Pakistan Studies (2059) Notes

Notes of Pakistan Studies 2059 by Mohammad Hamza Ashraf

Pakistan Studies (2059) Notes: Cultural and Political Background to the Paki Movement. (52 → 13 pages) Section 1 Chapter 1 The Religious Reform of shah waliullah Brief Biography:Born on 21 February 1703 during the reign of aurangzeb alamgir. His real name was Qutub-ud-Din. He was famous for his piety. His father was Shah Abdul Rahim who dies in 1718 he founded Madrassa Rahimia in delhi where shah taught after his father's death. After that :Shah went to arabia to perform Hajj and further his studies under Sheikh ABu TAhIR from 1724 and returned in 1732. Beliefs:--> During his time in Arabia the muslims in the mughal empire were vulnerable to attacks on their religion, he thought that reform couldn't come from weak leadership and that muslims themselves had to unite. --> He believed that many of the problems in muslim communities were because of the incomplete knowledge of Quran and that Quranic teachings must become more accessible. -->That All political, social and economic behaviour should be based on Islamic Principles. -->A major problem for muslims was that they were divided into sectarian groups of shia and sunnis, he wanted them to put their differences aside and focus on fundamental principles. -->He believed un-Islamic principle were just not acceptable in ANY and ALL areas. His Work:-->He worked hard to ensure that he was a role model for muslims. His knowledge in quran hadith and fiqh made him a highly knowledgeable scholar at an early age. -->The quran had not been widely studied back then, so he translated the quran to persian which he was criticized for from ulmas but later his work was proved popular. Later his sons Shah Rafi and Shah Qader translated the quran to urdu which meant more people studying it. -->He also wrote 51 books in persian and arabic, which included an account of the first four caliphs, this was acceptable by both shia and sunnis. He hoped this would help heal the division between them. His writing brought his great fame, prestige and influence which he used to express economical & other problems such as social justice for peasants & craftsmen. -->One of his most important contributions contributions were his organization of muslims against marathas, he realised that muslims had to unite to deal with this threat and the other threat of sikhs attacking from the north. His influence helped persuade  Ahmed Shah Abdali of persia persia to intervene. intervene. He also wrote to all muslim nobles nobles calling to join arms which which led to defeat defeat of Marathas in the BATTLE OF PANIPAT IN 1761 but after that they didn't stick around to take advantage of their defeat. Perhaps this lead to the non-muslims non-muslims rule. His Importance (this is the main question in syllabus) :-->He was one of the first to state the decline of the mughal empire due to the vulnerable position of Muslims and the neglect of principles of Islam. His Madrassa rahimia played a vital role in teaching Islamic principle and thought. He believed Muslims could only prosper if they followed proper islamic customs and not indulge in social evils. He showed that muslim revival can only happen if there was an acceptance between the two sectarian divisions. He built between different muslim sects by emphasising the importance of Jihad against a common enemy. Many future islamic leaders were inspired by him to fight 4 the good of islam. Syed Ahmad Barelvi (1786 - 1831) Brief Biography:--> Born in lucknow in 1786, SAB, our boii was a man of action more than a scholar. When his father died in 1806 he was still young. He moved to Delhi and enrolled in Madrassa Rahimia, he studied there for two years then in 1810 he  joined forced forced with amir khan, khan, pathan military military leader. He later started giving giving commands commands of a group of soldiers, soldiers, because because Notes of Pakistan Studies 2059 by Mohammad Hamza Ashraf

Notes of Pakistan Studies 2059 by Mohammad Hamza Ashraf

of his piety he also led them into prayer. in 1817 he returned to delhi where he would gain fame for his work trying to restore islam to its original purity. His Influence in reviving Islam:--> Syed Ahmed toured the punjab and the north west frontier to enlist men to fight the sikhs. He sent a message to Ranjit Singh (the sikh regime major) that he must allow muslims to worship or face the mujahideen, ranjit dismissed the ultimatum so syed was forced to attack first at okara on 21 DEC and shortly after at hazrothe where the sikhs suffered defeat. By now his victories established him a successful military man, with his army of mujahideen raging over 80,000 strong. though this presented a problem: the army was of different men hence they had different approaches of attacks. The sikhs exploited this to make them weak. syed ahmed was preparing for an attack on attock when he was overthrown by his own men who had taken bribes and betrayed syed ahmad. He retreated to the safety of mountains in Kashmir where he was betrayer yet again and for the last time, as the local leaders when told the sikhs a way through the mountain, the sikhs made a surprise attack (The battle of balakot in 1831) and syed ahmed and his commander shah ismail were killed in battle. This battle caused a serious setback for the jihad movement and it would struggle to survive in its coming year until 1864 when the british would send a large army to "deal" with this threat. --> Over All it was very influential because: This was the first Indian revolution to free muslims from tyranny, it was not a movement to put a particular power in place rather it was to bring justice to muslims. This was stated as the forerunner revolution of what made pakistan. The fact that the mujahideen were prepared to give their lives up was an inspiration to all of the muslims to protect their religion and place from threats. Haji Shariatullah (1781 - 1840) and the faraizi movement. Brief Biography:-->Haji Shariatullah was born in Faridpur (Present day bangladesh) in 1781. His father was a farmer and his family was not too well off. In 1799 he travelled to arabia on pilgrimage where he stayed for 19 years and learned under Muhammad Abdul Wahab. His Influence and the faraizi movement:-->The muslims in east bengal were being opposed by the british and the hindus, The muslims had been the ruling class in bengal but when the british attacked, they had limited options in jobs and education so most of the important muslim families were reduced to poverty. Haji started the faraizi movement because he believed that the muslims were being let astray into hindu practices and away from islamic principles. His movement's success alerted the british and the hindus, alas they drove haji out of the region to dhaka where he died. But his work was carried on by his son who introduced new economic measure to improve positions of muslims, he also helped peasants oppose excessive taxes, he went even further to threaten to wage jihad against the british and the hindus. But then the british arrested him and he died in prison in 1860. After that the faraizi movement declined. --> Overall, the faraizi movement was influential because it gave encouragement to muslims at a time were they were demoralised by the oppression. It also gave spiritual and religious revival which led to a revival in islam. Hindu influences were removed and it has an important political and economical reason, as they became aware of their oppression, a political unity began to grow. It might be said that faraizi movement was the seed of the pakistan movement.

Notes of Pakistan Studies 2059 by Mohammad Hamza Ashraf

Notes of Pakistan Studies 2059 by Mohammad Hamza Ashraf

Section 1 Question 2 How far was Aurangzeb responsible for the decline of the Mughal Empire? First, a little about the mughal empire before aurangzeb. → Babur. The first Mughal Emperor. Babur was a muslim and the first mughal emperor, he was keen on expanding his territory and in 1526, Babur defeated the emperor of delhi in the BATTLE OF PANIPAT. He then defeat other Indian chefs and Established himself a great emperor. → Humayun, A troubled reign Babur ruled the northern India for just 5 years before he died. He was succeeded by humayun, his son in 1530. He was defeated in various battles and lost much of the territory babur had took control of. He also Faced opposition from his brothers. It wasn't until 1555 that he took back the control of his lost land. But His success was short lived, an year later on the library stairs, he tripped to his death lmfao wut a loser. → Akbar, The empire extended  Although akbar was only 13 when he succeeded his father humayun, akbar extended the mughal empire Even further. He was greatly influenced by sufi beliefs. In 1581, He announced his “Deen-e-Ilahi” a new religion containing both Hindu and Islamic elements. This religion did not take root and died with him.  Akbar ruled for 50 yrs and the Mughal Empire was strong of its foundations after he died. → Jahangir and Shah Jehan  Akbar was succeeded by his son, Jahangir, who continued the expansion of the empire, he signed a treaty With the british, little did he know it would be the british who would overthrow the empire. After jahangir, Khurram took the throne under the name of Shah Jehan he was responsible for the making of Taj Mahal For his wife, Mumtaz Mahal. Shah also tried expanding the empire but his wars were costly and ineffective. In All, Babur→ Humayun→ Akbar→ Jahangir→ Shah Jahan→ Aurangzeb→ Prince Muazzam→ Muhammad Shah→  Ahmed Shah→ Alamgir II→ Shah Alam II→ Akbar II→ Bahadur Shah. *Note: Muhammad Shah was the last one who could call himself an emperor. Now, the reign of Aurangzeb (1707) → Basically, the whole family of shah jahan was a mess, the first domino fell in 1657, when shah jehan got seriously ill, shah had 4 sons, Dara Shikoh, Shah Shujah, Murad and Aurangzeb. When it appeared that shah was on the verge of death, the brothers started fighting for the throne, Shah shujah and murad even had coins struck in their name to show themselves as the new emperor. Shah prefered Dara (The eldest) as his successor but he couldn't seize control of the empire. Murad and aurangzeb joined forces to overthrow Dara Shikoh’s army. And murad and aurangzeb were gonna attack on agra the hometown, but shah recovered and ordered them to stand down. Aurangzeb replied that his father had lost control and that it was important the he re-establish order. In May 1658 aurangzeb defeated the imperial army, led by dara shikoh. Aurangzeb took his father prisoner, Murad was imprisoned and later executed, Shah Shuja was killed whilst trying to raise an army to oppose his brother and finally dara, he proved to be troublesome and aurangzeb had to pursue him and take him prisoner before executing him in 1659. → Although shah left the empire in more peace than ever before, aurangzeb found himself spending much of his time and money fighting. He waged a war against the Rajputs from 1679-81, fought the rebellions of Sikhs, Satnamis in MEWAR and Jats in GOKAL.Perhaps his most costly campaign was against the Maratha tribe in DECCAN. Their leader Shivaji was originally defeated in 1665 but later escaped and was soon back in DECCAN planning the fight against aurangzeb. Even after 25 years of fighting aurang still hadn't subdued the Marathas. Though AZ faced many problems during his reign, by the time of his death the mughal empire was larger than ever before. → Historians are mixed over AG’s reforms. Some say that he was intolerant and that he wanted to destroy other religions, He introduced the tax on non-muslims (JIZYA), he destroyed a number of temples. He also banned some old Notes of Pakistan Studies 2059 by Mohammad Hamza Ashraf

Notes of Pakistan Studies 2059 by Mohammad Hamza Ashraf

Hindus practices such as suttee. He inforced islam by forcing non muslims to live according to the Quran. Other historian would argue that AG wasn't intolerant but that he was orthodox. They point out that he employed some Hindu advisors and he made donations to Hindu temples. → His success as an emperor however, is received with mixed views, perhaps because of his austere measures such as banning alcohol, stopping singing and dancing at court and even determining the maximum length for beards. Though to many people these were wise and needy measures that needed to be taken. AG made himself popular in traders by abolishing the local taxes. He spent huge sums of money on building luxurious buildings such as the pearl mosque in delhi, which was for his private prayers, The taxes resulting from his heavy spending made him an unpopular ruler by his death in 1707. He ruled the empire for almost 50 YEARS and he was 89 years old when he died, he achieved much during his reign but it is said that the decay of the empire could be seen to start. → POST AG ERA= AG became emperor by defeating his rivals in battle, he wanted his sons to avoid the same problem so he gave the 3 (they were 4 but i guess one of them didn't get a piece of the pie) of them each part of the empire. But he didn’t succeed, fighting broke out between them and eventually prince muazzum established himself emperor but he only survived a few years then his four sons fought over the throne and the victor, Jahandar Shah was murdered within an year, In the ten years after AG over 12 people had claimed to be emperor at the same time. This caused the stable empire to become weak and divided. Muhammad Shah became emperor in 1719 and ruled for almost 30 years but he faces so much opposition that he was the last mughal emperor who could claim to be emperor. Invading Forces:→ The Persians: In 1738 the persian leader Nadir Shah attack the mughal empire and defeated Muhammad Shah’s (the mughal emperor at the time) forces at Karnal in 1739. Nadir didn’t to make himself emperor, he only intended to collect as much booty as he could. Later he captured and sacked Delhi, taking huge amounts of gold and jewels, even the famous peacock throne of the emperors. This made everyone see how weak the empire had gotten. → The Marathas: Another problem for the mughals were the Marathas, the formed a hindu org and were a constant source of difficulty from the south. Our boi AG spent 25 years fighting and trying to defeat them but these mfs were a pain ita. They continued to gain land and finally in 1737 they defeated the mughals and plundered Delhi.By the 18th century they had replaced the mughals as the most powerful force in India. → The Afghans: A third force cam from Afghanistan in 1747 when an afghan general Ahmad Shah Durrani attacked Kabul, Peshawar and Lahore. By 1749 he gained control of Punjab and by 1756 he added Kashmir and Multan to his possessions. The weakness of the mughals could be seen then, unable to stop Marathas or Afghan expansions and it was actually Ahmad Shah Durrani who defeated the Marathas expansion in the third battle of panipat in 1761. However it was the British who were the greatest threat to the empire. Reasons for the Decline of the Mughal Empire:→ Administration: The thousands of miles of the empire was very difficult to administer. Messages and decisions had to be traveled over thousands of miles to be reached. Emperors couldn’t know what was going on in their empire at all times. It was often months before the emperor could take a decisive action against the many rebellions. → Military Costs: The empire was Hugee with an array of many different people from different religions. This meant many rebellions. Rebellions along with the attacks of Marathas, Sikhs, Persians and other forces made the military cost very high. → Succession: Huge sums were wasted when emperors died, there was almost always a succession dispute. When Shah Jehan fell ill in 1675 all four of his sons started waging wars over the throne and Shah wasn't even dead yet lol. It was to avoid costly wars that AG decided to divide the empire between 3 of his sons. But this wasn’t successful. → Their Declining military expertise: The empire was under the illusion that their success would continue forever. This made them weak and slowly lose their military effective fighting skills. Notes of Pakistan Studies 2059 by Mohammad Hamza Ashraf

Notes of Pakistan Studies 2059 by Mohammad Hamza Ashraf

→ Pleasure Seeking: The huge amounts of sums they spent of their food, clothing and lifestyle were very costly. Even the buildings they built were so expensive that they were a symbol of extravagance. → Weak control: As the wealth and influence grew of the nobility, they became highly powerful at court and some of the emperors found it very hard to control. (Some such as Alamgir II were assassinated by powerful couritiers). This brought an unbalance in the mansabdari system and the administrative efficiency declined, This grew discontent and revenue from tax collection declined. → The Arrival of the british: The empire was in serious decline by the end of 18th century and the british invading seemed to be the straw that broke the camel’s back (cringe lvl:100). The English East India Company (EIC) tried to take advantage of the wealth in trading with India. The EIC was a private company but behind it was the government of what possibly could be the most powerful country in the world. England has been the first to experience Industrial revolution. Its industries made goods that were sold all over the world. With the wealth the Brishits could afford a military strength that the mughals couldn’t match. Together, with the weaknesses of the empire and the strength of the british meant that fall of one of the mightiest dynasties in history was inevitable. The End Of The Mughal Empire:→ Ahmad Shah Durrani (the afghani general) helped Muhammad Shah’s son Ahmed Shah on the throne. However, the empire continued to shrink rapidly and unrest was everywhere in the empire. At the end Ahmed Shah (the emperor not the general) was imprisoned by his own court and he died in captivity. His successor, Alamgir II was assassinated by the order of his chief ministry and the next emperor, Shah Alam II remained in BIHAR and chose not to return to delhi for another 12 years. In 1746 he suffered defeat at the hands of the British at the Battle of Buxar. Shah Alam’s defeat lead to the british taking over Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. In 1803 the british occupied delhi and placed the emperor under “British Protection xD”. The british were gaining a stronghold. Shah Alam’s son, Akbar II ruled parts of Delhi for a little more and his son Bahadur Shah II was expelled for his part in the war on independence 1857. Alas the once-mighty empire was over dunnn dunn duhhhhhnnnn. East India Company (EIC): → In 1600 Queen Elizabeth the 1st gave permission to a group of merchants to set up the East India Company. The British didn’t send its own expeditions or carry out it’s own trade. Instead it gave permission to groups of individuals to do this. The government however, made sure that these groups operated in a way that was acceptable to the gov. → Even before the Mughal Empire went into decline the British were envious of India’s wealth. They wanted determined to establish trading bases in India. The EIC was given monopoly, meaning no other british company could trade there. → Time went by, EIC improved their trades, established more bases and by now they were talking about “English dominion for all time to come” The EIC had the audacity to go to war with aurangzeb, they could a huge military of their own. In 1686 our boi AG defeated the EIC and pardoned but only after they apologized for the various crimes they commited. They also had to pay a heavy fine. The EIC were more advantageous in fighting against other european nations such as portuguese and dutch (both suffered defeat by EIC). The EIC faced the main rivalry against the French at first it was a problem but then the military skills of the british general ROBERT CLIVE enabled EIC to defeat the French and gain influence in India. It began slowly and took a long time to win the authority of Indian princes. Then after winning the Battle of Plassey, Robert Clive was made governor of Bengal. Then an investigation was carried out on him by his opponents on the charge of “Plundering india”. Although he was found not guilty, his addiction to opium was revealed and later this caused him to take his own life.

Notes of Pakistan Studies 2059 by Mohammad Hamza Ashraf

Notes of Pakistan Studies 2059 by Mohammad Hamza Ashraf

The Battle of Plassey: → June 23rd, 1756. 750 british men vs 62k bengal forces. British had the victory → How did they win against 62k men? The british general Robert Clive actually bribed Siraj-ud-din (Nawab of Bengal)’s general Mir Jafar and because of that they had an easy win. “Such anarchy, confusion, bribery and corruption was never seen or heard in any country but bengal” -Robert Clive. → Later Mir Jafar’s son, Mir Qasim joined forces with the Nawab of Oudh and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II to drive the EIC out of Bengal and even then they suffered a defeat in the Battle of Buxar, 1746. This brought even more influence to the British and the EIC now took control of the revenue collection in Bengal. The British Govt. Intervenes to stop EIC: → The EIC was established to gain as much profit as possible but its greed after the battle of buxar embarrassed the brit. Gov. The company made huge profits and still they were accustomed of receiving gifts from people which made them wealthier. The EIC exploited the bengal and many died in a serious famine which hit Bengal due to that. → After that, the Brit Gov. was forced to intervene. A British member of Parliament was so angered by what was going on that he made a speech on it dissing the EIC. The British passed several acts to ensure the EIC’s compliance. The EIC continued to trade but lost it’s administrative. In 1773 they passed an Act of Parliament which required EIC to provide good government. Then in 1874 they passed the India Act (sometimes called “the pitt's India Act”) and took direct control if the three presidencies. To improve efficiency further, a police force and a legal system was set up. A civil service was also introduced but local people were not given jobs in it. Only the Brits were considered suitable to help run “British India”. The British Taking over India: → In 1782, the first Governor-General of India, Warren Hastings, signed a treaty ending the First Maratha War between the British and the Marathas. This gave brits the opportunity to promote their influence elsewhere. → In 1799, Governor-General Wesley invaded Mysore and killed Tipu, the sultan of Mysore. They then took control of his lands. → In the same year The Nawabs of Oudh were defeated and were forced to give up large areas of their territory. → In 1803, The british entered Delhi and forced the Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam, to accept that he was ruling under British Protection. → In 1818, The Marathas were defeated by British forces and finally forced to accept their brit control. Titu Mir: → His real name was SYED MIR NISAR, a great bengali fighter who led the people against the oppression of the Zamindars and british colonial system. He went to a pilgrimage to Makkah in 1822 and came back after 5yrs on 1827. When he came back he was determined to free Bengal from un-islamic practices. He declared himself king and raised 15k followers, He built a Bamboo fort and in Oct 1831 defeated the british forces sent to destroy the fort. As a result, The brits sent a full army with calvary and cannons. Titu’s forces couldn’t withstand their modern weapons and after 5 days of fierce fighting, Titu and his men died. The British commander praised titu and his men bravery. The Annexation of Sindh: → The british were concerned about the russian expansion and wanted to make sure afghanistan doesn’t falls in russian hands. The british hoped that Ranjit Singh, the ruler of punjab would help them install a pro-british ruler in kabul He did not, so the brits went on on their own. However a rebellion from Afg in 1841 led to all the british troop in the country being killed. The brits felt their pride had been hurt by this and turned on sindh. The territory was ruled by a collection of amirs who has signed a treaty of friendship with britain in 1809. Now all the brits needed was an excuse to annex sindh. The british general, Sir Charles Napier provoked the amirs of sindh so much that they attacked the british Notes of Pakistan Studies 2059 by Mohammad Hamza Ashraf

Notes of Pakistan Studies 2059 by Mohammad Hamza Ashraf

residency in 1843. He admitted and i quote, “We have no right to besiege sindh yet we shall do so, and a very advantageous useful human piece of rascality it will be”. The Amirs were defeater and sindh was annexed. The Annexation of Punjab and NW Frontier: → Shortly Afterwards, the punjab also fell into british hands. The sikhs were worried that the british would attack punjab and so they launched an attack on the british and so the BATTLE OF ALIWAL, JAN 1846 took place and the british defeated the sikhs, forced them to sign the Treaty of Lahore, give up land to the british and pay a huge indemnity. In the Second Sikh war (1848-49), the sikhs suffered defeat and the sikh empire was over. The Punjab and what would later be known as the North West Frontier became part of the british empire on 30 MAR 1849. The brits were determined for such a border because of its natural geography and the part it played in defending the territory from outside forces. Eventually, Sir Mortimer Durand concluded an agreement with Amir Abdur Rahman Khan of Afg in 1893. This became known as The Durand Line. It said that “The Gov of India will at no time exercise interference in the territories lying beyond this line on the other side of Afg, same for his highness the Amir will not exercise interference in the territories lying beyond this line on the side of India”. Although the “British India” was gained in battle, the brits didn't add all the conquered lands to their empire, some places were forced to sign treaties with EIC allowing the Nawabs to rule but giving control of external affairs to the brits. The Doctrine Of Lapse:→ In 1853, Governor-General Dalhousie extended british control even further by applying the doctrine of lapse. This meant that when a ruler without a natural heir died, the brits would annex his land. So Satara, Nagpur and Jhansi soon fell in British hands. Not surprisingly this was an unpopular policy and caused much resentment. Especially when it was  just used as an excuse to take land. For example in 1856, the nawab of Oudh died and although he had several legal heirs, Dalhousie declared that the Nawab had governed his people badly and took Oudh under Brit control. This showed how british were now dominant in India. Section 1, Chapter 3 The Causes of the War of independence: Political:→ As the brits extended their control, the local leaders saw their authority decline. The introduction of “The Doctrine of Lapse” convinced Indian Leaders that brits were simple greedy land grabbers. → The mistreatment of the mughal emperor was another cause of major unrest. Though the emperor had little power left, he was a major symbolic figure.Dalhousie’s decision to move the royal family from the Red Fort of Delhi to more obscure Qutub Sahib was seen as a sign of disrespect. → Lack of opportunity was a major cause of rebellion in the lower classes along with english replacing persian as the official language of the administration and in which education would be given. Religious and Social: → The Indians feared that Islam, Hinduism and Sikhism was under threat from the brit rule. The brits always denied this but they weren’t believed. It is true that Christian missionaries came to convert the local population as well as set schools up, they expected locals who worked for them to follow them in their religion. → Socially, the brits were extremely arrogant and proud of their culture. In 1835, one english administrator said said “a single shelf of a good european library was worth the whole native language”. They regarded themselves as a small oases of a culture in a largely civilised world. This arrogant attitude along with the new way of life with its railways, road and telegraph were unacceptable to many indians. → In JAN 1857, the brits announced of a new rifle which with a paper cartridge covered in grease to keep the powder dry. However, there were rumours of the grease being made by both the fat of cows and pigs. The sepoys were so angered by this that they refused to touch the new cartridges. Notes of Pakistan Studies 2059 by Mohammad Hamza Ashraf

Notes of Pakistan Studies 2059 by Mohammad Hamza Ashraf

Economically:→ The brits imposed high taxes to ensure they exploited India’s wealth. Peasants and small landowners in particular found it difficult to pay the increasing taxes and resentment grew. It was also true that some tax collectors were corrupt and they would keep an amount of the tax for themselves. The brits were also keeping an amount of the salary of the sepoys (sepahi), causing more resentment. Military:→ Most of the soldiers in the EIC’s army were Indian. However, the sepoys and sowars (calvary) were almost exclusively Indian, but the officer class was almost exclusively british. This caused great resentment. There were also regular rumours that Muslim, Hindu and Sikh soldiers would be forced to convert to christianity and that they might be sent to fight abroad, which was unacceptable to the Hindus. The use of Indian troops in Afghanistan has also proved unpopular as hindu soldiers refused to leave “Mother India”. One indian observer in 1857 said “all the native army is dissatisfied with the government” The Events of the War:→ Ok, the whole war was a fickin blood bath lmao. In march 1857, the issue of “greased cartridges” angered a sepy named Mangal Pandey so much that he defied his brit officers and was executed, but the real trouble began two months later in may when sepoys in meerut refused to touch the cartridges. They were court-martialed and imprisoned but then their fellow-soldiers broke them out of prison. Meerut was sacked and all the brit and other european officers were put to death. Then the soldiers marched to Delhi and captured it. The Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah II was a unifying symbol for the uprising winning both, muslims and hindus support. → The war spread quickly and the brits lost control of Mathura, Kanpur, Jhansi and Allahabad as well as Delhi and Lucknow. The Brit rule ceased to exist throughout what now is called Uttar Pradesh. Then in cawnpore, indian troops led by nana sahib rose up against the brit and kept their forces trapped for over three weeks. After being promised safe passage out of the city, the brits surrendered. However as the brits left the city, Nana’s forces turned on them psychhh and the british force along with 300 women and children were massacred ZAMN. → However, the british proved too powerful to be defeated an uncoordinated uprising in many areas. In sept 1857, Delhi was regained. Bahadur Shah II surrendered peacefully but his 3 sons were brutally murdered and their heads were presented to the emperor as a lesson ZAMNN. Then in June 1858, the brits killed Lakshmibai (she was dressed as a man in battle), the final opposition leader. Following her death, the brits eliminated pockets of opposition and the war was declared over in August 1858. The Effects of the war:→ Instead of loosening the yoke of the brits, like the Indians hoped. It made it tighter. The british’s reaction to the war was to carry out more brutal reprisals against the Indians, as was seen in Cawnpore. Moreover, after the war, the mughal emperor Bahadur Shah was put on trial and sentenced to life in prison in burma where he died. In Jan 1877 the brit queen victoria was appointed empress of india. The indian royal family had been formally replaced. After the war, the EIC was abolished and now the brit gov. Would take full responsibility for all matters in India. The Effect on Muslims:- Brits believed that the muslims were largely to blame for the war. So muslims were degraded and their roles were downgraded to ink pot fillers, messengers etc. It was years before brits could start to trust muslims again. The brits cut support to islamic schools and muslim education fell into decline. Moreover, the muslims believed that english lang was un-islamic and perhaps that’s why illiteracy rate increased.

Notes of Pakistan Studies 2059 by Mohammad Hamza Ashraf

Notes of Pakistan Studies 2059 by Mohammad Hamza Ashraf

Why Did the War Fail?:Lack Of Unity:  Although, the resentment of the brits was a single cause to fight for, the Indians were not coordinated or united how the hoped to be. There wasn't a general plan and no attempt to work together. Different people fought for different reasons.  And although the mughal emperor was sumthin of a figurehead, most Indian princes didn’t really want to see imperial power restored. They had no sense of national patriotism. India was too divided for such a feeling, → For instance, The punjab and sindh has been conquered by Bengali troops under the command of brits. So it was not a surprise when these troops rebelled and the people of punjab weren’t interested in supporting them. → Some of the Indian princes were interested in restoring their power only. Some of their powers actually depended on the brits, that's the ruler of kashmir sent 2000 troops to help the brits out. → Perhaps the only uniting for in the war was Islam. Muslims were keen on seeing Bahadur Shah, the emperor back in power. But this brought out more problems as this alarmed the hindus and sikhs. They didn't want to fight to restore the power to the emperor. British Strength:→ Perhaps one of the reasons of the defeat of Indians was simply that the british were too powerful. They had a highly disciplined army, they were experienced in warfare. The only hope indians had to defeating was to have a general uprising across most of India, as there was. Though at last it was only a matter of time that the highly efficient british military machines restored order. The Proclamation of 1958:→ When the brits ended the war they ended it by making a proclamation of the following things, Though they later paid little attention to their promises. They said that: →1. They wouldn’t interfere in the religious beliefs of the bebol, 2. Pay due regard to ancient properties and customs. 3.  Abide by all treaty obligations 2. Agree to take over no more land. 4.Guarantee the right to appointments. Section 1, Chapter 4 Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-1898):Brief Biography: → He came from a wealthy, well known and respected family in delhi, his father took great care to ensure he got a high education. By the age of 18 he was skilled in Arabic, Persian, Mathematics and Medicine. He also developed a love for literature from being introduced to India's most able writers. → In 1838, his father died and he was forced to seek employment. He quickly rose from a lowly position in the legal system to become a judge in Delhi 1846. That year he also wrote one of his well known books, It is that he saved many lives of many women and children during the war of independence. He was rewarded with estate and fortune which he would of course refuse. → He believed that that armed uprising against the british was pointless. This made him unpopular with some muslims, but this didn’t stop him from working towards a reconciliation b/w muslims and brits after the war. In 1876 he retired to concentrate on running the college. He died on 27 March, 1898 Beliefs:→ Many muslims wanted nothing to do with the british, sir syed believed that the muslims had to accept that the brits were rulers who intended to stay for years. The relations could be improved if muslims adapted and took a more positive approach. He wanted to see muslims united and prospering, making improvement in their economic, social, religious and political situation by receiving western education and taking up posts in the civil service. Work:-

Notes of Pakistan Studies 2059 by Mohammad Hamza Ashraf

Notes of Pakistan Studies 2059 by Mohammad Hamza Ashraf

→ Improving the brit and muslim relations: He believed if our relations with the brits improved, our status in the sub-continent would improve. However, there were 2 major obstacles to better relations,  A → The brits put all the blame of the war of independence on the muslims, they believed muslims to be rebellious and unhelpful… Hindus and other religious groups to be loyal and prepared to assist. Sir Syed wanted to ensure that this was a false view. B → There was a deep-seated resentment from the muslims toward the brits, they believed they were just “foreign invaders”, other thought they were here to replace Islam with Christianity and some rejected the western idea altogether. Sir Syed wanted to ensure the advantages of the brits being here, that the british rule were making improvement in the areas of science and tech, these being embraced by the muslims to improve the lives of masses.c → In 1860, he wrote “The Loyal Muhammadans of India”. In this he defended the muslims from the accusations that they were disloyal, he gave a detailed accounting of the loyal service of muslims and at the same time he called the brits to end their hostility towards the muslim community, In order to convince the brits he wrote a pamphlet called “Essay of the causes of Indian Revolt”. He pointed out that the main reasons were 1. The lack of representation of indians in the government of india, 2. The forcible conversion of muslims to christianity, 2. The poor management of the Indian army. Copies of this were sent everywhere, even as far as the royal british family. It was received with mixed reviews some brits were angered as he seemed to be blaming them others read it with sympathy and accepted there was some truth in his words. → Sir Syed was aware the brits knew very little about Islam. On his visit to england, he was very offended by an English book on the life of the Prophet PBUH that he immediately wrote his own work correcting the many errors. On the other hands, it was also true that the indians didn’t know anything about christianity either. He tried to overcome this by writing “Tabyin-ul-Kalam” in which he pointed out the similarities b/w the two religions but due to lack of resources it wasn’t finished. Another example was the British Indian Association, which he established to increase cooperation. → Sir Syed’s beliefs that muslims needed to study western science and tech got him in a conflict with the ulama. The ulamas thought western science and tech would undermine the basic Islamic beliefs. However this took a major part in bringing an intellectual revolution amongst muslim thinkers. → In 1863, Sir syed founded the Scientific Society of Ghazipur to make scientific writing available in a wider market by translating them from english, persian or arabic to urdu. When he was transferred to Aligarh in 1864, he continued his work and in 1866 he began issuing a journal called The Aligarh Gazette. In 1859, He opened a school in Moradabad, In 1864 He opened another school in Ghazipur. In 1869, he travelled to england to study their university systems. He was v.impressed from oxford and cambridge unis and he dreamed of setting up a uni for the muslims in the subcontinent. However his plans were often met with suspicion and he couldn’t start a uni right away so begin with a school. A committee was set up which toured the country, raising funds and on 24 May 1875 the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College was set up in aligarh on the pattern of english public school system, the british wouldn’t allow it to be affiliated with muslim university so it couldn’t become the muslim uni he wanted. The college offered both Indian and Western education, along with Islamic education. This institution became a symbol before Muslim League. Many future leaders of Pakistan such as Liaquat Ali Khan and Ayub Khan were educated there and some historians have commented that that institution contributed more to pakistan than any other formation. He later held conferences to raise awareness and establishing a political formation in the Muslim League. In 1920 the college became the uni of aligarh. His essays on the causes of the Indian Revolt had shown a desire to re-establish good relationships.He also believed Muslims should have a gud relationship with Hindus as both has a common long term goal but it was later proved that this wasn’t possible as the Hindus weren’t keen on it. He came to believe that Hindus n Muslims were different enough that they could be considered as two separate groups in the subcontinent. Indian National Congress:→ In 1885, the Indian National Congress was formed, the brits saw this as a body to hear the views of the educated elite in Indian society, they claimed they would represent the views of all people in India regardless of their Notes of Pakistan Studies 2059 by Mohammad Hamza Ashraf

Notes of Pakistan Studies 2059 by Mohammad Hamza Ashraf

race/religion. However it was soon apparent that the Congress was a Hindu-dominated body which was working to establish supremacy over the muslims, A good example was the congress suggesting for a democratic system. WHich seemed fair but since there were four times as many Hindus as Muslims, they would win every election and would leave the muslims with no representation at all. Sir Syed spoke out angrily about this. The congress also suggested the gov. Should be by competitive examination. Since the Muslims were not receiving education this would greatly disadvantage them. Sir Syed commented that only works when education opportunities were provided. Language:→ In 1867 Hindus demanded that Hindi should be made the next official language in the place of urdu which became the official language in 1825. This was another guiding factor guiding Sir Syed to his “Two Nation Theory”. Urdu had a special place in the Muslim community. Many of its finest writings were in that language. Sir Syed were bitterly opposed to this attack on Urdu. His belief that the congress were working in the interest of Hindus, he organized an alternative body called “United Patriots Alliance”. In 1893 this became the Mohammedan Defence Alliance by the rivalry between the Hindus and Muslims communities were increasing and there were several examples of hindus showing disrespect like they the extremist began playing loud music outside the mosques. It seemed that it was getting difficult for the two to live in a peaceful existence…. He worked tirelessly to restore the relations of muslims and brits especially after the war of independence. His work were to convince the brits to see muslims in a new light, Which the Hindus sought to take advantage of. This defined his “two nation theory”. Once muslims came to the wisdom of this theory, it was a small step towards partition. For this reason he is rightly called “The Father of the Pakistan Movement”. Section 1, Chapter 5 Languages Contribution to the Cultural Development:→ The Language which had perhaps the most impact was persian. In the Mughal Period it was the official language used in the court. Books were written in Persian, Shah Waliullah translated the Quran from arabic to persian. It became so widespread that even the Hindus began using it. Urdu:-  /// (When Pak was set up, it’s constitution said than Urdu will be the national lang. Why was urdu chosen?) //// → It has been long considered the language of the muslims. It was developed by the combination of different languages. It dates back as far as the era of the Sultans of Delhi. By the end of the 13th centuries, muslims armies were using a common language to understand each other. This language went through many developments and later became what is known as urdu. As Muslims traveled abroad they spread their language even further. → Urdu developed a rich literal background which helped promote its use. Poetry has been significantly prevalent in urdu for centuries. The language received a boost when emperor Muhammad Shah and Bahadur Shah Zafar took an interest of promoting it. Famous poets of this era are Mir, Sauda, Dard and Ghalib. The Aligarh University became the centre for urdu studies and produced talents like Hasrat Mohani, Majaz, Jazbi. In the early 20th century, Dr. Nazir  Ahmad, Muhammad Hussain Azad, Maulana Altaf Hussain Hali and Allama Shibli greatly enriched urdu prose and poetry, producing numerous masterpieces. → Urdu’s link to Islamic spread has also been very important, most notably with the translation of the Quran to Arabic by Shah Abdul Qadir. It helped develop unity amongst Muslims. Urdu played a major role in the struggle of independence, The Muslim league (formed 1906) aimed not only to depend the right of Muslims but also protect urdu as the british has made english the official language of it’s administration but some of the educational institutions such as Fort William College took an interest in promoting the Urdu language. → After 1857 however, the brits seeked the support of the Hindus and lost any interest of promoting Urdu. Muslims saw this as an attack on their right and strongly resisted Hindu demands. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan set up a society to support urdu and the relations of hindus and muslims, the muslims suffered during this “Urdu-Hindi controversy” → It also showed that urdu was not supported by non-muslims. However it is also true that not all muslims supported the language. In bengal, there was a widespread resentment of bengali not being not being made the national language. In 1942, protests in Dhaka led to arrests and in 1952 tear gas had to be used to dispute students protesting Notes of Pakistan Studies 2059 by Mohammad Hamza Ashraf

Notes of Pakistan Studies 2059 by Mohammad Hamza Ashraf

against Urdu. The language issue was an important part of the controversy which led to the war in 1971 and bangladesh being established. Urdu is generally accepted today, but the languages spoken in pakistan, (Out of 72 languages) are : 48% Punjabi, 13% Pashto, 12% Sindhi, 10% Seraiki, 8% Urdu, 3% Balochi and 6% the rest. → Despite this opposition, Urdu survived and became the National Language. Quaid-e-Azam was keen on promoting urdu and he saw it as a unifying force in the new country. The gov. Took steps t o foster the growth of urdu. It is the medium of instruction in many educational institutions and steps have been taken to move away from english language of administration. Urdu is the medium of radio, urdu is the medium for the radio and television programmes. Urdu plays, films are very popular. Novels, poetry, magazines and newspapers are widely read. Sindhi:→ Sindhi is an older language than urdu. It is spoken in the province of sindh. Documents show that as far back as 12th century it wuz spoken in the same form it is spoken today. → When the Arabs settled in sindh, their culture and literature had a huge impact on Sindhi. Many Arabs were absorbed into the language and the language was written in the Arabic script. When Muslims settled in the Sindh, they found that two languages were being spoken. Arabic was the language of the administration while Sindhi was spoken by the people. This remained the case until the subcontinent fell under the influence of the turkish tribes, who brought their Persian language with them. Sindhi has been greatly influenced by both Arabic and Persian. Sindhi literature was particularly high during the soomro period between 1050-1300, thought most scholars think that it was at its peak between 1685 and 1783. → In the Modern time, many steps have been taken to promote the sindhi language. Such as, 1.In 1984, the sindhi literary board was set up. This printed many books and magazines in sindhi. 2.Several books have been written on sindhi folk literature. 3.In 1954, Bazm-e-Talib-ul-Moula was setup to promote Sindhi literature. 4.A sarmast academy has been established in the memory of sachal sarmast. 5. A Sindhology department has been established at Sindh uni. Balochi:→ Balochi is the language spoken in the province of Balochistan, Pakistan’s largest province. Though other languages such as Persian and Brohi are spoken, There are two main kinds of Balochi, “Sulemanki” and ”Mekrani”. The language was brought into Balochistan by nomadic tribes who rarely settle in any place for a long time. This explains why there has been little development on the language. The first time Balochi was reported to exist was by a british reporter. Before partition, balochi was beginning to decline, There were a few books or magazines published in balochi, even the balochi gazetteer was published in english. However, there have been steps taken to promote the language, such as: 1.Radio Pakistan Karachi began broadcasting in Balochi. 2.The Balochi Library association was set up and there are now weekly and monthly magazine published in the language. 3. The Quetta Television Station broadcasts in Balochi. 4. Modern Balochi Literature has shown rapid progress many famous poets are working to promote the language. Punjabi:→ Punjabi is the language spoken in the most populous province of pakistan, the punjab. Though it is also spoken in  Azad Kashmir and KPK. It is easily understood language which has been given different names throughout the history. It has been thought that in 1080, Hafiz Barkhurdar was the first person to call it Punjabi. It was originally written in Gurmukhi script, but in the latter years of the mughals, arabic script was used. It has been greatly influenced by Persian, Arabic, Hindi, Turkish and English. Punjabi literature consists of folk tales. Sufi poets such as Baba Farid Ganjshakar and Sultan Babu wrote their famous works in Punjabi. At the beginning of the 20th century, novels, short stories and dramas were published in Punjabi. As the century progressed, book were written on the academic subjects of Law, Medicine, History and Philosophy. One of the new literary endeavours was the versified translation of the holy Quran by Muhammad Ali Faiq, Ustad Daman, Sharif Kunjahi, Munir Niazi and Ahmad Rahi. Punjab literature is now taught up to MA level at the University of Punjab.

Notes of Pakistan Studies 2059 by Mohammad Hamza Ashraf

Notes of Pakistan Studies 2059 by Mohammad Hamza Ashraf

Pashto:→ Pashto is the language spoken by the people of KPK and in the northern Balochistan. It was also heavily influenced by Arabic, Persian and Greek. Pashto literature can be divided into three periods, 1. The second to the thirteenth century. The first Pashto poet was Amir Khan Pehlivan, though the most famous was Bayazid Ansari, his most famous work, Khair-ul-Bian was prob the first book on sufism in pashto literature. 2. The second period begins when the mughals invaded India. It was during this time t hat Pashto prose was at its peak. This lasted for one hundred years and played an important part in asserting pashto freedom. 3. The third period begins to the establishment of the british rule and is also considered to be the golden period for pashto literature, as so much high quality writing was produced. Famous writers include Akhund Dardeeza and Khushal Khan Khattak as well as the sufi poet Rahman Baba. → Pashto literature played a very important part in creating opposition to british rule and in the movement for independence. Within three years of independence, Peshawar University was established and an academy for the pashto literature was set up in 1954, the academy was headed by maulana abdul qadir and prepared a widely accepted pashto dictionary. Since that time, post graduate classes in pashto literature have been established at university level in KP.

Notes of Pakistan Studies 2059 by Mohammad Hamza Ashraf