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Tmtnenoçms \çpjkms Mktumkjn`cs lc y Ycamijejtmkjû` c` Trcsms lc Kn`krctn Z Gmtcrjmecs [ucetns J`o. Bnsc Eujs Kruzmln Yujz

 

J@\YNLSKKJÛ@

Trcsms

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Kn` ce tjcgpn rcqujcrc` rcpmrmkjn`cs.

Ce kn`trne lc em scourjlml y  pmtnenoçms

[c am gcbnrmln  pnr cxpcrjc`kjms m`tcrjnrcs.

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Gm`tc`jgjc`tn Ycamijejtmkjû` \rmtmgjc`tn

Mktumkjn`cs rcqujcrc`  prcsupucstn.

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  s   c   `   n    j   k   m   u    t   k    M

[courjlml Ajlrneûojkm [courjlml Cstrukturme [courjlml Npcrmkjn`me

Trcsm \uktu - M`kmsa

 

=. Tmtnenoçms lce tjpn cstrukturme c` prcsms lc kn`krctn

  s   c   r

Kn`ljkjn`cs mgijc`tmecs

Rn`ms supcrfjkjmecs lce kn`krctn

   t   n   k   m    F

Ce moc`tc trm`spnrtmln

Moum

Cstrukturm j`tcr`m lce kn`krctn

Tnrns y fjsurms

Trcsm Zm`mknkam - Kuskn

 

\jpns lc mkkjn`cs Lcormlmkjû` lc em pmstm lc kcgc`tn pnr íkjlns.

]uçgjkms

Lcormlmkjû` pnr mkkjû` lc kmtjn`cs.

Lcormlmkjû` pnr fnrgmkjû` lc smecs cxpm`sjvms.

  s   c   `    j   n   k   k    M

Mtmqucs pnr kjken ajcen-lcsajcen.

Fçsjkms

Lcormlmkjû` pnr metms vcenkjlmlcs lc moum.

Mkkjn`cs têrgjkms

\jpn gckí`jkn. Ntrms \jpn ijneûojkn.

 

¾]uê en prnlukc> 

Em cecvmlm vcenkjlml lce feubn lc moum y em kmrom lc scljgc`tns quc trm`spnrtm.

¾ ]uc fmktnrcs quc j`feuyc`>

Crnsjû` pnr mirmsjû`



Kmejlml lce kn`krctn2 f‚k, Ym/k y em rcsjstc`kjm me lcsomstc lce morcomln. Vcenkjlml lc feubn lce moum

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Km`tjlml lc kmrom trm`spnrtmlm pnr ce moum y ems kmrmktcrçstjkms mirmsjvms lc cstm.



 Kmrmktcrçstjkms lce feubn2 [j cs kn`tj`un n j`tcrgjtc`tc.

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¾Kûgn sc gm`jfjcstm> 

Em gm`jfcstmkjû` lce lmýn sc rcfecbm c` em supcrfjkjc lce kn`krctn kn` fnrgms sumvcs y rcln`lcmlms. [ucec mimrkmr supcrfjkjcs lc cspcsnrcs quc puclc` jr lc pnkns kc`tçgctrns m  pnkns gctrns.

 

\ò`ce lc Tmemo`clrm, [ujzm Fuc`tc2 C\A Rurjka. Eminrmtnry nf Aylrmuejks, Aylrmuej ks, Aylrnenoy m`l Oemkjnenoy V VM M_.

 

Fuc`tc2 Aneem`l, \.K. m`l Outskanw, Y.M. (=:1? )

 

¾Lû`lc nkurrc` usumegc`tc> 

Mejvjmlcrns



Kuc`kns mgnrtjoumlnrcs Ycvcstjgjc`tn lc tò`cecs



Crnsjû` pnr mirmsjû`

\êk`jkms lc prcvc`kjû` 

[j ijc` u`m iuc`m sceckkjû` lc kn`krctn mugc`tm em rcsjstc`kjm m cstm pmtnenoçm, `n cejgj`m cstc rjcson.



Fmktnrcs kngn em Ym/k n ce tjpn lc morcomln puclc` gcbnrmr ce kngpnrtmgjc`tn lce kn`krctn m`tc cstm pmtnenoçm. Msç kngn ejgjtmr ce tmgmýn lc morcomln 

S` feubn lc moum quc kjrkuem m u`m vcenkjlml cecvmlm pnr u`m supcrfjkjc kn` jrrcouemrjlmlcs. En puclc fnrgmr pnr lcimbn lce feubn u`ms iuriubms n mgpneems lc mjrc y vmpnr lc moum.

[jtumkjn`cs lc kmvjtmkjû` msnkjmlm m jrrcouemrjlmlcs c` em supcrfjkjc sc gucstrm` c` em sjoujc`tc fjourm2

Crnsjû` pnr kmvjtmkjû`

Fuc`tc2 M.K.J. (Mgcrjkm` Kn`krctc J`stjtutc)  

¾ Kûgn sc prnlukc> 

Ems orm`lcs kn` vcenkjlmlcs tjc`c` u` lce orm`moum, pnlcr lc mrrmstrc mjrc quc cstí c` kn`tmktn em supcrfjkjc ejirc gntjvmln pnrlce em ljfcrc`kjm lc  prcsjn`cs8 en quc amkc amkc quc ce mjrc pc`ctrc c` ce moum moum y c` u` kjcrtn cspcsnr em eígj`m lc moum cstmrí fnrgmlm pnr u`m gczkem lc mjrc, vmpnr lc moum y moum. M cstc fc`ûgc`n sc ec kn`nkc kngn kmvjtmkjû`.

Crnsjû` pnr kmvjtmkjû`

¾Lû`lc sc prnlukc`> 

[c prnlukc` c` em zn`m lc jgpmktn lc cstc feubn. Ceen lcijln m em rnturm lc ems iuriubms y mgpneems lc mjrc y vmpnr lc moum pnr ems cecvmlms prcsjn`cs j`stm`tí`cms c` ce gngc`tn lce jgpmktn.

¾Kûgn sc gm`jfjcstm> 

[c gm`jfjcstm j`jkjmegc`tc gcljm`tc knqucrms c` em supcrfjkjc lce kn`krctn. Cstms knqucrms sc  prnlukc` lc fnrgm mecmtnrjm merclclnr lc ens írjlns orucsns gís rcsjstc`tcs y kn` inrlcs jrrcouemrcs c` ems gjgms.

 

¾ Lû`lc nkurrc usumegc`tc>

Crnsjû` pnr kmvjtmkjû`



Mejvjmlcrns y trmgpnej`cs lc em`zmgjc`t em`zmgjc`tn. n.

 

\ò`cecs lc lcskmrom. \uicrçm fnrzmlm.



Kuc`kns mgnrtjoumlnrcs.



\uin lc mspjrmkjû` lc ems turij`ms.

¾Kûgn cvjtmrem> 

Ljscým`ln mlckumlmgc`tc mjrcmlnrcs c` ens ûrom`ns lc lcsmoõc.

¾Kûgn rcpmrmrem> 

\êk`jkms lc sustjtukjû` kn` gmtcrjmecs gmsjvns kngn ce kn`krctn kn`vc`kjn`me, kn` fjirms n lc metm rcsjstc`kjm.

Yjcsons 

[n` guy imbns c` rcemkjû` m em cstmijejlml lc em prcsm n lc meou`n lc sus cecgc`tns. [j` cgimron lm euomr m lmýns sjo`jfjkmtjvns c` ens ûrom`ns muxjejmrcs.

 



¾ ]uc prnkcsns fçsjkns en prnlukc`>

Ce pmsn lce moum lc em fmsc eçqujlm m em sûejlm rcprcsc`tm u` j`krcgc`tn lc vneugc` lce :%.



Lcskc`sn lce pu`tn lc kn`ocemkjû` lce moum c` em supcrfjkjc lce pnrn



Em trm`sjkjû` lc moum m ajcen c` sjstcgms pnrnsns cstí rcemkjn`mlm kn` em

Mkkjû` Ajcen Lcsajcen

cvmpnrmkjû` lc u`m orm` km`tjlml lc moum y ce ormln lc smturmkjû` lce kn`krctn.

¾Kûgn sc gm`jfjcstm> 

[c rcfecbm c` supcrfjkjcs lc kn`krctn lc tmgmýns vmrjmlns, c` fu`kjû` lc em cvneukjû` lce lmýn. [u cspcsnr puclc scr lc pnkns kc`tçgctrns m vmrjms lckc`ms.



[n` lc fnrgms vjvms, `n rcln`lcmlms, sjtuí`lnsc prcfcrc`tcgc`tc c` zn`ms lc km`tns vjvns y bu`tms lc kn`strukkjû`.

 

¾ Lû`lc nkurrc usumegc`tc> Ems zn`ms pmrkjmegc`tc smturmlms y kn` pnsjijejlmlcs lc sckmln sn` ems lc gmynr  prnimijejlml pmrm quc mpmrczkm` mpmrczkm` lmýns. C`trc êstms pnlrçm` kjtmrsc2 kjtmrsc2  Tmrmgc`tns moums lcimbn lc ems prcsms

Mkkjû` Ajcen Lcsajcen



Ensms c` mejvjmlcrns



[upcrfjkjcs lc knrn`mkjû` lc ems prcsms



Km`mecs

Yckngc`lmkjn`cs 

Em gcljlm gís ic`cfjkjnsm pmrm rclukjr lmýns pnr cstm kmusm cs kn`trnemr quc ce kn`tc`jln lce moum scm imbn, en kume sc trmlukc c` rclukjr em rcemkjû` moum/kcgc`tn j`fcrjnrcs m 4.33-4.6.



[c lcic` cbckutmr lc fnrgm knrrcktm ens lrc`mbcs prcvjstns c` ce prnycktn msç kngn kujlmr ems bu`tms lce kn`krctn, cspckjmegc`tc ems anrjzn`tmecs.

\êk`jkms lc rcpmrmkjû` 

[ceemln y em jgpcrgcmijejzmkjû`.



Ce sceemln c` zn`ms lmýmlms lc tjpn ej`cme, pnr cbcgpen, c` u`m bu`tm lc kn`krctn. Em jgpcrgcmijejzmkjû` sc eecvm m kmin c` ce pmrmgc`tn moums mrrjim lc em prcsm



 

Yjcsons 

Ens rjcsons cstrukturmecs lcijlns m cstm kmusm sn` guy imbns. @n nistm`tc, lcijln m quc puclc` mekm`zmr orm` cxtc`sjû`, lcic` scr rcpmrmlns.

Jgpcrgcmijejzmkjû` lce pmrmgc`tn moums mrrjim c` 94==, c` em prcsm lc Tuc`tc Tnrtn (Rmgnrm) Fuc`tc2 fcrpcscrkn`.kng

 

¾]uê en prnlukc>  

Kmenr lc frmoumln lce kn`krctn (prjgcrms clmlcs). Kn`ljkjn`cs kejgítjkms cxtcrjnrcs.

¾]uê prnlukc>

Cfcktns têrgjkns





C` ce kmsn lcscquc ems tcgpcrmturms ce j`tcrjnrc` lcecekn`krctn scm`prnvnkmrçm` guy supcrjnrcs m ems lc lce ens  pmrmgc`tns, puclc` prnlukjr u`msc`trmkkjn`cs j`tcrjnr quc em fjsurmkjû` gmtcrjme. Cstms trmkkjn`cs kngij`mlms kn` ntrms mkkjn`cs cxjstc`tcs c` ems prcsms, puclc lmr euomr m csfucrzns quc nrjoj`c` tc`sjn`cs supcrjnrcs m em rcsjstc`kjm m rnturm pnr trmkkjû` lce kn`krctn.

¾Kûgn sc gm`jfjcstm> 



[c rcfecbm` gcljm`tc fjsurms y/n orjctms. Cstms, c` oc`crme, sn` ejgpjms y `n tjc`c` ljrckkjn`cs  prclngj`m`tcs msnkjmlms. msnkjmlms. [ucec` prcsc`tmrsc lc fnrgm j`ljvjlume, `n tjc`c` u`m tjpnenoçm lc fjsurmkjû` c` rmgm (gmpcmlm)

 

Kmrmktcrçstjkms

Cfcktns têrgjkns



C` oc`crme, cstms fjsurms y/n orjctms `n mfcktm` m tnln ce cspcsnr sj`n m u`m pmrtc lce gjsgn. Kn`ljkjn`cs kejgítjkms cxtcrjnrcs.



Oc`crmegc`tc `n sn` guy prnfu`lms



[u kmríktcr `n sucec scr prnorcsjvn, cs lckjr, kn` frckuc`kjm sn` cstmiecs.

¾Lû`lc nkurrc usumegc`tc> 

Tuclc scr tm`tn ce pmrmgc`tn lc moums mrrjim kngn ce lc moums mimbn. @n nistm`tc, c` em gmynrçm lc ens kmsns, cstm prniecgítjkm sc prcsc`tm c` ce lc moums mimbn.



\mgijê` \mgij ê` c` zn`ms kn` gmsms lcskngpc`smlms, kngn kn`trmfucrtcs.

\êk`jkms lc rcpmrmkjû` 

J`yckkjû` lc ems fjsurms kn` eckamlms, gnrtcrns lc kcgc`tn n rcsj`ms (cpnxj u ntrms sjgjemrcs mkunrrcmktjvms).

 

¾]uê cs> 

Emvmln lce kn`krctn pnr moums purms

Kn`sjstc ce mrrmstrc ljsneukjû` c` moum purm n iem`lm, lce ajlrûxjln kíekjkn n gmo`êsjknc`oc`crmln c` em pnr ajlrmtmkjû` lce kcgc`tn.



Ce moum prnkclc lce lcsajcen n lc eeuvjm c` zn`ms `n j`lustrjmecs.



Ens pnrns mugc`tm` lc tmgmýn y `ògcrn, amkjc`ln quc pnstcrjnrcs mkkjn`cs sc rcmejkc` kn` gmynr fmkjejlml.

¾Kûgn sc gm`jfjcstm> 

C` fnrgm lc u` j`krcgc`tn `ntmiec lc em pnrnsjlml lce kn`krctn, lc em  pcrgcmijejlml (fjetrmkjn`cs) y u`m ljsgj`ukjû` lc rcsjstc`kjms gckí`jkms.

¾Lû`lc nkurrc usumegc`tc> 

Tuclc` prnlukjrsc c` tnlm em gmsm lce kn`krctn.



C` ems omecrçms



Tmrmgc`tns moums mimbn

 

Gêtnln lc prcvc`kjû`

Emvmln lce kn`krctn pnr moums purms



C` em mktumejlml sc c`tjc`lc quc tnln ce prnycktn lc nirm ajlríuejkm lcic rcmejzmrsc kn` kcgc`tns kn` mljkjn`cs mktjvms quc fjbc` em kme ejicrmlm c` em ajlrmtmkjû` lc sus kngpn`c`tcs mktjvns. Cstn cs jgpnrtm`tc cspckjmegc`tc c` prcsms sjtumlms c` em gn`tmým y quc sc `utrc` lc moums purms n ems trm`spnrtm`.



Ce kn`krctn lcic scr guy kngpmktn, en quc cxjoc u`m rcemkjû` moum/kcgc`tn en gís rclukjlm pnsjiec y quc q uc lurm`tc su pucstm c` nirm sc kngpmktc` c`êrojkmgc`tc. \nln puclc kmsn rcqucrjr ce cgpecmln cgpecn lcmjrcm`tcs. mljtjvns fu`lmgc`tmegc`tc rcluktnrcs lc moum, yceen c` meoò` sc am`

\êk`jkms lc rcpmrmkjû` 

Cs kngpecbm, pnrquc me `n amicr usmln u` kn`krctn mlckumln sc c`kuc`trm oc`crmejzmln.



S`m lc ems fnrgms lc cejgj`mr ce pmsn lce moum kn`sjstc c` em cbckukjû` lc u`m  pm`tmeem lc kn`krctn mlnsmlm me pmrmgc`tn lc moums mrrjim lc u` cspcsnr lc u`ns 4,3 gctrns rcmejzmlm kn` kn`krctn ijc` kngpmktmln y c` ce quc sc amym cgpecmln u` kcgc`tn kn` puznem`ms kmpmkcs lc fjbmr ce ajlrûxjln kíekjkn.



C` ntrms nkmsjn`cs, kn` ce fj` lc rclukjr sjo`jfjkmtjvmgc`tc meou`ms lc sus gm`jfcstmkjn`cs, sc cgpecm kngn têk`jkm lc rcpmrmkjû` rc pmrmkjû` em j`yckkjû`, puljc`ln

scr cstm lc eckamlm lc gnrtcrn lc kcgc`tn n lc rcsj`ms.  

Cstmemktjtms lc kmekjtm c` omecrçms lc j`spckkjû`. Fuc`tc2 Ljmrjn lc Mrmoû` y Muoms lc Omejkjm

 

Cbckukjû` lc j`yckkjn`cs c` em prcsm lms Fnrkmlms. Fuc`tc2 Muoms lc Omejkjm Yjcsons

 

¾]uê en prnlukc>

Mtmquc pnr suefmtns



Cs prnluktn lc u`m rcmkkjû` quçgjkm c`trc ce jû` suefmtn y ce meugj`mtn lc kmekjn ajlrmtmln y/n ajlrûxjln lc kmekjn lc em pmstm lc kcgc`tn c`lurckjlm, c` prcsc`kjm lc moum.



Ens prnluktns rcsuetm`tcs2 ctrj`ojtm y ycsn. \jc`c` u` vneugc` gmynr quc ens rcmktm`tcs sûejlns y ems tc`sjn`cs puclc` prnlukjr em rnturm lce kcgc`tn y lce kn`krctn.

¾Kûgn sc gm`jfjcstm> 

Ynturm prnorcsjvm lc ems csquj`ms y mrjstms.



Fjsurmkjû`, lcsmorcomkjû` y pêrljlm lc knacsjû` krckjc`tc lce kn`krctn.



Gmynr pnrnsjlml lce kn`krctn lc kucrpn lc prcsm y c` kn`sckuc`kjm, u` mugc`tn lc em pcrgcmijejlml rcfecbmln c` gmynrcs fjetrmkjn`cs.

¾Lû`lc sucec sukclcr> 

Ln`lc sc cstê c` kn`tmktn kn` moums n tcrrc`ns kn` metn kn`tc`jln c` suefmtns.



Frckuc`tcgc`tc c` kjgc`tmkjû` y cstrjins.

 

¾Kûgn sc puclc nrjoj`mr> 

Ens lmýns puclc` mpmrckcr kngn kn`sckuc`kjm lc u`m fmetm lc kn`trne lc kmejlml lc ems kmrmktcrçstjkms lce tcrrc`n snirc ce quc sc vm m rcmejzmr em nirm8 n u`m gmem ceckkjû` lce tjpn lc kcgc`tn lc mkucrln kn` em morcsjvjlml lce gcljn.

¾Kûgn prcvc`jren>

Mtmquc pnr suefmtns



Lcic rcmejzmrsc u` cstuljn ocntêk`jkn guy kngpectn mkngpmýmln lc u` m`íejsjs quçgjkn lce tcrrc`n y lce moum quc pcrgjtm kn`nkcr em cxjstc`kjm lc cecgc`tns n rmljkmecs quçgjkmgc`tc morcsjvns.



Ce kcgc`tn m cgpecmr puclc scr u` kcgc`tn kn` mljkjû`, prcfcrc`tcgc`tc lc csknrjms iísjkms lc anr`n metn, n u` kcgc`tn kn` kngpnsjkjû`, c` meugj`mtn trjkíekjkn, mlckumlm me gcljn morcsjvn kn` ce quc vm m cstmr c` kn`tmktn.



[c lcicrí kujlmr gukan em pucstm c` nirm y em kngpmktmkjû` lce kn`krctn. M vckcs, kum`ln ce tcrrc`n cs rjkn c` suefmtns y sc knenkm kn`krctn snirc êe,  puclc scr kn`vc`jc`tc knenkmr u`m ocngcgirm`m lc cspcsnr mlckumln, sj`  bu`tms n kn` bu`tms snelmlms, pmrm kn`scoujr mjsemr ce kn`krctn lce tcrrc`n.

\êk`jkm lc rcpmrmkjû rcpmrmkjû` ` 

Cejgj`mkjû` lce kn`krctn lmýmln y sustjtukjû` pnr ntrn c` ce quc ce kcgc`tn cgpecmln scm ce mlckumln.

 

¾]uê en prnlukc>

Ycmkkjû` mekmeç - írjln



[c prnlukc kum`ln j`tcrmkkjn`m` írjlns quc kn`tjc`c` gj`crmecs sjejkmtmlns  pntc`kjmegc`tc rcmktjvns, kn` ens íekmejs  pntc`kjmegc`tc íekmejs lce kcgc`tn. kcgc`tn.



En quc fnrgm ocecs quc c` prcsc`kjm lc augclml y sc cxpm`lc`8 gm`jfcstí`lnsc c` morjctmgjc`tns y gnvjgjc`tns ljfcrc`kjmecs y kn` ceen, u`m ljsgj`ukjû` lrístjkm lc em lurmijejlml.

¾Kûgn sc gm`jfjcstm> 

C` fnrgm lc fjsurms tjpn gmpm y lcsj`tcormkjû` lce kn`krctn prnvnkmln pnr ce kmríktcr cxpm`sjvn lce oce.

¾Lû`lc sucec sukclcr> 

C` kumequjcr pmrtc, ln`lc sc nrjoj`c` cstms rcmkkjn`cs fmvnrckjlms pnr em prcsc`kjm lc augclml.

 

¾Kûgn prcvc`jrem>    M

`tcs lc cfcktumr ce ljscýn lce kn`krctn lcic` rcmejzmrsc, mlcgís lc ens c`smyns gís kngu`cs c` ens írjlns, ens lc rcmktjvjlml lc ens írjlns kn` ens íekmejs, tc`jc`ln c` kuc`tm quc `n cxjstc u` c`smyn lc knrtm lurmkjû` fjmiec, quc `ns  pcrgjtm kn`nkcr sj u` írjln cs n `n mtmkmiec m emron emron pemzn. j sc snspckam quc ens írjlns puclc` scr rcmktjvns en gís kn`vc`jc`tc cs `n cgpecmrens y, sj `n auijcsc gís rcgcljn, lcic ejgjtmrsc ce kn`tc`jln lc íekmejs c`

   [ 

Ycmkkjû` mekmeç - írjln





ce kcgc`tn. Cvjtmr quc em augclml tc`om mkkcsn me kn`krctn, knsm quc c` u`m nirm ajlríuejkm y cspckjmegc`tc c` u`m prcsm, cs príktjkmgc`tc jgpnsjiec. C` ce kmsn lc u` km`me, ce cgpecn lc u`m ocngcgirm`m puclc kn`scoujr gm`tc`cr me kn`krctn sckn y pnr tm`tn cejgj`mr ce pcejorn lc em rcmkkjû`.

\êk`jkms lc rcpmrmkjû` 

Trntckkjn`cs m imsc lc kmpms lc gnrtcrn lc rcsj`ms kn` mkmimlns lc pj`turms lc knenr kemrn.



Ocngcgirm`ms lc pnejctjec`n snelmlms.



Cbckukjû` lc knrtcs en`ojtulj`me en`ojtulj`mecs cs y trm`svcrsmecs c` em sckkjû` lc em prcsm  pmrm ejicrmr ejicrmr tc`sjn`cs tc`sjn`cs y cvjtmr cvjtmr ce mugc`tn mugc`tn lc em fjsurmkjû`.

 

Morjctmgjc`tn tçpjkn pnr rcmkkjû` mekmeç-írjln

 

¾M quc sc lcic> 

Ems pjrjtms y ntrns írjlns suefurnsns puclc` nxjlmrsc m suefmtns c` kn`tmktn kn` ce mjrc mtgnsfêrjkn y êstns m su vcz rcmkkjn`mr kn` ce meugj`mtn trjkíekjkn lce kcgc`tn  pnrtem`l, lm`ln euomr e uomr m em fnrgmkjû` lc ctrj`ojtm cxpm`sjvm.

\jpn lc prcsc`kjm lc suefurn lc ajcrrn2 -Tjrjtm -Gmrkmsjtm

Nxjlmkjû` lc írjlns suefurnsns

-Tjrrntj`m

¾Kûgn sc gm`jfjcstm> 

Kmgijn lc knenrmkjû`.



Mpmrjkjû` lc fjsurms gmpcmlms amstm kn`vcrtjrsc c` orjctms.



Cxpm`sjû` lce kn`krctn amstm lcsmormomkjû`.

¾Lû`lc sucec sukclcr> 

Rn`ms mjrcmlms lc ems nirms y c` su pmrtc metm lcijln m scr ems quc gc`ns kngprjgjlms sc c`kuc`trm`.



C` kjgc`tmkjn`cs mpc`ms sc lm` cstns cfcktns, lcijln m em fmetm lc kn`tmktn kn` ce nxçoc`n lce mjrc y m em gc`nr tcgpcrmturm.

 

\êk`jkms lc rcpmrmkjû` 

Lcgnejkjû` lce kn`krctn quc kn`tc`çm csns írjlns.



Tj`turm jgpcrgcmiec quc jgpjlm ce pmsn lce mjrc. (pmrmgc`tns)



Omecrçms lc lrc`mbc, pm`tmeems, ctk.

 

¾]uê cs y quc prnvnkm> 

Kn`sjstc c` em nxjlmkjû` cecktrnquçgjkm, merclclnr lc ems imrrms, fnrgí`lnsc u`m kmpm lc acrrugirc cxpm`sjvm. \jpn lc prcsc`kjm lc suefurn lc ajcrrn2



Cstn puclc prnvnkmr orm`lcs tc`sjn`cs lc trmkkjû` c` ce kn`krctn lm`ln euomr m2

-Fjsurmkjû` -Aj`kamzû`

Knrrnsjû` lc mrgmlurms

-Ljsorcomkjû`

¾Kûgn sc gm`jfjcstm> 

C` em supcrfjkjc lce kn`krctn.



C` fnrgm lc fjsurms sjoujc`ln sjoujc`ln em trmycktnrjm lc ems imrrms, y m vckcs pcqucýns krítcrcs.

¾Lû`lc sucec sukclcr> 

C` ems zn`ms mrgmlms, kngn kngpucrtms.



C` ems zn`ms lc nskjemkjû` lce `jvce lc moum pnr kn`kurrjr c` ceems em prcsc`kjm lc nxçoc`n y lc augclml.

 

¾Kûgn sc puclc nrjoj`mr> 

C` u`m lcfjkjc`kjm em kmejlmlc`lce kn`krctn quc euomr êstc scmlcguy  pcrgcmiec y c` u`m c` lcfjkjc`kjm em cbckukjû` quc lm amkc quc mensquccspcsnrcs ens rckuirjgjc`tns `n scm` ens mlckumlns.

¾Kûgn prcvc`jren>

Knrrnsjû` lc mrgmlurms

 

Ens kngpn`c`tcs lce kn`krctn lcicrçm` cstmr cxc`tns lc kenrurns. Ce moum cgpecmlm c` ce mgmsmln y kurmln lce kn`krctn lcic tc`cr u` kn`tc`jln lc jn`cs kenrn j`fcrjnr m 6 o/=. (6.444 p.p.g.).



C` ens mljtjvns, cspckjmegc`tc c` ens mkcecrm`tcs, ce kn`tc`jln lc kenrurn kíekjkn `n lcic scr supcrjnr me 9 pnr =44.



Ce cgpecn lc mljtjvns j`ajijlnrcs lc knrrnsjû` m imsc lc `jtrjtns quc sc j`knrpnrm` me



kn`krctn c` ce gngc`tn lc su mgmsmln sucec lmr u` iuc` rcsuetmln. [c puclc mktumr snirc em mrgmlurm prntcojê`lnem ijc` kn` pj`turms, gcljm`tc omevm`jzmkjû` y ntrns.

\êk`jkms lc rcpmrmkjû` 



Cejgj`mkjû` lce kn`krctn lce rckuirjgjc`tn y sustjtukjû` pnr u`m kmpm lc kn`krctn  prnycktmln. Tmsjvmkjû` lc ems imrrms kn` u`m jgprjgmkjû` cpnxj kmromlm lc zj`k.

 

9. Tmtnenoçms c` prcsms lc gmtcrjmecs sucetns

  s   n    t    e   c   u   s   s   c    e   m    j   r   c    t   m   g   c    l   s   m   s   c   r    T

[jgpejkjlml c` ce cgpecn lc gmtcrjmecs Vc`tmbms \rm`sgjtc` gc`nrcs tc`sjn`cs me tcrrc`n lc kjgc`tmkjû` J`kn`vc`jc`tcs

Ejgjtmkjû` ajlríuejkm ([nircvcrtjln)

 

¾M quc gmtcrjmecs mfcktm> 

M ens lc tjpn knacsjvn kngn ems mrkjeems.

¾]uê kn`sckuc`kjms oc`crm> 

Fjsurmkjû` n morjctmgjc`tn

Crnsjû` j`tcr`m

Kmrmktcrçstjkms prj`kjpmecs 

Em nrjc`tmkjû`2 puljc`ln scr en`ojtulj`me n trm`svcrsme me cbc lc em prcsm8 c` pem`ns vcrtjkmecs, anrjzn`tmecs u ntrns j`tcrgcljns.



Ce lcsmrrneen2 fjsurmkjû` lc tjpn enkmejzmln n cxtc`sn.



Em mpcrturm2 kc`tjgêtrjkm, lckjgêtrjkm, ctk.

¾Lû`lc sucec sukclcr> 

C` ems zn`ms supcrjnrcs lc ems prcsms, ym quc ems gmynrcs prcsjn`cs cxjstc`tcs c` ems zn`ms j`fcrjnrcs lce rceec`n, kn`trjiuyc` m cvjtmr em mpmrjkjû` lc trmkkjn`cs, y pnr tm`tn, lc fjsurmkjû`.

 

Lcskrjpkjû` lc ems orjctms

Fjsurmkjû` n morjctmgjc`tn



\rm`svcrsmecs2 Ems gís pcejornsms, pnr msjc`tns ljfcrc`kjmecs, c` zn`ms metms cs gm`cbmiec.



En`ojtulj`mecs2 Gís n gc`ns pmrmecems m em knrn`mkjû`, c` pem`ns vcrtjkmecs n kcrkm`ns m cstm cstm pnsjkjû`. Tuclc` j`lukjr lcsejzmgjc`tns.



J`tcr`ms2 sn` ljfçkjecs lc lctcktmr, mpmrjkjû` lc fuoms.

\êk`jkms lc rcpmrmkjû` 

Ems fjsurms trm`svcrsmecs lcic` rcpmrmrsc kn` u` rceec`n lcijlmgc`tc cstuljmln  pmrm quc scm cstmiec y c`emkc kn` ce gmtcrjme lce l ce `òkecn. [ucec` cgpecmrsc gczkems  ijc` lnsjfjkmlms lnsj fjkmlms lc mrc`m kn` mrkjeem y ic`tn`jtm. ic`tn`jt m. Kngn ems orjctms sucec` scr fj`ms yscourns ljfçkjecs rceec`mr, kn`vjc`c u`m zm`bm quc ems j`keuym sjomy pmrm cstmr lclcamicr eecomln amstm mirjr su cxtrcgn, y pmrm amkcr gís yfíkje cfjkmz su rceec`n, pmrm ce quc m vckcs puclc cgpecmrsc ce gmtcrjme cxtrmçln, kn` n sj` ntrns mýmljlns, lcijlmgc`tc kngpmktmln c` kmpms lceomlms.



C` ems en`ojtulj`mecs em rcpmrmkjû` cs sjgjemr. Z c` kmsn `n sc rcpmrc, vcrjfjkmr quc `n fjetrc ce moum. Z kujlmr quc `n fjetrc ce moum lc eeuvjm, ym quc pnlrçm oc`crmr u` lcsejzmgjc`tn.



Ems fjsurms j`tcr`ms em ò`jkm rcpmrmkjû` pnsjiec, sj êstms `n sc am` sceemln, cs em

j`yckkjû`. Lc tnlns gnlns, en gís frckuc`tc cs quc, sj ens fjetrns sn` mlckumlns, ce mutnsceemln sc prnluzkm sj` gmynrcs prniecgms.  

Gcljlms lc prcvc`kjû`

Fjsurmkjû` n morjctmgjc`tn



Stjejzmkjû` lc mrkjeems peístjkms, tc`snlcfnrgmkjn`me, cs lckjr, lòktjecs.



\rmzmlns c` pem`tm lce cbc lc em prcsm kurvns, n rcpcrfjemgjc`tn lc ens c`kuc`trns (cfcktn mrkn)2



Cvjtmr `òkecns lc prcsm guy lceomlns, y, c` tnln kmsn, utjejzmr fjetrns m`kans y  iuc`ms zn`ms lc trm`sjkjû`. trm`sjkjû` . Ejgjtmr em j`kej`mkjû` lc ens tmeulcs lc ens cstrjins.



c`

ce

sc`tjln

lce

kngpnrtmgjc`tn



\rmtmr em supcrfjkjc lc ens cstrjins, cejgj`m`ln smejc`tcs c jrrcouemrjlmlcs.



Augclml lc kngpmktmkjû` cecvmlm c` ce `òkecn, fmkjejtm`ln su kngpnrtmgjc`tn lòktje.



Lc`sjlmlcs sckms lc kngpmktmkjû` cecvmlms, kn` ce fj` lc rclukjr kmgijns lc vneugc`.



Cejgj`mr bu`tms y fjsurms c` em rnkm n tcrrc`n lc kjgc`tmkjû`, gcljm`tc j`yckkjn`cs lc kn`snejlmkjû` n trmtmgjc`tn lc em supcrfjkjc lc kn`tmktn.



Stjejzmkjû` lc rcfucrzns, kngn ocnsj`têtjkns.

 

¾]uê cs> 

[coò` [acpmrl2

=.Ce moum kn`sjouc c`trmr c` u`m ljskn`tj`ujlml c` gmtcrjme mrkjeensn n ejgnsn. 9. Ce moum kn`sjouc jr mirjc`ln u`m orjctm n fjsurm kngn kn`sckuc`kjm lc u`m cecvmlm prcsjû` ajlríuejkm, supcrjnr m em prcsjû` vcrtjkme lc l c tjcrrms. ;. Em en`ojtul lc em orjctm mvm`zm, puljc`ln mtrmvcsmr ce `òkecn jgpcrgcmiec y lcscginkmr c` u`m rnturm lc em prcsm pnr crnsjû` j`tcr`m. Kn`sckuc`kjms2

Frmkturmkjû` ajlríuejkm

- Fjetrmkjn`cs kn`kc`trmlms, quc mpmrckc` prn`tn, `nrgmegc`tc lurm`tc ce prjgcr eec`mln. [ucec` lmrsc c` prcsms angnoê`cms, ijc` kn`strujlms, pcrn sj` lrc`mbcs j`tcr`ns y m gc`uln kn`lukc` m em rnturm lc em prcsm. - Fjetrmkjn`cs mkngpmýmlms lc crnsjû`, m trmvês lce `òkecn kc`trme lc prcsms kn`strujlms kn` fjetrns j`mlckumlns, quc sucec` knj`kjljr kn` u`m suijlm rípjlm lc `jvce c` u`n lc ens prjgcrns eec`mlns. -Cxjstc`kjm lc prcsjn`cs pjczngêtrjkms lc gmo`jtul kmsj joume m em lce cgimesc c` em zn`m lce `òkecn prûxjgm m su pmrmgc`tn moums mimbn. Ems pcrfnrmkjn`cs quc sc am` vc`jln rcmejzm`ln pmrm kn`fjrgmr cstms prcsjn`cs am` kn`fjrgmln su cxjstc`kjm, amkjc`ln snspckamr lc fjsurms gís n gc`ns anrjzn`tmecs c` kn`cxjû` kn` ce cgimesc. - Cxjstc`kjm lc kmpms aògclms lc`trn lce `òkecn lc meou`ms prcsms kn` kn`tc`jln lc moum gmynr y u`m lc`sjlml gc`nr quc em lc knenkmkjû`, en quc `n pnlrçm bustjfjkmrsc pnr ntrns gckm`jsgns. 

[coò` O. Irmvn2

Kngn c` u` `òkecn cxtc`ljln y kngpmktmln c` kmpms ems kmpms supcrjnrcs cstmrí`, lc gcljm, gís kngpmktmlns quc c` em pmrtc j`tcrjnr, cxjstc actcrnoc`cjlml lce gmtcrjme. [j cgpjczm m suijr ce `jvce,quc ce moum pc`ctrmrí pnr enskn` cecgc`tns êstns cgpczmrí` m smturmrsc y, lmln ce moum sc trm`sgjtc gukam gís pcrgcmiecs, fmkjejlml pnryens cecgc`tns smturmlns, quc m`tcs pnr ens

quc `n en cstí`, sc oc`crm` vçms prcfcrc`kjmecs lc fjetrmkjû`, quc sn` ce nrjoc` lc em frmkturmkjû` ajlríuejkm.  

9.= Kmusms  prj`kjpmecs lc lc fmeen c` prcsms gmtcrjmecs sucetns

 

Trj`kjpmecs kmusms  

J`mlckumlm prcvjsjû` lc mvc`jlms, quc sucec scr em kmusm gís frckuc`tc. Fmeens c` ce sjstcgm lc kn`trne lce `jvce lc moum c` ce cgimesc.

¾Kûgn prcvc`jren>

[nircvcrtjln  pnr knrn`mkjû`



Cstmieckjgjc`tn lc rcsoumrlns



Mlckumln ljscýn lc ens ûrom`ns lc lcsmoõc



Cxamustjvm vjojem`kjm c` em prcsm

 

Trj`kjpmecs kmusms 

Lcfjkjc`tc kngpmktmkjû` emtcrme quc oc`crm u` kmgj`n prcfcrc`kjme pmrm ce mvm`kc lce moum

¾Kûgn prcvc`jren>

Fuoms c` kn`luktn

Kn`luktns c`oenimlns c` ntrm nirm lc kn`krctn2 

C` omecrçm (gcbnr sneukjû`).



Cgiutjlns c` u` ienquc lc kn`krctn.

 

Trj`kjpmecs kmusms 

Kngn acgns vjstn c` ce pu`tn m`tcrjnr, ems supcrfjkjcs lc kn`tmktn lce `òkecn kn` ems nirms lc kn`krctn, sn` pmrtjkuemrgc`tc lcejkmlms. S` kmsn pmrtjkuemr cs em j`kjlc`kjm lc em omecrçm pcrjgctrme. p crjgctrme. Em cskucem mgcrjkm`m cstm m fmvnr lc su kn`strukkjû`, gjc`trms em curnpcm c` kn`trm. M kn`tj`umkjû` sc gucstrm ems vc`tmbms c j`kn`vc`jc`tcs lc su kn`strukkjû`.

Fmeen lcijln m em omecrçm  pcrjgctrme

Vc`tmbms • •

Kn`trne lc em kjgc`tmkjû` m trmvês lc ems eminrcs lc muskuetmkjû` (fjetrmkjn`cs, suiprcsjn`cs, gnvjgjc`tns, ctk.). Cbckukjû` lc gcljlms knrrcktnrms (j`yckkjn`cs y lrc`cs)

J`knvc`jc`tcs • •

Ce kn`tmktn c`trc ce `òkecn y em omecrçm pnlrçm oc`crme u` kmgj`n  prcfcrc`kjme pmrm ce mvm`kc moum. lc kjgc`tmkjû` cs Cs pnkn mkn`scbmiec kum`lnlce ce tcrrc`n

lcfnrgmiec c jgpcrgcmiec.  

¾Kûgn sc prnlukc> 

[c prnlukc kum`ln em kjrkuemkjû` lce moum m trmvês lc em prcsm n lce tcrrc`n nkmsjn`m u` mrrmstrc j`kn`trnemln tntme n pmrkjme lc pmrtçkuems.

Kmusms Kn`luktns c`oenimlns c` ntrm nirm lc kn`krctn2

Crnsjû` j`tcr`m



Musc`kjm lc u` fjetrn mlckumln moums mimbn. Cgiutjlns c` u` ienquc lc kn`krctn.



Gme kn`tmktn kn` cstrukturms lc fíirjkm n gctíejkms.



Cskmpcs lc moum lc u` kn`luktn quc mtrmvjcsm em prcsm n prcsc`kjm lc u` gm`m`tjme.

 

Frmkturmkjû` ajlríuejkm. Gmlrjoucrms y tò`cecs lc rnclnrcs n rmçkcs lc írinecs sckns.

Kngn prcvc`jr  

 @òkecn mrkjeensn, quc quc rclukc ems fjetrmkjn`cs. Fjetrn, quc jgpjlc em crnsjû` j`tcr`m.



Lrc`, quc kn`trnem y kn`lukc em fjetrmkjû`.

 

Kmusm prj`kjpme  

Cxjstc`kjm lc tcrrc`ns pntc`kjmegc`tc crnsjn`miecs. \rmtmgjc`tn j`mlckumln lce tcrrc`n lc kjgc`tmkjû` en quc prnlukc2

-Fnrgmkjû` lc orjctms -Krcmkjû` lc kmgj`ns lc fjetrmkjû` prcfcrc`kjmecs

Fmeen lcijln me tcrrc`n lc kjgc`tmkjû`

Kngn prcvc`jren   

Mlckumlm prcpmrmkjû` lc em supcrfjkjc lc mpnyn lc em prcsm. Mlckumlm ejgpjczm lc em supcrfjkjc lc kjgc`tmkjû` y lc ens cstrjins. Cbckukjû` lc pm`tmeems

 

Kmusms

Trniecgms lc cstmijejlml lc tmeulcs



Trniecgms c` em kn`strukkjû`2 kngpmktmkjû` sukcsjvm lc ems tn`omlms.



Lcscgimescs rípjlns2 ljfcrc`kjms lc prcsjû` ajlrnstítjkm snirc ce tmeul moums mrrjim.



Fmeens c` ce sjstcgm lc lrc`mbc m emron pemzn.



Lcijln m nkurrc`kjm lc sjsgn.

Kngn prcvc`jren 

Kngpmktmkjû` ûptjgm lc ens gmtcrjmecs knacsjvns lce emln sckn.



J`stmemkjû` lc kmpms lrc`m`tcs anrjzn`tmecs.



Memromgjc`tn lce pcrçnln kn`struktjvn. Iuc` ljscýn m`tcs sjsgns



 

Kmusms 

Necmbc c` ce pmrmgc`tn moum mrrjim.

Kngn prcvc`jren Kn` u` sjstcgm lc prntckkjû` supcrfjkjme. 

Crnsjû` lc tmeulcs



Cskneecrm vcrtjlm. Ensms lc kn`krctn mrgmln kn`tj`ums.



Yckuirjgjc`tn lc sucen-kcgc`tn.



Tm`tmeem msfíetjkm.

 

Ycfcrc`kjms Ijiejnorífjkms 

Moumln, M. Moueeû, E., Fcr`í`lcz Kí`nvms, G., [meem, B.G. =::6. Ljmo`ûstjkn y rcpmrmkjû` lc nirms ajlríuejkms lc kn`krctn. C\[J Kmgj`ns, Km`mecs y Tucrtns, S`jvcrsjlml Tnejtêk`jkm lc Kmtmeuým, S`jvcrsjlml Tnejtêk`jkm lc Gmlrjl.



Megnameem, Y., Imrkceû, F., Ojrû`, F. y Ejssc`, M. 9441. Kn`trne y rcojstrn lce gm`tc`jgjc`tn c` em cxpentmkjû` c xpentmkjû` lc prcsms. [pm`knel. Cspmým.



Men`sn, G. Ce kjgc`tn y em scourjlml lc em prcsm.



Lc Kcm, B. K. Trcsms lc `òkecn kc`trme. Krjtcrjns oc`crmecs lc scourjlml. Kngjtê @mkjn`me Cspmýne lc Orm`lcs Trcsms ([TM@KNEL). CMLJK. Cskucem \êk`jkm Cspckjmejzmlm c` J`oc`jcrçm, Mrqujtckturm y Kn`strukkjû`. 94=:. Gístcr c` Ljscýn Kn`strukkjû` y Cxpentmkjû` lc Nirms Ajlríuejkms. Cxpentmkjû` y [courjlml lc Trcsms y Cgimescs.





Omlcm, B., [nrjm`n, B., Gmrtç`, M., Kmgpns, T. E., Ynlrçoucz, M., Bu`kn, K., Mlí`, J., Kmelcrû`, V. Ycmktjvjlml írjln-íekmej c` írjlns cgpecmlns pmrm kn`krctn.



Gírqucz, B. B.. Ljscýn lc prcsms lc gmtcrjmecs sucetns.



Gnsqucrm, N. 94=9. Gmrkn ecojsemtjvn vjoc`tc y sjtumkjû` mlgj`jstrmtjvm lc prcsms y cgimescs c` Omejkjm-Knstm. Muoms lc Omejkjm. Qu`tm lc Omejkjm.



Gurkjm, B., Moumln, M., Gmrç, M. =::;. kn`krctn mrgmln y prctc`smln. CLJKJN@C[ STK. S`jvcrsjtmt Tnejtêk`jkm lc Kmtmeu`ym.



Tmrln lc [m`tmym`m, F. 94=4. Ems prcsms lc gmtcrjmecs sucetns y sus pmtnenoçms. Bnr`mlm lc Crnsjû` J`tcr`m lc Trcsms. Eminrmtnrjn lc Ocntck`jm ‛ KCLCQ



[í`kacz, F.B.. 944?. [courjlml lc prcsms2 mpnrtmkjû` me m`íejsjs kngn cecgc`tn lc prcvc`kjû` lc pmtnenoçms lc nrjoc` ocntêk`jkn. \csjs lnktnrme. S`jvcrsjlml Tnejtêk`jkm lc Gmlrjl.

lnktnrme. S`jvcrsjlml Tnejtêk`jkm lc Gmlrjl. 

Vmeemrj`n, C. 9446. \rmtmln Iísjkn lc Trcsms. Knecojn lc Kmgj`ns, Km`mecs y Tucrtns.

 

OYMKJM[