Parts of Research Paper

 

 RSH 631: RESEARCH SEMINAR 2 (Parts of a Thesis)

SUBMITTED BY:

MIGUEL PALOMAR GOMEZ JR. MEM Student, PUP Sta. Rosa

SUBMITTED TO:

Dr. GLORIA T. BAYSA Prof. PUP-OU, Sta. Rosa

August 15, 2011

 

RESEARCH SEMINAR II

Discuss the Different Parts of a Thesis.  Answer: It is not enough that an investigator knows all the parts in writing a research paper, thesis and dissertation, but it is necessary for him to know the format and style in writing them. However, there is no specific and best format for the writing of research paper, thesis and dissertation but there are only better and acceptable form and style in writing them. It depends upon the institutions and disciplines promulgating the rules on the format and style in writing research paper, thesis, and dissertation.  Although research paper,  Although paper, thesis, and dissertation dissertation differ considerably considerably in scope and treatment of problems, the researcher is expected to follow the widely accepted format and style of writing in the academic community. The preliminaries of a research paper, thesis, and dissertation are (1) Title page, (2)  Approvall sheet, (3) Acknowledgement,  Approva Acknowledgement, (4) Abstract, (5) Table Table of contents, contents, (6) List of tables, (7) List of figures and, (8) List of plates. Title page.  The title page is the first page of a research paper, thesis and dissertation but the page number is not indicated. It counts as page i of a thesis, but the number is not typed on the page. It sets the tone for the entire thesis. All write-ups should agree with and support the title. It is suggested suggested that the title should not be more than 20 substantive substantive words. The title should be brief, descriptive and comprehensive. It should identify the variables in the study, the type of  relationships that may be inferred between the variables, the population to whom the results may be applied, and other unique or special aspect of the study that distinguishes it from other  works. The complete thesis title should be written in all capital letters, should be centered between the margins and double spaced. It begins with a two inches (approximately 10 single line spaces) from the top of the page. If the title is more than one line in length, it should be arranged as an inverted pyramid. Certain forms of title phrasing such as a “Study of ...”, “An  Analysis ...”, “A Scientific study of...”, “An experimental experimental Investigation...”, Investigation...”, “A preliminary preliminary study of...” are to be avoided. They are vague and not accepted for inclusion in a research title. Th The e tit title le page page prese presents nts the title title;; kind kind of resea research rch work, work, resea research rch pa pape perr, thesis thesis or  dissertation; the faculty to be (or was) submitted; name of the school; the submission statement; the degree granted; full name of the researcher; month and year in which the degree is to be (or  was) granted. Formulae, symbols, subscripts, Greek letters, acronyms, and abbreviated forms in the title should be spelled out. The thesis presentation statement, typed single-spaced single-spaced in upper and lowercase letters with each line centered between the margins, should begin three inches

 

(approxim (appro ximate ately ly 16 singl single e line line sp space aces) s) from from the the first first lin line e of th the e title title.. The The pa parti rtial al fulfil fulfilme ment nt statement, statemen t, typed single-spaced in upper and lowercase letters with each line centered between the margins, should begin two inches (approximately (approximately 10 single line spaces) from the first line of  the presentation statement. The degree being sought or earned typed single-spaced in upper  and lowercase letters after the partial fulfilment statement and centered between the margins. The word “By,” centered between the margins, should begin 12 single line spaces from the degree being sought. The date must be the month and year the degree will be conferred (not the date of defense or submission). There should be no comma between the month and year in the date.  Approval sheet.  The approval sheet is the second page of a thesis or a dissertation which furnishes the following information. Complete title of research paper paper,, thesis or dissertation 2. Full name of the investigator  3. Degree to which the research paper, thesis or dissertation is applied for  4. Statement of acceptance and approval 5.  Adviser’s full name name and highest degree degree 6. Panel of Examiner’s full name and highest degree 7. Grade of the research paper, thesis or dissertation 8. Complete date of comprehensive examination passed 9. Complete date of submission 10. Graduate School dean’s full name and highest degree

1.

The approval sheet is always page ii of a thesis, and it is the first page on which a number appears. appears. The page number number ii is typed no lower than one-half inch from the bot bottom tom of  the page and centered between the left and right margins. Every page after this is numbered. Th The e words words APPROV APPROVAL AL SHEE SHEET T in all all capita capitall lette letters rs shoul should d be cente centered red witho without ut termin terminal al punctuation two inches from the top of the page. It must be typed using the same typeface as the text of the manuscript and printed on approved approved thesis/dissertation paper. paper. The thesis title on the approval page must match exactly that on the title page and the abstract.  Acknowledgement.  Acknowle dgement.  Th This is is anoth another er prelim prelimin inary ary sectio section n of resea research rch in which which the researcher his gratitude thework different persons assisted, facilitated, oriented, and guidedexpresses him to make his research reseto arch reality reality. . The who researcher researc her should recognize recogn ize and appreciate the assistance, guidance and selfless effort and wise counsel of his adviser and reader.    Abstract.   An abstract abstract is a brief brief and concise concise descriptive descriptive summary summary of the statement statement of the problem, prob lem, hypothes hypothesis, is, research research design, design, determina determination tion of sample sample size, size, sampling sampling design design and techniques, the subjects, the research instrument, validation of the research instruments, data gathering procedure, data processing method, statistical treatment, findings, conclusions and recommendations. The abstract gives the reader a panoramic view of the research paper, hence, the reader  has to decide whether to read the whole research paper or not because an abstract is not a part of a paper and neither numbered nor counted as a page.

 

The abstract has two forms, namely, the short form and the long form. The short form consists of 100-175 words and is required for a research paper for publication in a research  journal. The long form consists of 500 to 1000 words which is required in masteral theses and doctoral dissertations. Some So me instit instituti ution ons s do not not bin bind d the abst abstrac ractt into into th the e resea research rch pa pape perr, th these eses, s, an and d dissertations. They have also different institutional format for abstract. Table of Contents.  Many research papers, write-ups have a title for “CONTENTS” as “T “Tabl able e of Contents Contents.” .” The former former is preferab preferable le beca because use it is underst understood ood that content contents s of a research paper include the list of all the preliminaries- the chapter titles, the main heading and subheadings in the text including the bibliography, appendix, and curriculum vitae. The page number of contents is indicated at the bottom in a small Roman numeral, for instance, iv, and succeeding pages are indicated along the right-hand margin in small Roman numerals, and so on. These pages are indicated five single spaces from the top right-hand margin. However, the page number of each section in the contents is indicated at the right-hand However, margin similarly appearing in the text. The numbering of chapters, wording, wording, punctuation of titles and headings are exactly similar as they appear in the text. List of Tables.  The list of tables should follow the table of contents. If there are only two or threeappear tablesexactly in the text of research papers they may be omitted in the listing. All captions should the same in the listing. There are two ways of numbering tables. First, they are numbered consecutively in  Arabic numerals throughout throughout the paper. paper. Second, Second, they are double-numbered double-numbered based on the chapter number in Arabic numerals. The first letter of the first word and all nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs of table captions should be capitalized. In the text caption’s table, the Arabic number should be aligned with the rest of the caption cap tions s and successi successive ve lines lines are in han hanging ging-ind -indente ented d block block style. style. This is called called hangin hanginggindented-block style caption. However, if the researcher uses only one-way of numbering tables, the page number of each table in the list of tables is indicated at the right hand margin. List of Figures.  The list of figures follows the list of tables. List of figures are omitted in the research paper if there are only two or three figures in the text. If there are 4 or more figures in the text, they are presented in the list of figures of a research paper. Flow charts, graphs, paradigms, drawings, maps and diagrams are usually grouped as figures. There are two ways of numbering figures, similar with tables. First, they are numbered consecutively with Arabic numerals throughout the paper. Second, they are double-numbered based on the chapter number and with Arabic numerals consecutively indicated. The first letter of the first word of the figure captions as well as all nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs should be capitalized. The captions are indicated below the figure in hanging-indented-blocked-style. Moreover, the page number of each figure in the list of figures in the front matter of a research paper should be indicated at the right hand margin exactly the same as it appears in

 

the text. The first page numbers of the list of figures should be indicated at the bottom in small Roman numbers. List of Plates. The Plates. The term plate usually refers to any kind of photographic representation or illustration. They are common in natural sciences research paper especially on the taxonomic study of plants and animals. The plates have only one way in numbering. They are numbered consecutively with  Arabic numerals throughout throughout the paper. The first letter of the first word and all nouns, pronouns, pronouns, adjecti adj ectives, ves, adverbs and verbs verbs of the plate’s plate’s caption caption should be capitali capitalized zed.. In the text, the captions plate and Arabic number should be aligned with rest of the captions in a hangingindented-block-style and placed below the picture. The same is true with tables and figures. The lists of plates are omitted in the front matter if there are only two or three plates in the text. By and and large large,, plate plates s fol follow low the the Refer Referen ences ces in th the e bo body dy or te text xt of resea research rch paper paper. Furthermore, the page number of each plate in the list of plates of a research paper should be indicated at the right hand margin exactly similar as it appears in the text. The first page number  of the list of plates should be indicated at the bottom in small Roman numerals, for instance xvii. The succeeding page number of the list of plates should be indicated five single spaces from top right margin. Chapter I (The Problem and Its Background) Chapter I consists of the introductory discussion of the problem by citing some phrases and sentences from published materials relevant to the study to give the reader a panoramic view of the study. Some researchers integrate assumptions in this chapter. This portion includes the following subtopics. These are: 1. Introduction   This is not a title of a chapter. It is actually a paragraph side head, which begins Chapter  I. Statement in this chapter, should not only signify the importance of the topic but should also cause an impact on the reader. It may be composed of three paragraphs enabling the readers to see at a glance the entire contents of the research work. The intention of the first paragraph is to the is readers a mental warm-up, thus giving themand information andproblem. readiness as second to what theprovide research all about. It should introduce the study justify the The paragraph carries the bulk of the introduction. The statement of the problem can best be used as frame of reference to write this paragraph. It is simply telling the readers the scope and coverage of the study. study. This will help revolve around mentioning the purpose of the study, study, which is to determine the existing or not existing between the independent and dependent variables. The third or last paragraph is a sort of closing portion that is intriguing and challenging the readers to become interested in knowing the results of the study. It is one or two sentences to lin link k betwe between en th the e intro introdu ducti ction on and and the the state statemen mentt of th the e pr prob oblem lem.. This This pa part rt is a 2-3 page discussions. 2. Background of the Study Begin this section by setting the context for the problem through a historical background of the problem. The purpose of this section is to provide information on how the problem arose and evolved.

 

It mu must st ex expl plai ain n the the cand candid idat ate’ e’s s ea earn rnes estt de desi sire re to ha have ve a de deep eper er an and d clea cleare rer  r  unde underst rstan andin ding g of a sit situa uatio tion n so he or she will be in a be bette tterr po posit sitio ion n to in initi itiate ate reme remedia diall measures or to find a better way to improve the situation. The geographical conditions of the study locale may also be discussed in this section. Use citations to support the background where appropriate.

3. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework Some researchers use both the theoretical and conceptual framework; however, it is advisable to use only one. They both provide clear explanations regarding the relationships of  the variables. The fact that variables can be shown to be associated, but does not guarantee that the relationship of variables has significance, research study must have a framework as a legal basis to describe properly the process of the study. The theoretical framework shapes the justification of the research problem objectives in order to provide the basis on its parameters. It is desirable for a researcher to identify the key concepts that are used in the study for better understanding of the rule of theory in research. It is a symbolic construction, which uses abstract, concepts, facts or laws, variables and their  relation rela tions s that explain explain and predict how an observe observed d phenome phenomenon non exists and operate operates. s. An investigation investiga tion is required to formulate existing theories which link the study because theories are useful devices for interpreting, criticizing, and unifying established scientific laws and facts that guide in discovering new generalizations. The practice of a research in constructing a theoretical framework is to present the different theories, models, paradigms, perspectives related to the problem and the hypothesis. This shows the generalizations already accumulated related to the problem. To start with, the researcher should consider the field of knowledge in which the problem statement cab be classified. Then, he decides to focus on one or more theories. This leads to building the particular theory, by testing and validating it in other settings. Another way is to practice prac tice it to modify or reconstr reconstruct uct the theory theory into new general general framework framework containing containing the variables and relationships for the purposes of the research to be undertaken. In planning and writing the theoretical framework, it is important to cite the theory that will be used by giving giving the assumpti assumptions, ons, definin defining g term terms-co s-conce ncepts, pts, identifyi identifying ng the variable variables, s, stating the relationship of variables and presenting hypothesis. The theoretical framework is useful in limiting the scope of the data you need to those relevant information to the framework by focusing on specific variables, stipulating the specific frame of mind or viewpoint that the researcher will take in analysis, explaining and interpreting the data that will be gathered, understanding concepts and variables according to the given definitions, and building knowledge by verifying and validating the theory, it helps, when the variables and their proposed relationships are illustrated by drawing a chart. Conceptual framework presents specific and well-defined concepts, which are called constructs. Its function is similar with theoretical framework because the constructs used are derived from abstract, concepts of the theoretical framework. In construc constructing ting the concept conceptual ual framewo framework, rk, it is usually usually anc anchore hored d on the theoretical theoretical framework. The conceptual and theoretical framework needs to be consistent and related.

 

The conceptual framework is part of research but different from theoretical. It is the detailed presentation presentation of the variables to be observed in the current study, study, the concepts defined in a way the researcher wants, it is understood in the current research, the operatio operationalizatio nalization n of  the variables-concepts, the visible indicators or the variable-concepts, the scheme of measuring the variables. It concentrates on the specific stipulates (orders) and operational definition of  concepts and variables with respect to the particular research problem. Stipulated definition is the researcher’s choice of the meaning of the concepts and variable from among the other possible definition. Throug Throughout hout the research process, this will be the basis for meaning and interpretation. The operational definition is the way the concept should sho uld be understo understood od by means means of certain certain visible, visible, experie experientia ntial, l, observab observable le elements elements.. The co conce nceptu ptual al framew framework ork direct directs s the the resea research rch to focus focus on th the e conce concepts pts an and d its ob obse serva rvabl ble e indicat ind icators. ors. It states states which which of the concepts concepts will be indepe independe ndent, nt, depend dependent ent and intervening intervening variables and the visible indicators of these variables. 4. Statement of the Problem This is one of the most important parts of a research report. This is the focus of the study and all questions stated should be categorically answered. In writing the statement of the problem, it should consider the following guidelines; (a) the problem should be stated both in general and in study. specific The general statement the problem is usually the title of the (b)terms. The problem is always in an of interrogatory form, hence,a itreiteration must ask of  a qu ques esti tion on an and d subsub-pr prob oble lems ms must must foll follow ow the the main main pr prob oble lem m whic which h is th the e key key po poin ints ts fo for  r  investigations investiga tions in the research. (c) The problem should be stated in the infinitive to (action words in research) such as examine, analyze, determine, measure, assess, evaluate, recommend, find out, among others, setting 4-5 research objectives is ideal for a research problem. (d) Specific questions should be stated using the following guide question words: “How,” “Will,” “What,” “Is there”... 5. Hypothesis This is understood as:  A statement statement of what one one expects expects to find; find;  A statement statement to be proven; proven;  An initial answer answer to the the research research questions; questions;  A common common sense sense statement; statement;  An expected expected relationship relationship between between variables; variables;  An explanation explanation of the phenomena; phenomena;  A statement statement of patterns patterns of behavior behavior.. Research that generally describes the nature of the phenomena does not usually require a hypothesis. However, However, we can say what we expect to find. In research that goes beyond mere description and strives to explain and predict, the hypothesis states an expected pattern, a relationship, a cause. The hypothesis may have the following format: There is a pattern in the observed phenomena;

 

There is a relationship between variables, where a change in one (independent variable) causes a change in the other variable (dependent variable). There is a cause-and-effect relationship between the variables. There The re is an associat association ion between between the variable variables. s. A rela relation tionship ship exists exists bet between ween two variables but it is not in the sense that one is the cause and the other is the effect. Variables are used in stating the hypothesis. If we want to find the cause-and-effect or  othe other r forms forms(1) ofnull relation rela tionship ship between betw two variable vari ables, s, two mutually mutually exclusiv exclusive e hypothes hypothesis is are formulated: hypothesis, (2) een alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis says that “there is no difference’” difference’” meaning the independent independent variable does doe s not affect the depend dependent ent variable variable.. If data data reject reject the null hypothes hypothesis, is, then alternativ alternative e hypothesis should be true. Alternative hypothesis on the other hand says, “there is a difference,” meanin mea ning, g, that that th the e indep independ enden entt variab variable le affec affects ts the de depe pend nden entt va varia riable ble.. The The altern alternat ative ive hypo hypothe thesis sis se serve rves s as the the real real co conce ncern rn of the researc research. h. It is a de defin finite ite stateme statement nt of th the e relationship between variables. This is what the research hopes to determine. In experimental investigation, hypotheses have to be explicit; they have to be expressed. They have to be expressed also in comparative and correlation studies. In descriptive and historical investigation, hypothesis are seldom expressed if not entirely absent. No research is conducted without any hypothesis at all. Hypotheses are usually stated in the null form because testing a null hypothesis is easier than a hypothesis in the operational/alternative form. 6. Scope and Delimitations of the Study Th The e scope scope ident identifi ifies es the boun bounda darie ries s or covera coverage ge of th the e stud study y in term term of su subje bjects cts,, objectives, facilities, area, time frame, and the issues to which the research is focused.   The use of the following phrases could help express the scope of this portion: This study will focus on... The coverage of this study... The study covers the... The study focuses on... The delimitations of the study defines the constraints or weaknesses, which are not within the control of the researcher, therefore, they are not expected to be covered by the study. The delimitations could be expressed using the following phrases: This study is limited to... The study does not cover the... The investigator limited this research to... It does not seek to include... 7. Significance of the Study In this section, the researcher expresses the value or importance of the research study. It is where where th the e signi signific fican antt contri contribu butio tions ns of the result results s of the study study are en enume umerat rated ed.. Such Such contribu con tribution tions s may be viewed viewed from the point point of the target beneficiarie beneficiaries s like the research researcher  er  himse himself, lf, servic service e provid providers ers,, cli clien ent, t, so socie ciety ty,, admin administ istrat rators ors,, plann planners ers,, de decis cisio ion-m n-mak akers ers,,

 

implementers, the community, implementers, community, the educational institutions, legislatures, and practitioners. practitioners. It may also be viewed on their contributions to the accumulation of knowledge, solving a problem which improves certain of refinement of concepts and theories, improvement of research instruments and methods and meeting the priorities of instruments. In writin writing g the importan importance ce or signif significa icance nce of the study study, it is gu guid ided ed by the followin following g guidelines; (1) the rationale, timeless and or relevance of the study to existing conditions must be explaine explained d or discusse discussed, d, it (2)must pos possibl sible e solution solutions to existing exis problem problems s or impr improvem ents s to unsatisfactory unsatisfa ctory conditions, (3) be shown whos are the ting individuals, individuals , groups, or ovement communities communitie s who may be placed in a more advantageous on account of the study, (4) possible contribution to be a fount of knowledge, and (5) it should discuss the implications, including the possible causes of the problems discovered, the positive effects of the problems, and the remedial measures to solve the problems. 8. Definitions of Terms This section of the research includes important or key terms that should be substantially substantially an and d cl clea earl rly y de defi fine ned d ac acco cord rdin ing g to ho how w they they are are used used in th the e stud study y in or orde derr to fa faci cili lita tate te understanding of the problem and avoid ambiguous meaning to terms which can be otherwise interpreted in different ways.   Definiti ons of terms term s terms may be twoin categories, catego ries, namely: namel y: study (1) Operatio Oper ational nalConceptual definit definitions ions expressDefi thenitions meaning of the as of used a particular field of while (2) definition is usually taken from the dictionary. It carries a universal meaning easily understood by people. The common practice in dealing with this part of the research is to state first the conceptual, then, the operational definitions, although using one of them is already acceptable. The terms defined defined should be arrange arranged d in alph alphabe abetica ticall orde orderr and acronyms acronyms should should always be spelled out fully, especially if it is not commonly known or if used for the first time. The following are the guidelines in writing the definitions of terms, namely: (1) Define those terms, which, though common, may have a special specific meaning or are differently differently used. (2) Define some special terms or languages created by some disciplines. This applies as well to terms familiar in one discipline and borrowed or transformed by another discipline. (3) Define only what is absolutely necessary and do so precisely by using an authoritative document. document. (4) If you cannot find an authoritative definition, find one two such definitions; cite them and try to create your own definitions as used in research. (5) Complicated and lengthy definitions like those required in mathematics or science should be placed in an appendix.

Chapter II (Review of the Related Literature and Studies) The review of the related literature and studies is one of the components of a research process. proc ess. A researcher researcher needs needs to review review the write-ups, write-ups, readings readings,, and studies studies related related to the present study in order to determine the similarities and differences of the findings between the past and present studies. This also aims to gain insight into the aspects of the problem that are critical and controversial. Likewise, a review of related readings, literature and studies provides the investigator a background regarding the aspects, which have been studied and not yet studie stu died. d. It also also assist assists s the researc researche herr on what what to do on the compon componen ents ts of th the e re resea search rch process; this also gives the ideas to proceed with the study until its completion.

 

Furthermore, the researcher should have the ability to compare between what should be read and included in the study and what should not be read. The investigator is required to read all literature and studies partially and closely related to the study. Related readings, literature, and studies must directly bear or relation to the present study. In a research writing, review of related literature is divided into three parts, these are (1) related readings and literature, (2) related studies, and (3) relevance or justification of the reviewed literature and studies to the present study. In related related readings, readings, the major major sources sources are laws and departm department ent directives directives such as circulars, orders and memoranda, which are related to the present study. These laws and department departme nt directives serve as legal bases for the paradigm of the study study.. This also presents as havin having g di direc rectt or indire indirect ct implic implicati ation ons s to the the gover governme nment nt th thrus rusts ts in pr prese esenti nting ng the relat related ed readings, the researcher has to arrange related readings chronologically either from the past readings to most recent readings or vice versa. Related literature may be defined as written works collectively, especially, those enduring importance, exhibiting creative imagination and artists’ skill, which are written in a particular  perio period, d, langu languag age, e, and and su subje bject. ct. In other other wor words ds,, any any writte written n matte matterr such such as bo book, ok, journa journal, l, magazine, novel, poetry, yearbook, and encyclopedia are considered as literature. The elements of good style literature review adhere rules offormat. clarity or organization, content, and writing grammar in of order to present the reporttointhe anbasic acceptable Clear writing is smooth in terms of presentation of topics, and even the use of language and syntax. Presentation of ideas must be in orderly progression, continuity and smoothness. It identifies relationships between ideas and use of transitions to maintain the flow of thought in the literature of review. There are guidelines on effective writing of the literature and review. These are; (1) Research papers must be written in a formal style, which is in the third person, not the first person, (2) Avoid highly descriptive writing style, not appropriate for a scholarly research, (3) Use the active voice for direct impact and easy understanding, (4) Avoid the use of jargon; use familiar fami liar terms in place place of terminol terminologie ogies, s, (5) Langua Language ge should should be neutral neutral gender gender,, no sexy language langua ge like his, (6) Make the conclusion and contradictions contradictions found in the literature clear in the report, repo rt, (7) Use short short sentenc sentences; es; avoid elongate elongated d and run-on expression expressions, s, (8) use proper  proper  grammar and proofread the work, (9) Never plagiarize; give credit to the original author of ideas, and (10) Pay attention to the structure and form of published articles, which are good examples of how literature reviews can be written. Related studies in contrast to related literature are works based on empirical data. In reviewing related studies, one must be careful to the: (1) problem, (2) methodology, including the sampling sampling plan, plan, (3) inst instrume ruments nts used, used, (4) find findings ings,, and (5) conclusi conclusions. ons. The research researcher  er  reviews such studies by commenting on the research design used. In reviewing related studies, the researcher carefully notes the following points: (1) the researcher’s motivation for conducting the study, which is usually found in the introduction, (2) the the stat statem emen entt of the the prob proble lem, m, (3) (3) the the vari variab able les s invo involv lved ed in th the e stud study y, incl includ udin ing g th thei eir  r  quantifications, quantific ations, (4) the research design, including the sampling plan utilized by the investigator investigator,, and (5) the major results and conclusions.

 

The researcher researcher reviews reviews both local and foreign foreign studies studies in order to give a balance balanced d presentation presenta tion of the investigation being conducted in various settings. Foreign studies may have some biases in terms of the cultural background of the respondents of the study; and therefore, there is a need to review local studies conducted on the same topic so that the effects of cultural difference may be ascertained. Chapter III (Methods of Research and Procedures) This chapter chapter of the research research process process contains contains a comprehe comprehensiv nsive e descrip description tion of the research rese arch designs, designs, research research locales, locales, samples samples and the sampling sampling techniq techniques, ues, the subject subjects, s, research instruments, validation of the instruments, data gatherin gathering g procedures, data processing processing methods, and the statistical tools and treatments. Research Designs. Research Designs. Whe When n a resea research rcher er starts starts to think think ab abou outt existi existing ng ed educ ucati ation onal al problems, there seems to be simultaneous simultaneous concerns with one or more plans obtaining the right answers. The plans or research designs, in effect, form the structure and the researcher’s method of answering his questions and conducting studies. Research design in research is categori cate gorized zed accordin according g to the procedure procedure the researcher researcher collects collects and analyze analyzes s data and his resea res earch rch purpo purpose se.. The two basic basic resea research rch desig designs ns are ba base sed d on th the e way way inform informat ation ion is collecte coll ected, d, synthesi synthesized zed and ana analyze lyzed d are quantita quantitative tive and qualita qualitative tive research research.. It may be observe obs erved d that that althoug although h there there are overlapp overlapping ing characte characteristi ristics cs in qua quantit ntitativ ative e and qualita qualitative tive research rese arch,, inthey from differe differences ferent nt theoreti theo cal types perspec perspective tives s about aboutentary the over purp purpose ose be of  rese research arch spite spitresult e of these the se differe dif nces theretical two are complimenta complim ry,, overall andallthey may combined in a single research project. Quantitative and Qualitative researches Quantitative researches share concerns “in problem finding in explaining explaining the relationships of data to claim, in theory building, and in explaining particular cases in the light of established established knowledge and theory. However, However, researchers can focus on various kinds of  problems. For example, quantitative methods cannot deal directly with historical problems of  ca cause use and and ef effec fectt or the the inter interpr preta etatio tion n of uniq unique ue so socia ciall ph phen enome omena na.. On th the e ot othe herr ha hand nd,, qualitative researcher finds it quite difficult, if not impossible, to represent the responses of large numbers num bers of individu individuals als to differe different nt kinds kinds of stimuli, stimuli, e.g., differe different nt method methods s of teaching teaching and attitudes towards towards social and economic conditions conditions and political events. In the sense that the two sets of methods allow researchers to deal with problems of various dimensions  in different context, they are complementary. Research design is the specific format and procedures for data collection and data analysi ana lysis s and interpre interpretati tation, on, the bluepri blueprint nt research research where logical logical model model of proof proof guides guides the investigator in the various stages of research, the manner of drawing inferences about the caus causal al re rela lati tion ons s amon among g the the vari variab able les s un unde derr inve invest stig igat atio ion, n, th the e sche scheme me fo forr ob obta tain inin ing g interpret inte rpretatio ations ns and formula formulating ting general generalizat izations ions that can be applied applied to other other situatio situations. ns. In deter determin mining ing the resea research rch desig designs ns,, we have have to consid consider er th the e follow following ing:: (a) Compa Compare re th the e objectives, expected outcomes and procedures of the different types of research designs, (b) Look into the problem statement, hypotheses and objectives of the research and available resources of time, money, and access to information, and (c) Evaluate the research concerns on the type of research. Research Locale. This Locale. This refers to a brief description of the place where the participants or  respondents are to be obtained.

 

Samples and Sampling Techniques Techniques Used. Sample: Used. Sample: persons, events, places or things used sources of data. Population refers to a group of people, objects or events. Sampling is the process of selecting a representative representative portion of the population that can be the source of data to test the hypothesis. Essen Essentia tiall conce concepts pts and and steps steps in sa sampl mplin ing g are; are; (1) de dete termi rmine ne th the e po popu pula latio tion n of  individuals, or items, or cases where to find the data collected. The target population or universe is the totalit totathe lity y kind of possi po ble e indiv individ idual uals, s, to orhave. ite items, ms, or ca cases ses basic where where da data ta ca can npopulation. be ob obta taine ined. d. (2 (2) Determine ofssibl sample you want Identify the units of the This is) the sampling element. An example of sampling element: a priest is the basic element of the total target population of priests. If you cannot go directly to the sampling elements, identify the sampling unit, which is the feature of the population where you can get your sampling element. (3) Find out what is the appropriate size of the sample, that is, how many of the sampling elements are needed as sources of data. (4) having the desired sample size, get the samples from the sampling frame, based on the sampling method that you want to use. The two general types of sampling designs or methods are: 1. Probabil Probability ity Sampling Sampling.. This describes describes that that each of the units in the target target population population has the same chance of being included in the sample. It includes the following types; (a) simple random sampling, which is the basic probability sampling design. It means that we are areincluded giving giving every ever unit unsample. it of the populat pop ion a an n eq equal ual chance chance andisnon-zero non -zero probabil prob ability ityis of  being in y the (b) ulation Systematic sampling, which used when there a ready list of the total universe or populatio population. n. (c) Stratified sampling. This scheme is used to ensure that different groups of a population are adequately represented in the sample. (d) Cluster sampling. This is used in large-scale surveys. The researcher arrives at the set of sampling units to be included in the sample by first sampling larger grouping called clusters. Then, the cluster is selected by simple or stratified sampling. If not all the sampling units in the clusters are to be included in the sample, the final selection from withi wit hin n th the e cluste clusters rs is also also carrie carried d out out by a simple simple rando random m or strati stratifie fied d sa samp mplin ling g proced pro cedure ure.. (e) Mul Multiti-st stag age e sa sampl mpling ing,, which which is us usua ually lly use used d fo forr na natio tiona nal, l, region regional al,, provincial or country level studies. 2. Non-Probability Non-Probability Sampling. Sampling. This This includes: includes: (a) Accidental Accidental or convenience convenience sampling. sampling. This This is obtai obtaine ned d when when the resea research rcher er sel select ects s whate whateve verr sa sampl mplin ing g un units its are conve convenie nient ntly ly available. (b) Purposive sampling. Under this scheme, the sampling units are selected subjectively by the researcher, who attempts to obtain a sample that appears to be represen repr esentati tative ve of the population population.. The chance that a particul particular ar sampling sampling unit will be selected as the sample depends upon the subjective judgement of the researcher. (c) Quota sampling, sampling, the researcher researcher determines the sampling size which should be filled up. (d) Snowball sampling. This type of sampling that starts with the known sources of  information,, who or which will in turn give other sources of information. It is usually used information   when when the there re is inade inadequ quate ate infor informat matio ion n for makin making g th the e sa sampl mplin ing g frame. frame. (e) Networking sampling. This is used to find socially devalued urban populations such as addicts, alcoholics, child abusers and criminals, because they are usually hidden from outsiders. The Subject. The Subject. The proponent has to explain how and where the subjects are taken. It can be either population or census if total number of population is small. If the population is la large rge,, then then sa sampl mpling ing is used. used. Th The e agen agency cy an and d frequ frequen ency cy of subjec subjects ts must must be mentioned. This is very important because if it appears that sample is not representative,

 

the findings and conclusion will be faulty; hence, neither valid nor reliable. Among the things that should be explained are: (1) the size of the population, (2) the study of  population, (3) the margin of error and the proportion of the study population used, (4) the type or technique of sampling used whether pure random sampling, systematic, stratified, cluster or combination of two or more sampling, (5) the actual computations of  the sample, (6) the sample subjects.

Research Researc h Instrume Instruments. nts. Questio Questionnaire, nnaire, test, interview, interview, observation, observation, checklist, rating scale may be described by the researcher. Each part of the research instrument is explicitly explained. 1. Questionnaire. Questionnaire. It is a set set of orderly orderly arranged arranged questions, questions, carefully prepared to answer answer the specific problems of the study. It is a list of questions to be answered by a group of  people especially designed to get facts or information. It is a list of written questions related to a particular topic, provided with space for respondents to fill up. It is the principal instrument of data collection. The answers to such questions will provide the bases for hypothesis testing. It needs to consider a number of factors in constructing and using the questionnaire: content of questions, type of questions, format of questions, pre-testing of questionnaires and process of questionnaire administration. 2. Questionnaire Question Pre-test. Pre-te This stands the test ofting reliability and validity. validity Therefo re, there is a need nee d to naire pre-tes pre-test t thest.questio que stionna nnaire. ire.the Pre-tes Pre -testing meansand using usin g the. Therefore, questio questionna nnaire ire on a sample of respondents to check their understanding of the question. It helps identify problems and gaps in content, format and words used.

3. Int Inter ervie view w. Th This is is a form form of data data-ga -gathe therin ring g by talkin talking g to people people who are source sources s of  information. Persons who are expected to be very knowledgeable in providing answers are called called ke key y inform informan ants. ts. The interv interview iew schedu schedule le is the term us used ed fo forr the set of  questions to be asked. Validatio alidation n of the Instrume Instrument. nt.   In thi this s sectio section, n, th the e su sugg ggest estion ions, s, correc correctio tions ns,, an and d refinement of the draft may be explained fully thoroughly. The different persons involved in the correction and refinement of the research instrument may be mentioned. mentioned. After the refinement of  the instrument, testing the validity and reliability of the instrument may be done. For validity, experts in line with the field of the study may be requested to go over the research instrument. Criteria for validation may be recommended and given to experts as their bases. For reliability, the researcher may use any of the four methods. These are (1) test-retest, (2) split-half, (3) parallel-form, and (4) internal consistency. If test-retest is used, the questionnaire questionnaire is administered administered twice to the pilot sample with the same field of speciali specializati zation on in other other instituti institutions ons but not included included as subject subjects s of the study. study. Spearma Spe arman n rank difference difference correlati correlation on coeffi coefficien cientt is used to determin determine e the reliabilit reliability y of the responses. If the reliability value is high, it means that the research instrument is reliable, it is now ready to be administered to the subjects. Data gathering Procedure. Having found the research instrument valid and reliable, the investigator proceeds to ask permission and approval from the head of the agency where the subjects are employed. Once permitted, the researcher administers the research instrument to

 

the subjects. The date of the administration for the questionnaire, the retrieval of the research instrument, and the percentage return of the questionnaire must be stated. Data Processing. Once the measuring instruments have been retrieved the next activity of the researcher researcher is to process the raw data into quantitati quantitative ve and qualitativ qualitative e forms. forms. Data processing involves input, throughput, and output mechanisms Inputincludes involvesstatistical the responses to theand measuring instrument of thethe subjects throughput procedures techniques, and output, resultsof ofthe thestudy, study which are presented in data matrix form is based or dummy tables may be used to organize, summarize, and analyze the data on how the variables differ with each other. Data-processing is a means of converting information either manually or by machines into quantitative and qualitative qualitative forms for use in research analysis. It consists of the three basic steps, namely; (1) Categorization of data, (2) Coding of data, and (3) Tabulation of data. Statisti tistics cs is the systemati systematic c collecti collection, on, Statistical Statisti cal Tool, Process Processes es and Treatme Treatment. nt. Sta presentation, analysis and interpretation of quantitative data. Its functions are: 1. To reduce a mass of data data to a small set without without losing losing the essential essential characteristics characteristics of  of  the distribution. 2. ana lyze characteristics characteristics of of thevariable population populati based based samples. 3. T To o analyze predict predic t future behavi behaviour our varia bles s on based onon what is known known about about its present present relationship.

Chapter IV (Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data) This chapter presents analyses and interprets the data gathered out of the instruments used in the study presented according to the specific problems. Data Presentation. Presentation. This  This is the process of organizing data into logical, sequential, and meaningful categories and classification to make them amenable to the study and interpretation.  Analysis and presentatio presentation n put data into proper proper order and in categ categories ories reducing reducing them into forms that are intelligible and interpretable so that the relationships between the research specific questions and their intended answers can be established. There are three ways of presenting data, namely: 1. Tabular abular presentati presentation. on. Thi This s is a systematic systematic arrangeme arrangement nt of related data data in which which classes of numerical facts facts or data are given each each a row and their sub-classes sub-classes are given given each a column in order to present the relationships of the sets or numerical facts or data in a definite, compact, and understandable forms. The purpose is to facilitate the study and interpre inte rpretati tation, on, the making making of inferenc inference e of the relation relationship ships s of statisti statistical cal data. data. Table construction for data presentation is a part of analysis because the data are separated and grouped according to class or category. The statistical table should have the following parts which are briefly described below: a. Table heading heading.. It consists consists the ta table ble number number and the title. title. The table table number number is usually usua lly written written in Arabic Arabic and placed at the center, center, above above the title numbered numbered

 

cons consec ecut utiv ivel ely y thro throug ugho hout ut the the rese resear arch ch.. Writ Writte ten n be belo low w th the e ta tabl ble e nu numb mber  er  describing the subject matter or content or the data presented in the table. b. Boxhead Boxhead.. It is found at the top top of the column. column. It identi identifies fies what what are containe contained d in the column. Included in the boxhead are the stubhead, the master caption and the column captions. c. Stubs. It is the classification classification or or categories categories found at the left side of of the body body of the the table. d. one’s Body Body. data. It is the main main part of the table. table. It contains contains the the substanc substance e or the figures figures of 

Graphical Presentation. It Presentation. It is a graphing or a chart, representing the quantitative variations or changes of a variable in comparison with those of another variable in pictorial or diagrammatical form. This quantitative variations or changes in the data may refer to their qualitative, geographic or chronological attributes. The purpose of graphing graphing is to present the variations, changes and relationships of data in a data in a most attractive, appealing, effective and convincing way.  A graph is a diagram consisting of a line or lines showing the variations, relationships relationsh ips of data in different ways. It is represented according according to their qualitative and systematic ways. a. Bar Graph. Graph. Used Used to make compar comparison ison of simple simple magnitu magnitudes des very very much more more clearly and more distinctively perceptible to the eye. Each bar is drawn to a height or length equal to the magnitude magnitude it represents represents as indicated in the scale (Y-axis). The bars are separated from each other by a space equal to one half  the the wi widt dths hs of a bar bar. It is us used ed fo forr mult multip iple le re resp spon onse ses s or over overla lapp ppin ing g categories. b. Frequen Frequency cy Polygon Polygon or Line Line Graph. Graph. This is prepared prepared by making making a histogr histogram, am, putting a point in the center of the top of each bar, connecting the points with straight lines and removing the original histogram. This kind of graphical presentation can also accommodate categories of wide range, but it is more useful for data such as ordinal and interval because it stresses continuity along a scale. c. Pie Graph Graph.. Th This is is used used in present presenting ing freque frequenc ncy y distri distribu butio tion n where wherein in the entir entire e cir circle cle repres represen ents ts the total total po popu pula latio tion. n. The The pie is subdi subdivid vided ed into into segments each of which is proportional in size to the quantities or percentage it represents represents.. d. Pictogra Pictograph. ph. In this type type of chart, actual actual pictures pictures or facsimil facsimiles es of the objects objects under the study are used to represent values. Each figure is considered a unit representing representi ng a definite number. number. The pictograph pictograph is generally used to compare the sizes of items or objects among countries, institutions, agencies, and the like.

Data Analysis and Interpretations. Interpretations. Analysis  Analysis and interpreta interpretation tion of results are difficult difficult for  the researcher, especially if he is not expected in diagnosing the correct statistical tools to answers the research problems/objectives.  Analysis should be done first before interpretation. interpretation. An analysis is useless without interpret inte rpretatio ation n while while interpre interpretati tations ons are impossib impossible le without without analysi analysis. s. In ana analyzin lyzing g the data, data,

 

statistic statis tical al te techn chniqu iques es are use used d to give give meani meaning ng to the da data ta ga gathe thered red from from th the e subje subjects cts.. Generally speaking, speaking, analyzing and interpreting the raw data should go hand in hand in order to give meaningful results. Interpretation is important to have a clearer meaning of the research findings. Data analysis may be defined as an explanation of data or facts in terms of quantity, quality, attributes, traits, patterns, trends, relationships among others so as to answer research questions which involve statistical techniques and procedures. The bases bases in analyzi analyzing ng research research data are specific specific problems problems/obj /objecti ectives, ves, hypothes hypothesis, is, measuring instruments and statistical tools. Data were also analyzed based on the following types: 1. Univaria Univariate te Analys Analysis. is. It is a test of a single single variable variable to determine determine whether whether the sample sample is similar to the population from which it has been drawn. 2. Bivariate Bivariate Analysi Analysis. s. It is a test of two variables variables on how they differ differ with each each other. other. The common statistical tools to be used in bivariate analysis are correlation coefficient, ztest, and t- test. Correlation coefficient is used both in descriptive and experimental designs; z-test, descriptive designs only and t-test, experimental designs. 3. Multivari Multivariate ate Analy Analysis. sis. Is a test of three or more indepe independe ndent nt variables variables at a time on the degree of relationship with the dependent variable.The statistical tools which may be used in this type are Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for experimental design and the Friedman Frie dman two-way two-way ANOV ANOVA includin including g Friedman Friedman and Kruskal-W Kruskal-Walli allis s ANO ANOV VA and ChiChiSquare for descriptive designs. Bear in mind that Friedman and Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA are applicable both for experimental and descriptive designs.

4. Normative Analysis. It is a data analysis analysis wherein wherein the result of the study study is compared compared with with the norm. The statistical tools which may be used for this type are the Arithmetic Mean and the Standard Deviation.

5. Descr De scrip iptiv tive e Anal Analysi ysis. s. This Thisasdescr de scribe ibes s the cha racter terist istics ics,, co compo mposit sition ions, s, struct structure ures, s, substructures, that occur units within thecharac larger structure. The researcher should consider the forces that hold together and the strains that tend to destroy the system apart. It analyses what the system work and regulate.

Data Presentation.  Presentation.  These are statements of the possible meaning, probable causes and affects of a situation or condition as revealed by the findings and a veiled suggestions to continue the situation if it is good or to adopt some remedies/measures remedies/measures to eradicate or minimize bad effects. Those who are to benefit and those who are going to suffer the bad effects should also be mentioned. There are elements to consider in the Interpretation Interpretation of a data. These are; (1) Statement Statement of the condition or situation. (2) Probable cause of the conditions. (3) Probable effects of the condition. (4) A suggestion for continuance or remedial measure, if the possible effect is bad.

 

Chapter V (Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations) The whole research study is summarized, and generalizations in the form of conclusions are presented and the solutions to the problems are offered in the form or recommendations. Summary of Findings summarizes summarizes the results based on chapter 4. If there are only three specific questions stated in chapter 1 and answer in chapter 4, there are only three results summarized in this section and no presentations of tables. In writing the summary of findings, it should be guided by the following;(1) There should be a brief statement about the main purpose of the study, (2) The findings may be lumped up all together but clarity demands that each specific question under the statement of the problem must be written first to be followed by the findings that would answer it. The specific questions should follow the order they are given unde underr the state statemen mentt of the pro proble blem. m. (3) The fin findin dings gs sh shou ould ld be textua textuall ge gene neral raliza izatio tions, ns, summary of the important data consisting of text and numbers. Every statement of fact should consist of words, numbers, or statistical measures woven into a meaningful statement. No deduction on the interpretations is made. (4) They should be stated as concisely as possible. Conclusions Conclusi ons are the dovetails dovetails with the findings findings of the study study. If there there are only three three summariz summ arized ed results, results, there are three conclus conclusions ions.. They They are arranged arranged as it appears appears in the findings. Rejection and acceptance of hypotheses are explained in this section. They are valid outgrowth of the findings. In writing the conclusions, it shall consider the following guidelines, namely: (a) They should not contain any numerals, numerals, (b) They appropriately appropriately answer the specific questions raised at the beginning of the investigation, (c) No conclusions should be drawn from the implied or  indirect effects of the findings, (d) They should not be given any hint at the researcher’s researcher’s doubts. The use of qualifiers such as, probably, perhaps, may be, and others should be avoided as much as possible, and (e) they should not be repetitions of any statements anywhere in the research, thesis, and dissertations. They may be recapitulations recapitulations if necessary but they should be word wo rded ed di diff ffer eren entl tly y an and d they they shou should ld conv convey ey the the same same info inform rmat atio ion n as th the e stat statem emen ents ts recapitulated. Recommendations are based on the conclusions. They are appeals to people or entities concerned concerne d to solve or help solve problems. In writing the recommendatio recommendations, ns, it should follow the following guidelines below: 1. It should should aim aim to solve solve problem problems s in the s socie ociety ty.. 2. It ensures ensures a continuou continuous s benef benefit it being accorded to the universe involved. involved. 3. It shou should ld be logi logica call and and vali valid d to reco recomm mmen end d th the e acqu acquis isit itio ion n of th the e lack lackin ing g of th the e difficulties. 4. It should should recommend recommend a further further study study or research in a wider application application..

Bibliography 

 

This is a concluding section of any research where listings of sources of materials are alphabetically arranged. This follows after the recommendations. Fu Funct nctio ions ns are; are; (1) (1) giv gives es the the reade readerr the scope scope of the study study be behin hind d the paper paper, (2) determines if a particular work has been used, (3) gives necessary descriptive details for the sources materials as a whole in order to be located and consulted by the reader. Some ways ofworks, listing school the bibliography listing source materials such books,  journals, unpub unpublished lished directives, directives, are; and (1) many others separately where theas surname of autho authors rs per per source sources s materi material als s are alpha alphabe betic ticall ally y arran arrange ged, d, an and d (2) listin listing g all so sourc urces es materials into one and surname of authors are alphabetically arranged.

 Appendices  Appendic es This section section is the second second to the last part of a research research study. study. Appendix Appendix materials materials inclu include ded d th the e ques questio tionn nnai aire, re, letter letter of trans transmit mitta tal, l, compu computat tation ions s of da data, ta, suppo supporti rting ng lega legall documen doc uments, ts, supplem supplementa entary ry illustra illustrative tive materials materials.. Append Appendix ix is listed listed by letter letter and may be submitted according to certain logical classification. This section also gives supplementary information in the main text. The reader who wants to learn more about the technical aspects of the research study may take a look at the statistical breakdowns. The questionnaire that is inclusive in this section is the list of planned, written questions questions related to a particular topic, with space provided provided for indicating indicating the response to each question, intended for submission to a number of persons for reply. Request to conduct requires a letter of authorization to administer that the research should be sought from the head of the agency or the institution being considered as respondents of the study.

 

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