PCI Board Review Handouts

OLFU AC College of Pharmacy- REVIEWER ON MODULE 1 (PCI) PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY  Is the study of drugs, the changes it goes, and the energy that accompanies these changes MATTER  Anything that occupies space and has mass, structure, changes that matters undergoes, and involved in such changes or interactions Classified as: 1. Physical 2. Chemical ELEMENT  Simplest form of matter. Made up of 1 kind of material or atom. Classified as: 1. Metals: heat and electrical conductors, have luster, ductile, malleable 2. Nonmetals: generally brittle and non-lustrous, poor conductors of heat and electricity 3. Metalloids: border the line-2 sides Properties are intermediate between metals and nonmetals COMPOUNDS  A compound is a composed of two or more elements united chemically in definite proportion Classified as: 1. Based on chemical bond 2. Based on organic or inorganic Based on chemical bond: 1. Ionic- compound that forms by transfer of electrons 2. Covalent- compound that forms by sharing of electrons  Polar covalent  Non-polar covalent 3. Metallic- formed between atoms of metallic elements Based on organic or inorganic: 1. Inorganic compound- compounds that contain other elements and a few containing carbons and its salts. 2. Organic compound- compounds that contains carbon atom in their molecules MIXTURE  Composed of 2 or more substances that are not chemically combined. Classified according to: 1. Nature of particles (heterogenous and homogenous) 2. Size of particles (solution, coarse and colloid) Process of separating component of mixtures: 1. Distillation- used if two liquids are mixed but have different boiling points. 2. Filtration- use by means of filtration set-up 3. Centrifugation- process rely on densities. Speeding up of settling process of a precipitate 4. Decantation- separation by means of the difference in specific gravity or density of the components 5.

Fractional crystallization- separation by means of lowering of temperature

6.

Chromatography- difference in solvent affinity

PROPERTIES OF MATTER: 1. Intrinsic- INDEPENDENT of mass or amount (ex. Density, sp.gr and melting point) 2. Extrinsic- DEPENDENT on mass or amount (ex. Weight, volume, pressure and heat content) CHANGES THAT MATTER UNDERGOES: 1. Physical Change- change in the physical properties of substances without changing its chemical composition. (Example: Evaporation, pounding of chalk) 2. Chemical change- change in the chemical composition and constitution of substance. 3. Nuclear Change change in the structure, properties, composition of the nucleus of an atom resulting in the transmutation of the element into another element. Types: a. Nuclear fission- splitting of heavy atom b. Nuclear fusion- union of light atoms

CHEMICAL REACTION  Reaction that occurs when the outermost or valence electrons around the nucleus interacts.  Entails the removal of valence electrons, adding electrons to a partly filled valence shell, or sharing a pair of electrons between two atoms. REACTANTS  substances that enter into a chemical reaction PRODUCTS  substances that are formed after chemical reaction LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS • A law that states that chemical equation has to be consistent. The same numbers of atoms of each element must appear on both sides of the equation. • Fundamental law of balancing chemical equation. TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTION: A. Direct union  (A+ B --AB)  Involves the reaction of two or more substances react to form one compound  Example: 2Ca + O2--- 2CaO B. Decomposition  (AB -- A+B)  one compound decomposes to form two or more substances Types : a. Hydrates to water and anhydrous salt b. Chlorates to chlorides plus oxygen c. Metal oxides to metal and oxygen d. Carbonates to oxides and CO2 e. Bicarbonates to oxide, water and CO2 C. Single replacement  (AX+B A+BX) or (AX+Y AY+X)  Activity series of metals in descending order: Li, K, Ba, Ca, Na, Mg, Al, Mn, Zn, Cr, Fe, Cd, Ni, Sn, Pb, Cu, Bi, Sb, Hg, Ag, Pt, Au  Activity series of nonmetals in descending order: F, Cl, Br, I Example: Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) FeSO4(aq)+ Cu(s) Cu + FeSO4 no reaction Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2 Cl2 + NaI 2NaCl + I2 D. Double displacement  (AX+BY AY+BX) Example: 2HNO3+Ca(OH)2---Ca(NO3)2+2H2O COLISSION THEORY  Collisions of particles provide the energy required to break bonds.  Activation energy- minimum amount of energy required for a successful collision.

Successful collision requires:

Reaction rates can increase due to: 1. More collisions 2. Harder collisions-greater collision energy 3. Lower activation energy or Ea, which allows low energy collisions to be more effective

OLFU AC College of Pharmacy- REVIEWER ON MODULE 1 (PCI) REACTION KINETICS  The study of rates of chemical reactions and factors which influence reaction velocities. REACTION VELOCITY  change in concentration in unit time IRREVERSIBLE REACTIONS  Chemical reactions that go only in one direction or are said to completion. Examples: 2H2+ O2 2H2O H2CO3 H2O + CO2 REVERSIBLE REACTIONS  Two opposing reactions, the forward and the backward occur at the same rate. This system is said to be in equilibrium.  Chemical equilibrium- the state in which two opposing reaction proceed at the same rate. EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT  The equilibrium system: wA + xB ⇄ yC + zD The equilibrium constant:  Keq= [C]y [D]z

[A]w [B]x 

The numerical value of Keq is calculated using the concentrations of reactants and products that exist at equilibrium.

LAW OF CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM  The equation that shows that the concentrations of reactant and product are raised to the power corresponding to the coefficients in the balanced equation is equal to a constant. Examples: Express the following system in equilibrium constant: 2

N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇄ 2NH3(g); Keq =

[NH3 ] [N 2 ][H 2 ]3

PCl5(g) ⇄ PCl3(g) + Cl2(g); Keq =

[PCl3 ][Cl 2 ] [PCl5 ]

Steps in calculating the Keq: 1. Write the balance chemical equation 2. Express the chemical equation into equilibrium constant 3. Write the equilbrium concentrations in moles/liter 4. Finally, substitute the values in equilibrium constant equation then compute for keq. Example problem: An equilibrium mixture of H2, I2 and HI gases at 425C consists of 4.5647x10-3M, 7.7378x10-4M and 1.354x10-2M respectively. Calculate the Keq of the system H2 + I2 ⇄ 2HI Solution: Practice Problem: An equilibrium mixture of H2, Br2 and HBr gases consists of 2 moles, 4 moles and 3 moles respectively in a 2 liter container. Calculate the Keq of the system : 2HBr ⇄ H2 + Br2 Interpreting Equilibrium Constant:  If Keq is greater than 1x102, mostly product is present at equilibrium  If Keq is less than 1x10-2, mostly reactant is present at equilibrium  If between, the equilibrium mixture contains both reactants and products.  TYPES OF EQUILIBRIA: 1. Homogenous equilibria- substances are all in the same state of matter. CH4(g) + H2O(g) CO(g) + 3H2(g); CO(g) + H2O(g) ⇄ ⇄ CO2(g) + H2(g) 2. Heterogenous equilibria-substances are in different states. CaCO3(s) ⇄ CaO(s) + CO2(g); 2+ PbCl2(s) ⇄ Pb (aq) + 2 Cl (aq)

FACTORS AFFECTING EQUILIBRIUM: 1. Concentration  Increase in reactant concentration favors forward reaction  Increase in product concentration favors reverse reaction LAW OF MASS ACTION:  rate of chemical reaction is directly proportional to the concentration of product and reactant each raised the power corresponding to the coefficients in a balanced equation. 2. Temperature  Increase in temp. favors endothermic reactions  Decrease in temp. favors exothermic 3. Catalyst  adding of catalyst will have an equal effect on the rate of both forward and backward reactions. 4. Pressure  decrease in pressure favors side with more moles of gas Example: State the direction in which each of the following equilibrium system will shift upon application of stress. a. Increase pressure in N2 + 2O2 ⇄ 2NO2 b. Increase conc. of Cl2 in PCl5 ⇄ PCl3 +Cl2 c. Increase temperature in 2H2 + O2 ⇄ 2H2O + heat d. Addition of catalyst in 2H2S + 3O2 ⇄ 2H2O + 2SO2 LE CHATELIER PRINCIPLE  When stress is applied to a system in equilbrium, the equilibrium will shift in such a manner as to relieve or neutralize the stress. OTHER EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS: A. Ion product constant for water (Kw):  The product of the hydrogen ion concentration [H+] and the [OH-] ion concentration each in moles/liter.  Kw= [H+] [OH-]  Kw= 1.00 x 10E-14 Example: 1. Calculate the concentration of H+ and OH- in a 0.1 moles of 10 liters HCl solution. Solution: Kw= [H+] [OH-] HCl= H (0.1 mol/10L) Cl (0.1 mol/10L) [H+]= 0.1 moles/10L = 0.01 M [OH-]= 1.00 x 10E-14/0.01M = 1.00 x 10E-12 Practice problem:  Calculate the concentration of H+ and OH- in a 0.001M of NaOH . What is the pH of 0.001M of NaOH B. Ionization constant (ki)  (Ka) is the equilibrium constant for the ionization of a weak acid in water.  (kb) is the equilibrium constant for the ionization of a weak base in water. C. Solubility product constant (ksp)  Is the equilibrium constant of a slightly soluble salt. COMPUTATION OF PH AND POH:  The acidity or alkalinity of a solution is given by its pH.  pH represents the power of hydrogen ion or pOH the power of hydronium ion.  The following formula is used: pH= -log[H+] or pOH= -log[OH-] pH+ pOH= 14 Example: 1. Calculate the pOH of the solution with a pH of 4.5 2. Calculate the pH of a solution with [H+]=3.8x10-3 3. Calculate the pOH of a solution with [H+]=5.9x10e-10 4. What is the pH of 0.02moles of 20 liters KOH solution?

OLFU AC College of Pharmacy- REVIEWER ON MODULE 1 (PCI) Practice problem: Calculate the pH of each of the following solutions: 1. Solution with [H+]= 4.5 x 10-4 2. Solution with [OH-]= 5.6 x 10-5 3. 0.02M of KOH 4. 0.5M of HCl 5. 4 moles of 10 liters NaOH solution BUFFER EQUATION BUFFERS- solutions that have the property of resisting changes in pH when acids and bases are added to them Two forms: 1. Buffer Equation for Weak acids 2. Buffer Equation for Weak bases For weak acids: pH= pka+ log [salt] [WA] For weak bases: pOH= pkb + log [WB] [salt] Example problem:  You are provided with 0.035 moles of HCl and 0.065 moles of K2HPO4 solution (pka of HCl=4.74), identify the pH of 1 liter buffer solution.  You are provided with 2M of HCl and 4.5M of K2HPO4 solution (pka of HCl=4.74), identify the pH and pOH of 1 liter buffer solution.  Calculate the Ph of a 100 ml buffer solution consisting of 0.2M of formic acid (pka=3.77) added to 10M of NaOH THE PERIODIC TABLE PERSONS INVOLVED IN THE DISCOVERY: Antoine-Laurel Lavoisier  Introduce the first true periodic table Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner  Introduce the law of triads John Newlands  Introduce the law of octaves Meyer and Mendeleev (Germany, 1869)  Physical and chemical properties are periodic functions of their atomic weight. Henry Moseley (England,1887-1915)  Elements are arranged based on atomic numbers

THE PERIODIC TRENDS: 1. Atomic Radius  Right to left increases. Top to bottom increases

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Groupings based on electronic configuration: Group A  s block (Grp. IA and IIA)  p block (Grp. IIIA to VIIIA) Group B  d block (Group IB to VIIIB)  f block (Lanthanides & Actinides) A. REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS:  Elements in Groups 1A through 7A  Display wide range of properties  Some are metals, or nonmetals, or metalloids; some are solid, others are gases or liquids  Their outer s and p electron configurations are NOT filled B. NOBLE GASES:  Previously called “inert gases” because they rarely take part in a reaction  Noble gases have an electron configuration that has the outer s and p sublevels completely full C. TRANSITION METALS:  Electron configuration has the outer s sublevel full, and is now filling the “d” sublevel  A “transition” between the metal area and the nonmetal area  The compounds of transition metals are usually brightly colored and are often used to color paints. D. INNER TRANSITION METALS:  Electron configuration has the outer s sublevel full, and is now filling the “f” sublevel  Formerly called “rare-earth” elements, but this is not true because some are very abundant GROUPINGS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE: 1. Periods- Horizontal rows (1-7)

2. Families- Vertical rows (1-18/1-8 A,B)

 2. Electronegativity  Left to right increases  Going up increases 3. Ionization Potential  Left to right increases  Going up increases 4. Electron affinity  Right to left increases  Top to bottom increases  Examples: Cl(g) + e  Cl (g) Ar(g) + e  Ar (g) TERMINOLOGIES:  Ion- charged atom  Atomic number- Protons= Electrons  Mass number- Protons + Neutrons

Isotopes- same number of Protons but different number of Neutrons. Allotropes- atoms of same element can link together in different ways to form substances with different properties

THE ALKALI METALS (GROUP IA) Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Rubidium (Rb), Cesium (Cs), Francium (Fr)

HYDROGEN (H)  The lightest element  Element common to all acids  Not a member of the family. 3 isotopes of Hydrogen: 1. Protium 2. Deuterium 3. Tritium LITHIUM (Li)  The lightest metal  One of the bridge element  Used in batteries  Depressant and DOC for Mania SODIUM (Na)  Major extracellular cation

OLFU AC College of Pharmacy- REVIEWER ON MODULE 1 (PCI) 

Cation of choice to optimize the pharmaceutical utilities of organic medicaments  Pcol action: fluid retention POTASSIUM (K)  Aka: Kalium  Predominat intracellular cation  K salts are more soluble in non-polar solvents and are less deliquescent than sodium salts.  Pcol action: diuretic, muscle contraction  Deficiency: Hypokalemia RUBIDIUM (Rb) and CESIUM (Cs)  Similar in behavior to K  No pharmacological significance  Cesium- is the most active metal of Group IA FRANCIUM (Fr)  Exists only as an unstable radioactive species. AMMONIA (NH3)  Hypothetical alkali metal Pcol action: 1. Diuretic 2. Buffer 3. Expectorant 4. Anti-cariogenic 5. Respiratory stimulant 

COINAGE METALS (GROUP IB) Copper (Cu), Silver (Ag), and Gold (Au)

COPPER (Cu)  Only reddish metal  Essential trace element  Occurs in the respiratory pigment hemocyanin and cytochrome oxidase  Important alloys: Brass and Bronze  Toxicity: Willson’s disease Important Compounds: 1. Cu(AsO3)2.Cu(C2H3O2)2- Insecticide 2. CuSO4.5H2O- algaecide (ingredient in Bordeaux mixture) 3. 64Cu isotope SILVER (Ag) Silver (Ag)  AKA: Argentum  Pcol action: Oligodynamic property  Toxicity: Argyria Important Compounds: 1. AgNO3- treatment of warts and eye antiseptic 2. Ag(NH3)2NO3- Howe’s solution, dental protective Ag proteinate: 1. Mild Ag proteinate- antiseptic for eye 2. Strong Ag proteinate- germicide for ear and throat 3. Colloidal Ag proteinate- general germicide GOLD (Au)  AKA: Aurum, shining dawn  Most malleable and ductile of all metals  Best conductor of electricity  This metal can be dissolve using Aqua Regia and Selenic acid Important compounds: 1. Aurothioglucose IM 2. Gold Na Thiomalate (IM) 3. Auranofin (PO) Antidote: Dimercaprol (BAL) 

THE ALKALINE EARTH METALS (GROUP IIA) Beryllium (Be), Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca), Strontium (Sr), Barium (Ba), Radium (Ra) BERRYLIUM (Be)  One of the bridge element  Least metallic of the group  Never employed in medicine  Metal used in fluorescent lamps

MAGENSIUM (Mg) nd  2 most abundant intercellular cation  Metal component of chrolophyll Important compounds: 1. Antacids & laxative (Oxides, carbonates)

2. 3. 4.

Anticonvulsant (SO4) Lubricants (stearates) Clarifying and filtering (silicates)

CALCIUM (Ca) nd  2 most abundant cation in extracellular fluid  Cation of hydroxyapatite Pcol action: 1. Blood coagulation factor 2. Important in muscle contraction 3. Release of neurotransmitters 4. Def state: osteoporosis, osteomalacia, ricketts Important compounds: 1. CaCO3- antacids 2. CaCl2- calcium replenisher 3. Ca(OH)2- antacid & saponifying agent 4. CaO- component of Bordeaux mixture 5. Plaster of Paris and Gypsum STRONTIUM (Sr) Important compound:  SrCl2- temperature desensitizing agent BARIUM (Ba)  The most active element of Group IIA  Toxicity: Baritosis  Important compound: BaSO4 RADIUM (Ra)  Only radioactive element of the group Use for: 1. Cancer radiotherapy 2. Diagnostic purposes 

THE VOLATILE METALS (GROUP IIB) Zinc (Zn), Cadmium (Cd) and Mercury (Hg)

ZINC (Zn)  Metal present in insulin  Essential component of carbonic anhydrase and other enzymes  Deficiency: Parakeratosis CADMIUM (Cd)  Pcol action: astringent  Other use: manufacture of stink bomb, found in street lights  Poisoning: Itai- itai dx MERCURY (Hg)  AKA: Quicksilver  Pcol action: Antiseptic, Treatment of syphilis, Paraciticidal and fungicidal  Industrial use: thermometer and amalgams (alloy of Hg)  Toxicity: Minamata 

THE BORON FAMILY (GROUP IIIA) Boron (B), Aluminum (Al), Gallium (Ga), Indium (In) and Thallium (Tl)

Boron (B)  A metalloid element of the group  Bonding of this element tends to be more covalent than ionic  Use to inc. coefficient of expansion of glass ALUMINUM (Al)  Most abundant metal rd  3 most abundant element in the earth’s crust (in the form of bauxite)  This metal is capable of forming covalent and ionic bond  Pcol actions: astringent, antiperspirant, deodorant and used for burn patients GALLIUM (Ga)  Has the lowest melting point of all the metals  Pcol action: appers in transferring an iron transport CHON useful in treating cancer related hypercalcemia  Industrial use: substitute for Hg in manufacture of arc lamps

OLFU AC College of Pharmacy- REVIEWER ON MODULE 1 (PCI) INDIUM (In)  no pharmacological importance

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Toxicity: PLUMBISM

METALS IN METALLURGY: THALLIUM (Tl)  toxic metal. Similar to arsenics 

A.

B.

THE SCANDIUM GROUP (GROUP IIIB) Scandium (Sc), Yttrium (Y), Lanthanum (La), Actinium (Ac) and the two inner transition series (Lanthanides and Actinides) LANTHANIDES (58-71) (from lanthanum to luthenium) occurs in mixture which are hard to separate ACTINIDES (90-103) (Ac through Lr) prepared synthetically and only exist as radioactive isotopes

THE CARBON FAMILY (GROUP IVA) Carbon (C), Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), Tin (Sn) and Lead (Pb) CARBON (C)  Central element to life and natural intelligences  Basic building unit of all organic compounds  Inorganic compounds: carbonates, acetates, tartrates and oxalates  An abundant non-metallic, tetravalent element. Neither donate or receive electrons. Allotropes of Carbon: A. Crystalline: Diamond & Graphite B. Amorphous form: Anthracite 

Important compounds: 1. CO2- Resp. stimulant, treatment of acne, warts and eczema 2. CO3- antacid, pharmaceutical aid 3. CO- toxic form of carbon, has 210x greater affinity to hemoglobin than O2 4. Activate charcoal SILICON (Si) nd  2 most abundant element in the earth’s crust.  A tetravalent metalloid. It is less reactive than it’s analog carbon.  Toxicity: Silicosis Forms of Silicon: 1. Talc  Softest mineral known 2. Glass  Generic term used to identify vitreous silicate material prepared by fusing base (Na2CO3 and CaCO3) with pure silica. Substances added to glass: MnO2, Borates, K ion, Pb

Types of Glasses (USP) a) Type I- highly resistant borosilicate glass b) Type II- treated soda lime glass c) Type III- soda lime glass d) Type IV or NP- general soda lime glass 3. Clays  Kaolin- adsorbent  Bentonite- suspending agent  Pumice- dental abrasives TIN (Sn)  AKA: stannum  Occurs mainly as cassiterite, where it occurs as an oxide.  it is the classic alloying metal to make bronze.  It is use in preparation of tin cans. Important compounds: 1. SnF2- anticariogenic solution 2. SnO2- germicide for Staph infection LEAD (Pb)  AKA: Plumbum  A soft heavy, toxic (neurotoxic) and malleable poor metal.  A bluish white color metal when freshly cut but tarnishes to dull gray when exposed to air.  Occurs mainly as PbS in nature.

1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

Misch metal: Pewter metal: Solder metal: Rose metal: Litophone:

70%Cs + 30%Fe 80%Sn + 20%Pb 50%Sb + 50%Sn 25%Sn + 25%Pb + 50%Bi 30%ZnS + 70%BaS

THE TITANIUM FAMILY (GROUP IVB) TITANIUM (Ti)  aka: Titan, sons of the earth  Use: a powerful reducing agent  Silvery metal with high strength and resistant to corrosion. Important compound:  Titanium dioxide- opacifying agent and UV ray protectant ZIRCONIUM (Zr)  Use: same as Aluminum but it is banned Official compounds:  Oxides- antiperspirant for athlete’s foot  Carbonates- antiperspirant for athlete’s foot  ZrSiO4- use as diamond like gem GROUP VA (THE NITROGEN FAMILY) Nitrogen (N), Phosphorous (P), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb) and Bismuth (Bi) NITROGEN (N)  Aka: mephitic air  It is the most abundant gas in air.  Prepared mainly by fractional distillation of liquid air.  Poisoning: Azotemia Important compounds: 1. Liquid nitrogen- used as refrigerant Container: Black 2. Nitrous oxide- inhalational anesthetic Container: Blue 3. Nitrite- vasodilator use for cyanide poisoning 4. Nitrate- meat preservative 5. Ammonia- respiratory stimulant PHOSPHOROUS (P)  Aka: Light carrier, St. Elmo’s Fire  It has 2 allotropes: 1. Yellow phosphorous- volatile, flammable, toxic and very reactive 2. Red phosphorous- non-volatile, flammable, non-toxic and non reactive Important compound:  PO4: antacid, cathartic & buffer ARSENIC (As)  Aka: Lewisite metal  It is used as a poison in Roman Empire through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance  Discovered by Albertus Magnus in 1250 and the first preparation of this metal is founded by Paracelsus.  As2O3 (white arsenic)- the arsenic of choice of chronic poisoning  Antidote: BAL, Mg(OH)2 po and DMSA IM  Arsenic is a component of Salvarsan (discovered by Paul Elrich) Important compounds: 1. As2O3- insecticide and anti-leukemic 2. Paris green- insecticide 3. Fowler’s solution- insecticide ANTIMONY (Sb) Pcol actions: 1. Emetic and expectorant 2. Anti-helminthic (leishmaniasis) 3. Anti-schistosomiasis (blood fluke- tx: tartar emetic) BISMUTH (Bi)  Aka: Beautiful Meadow  A stable element because of it’s long half life  Industrial use: silvering of mirrors

OLFU AC College of Pharmacy- REVIEWER ON MODULE 1 (PCI) 

Internal protective for ulcer induced by H.pylori infection (Bismuth subnitrate+ Bismuth Hydroxide)

THE VANDANIUM FAMILY (GROUP VB) TANTALUM (Ta)  Metal that is not affected by any body fluid.  Sheet form use in repair of bones, nerves and tissues  Use as pins, wires and plates to strengthen a broken bone. SUMMARY OF FLAME TESTS

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is a steely-gray, lustrous, hard and brittle metal Pcol: It serves as a glucose tolerance factor inside the body  Deficiency: Hyperglycemia Important compound: K2Cr2O7 MOLYBDENUM (Mo)  Comes from the Greek word “molybdos” meaning lead  Pcol action: cofactor of flavin dependent enzymes  It is also involved in bacterial fixing of atmospheric nitrogen TUNGSTEN (W)  Come from the Swedish language “tung sten” meaning heavy stone  It is a hard, rare metal with a very high melting point  Alloys of these metals are used in incandescent light bulb filaments and X-ray tubes URANIUM (U)  Element discovered by Becquerel  A radioactive element used for manufacture of atomic bombs  It has no pharmaceutical use

CHALCOGENS (GROUP VIA) Oxygen (O), Sulfur (S), Selenium (Se), Tellurium (Te) and Polonium (Po)

THE HALOGENS (GROUP VIIA) Fluorine (F), Chlorine (Cl), Bromine (Br), Iodine and Astatine (At)

OXYGEN (O)  Aka: empyreal air  The most abundant element in the earth’s crust  Discovered by Joseph Priestly  Pcol use: tx of hypoxia/asphyxia  It is a component of Artificial air  Container: Green

FLUORINE (F)  Exists as a pale yellow gas  The most electronegative element of the periodic table  Fluoride compounds are use as anti-cariogenic agents  Excessive amount in drinking water results to fluorosis Important compounds: 1. Fluorides- anti-cariogenic 2. Freons- refrigerant, aerosol propelant

SULFUR (S)  Aka: brimstone, shubari and enemy of Copper  It occurs on the earth’s crust as a free element or in combined form as metal sulfides and sulfates.  Most sulfur compounds have a strong odor Forms of Sulfur: 1. Monoclinic- rhombic sulfur that is heated to a temperature of 96C. 2. Mobile sulfur- monoclinic that is melted at a temperature of 113C 3. Viscous sulfur- result of continued heating of mobile sulfur 4. Amorphous sulfur- viscous that is cooled rapidly by immersion in cold water. 5. Rhombic sulfur Important Compounds: 1. Elemental sulfur- fungicidal 2. Sublimed sulfur- cathartic 3. Precipitated sulfur- scabicide 4. Sulfurated potash- tx for psoriasis 5. White Lotion USP- scabicidal 6. Sodium metabisulfite- antioxidant, preservative SELENIUM (Se)  Aka: Selene, Moon  An essential trace element  Promotes absorption of Vitamin E Important compounds: 1. Selenomethionine 2. SeS2- tx of sebborheic dermatitis TELLURIUM (Te)  Occur much less abundant than sulfur. It is found along with sulfur in metal sulfides and are recovered in some quantity from Pb and Cu refining process. POLONIUM (Po)  Occurs only in the form of radioisotopes as a result of decay of the actinide elements. CHROMIUM GROUP (GROUP VIB ) Chromium (Cr), Molybdenum (Mo), Tungsten (W), and Uranium (U) CHROMIUM (Cr)  Comes from the Greek word “chroma”

CHLORINE (Cl)  Aka: dephlogesticated muriatic acid air  Element with greenish yellow gas with a very suffocating odor  Discovered by a swedish chemist, Carl Wilhelm Scheele Important compounds: 1. Chlorides- electrolyte replenisher 2. Hypochlorites- bleaching agent 3. HCl- treatment of achlorhydria BROMINE (Br)  A fuming reddish brown liquid in room temperature, corrosive and toxic  Bromine comes from the Greek word “bromos” meaning strong smelling  Bromide compounds have sedative and CNS depressant action  Poisoning: Brominism (NaCl and Ammonia) IODINE (I)  Exists as a brown solid at room temperature  Elemental Iodine is known as one of the oldest known germicides in use today.  Pcol action: component of thyroxine and triiodothyroxine  Iodide compounds have an expectorant action. Important compounds: 1. Povidone-Iodine 2. Strong Iodine solution 3. Iodine tincture ASTATINE (At)  The only metallic halogen  The only synthetic  The only radioactive halogen (MANGANESE GROUP (GROUP VIIB) Manganese (Mn), Technetium (Tc), and Rhenium (Re) General Properties:

OLFU AC College of Pharmacy- REVIEWER ON MODULE 1 (PCI) 

The only metal of pharmaceutical importance in this group is Mn. Tc is a product of radioactive decay. Rhenium is extremely rare.

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MANGANESE (Mn)  A silvery gray metal that resembles iron.  This element occurs mainly as the oxide (MnO2) in nature.  Compounds with 2+ oxidation state is a good reducing agent and MnO4 (permanganates) are good oxidizing agent.  Pcol action: cofactor in protein synthesis, and important in activation of pyruvate carboxylase (vital role in human metabolic function)  Industrial use: production of metal alloys  Poisoning: Parkinson-like symptoms Important compound of Mn: 1) KMnO4- oxidizing agent and antiseptic (0.02%) and as a gastric lavage for various alkaloidal poisoning. Identification tests for Mn: 1) H2S: salmon or flesh colored ppt. of MnS 2) NaBiO3: purple solution of HMnO4 TECHNETIUM (Tc)  Came from the greek word “technetos” st  It was the 1 element produced artificially  Use: preparation of radiopharmaceuticals NOBLE GASES (GROUP VIIIA) Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe) and Radon (Rn) General Properties:  This element are inactive. It maybe explained on the basis of their atomic structure. Helium (2e) and the rest have (8e) in outermost shell. • Group VIIIA (Noble Gases) Helium (He)  Come from the name of an Ancient Greek God “Helios”  It was first discovered by scientists as a bright yellow line in the spectrum of the chromosphere of the sun. Uses of Helium: 1) Carrier / diluent of medically important gases 2) Component of artificial gas 3) Use as an alternative for nitrogen in gas tanks and alternative for H in balloons  Container: Brown  Toxicity: Donald-duck like sound NEON (Ne)  Use in advertising. It produces an unmistakable bright reddish-orange light.  Other lights are just referred to as “neon lights” ARGON (Ag)  It is the most abundant noble gas. It is a byproduct of the fractionation of liquid air. KRYPTON (Kr)  came from the Greek word, “kryptos” meaning the hidden one. It has an inhalational anesthetic activity. XENON (Xe)  With investigational anesthetic activity RADON (Rn)  The synthetic noble gas  Used for treatment of cervical cancer

st

The 1 triad are the only elements in the periodic table that exhibits magnetic properties at room temperature. nd rd The 2 and 3 triad along with Au, Ag and Hg are sometimes called the noble metals because they show low reactivity.

IRON (Fe)  Fe meaning “ferrum”  The first production of this metal started from the middle bronze age.  It is not found free in nature, the chief source in industry is hematite.  The sulfide form, Fe2S3 looks similar to gold.  (IRON) In the body it is present in: a) Hemoglobin b) Transferrin c) Ferritin d) Cytochrome oxidase  It enhances the absorption of ascorbic acid and copper  Main use: Hematinic  Deficiency: IDA  Group VIIIB (The Triads)  Toxicity: GIT distress and cardiac collapse  Antidote: Deferoxamine Important compounds: 1) FeSO4 2) Ferrous gluconate- less irritating Fe salt 3) Ferrous fumarate- high elemental Fe content 4) Iron Dextran & Iron Sorbitex Inj.

COBALT (Co)  In nature, cobalt is usually found associated with arsenical ores.  Most ores of this element contains water of hydration and are red in color.  Elemental component of Vit. B12  Pcol action: essential in development of erythrocyte and hemoglobin  Deficiency of cobalt: Megaloblastic anemia Identification tests: 1) NH4OH: pink ppt. of Co(OH)2 which dissolves upon addition of an excess reagent forming 2) KNO2, HAc: yellow ppt. of K3Co(NO2)6 NICKEL (Ni)  Aka: old nick’s copper  Metal use in fake/fancy jewelries  Important compound: Nickel pectinate- tx of diarrhea Identification tests: 1) NH4OH: green ppt. of Ni(OH)2 which dissolves in excess reagent 2) Dimethylglyoxime, NH3: red ppt. OSMIUM (Os)  Heaviest/ densest metal Important compounds: 1) Osmic acid 2) Osmium tetroxide- used in microorganism staining

THE TRIADS (GROUP VIIIB) st

1 Triad (The Iron Triad)  Iron (Fe), Cobalt (Co), Nickel (Ni) nd 2 triad  Ruthenium (Re), Rhodium (Ro) and Palladium rd 3 triad  Osmium (Os), Iridium (Ir) &Platinum (Pt) 

All Group VIIIA elements are grayish-white metals with high melting and boiling points.

PLATINUM (Pt)  Industrial use: catalyst in finely divided steel  Pharmaceutical products available: 1) Cisplatin 2) Carboplatin

OLFU AC College of Pharmacy- REVIEWER ON MODULE 1 (PCI) ESSENTIAL AND NON-ESSENTIAL IONS ESSENTIAL IONS: 1) 2) 3)

Iron- constituent of hemoglobin. Iodine- constituent of thyroxine and triiodothyronine. Zinc- constituent of insulin, carbonic anhydrase & lactic dehydrogenase 4) Sulfur- constituent of proteins, mucopolysaccharides, biotin, thiamine & lipoic acid 5) Cobalt- constituent of Vitamin B12 6) Manganese- cofactor for a number of enzymes like arginase, carboxylase and kinases 7) Copper- essential for the formation of hemoglobin & constituent of oxides enzymes 8) Chromium- involved in carbohydrate utilization 9) Molybdenum- constituent of xanthine oxidase & aldehyde oxidase 10) Selenium- constituent of factor 3 acts with Vit E B. NON-ESSENTIAL IONS: 1) 2) 3)

Fluoride- anticariogenic Bromide- sedative, CNS depressant and hypnotic Arsenic- depressant for epilepsy and used to treat leukemia 4) Lithium- diuretic and used in manic-depressive disorder 5) Gold- used in rheumatism and SLE 6) Aluminum- astringent, antiseptic and deodorant 7) Silver- antiseptic, astringent (irritant to corrosive) 8) Mercury- diuretic, antiseptic, parasiticide and fungicide 9) Strontium- sedative, treatment of osteoporosis, dentrifice and tooth temperature desensitizing agent 10) Chromium- play some role in glucose tolerance of some diabetics, old people and malnourished people

INTRACELLULAR AND EXTRACELLULAR ELECTROLYTES A. Intracellular ions: 1) Potassium- major intracellular cation nd 2) Magnesium- The 2 abundant intracellular cation 3) Calcium- 1% found in intracellular fluid 4) Phosphate- major intracellular anion B. Extracellular ions: 1) Sodium- major extracellular cation 2) Chloride- major extracellular anion

1) 2) 3)

PHYSIOLOGICAL BUFFERS Carbonic acid & Bicarbonate- Primary buffer of ECF Phosphate & Dihydrogen Phosphate- Urinary buffer/ also a buffer of ICF Hemoglobin & Proteins- Primary buffer of ICF

Official Combination Electrolyte Infusions: 1) Ringers Injection USP: (NaCl, KCl and CaCl2) 2) Lactated Ringers Injection USP: (NaCl, KCl, CaCl2 and Na lactate) 3) Oral electrolytes- intended as soon as intake of usual foods and fluids is discontinued and before serious fluid looses or deficit occurs.

PREPARED BY: DAN LESTER P. BACALZO, RPH Instructor-College of Pharmacy