entirely different  effect. The opposite of this technique is the imitation of the abrupt  of the bow. the bow.  The The violinist  has to use utmost use utmost precision  at this stopping of stopping  violinist has precision at  this instant or the sound will continue. The same is required on the piano, th  the e thrusting-away  motion being absorbed by the lower lower a arm. rm.  thrusting-away motion At:  times dissembling means must  be  used  in the  execution  of  10.2 t rests. If, for instance, in Example 10.2  the he composer writes (b) instead the e player should hasten to the second half of the  second second beat, bea t, of  (a), th holding back immediately afterward.  This corresponds to the comholding positional positio nal origi origin n of the rest. Without hurrying and then hol holding ding bac back k   s e e   p. 53 ff),  considering the  intended expression, th thee  effect  of an un Itt foll  follow ow s that  a rest is often more than it intentional  ritenuto results. I seems: it has thematic significance  and is a motive  in itself,  itself, which  iss  which i 1 how ho w it must be played.  (See Exa Examples mples 10.3 and and  10.4.) S ee  also Beethoven, Sonata op.8la, I, mm  mm.. 15-16 (end of the Introduction):

65

 

Example 10 10.1 .1 Mozart, Mozart, P Piano iano Trio Trio,,  K.  564,  III, III , mm mm.. 1-4 K. 564,

Example 10.2  10.2  C. P. E. Bach, Sonata, fo forr  Connoisseurs  a n d Am ateurs ateurs,, Third Collection,  no  no.. 2,1, m  mm m.  13-15

Example Exampl e 10. 10.3 3 Beethoven, S Sonata onata op. 79, II, mm mm..  32-34

Example 10.4  Beethoven, C oriolanus oriolanus  Overture, op. 62, mm. mm. 286-89 and 270-71

66

 

Rests

Example 10.5 Beethoven, Sonata op. 81a, III, III , mm mm..  176-77

67

Example 10.6 Haydn, Sonata Hob.  XVI:49,1, mm  mm..  200-202

Frequendy an increase i  in n tempo serves to keep me tension through die die rest (Examples 10.5, 10.6). In  th  the e same sonata  see II, mm. mm.  15-17:

From  an abundance  of examples these may be cited: Haydn, Symphony Hob. Hob.   I:  101, II, I: 101,  II, mm.  96-98:

Schubert, Symphony No. 8, D. 759,1, mm  mm.. 61-63:

 D.. 960, IV ,  m m .  10-11: Schubert, Sonata D

mm..  153-56: mm

 

68

The Art of  P e r f o r m a n c e

Example 10.7 Beethoven, Sonata op. 27, no. 1, III, m m .  25-31

Example  10.8 Beethoven, Sonata op.  o p.  31,  3 1,   no. 3, II, II, mm . 8-9 and 35

Example 10.9 Beethoven, Sonata op. 31 , no.  2,1, m. 121

A  so-called Atempause (breathing space) generally occurs to  clarify is a device of the synthesis. A n entirely  differmental organization;  it is entt type en  of rest  is that to limitations of  of the  the  instrument,  type of  rest is  that which is which is due to limitations be it the piano or the orchestra, for example in large leaps, strong dynamic swells,  or  sudden occurrences that cannot  be  accomplished with mathematical  precision without giving the  the impression  off haste.  mathematical precision  impression o Better,  then  to use a  Notpause  ["rest  o f  necessity"] Examples 10.7, an d  10.9 10.9 demonstrat demonstrate e such cases. 1 0 . 8 ,   and

 

ELEVEN

T h e   Performance  o f  Older  Music

Expression and Freedom in Older Works The view is widespread that the richer the instrumentation, the thicker and more orchestral the piano w riting, riting, the m ore difficult  th thee music wil will be to p erfo rm . There is, however however,, mo re and more aw areness  that  a com position position  by  W agn agner er o  orr  Richard Strauss actually actually is inth e  earlier classics. comparably easier t easier  too p erform than than  the classics. Bu t not too much should be read into this insight: even those who voice it for the th e  most part are  a re  unable to  t o give th  t h e  real rreason eason for the  fact. Frequentlyy w hen   a symphony by Frequentl  b y Tchaikovsky or a work  of  o f  Richard ar d  Strauss—in short,  a pie piece ce reverberating with brass instrumen ts — is  perform ed, we hear the phrase "t "the he orchestra orchestra once again again out andd revi  b e  said did itself"   in  conversations an  review ew s. B ut it must be said that just  itself,   o f noise  and   the th e to that performs  speak, an  composiin  general  no  n o t even  thetto  th eo orchestra  ad that tion  sort does give  so  chance  show  if it  truly ca  cann outdo itself. itself. F o r pi  pieces eces such as these do not  confront th  thee performer  with  difficulties.  T h e  masterworks, however, composed in a  prof ound manner manner by our C lassic lassical al comp composers, osers, present presen t problems problem s from   note  to  note solved by few  performers. T o outdo ou tdo onesel oneselff here indeed  would be a task  worth d  dedicating edicating oneself oneself to, and with utmost passion Iri  older  forms—the  suites  of J. S. Bach, for  instance—understanding the   diminutions presents presents gre at problems, greater, thank s to   their restless polyphony, than those in,  i n,  say, a son ata movement in  i n 69

 

70 

The Art of  Performance

Beethoven. The laws of the linear progressions are identical in both, certainly, but the diminution figurations, moving all but ceaselessly in regular note values, prevent insight, allow the mind no rest, while in a Beethoven movement alrea  the e rhetorical rests offer  the peralready dy th

former  the relief  of breathing. N  Now ow even if the player can follow   the the meaning neither there nor here, he nonetheless moves more comexternally y more "sp "speakin eaking" g" manner manner o  off Beethoven fortably in the even externall than in the "connected" world of Bach.  That is why it is harder to come to terms with Bach,  to make h  his is meaning meaning "speak." "speak."  Bach, to Expressive,  rhetorical rhetorical per perfor forman mance, ce, ho howe weve ver, r, is demanded again and an d  again and was practiced in their o  ow w n playing b y J. S. Bach,  C. P. E. Bach, Mozart. Bach,  Mozart. Ho How w curious that a nonrhetorical per  performanc formanc e, which thus is no  performance at all, can earn as much  or more applause Furthermore,  a calamitous belief  in progress led in music to the erroneous conclusion that expressive playing and  freedom   in execution can only be found in a later epo epoch ch (preferably  (preferably dated  dated from Berlioz, peaking i  inn Liszt  a n d Wagner), certainly post-Classical.  T h e truth  is that  the very nature of the content of the works of our Classical  inimitably ly free-flowing free-flowing synthesis, synthesis, lends itself masters, thanks to their inimitab to  greater  freedom of  expression. Nothing  is as wrong  as today's per for mer s—who,   claiming that recent works are more intensely expressive—regard   older works  as being less expressive, and perform  them with less freedom accordingly.1 Specifically  the  performance of  Classical works must  be  shaped freely and  expressively. All that contemporaries have reported  en en-thusiastically about  the  infinitely free and  colorful performances of Bach, Mozart a J. S.  Bach, C. P. E.  Bach, Mozart  and nd   Beethoven, Mendelssohn endel ssohn  and an d Brahms, all  that sho  b e taken as  a s evidence fo  forr this fact. If one adds should uld be what can be found in essays and letters by these masters, then one cannot  but  become convinced that their music  is performed correctly only if it is played with utmost freedom.

Improvisation: Improvisatio n: Fermatas and Cadenzas Frequently older masterworks require the elaboration of  fermatas and cadenzas. I need no  nott point out the sad state of this ability today. It Itss  dying out is the natural consequence of composers accustoming themselves to writing down in the most precise manner every detail that  conceivably might be  considered considered par partt of the  composition. Thi Thiss custom developed developed out of the growing spread of dilettantism in music,

 

T he   Performance  of Older  Music

which again in equal measure caused the diminishing and eventual disappearance of disappearance  of expertise among performers. Precisely for this reason the masters the masters must have  felt  well-grounded skepticism toward the the  performer. And so the bitter prophecies of a C. P P.. E. Bach,  a J. J.

71

Quantz, have been  fulfilled;  the  ability to improvise, to  execute execute fer and d cadenzas, has been lost for all time. Lost also is the skill of matas an working out a continue bass—something predicted no less  definitely by itely  by C. P. E. Bach.

Passagework an  and d Scales Passages and scales, as we encounter them in older works, are, unfortunately, frequently  f requently misundersto misunderstood: od: as a re result sult of the piano methods of  post-C post-Classical lassical times, th that at which we call a passage was robbed of any artistic value. Thought up by their authors purely as finge fingerr e exxercises, these passages are devoid of any origin in the spirit. The student, n  no o matter where he enco  encounters unters them outside outside piano methods or etudes, involuntarily associates suc such h passages with mere finger exercises. An example from  C. P. E. E. Bach  may ay  elucidate this point  Bach m point (Exampl ple e  11.1).  This  idea  represents  an  entity  wherein  the II step  is expressed in the form  of a scalelike passage. Superficial  players tend  to forget that amid the rhetorical tonal language of the preceding and  bars, an empty  fast-finger  demonstration, bare of any exfollowing bars, following pression, is pointless. Bu  Butt precisely the the context of the passage should should  of expression as well. demonstrate to us that it serves as a means of Hereby I touch  on a point  of decisive significance for the character and evaluation of the  excellence of our masterworks; passages and fiorituras  are an integral part of older works and themselves share in the overall expr expressiven essiveness. ess. The grea greatt ma masters sters were grea greatt in-

Exarnple 11.  1 C. P. E. Bach,  Sona ta for  Connoisseurs  a n d Am ateurs ateurs,, Third   Collection, no. 2,1, mm.  19-22 Third

 

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The Art of  Performance

strumentalists  wh who o  could indulge their delight  in  playing  all the more  easily by having the ability to bring together a wealth  of figurations through synthesis  synthesis.. Mozart was a cons consummate ummate pianist a and nd an excellent violinist; Haydn, too, was too, was a violinist a violinist   of stature; Bach was a

master of the organ, the harpsichord,  et cetera. Figurations literally sprang  out of  their imagination  the  more they were aware  of the background, that  is, of  diminution. This explains  th e  fact that frequently,  the  most exalted language  notwithstanding—in the Adagios,  for instance—our masters do not  dispense with passages and ornaments orna ments.. Even in h his is last works, Beethoven dra draws ws o on n a variety of figurations to serve as a means  of ardent expression. It   is noticeable that even in the works of Schubert, Schumann, and Mendelssohn  the  delight  in similar  figurations and passages diminishes  sadly.  I say  sadly since particularly  th thee  late works  o f Beethoven,, his P Beethoven Piano iano Sonatas, his S Sonata onatass for P Piano iano and Violin, his e Ninth Symphony and Piano Trios, yes, even th even the Symphony and the Missa Solemnis, prove that  the deepest expressiveness need not preclude instrumental  effects.  In this sense, the last piano sonatas  of Beethoven represent the highest highest and noblest type of pur pure e pia piano no m music. usic. A Ass mentioned earlier, Schumann could  no  more than Schubert  or  Mendelssohn find the way back way back to  to that  that ideal o ideal off piano art; lacking genuinely pianistic figurations, figurations, he comp compensated, ensated, as it w were, ere, incorporating orchestral effects  into his works. One step further w  was as taken by Brahms, who who introduced  th the e most extensive exten sive octave playing to the piano. To be sure, this master reconquered, regarding synthesis, that high level o  off composition  on which stood Bach, Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. Thus he succeeded in creating  his own  individual piano style  in which orchestral  and pianistic-polyphonic playing,  with intensified expressiveness, were combined  in such  a way way that  he could dispense with  the figurations and passages of Beethoven. his   diminishing awareness  awareness  of It   was  through  Wagner—with  his synthesis—that   the  foreground became encumbered  by  segments synthesis—that  and an d components of motives too ponderous to have wings, wings, as it were. A   certain weight pressed down  the the  motive  or its parts—this  was Wagner's clear  intention—but the  propulsion  of  diminution  was gone. The  crescendi in flight, the extended tones aiming at individual notes—these do not occur in Wagner's works. Now the  error  was  made  of  imposing  th the e  rendition  of  this weighed-down weigh ed-down dimi diminuti nution on on older works. Th They ey were were infused  infused   with pathos—a  quality incom incompatible patible with the flexibili flexibility ty and transparency tra nsparency

 

T he   Performance  of Older M usi usicc 

of their diminutions. But such pathos is not appropriate to the motives an fragments in the works Mozart, t,  et  and d motive fragments in the works of  of  Bach, Haydn, Mozar  equally inappropriate is weighing down moving eighths and cetera; equally cetera; one tone  to  another. sixteenths, cong congealing ealing in a crescendo from   one

73

Light and Light an renditions  are ma de possible only only by d spirited renditions  are made  by an overall an overall view,  by thinking ahead, thereby giving wings to the hand. The ear, too, like t  the he eye, must  offer  us perspective. This ability comes from understanding the background. (No playing the way a pedestrian might walk wh who o gropes  his  way from  paving stone to  paving stone It  becomes evident all this that figurations  and  passages  in)   from the works of older masters should be given the dignity of the most genuine and beautiful expression—if, that is, one does not intend to credit a  present-day Czerny Czerny with them  a present-day

 

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TWELVE

O n  P ractic racticing ing

A S S U M I N G   K N O W L E D G E   A N D M A S T E R Y   of  the instrument, th  thee study

o f   significant, good compositions must begin immediately with their expressive performance. A musical person, having reached  a certain level, does not need to practice in the sense of  of   finger exerfinger exercises and etudes; such practicing only leads back to these very exercises,  to these very etudes—a world not worth reaching. In a world worthy of the  effort, such studies do not guarantee security. B y  n  no o means can everything be practiced Certain difficulties, ex by the composer the composer himself,  can only  be borne be borne   and and overcome perienced by perienced himself, can only through the spirit of the performer, not by practicing. A dist  distant ant world from that of  practicing Virtuosos are defeated by such passages, and and finger   exercises are of no  avail. Only the  spirit can find the  way: it finger knowss how to reduce the problem to a sim know simple ple formula, formula , thereby elimelim in Beethove inating it. Examples occur in  Beethoven's n's Piano Trio op. 97, in the octave  leaps, m  m..  104fE, at the beginning of the development of the first movement (Example  12. la), in the  fourth-movement octave arpeggios,  mm. mm. 36, 38, 40ff.,  which  are are  embellished with slurs (Example 12.  Ib), as well as in in the final bars; in Sonata op.   109, 109, III III,, van 6, m.  25ff.  12.2), and in the  thirty-seconds of the  left hand (Example 12.2),  and in Sonata op op..   2 7 , no. 1, II, m.  89ff.:

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The Art of  Performance

as well as  well as in III (the Allegro vivace), m.   58ff.

instead of the reverse

(b))  IV , Example 12. 1  Beethoven, Piano Trio  op. 97 (a) I, m.  104ff.;  (b mm. 40-43

Example  12. 2 Beethoven,  Beethoven, Sonata  Sonata  op .  10 109, 9, III III,, var. 6, mm.  25-26

Example  12. 3 Beethoven, Sonata  o p . 90,1,  m .  55ff.

 

On Practicing

Technical  difficulties  in a work  of art can be equated with Technical   with   th e  difficulties  fate brings  brings in  life— — but they must be must be generated  generated by  in life  by the synthethe synthesis.  That is: the composer may not  throw  in a technical problem merely to show himself and the performer in the pose of a musician easily  overcoming  difficulties—such pieces are generally written by

77

difficulties  must in a sense confr the virtuoso-composers. The  The  difficulties  confront ont the composer himself, so that he is obliged  to  muster true spiritual an  and d ethical strength rather man vanity to overcome them. When, for example, Beeth Beethoven oven in  i n Sonata op  o p . 90,1,  90,1, second  second theme,  m .  55fF. puts  the th e accompaniment in tenths (Example 12.3), it is as though he himself had run  across a problem that he now has to overcome with utmost fervor.   Edit Editors ors w who ho sug sugges gestt a simplificat simplification ion in such a spo spott the thereby reby deprive  it of its real  such a  dividing   figurations its real meaning. Simplifications such  ass dividing 1 between the two hands fall into th  same category.  the e same  category.

Each  work of art has only o  onn e true renditi rendition—its on—its ow own, n, part particula icularr one —etudes are of no help whatsoever here. This is true even of fingering: it is unseemly  to use ingenious  fingerings in pieces  and places thatt do not call for such ing tha ingenuity. enuity. Every piece has its own special fingering, its own special dynamics. All practicing of studies misses th the e point, as fingering, dynamics, an  and d position o  off hand a  and nd fingers in a n y  particular piece are not applicable to any other. That is why the art of performance is un  unattainabl attainable e for the many who,  who,  from  from  incompetence,  attempt to get by with an  a n absolute model for fingering, dynamics, and hand position. 2

With the so-called English action,   perfect evenness of touch has arrived.. Simultaneously, rived Simultaneously, mus music ic training has for deca  decades des striven striven f  foo r perfect evenness also of the fingers. Thus we are faced are faced with evenness of fingers an fingers  and d keys. We could be pleased by this development  if—wh at irony —precisely the opposite were not the crux of the matter: un  un-evenness The fingers, by nature by nature uneven, must play unevenly;  unevenly; all effort  in practicing practicing is in vain if it does not aim at unevennesses iin n performance. The synthesis of a  masterwork presents extraordinary  extraordinary  difficulties  difficulties  to the perf pe rformer ormer.. Its demands cannot ca nnot be avoided; they even take precedence over  the the best finger technique,  and only insight  can lead  th the e way.  By no means must tempo alone be allowed to play the decisiv decisive e role; it role; repl ace insight. Often  one del udes ones oneself elf by  imag it can never can never replace one deludes  by imagining that  a unified  conception can be  attained by   fast  playing;  b u t

 

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speed only evades the  issue, for by avoiding the demands of synthesi siss  through speed, indeed, one obscures the  interconnections. The Th e purpose  of all practicing must  therefore be to practice  th the e conceptual demands until  the desired tempo has been reached. Up

to  then,  the  mechanics  of  playing  must  be  subordinated  and the tempo held back accordingly in order to avoid t  the he hand's automatic carrying out out of an un unintentional intentional  effect. Once the conceptual requirements have been truly assim assimilated, ilated, then  and only then can one entrust one's technical equipment  to  them.  At  that point, even  the quickest tempo will b  be e within easy reach.

Lazy  players play fast— thi thiss is no paradox The They y are too lazy to go through the many motions necessary for playing expressively. Such  "are played," as it were, by the tones. players "are players

 thh e end, what matters is the  ability to hear  a n d evaluate  all the efIn  t fects   of  one's ow  o w n playing; this is surely th  thee most  difficult  task of  all If  one is sti ll struggling with with finger  control an  uses u is still  finger control  and d uses  up p all nervous all nervous en  en-ergy in achieving the correct finger motion, then nothing is left  to control that which  the fingers fingers produce. Only one who speedily produces into the fingers, so to speak, gain gainss sufficient  time and energy to  sufficient time judge  the th e  effect  a s well. Only if the performer is fully aware of the desired effect will he be able  to convey convey it. This effect  the then n serves to justify to justify   any means he mig might ht use to produce it. The psychology of this  fact is so compelling that even  mistakenly desired effects  becom become e tolerab tolerable le wh when en the per perfor former mer  them with awareness and conviction. Only that result which conveys them conveys the player produces involuntarily, with no notion of why and wherefore,  is rejected. ell— Physical gestures  a s a means  o f expression belong here  as w ell— similar  to the arm  movements  of a string player  or the  breathing technique  of a wind technique  a wind player.  player. A perfo  performer rmer cannot pos possibl sibly y produce produce   the the composer's comp oser's intend intended ed result iiff he ignores these gestures. Even unseen by the listener, the player's gesture will convey its   effect  if only he uses it. If   the the performance  is to express to express th  the e  content in its entirety, then   performance is content in its entirety, then  utmost daring and total mastery of the technical  and spiritual means are essential. Of Of what does this mastery consist? Of nothing else but elimination of any anxiety. G raduall the   elimination of the raduallyy th  the e  performer must come to  realize that anxiety is entirely  unjustified.  If he recalls  from  h is

 

On Practici Practicing ng

earliest piano lessons that the  left hand did not want to move  separately from  from   the right  and nonetheless  was trained to independence, if if   he  further  remembers  the greater  difficulties  encountered in the independent motions of several elements that he mastered nevertheless, the less, thus may he dra draw w the reassuring conclusion conclusion tha thatt musical en-

79

ergy is ever ready to expand. Eventually it learns to make each instant precious and meaningful. May the pianist therefore not lose heart bu  butt  have faith have faith in his own ability, by means of the greatest variety of hand and arm motions, by the most manifold gradations, to infuse   the tones with genuine  life.

 

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Appendix   A On the Technique the Technique of  of the  Piano  in Particular

[In [I n  A  A,, chapter  3 is is fol followed lowed by one titled  "On the  Technique  of the Piano   in  Particular."  Its It s publication  in  full  is planned  in a  different

context. Here follow follow s  a summary of its content.] The arm  must b  bee used as a tool in its entire length  in such a way that it passes the  the instructions  of the nerves on to the  the  fingers  without interference—in   a channel, as it were. Thus  an y position  o f hand and an d   arm is to be  avoided that  contradicts  the law of  gravity. A n y other position that requires   a special effort would tire th  t h e hand a n d arm.  T  Thh e sh  shoulder, oulder, el elbow, bow, an  andd w ris ristt fun ction as  nodal points, w hic hichh state  o f rest of the  arm; this this means that  the arm secure   th e  steady state secure c an  b e  brought into such  a rel  relaxed axed state th at  a ll thre  threee nodal points remain in their na tural position position accor according ding to gravity. gravity. The k eyboard, conversely,  is the point of support without  which the arm would drop  down. The vertical motion of the arm is countered by the horizontal movess from  right  to left.  B u t thi  thiss horizontal one of the  h and, which move direction   also requires  a n  effort  that would tire  the arm  were  th e relaxing mo men ts. These consist of the release of player not to find relaxing the na tura l w ei eight ght of the hand in pressure on the keys. The comp osition  must be the  decisive factor  in finding which places are  appropriate  for the release of  o f pressure. T h e  freed hand is then enabled to  to the next i  inn a flying motion;  to move  from  o n e point  o f  pressure to this point  th prevails. a n d  from  this  t h e  lightest mo bility prevails. 81

 

82 

Appendix  A

A n  analogy to the human respiratory organs lies at hand: just as the tension tension of inhaling is bal balanced anced by the the relaxa relaxation tion of exhaling exhaling,, sim sim-ilarly  every tension of hand and arm position must be  followed  by relaxation. Thus the elbow in a certain sense is the mouth of the arm. When  th the e elbow h  has as been brought  to rest, the arm has by analogy ex-

haled. The equivalent of the singer's taking a breath is the pianist's attacking the tacking above e it. He must take  sufficient  the key from key from   a certain height abov He must take  time for the necessary preparat prepa ratory ory hand motion motion.. Inasmuch as the mode  of  notation knows nothing of  this  we have the  situation  dedescribed in chapter 2, where there appears to be a contradiction between mode of notation and execution that is only resolved in the effect.  (The absence  o f  such preparatory rests  differentiates  organ technique from  piano technique in a very characteristic manne manner.) r.)

 

Appendix   B

On the   Degeneracy of the Virtuoso

[The manuscript of A closes  with  a chapter "On the Degeneracy of the V irtuoso." irtuoso." It takes up the ide ideaa devel developed oped in chapte chapterr 2 on the union of   creation  and an d re-creation. Here follows  a summary of its content.] In  an earl earlier ier epoch, epoch, only that perform er w ho pe rfo rm ed his his ow n composition posi tionss stepped before t before  thh e public.  public.   T h e  development  development  o f  music d music dee pended   on  this identity. Handel,  J. S. Bach,  C. P. E.  Bach,  Mozart, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, and Brahms were also the f oremo st virtuvirtuIf,, however, osos   o f  their time.  If however, Haydn, Schubert,  o r Schumann  d id n o t  appear before  th e public to the same exten t, their occasional performances proved  sufficiently  that they, too, w ould have been at the pinnacle   o f  reproducing  musicians  h ad   they  n o t  been prevented from   demonstrating this ability more frequently by circumstances. T h e   identity  o f  production  an d  reproduction  w as   lost over  the th e course of  time. M ore and more, peopl peoplee came to consider consider a purely reproductive ability   as equal  to productive ability. This state  o f  affairs, caused   by lack of talent, led to the attempt by thousands—be it from  vanity, be it from  financial gree d— to appea appearr before  th thee  public. Since  they lacked true ability  in the earlier the earlier sense,  ability in sense, they ma de  de  a virtue o f   their defect and declared the profession prof ession of virtuoso as organicall organicallyy necessary as  that of composer. The profession of virtuoso, based on a  lie, prevailed  a n d attained  the th e  recognition  o f  artistic justification. Still  at the  close  of the  eighteenth  and at the  beginning  of the nineteenth century there were virtuosos with   sufficient  ability  to 83

 

84 

Appendix  B

compose and improvise so that one could speak of an integrated whole, if to a lesser extent. Muzio Clementi may be named  as an ex off composer w as asample; with his "Gradus ad Parnassum" a  rank o sured  him  such  as can hardly be  granted  granted  later,  be it to  Thalberg, Tausig, or B  Bil illow. low. In the world of etudes, Clementi is only surpassed

by Chopin. Chopin. Liszt, in his etudes, ho howe wever ver,, add added ed elements to the music that, beside much that is excellent and original, tended to destroy rather than develop it. Still in recent times [written  1911] Anton Rubinstein, d'Albert, Bu soni, soni,  and  Paderewski  to a certain and Paderewski a certain degree have achieved  a unified whole.  All the  sadder for the  thousands  who are brought to the stages of all the world. Th  The e economics of the concert agencies, once in motion, demand more artistic sacrifices artistic sacrifices  daily. Most virtuosos who go onstag  onstage e prove themselves artistical artistically ly not up to the works wo rks they are performing; they speak the tonal language lik like e a badly learned foreign tongue. In order to survive in the battle at competition, they grasp fo  f o r unallowed means o f false  effect that they want  to pass off as  marks  o f their  o w n individuality. In  truth, they  a re  incaoffering  the  spiritual equivalent of equivalent of the  composer's writtenpable of  of  offering  the spiritual down note symbols. They  are outside  th the e sphere of the  composer's living livin g vision; they they   are  merely slaves of engraver and hand  hand position. are merely  of   engraver and

The more irresponsibly  the virtuosos treat their profession, th  the e  it is to enter it. In the fight for survival, the  many, too  many, easier it easier must attempt  to outdo  one one another by dishonest means: they must learn the longest programs; they  attempt  to play ever louder, ever faster.   Banished from  a paradise of  union  o f production  a n d reproduction,   a li duction, itself   on  them. lie e avenges itself on them.

 

Notes

Chapter   1

1 .   Mozart  to his  father  from  from   Mannheim, January 17th, 1778: 'And wherein consists the art of playing prima vista? prima vista? In  In this: in playing the piece in the time in which it ought to be b e played, and in playin playing ga all ll the notes, appoggiaturas and so forth, exactly as they are written and with the appropriate expression and taste, so that you  might  think the performer had composed  it himself."  T he  Letters  o f  M ozart and His Fam ily. ily.  Translated  an d edited by  Emily Anderson (London: Macmillan Press,  1966).  First Ameri by Emily 1985,, p. 449. can revised edition  New  York: W W. Norton, 1985  to Tomaschek, has always been acknowledged that Beethoven to Beethoven  Tomaschek, 1814: "It 1814: "It has always the greatest pianists were also the greatest composers, but how did they play?   Not like the pianists of  today, who only run up and down the keyplay? heart—putch,  putch, putch board with passages they have learned by  by  heart—putch,  The   real piano virtuosos, when they What does that mean? Nothing The played, gave us something interconnected, a whole. When it was written down it could be  accepted as a well-composed work. That was piano playing,  the ing,  rest iss nothing "  Beethoven: The Man and th th e  rest i thee Artist A s Revealed in His O w n  W or ords. ds.  Translated and edited by Henry Edward Krehbiel (New York: Dover,  1964), p. 37. C. P. E.  Bach, Essay on the True Art  A rt  of  Playing Keyboard  Instruments, chap. 3, § 2: "But wherein wherein does good perf  performance ormance con consis sist? t? In nothin nothing g other than the ability to make musical ideas perceptible to the ear according to their and   emotion through playing or  By variety true content  content   and playing or singing. By  variety herein, one  and the same idea can appear so changed that one can barely sense  identical." al." (Translated by  I.S.) that the two are identic

85

 

86  

Notes  to  Chapter  2

Chapter 1.  Compare Schenker in B eethoven' eethoven'ss Ninth Symphony,  pp pp.. 8-10:  "In  appearance,  my  performance instructions stand  in contradiction  to  Beethoven's orthography—that raphy—that is, own ow n orthog  is, to the way he has written down t  the he content. But

 thee nature  o f this apparent contradiction resolves itself  as  soon  as I explain th

the th e  orthography.  Specificall Specifically, y,  it is is not the task of the orthography,  as iiss generally   believed  and  taught,  to  provide  the  player with  perfectly definite means   fo r achieving effects  allegedly specified  an d attainable only through  buu t  rather  to  arouse in his mind, in an  an  a priori manprecisely these means, b

ner,  specific  effects,  leaving  it up to him to  choose  freely  th e  appropriate means  f o r th  their eir attainment. It is therefore incorrect to see in the  orthograp h y  nothing more than t  thh e  definite  specifications o f equally definite means,  in this sense. What  is co an andd   to take it literally in  correct, rrect, rather,  is that the orthe player free rein concerning t  the he means thography on the contrary allows the to be employed, just  so long  as they actually do attain that definite  effect which alone was meant to be expressed by the  orthography.  In short:  orthography announces  a n d seeks  effects,  b u t  says nothing  at all about  th e means of producing them "From this standpoint, therefore,  a legato slur,  f o r  example, expresses first and  foremos  foremostt merel merely y  th thee desire for the  effect  o f a legato, without indicating  in   what  way it is supposed  to be  achieved;  and it is accordingly wrong to  associate—invoking the  orthography  as the allegedly authentic the  conception  of  only one, wish  of the composer—with a  legato slur  the completely definite, manner  o f  execution  from  th e  outset.  off dynamic markings  a s well—if "Or—to speak o  well—if   th e  composer writes a p ,  f or  example, he wants it to express only th e desire for the effect  o f  a p : f a r from   specifying  an any y absolute quantity, however, he leaves it to the player to seek  a n d express this  effect  b y taking into account various circumstances, such as the instrument,  the register of the  melodic content (high or low), and so  forth. Under certain circumstances, therefore, t  thh e  effect  of ap  will be  produced in, for example, a higher  higher register by a dynamic quantity which, if   measured by an absolute standard, would have to  t o count  as  m f  o r  indeed even as/ "A  second example: a  ann s/notated  s/notated by  by the  composer  signifies,  again,  th e desire  only for the  effect  of an  sf,  b u t  leaves to the  discretion  of the player

 the e numerous means o  off production the one himself  to choose from among th which, in the given situation, is the most desirable with respect to  effect." Chapters 1.  J. Fr. Reichardt on C. P. E. Bach's k keyboard eyboard pla  playing:"He ying:"Herr rr Bach  Bach plays a rather slow, singing Adagio no nott only with th  the e most touching expression, putting t  to o sham shamee many instrumentalis instrumentalists ts wh  who o could approximate a singing voice aufrierksamen erksamen  Reisenden, with much less ef fo rt ... " J. Fr. Fr. Reichardt, B r i e fsf s   eines aufri andd  Breslau:1776), p  p.. 1 6. (Translated by dieMusik   b e t r e f f e n d ,  vol. 2 (Frankfurt  an H.E.)

 

Notes   to  Chapter  5

M. Claudius to H. W. von  Gerstenberg: "His  [C. P. E. Ba  Bach's] ch's] playing of an  Adagio cannot be better described than, if I may humbly ask you to  an orator nott memorized his speech  but rather imagine, an imagine,  orator   who has no  memorized   his  speech but  rather  is filled by its  content, does not  rush  to utter something  but rather calmly lets wave after wave stream out of the  fullness of his soul, without any artificiality  of manner." B. E  Engelke ngelke,, "Gerstenberg und die Musik seiner Zeit." In  Zeitschrift

87

d ,  Ges.f. Schleswig-Holsteinische  Geschichte, vol. 56. p. 432. (Kiel, 1927). (Translated by lated  by I.S.) Rondo ndo of Sonata op. 5 53: 3: ""Th The e iintennten2. 2.   Compare Schenker's note to the Ro tion of Beethoven's long pedals, which take no account of dissonant pass-

ing  chords  ing  chords  or or   mixtures,  mixtures,  is a  spiritual, almost transcendental, bindingtogether of larger groups, whi which ch his instrumen instrumentt also favored  (cf. op. op. 31  31 , no.  and 153-158). On modern 2 , 1 , mm. ,  mm.  143-148 and  153-158).   On  modern instruments one instruments one may try to half-pedaling g at the passing harmonies (mm. 3,7,  11, achieve this  effect  by half-pedalin 1 5 ,  etc.), a kind of legatissimo of the pedal, comparable to legato playing  vol. 2, p. 385. in  general." Beethoven, Com plet pletee Piano Sonatas,  Sonatas, vol. "The he term te rm diminution means embellishment in a general broad broa d sens sense. e. 3.   "T It  has nothing  to do  with diminution meaning 'repetition in smaller note values'.  . ." Footnote  of E. Oster in Schenker, Free C ompositi omposition, on, p.  p. 93.

Chapter   5

The term  term "portamento" has has come  come  to mea to mean n many thing thingss to  to  many p peoeo1.   The ple over the centuries, musicians and writers on music alike—not to mention its frequent  confusion with the similar-sounding term "portato." Fortunately, we do not have to enter into a discussion of this matter, since we have Schenker's ow  Counterpoint, vol. 1,  p  own n definition,  as explained in in Counterpoint,  pp. p. 90-92 and  350-52. Schenker equates "portamento" with "port  de voix, indicating ating voix,"" thereby indic its origin in the human voice (and, by analogy, string instruments). It has  actually  filling out the  large leap(s) at  least in the  "function  of of actually the large  at least  in part" b  by y sliding from one pitch pitch to another. Alt Althoug hough h such a technique a appears ppears not to be possible poss ible on the piano, Schenker demonstrates in examples from Bach, HanBrahms ms (si (simil milar ar to  to those shown here as Examples 5.1, 5.4, 5.6, a  and nd del,   and Brah that  "a  ligature, ure, tha thatt is, a retention tones  . . .. throws  throws into relief  relief   the 5.9)   that  "a ligat a retention   of  of  tones  degree of tension caused by the leaps," which "has the following  effect: after   the completed leap, the initial tone from which the leap departs after sounds together with the goal of the leap; thus the interval is much more clearly clea rly prese presented nted to the ear tha than n if the leap we were re to occur 'naked' (that is, as a simple succession)." Schenker points out that "the portamento produced on the piano in this way is nevertheles neverthelesss  different  from that executed by the singer or violinist, since they are not content merely to indicate the  distance between the beginning and ginning  traverse  the  space itself itself with with a  glissando.  and end of the interval, the interval,  but but traverse the space  a glissando. However,  it  would  be  incorrect  to  attribute  the  ligature, as is generally done, to the tonal poverty of the keyboard instrument and its constant need

 

88  

Notes  to  Chapter  5

fo r  filling-in. On the contrary, this notation must be understood  as an original and autonomous poetic intention to present an interval in the  the  fo rm of rm  of a portament  portamento o [on the keyboard], ev even en though only within the limits of an instrument which, indeed, does not  permit  a gliding-through  of  space o  off the interval, the but which makes it  to mark  interval,  but which makes it possible  possible to  mark beginning and beginning and end in its own ow n original way through a peculiar amalgam of juxtaposition  and super-

imposition (simultaneity) [of pitches]." imposition Schenker further notes that "ligature-tones do not constitute voices in the  obbligato sense; instead  of a real ligature, which conceptually would have to imply one and the same voice, only an inauthentic an inauthentic and  and appa apparent rent lig lig-ature between two  two   different  voices is  is notated  notated in  in the above examples. It is a ligature peculiar to the piano, and this cannot be changed: an original notation that.  . . strives . . . to stimulate  and compel the player to  achiev achieve e portamento tament o expression." He the then n gives an example that according to his view "reflects exactly the principal effect  of a rea  reall portamento, that is, the gliding of  pitches through  the space [of the leap]" (Example 5.N1). He concludes that such a "written-out legatissimo which, in this f or m , is endemic to the keyboard instrument alone"  can appropriately be used  used   frequently  "in performing  keyboard pieces in whatever epoch (including  classical and postclassical wo rk s) .. . even w whe here re it is not expre expressly ssly nota notated ted . . . but merely implied by the  context of the passage."  Counter-point, vol.  1, pp  pp.. 88-91. 2.   Compare Handel's Sui Suite te no. 7 in both versions (Example 5.N2). (Example 5.N2). Com Comthe Cramer etudes, which he pare also Beethoven's remark on remark on the Cramer which he intended  intended   to publish (Example  (Example  5.N3).  5.N3).  "The setting  is in  four  four  parts throughout.  The melody is in the  upper voice, as can be  seen  seen  from   the  notation (a) (a).. Even were it notated as foll  follow ow s,(b),  the first note of each group would have to be 2 l 2 2 accentuated   and held. The inner voice,  e'c ,  fc ,  g'c ,  etc., may not be played  on the same dynamic level as the upper voice. The meter is trochaic."].  B . Cramer,  Cramer,  2 1 Etudenfiir  Klavier, no. 5, p. 1 0. 0. Edited  Edited  by H . Kann (Vienna: Univers Universal al Edition, Edition,   1974).

Example 5.N1 Handel, Suite no. 5, Air, Double IV

 

Notes   to Chapter 7

 mm. m. 11-2: 2: (a) later and Example 5.N2  Handel, Suite no. 7, Allemande, m  version, (b) first,  earlier version final version, final  first, earlier

89

Example 5.N3 Cramer, 2  21 1 Etudes, no. 5, m. 1

Chapter  7

 comments on role of fingering as tool 1.   For or comments  on the  the  role of as tool   of interpretation of interpretation   and Introduction  to Schenker's  edition  of performance  see C.  C.  Schachter, Introduction  Schenker's  edition  Beethoven,  Complete  Piano Sonatas, pp  pp.. viii-ix. Friedrich iedrich Wieck's remark ab about out Beethoven's playing "with 2.   Compare Fr compact fingers." In "Signale," 1873, vol. 57 57,, reprinted in F. Kerst, Kerst, Erinnerungen  Erinnerungen a n  Beethoven, vol. 2 (Stuttgart: J. Hoffmann,  1913), p.  p.  158 158.. Also compa compare re  th the e remark of Beethoven on one of his own exercises: "keeping the hand as eethoveniana eniana  (Leipzig: Rieterclosed   as possible."  G. Nottebohm,  Zwette B Zwette B eethov Biedermann,  1887), p. 362.  a nd no. 1 of 3.  Particularly instructive  are  Chopin, Etude  op. 25, no.  6, and Three   N ew   Etudes; Schumann, Concert Studies on Caprices  by by Paganini,  Paganini,   op. 10; an d   Brahms, 5 1  Exercises. those  fingerings in which 4 .   By "long"  Schenker  refers  to  to  those  in which   the the   passing under  of 1 or the  crossing over of 3 or 4 is avoided  as much  as possible; "short" fingerings are those  in which the passing under  or crossing over is

 

90  

Notes  to Chapter 8

used  more than would actually be necessary. Schenker recommends the used  long fingerings in Example  7.5 in order to let the hand demarcate  the fifths that   are that  realized in  short fingering  a ppropririare realized  in the run; the run; the  the short  fingering of Example of Example  7.6 iiss approp  that of  Example  7.7  lets the  hand emphasize a te  to the final bravura final bravura figure;  figure; that  of Example 7.7 lets  the hand the circling of the neighboring notes around the main note.

Chapter  8 1.   "He [Beeth [Beethoven oven]] w was as espec especiall ially y concerned about touch and its double significance: the actual, physical touch and the psychological one, to which Clementi drew attention. By the latter he meant the sound intensity key. y. Anyone unfa unfamili miliar ar with this phe phe-sensed before  the finger touches the ke nomenon will never hear  a soulful  Adagio."  A . Schindler, B eethov eethoven, en, part 2  2,,  e d.  (Minister:  1860), p . 237. (Tran (Translated slated b y  I.S.) 3d  ed. 2.   Schenker writes in his J. S. Bach's  Chromatic Fantasy  a n d Fugue, p. 66: "I  should, indeed I must,  take this opportunity to mention  th  must, take the e  following passage from   a letter  b y Brahms (a  (ass imparted b y Franz Fridberg in the  Vossische   Zeitung  o f  April 3 ,  1907),  1907),  discussing th e  opening bars  o f  Brahms's String Quintet Quintet in G G M  M ajor ajor::  "Yo "You u may tel telll him [the cellist] he has every right  fourth th measure measures, s,  at least the two to demand that, starting in the third and four violins should merely feign their/ Thus they can favor can favor him  him with a really nice m/  m / j he can repay them llat ater er in the movement with a most beautiful p. Fridberg goes  on to  relate  a  conversation  in  which Brahms took  part: "During  a discussion  of the various gradations  of  piano  a n d forte,  forte,   I heard Brahms assert that piano  piano could  could exist even within forte.  When someone ven forte. When tured to find this contradictory, Brahms cut him off mid-word with  'nonsense,' opened a newspaper newspaper that was on the table, a and nd too took k no ffurt urther her pa part rt in the  conversation." term  Rahmenanschlag,  Rahmenanschlag,  literally translated  as  "framing touch," 3.  3.   The  term  refers   to a kind of touch that brings greater emphasis  to certain  notes in refers order  to  distinguish these, usually the  carriers of the  main melodic line, from   the from  lighter "embellishing" tones that are that are being  being framed,  as it were. the lighter it were. (See  Plate 3, show  showing ing S Schenker's chenker's d descriptive escriptive sketch as well as  Example 8.20.) also Plate also  a s Example  8.20.)

Chapter  9 1.   Bra Brahms hms repeated repeatedly ly change changed d the tempo indications in the manuscript: first he wrote "Presto," then "Tempo giusto," then  "u  poco presto"—and "un n poco  presto"—and finallythe printed version, "allegro comodo." 2.   According to  Schindler, Beetho Beethoven's ven's execution of Sonata op  op.. 14, no. 2,   I,  m.47ff.  had the  effect  of an  'Andantino,  a s eighth notes suddenly followed thirty-seconds and appeared slower; actually th  the e  tempo continues"  1840. N ot con(Example 9.N1).  See A. Schindler, Beethoven,  1st ed. Miinster,  Miinster, 1840. tained  in later  editions.  Reprinted  with  commentary  by  H.  Schenker  in DreiUang, vol.  vol. 8  8 / 9  (November 1 9 3 7 / Februar Februaryy  1938),  p p .  190ff.

 

Notes   to  Chapter  9 to  Chapter 

 op. 81a, I, m  m..  213ff; A  similar effect can be noticed  in Beethoven's Sonata op. after  the eighths in m.  213ff., even brings whole the  close in m. 223ff.,  after  notes:

91

3.   Compare also Schenker  in  The The  Masterwork  in  Music,  vol.  3, p. 64, about Beethoven's Symphony no. 3, op. 5 5 , 1 , m.  m.   186ff: "The bass line, despite the ff  ff,, is  is conceived in terms of  espressivo  and should be played acco accordin rdingly. gly. The wind at this point pass through  staccato crochets as  if they were piano towards the dotted minims in bar barss 188 188-9 -9 and 192-3, which, now  played jf j  introduce into  the  four-bar phrases a kind of syncopated rhythm. A sorrowful excitem excitement ent is required for the bass s/in the following passage (bar  198 ff.);  in the  orchestra this  can  only  be  achieved through personal  or soloistic  effort."  (See Example 9.N2.)  Czerny, DieKunstdes  Diabelli,   1842), Chap. 4 .   See C C.. Czerny,  DieKunstdes  Vortrags  (Vienna: A. Diabelli, 1842), Chap. 39 : "In the following [Example 9.N3], th  the e  sf  have to follow  one  another 2,  p. 39: fast,   with strength."

Beethoven, oven, Sonat Sonata a op. 14, no.  2,1, m.  47ff. Example 9.N 9. N1  Beeth

Example 9.N2  Beethoven, Symphony no. 3, op. 55,1, mm  mm.. 186 and 198

Beethoven, ven, Sonata op. 2, no. 3,  T V , mm Example 9.N3 Beetho mm..  119-122

 

92

to   Chapter  Notes   to Chapter  1 0

Chapter  1 0 1.  One truly magnificent example of the use of rests i  in n serving th  the e synthesis is the  close of the Funeral March in Beethoven's Symphony no. 3, II, m. 238ff.  (Example 10.N1),  about which Schen Schenker ker writes  in in   T he  M aster asterwork work 1 in  M usic usic,, vol. 3, p. 41: "The last c  is due on the strong beat of bar 238. Suddenly,  in the midst  o f a prof  profound ound silen silence, ce, w e are surprised b y a p p stroke  o n

the timpani; c1 appears, but only on the weak be beat at.. A Att the same time this note marks the start of the break-up of the diminution of bars 1-8. Already the first third-progression in bars 239-40  (=   bars ba rs 1-2) come comess to a halt, a 1

1

  e ^ , .  The content of bars crotchet rest separating d  from  the note, rs  241; 3-4  from the  offinal bar 240 and the bar bar  is  compressed into the weak beat  strong beat ofba it is as if the notes were beginning  to breathe  faster,  notes which  can no longer be sustained in the earlier, relaxed manner. The same is the   case  on the weak beats of bars 241 and 242  242,, where bars 5-6 huddle together. B  Byy bar no o longer enough  strength to include a d1 at the start of the as24 1  there is n cending arpeggiation (see the rest on the fifth semiquaver [sixteenth]), or to introduce a|/ on the strong beat of bar 243.  243. Thus  Thus the  original relationships are ar e  distorted right up to the end. We bury the corpse of the first diminution stripped   of its metrical  and rhythmic soul."  And further,  ibid., p. 66: "The last  timpani note in bar 238 prepares the  c1  of violin  I, with which both  the final third-progression ends and the disintegration of bars 1 1-8 8 begins. This disintegration  can only be executed if  if violin I carries th  the e motives across t  the he

rests, thus  as it were  were   painfully  painfully  experiencing in the  flesh what flesh what  is signified  b y falling  apart of notes that originally belonged together.  The quavers the   falling  the e^-c 1 in bar 240 require a  ^T^=-  , as do the dernisemiquavers e^-d1 in bar 1 241,   the crotchet  al,  in bar 242 and, finally, the sem semiquave iquaverr ffigures igures in bars 24 3   an d 244. Avoid, in any case, th  t h e  ugly staccato that  is everywhere  to be heard; it wholly contradicts the final expiry of the idea."

Example  10.Nl  Beethoven Beethoven,, Symphony no. 3, op. 55 , II, mm.   238ff.

 

Notes   to  Chapter  1 2 

Chapter   1 1 1 .   In A there  follows  a  longer digression, summarized here. "The  beginning  of all music is chaos  and disorder. Whereas  in exotic nations it rein  this condition, increasing polyphony  the  West necessitated mained   in  mained polyphony  in the  bringing a solid rhythmic organization to the contrapuntally moving voices, in order to enable them—no paradox —to move freely.  In Classical

93

music we find the happiest balance of musical content and number of voices; this allows the greatest possible freedom of performance. The following low ing epoch brought a cons considerable iderable increase in the number of voices— without a co corresponding rresponding increasevoices. The of of   content —but —but just  just thereby diminishing the freedom  of the individual the individual  The many,  too  to o  many voices. many, , performa performance nce directives in the score, which aim at shaping the movement of voices freely, do little do  to help  if the content the content   is unfree  and in in contradiction  to the too large too large  little to  help if  contradiction to number of voices." Chapter   1 2 1 .   Compare  Schenker's  footnote  to  Beethoven's Sonata  op. 57, I,  m. 227ff.,  in which he points out that Beethoven specifically requests the passage to be played by one hand. The fingering in brackets—which divides the arpeggio between the hands—is only for an extreme case. Beethoven,  vol. 2, Complete  Piano S onatas, vol.  2, p. 428. p. 428. Se  Seee also Example 7.2.

2.   First introduced by the piano maker Broadwood, the "English ac in the key and hammer and hammer interaction  as well  as iin n tion," through innovations  innovations in interaction  as well the escapement, gave the piano a richer sound and a deeper, more reliable action. It gradually replaced the lighter "Viennese action" throughout Europe in the late nineteenth century. (I.S.)

 

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Selected   Bibliography  with Annotati Anno tations ons

W o r k s  o f  Heinrich  Schenker Beethovens  Neunte  Symphonic.  Vienna: Universal Edition, 1912.  (Beethoven's

 and edited by J. Rothgeb.  New Haven: Yale  Symphony.    Translated Ninth University Press, 1992.) Beethovens  Sdmtliche Klaviersonaten. Vienna: Universal Edition, 1923. Edition, 1923. Revised  Revised edition by Erwin Ratz, Vienna: Universal Edition, Edi tion, 194 1947. 7. (Be (Beethov ethoven, en,  Sonatas. Reprint Complete  Piano Sonatas.  Reprint  of the edition  from 1921-23, with  an introduction  by Carl  Carl Schachter.  New ew  York: Dover, York: Dover, 1975.)  Schachter. N B in  B eit eitragzur ragzur  Ornamentik. Vienn  Vienna: a: Universal Edition, 190 1904 4 a  and nd   1908. (A  ( A Contribution   to the  Study  o f  Ornamentation.  Translated  Translated  by H.  H.  Siegel. Music Forum,  vol. 4, New   York: Columbia University Press,  1976.) Erlduterungsausgabe  de derr  letztenfiinf  Sonaten Beethovens. Vienna: Universal Edition op.  109, published 191 1913 3 op. op .  110, published 1914

op. I l l , published 1915 op. op.  101, published 1920 Revised edition by Vienna: a: Universal Edition, 1970-71.  by O.Jonas, Vienn DerFreie  Satz.  Satz. Vi  Vienna: enna: Universal Edition, 193 1935 5 Revised an andd edited b  byy O.Jonas, Vienna: Universal Edition, 195 1956. 6.  F r e e   Composition. Translated  and edited by E. Oster. N  New ew   York: Longman,  1979.) J. S.  Ba ch, Chrom atisc atische he Fantasie  u n d  Fuge. Vienna: Universal Edition, 1909. Revised edition  by O. Jonas, Vienna: Universal Edition, 19 1969. 69.  (J. S. Bach's   Chromatic Fantasy Chromatic Fantasy  a n d Fugue. Translated  an d  edited by H. Siegel. N ew   York: Schirmer Books, 1984.) Books, 1984.)

95

 

96 

Selected  Bibliography  with Annotations

"Bin  Kommentar  zu  Schindler, Beethovens Spiel betreffend."  Dreiklang, "Bin  8/9 9, N Novem ovember ber  1937 / February 1938,  1938, p. 190 if. Oswald Jonas, "Die vol.  8/ Kunst des Vortrags nach Heinrich nach Heinrich Schenker."  Schenker." M  M usikerz usikerziehung, iehung,  vol. 15,  15,  pp..  122-129. 1962,  pp Kontrapunkt.   vol.  1, Stuttgart  and  Berlin: J. G.  Cottasche  Buchhandlung 1910; 0; vol. 2,  2, Vienna: Universal Edition, 1922.(Counterpoint. Nachfolger,  191 Translated and edited by J.  Rothgeb  and Jurgen Thym, edited by

J. Rothgeb.  New  York: Schirmer Books,  1987.) D a s  M eist eisterwerk erwerk  in de r M us iikk ..   Munich: Drei Masken Verlag Jahrbuch   I, published I, published 1925 Jahrbuchll, published 1926 Jahrbuch   III, published 1930

(The   Masterwork  in M usi usic, c,  3 vo vols., ls., edited by W  Drabkin, Cambridge: Cambridge University P Press ress vol.  1, published 1994 vol. 2, publishe  published d 1996 vol.  3,  published 1997) D er  Tonwille,  10 issues. Vienna: Vienna : A. Gutmann Verlag, 1910-24. Reprint Hildesheim:  G. Olms, 1990.

Related   Wo r k s

Oswald Jonas, "Die Kunst  des  Vortrags Vortra gs nach Heinrich Schenker." Schenker."  Musik15,, 1962, pp.  122-129. erziehung,  vol.  15 Oswald Jonas Jonas,, "Heinrich Schenker und  gross grosse e Interpreten."  Osterreichische  (1964), p  This essay treats th Musikzeitschrift,  19 19 (1964),  pp. p. 584-89.  584-89. This the e critical interchange between Schenker an  K.. Straube,  and d musicians such as J.Joachim, K J. Messchaert, P. Casals, and W. Furtwangler, among others. Even  more source material  for  Schenker's opinion  of  contemporary interpreters is contained in the following basic work: Hellmuth Federhofer, Heinrich Federhofer,  Heinrich Schenker. Nach  Tagebiichern  u n d Briefen  in der Oswald Jonas Memorial Collection.  Hildesheim:  Hildesheim:   G . Olms, 1985. reviews ws tha thatt Schenker published bet between ween 18 1891 91 and  1901 The  music revie in various periodicals  are collected  in  Hellmuth Federhofer, Heinrich Schenker  a h Essayist  u n d Kritiker, Hildesheim:  Hildesheim:   G . Olms, 1990. On the significance of fingering or interpretation, see the percep-

tive  remarks by Carl Schachter  in his introduction to the reprint of Schenker's edition  of  Beethoven, Com plet pletee  Piano  Sonatas. The relationship between the "levels" of musical structure and per Burkhart in formance is discussed by Charles Burkhart  in an interesting essay, "Schenker's Theory  Theory  of  Levels an usical al Pe Performance," rformance,"  in Aspects of Schenkerian  andd Music Theory,  edited b  by y David  David Beach,  Beach, N  New ew Haven: Y al alee University Press,1983, pp.. 95-112. pp A  most valuable study, valuable study, "Heinrich  "Heinrich Schenker as an Interpreter of  of  Beethoven's Piano Sonatas," w  was as  published by William Rothstein  in  19th  vol. 7,  3-28.   T he  author quotes Century  Music, vol.  7, no. 1. (Summer 1. (Summer 1984), p  pp. p. 3-28. he author

 

Selected Bibliography   with Annotations 

and comments on  then-unpublished material from V ort and and d relates it ortrag rag  an to Schenker's annotations in his own copy of the Beethoven sonatas. Although it has no direct connection with Schenker, let me  point noteworthy rthy book: Jean-Jacque Jean-Jacquess Eigeldinger,  Chopin out a particularly a particularly notewo vupar  s e s eleves, N euchdtel euchdtel::  Editions  de la  Baconniere,  1970 an d  1979 (Chopin:   Pianist  a n d  Teacher A s  Seen  by His Pupils,  edited  by R.  Howat, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). This book is "a sort "a sort o  off

97

hand book to Chop handbook Chopin's in's teaching methods, and conse consequently quently to his aesthetic beliefs." Its agreement in nearly all points wit with h Schenke Schenker's r's  T he  Art o f   Performance  is surprising—but  perhaps less  so if one  recalls  th thee  Mikuli, ikuli, director of the conservatory influence   Chopin's student  Karol M in Lemberg (currently  LViv,  Ukraine), had on the  young  Schenker. Thiss book is a su Thi superb perb suppleme supplement nt and conf confirma irmation tion of the one  before us; us; it is recommended highly to the reader.

 

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Index   o f  Musical  Examples

References   to pages in this book are in boldface.

Egmont Overture  op. 84, (Ex. 8.3) 4 2 Piano Quartet  op. 1 6, I, (Ex. 5.2) 23 Piano Trio op. 70, no. 1,1, 54 op. 97,1, (Ex. 97,1,  (Ex. 12.1a)  12.1a) 75 ,   76 ;   IV , (Ex.   12.1b) 76 Rondo  op. op .  51  no  no.. 2, (Ex. 5.14) 27 , (Ex.  8.25)  8.25)  5 2 Sonata for Piano op. 2, no.  1,1, (Ex. 9.11)  9.11)60 60 op 2, no. 3, I,   (Ex. 8.22) 52 ;  II, (Ex.  8.23)  8.23)  52 ;   IV IV,, (Ex. 9.N3)  9.N3) 9 1 op. 7,  7,  III, (Ex. 5 5.9) .9) 25  25 )6 0 op. 10, no. 3,  (Ex. 9 . 1 3 )6 op. 13, I,  (Ex. 3.9) 11; II,  (Ex. 3.3) 9 op. 14, no. 1,1,  (Ex. 9.24) 64 op. 14, no. 2, I, 9 0,  (Ex. 9.N1) 9 1 op. 22,   IV,  47 ,   (Ex. 9.22)  9.22) 64 op. 27, no. 1, I, (Ex. 3.18) 15 ;  I  II, I, 75 ;  III,  III,  68 68,, (Ex. 10.7)  10.7) 76 10.9) 68, op. 31, no.  2,1, 11, 11, (Ex. 10.9) 68, 87 87;;   II, II, (Ex.  (Ex. 3.12)  3.12) 12 op. 31, no. 3, II,  (Ex.  (Ex.  10.8) 68 3.1)9; III,  III, 8 7 op. 53, I,  (Ex. 3.1)9; op. 57, I, (Ex. 5.1) 22, (Ex. 7.2) 35, 35, 49 ,   62 ,   93 ;   II,  (Ex. 3.23) 1 5, (Ex.  9.6) 56 ;  HI, 62  10.3)   66 op. 79, II,   (Ex. 10.3)

Bach,  C. P. E. Essay  on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments, ch. 3, 18 ,  (Ex. 5.2) 23 Probesonate no. 4, I,  (Ex. 7.6) 36 ,  (Ex. 7.7) 36 no. 6,  Fantasia, Fantasia, (Ex. 7.8) 37 Sonata  f or   Connoisseurs  a nd Amateurs First Collection,  no. 6, (Ex. 8.6) 4 5 ,  (Ex. 8.10)  8.10)46 46 Third Collection, no. 2, (Ex. 10.2) 10.2) 6 6 ,  (Ex. 11.1)  11.1)71 71 Bach, J. S. 9.15) 61 The Art of Fugue, of Fugue, (Ex. 9.15)  English Eng lish Suite Sui te no. 2,  Prelude, (Ex. 5.4) 23  S arabande, (Ex. 5.3) 23 no. 3,  Sarabande, French Suite no.  no. 6, Allemande, Allemande, (Ex. 7.3) (Ex.  7.3)  35 Partita III for Violin Violin Solo, Prelude, 43 Beethoven,  L. v. Coriolanus Overture  op. 62, (Ex.   10.4) 6 6

99

 

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Index   o f  Musical  Examples Sonata   fo r  Piano  (continued) op. op .   81a,  I,  65 ,   91 ;   III, (Ex. 10.5)  67 op. 90, I,  (Ex. 12.3) 12.3) 76 ;   II, (Ex. 3.19) 15  (Ex. 9.10) op op..   101,  I, (Ex.  9.10)55 8 op. op .   106,  I, (Ex. 3.17)  13, 13 ,   43; 43 ; III,  (Ex. 8.13) (Ex.   3.26) 1 6,  (Ex.  8.13)44 8 op. op .   109,  I, 41 ;   III,  (Ex. 12.2) 75 ,   76

Variations   on a Theme b y Handel, 25 ,   26 Variations  on a Theme by  b y  Paganini, (Ex. 3.21)  15 Waltz   op. 39, no. 3, (Ex. Waltz 3.8) 10 3, (Ex. 3.8) 

Cramer, J Cramer,  J..  B.

op. op .   110, I  I,, (Ex.  8. 1)4 1) 4 0 ;  III, (Ex.   5.16) 29 ,   5 2 op. I l l ,  1 , 4 3 Sonata   fo r Piano Sonata  Piano   an d Violin op. 24,   IV ,  4 7 ,  (Ex. 9.21) 64 op. 96, I,  (Ex. 9.12)  6 0 Sonata   f o r Piano  an d  Violoncello op .   102,  102,  no. 1,1, 6 String Quartet op. 18, no. 1, II,  (Ex. 9. 23) 64 op. 18, no. 6, IV,  (Ex. 8. 1) 41 , (Ex.  8. 12) 48 op. 59, no. 1,  I,  (Ex. 9. 17) 62 op. 59, no. 2, I,   (Ex.  5. 19) 30 30,, (Ex.   9. 7) 56 op. 74, II,  (Ex. 5.20) 30

op. op .  130,1, (Ex. 8.8) 45 Symphony no. 1, op.   21 ,  II, (Ex. 8.14) 48 no. 3, op.  op.   55, 1,  1,  4 9 ,  (Ex. 9.N2) 9 1 ; II,   (Ex. 5.17) 29,  (Ex. 10.N.1) 92 no. 5, op. 67, I,   (Ex. 9. 2) 55 no. 7, op. 92, I, 46 ;   IV, 41 no. 9, op.   125, I, 47 ,   63; 63 ;  IV, 63 Variations for  for  Piano op. 34,  (Ex. 9 . 1 9 )6 )6 3 op. 35,  (Ex. 3.22) 15 ,  (Ex. 8.18)  51 , (Ex.  8 . 1 9 )5 )5 1 op op..   120, 120, (Ex. 7.9) 37

Brahms, J. 51  E xercises, xercises , 89 A   German Requiem, 1 9 Intermezzo op. 76, no. 7,  (Ex. 8.24) 52 op. 117, no. I, (Ex. 3.11) 11 )3 5 op. op .   118,  no. 1, (Ex. 7 . 4 )3 Piano Concerto  Concerto   op. 1 5, I, 42 Piano Quartet  Quartet   op. 60, IV 9 0 Rhapsody   op. 79, no.  1,  40 ,   41

21  Etudes  Etudes   op. 10, no. 1 2, (Ex.   5.N3) 88   F. Chopin, Ballade op. 23,   (Ex. 3.24) 16 op. 47,  (Ex. 5.7) 24 Berceuse op. 57, (Ex. 3.4) 9 Etude op .   10,no.  8 , (Ex. 5.10)  5.10)27 27 op. 10,  no.12, (Ex . 5 . 8 )2 )2 4 op. 25, no. 1,  (  (Ex. Ex. 3.28 ) 17 ,  52 52,,  

op. 25, no. 6,  (Ex. 7.12) 37, 8 9 op. 25, no. 8, 25 Three   N ew   Etudes,  no .  1, (Ex.  5.11) 27

Maz ur k a  (Ex. 5 . 1 8 )3 )3 0 op. 17, no. 2, 2, (Ex. op. 24, no. 1,  (Ex. 8.4) 4 4 op. 24, no. 2,  (Ex. 3.7) 10 op. 30, no. 1,  (Ex. 3.6) 10 Nocturne )3 7 op. 9, no. 3, (Ex. 3,  (Ex. 7 . 1 1 )3 op. 15, no. 2,  (Ex. 3.14) 13 op. 27, no. 2,  (Ex. 3.16) 1 3 )5 1 op. 37, no. 1,  (Ex. 8 . 2 0 )5 )4 8 op. 37, no. 2,  (Ex. 8 . 1 1 )4 op. 62, no. 1,  (Ex. 5.5) 23 Polonaise op.(Ex. 26, no. 1,  (Ex. 8.2) 4 0,   9.1) 55 op. 40, 55 Prelude op. 28, no. 6,  (Ex. 3.20) 1 5 op. 28, no. 14,  (Ex. 9.8) 5 8 op. 28, no. 15,  (Ex. 9.9) 5 8 Scherzo   op. 54, (Ex. Scherzo 8.15) 4 9 54, (Ex. 8.15)  Sonata   op. 58, I, (Ex . 7.10) 37 ;  III, (Ex.  3.15) 13

 

Index   o f  Musical Examples Chopin,   R  (continued) Waltz 3.10) 111 , (Ex . 5.13)  5.13) 27 op. 42, (Ex. 42,  (Ex. 3.10) 1 3.2) 9 op. 64,  64,   no.2, (Ex. 3.2)  Handel,  G. F. Suite no.   1, Aria con Variazioni, Variazioni, (Ex.   5.6) 24

Sonata for  Piano K.  310,  II,  (Ex. 8.9) 46 ;  III, (Ex.  9.14)  9.14)60 60 3.5)  10, 10 ,   (Ex. 3.25) K.  331,  I, (Ex . 3.5) 1 6,  (Ex.  (Ex. 6.1)  II,,  6.1)33 2 ,   55 ;  II (Ex. 3.27)  16 K .  332,1,  (Ex. 9 . 1 6 )6 )6 2 String Quartet

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Suite   no .  2,1, (Ex. 9.3) 56 Suite  9.3) 56 Suitee no. 5, Air, Suit Air, (Ex. 5.N1) 8 8 Suite no. 7,  Allemande, 5.N2)  89 (Ex.   5.N2)  (Ex. Haydn,  J. Creation, no. 19, 4 2 Fantasia in C major, Hob.   XVII:4, 1 4 Sonata Hob.   XVI:35,1, (Ex. 9.4) 56 Hob.   XVI:49,  I, (Ex. 10.6) 67 ;  II, 67 Hob.   XVI:52,  II, (Ex . 3.13) 12 Symphony Hob.   1:101, II, 67 Liszt,  F. Soirees   de Soirees  Vienne.VI, (Ex. 7.13)  7.13) 38 de Vienne.VI,

Mendelssohn,   F. Song  Without W or ords ds  op. 62, no. 6, (Ex.  5 . 1 2 )2 )2 7 Mozart,  W A. Piano C oncerto oncerto  K.  488, II, (Ex.   7.1) 35 Piano Trio   K.  564, III, (Ex (Ex . 10.1) 66 Rondo   fo forr  Piano  K. 511, (Ex. 7. 5) 36

K.  387,1, (Ex. 9.20) 63; II,  8.5)   44 (Ex. 8.5) (Ex. K.  421,1,  (Ex. 9. 9.18) 18) 62 K.  516, III, (Ex. (Ex. 8. 7) 7)44 5 Symphony K.  550,  II,  (Ex. 8.16) 50 8.17) 50, K.  551,  II, (Ex . 8.17) 50 , (Ex.  8.21) 51

Schubert,   F. Piano Sonata D.  894, III, 4 2 D .  960, IV  I V  67 Symphony no. 8, D.   759, I, 67 no. 9, D.R.  944,1, 4 3 Schumann, Studies  on  Caprices by  Paganini, no no..   111,26, 111,26,  (Ex. 5.15)2 5.15)2 8 ,  8 9 Strauss, Joh. Strauss,  Joh. Blue   Danube Waltz, op. 314, (Ex.  9.5 ) 5 7

Wagner, R. Lohengrin Prelude,   4 0