Oxford Handook of Palliative Care 2nd Ed

OXFORD MEDICAL PUBLICATIONS

Oxford Handbook of

Palliative Care

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Oxford Handbook of

Palliative Care SECOND EDITION

Max Watson Consultant in Palliative Medicine, Northern Ireland Hospice, Belfast; Lecturer in Palliative Care, University of Ulster, Belfast; Special Adviser, Hospice Friendly Hospitals Programme, Dublin; Honorary Consultant in Palliative Medicine, The Princess Alice Hospice, Esher

Caroline Lucas Deputy Medical Director, The Princess Alice Hospice, Esher; Consultant in Palliative Medicine, Surrey Primary Care Trust; Honorary Consultant in Palliative Medicine, Ashford and St. Peter’s Hospital NHS Trust

Andrew Hoy Medical Director, The Princess Alice Hospice, Esher; Consultant in Palliative Medicine, Epsom and St Helier NHS Trust

Jo Wells Support Service Coordinator, The Leukaemia Foundation, South Australia; Formerly Nurse Consultant in Palliative Care, The Princess Alice Hospice, Esher

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Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York © Oxford University Press, 2009 The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First edition published 2005 Second edition published 2009 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Oxford handbook of Palliative Care Typeset by Cepha Imaging Private Ltd., Bangalore, India Printed in Italy on acid-free paper by LegoPrint SpA ISBN 978–0–19–923435–6 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Oxford University Press makes no representation, express or implied, that the drug dosages in this book are correct. Readers must therefore always check the product information and clinical procedures with the most up to date published product information and data sheets provided by the manufacturers and the most recent codes of conduct and safety regulations. The authors and publishers do not accept responsibility or legal liability for any errors in the text or for the misuse or misapplication of material in this work. Except where otherwise stated, drug dosage and recommendations are for the non-pregnant adult who is not breast-feeding.

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Foreword When a book rapidly goes to a second edition, it is a mark of esteem of the first edition. And this book is no exception—it is a handbook for anyone providing care for those approaching the end-of-life. It covers, concisely, all aspects of palliative care, tackling difficult subjects such as ethical issues, communication and breaking bad news, up front at the beginning of the book. The section on the principles of drug use in palliative care specifically addresses the problems of drugs prescribed beyond licence and drug interactions, making this book one of those essential handbooks that will be taken off the shelf time and time again. Many books are being replaced by internet publications; not this one. This book will be on the desk or in the pocket of many doctors and nurses around the globe. It is equally applicable in countries which are resourcerich and those that are resource-poor. While providing the theoretical background and evidence base, the book remains eminently practical, for example in its step by step guide on the use of intravenous analgesics in pain emergencies and how to deal with cancer pain that appears to be resistant to opioids. It also elegantly gives the indications for referring across to others such as radiotherapy and outlines different types of chemotherapy that a patient might be having. Few reference books are quite this packed with information. Paediatric palliative care has recently emerged as a specialty in its own right in the UK is also included in this book; the needs of dying children have been neglected for far too long; here again, the book is up to date, practical and helpful. This book does not shy away from controversy; it has a balanced critique of complementary therapies, their benefits and their place in the delivery of care overall. The authors provide objective evidence and their enormous experience shines through the text. The specific resources and further reading given at the end of every chapter complements the ‘no nonsense’ layout of each chapter throughout the book. As a guide to modern palliative care, this book will serve patients well. Professor Ilora Finlay FRCP FRCGP (Baroness Finlay of Llandaff)

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Preface to the second edition I am always willing to learn, however I do not always like to be taught. Winston Churchill The first edition of the Oxford Handbook of Palliative Care has been warmly received. We have been encouraged by colleagues to make the material presented here more relevant to non-medical readers. We therefore welcome to our team, Jo Wells, who is a nurse consultant in palliative care. We have added new sections on antibiotics, increased emphasis on non-malignant disease, learning disabilities, palliative care in developing countries and communication. All the chapters of the first edition have been reviewed and many have been completely rewritten. We hope that the result will be a Handbook which is useful to the whole of the multiprofessional team and will achieve a better balance than its predecessor. Although the Handbook is somewhat larger than the first edition, we feel that this is a reflection of the rapid changes and progress of this field of clinical practice in a relatively short period. The aim of the Handbook remains as originally stated. We would like to provide a readily accessible source of help to all those who care for people who cannot be cured. This will include generalists and those whose specialty is not palliative care. We hope that the Handbook may also be a useful ready reference for those engaged in full-time palliative, hospice or end-of-life care. We remain proud to be associated with the Oxford University Press Handbook series, and are well aware of the heavy responsibility which this confers. We regard the Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine as the parent text for much of the material in this Handbook. There are various references throughout to the current, third edition. However, readers may need to be aware that a new fourth edition is in preparation, and should be available later in 2009. MW CL AH JW

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Preface to the first edition Most clinical professionals have been affected by caring for patients with palliative care needs. Such patients may challenge us at both a professional and at a personal level in areas where we feel our confidence or competence is challenged. I wanted to help her, but I just didn’t know what to do or say As in every other branch of medicine, knowledge and training can help us extend our comfort zone, so that we can better respond to such patients in a caring and professional manner. However, in picking up this Handbook and reading thus far you have already demonstrated a motivation that is just as important as a thirst for knowledge, the central desire to improve the care of your patients. It was out of just such a motivation that the modern hospice movement began 40 years ago, and it is that same motivation that has fuelled the spread of the principles of palliative care—in fact the principles of ALL good care—across the globe: respect for the person, attention to detail, scrupulous honesty and integrity, holistic care, team caring and consummate communications (often more about listening than telling and talking). I knew we couldn’t cure him, but didn’t know when or how to start palliative care Increasingly it is being recognized that every person has the right to receive high-quality palliative care whatever the illness, whatever its stage, regardless of whether potentially curable or not. The artificial distinction between curative and palliative treatments has rightly been recognized as an unnecessary divide, with a consequent loss of the border crossings that previously signified a complete change in clinical emphasis and tempo. Medical knowledge is developing rapidly, with ever more opportunities for and emphasis on curative treatment, to the point when any talk of palliative care can sometimes be interpreted as ‘defeatist’. Today the principles of palliative care interventions may be employed from the first when a patient’s illness is diagnosed. Conversely, a patient with predominantly palliative care needs, late in their disease journey, may benefit from energetic treatments more usually regarded as ‘curative’. I just felt so helpless watching him die. Surely it could have been better? Governments and professional bodies now recognize that every nurse and doctor has a duty to provide palliative care and, increasingly, the public and the media have come to expect—as of right—high-quality palliative care from their healthcare professionals irrespective of the clinical setting. Many of these palliative care demands can best be met, as in the past, by the healthcare professionals who already know their patients and families well. This Handbook is aimed at such hospital- or community-based

x Preface to the first edition professionals, and recognizes that the great majority of patients with palliative needs are looked after by doctors and nurses who have not been trained in specialist palliative care but who are often specialist in the knowledge of their patients. Even though I knew she had had every treatment possible, still, when she died I really felt that we had failed her and let her family down. Junior healthcare staff members throughout the world have used the Oxford Handbook series as their own specialist pocket companion through the lonely hours of on-call life. The format, concise (topic-a-page), complete and sensible, teaches not just clinical facts but a way of thinking. Yet for all the preoccupation with cure, no healthcare professional will ever experience greater satisfaction or confirmation of their choice of profession, than by bringing comfort and dignity to someone at the end-of-life. I had never seen anyone with that type of pain before and just wished I could get advice from someone who knew what to do. The demands on inexperienced and hard-pressed doctors or nurses in looking after patients with palliative care needs can be particularly stressful. It is our hope that this text, ideally complemented by the support and teaching of specialist palliative care teams, will reduce the often expressed sense of helplessness, a sense of helplessness made all the more poignant by the disproportionate gratitude expressed by patients and families for any attempts at trying to listen, understand and care. It was strange, but I felt he was helping me much more than I was helping him While it is our hope that the Handbook will help the reader access important information quickly and succinctly, we hope it will not replace the main source of palliative care knowledge: the bedside contact with the patient. It is easier to learn from books than patients, yet what our patients teach us is often of more abiding significance: empathy, listening, caring, existential questions of our own belief systems and the limitations of medicine. It is at the bedside that we learn to be of practical help to people who are struggling to come to terms with their own mortality and face our own mortality in the process. Readers may notice some repetition of topics in the Handbook. This is not due to weariness or oversight on the part of the editors, but is an attempt to keep relevant material grouped together—to make it easier for those needing to look up information quickly. It is inevitable that in a text of this size some will be disappointed at the way we have left out, or skimped on, a favourite area of palliative care interest. To these readers we offer our apologies and two routes of redress: almost 200 blank pages to correct the imbalances; and the OUP website, http://www.oup.co.uk/isbn/0-19-850897-2, where your suggestions for how the next edition could be improved would be gratefully received.

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Acknowledgements We must acknowledge and thank many people, without whome this edition of the Oxford University Handbook of Palliative Care would not have been possible. Our colleagues in Ireland and Surrey have been endlessly tolerant of our absence both physical and psychological. They have kept the patients care show on the road when we were chasing references, new procedures, novel drugs or faulty syntax. They have also been asked to provide new review materisl for inclusion or been required to comment on our initial efforts. We hope that all these expert witness have been included in the updated list of contributors. Particular mention and thanks must go to the consultant staff at the North Ireland Hospice and the Princess Alice, the eager specialist registrars, the ward staff and clinical nurse specialists and the allied health care professiobals. All have given time and expertise with unstinting generosity. We would be lost without the invaluable backup of our secretaties, Liz Huckle, and Susan Lockwood. Jan Brooman has unfailingly checked every single reference. Gill Eyers and Margaret Gibbs have provided invaluable pharmacy advice. The staff at OUP have been both expert and also infinitely patient, especially Beth Womack and Kate Wilson. We continues to be indebted to Dr. Ian Back for the excellence of his http://www.pallcare.info website as an invaluable palliative resource. We are also grateful to Barness Finaly for her willingness to erite the forward to this edition on top of her many commitments Our greatest thanks, however, is reserved for the many contributors and reviewers who so generously gave of their time to allow this edition to be completed. We realise that this work was often carried out in the "small hours", after the completion of clinical responsibilities. Without such collaboration this handbook would not have been possible. Finally, we must acknowledge and thank our respective spouses who have patiently kept us both fed and watered but also tried to supply a sence of proportion and humour. We are also indebted for permission to reproduce material within the handbook from the following sources: Bruera E., Higginson I. (1996) Cachexia–Anorexia in Cancer Patients. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Doyle D., et al (eds) (2004) Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine (3rd edn). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ramsay J.-H. R. (1994) A King, a doctor and a convenient death. British Medical Journal, 308: 1445. The South West London and the Surrey, West Sussex and Hampshire, Mount Vernon and Sussex Cancer Networks. M. Watson, C. Lucas, A. Hoy (2006) Adult Palliative Care Guidance (2nd edn).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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Thomas K. (2003) Caring for the Dying at Home: Companions on the Journey. Oxford: Radcliffe Medical Press. Twycross R., Wilcock A. (2007) Palliative Care Formulary (3rd edn). palliativedrugs.com Winston’s Wish: supporting bereaved children and young people. www.winstonswish.org.uk. www.rch.org.au/rch_palliative MW CL AH JW

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Contents Contributors xvii Abbreviations xxi Introduction xxv 1 Ethical issues 2 Communication: Breaking bad news 3 Research a Research in palliative care b Quality of life 4 Principles of drug use in palliative care a The use of drugs beyond licence b Drug interactions in palliative care c Syringe drivers d Antibiotics in palliative care e Non-medical prescribing 5 Oncology and palliative care 6 Symptom management a The management of pain b Gastrointestinal symptoms c Cachexia, anorexia and fatigue d Sweating and fever e Respiratory symptoms f Skin problems in palliative care g Genitourinary problems h Palliation of head and neck cancer i Endocrine and metabolic complications of advanced cancer

1 17 39 51 61 65 67 97 109 113 117 215 299 349 359 363 381 393 411 445

CONTENTS

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7 8

9 10

j Neurological problems in advanced cancer k Sleep disorders l Palliative haematological aspects m Psychiatric symptoms in palliative care Paediatric palliative care Palliative care in non-malignant disease a Palliative care in non-malignant respiratory disease b Heart failure c Palliative care in non-malignant neurological disease d Renal failure e AIDS in adults f Palliation in the care of the elderly Spiritual care The contribution to palliative care of allied health professions a Rehabilitation b Occupational therapy c Dietetics and nutrition d Physiotherapy e Speech and language therapy f Clinical and other applied psychology in palliative care g Social work h Chaplaincy i Pharmacy

461 471 475 507 529 653 655 669 675 697 707 725 739 755 757 761 765 771 775 781 785 791 801

CONTENTS

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

j Art therapy k Music therapy Complementary and alternative medicine in palliative care Palliative care in the home Hospital liaison palliative care Palliative care for people with learning disabilities Emergencies in palliative care The terminal phase Bereavement Self-care for health professionals Miscellaneous a Legal and professional standards of care b Death certification and referral to the coroner c Fitness to drive d Dermatomes e Genograms f Peripheral nerve assessment g Travelling abroad h Tissue donation i Help and advice for patients j Laboratory reference values Index 1017

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803 805 807 841 887 905 917 929 947 965 969 991 997 1001 1003 1005 1007 1009 1011 1015

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Contributors Owen Barr Head of School, School of Nursing, University of Ulster, N. Ireland

Pauline Beldon Nurse Consultant in Tissue Viability, Epsom and St Helier NHS Trust, UK

Barbara Biggerstaff

Division of Health and Social Care, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, UK

Kay de Vries Research Fellow at Surrey University, and Senior lecturer at The Princess Alice Hospice, Esher, UK

Judith Delaney

Senior Occupational Therapist, The Princess Alice Hospice, Esher, UK

Haematology/Oncology Senior Pharmacist, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children NHS Trust, London, UK

Kathy Birch

Gill Eyers

Physiotherapist, The Princess Alice Hospice, Esher, UK

Senior Principal Pharmacist, Princess Alice Hospice, Esher, Kingston Hospitals NHS Trust, UK

Maggie Breen Macmillan Clinical Nurse Specialist, Oncology Outreach and Symptom Care Nurse Specialist Team, Royal Marsden Hospital, Surrey, UK

Craig Gannon

Michael Burgess

Specialty Registrar in Clinical Oncology at the Northern Ireland Cancer Centre, Belfast City Hospital, Belfast, UK

H.M.Coroner for Surrey, Coroner of The Queen’s Household, UK

David Cameron Associate Professor in the Department of Family Medicine, University of Pretoria, South Africa

Robin Cole Consultant Urological Surgeon, Ashford and St Peter’s Hospital NHS Trust, UK

Simon Coulter Specialist Registrar in Palliative Medicine, Marie Curie Hospice, Belfast, UK

Melaine Coward Deputy Head of Programmes,

Consultant in Palliative Medicine, Princess Alice Hospice, Esher, UK

Rebecca Goody

Patricia Grocott Reader in Palliative Wound Care Technology Transfer, Division of Health and Social Care Research, King’s College London, UK

David Hill Consultant in Pain Medicine, Ulster Hospital, Belfast,UK

Jenny Hynson Consultant Paediatrician, Victorian Paediatric Palliative Care Program, Royal Children’s Hospital, Victoria, Australia

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CONTRIBUTORS

Jean Kerr

Caroline McLoughlin

Specialist Speech & Language Therapist, The Princess Alice Hospice, Esher, and Head of Speech & Language Therapy, Kingston Hospital NHS Trust, UK

Specialist Registrar in Palliative Medicine, Northern Ireland Deanery, UK

Lulu Kreeger Consultant in Palliative Medicine, The Princess Alice Hospice, Esher, Kingston Hospitals NHS Trust, UK

Victoria Lidstone Consultant in Palliative Medicine, Cwm Taff NHS Trust, Wales, UK

Mari Lloyd-Williams Professor / Director of Academic Palliative and Supportive Care, School of Population, Community and Behavioural Sciences, University of Liverpool, UK

Stefan Lorenzl

Alan McPhearson Specialist Registrar in Palliative Medicine, Northern Ireland Hospice, Belfast, UK

Teresa Merino Consultant in Palliative Medicine, Royal Surrey County Hospital, Guildford, UK

Caroline Moore Specialist Registrar in Urology, Frimley Park NHS Trust, UK

Barbara Munroe Frimley Park Chief Executive, St Christopher’s Hospice, London, UK

Associate Professor of Neurology and Consultant in Palliative Medicine, University Hospital Grosshadern, Munich, Germany

Simon Noble

Farida Malik

Chaplain, The Princess Alice Hospice, Esher, UK

Clinical Research Training Fellow, Cicely Saunders International, London, UK

Clinical Senior Lecturer in Palliative Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales, UK

Steve Nolan

Ciaran O’Boyle

Senior Lecturer and Consultant in Clinical Oncology, Queen’s University, Belfast, UK

Professor of Psychology and Chairman, International School of Healthcare Management, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland

Joan McCarthy

Julian O’Kelly

Lecturer in Healthcare Ethics, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Brookfield Health Sciences Complex, University College Cork, Ireland

Day Hospice Manager / Music Therapist, The Princess Alice Hospice, Esher, UK

James McAleer

Dorry McLaughlin Lecturer in Palliative Care, Northern Ireland Hospice Care, Belfast, UK

David Oliviere Director of Education and Training, Education Centre, St Christopher’s Hospice, London, UK

CONTRIBUTORS

Victor Pace

Libby Sallnow

Consultant in Palliative Medicine, St Christopher’s Hospice, London, UK

Specialty Trainee in Medicine, Brighton and Sussex University Hospitals Trust, UK

Malcolm Payne

Paula Scullin

Director, Psycho-social and Spiritual Care, St Christopher’s Hospice, London, UK

Locum Consultant in Medical Oncology, Cancer Centre, Belfast City Hospital, Belfast, UK

Sheila Payne

Kathy Stephenson

Help the Hospices Chair in Hospice Studies, Institute for Health Research, Lancaster University, UK

Macmillan Palliative Care Community Liaison Pharmacist, Craigavon Area Hospital, Southern Health and Social Care Trust, N.Ireland, UK

Max Pittler Senior Research Fellow in Complementary Medicine, Peninsula Medical School, Universities of Exeter and Plymouth, UK

Nigel Sykes

Mandy Pratt

Keri Thomas

Art Psychotherapist, Creative Response - Professional Association of Art Therapists in Palliative Care, AIDS, Cancer & Loss Affiliated to St Helena Hospice, Colchester, UK

National Clinical Lead for the Gold Standards Framework Centre, Walsall PCT, UK, Hon Senior Lecturer, University of Birmingham, UK, and Chair Omega, the National Association for End of Life Care

Joan Regan

Jo Venables

Consultant in Palliative Medicine, Marie Curie Hospice & Belfast NHS Trust, UK

Consultant in Community Child Health, Abertawe Bro Morgannwg University Trust, Wales, UK

Margaret Reith

Barbara Wider

Social Work Manager, The Princess Alice Hospice, Esher, UK

Research Fellow in Complementary Medicine, Peninsula Medical School, Universities of Exeter and Plymouth, Exeter, UK

Karen Ryan Consultant in Palliative Medicine, St Francis Hospice, Mater Misericordiae University Hospital and Connolly Hospital, Dublin, Ireland

Nigel Sage Consultant Clinical Psychologist, The Beacon Community Cancer & Palliative Care Centre, Guildford, Surrey, UK

Medical Director and Consultant in Palliative Medicine, St Christopher’s Hospice, London, UK

Meg Williams Specialist Registrar in Palliative Medicine, All Wales Higher Training Programme, Cardiff, UK

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Abbreviations ADLs AF AIDS Amp. ARV b.d. BNF BP Caps CD CHF CMV CNS CO2 COPD COX CSCI C/T CT CTPA CTZ CVA DIC DN DVT ECG ECOG EDDM FBC FEV1 FNA g GERD GI GMC GP Gy

activities of daily living atrial fibrillation acquired immune deficiency syndrome ampoule anti-retroviral twice daily British National Formulary blood pressure capsules controlled drug congestive heart failure cytomegalovirus central nervous system carbon dioxide chronic obstructive pulmonary disease cyclo-oxygenase continuous subcutaneous infusion chemotherapy computed tomography computed tomography pulmonary arteriogram chemoreceptor trigger zone cerebrovascular accident disseminated intravascular coagulation district nurse deep vein thrombosis electrocardiogram Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group equivalent daily dose of morphine full blood count forced expiratory volume in one second fine needle aspiration gram gastro-oesophageal reflux disease gastrointestinal General Medical Council general practitioner Gray(s): a measure of radiation

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ABBREVIATIONS

h HAART HIV HNSCC ICP IM Inj. i/r i/t IV IVI IVU KS kV L L/A LFT LVF MAI MAOI max. MeV mcg MND m/r MRI MUPS MV m/w NaSSA neb NG NMDA nocte NSAID NSCLC NYHA o.d. o.m. OTFC PCA

hour or hourly highly active anti-retroviral therapy human immunodeficiency virus head and neck squamous-cell carcinoma intracranial pressure intramuscular injection immediate release intrathecal intravenous intravenous infusion intravenous urogram Kaposi’s sarcoma kilovolt litre local anaesthetic liver function tests left ventricular failure Mycobacterium avium intracellulare monoamine oxidase inhibitor(s) maximum mega electronvolt microgram motor neurone disease modified release magnetic resonance imaging multiple unit pellet system megavolt mouthwash noradrenergic and specific serotoninergic antidepressant nebulizer nasogastric N-methyl-D-aspartate at night non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug non small-cell lung carcinoma New York Heart Association once daily in the morning oral transmucosal fentanyl citrate Patient controlled analgesia

ABBREVIATIONS

PCF PCT PE PEG PET PHCT p.o. PPI p.r./PR p.r.n. PSA PTH p.v. PVS q.d.s. QoL RBL RCT RIG RT SALT SC SCLC S/D SE SERMs SL soln SPC SR SSRI Stat Supps Susp. SVC SVCO Tabs TB TBM t.d.s. TENS

Palliative Care Formulary palliative care team pulmonary embolism percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy positron emission tomography primary healthcare team by mouth proton pump inhibitor per rectum/progesterone receptor when required prostate-specific antigen parathyroid hormone per vaginam persistent vegetative state four times daily quality of life renal bone liver (investigations) randomized controlled trial radiologically inserted gastrostomy radiotherapy speech and language therapy subcutaneous small-cell lung carcinoma syringe driver (CSCI) side-effects selective oestrogen-receptor modulators sublingual solution specialist palliative care slow or modified release selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitor immediately suppositories suspension superior vena cava superior vena cava obstruction tablets tuberculosis tubercular meningitis three times daily transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation

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ABBREVIATIONS

TIA TSD U&E UEA URTI UTI V/Q VTE WHO

transient ischaemic attack therapeutic standard dose urea and electrolytes Ung Emulcificans Aqueosum upper respiratory tract infection urinary tract infection ventilation/perfusion venous thromboembolism World Health Organization

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Introduction Palliative care definitions Palliative care is an approach that improves the quality of life of patients and their families facing the problems associated with life-threatening illness, through the prevention and relief of suffering by means of early identification and impeccable assessment and treatment of pain and other problems, physical, psychological and spiritual.1, 2 Palliative care: • Provides relief from pain and other distressing symptoms • Affirms life and regards dying as a normal process • Intends neither to hasten nor postpone death • Integrates the psychological and spiritual aspects of patient care • Offers a support system to help patients live as actively as possible until death • Offers a support system to help the family cope during the patient’s illness and in their own bereavement • Uses a team approach to address the needs of patients and their families, including bereavement counselling, if indicated • Will enhance quality of life, and may also positively influence the course of illness • Is applicable early in the course of illness, in conjunction with other therapies that are intended to prolong life, such as chemotherapy or radiation therapy, and includes those investigations needed to better understand and manage distressing clinical complications

1 World Health Organization (1990) Cancer Pain Relief and Palliative Care. Geneva: WHO: 11 (World Health Organization technical report series: 804) 2 www.who.int/cancer/palliative/definitionen

xxvi Introduction Principles of palliative care Symptom control Psychosocial care

Disease management

No single sphere of concern is adequate without considering the relationship with the other two. This usually requires genuine interdisciplinary collaboration.3 General palliative care is provided by the usual professional carers of the patient and family with low to moderate complexity of palliative care need. Palliative care is a vital and integral part of their routine clinical practice which is underpinned by the following principles: • Focus on quality of life, which includes good symptom control • Whole person approach, taking into account the person’s past life experience and current situation • Care, which encompasses both the person with life-threatening illness and those who matter to the person • Respect for patient autonomy and choice (e.g. over place of care, treatment options) • Emphasis on open and sensitive communication, which extends to patients, informal carers and professional colleagues

Specialist palliative care These services are provided for patients and their families with moderate to high complexity of palliative care need. The core service components are provided by a range of NHS, voluntary and independent providers staffed by a multidisciplinary team whose core work is palliative care.2

3 National Council for Hospice and Specialist Palliative Care Services (2002) Definitions of Supportive and Palliative Care. London: NCHSPCS (Briefing Bulletin 11)

PALLIATIVE CARE DEFINITIONS

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DIAGNOSIS

Bereavement

DEATH

Supportive care for cancer is that which helps the patient and their family to cope with the disease and its treatment—from pre-diagnosis, through the process of diagnosis and treatment, to cure, continuing illness or death and into bereavement. It helps the patient to maximize the benefits of treatment and to live as well as possible with the effects of the disease. It is given equal priority alongside diagnosis and treatment. This definition can be applied equally to non-cancer diagnoses. The principles that underpin supportive and palliative care are broadly the same. Hospice and hospice care refer to a philosophy of care rather than a specific building or service, and may encompass a programme of care and array of skills deliverable in a wide range of settings.

Terminal care or end-of-life care This is an important part of palliative care and usually refers to the management of patients during their last few days, weeks or months of life from a point at which it becomes clear that the patient is in a progressive state of decline. However, end-of-life care may require consideration much nearer the beginning of the illness trajectory of many chronic, incurable non-cancer diseases.

xxvii

xxviii Introduction

History of palliative medicine as a specialty The specialty of palliative medicine as a specific entity dates from the mid1980s. However, medical activity related to terminal care, care of the dying, hospice care and end-stage cancer is, of course, as old as medical practice itself.4 Palliative medicine is the medical component of what has become known as palliative care. The history of the hospice movement during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries demonstrates the innovations of several charismatic leaders. These practitioners were enthusiasts for their own particular contribution to care of the dying, and they were also the teachers of the next generation of palliative physicians. Although they were products of their original background and training, they all shared the vision of regarding patients who happened to be dying as ‘whole people’. They naturally brought their own approaches from specific disciplines of pharmacology, oncology, surgery, anaesthetics or general practice. This whole person attitude has been labelled as ‘holistic care’. Comfort and freedom from pain and distress were of equal importance to diagnostic acumen and cure. However, rather than being a completely new philosophy of care, palliative medicine can be regarded more as a codification of existing practices from past generations. Histories of the development of palliative medicine illustrate the thread of ideas from figures such as Snow, who developed the Brompton Cocktail in the 1890s, to Barrett who developed the regular giving of oral morphine to the dying at St Luke’s, West London, to Saunders who expanded these ideas at St Joseph’s and St Christopher’s Hospices. Worcester, in Boston, was promoting the multidisciplinary care of whole patients in lectures to medical students at a time when intense disease specialization was very much the fashion as it was yielding great therapeutic advances.5 Winner and Amulree, in the UK in the 1960s, were promoting whole person care particularly for the elderly, first challenging and then re-establishing the ethical basis for palliative medicine. The early hospice movement was primarily concerned with the care of patients with cancer who, in the surge of post-war medical innovation, had missed out on the windfall of the new confident and increasingly optimistic medical world. That this movement was responding to a need perceived across the world, has been evidenced by the exponential growth in palliative care services throughout the UK and across the globe since the opening of St Christopher’s Hospice in south-east London in 1967.

4 Saunders C. (1993) Introduction—history and challenge. In The Management of Terminal Malignant Disease (3rd edn) (ed. C. Saunders, N. Sykes), pp. 1–14. London: Edward Arnold. 5 Worcester A. (1935) The Care of the Aged, the Dying and the Dead. London: Bailliere & Co.

HOPE

The expansion is set to increase further, as the point has now been reached where patients, doctors and governments alike are calling for the same level of care to be made available to patients suffering from nonmalignant conditions as for those with cancer. If this new challenge is to be met, healthcare professionals from early in their training will need to be exposed to palliative care learning, which can be applied across the range of medical specialties. The essence of such palliative medicine learning both for generalists and specialists remains that of clinical apprenticeship. Alfred Worcester, in the preface to his lectures, notes that: The younger members of the profession, although having enormously greater knowledge of the science of medicine, have less acquaintance than many of their elders with the art of medical practice. This like every other art can of course be learned only by imitation, that is, by practice under masters of the art. Primarily, it depends upon devotion to the patient rather than to his disease.5

Hope A pessimist sees the difficulty Winston Churchill The ways in which hope is spoken about suggests that it is understood to be a fragile but dynamic state. For example, hope: • Is intended–we hope in…or for…or of…or to…someone or something • Is associated with longing, as in ‘hopes and dreams’ • Is usually passive: hope is brought, given, revived, restored, inspired, provided, maintained, offered, injected, developed, pinned or lost; it can be kept alive or it can be crushed • Can be hoped against • Can be false, mistaken for wishfulness, optimism, desire or expectation • Can be new, fresh, big, strong Hope is closely linked with wants and desires. The phrase ‘Freud had hoped to revisit Paris’ says something about a future oriented desire Freud nurtured when he left Vienna en route to London. The phrase implies an expectation that the desired thing might be achieved. This expectation may itself be realistic or unrealistic, but assessment of what might or might not be realistic depends on one’s perception of reality. Because hope is future orientated, the question posed by terminal illness may become: ‘What hope can there be if death is this patient’s only and impending future?’ Hope has long been associated with belief.

xxix

xxx Introduction Now faith is being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see. The New Testament, Hebrews 11:1 Hope nurtures within it the belief that that which is hoped for has the potential to be realized: a trip to Paris. The dilemma for healthcare professionals is: How can I work with a terminally ill patient in a way that avoids collusion and yet sustains hope? Addressing this question locates healthcare professionals firmly on the terrain of psychospiritual care. Hope is a dynamic inner power that enables transcendence of the present situation and fosters a positive new awareness of being.6 But part of the difficulty in answering this question is in understanding: • What hope is • How it differs from wishfulness, and • Why it can remain hope even when if it sounds like despair

The development of hope: Rumbold’s three orders Building on a psychiatric description of the defences deployed by patients to shield themselves from the knowledge of imminent death, Rumbold (1986) describes hope developing through ‘three orders’.7 First order: Denial of symptoms l Hope for recovery Diagnosis of a terminal illness is often met with denial. Symptoms are ignored or interpreted as something other than what they are said to be. Denial serves to protect the person from the reality of their condition, but it also prevents them from accepting treatment. However, as symptoms progress the fantasy sustaining denial breaks down, and acceptance generates hope that, either recovery may be possible, or that at least death may be long delayed. Rumbold suggests hope may emerge: • From a straightforward transition from admitting the reality of their illness to affirming a hope for recovery; or • From a period of despair following the breakdown of denial. (The transition is delicate, and admitting illness may actually plunge patients into a despair and resignation from which they do not emerge.) Second order: Denial of non-recovery l Hope beyond recovery Hope for recovery, paradoxically, supports a higher level of denial, which is actively supported by medical staff and by family and friends. Whereas denial of symptoms keeps the person from becoming a patient, the denial of possibilities other than recovery ‘gives medical access to the symptoms while suppressing fear of death and the difficult questions which attend that fear’.

6 Herth K. (1993) Hope in the family caregiver of terminally ill people. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 18: 538–48. 7 Rumbold B. D. (1986) Helplessness & Hope: Pastoral Care in Terminal Illness, pp. 59–75. London: SCM Press

HOPE

Yet, for hope to continue developing and become hope beyond mere insistence on recovery, patients need to face and explore the possibilities for dying. The social support that once buoyed hope of recovery now works against patients contemplating dying as part of their hope. And lack of support at this point can mean that the acceptance emerging in the patient as this denial breaks down results in resignation and despair; ‘for the withdrawal of community is particularly destructive of hope.’ The breakdown of this denial of non-recovery is a critical transition: ‘If all our hope has been invested in recovery, then that hope may virtually be destroyed by the new perception of second-order acceptance.’ Hope beyond recovery is a more varied hope than the single-minded hope for recovery, the patient may simply hope: • To die with dignity; • For the continuing success of children; • That a partner will find the support they need; • That their life’s contribution will continue and be found useful. Most terminally-ill people do seem to reach this second stage where such a hope becomes possible; but those who can find a meaningful hope which they are allowed to affirm are distressingly few. Bruce Rumbold, 1986

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xxxii Introduction Development of hope in terminal illness third-order hope that faces existential extinction Denial

breakdown of denial

acceptance

hope

refuses to contemplate the possibility of extinction in death

leads on to crucial question of meaning

choosing a stance concerning the ultimate meaning of life

affirms stance; supported and validated by memory not denial examines all possibilities, chooses what will be hoped for

second-order denial of non-recovery → hope beyond recovery denial

breakdown of denial

acceptance

hope

excludes possibilities other than recovery;

critical transition:

coming to accept that illness may be terminal;

patient needs to hope going beyond mere insistence on recovery;

gives medical access to symptoms; generally encouraged; supported by hospitals; suppresses fear of death

patient open to possibilities inherent in dying; but if those around the patient unable to accept patient’s wishes as a legitimate hope patient may be unable to explore and appropriate possibilities for dying as part of hope

withdrawal of community is destructive of hope

patient may realistically choose hope for death above life at any price

second-order acceptance emerging from breakdown commonly issues in resignation and despair first-order denial of symptoms → hope for recovery denial

breakdown of denial

acceptance

hope

people often deny early symptoms of their illness;

denial only maintained by retreating into phantasy

recognition of symptoms and of need for help

for recovery

denial is confronted by experience; keeps the person from becoming a patient (Based on Rumbold, 19867)

HOPE

Third order: Hope that faces existential extinction Hope beyond recovery has the capacity for yet further development: • Hope for recovery (which supported denial of the terminal reality of their illness) develops into the higher level hope beyond recovery; • Hope beyond recovery (which realistically accepts death ‘rather than crave life at any price’) may develop into a higher level yet of hope that accepts the existential possibility of extinction at death, but nevertheless finds a sense of ultimate meaning in the life that has been lived. Such hope may hold to a belief in a life after death, but recognizes this belief as a contingency of faith. Prior to her first hospice admission, Elaine had been very angry about her illness (second-order denial). Her realization that she didn’t want to die angry broke down her denial, opening new possibilities to her. Elaine: I was angry…very angry–angry at the world; and that’s not me. I’m not like that. I’m usually very calm. That’s not the way I want to be. I think that’s a quite natural reaction, but I don’t want to be angry; I don’t want to die angry…actually, I feel as if I’m moving on from that now. I feel as if I’m moving into trying to make sense of what is ahead. By allowing her to say and think what she needed to, those around Elaine supported her to explore the possibilities for her dying. When she returned for terminal care she was in a different place spiritually. Elaine: It’s that the anger has gone. I’ve worked through a lot of stuff while I was at home. We talked about a lot of things. This is the way it is going to be and there’s no use fighting it. We’d rather things were going to be different, but they’re not. There’s no point in being angry; it takes up so much energy. I know I’m going to be on a gradual, slow decline now, so I have to get on with it. My body is getting weaker, but I feel emotionally stronger. I hope I will.

Hope and the psychospiritual value of denial When healthcare professionals deny the legitimacy of patients’ hopes, they are likely to be expressing their own fears about death and dying. • Healthcare professionals need to validate patients’ exploration to allow patients the possibilities of their dying. • Patients should not be pressured to confront their denying–denial should be respected as a legitimate psychological defence strategy. • Health carers should not think that challenging denial will help patients to explore their dying–only the patient can determine the right time to open to their dying. To attempt to steal ‘denial’ from another is an act of righteousness and separatism.8

8 Levine S. (1986) Who Dies? An Investigation of Conscious Living and Conscious Dying. Dublin: Gateway.

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xxxiv Introduction

Dignity ‘Dignity’ as defined by the Oxford English Dictionary is ‘the state of being worthy of honour or respect’ or ‘high regard or estimation’. The 1984 Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Article 1 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union recognize dignity as a human right. The Department of Health in England launched a policy in 2007 to ‘create a zero tolerance of lack of dignity in the care of older people in any setting’. Upholding the dignity of patients within a palliative care setting is essential not only for the patient him/herself but also for the family, particularly in their bereavement. Patients approaching the end of life fluctuate in their will to live, a situation closely associated with dignity. The meaning and experience of human dignity relates to: • The presence of symptoms • Loss of independence • Fear of becoming a burden • Not being involved in decision-making • Lack of access to care • Lack of adequate communication between patients, families and professionals • Some attitudes of staff • Spiritual matters, especially when people feel vulnerable Patients with a terminal illness become vulnerable to a loss of dignity if they begin to feel that they are no longer respected and the person that they once were. As they become increasingly dependent patients often feel that professionals no longer see them as an individual, which can compound a sense of loss of self. Patients may suffer the ultimate indignity of feeling that their life has no worth, meaning or purpose. A core framework of dignity conserving care has been developed by Chochinov,9 with the aim of reminding practitioners about the importance of caring for, as well as caring about, their patients. The mnemonic ABCD stands for Attitude, Behaviour, Compassion and Dialogue.

Attitude Professionals need to be respectful in their attitudes towards patients, acknowledging the patient as an individual with cognisance of many issues including culture and ethics. Professionals unwittingly make incorrect assumptions: seeing a patient who has difficulty in communicating does not mean that he/she is not competent to have an opinion about his/her care. The attitude of the professionals to a patient plays a large part in determining the patient’s ongoing sense of worth, a factor which is often underestimated.

9 Chochinov H. (2007) Dignity and the essence of medicine: the A,B,C, and D of dignity conserving care. British Medical Journal, 335: 184–7.

RESILIENCE

Behaviour An awareness of one’s attitude may lead to a more positive behaviour towards patients. Small acts of kindness and respect boost a patient’s sense of worth. Taking a little time to explain to patients what is happening dispels fear. Practising open and honest communication and giving patients full attention allows them to develop trust, thereby enabling more personal and appropriate care.

Compassion Compassion refers to a deep awareness of the suffering of another coupled with the wish to relieve it. Compassion is felt beyond simply intellectual appreciation. Compassion may be inherent in the healthcare provider and hopefully develops over time with both professional and life experience. Demonstrating compassion does not need to take time and can be both verbal and non-verbal.

Dialogue Healthcare professionals speak to patients about their illness but may fail to touch on the issues that are most important to the patient, such as the emotional impact of the illness and the importance of being recognised as an individual and not another sick person. Healthcare decisions need to be taken considering not only the medical facts but also the life context of the patient. Psychotherapeutic approaches, such as life review or reminiscence, can be used to support patients to regain or retain a sense of meaning, purpose and dignity. These four facets compromise a framework for upholding, protecting and restoring dignity which embraces the very essence of medicine.

Further reading Charon R. (2001) Narrative medicine: a model for empathy, reflection, profession and trust. Journal of the American Medical Association, 286: 1897–1902. Chochinov H. (2006) Dying, dignity and new horizons in palliative end-of-life care. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, 56: 84–103. Downman TH (2008) Hope and hopelessness: theory and reality. Journal Royal Society Medicine, 101: 428–430 Higginson I. (2007) Rediscovering dignity at the bedside. British Medical Journal, 335: 167–8.

Resilience Hercules himself must yield 3 Henry VI (2.1.54–6) Strengths exist in everyone. Any strength is a pathway to resilience. Even people facing the end of their lives or bereavement can be resilient. The concept of resilience is an approach, philosophy or mind-set which is consistent with the holistic model in palliative care. Resilience is the ability to thrive in the face of adversity and stress. ‘The capacity to withstand exceptional stress and demands without developing

xxxv

xxxvi Introduction stress-related problems’.10 People demonstrate resilience when they cope with, adjust to or overcome adversities in ways that promote their functioning. It is a process that allows for some kind of psychological, social, cultural and spiritual development despite demanding circumstances. It is, therefore, important that those involved in delivering palliative care appreciate the nature of resilience and how to enhance it. We should promote methods of enhancing and supporting coping mechanisms with the same vigour applied to assessing risk and defining problems. Resilience has been described as a ‘universal capacity which allows a person, group or community to prevent, minimise or overcome damaging effects of adversity’.11 It is not just about re-forming but about the possibility of growth. The concept of resilience is important to the future delivery of end-of-life care and the significant challenges it faces. It offers a unifying concept to both retain and sustain some of the most significant understandings of the last four decades of palliative care and to incorporate more effective investment in a community approach and a public health focus, in addition to the direct care of patients and families. This integration is vital if we are to resolve the ever-increasing tension between the rhetoric of choice and equity coupled with the demands of rising healthcare expectations in ageing populations, and the inevitably limited availability of informal and professional carers and financial resources.12 ‘The capacity of an individual person or a social system to grow or to develop in the face of very difficult circumstances’.13 Resilience can be promoted at different levels in: • Individuals • Families and carers • Groups • Communities • Staff, teams and organizations Each of these components has strengths and resources that can be encouraged and reinforced. It is important to remember that resilience is a dynamic process, not a static state or a quality that people do or do not possess. It can change over time and is a combination of internal and external characteristics in the individual and their social, cultural and physical environment.

10 Carr A. (2004) Positive Psychology. The Science of Happiness and Human Strengths, p. 300. London: Routledge. 11 Newman T. (2004) What Works in Building Resilience. Ilford: Barnardo’s. 12 Monroe B., Oliviere D. (2007) Resilience in Palliative Care. Achievement in Adversity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 13 Vanistendael S. (2002) Resilience and Spirituality, p. 10. Geneva: BICE.

RESILIENCE

Everyone needs opportunities to develop coping skills and it is important that individuals are not excessively sheltered from the situations that provide such challenges. Some of the characteristics of resilience that health professionals can recognize and use to encourage it include: • Secure attachments • Self-esteem • Belief in one’s own self-efficacy • Realistic hope, whether or not mediated by faith • Use of ‘healthy’ defence mechanisms including humour and denial • Capacity to recognize achievements in the present • Ability to find positive meaning in stressors • Good memories • Community support • One supportive person Even the existence of just one of these features can promote resilience and growth. Various interventions and tools can promote the process of resilience in clinical practice: Intervention

Resilience and growth

Accurate and timely information

knowledge is power and can promote control

Use of stories and narratives, e.g. life review

assists the integration and surmounting of difficult events

Brief, short-term, focused interventions

maximize opportunities for change and boost confidence

Cognitive restructuring, e.g. cognitive behavioural therapy

develops coping and self-confidence

Creative activities

provide opportunities for expression of thoughts and emotions, affirmation and opportunities to learn new skills

Family systems’ approach

harnesses the potential of those involved to find their own solutions

User involvement

invites users and carers to give back and to leave a legacy of better services

Self-help groups

promote mutual exchange and peer support, reducing isolation

Public education and social marketing

share some of the lessons with users, carers and the public, including children, remembering that the values and attitudes of society affect the ways in which people cope with loss

Empowered communities

engage with communities to minimize harm and maximize care, potentiating social capital so that communities themselves respond sensitively and supportively to the dying and bereaved

Robust management/organizations

provide structure for empowered staff to achieve objectives

xxxvii

xxxviii Introduction

Prognostication in end-of-life care The natural history of disease has been documented over many years. This has become increasingly less relevant as successful therapies have developed. In present day palliative care, prognosis frequently relates to chronic progressive disease in patients with multiple co-morbidities, and not to the recovery prediction of a young adult with an acute illness, as was more common in the nineteenth century. The reasons for making an attempt at predicting how long a patient with incurable disease might live include: • Providing information about the future to patients and families so that they can set goals, priorities and expectations of care • Helping patients develop insight into their dying • Assisting clinicians in decision-making • Comparing like patients with regard to outcomes • Establishing the patient’s eligibility for care programmes (e.g. hospice) and for recruitment to research trials • Policy-making regarding appropriate use and allocation of resources and support services • Providing a common language for healthcare professionals involved in end-of-life care

Prognostic factors in cancer There is a good literature on the probability of cure for the different cancers. • Although individual cancers behave differently, as a generalization, predictions relate to tumour size, grade and stage • Other factors include hormonal status (for hormone-dependent tumours such as cancer of the breast and prostate) • Age • Biochemical or other tumour markers • The length of time taken for the disease to recur. In palliative care such prognostic indices may not be so relevant. Factors such as physical dependency (due to e.g. weakness, low blood pressure), cognitive dysfunction, paraneoplastic phenomena (e.g. anorexia– cachexia, cytokine production), certain symptoms (weight loss, anorexia, dysphagia, breathlessness), lymphopenia, poor quality of life and existential factors (either ‘giving up’ or ‘hanging on’ for symbolically important times) may be more important. Some patients may survive for a long time (months and years) with a seemingly high tumour load, while others succumb within a short time (days) for no obviously identifiable reasons. Several scores have been developed to aid prediction of survival. The Palliative Prognostic (PaP) score is predictive of short-term survival and summarizes scores for dyspnoea, anorexia, Karnovsky performance status, the clinician’s estimate of survival (in weeks), total white count and percentage of lymphocytes. Oncologists rely on prognostic assessments in order to predict which patients are likely to benefit from oncological interventions. Many of their decisions are based on the patient’s functional status.

PROGNOSTICATION IN END-OF-LIFE CARE

Patients with an ECOG score greater than two are usually deemed unsuitable for most chemotherapy interventions. Eastern Co-operative Oncology Group (ECOG) Oken MM et al (1982) Toxicity and response criteria of the Eastern Cooperate Oncology Group. Am J Clin Oncol 5: 649–655 ECOG

Grade

Fully active; able to carry on all activities without restriction

0

Restricted in physically strenuous activity but ambulatory and able to carry out work of a light or sedentary nature

1

Ambulatory and capable of all self-care but unable to carry out any work activities. Up and about more than 50% of walking hours

2

Capable of only limited self-care; confined to bed or chair 50% or more of waking hours

3

Completely disabled; cannot carry on any self-care; totally confined to bed or chair

4

Dead

5

Prognostic factors in non-malignant disease Predicting prognosis in patients with a non-cancer diagnosis is very difficult. These patients often remain relatively stable, albeit at a low level, only to deteriorate acutely and unpredictably. They are usually then treated acutely in hospital, and the disease course may consist of acute exacerbations from which recovery may take place. One study showed that even during the last 2–3 days of life patients with congestive heart failure (CHF) or COPD were given an 80% and 50% chance, respectively, of living six months. There are, however, general and specific indicators of the terminal stage approaching. General predictors Those predicting poorer prognosis include reduced performance status, impaired nutritional status (greater than 10% weight loss over six months) and a low albumin. Specific predictors Congestive heart failure (CHF) • More than 64 years old • Left ventricular ejection fraction less than 20% • Dilated cardiomyopathy • Uncontrolled arrhythmias • Systolic hypotension • CXR signs of left heart failure • A prognosis of less than six months is associated with NYHA Class IV (chest pain and/or breathless at rest/minimal exertion) and already optimally treated with diuretics and vasodilators Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) • Advanced age • FEV1 less than 30% of predicted

xxxix

xl Introduction • Pulmonary hypertension with cor pulmonale/right heart failure • Short of breath at rest • On 24-hour home O2 with pO2 less than 50mmHg (6.7kPa) and/or pCO2 more than 55mmHg (7.3kPa) and documented evidence of cor pulmonale Cortical dementias (Alzheimer’s disease) • Functional status—the onset of being unable to walk unaided • Unable to swallow • Unable to hold a meaningful conversation • Increasing frequency of medical complications, e.g. aspiration pneumonia, urinary tract infections, decubitus ulcers Stroke • Impaired consciousness • Lack of improvement within three months of onset • Age • Incontinence • Cognitive impairment • Dense paralysis Communicating prognosis Prognostication is a notoriously difficult task to perform accurately. The world abounds with stories of patients who have been told by their physicians that they have only a matter of months to live who twenty years later can recount in vivid detail the day they were given the news. One of the reasons that prognostication is so difficult is that it is fraught with uncertainty and also with opportunities for misunderstandings between doctors and patients, who often have very different agendas as to what they want to get out of the interview. Mr. Jones listened carefully as the consultant went into great detail about the nature and the extensive spread of his metastatic prostate tumour. The explanations were detailed and scientific and long. Eventually the consultant stopped. ‘Now Mr. Jones, do you have any more questions?’ ‘Well, I didn’t like to interrupt you but I was only asking how long I had before I needed to go down to get my X-ray.’ Over the past 20 years there has been a huge shift in attitudes regarding disclosure of information to patients, and a culture of complete disclosure has now become the norm. Yet prognostication does not just involve passing on clinical details and predictions of disease progression; it also involves assessing: • What does the patient actually want to know? (Giving too much information to a patient who does not want to have the exact details spelt out is as unprofessional as the patronizing attitudes of ‘best not to trouble the patient’.) • How is the patient dealing with the information that is being given? • How can the patient be helped to deal with the implications of the news?

FURTHER READING

To pass on facts without regard for the implications of those facts is to increase the risk of dysfunctional communication taking place. (b see Chapter 2.) Risk and chance While doctors are used to describing risk in terms of percentages, when such percentages are measuring out your own longevity it is hard to translate the mathematical chances into personal experience. A doctor may feel that he has provided the patient with the clear facts when he states that in 100 patients with the particular malignancy, 36 will be alive after five years following treatment. Such sentences can be easily misunderstood, and the patient may hear something very different from what the doctor is saying. Professional discomfort Doctors are also particularly vulnerable to miscommunication at the time of passing on prognostic information. • Society in the West is now death-denying, and if the prognosis is poor it can be uncomfortable for the doctor to pass on the information and confront the patient with their imminent death • There is increasing fear of litigation, particularly if disease is not responsive to treatment, and any admission of failure may come across as an admission of guilt • Doctors may feel uncomfortable in dealing with the emotional impact that their news may have on the patient, and develop techniques to protect themselves from this discomfort Prognostic information can be extremely important to patients as it allows them to focus on tasks and goals which they want to achieve before their disease takes over: communicating such information effectively is a skill which all healthcare professionals should covet.

Further reading Gold Standards Framework/RCGP (2006) Prognostic Indicator Guidance.

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Chapter 1

Ethical issues • • • •

Respect for autonomy (self-determination) Beneficence (do good) Non-maleficence (do no harm) Justice (fairness)

The exploration of ethical issues that arise at the end of life is inherent to the work of palliative care. This is because the process of dying and death raises profound ethical questions about the meaning and value of human life. These questions are negotiated every day by the individuals who are dying, by their loved ones and by those who are caring for them. With good communication and trust in the patient/professional relationship, patients’ attitudes and concerns can be discussed sensitively, confusion unravelled and fears dispelled. For example, in practice, when some patients ask for euthanasia there may be areas of ‘unfinished business’, fear, guilt or other issues that need to be explored. After sensitive and open communication, most patients feel a sense of relief and their need to press for a deliberate ending of their life diminishes. We live in a world which has become increasingly complex. Ethical issues that arise towards the end of life are often fraught with difficulty in an increasingly technological age in which the process of dying may be prolonged. In many healthcare situations, it is often difficult, sometimes impossible, to be certain about what is the right thing to do; at best we try to reach a consensus that is based on sound and sensitive ethical reasoning and evidence. The most widely used ethical framework in healthcare decision-making in the West obliges health professionals to respect four basic principles: • Autonomy (respect patients’ values and inform and involve them in decision-making) • Beneficence (do good) • Non-maleficence (do no harm) • Justice (treat patients fairly and balance the needs of individuals with those of society) In the abstract, these principles can seem straightforward; in the heat of a clinical situation their application can be anything but clear. It is, however, very useful to have a framework with which to deal with ethical crises. The following clinical scenarios are examples which occur commonly. Applying the principles of ethics in order to reach a balanced compromise can help provide a path through uncertainty.

1

2

CHAPTER 1

Ethical issues

Example 1: ‘My father is not drinking adequately. Why are you not giving him extra fluids?’ Ethical issues • Beneficence: Will artificial fluids help the patient? • Non-maleficence: Will giving or not giving artificial fluids cause the patient harm? • Autonomy: Does the patient want a drip? It is instilled in all of us, from childhood years onwards, that food and drink are essential for life. There are clinical situations in palliative care when extra systemic fluids might be useful, for instance in hypercalcaemia or profuse diarrhoea and vomiting. These may be salvageable clinical situations where we are expecting the patient to return to his ‘normal’, albeit generally deteriorating, state of health.

Artificial hydration • A blanket policy of artificial hydration, or of no artificial hydration, is ethically indefensible • If dehydration is thought to be due to a potentially correctable cause, the option of artificial hydration should be considered • The appropriateness of artificial hydration should be weighed up in terms of harm and benefit on a day-to-day basis When someone is considered to be dying irreversibly, however, the routine of giving systemic fluids may not be in the patient’s best interests.

Background information A few studies address this issue, but there is no proof that either the giving or withholding of fluids interferes with the length of remaining life or affects comfort. • Biochemical parameters show that only 50% of patients have any evidence of dehydration within the final 48h of life and, even then, only in mild to moderate degree • There is no evidence that thirst or dry mouth (particularly) improve with artificial hydration • The extensive experience of nurses working in hospices suggests that systemic fluids, at best, make no difference and, at worst, may actually contribute to suffering at the end of life • The more fluid available, the more likely it is that it will gather in the lungs and dependent parts of the body, particularly in the presence of hypoalbuminaemia, which is common in advanced malignancy • Artificially increasing fluids at the end of life, when the body physiology is winding down, may lead to worsening respiratory secretions, increased vomiting, increase in volume of ascites, raised intracranial pressure in the presence of intracerebral disease and an uncomfortable urinary output

EXAMPLE 1

• Families can spend precious time worrying about intravenous infusions running out or plastic cannulae being displaced and causing discomfort, instead of concentrating on quality time with the patient.

Discussion Withholding systemic fluids is inevitably a very emotive issue signifying finally and clearly, perhaps for the first time to the family, that their loved one is now entering the final stage of his/her life. In practice, patients are often able to take small amounts of fluids until shortly before death. It should be explained to families that the body is gradually shutting down and is unable to handle an extra fluid load. They need to be aware that the patient will not be allowed to suffer from pain or other discomfort and they will need explanations of the measures that will be taken to avoid discomfort. These will include medication where necessary and, most importantly, meticulous mouthcare to prevent the common symptom of a dry mouth. Palliative care is neither about shortening life nor prolonging the dying period. Occasionally, families cannot bring themselves to accept the inevitability of death and insist on artificial hydration. Although healthcare professionals must act only in the best interests of the patient, it would be unwise to ignore the views of the family, who have to go on surviving with vivid memories of the dying phase. On occasion, if it is felt that extra fluids will not adversely affect comfort, it is sometimes helpful to have a contract with the family for a relatively small volume of fluid to be used subcutaneously or intravenously for a defined short period, on the understanding that it would be discontinued at any time if it was thought to be causing the patient distress. As in most ethical crises, a balance has to be made—in this situation, between the harm caused by withholding or giving artificial hydration: • Acknowledge family distress • Explore concerns • Discuss the above points • Reassure the family that the patient will be looked after and kept comfortable whether or not fluids are given artificially

3

4

CHAPTER 1

Ethical issues

Example 2: ‘How long have I got left?’ Ethical issue • Autonomy: Is every attempt being made to inform the patient adequately? This type of question usually relates to prognosis. As ever, however, it is always important to make sure that the question has been entirely understood, since to enter into a conversation about how long a patient has to live when all they want to know is when they are leaving hospital can cause unnecessary distress.1 When it is certain that the patient is talking about prognosis, first find out what they already know, how they see the situation, why they are asking the question and how much they really want to know. The following questions can be useful: • ‘What have the doctors told you so far?’ • ‘What has prompted you to ask this question now? ’ • ‘How do you see the situation? ’ • ‘Are there other specific issues, related to how long there is left, on your mind that you would like to talk about? ’ • ‘Are you the kind of person who likes to know everything? ’ In practice, patients often say they have not been told anything by the doctors: this may be true, or they may have inadvertently used denial mechanisms to ‘forget’ the bad news. The patient may also deny knowledge in an attempt to find out more information. It is important to explore what they understand accurately thus far. Patients often want to achieve goals such as writing a will, attending a family wedding, reaching a wedding anniversary, being reunited with old friends and family who they have not seen for a long time or seeing their religious adviser. Some patients like to consider writing a formal Advance Directive or ‘living will’, which should give a more formative, clearly defined record of their wishes in order to facilitate more informed decision-making. Patients may not find it easy to discuss these issues, even with close family members, and may need help to facilitate discussions. They may need help in setting realistic and achievable goals while planning their limited future.

1 Launer J. (2005) Breaking the news. Quarterly Journal of Medicine, 98: 385–6.

EXAMPLE 2

Before addressing prognosis directly, it is important to be aware of the full medical history and to build up a picture of the pace of clinical deterioration. Comments such as ‘I believe you have not been feeling so well recently’ or ‘the doctors/your medical notes tell me that you feel that life has become more difficult over the past few weeks’ open up these issues, giving you and the patient a chance to estimate prognosis. Remember that studies show that health professionals tend to overestimate prognosis. Centuries of systematic insensitive deception cannot be instantly remedied by a new routine of systematic insensitive truth telling. Buckman

Background Literature on determining prognosis is available, especially for patients with cancer. For a population presenting with a defined stage, grade, cancer type and histology, five-year survival rates are available and often quoted to families. Many other factors have been studied singly and in combination in an attempt to categorize patients into prognostic groups, and this can be helpful in broad terms. In practice, however, it is not possible to predict prognosis for an individual accurately, because there are so many different influencing factors—including psychosocial, emotional and existential issues—all of which defy measurement of any kind. • Make sure that you are answering what the patient wants to know • Stress that you are not evading the question but that it is difficult to answer • Find out specific issues that should be addressed, e.g. weddings, wills, etc. • Do not be specific, but use days/weeks or weeks/months, etc. Despite all these pitfalls, it is still important to answer the patient’s question. It is still relatively common for a precise prognosis, for example ‘six months’, to be given and this is invariably inaccurate. If the patient dies before the due date, the family feel cheated of time that they would otherwise have spent differently had they known that time was so short. If the patient survives longer than the due date, both patient and family may feel proud that they have defeated the odds and take comfort from this; on the other hand, if the family have altered their lifestyles including giving up work (and salary) to look after a patient who has not significantly deteriorated by the due date, family tensions inevitably build up alongside all the normal feelings of guilt and anger. It is not helpful to give a precise date, which patients and families often take literally, but to talk in terms of days/weeks, weeks/months and months/years. It is also important to say that even within these broad terms we may still be inaccurate. It is also useful to talk about the pace of deterioration and to say that the pace may continue at the same rate but it may also either stabilize for a while or accelerate.

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Example 3: ‘Don’t tell my mother the diagnosis. I know her better than you.’ Ethical issues • Autonomy: Does this patient not need to be told regardless of what the family think? • Beneficence: Would it help this patient to know her diagnosis? • Non-maleficence: Would it harm this patient to know her diagnosis? It is common to be caught in the hospital or health practice corridor by anxious relatives who (possibly wrongly) have been told that their relative has cancer, before this information has been given to the patient. There is increasing evidence that patients want to know what is wrong with them and to be involved in decisions. Generally speaking, we have moved away from a paternalistic approach in truth-telling whereby doctors often avoided telling patients they had cancer, to a more open approach, respecting the principle of autonomy. However, family members have known the patient over many years and are aware of how he/she has responded to bad news in the past. They may feel that there is no point in discussing the diagnosis, particularly if the patient is very elderly and there is no available treatment. • For understandable reasons the family want to protect the patient from bad news, but very often they want to protect themselves from further hurt and the reality that the patient may now be entering the last stages of life • It needs to be acknowledged with the family that this is a difficult area but that the patient may have important things to say or do (financial, wills, gifts, etc.) or opinions to voice (regarding both medical and after-death decisions) • The family also need to know that patients pick up non-verbal clues from professionals and relatives; they are often aware of the diagnosis and are not unduly surprised if it is confirmed • Patients often want to protect the family, by denying that they know anything • The family need to be aware that patients are often comforted by a ‘label’ to their illness, even if it is cancer, because it explains why they have been feeling so unwell. This gives them a genuine reason for feeling so wretched • Families need to know that it becomes more difficult to conceal the truth from the patient as time goes on and as more professionals, family members and friends share the secret. There are increasing opportunities for the truth to slip out and for the patient to lose trust in and be angry with the family for not having been more honest in the first place • Families also need to know that patients are not always frightened of death but of the process leading up to it, over which they may want some control • It is very important not to lie to the patient as this breaks all communication, confidence and trust

EXAMPLE 3

• Acknowledge family anxiety • Inform family of the issues as above • Stress that it is important for neither professionals nor family to lie if the patient starts asking direct questions If there are no particular decisions to be made, the patient has dealt with his or her affairs and is living with the family, there may be no pressing need to try to discuss the issue and invite family disquiet. However, if the patient begins to ask direct questions, the family should be advised not to lie. The family also needs to be aware that family tensions reduce considerably when there are open discussions about diagnosis. The professional is able to override family views if it is clearly in the interests of the patient to do so, but it is also always advisable and prudent to listen to and take account of the views of the family. If it is felt important to discuss the diagnosis with the patient, it is usually acceptable to families to say that we will try to find out what the patient understands by their illness and whether or not they would like more information.

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Example 4: ‘I want full resuscitation if my heart or lungs fail.’2 Ethical issues • Autonomy: Does the patient have the right to demand treatments from nursing and medical staff? • Beneficence: Would it be in the patient’s best interests to initiate resuscitation? • Non-maleficence: Would it do the patient any harm to initiate resuscitation? • Justice: Would it be an appropriate use of resources to initiate resuscitation measures and allocate a bed in an intensive care unit

Background Patients and families are increasingly aware of the many ethical issues surrounding cardiopulmonary resuscitation. These have been highlighted recently with ‘DNR’ (Do Not Resuscitate) notices being recorded in patients’ notes without the patients being aware that they had been thus assigned. This has caused much concern, particularly among the weakest and most vulnerable sections of the community. The issues have caused marked unease within hospices where, until very recently, resuscitation was regarded as an unacceptable practice. Patients with non-malignant disease and patients with cancer in the early stages, who may have a less predictable and possibly more favourable prognosis however, are increasingly requiring specialist palliative care. Such patients may feel very strongly that, in the event of a sudden cardiac or respiratory collapse, they want full resuscitation. Litigation anxiety can cause a dilemma and increase the strain on staff to make the right decision. The need to document the resuscitation status of patients, following full discussion, can of itself lead to increased anxiety for all involved in handling what can be a very distressing issue. • Patients have the right to ask for whatever treatment they choose. Medical and nursing staff are not obliged to comply with such expressed wishes if: • they feel it would not be in the patient’s best interests • the intervention is deemed to be futile

2 Willard C. (2000) Cardiopulmonary resuscitation for palliative care patients: a discussion of ethical issues. Palliative Medicine, 14: 308–12.

EXAMPLE 4

Good practice would dictate that such matters are addressed by the whole multiprofessional team, although the senior doctor has ultimate responsibility for the decision.3

Approximate achievement of success from CPR in any setting: In hospital In community In hospices

15% 5% 1%

A king, a doctor, and a convenient death Lord Dawson of Penn was the most admired and respected doctor of his generation. The skill with which he managed King George V’s respiratory illness in 1928 undoubtedly saved the King’s life and made Dawson a national celebrity. He was also respected within the medical profession. He was president of the Royal College of Physicians, elected twice president of the BMA, and honoured with a viscountcy. His reputation would have been considerably diminished, however, had it been known that when the King was suffering from cardiorespiratory failure in January 1936 he administered a lethal combination of morphine and cocaine at a time when the King was already comatose and close to death. His action remained a well kept secret and the truth came to light only 50 years later when his private diary was opened, Dawson having died in 1945. The King had been in failing health for several weeks when Queen Mary summoned Dawson to Sandringham on 17 January. Contemporary accounts of the King’s last days given by the Archbishop of Canterbury and others tell of days that were tranquil and pain free with the King sitting in an armchair before a log fire for much of the time but becoming steadily weaker and with consciousness gradually slipping away. At 9:25 pm on 20 January Dawson issued the memorable bulletin stating that the King’s life was moving peacefully towards its close. The action which he took one and a half hours later is described in his diary thus: ‘At about 11 o’clock it was evident that the last stage might endure for many hours, unknown to the patient but little comporting with the dignity and serenity which he so richly merited and which demanded a brief final scene. Hours of waiting just for the mechanical end when all that is really life has departed only exhausts the onlookers and keeps them so strained that they cannot avail themselves of the solace of

3 National Council for Palliative Care. (2002) Ethical Decision-Making in Palliative Care. Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) for people who are terminally ill. London: NCPC. See also: Decisions Relating to Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation: a joint statement from the British Medical Association, the Resuscitation Council (UK) and the Royal College of Nursing (2001). Journal of Medical Ethics, 27: 310–16.

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thought, communion or prayer. I therefore decided to determine the end and injected (myself) morphia gr.3/4 and shortly afterwards cocaine gr. 1 into the distended jugular vein.’ Dawson did not consult the other two doctors in the case, and his diary indicated that he was acting entirely on his own. To her credit, Sister Catherine Black of the London Hospital, who was present and who had nursed the King since the 1928 illness, refused to give the lethal injection, which is why Dawson had to give it himself. Nevertheless, faced with conflicting loyalties, she kept quiet about what had been done and her autobiography published in 1939 made no mention of what must have been the most poignant and unforgettable episode in her long and distinguished career. The reason for his action, which Dawson frankly admits in his diary, was to ensure that the announcement of the King’s death should appear first in the morning edition of The Times and not in some lesser publication later in the day. To make doubly sure that this would happen Dawson telephoned his wife in London asking her to let The Times know when the announcement was imminent. Nevertheless, it was surely special pleading to claim that he also acted to reduce the strain on the royal family. Apart from the Prince of Wales, who was unhappy at being separated from his mistress Mrs Wallis Simpson, there was no evidence of such strain and in particular, as Dawson noted in his diary, Queen Mary remained calm and kindly throughout. The earlier death suited Dawson. Having issued his famous bulletin he had a vested interest in ensuring that death occurred sooner rather than later. At the same time it allowed him to get back to his busy private practice in London. Although Dawson spoke against euthanasia when it was debated in the House of Lords in December 1936, he clearly felt that it or something similar might sometimes be appropriate for his own patients and there is no reason to think that King George V was the only patient he treated in this way. He described his management of the King’s final illness as ‘a facet of euthanasia or so called mercy killing.’ But even the most ardent supporter of euthanasia would hesitate to describe the killing of an unconscious patient, without the patient’s prior knowledge or consent, as mercy killing. Indeed, when examined closely this and almost all similar cases turn out in the end to be examples, not of mercy killing but of convenience killing. This was so in this case and the person most convenienced was Dawson. The ethical line which separates acceptable from unacceptable conduct is sometimes a narrow one. What caused Dawson to stray across the line is a matter of speculation but the likely answer is that he was guilty of the besetting sin of doctors and that is of arrogance. Although in daily contact with the great and good of the land, including the Archbishop of Canterbury who was living at Sandringham at the time, he arrogantly assumed that he, and he alone, had the special insight to appreciate the importance of the timing of the King’s death. It was also unfeeling of

EXAMPLE 4

Dawson to involve Sister Black in his plan and arrogant to assume that her conscience was as elastic as his own. This whole episode seems a piece of pointless folly which Dawson was wise to conceal at the time. The emergence of the truth 50 years later did nothing to enhance his reputation nor did his half-hearted espousal of euthanasia do anything to diminish the opprobrium which rightly attaches to doctors who break the sixth commandment. J H R Ramsay British Medical Journal (1994); 308: 1445, with permission from the BMJ Publishing Group.

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Consent and competence A patient is able to give valid consent to a procedure if he is informed, uncoerced and competent. ‘Informed’ means that a patient has all the relevant information, given in an appropriate form, with which to make a decision. ‘Uncoerced’ means that the person is free to make decisions without any undue influence or pressure from any other person. To be considered ‘competent’ (the medical term) or to be deemed to have ‘capacity’ (the legal term) the patient must be able to: 1 Understand the issue in question 2 Retain the information in memory for long enough to use it in making a decision 3 Believe the information given 4 Weigh the information in the balance and evaluate arguments for and against in order to reach a decision 5 Express the decision in some form The requirement for the consent of individuals for treatment protects patients from harm (non-maleficence); benefits them (beneficence); and respects their autonomy. • Non-maleficence: This is viewed as a means of respecting a patient’s privacy and dignity and protecting him/her from bodily invasion, assault, deception or coercion • Beneficence: Therapeutic benefit ensues because it encourages patients’ adherence with treatment and care procedures, and enables them to communicate a more complete picture of their concerns in relation to proposed treatments • Autonomy: Having information about the potential advantages and disadvantages of any proposed treatment enables patients to reflect and deliberate on whether or not to accept or refuse the treatment that is offered. In consenting to the treatment that a health professional plans for them, they make the aims and objectives of the health professional part of their own If a patient is not competent to be involved in discussions regarding medical care, in the UK a medical decision should be taken in the ‘best interests’ of the patient. It is best practice for the multidisciplinary team and the family to be involved in these discussions. The family cannot make decisions for incompetent patients in the absence of appropriate legal documentation but, where possible, they should be consulted to find out what the patient would have wanted. It often focuses the minds of a distressed family to ask questions such as ‘What do you think your mother would want, given this situation?’ Points to consider: • It is perfectly in order to provide all measures to enhance competence by managing the environment, e.g. optimize the senses (glasses/hearing aids), ensure a comfortable familiar environment with good lighting and heating, bring an advocate to the meeting, provide writing materials, and an interpreter, etc.

CONSENT AND COMPETENCE

• Patients are entitled to make seemingly illogical decisions provided they are made with competence • Patients may be competent even if they are mentally ill • Patients may have lucid intervals

Specific situations In palliative medicine we may be asked to assess competence in order that a patient can, for instance, make a will, change a codicil to a will, execute a Lasting Power of Attorney or document Advance Decisions to refuse treatment. All the above points apply. Making a will Clinical staff members are generally advised not to witness the signing of a will for fear of legal complications. In palliative care, however, we are endeavouring to support patients and their families through a very difficult time and it may be helpful for us to assist. In this situation, a senior doctor, if witnessing a signature, would be advised to do this only if they have assessed competency. The competency then needs to be documented. Lasting Power of Attorney As above, doctors witnessing the signing of these documents should ensure and document that the patient is fully competent. (b See also Chapter 19A.) Advance Decisions to refuse treatment Again, doctors need to assess and document competency. (b See also Chapter 19A.)4

4 Perkins H. S. (2007) Controlling death: the false promise of advance directives. Annals of Internal Medicine, 147(1): 51–9.

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Euthanasia He jests at scars, that never felt a wound. Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet Etymologically, the term ‘euthanasia’ derives from the ancient Greek, ‘eu’, meaning good and ‘thanatos’, meaning death, thus a ‘good death’. Today, the term ‘euthanasia’ refers to the administration of death, the active intentional ending of life. It is a final and irreversible step and the subject of great debate engendering, on the one hand, strong feelings about the right to demand death and, on the other, strong feelings that life is so precious that we have a duty to preserve it at all costs. It must not be forgotten that patients are often making decisions regarding euthanasia on the basis of inadequate prognostic information, since medical advances will never be able to identify accurately when an individual patient will die naturally.

Proponents of euthanasia feel that: Euthanasia is the only alternative to avoiding a painful death Comment: Although the control of pain is not perfect, patients can usually achieve a degree of relief acceptable to them. Public education has started to erode the myth that all patients with cancer inevitably die in considerable pain, although this fear is still held strongly by some. In practice, even patients with distressing symptoms and an apparent high level of suffering rarely request euthanasia consistently. Euthanasia is the only answer to the fear of being kept alive at all costs Comment: Extraordinary advances in medicine over the last few centuries have pushed forward the frontiers, extending the quantity of life and potentially, therefore, the extension of an ‘unacceptable’ poor quality of life. Medical ethics, however, has also advanced, allowing competent patients to refuse treatment and supporting the concept that burdensome, futile treatment is bad medicine. Assuming that healthcare professionals act with multidisciplinary support within an ethical framework, the fear of being kept alive at all costs should be minimized. Euthanasia is the only way to die with dignity Comment: Families are torn between not wanting to see their loved ones deteriorate and wanting them to survive as long as possible to nurture precious time. A natural death and all the potential healing and strengthening of family unity that so often occurs during the final days is often worthwhile and dignified, a sentiment supported by most healthcare professionals experienced in the care of the dying. Furthermore, the efficacy of drugs used to carry out euthanasia is unpredictable. There are literature reports of failure to achieve coma and patients re-wakening in considerable discomfort, which cannot be described as dignified.

EUTHANASIA

‘My dear Schur, you remember our first talk. You promised to help me when I could no longer carry on. It is only torture now, and it has no longer any sense’. Sigmund Freud (After years of suffering from cancer of the jaw, Freud convinced his personal physician to give him several large doses of morphine, for the pain. He fell into a coma and died the next day.) Euthanasia should be legalized to uphold the principle of autonomy Comment: In the West, individual rights are viewed as key to a democratic society, implying that the individual has the right to control his/her own destiny. In society, however, others also have rights and the concept of a healthcare professional delivering euthanasia as a technical act may not be in the best interests of individuals or society. Euthanasia, if carried out, should rightly occur only when the patient is fully competent and consistently requests it. However, patients who are ill, often bed-bound, unable to care for themselves and wholly reliant on others for care may feel a burden and under pressure to acquiesce. A diagnosis of a reversible clinical depression may be missed if families and healthcare professionals are slow to recognize it. The concept of the ‘slippery slope’ argument, in which patients may be subjected to euthanasia without their expressed consent and within a short time of having had the discussions, has already been reported in the literature. Whatever the arguments, the fundamental principles are that life is infinitely precious and that the vulnerable deserve protection. We should always consider the views of our competent patients and act in the best interests of those who are unable to give consent. It is also fundamentally important to recognize what is not euthanasia, which includes the following, where the primary intention is to prevent suffering:

Euthanasia is not • Withholding or withdrawing futile, burdensome treatment including nutrition and hydration if the patient is dying and is unable to swallow • Giving opioids, or any other medications, to control symptoms including pain, fear and overwhelming distress • Sedating a patient in the terminal stages if all other practical methods of controlling symptoms have failed • Issuing a Do Not Resuscitate order The Royal Dutch Medical Association has formulated five requirements that must be fulfilled for euthanasia to be acceptable or legally excusable. These are: 1 There is voluntary, competent and durable request on the part of the patient 2 The request is based on full information 3 The patient is in a situation of intolerable and hopeless suffering (physical or mental)

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4 There are no acceptable alternatives 5 The physician has consulted another physician before performing euthanasia The physician has to notify the local medical examiner and complete an extensive questionnaire. It is then reported to the public prosecutor who decides if prosecution is necessary. This notification procedure has formal legal status and also covers cases involving euthanasia without the patient’s explicit request. In some American states, physicians are allowed to prescribe medication to hasten death in terminally ill adults.

Further reading Books Bass M. (2006) Palliative Care Resuscitation. Chichester: John Wiley. British Medical Association (2007) Withholding and Withdrawing Life-Prolonging Medical Treatment: Guidance for Decision Making (3rd edn). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Campbell C., Partridge R. (2007) Artificial Nutrition and Hydration: Guidance in End of Life Care for Adults. London: NCPC. Have H ten., David C. (2002) The Ethics of Palliative Care, European Perspectives. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Jeffrey D. (2006) Patient-centred Ethics and Communication at the End of Life. Oxford: Radcliffe. Woods S. (2007) Death’s Dominion: Ethics at the End of Life. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Worthington R. (ed.) (2005) Ethics and Palliative Care: A Case-based Manual. Abingdon: Radcliffe.

Articles Hancock K., et al. (2007) Truth telling in discussing prognosis in advanced life-limiting illnesses: a systematic review. Palliative Medicine, 21(6): 507–17.' Hoflenberg R. (2006) Assisted dying. Clinical Medicine, 6: 72–4. Hoffer L. (2006) Tube feeding in advanced dementia: the metabolic perspective. British Medical Journal, 333(7580): 1214–15. Jennings B., et al. (eds.) (2005) Improving end of life care: Why has it been so difficult? A Hastings Center Special Report, November–December. Johnston C. (2007) The Mental Capacity Act 2005 and advance decisions. Clinical Ethics, 2(2): 80–4. Mann T., Cornock M. (2007) Decision making in palliative care: the Mental Capacity Act 2005. International Journal of Palliative Nursing, 13(8): 402–7. Morita T., et al. (2006) Artificial hydration therapy, laboratory findings and fluid balance in terminally ill patients with abdominal malignancies. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 31(2): 130–8. Pereira J. et al (2008) The response of a Swiss university hospital's palliative care consult team to assisted suicide within the institution. Palliative Medicine, 22: 659–67. Sokol D. (2007) Can deceiving patients be morally acceptable? British Medical Journal, 334(7601): 984–6. Stone P., Lund S. (2007) Predicting prognosis in patients with advanced cancer. Annals of Oncology, 18: 971–6. Stone P. (2008) Development and Validation of a prognosticscale for use in patients with advanced cancer. Palliative Medicine, 22: 6: 711–18. Van Delden J. (2007) Terminal sedation: a source of a restless ethical debate. Journal of Medical Ethics, 33(4): 187–8. Ziegler S., Bosshard G. (2007) Role of non-govermental organizations in physician assisted suicide. British Medical Journal, 334: 295–8.

Chapter 2

Communication: Breaking bad news Introduction Effective communication is essential in all clinical interactions. Although some clinicians have innate communication skills, most of us can improve our ability to give and receive information. There is good evidence that unlike many clinical skills that improve with experience, communication ability does not reliably improve unless specific educational effort is made. Effective symptom control is impossible without effective communication Buckman, 20001 Communication is fundamental to good palliative care, but difficulties can arise that need to be understood and addressed. It is always a two-way activity, requiring sensitivity, empathy and ‘active listening’. Society’s attitudes towards death and dying can hinder open communication. Health professionals may be uneasy with issues of death and dying: they may wish to protect themselves and others, and feel a sense of discomfort with strong emotions. It is easy for the busy health professional to use a variety of blocking tactics which inhibit communication, such as hiding behind task-focused practice. An additional hazard may arise if the setting is not conducive to privacy with space and time to listen. Information giving can take the place of hearing the underlying feelings and emotions. The essence of good communication is not what we say, but how we listen. The quality of listening empathically to patients should not be underestimated if patients are to feel understood and cared for. Communication in palliative care is necessary to achieve an accurate assessment of patients’ physical, emotional and psychosocial needs. If we are to be able to find ways of supporting patients and families facing change and uncertainty, we as health professionals need to find out about the patients’ expectations and goals.

1 Buckman, R. (2000) Communication in palliative care: a practical guide Neurologic Clinics, 19(4) 989–1004.

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Enabling people to make informed choices and to make future plans involves careful listening and sensitive responses. Attending to cultural and language issues and helping people face some of the strong emotions aroused by their situation, such as anger, denial, depression and fear, are essential in providing holistic PALLIATIVE CARE . • Communication is not just ‘being nice’ but produces a more effective consultation for both patient and healthcare professional • Effective communication significantly improves: • accuracy, efficiency and supportiveness • health outcomes for patients • satisfaction for both patient and HCP • the therapeutic relationship • Communication bridges the gap between evidence-based medicine and working with individual patients Adapted from Silverman J., Kurtz S., Draper J. (2005) Skills for Communicating with Patients (2nd edn). Oxford: Radcliffe Press.

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Barriers to effective communication There are various barriers which prevent or inhibit communication.

Healthcare professional-led barriers Four factors are known to impact on communication behaviour: fears, beliefs, inadequate skills and lack of support. Fears • Of unleashing strong emotions • Of upsetting the patient • Of causing more harm than good • Of being asked unanswerable and difficult questions (e.g. why me?) • Of saying the wrong thing and getting into trouble with the HCP hierarchy • Of taking up too much time • Of dealing with patients’ emotional reactions Beliefs • That emotional problems are inevitable in patients with serious disease and that nothing can be done about them • That it is not my role to discuss certain things. These should be discussed with senior team members • That there is no point talking about fears when we have no answers • Talking about concerns that cannot be resolved falsely raises expectations Inadequate skills • Not knowing how to assess knowledge and perceptions • Not being able to integrate medical, psychological, social and spiritual agendas • Not knowing how to move both into and out of feelings safely • Being uncertain how to handle specific communication situations such as breaking bad news, difficult questions, collusion, handling anger, denial Lack of Support • Feeling that there was no support for the patient if problems were identified • Feeling no support would be available for the HCP • Conflict within the team

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Patient-led barriers There is evidence that patients disclose as few as 40% of their concerns,2 and that those who are most anxious or most distressed, disclose least. Reasons for non-disclosure by patients reflect the professional-led barriers: fears, beliefs and other difficulties. Fears • Of admitting inability to cope • Of breaking down/losing control in front of strangers • Of stigmatisation by admitting psychological problems • Of having their worst fears confirmed • Trying to protect staff from their distress Beliefs • Healthcare professionals perceived as being too busy • That HCP is only concerned with certain aspects of care, e.g. nurses with physical care, doctors with disease and treatment related worries. • That talking concerns will increase the burden for the HCP • That life depends on treatment and complaining about treatment will lead to its withdrawal. “I mustn’t alienate or upset the doctor” • That their worries are insignificant Difficulties • Unable to express how they feel. They may be overawed by the consultation and forgot to mention their foremost concern • Unable to find the right words. They may be unfamiliar with both the technical language but also the concepts of disease evolution and spread. • When they have tried to express their concerns to healthcare professionals, cues are met with distancing • Does not have a good enough command of the language and no independent or any interpreter is available to help. • The relevant questions are not asked by the professional

2 Heaven C., Maguire P. (2003) Communication issues. In Psychosocial Issues in Palliative Care (ed. M. Lloyd Williams), pp. 13–34. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Specific communication issues Here are various examples of communication issues which frequently require careful thought and handling. I have received two wonderful graces. First, I have been given time to prepare for a new future. Secondly, I find myself—uncharacteristically— calm and at peace. Cardinal Basil Hume, breaking the news of his imminent death from cancer to the priests of the Westminster diocese, 16 April, 1999.

Breaking bad news Breaking bad news is such a fundamental aspect of communication in palliative care because it requires an understanding of so many other aspects of the healthcare professional/patient relationship. It is unusual for patients not to voice difficult or awkward questions, and strong emotions are likely to be elicited. The steps required for the successful breaking of bad news can act as a template for most other communication problems encountered. Patients and relatives need time to absorb information and to adapt to bad news. Breaking bad news takes time, and issues often need to be discussed further and clarified as more information is imparted. There is increasing evidence that most patients want to know about their illness. Many patients who have been denied this knowledge have difficulty in understanding why they are becoming weaker and are then relieved and grateful to be told the truth. They may be angry with the family who has known about the illness all along and have not thought it right to tell them. Professionals often become involved unwittingly in a potential conspiracy of silence when the family demand information before the patient has been appraised of the situation. The family might say, ‘Do not tell him the diagnosis/prognosis because he will not be able to cope with it. We know him better than you do.’ The family needs to know that their concerns, of not wanting to cause any more hurt to the patient, have been heard. They also need to be aware that the bad news may be more painful for themselves than for the patient. The family also needs to know that it would be unwise for clinical staff to be untruthful if the patient appeared to want to know the truth and was asking direct questions, because of the inevitable breakdown in trust that this could cause. Advising patients and families with regard to prognosis is important since they may want (and often need) to organize their affairs and plan for the time that is left. However, it is not possible to be accurate with prognosis. Overestimating or underestimating the time that someone has to live can cause untold anguish. It is therefore more sensible to talk in terms of days/ weeks, weeks/months and months/years as appropriate.

SPECIFIC COMMUNICATION ISSUES

There is a balance to be made between fully informing the patient about their disease and prognosis, completely overwhelming them with facts and figures, or providing only minimal and inadequate information. While it is important to avoid being patronizing, it is also important not to cause distress by ‘information overload’. It is important to be aware that people have divergent attitudes to receiving bad news and that this needs sensitive handling. Patients and families respond badly to being told bad news in a hurried, brusque and unsympathetic manner with no time to collect their thoughts and ask questions. However sensitively bad news is imparted, patients and families are naturally devastated and the impact of the news can obliterate a great deal of the communication that took place. Patients may either not remember or misinterpret what has been said, particularly if they use denial as a coping technique. A strategy for breaking bad news Nothing in all the world is more dangerous than sincere ignorance and conscientious stupidity. Martin Luther King 1929–68: Strength to Love (1963). Outlining a strategy for breaking bad news is difficult because it turns a process which should be natural and unforced into something which seems constrained and awkward. The following advice encompasses the techniques that health professionals have found, through trial and error, to be helpful. It can be used as a guide to develop an individual’s personal confidence and skills in breaking bad news. The goals of breaking bad news The process of breaking bad news needs to be specifically tailored to the needs of the individual concerned, for every human being will have a different history and collection of fears and concerns. The goal of breaking bad news is to do so in a way that facilitates acceptance and understanding and reduces the risk of destructive responses. The ability to break bad news well involves skills which need to be coveted and trained for, audited and kept up to date with as much objective determination as that shown by a surgeon in acquiring and maintaining surgical skills. The consequences of performing the process badly may have immediate and long-term damaging effects for all involved, every bit as catastrophic as surgery going wrong. For example, patients and families may lose trust. Having awareness of strategies to complete the process well is vital, but breaking bad news must never become so routine that patients, or their families, detect little individual caring compassion. Break bad news well and you will always be remembered, break bad news badly and you will never be forgotten.

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Prepare to tell bad news Acquire all the information possible about the patient and their family. (A genogram is particularly useful in quickly assimilating the important people in the patient’s life, and the web of relationships within the family.) Read the patient’s notes For: • Diagnostic information • Test results • An understanding of the patient’s clinical history • The support system for the individual • Background knowledge of the patient’s life—making basic mistakes will undermine the patient’s confidence • The patient’s understanding of spoken language, e.g. English. If not, arrange for an interpreter to be present Discuss with other members of the team, and then select the most appropriate team member to break the bad news. Decide which other member of the team should be present during the interview. Ensure there is an interpreter or advocate present for those with special needs or language difficulties. Check That you have: • A place of privacy where there will be no interruptions. Unplug the telephone and switch off the mobile phone, etc. • Tissues, a jug of water and drinking glasses • Time to carry out the process • Your own emotional energy to do so—this job is better done earlier in the day than late • Pressing tasks are completed so that there will be minimal interruptions Plan Prepare a rough plan in your mind of what you want to achieve in the communication, and what you want to avoid communicating. Having a rough goal will bring structure to the communication, though it is important to avoid imposing your agenda on that of the patient. Set the context • Invite the patient to the place of privacy • Introduce yourself clearly • Let the patient know that they have your attention and how long you have got • Ensure that the patient is comfortable and not distracted by pain or a full bladder, etc. • Give a ‘warning shot’ indication that this is not a social or routine encounter • Sit at the same eye level as each other and within easy reach

SPECIFIC COMMUNICATION ISSUES

A warning shot is concerned with preparing a patient that bad news is coming. This allows them to be more receptive than if it comes ‘out of the blue’. An example would be, ‘I’m sorry to say that the results were not as good as we had hoped.’ Assess • How much the patient knows already • How much the patient wants to know • How the patient expresses him/herself and what words and ways he/she uses to understand the situation ‘Are you the sort of person that likes to know everything?’ Acquire empathy with the patient • What would it be like to be the patient? • How is the patient feeling? • Is there anything that is concerning the patient which he or she is not verbalizing? • What mechanisms has the patient used in the past to deal with bad news? • Does the patient have a particular outlook on life or cultural understanding which underpins his or her approach to dealing with the situation? • Who are the important people in the patient’s life? Respond to non-verbal as well as verbal clues. Encourage the patient to speak by listening carefully and responding appropriately. Share information • Having spent time listening, use the patient’s words to recap the story of the journey so far, checking regularly with the patient that you have heard the story correctly ‘Would you mind if I repeated back to you what I have heard you tell me to make sure I have understood things correctly?’ • Slowly and gradually draw out the information from the patient while regularly checking that they are not misunderstanding what you are saying • Use the ‘warning shot’ technique to preface bad news to help the patient prepare themself • Use diagrams to help understanding and retention of information if appropriate and acceptable to the patient • Avoid jargon and acronyms which are easily misunderstood • Do not bluff. It is acceptable to say ‘I do not know, and I will try to get an answer for you for our next meeting’

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Remember Ensure that: • The patient understands the implications of what you are saying • The patient is in control of the speed at which information is being imparted • The patient can see that you are being empathic to their emotional response. It can be very appropriate to say something like ‘Being told something like this can seem overwhelming’ • You address the patient’s real concerns, which may be very different from what you expect them to be • You offer a record of the consultation, for example a tape recording or short written notes if appropriate Response • You should respond to the patient’s feelings and response to the news • You should acknowledge the patient’s feelings • You should be prepared to work through the patient’s emotional response to the bad news with them It can be very distressing to get such news, and it is not unusual to feel very angry, or lonely or sad on hearing such news.

Let the patient speak first Use open questions, such as: How are you feeling today? Can you tell me how this all came about? How do you see things going from here? Make concrete plans for the next step Your appointment to see Dr Brown the oncologist is provisionally booked for next Thursday at 2 o’clock. How would that fit in with your other arrangements? Immediate plans ‘What are you doing now?’ ‘How are you getting home?’ ‘Who will you tell?’ ‘How will you tell them?’ ‘What will you say?’ ‘How will they cope?’ Such questions can help the patient to start formulating the answers that they will need for their family or friends. Summarize For the patient • Try to get the patient to repeat the key points to ensure they have understood For other healthcare professionals • Record details of the conversation in the patient’s notes clearly • Convey information quickly to those who need to know, most importantly the patient’s GP

SPECIFIC COMMUNICATION ISSUES

Deception is not as creative as truth. We do best in life if we look at it with clear eyes, and I think that applies to coming up to death as well. Cicely Saunders, in Time 5 September, 1988 Deal with questions • ‘Are there any questions which you would like me to deal with at this point?’ Contract for the future I know the news today was not what you were hoping for but you are not going to go through this on your own. We are there for you, your family is there for you and we are going to go through this together. Dr Brown will be seeing you next Thursday and I’ll see you back here on Monday morning. • Closing remarks should identify support networks, including contact telephone numbers and times of easy access. Be fairly concrete about the next meeting but also allow the patient the option to postpone if they do not feel able to attend.

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Handling difficult questions e.g. Is it cancer? Am I dying? What is going to happen to me?

Key points • Find out the patient’s perceptions as to what makes them ask the question: ‘What makes you feel it may be cancer or you are dying?’ • After obtaining a response, repeat the question if necessary by asking if there are any other reasons for the patient feeling this way. • If the patient gives no other reason or changes the subject You might say: ‘You asked about the diagnosis, is that something you would like to talk about?’ If the patient says ‘no’ – leave it there; they are probably not ready to have the truth confirmed. • If the patient gives other reasons Confirm the patient’s thoughts if they are correct. You should invite the patient to express their emotions and provide support if appropriate. Pause to see if the patient spontaneously raises any concerns. If not, invite the patient to voice their concerns. It is sensible to address only the concerns that the patient raises. However, you should answer realistically and avoid rushing in with premature or false reassurances: • invite further questions • offer to provide information (written or verbal) that may be relevant. Drawings are sometimes helpful if conceptualization is difficult. Just the name of the disease or complication written legibly is useful for patients to take away with them. They are likely to consult friends and the internet • assure continuity of care. This will include the offer of further access for discussion, as when breaking bad news. It may also include a contingency plan for the near future

COLLUSION

Collusion This may occur when a healthcare professional is approached and pressurized by, for example, a relative to withhold medical information from the patient. The HCP is being invited to collude with the relative in constructing or maintaining a conspiracy of either silence or falsehood concerning the seriousness of the patient’s illness. The stated rationale is often that the relative knows the patient extremely well and that ‘they would just turn their face to the wall’. Alternatively, they would be unable to cope with the truth about the situation, and that there is no reason in the view of the relative for the patient to be bothered or alarmed by unpleasant news.

Key points Focus on: • The relative’s feelings • The relative’s reasons for not wanting to be truthful • Acknowledging the relative’s motives, e.g. protecting the patient from distress • The strain placed on the relative/patient relationship by not being truthful with someone who they are usually very close to emotionally • The relative’s perception of the patient’s understanding. Seek to identify any evidence that the patient might already suspect the truth. Then: • Offer to assess the patient’s understanding of their illness directly • Reassure the relative that information will not be forced onto the patient if such information is not explicitly requested or wanted Such a strategy often results in the patient disclosing to the HCP that they are fully or partially aware of the true nature of the situation. In the majority of instances, this information will be seen as a great relief to both the relative and the patient. Communication is thereby considerably enhanced by resisting the initial pressure to withhold the truth. There are occasions, however, when a relative has invested so much energy over a long period in fostering a false picture of the true nature of the patient’s diagnosis and prognosis that they are quite unable to contemplate dismantling the barrier created by the collusion. In this case, the HCP must think very carefully about what action on their part is in the best interests of the patient, or alternately how the patient’s confidence and trust in their relative and the HCP might be compromised by unrequested and unexpected disclosure.

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Dealing with anger Key points The following strategies help to diffuse anger: • Acknowledge the anger – ‘You seem to be very angry’ which may have the effect of increasing the person’s anger temporarily. This is especially the case if their anger is displaced onto you. However, the anger will not subside if there has been no chance to articulate it • Invite the patient/relative to explain the cause of the anger – ‘Can you help me understand what is making you so angry?’ • Listen to their story to get as much information as possible • Try not to be defensive, even if the anger seems to be misdirected. Once anger has been expressed the angry person often realizes that displacement was unjust • Focus on the individual’s stress/feelings • Apologize if appropriate, but there is no point in apologizing for something which is clearly not your fault or responsibility • Clarify the situation if appropriate, e.g. ‘It must be very difficult for you to see your husband in pain’ • If possible, negotiate a mutually acceptable solution. This may include agreement that a particular situation is quite unacceptable and helping the person to look to the correct place to register a complaint

Exploration of feelings (e.g. anxiety) Key points • • • •

Recognition Acknowledgement Permission Understanding

• Empathic acceptance • Assessment • Alteration (if appropriate)

Non-verbal/verbal evidence ‘I can see you are anxious’ ‘It’s OK to be anxious’ ‘I want to find out what is making you anxious’ ‘You are anxious because…’ Severity and effects of anxiety Removal of stress, cognitive challenge, boosting coping strategies, medication

The above steps will usually need to be taken before the most appropriate intervention can be suggested. The short-cut of prescribing sedative medication is likely to fail to relieve the anxiety unless there has been some understanding and insight on the part of the patient. Medication is nearly always going to be an adjunct to discussion and alteration in coping strategies with the stress of a difficult set of problems.

HANDLING DENIAL

Patients who do not want to talk The key task is to assess what is making the patient reluctant to talk. This can include: • Denial – of the facts or of unacceptable feelings • Ignorance – low IQ/incorrect information • Depression • Dementia • Disengagement • Talking to someone else • Previously dealt with – ‘wanting to forget’

Handling denial Denial occurs when a patient maintains a positive outlook on their illness/ prognosis in spite of medical information given to the contrary. Denial is a coping mechanism, its function is to protect oneself against distress that could be intolerable and lead to psychological disorganization. Health professionals may explore the denial to determine if it is an absolute barrier to understanding, but forcing through it could lead to severe psychological problems.

Key points in exploring denial Look for any evidence that denial is not absolute (a window), e.g.: • Now: ‘How do you feel things are going at the moment?’ • Past: ‘Has there ever been a moment when you think things aren’t going to work out?’ • Future: ‘How do you see your illness affecting your future?’ If there is no evidence of awareness – leave the situation as it is. However, you should ensure regular follow-up to reassess the denial. It may well become much less absolute, especially in light of the changing clinical situation and increasingly unpleasant symptoms.

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Unrealistic expectations When patients or relatives appear to be unrealistic in their beliefs about the possible outcomes of the illness or treatment or length of prognosis there may be several reasons why this is the case: • They have never been properly informed • They have misunderstood the meaning of the information they have been given. Explanations may have been over-technical, or incomprehensible because of jargon. There may have been ambiguous or conflicting information given resulting from an uncertain clinical situation • Clarification may not have been sought because no real opportunities were offered • They are clinging onto false hope, which may have been the result of false reassurance at the time of breaking bad news • They are in true denial. As mentioned above, this is usually an effective defence mechanism The key to dealing with unrealistic expectations is to establish WHY patients believe what they do.

Key points • Use the patient’s cues to explore their perception of their situation – ‘You say you have had quite a bit more pain recently? What do you think is causing the problem?’ • Using negotiation, test out whether they really believe what they are saying, or whether they are simply trying to cling onto false hope • Gently challenge unrealistic beliefs about outcomes, by confronting any inconsistencies in the story • Look for windows of worry by asking if the patient ever worries about the possible outcomes. Worry usually indicates that denial is not absolute and that the patient has allowed themselves to look at realistic scenarios on occasions • Establish whether the patient is ill-informed and needs to be told bad news, or is in absolute denial It is important that all healthcare professionals work to elicit accurately patients’ problems and concerns, but at the same time are able to recognize their professional limitations. They need to be able to identify when patients or carers have needs that are best met by other people (e.g. counsellors or mental healthcare professionals with specialist skills in ‘speaking to children’, psychologists, psychiatrists, etc.). In such instances, healthcare professionals need to be aware of the specialists/services that exist locally, and how they can refer to these services.

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Working with ethnic diversity patients Useful strategies Greeting • Check with the patient that you are pronouncing his or her name properly. Our names are very important to our sense of self • Welcome the patient in a friendly manner, in terms of verbal and non-verbal communication. If patients are unwell and worried about understanding you and unsure they can make themselves understood, they will already feel under pressure and anything which makes them feel more relaxed can only help the interaction Language style • Speak in short, clear and grammatical sentences • Deal with one point at a time • Do not ask more than one question before waiting for an answer • Avoid clinical terms unless you are going to explain them. (Some explanation of key terms can be empowering for patients) • Beware of using idioms – these are words and phrases that can be puzzling to a non-native speaker, for example, ‘Have you been feeling down in the dumps?’ • Try not to use euphemisms, for example, ‘passing away’ for ‘dying’ • Do not use local dialect terms unless you know the patient understands them • Break down instructions into short, clear steps • Summarize important points at the end of the interaction Paralinguistic features (tone, pitch, etc.) • Speak loudly enough but don’t shout. Non-native speakers often find that people shout as if it was their hearing that was a problem • Speak in an unhurried way, but not so slowly that it interferes with the flow • Emphasize important words and phrases • Look at the patient when you are talking Understanding the patient • Give adequate time for answers. These may take longer to formulate if English is not the patient’s first language • Ask the patient to explain any words or phrases of which you are unsure • Double-check with the patient that you have understood them correctly Checking the patient understands you • Check understanding at regular intervals throughout the interaction • For important points, ask the patient to tell you what they understand of what you have said • Do not assume that a nod or a ‘yes’ indicates understanding – these gestures are sometimes just to show politeness or deference. Some Asian cultures use shaking of the head to mean ‘yes’, whereas this would indicate the opposite to a native English speaker

WORKING WITH ETHNIC DIVERSITY PATIENTS

• If understanding seems poor, ask whether they would prefer an interpreter to be present and explain how you can organize this (otherwise they might think they have to both organize and pay for one) Backing up • Use pictures or diagrams where they will clarify meaning • Write down important points for the patient to take away with them. Even if their English reading ability is limited, someone else in the family might be able to help • In some cases where there is important information to transmit, an audio recording can be made and given to the patient Strategies for working with an interpreter • Check the interpreter and the patient speak the same language and the same dialect • Allow time for pre-interview discussion with the interpreter in order to talk about the contents of the interview and the way in which you will work together • Ask the interpreter to teach you how to pronounce the patient’s name correctly • Allow time for the interpreter to introduce himself/herself to the patient and explain his/her role • Explain that the interview will be kept confidential • Check whether she/he as an interpreter is acceptable to the patient • Introduce yourself and your role to the patient • Encourage the interpreter to interrupt and intervene during the consultation as necessary • Use straightforward language and avoid jargon • Actively listen to the interpreter and the patient • Allow enough time for the consultation (perhaps double the time used for an English speaking patient) • At the end of the interview check that the patient has understood everything or whether she/he wants to ask anything else • Have a post-interview discussion with the interpreter Things to remember • The pressure is on the interpreter • The responsibility for the interview is yours as the health professional • Your power as a healthcare professional - as perceived by the interpreter and the patient • To show patience and compassion in a demanding situation • To be aware of your own attitudes towards those who are different from you, including awareness of racism • To be aware of your own shortcomings, for example not being able to speak the patient’s language • To show respect for the interpreter and his/her skills Points to check if things seem to be going wrong in the consultation • Does the interpreter speak English and the patient’s language fluently? • Is the interpreter acceptable to the patient (same sex and similar age, for example)?

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• Is the patient prevented from telling you things because of his/her relationship to the interpreter? An interpreter who is a family member, especially if she/he is a child of the patient is likely to act as a barrier to effective communication • Are you creating as good a relationship as possible with your patient? • Is the interpreter translating exactly what you and your patient are saying or is she/he advancing his/her own views and opinion? • Does the interpreter understand the purpose of the interview and his/her role? • Have you given the interpreter time to meet the patient and explain what is going on? • Does the interpreter feel free to interrupt you as necessary to indicate problems or seek clarification? • Are you using simple jargon-free English? • Is the interpreter ashamed or embarrassed by the patient or the subject of the consultation? • Are you allowing the interpreter enough time? • Are you maintaining as good a relationship as you can with the interpreter (for example by showing respect for his/her skills and maintaining an awareness that the interpreter is probably under pressure)? Adapted from PROCEED: Professionals responding to ethnic diversity and cancer (ed. J. Kai): Cancer Research UK, 2005. Copyright © University of Nottingham.

FURTHER READING

Further reading Books Bacon F. (1912) Of death. In Essays. London: Black. Dickenson D., Johnson M., Katz J. (eds.) (2000) Death, Dying and Bereavement (2nd edn). Maidenhead: Open University Press. Kaye P. (1996) Breaking Bad News. A 10 Step Approach. Northampton: EPL Publications. London Strategic Health Authority on behalf of the Cancer Action Team (2007) Advanced Communication in Cancer Care. Macdonald E. (ed) (2004) Difficult conversations in medicine. Oxford: OUP Silverman J., Kurtz S., Draper J. (2005) Skills for Communicating with Patients (2nd edn). Oxford: Radcliffe. Wilkes E. (1982) The Dying Patient: The Medical Management of Incurable and Terminal Illness. Lancaster: MTP Press. Worden J. W. (2002) Grief Counselling and Grief Therapy (3rd edn). London: Routledge.

Articles Charlton R., Dolamn E. (1995) Bereavement: a protocol for primary care. British Journal of General Practice, 45: 427–30. Jewell D. (1999) Commentary: Use of personal experience should be legitimized. British Medical Journal, 319: 296. Raphael B. (1977) Preventive intervention with the recently bereaved. Archives of General Psychiatry, 34: 1450–4. Saunderson E. M., Ridsdale L. (1999) General practitioners’ beliefs and attitudes about how to respond to death and bereavement: qualitative study. British Medical Journal, 319: 293–6. Scott J.T. et al (2003) Interventions for improving communication with children and adolescents about their cancer. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 3.

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Chapter 3a

Research in palliative care The origins of palliative care research in the modern UK Hospice movement date from the founding of St Christopher’s Hospice in 1967. Dame Cicely Saunders advocated scientific observation and systematic research as an essential component of the specialty. To ensure that patients are managed in the most appropriate way a solid body of knowledge must be developed. However, this can only be done on the basis of good research, which some would say is an absolute moral imperative. Many treatments widely used in the palliative care setting have never been proven to be effective and their use is based on anecdotal evidence and doctor preference. For instance, nebulized morphine was in vogue for many years within the palliative care setting but it has since been shown to be only as effective as normal saline in helping with breathlessness. However, it would be unethical and impractical to generate doubt in nearly all palliative medicine treatments purely on the basis that they had not been submitted to quantitative trials. Some of the evidence cited to support the use of medication in palliative care comes from populations of patients who do not traditionally fall within the remit of palliative care. This is particularly relevant for drugs used for neuropathic pain, where the research has largely been focused on patients with post-herpetic neuralgia or diabetic neuropathy and not those with complex mixed pains seen in palliative care. The overarching difficulty in palliative care research is the balance between the needs of the individual patient–who, due to the advanced nature of their disease, may not have a ‘second chance’ of another treatment–with those of future patients for whom their treatment should be improved and based on research evidence. The Declaration of Helsinki was drawn up by the World Medical Association in 1964 in response to the need for a code of ethics on human experimentation. This is particularly pertinent in the field of palliative care where the core practice is looking after the dying and the clear need for guidance for the physician caught in the conflict between patients’ own best interests and the necessity to advance knowledge for society as a whole. Some people feel that palliative care research in dying patients is always inappropriate, an affront to dignity and an expression of profound disrespect for the emotional and physical state of those people who are terminally ill. Others feel that precious time, which is limited by disease and growing physical incapacity, should not be wasted or taken from patients or their families by conducting ‘research’, particularly when patients may be emotionally vulnerable and may feel easily coerced into studies in order to maintain the level of care that they need from staff.

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Research has shown, however, that patients are not always adverse to participating even when it is clear that such research will have no immediate benefit for them. They may not share the concerns of ethicists about the difficulties and hazards of research with the terminally ill. Patient-identified reasons for being involved in research: • Altruism • Enhancement of a sense of personal value • Autonomy • Supporting the commitment of doctors in optimizing care Thus the methodological, ethical and practical difficulties encountered in conducting palliative care studies need to be looked at clearly, and strategies devised which are both sensitive to the needs of this particular group of patients as well as to the need of similar patients in the future to have access to improved care.

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Methodological difficulties Evidence-based practice Evidence based practice is the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients Sackett et al., 1996 Evidence-based practice is graded according to a system which attributes high evidence to the ‘gold standard’ research method of the randomized controlled trial (RCT) and lower evidence to studies of a more descriptive nature (Table 3a.1). Table 3a.1 The five strengths of research evidence Type

Strength of evidence

I

Strong evidence from at least one systematic review of multiple well-designed RCTs

II

Strong evidence from at least one properly designed RCT of appropriate size

III

Evidence for well-designed trials without randomization, single group pre-post, cohort, time series or matched case-control studies

IV

Evidence from well-designed non-experimental studies from more than one centre or research group

V

Opinions of respected authorities, based on clinical evidence, descriptive studies or reports of expert committees

The Agency for Health Care Policy and Research (AHCPR) 1997

RCTs have not been used a great deal within the field of palliative care. There are different possible explanations for this, but the nature of palliative care itself may sometimes fit more readily with research methodologies such as qualitative and descriptive studies. Although tools are available to investigate issues such as quality of life and emotional distress as part of quantitative trials, qualitative research may better assess patient experience (Table 3a.2).

METHODOLOGICAL DIFFICULTIES

Table 3a.2 Differences between quantitative and qualitative research Quantitative research

Qualitative research

Tests theories

Develops theories

Rigid methods

Flexible methods

Experiments

In depth interviews

Surveys

Observation

Large samples

Small samples

Numbers

Words

Statistics

Meaning

Qualitative research Qualitative research techniques, which are often more suited to palliative care, incorporate the subjective experience that cannot be measured so easily within a mathematical framework. Evidence from qualitative research studies have not been bestowed with the weight of evidence attributed to quantitative research, although the techniques can be as rigorous and are gradually becoming more accepted. Specific aims (generic goals) and objectives (specific ends or outcomes) and precision and clarity are important whether or not the methodology, data collection and analysis are qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative research takes account of ways in which the research subject makes sense of his/her individual experience. Ideas and concepts develop as the research progresses, which may then be redirected back to further inform the research findings. Words are used as opposed to numerical data. The method is inductive, to discover new knowledge and to ‘ground’ it into the subjective experience. Although hotly challenged by enthusiasts of quantitative methodology, qualitative research–which often uses the imaginative expression of language–may have the power to disrupt existing assumptions and to challenge what has been considered as reliable, factual material. Qualitative and quantitative research methods can be combined to bring a different perspective and to enhance knowledge in a more holistic way. A range of techniques, guided by set principles, exist. Techniques include: 1 Observation: Researchers are involved in a fieldwork setting within, for instance a ward, recording conversations, encounters, non-verbal communication, spatial arrangements and physical environment. Aspects such as the quality of care of patients can be explored in this way. 2 Participant observation: Researchers become an active subject within the study group. For instance, they may join in with practical tasks in a ward or day hospice setting with the sole purpose of observing and not influencing. 3 Interviews: This is the most widely adopted method within qualitative research. Interviews may be interactive, with opportunities to develop or deepen the discussion according to the subject in question. Bereavement research may usefully be conducted in this way.

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4 Focus groups: Group interviews have the capacity to generate large amounts of data. Tape-recorded transcripts may be analysed. A number of computer packages exist to sort and code items for analysis which facilitates the handling of large volumes of data. The researcher acts as the facilitator, usually for a group of about eight people. Ideas and experiences can be explored. For instance, a multidisciplinary group of healthcare professionals might explore issues surrounding attitudes to such issues as organ donation at the end of life.

Difficulties in defining study populations Palliative care covers a very wide range of patients with different morbidities. Such patients may include patients with slow growing metastastic cancer who may have many months or even years to live to others with end-stage heart failure and only a few days to live. For clinical research to be clinically applicable it is important that the research is carried out in relevant patient groups rather than extrapolated from studies, which, although superficially similar, may include patients with widely varying characteristics. Further, many patients with palliative care needs will have significant co-morbidities in addition to their primary illness, which can make defining a uniform palliative study population very difficult.

Levels of morbidity A significant proportion of patients with palliative care needs will be unable to adequately report their symptoms or complete questionnaires, either because they are too ill, too fatigued or have a cognitive impairment. This raises issues of the validity of consent to participate in research. Will consent for today cover consent in a week’s time when the patient’s condition deteriorates and they are no longer able to communicate clearly? Setting appropriate eligibility criteria is crucial and trial design needs to take account of these issues at the outset.

Endpoints and outcomes Setting appropriate endpoints in palliative care studies can be very difficult. If these endpoints are not specific enough then outcomes will be hard to evaluate. If the endpoints are too specific then the trial will be at risk of irrelevance to the complexity of the clinical situation encountered by patients at the end of life. It is very difficult to isolate a single variable and monitor its changes over time, particularly in the palliative care population which is commonly frail and elderly. Furthermore, patients are often receiving multiple interventions for several co-morbid conditions and facing the emotional and spiritual demands of confronting mortality. A more complex approach is necessary to take account of these different factors and to view interventions in the context of the patient’s overall disease journey.

Recruitment, attrition and compliance Recruiting patients to trials is difficult for many reasons. They are often ‘protected’ by their families and also by clinical staff, who see them as being vulnerable and in need of protection against unnecessary burdens.

METHODOLOGICAL DIFFICULTIES

There may be only limited opportunities to approach such patients to discuss trial involvement since rapidly changing clinical and emotional situations may make recruitment inappropriate. The recruitment to trials is therefore often much slower than anticipated. Once patients are enrolled into studies, sample attrition rates up to 60% have been recorded due to rapidly changing physical and emotional conditions, or even death, during the course of the study. Compliance can become a particular issue as the disease progresses in terms, for instance, of completing questionnaires. In designing trials which extend into the last weeks of life this needs to be anticipated and other simpler methods of evaluation built into the study from the outset.

Research, audit or service evaluation There is often much confusion on the differences between research, audit or service evaluation (Table 3a.3) and in particular whether ethical approval is required. For example, questions are often raised if palliative care patients are interviewed as part of a service evaluation and whether ethical approval is required. Many clinicians will often approach an ethics committee for clarification.

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Ethical difficulties The need for equipoise in studies Palliative care patients are considered a vulnerable group and include those with dementia, learning difficulties and children. This makes it difficult to allocate such patients to any form of care that could be deemed in any way less optimal than another. Thus, randomized trials, which are understood by many to offer the best opportunity to minimize bias, should only involve patients with palliative care needs if there is a high degree of demonstrable equipoise between the interventions being studied. No possibility of disadvantage or morbidity associated with trial participation can be tolerated.

European Trials Directive The European Trials Directive, introduced in 2004, brought with it increased protection for vulnerable patient groups. It has brought increased scrutiny from ethical and sponsorship committees. With the implementation of the directive the length of time required to bring a trial through the process has increased considerably, adversely affecting cost and the practical administrative process. This difficulty has been addressed, in part, with the setting up of two National Palliative Care support collaboratives, SuPaC and COMPASS, and through organizations like the National Cancer Research Institute and other Supportive and Palliative Care initiatives to promote appropriately funded and supported multicentre studies. Funding for palliative care research is limited, especially in comparison with cancer research. The necessary infrastructure to conduct palliative care research and to gather the teams of people together who have the necessary skills and knowledge is therefore difficult.

Consent As previously discussed, matters of competence and consent are particularly important issues in relation to running studies in patients with palliative care needs, especially when their physical and emotional condition is deteriorating. Researchers are currently devising methods of consenting patients to enable recruitment into a specific study in the future should the patient become incompetent in the meantime.

PRACTICAL DIFFICULTIES

Practical difficulties Finance In the UK, government funding for hospice services is still less than 50% of the total running costs. Given a choice between a research programme and clinical services, most hospice directors will be obliged to maintain the latter. There are however, many examples of small unfunded studies taking place in hospices. However, larger more comprehensive and timeconsuming studies need funding either from industry, e.g. pharmaceutical, or other sources such as research charities. The need for sponsorship and trial insurance is a major issue for palliative care units in the UK, two-thirds of which are charities without access to NHS research governance.

Lack of research centres Most of those involved in palliative care research are heavily involved in clinical work without specific time dedicated to research. The need to collaborate with other research teams, with logistical and administrative support, therefore becomes very important. The difficulties in conducting palliative care research are therefore many, but this must not reduce its importance nor its potential to make a real difference to the lives of the growing number of patients who will need palliative care in the years to come. Collaboration, finance, new methodologies, new research tools and ways of studying clinically complex patients will make future palliative care research more robust. The models of research inherited from oncology may not all be appropriate, and as the specialty becomes more involved with patients who do not have cancer, new and distinctive ways of conducting clinical trials amongst the palliative care population are needed. Studies must be of the highest standard and yet practical with the promise to produce significant outcomes. Examples, include N of 1 studies, which are trials in which patients are repeatedly treated with the same treatment in order to compare their usefulness on an individual basis.

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Differentiating audit, service evaluation and research (Table 3a.3) Differentiating audit, service evaluation and research Research

Clinical audit

Service evaluation

The attempt to derive generalisable new knowledge, including studies that aim to generate hypotheses, as well as studies that aim to test them.

Designed and conducted to produce information to inform delivery of best care.

Designed and conducted solely to define or judge current care.

Quantitative research – designed to test a hypothesis. Qualitative research – identifies/ explores themes following established methodology.

Designed to answer the question: “Does this service reach a predetermined standard?”

Designed to answer the question: “What standard does this service achieve?”

Addresses clearly defined questions, aims and objectives.

Measures against a standard.

Measures current service without reference to a standard.

Quantitative research – may involve evaluating or comparing interventions, particularly new ones. Qualitative research – usually involves studying how interventions and relationships are experienced.

Involves an intervention in use ONLY (the choice of treatment is that of the clinician and patient according to guidance, professional standards and/or patient preference).

Involves an intervention in use ONLY (the choice of treatment is that of the clinician and patient according to guidance, professional standards and/or patient preference).

Usually involves collecting data that are additional to those for routine care, but may include data collected routinely, May involve treatments, samples or investigations additional to routine care.

Usually involves analysis of existing data, but may include administration of simple interview or questionnaire.

Usually involves analysis of existing data, but may include administration of simple interview or questionnaire.

Quantitative research – study design may involve allocating patients to intervention groups. Qualitative research uses a clearly defined sampling framework underpinned by conceptual or theoretical justifications.

No allocation to intervention groups: the healthcare professional and patient have chosen intervention before clinical audit.

No allocation to intervention groups: the healthcare professional and patient have chosen intervention before service evaluation,

May involve randomisation.

No randomisation.

No randomisation.

ALTHOUGH ANY OF THESE THREE MAY RAISE ETHICAL ISSUES, UNDER CURRENT GUIDANCE:RESEARCH REQUIRES REC REVIEW

national research ethics service (2008).

AUDIT DOES NOT REQUIRE REC REVIEW

SERVICE EVALUATION DOES NOT REQUIRE REC REVIEW

FURTHER READING

Further reading Book Webb P. (2005) Ethical Issues in Palliative Care. Oxford: Radcliffe Publishing.

Articles de Raeve L. (1994) Ethical issues in palliative care research. Palliative Medicine, 8(4): 298–305. Hardy J. R. (1997) Placebo-controlled trials in palliative care: the argument for. Palliative Medicine, 11(5): 415–18. Jordhoy M. S., et al. (1999) Challenges in palliative care research; recruitment, attrition and compliance: experience from a randomized controlled trial. Palliative Medicine, 13(4): 299–310. Keeley P. W. (2008) Improving the evidence base in palliative medicine: a moral imperative. Journal of Medical Ethics, 34: 757–60. Kirkham S. R., Abel J. (1997) Placebo-controlled trials in palliative care: the argument against. Palliative Medicine 11(6): 489–92. Kuper A. et al. (2008) An Introduction to reading and appraising qualitative research. British Medical Journal, 337: 404–7. Payne S. A. (2008) Research methodologies in palliative care: a bibliometric analysis. Palliative Medicine, 22: 4: 336–43. Sackett D. L., et al. (1996) Evidence based medicine: what it is and what it isn’t. British Medical Journal, 312(7023): 71–2. Terry W., et al. (2006) Hospice patients’ views on research in palliative care. Internal Medicine Journal, 36(7): 406–13. White C. (2008) Gatekeeping from palliative care research trials. Progress in Palliative Care, 16: 4: 167–7. Williams C. J., et al. (2006) Interest in research participation among hospice patients, caregivers, and ambulatory senior citizens: practical barriers or ethical constraints? Journal of Palliative Medicine, 9(4): 968–74.

Leaflet National research Ethics Service (2008) Defining research (Issue 3). Available at www.nres.npsa.nns.uk

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Chapter 3b

Quality of life If you really want to help somebody, first you must find out where he is. This is the secret of caring. If you cannot do that, it is only an illusion if you think you can help another human being. Helping someone implies your understanding more than he does, but first of all you must understand what he understands

Quality of life assessment in healthcare Over the past 30 years, there has been a rapid growth in research on the impact of disease and treatment on the quality of life of patients. A search of PubMed reveals that in 1976, 229 articles were listed under the term ‘quality of life’. The corresponding totals in 1986, 1996 and 2006 were 676, 3130 and 10 116, respectively. Pressure to improve the costeffectiveness of care, as well as an epidemiological shift from dealing with predominantly acute to predominantly chronic conditions, has highlighted the need to supplement traditional outcomes such as morbidity and mortality with subjective measures that focus on patients’ experiences. A further factor has been the emergence of a post-modern society in which the values of equality, empowerment and autonomy have challenged the traditional paternalism of professions. Researchers and clinicians have developed and tested hundreds of measures of patient experiences across a wide variety of conditions. These measures are known variously as ‘Health status measures’, ‘Healthrelated quality of life (HRQoL) measures’ or simply ‘Quality of life measures’. Increasingly, the term ‘Patient reported outcomes’ (PROs) is used to refer to all subjective measures generated from patients. These measures occupy a continuum from highly standardized econometric methods, such as time-trade off and standard gamble, to individualized global measures. Each has it supporters, each involves different assumptions about the nature and interpretation of HRQoL and each has advantages and disadvantages. The research literature is now so vast and the available measures so numerous that it can be very confusing for anyone new to the field.

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Quality of life

HRQoL measures The development of HRQoL measures has been influenced by the World Health Organization (WHO) definition of health as: ‘a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.’ Most researchers (but not all), accept that there is a subcomponent of quality of life that is influenced by health and it is this we should concern ourselves with in healthcare. One widely used definition is that of Patrick and Erickson who defined HRQoL as: ‘the value assigned to the duration of life as modified by the social opportunities, perceptions, functional states, and impairments that are influenced by disease, injuries, treatments, or policy’. Most HRQoL measures are multidimensional and usually assess symptoms, physical functioning, psychological well-being and social functioning (Table 3b.1). The most common elements include: • Physical symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, fatigue and pain • Functional ability • Sexuality, intimacy and bodily perception • Emotional symptoms such as worry, anxiety and depression • Social functioning • Work life • Family situation • Hope for the future, future planning • General life satisfaction Rigorously designed questionnaires such as the EORTC measures or the SF36 are available that meet the requirements of reliability, validity, sensitivity and applicability. The aim is to collect standardized information often for use in clinical trials or epidemiological studies. However, the routine use of such scales in clinical practice, especially in palliative care, presents a number of problems. Much of the confusion in the HRQoL literature arises from the failure to distinguish between levels of care. The micro level is concerned with individual patients in clinical situations, the meso level is concerned with groups of patients as, for example, in a clinical trial or an institutional policy and the macro level is the level of decision-making that affects large communities. Selecting an appropriate measure of HRQoL depends on the level of analysis. Table 3b.1 Uses of HRQoL assessments in oncology 1

To measure the impact of specific cancers and to describe the nature and extent of functional and psychosocial problems at various stages of the disease trajectory

2

To establish norms for psychological and social complications in specific patient populations

3

To screen individual patients for possible behavioural and/or pharmacological interventions

4

To monitor the quality of care in order to improve delivery

5

To evaluate the efficacy of competing medical, surgical or psychological interventions

QUALITY OF LIFE AND PALLIATIVE CARE

Quality of life and palliative care It is widely accepted that the essence of palliative care is maintaining and improving the quality of life of patients and their families. The WHO defines palliative care precisely in these terms. Therefore, the best strategy for dealing with patients in palliative care settings is simply to measure their quality of life and make sure that they receive integrated care to maximize it. However, that is easier said than done. Much of the research on quality of life in healthcare has been driven by experts in measurement and scale construction, and many of the studies have had an epidemiological or clinical trials focus rather than focusing on day to day clinical applications.

Challenges in measuring quality of life in palliative care • What is the definition of quality of life and how does it differ from health-related quality of life or health status? • How should informed consent be obtained? • To what extent is it acceptable to burden the patient and the family? • Given the need for research in palliative medicine, how should a doctor balance being overly protective (paternalistic) with being overly demanding? • Given multisystem problems, limited survival and polypharmacy, what outcome measures, timing and study design should be used and how can compliance be maximized? • How can studies deal with patient attrition? • How can measures be designed to cope with ‘floor’ and ‘ceiling’ effects? • What is the clinical significance of changes in the measures?

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Quality of life measures in palliative care There are many good measures now available for measuring health-related quality of life in cancer patients, but most of these have been developed for assessing the impact of the disease and its treatment in the ‘pre-palliative’ phases of the illness.

Health-related quality-of-life scales commonly used in oncology and palliative care research Instrument Generic health status measures Short Form Health Survey (SF-36) Sickness Impact Profile Spitzer Quality of Life Index (QLI) Visual Analogue Scales Cancer-specific measures EORTC—QLQ-C30 EORTC—Site-specific modules Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy (FACT-G) Cancer Rehabilitation Evaluation System (CARES) Functional Living Index Cancer (FLIC) Quality of Life Index-Cancer Palliative measures EORTC QLQ-C15-PAL McGill Quality of Life Questionnaire (MQOL) Missoula-VITAS Quality of Life Index Edmonton Symptom Assessment Schedule Hospice Quality of Life Index (HQLI) A number of measures have been designed specifically for palliative care settings, some of which are discussed below.

EORTC QLQ-C15-PAL The EORTC QLQ-C30 was developed by the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Quality of Life for assessing HRQoL in clinical trials. It consists of 30 questions organized into 5 scales measuring function, 1 global health/overall quality-of-life scale, 3 scales measuring symptoms (fatigue, nausea, vomiting and pain) and 6 single questions on symptoms and financial difficulties. A shortened version of the measure, the EORTC QLQ-C15-PAL has recently been developed for use in palliative care.1 Derived from interviews with 41 patients and 66 healthcare

1 Groenvold M., et al. for the EORTC Quality of Life Group (2006) The development of the EORTC QLQ-C15-PAL: A shortened questionnaire for cancer patients in palliative care. European Journal of Cancer, 42: 55–64.

QUALITY OF LIFE MEASURES IN PALLIATIVE CARE

professionals in palliative care, the measure consists of scales measuring pain, physical function, emotional function, fatigue, global health status/ quality of life, nausea/vomiting, appetite, dyspnoea, constipation and sleep.

The McGill Quality of Life Questionnaire (MQOL) This scale was developed at McGill University specifically for use in all phases of the disease trajectory for people with a life-threatening illness. The questionnaire differs from most others in three ways: the existential domain is measured; the physical domain is important but not predominant; positive contributions to quality of life are measured. The scale generates scores on four subscales: physical symptoms, psychological symptoms, outlook on life and meaningful existence.

Missoula-VITAS Quality of Life Index This is a 25-item scale for seriously ill patients aimed at measuring adaptation to and integration of their physical decline, as well as attainment of life tasks and life closure. The measure addresses five quality-of-life domains that are relevant to end-of-life care: symptom control, function, interpersonal issues, well-being and transcendence.

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Individualized measures of quality of life Questionnaire approaches to the measurement of quality of life provide important information. However, such measures have one particularly important limitation. They impose a predetermined external value system on the respondent. Someone other than the respondent has decided which questions to ask, which areas of life should be explored and what weights should be assigned to the respondent’s answers to obtain a summary score. The weights are standardized and fixed and are generally derived from grouped data. Although these measures may be reliable, they may not be relevant to an individual’s present life situation. Apparently similar behaviours do not have the same relevance or importance for all individuals. Furthermore, the relevance or importance of particular behaviours or events is unlikely to remain static for a given individual with the passage of time or over the course of an illness. In assessing quality of life in a clinical situation, one needs to know, at a given time, what particular issues are of most concern to the patient. Individuals, even when seriously ill, are active agents, engaged in an unfolding life-cycle, involved in a continuous search for meaning and constantly striving towards the goal of self-actualization. Only individuals can judge their own experiences and they do so in the context of their own expectations, hopes, fears, values and beliefs. To quote the psychotherapist Karl Rogers, ‘the best vantage point for understanding behaviour is from the internal frame of reference of the individual himself’. In order to obtain a valid measurement of quality of life, as opposed to health status, a measure is needed that evaluates each individual on the basis of the areas of life that he or she considers to be most important, quantifies current functioning in each of these personally nominated life areas, and weights their relative importance for that individual at that particular time. A life area that is going badly for an individual but is of little importance to him or her clearly has less implication for that individual’s quality of life than a life area that is going badly but is of great importance. HRQoL measures can be supplemented by individualized QoL measures. Much is to be gained in the clinical situation from finding out what areas of life are important to the patient, the relative importance of each and the level of functioning or satisfaction with each.

INDIVIDUALIZED MEASURES OF QUALITY OF LIFE

Individualized measures of QoL Schedule for Evaluation of Individual Quality of Life (SEIQoL) The SEIQoL was developed based on the argument that quality of life can be defined only by the individual whose life is being assessed. In a semi-structured interview, respondents are asked to nominate the five areas (cues) of their lives most important to their overall quality of life. They then rate their level of satisfaction with each on a 100 mm visual analogue scale. Finally, they are asked to judge the overall quality of life they would associate with 30 scenarios incorporating their own cues. This provides a measure of the relative importance or weight of each cue. SEIQoL DW The elicitation of cues and levels of satisfaction is the same as that used in the full SEIQoL. The direct weighting instrument is a simple apparatus consisting of five interlocking, coloured circular disks that can be rotated around a central point to form a type of pie chart. The disks are mounted on a larger backing disk, which displays a scale from 0 to 100, and from which the relative size of each coloured segment can be read. Each segment is labelled with one cue and the respondent adjusts the disks until the size of each coloured segment corresponds to the relative importance of the cue represented by that segment. Patient Generated Index (PGI) The PGI presents patients with either a list of quality-of life-areas (ingredients) that are most frequently mentioned by patients with the particular disease, or asks them to generate the ingredients themselves. After selecting the five most important areas, patients are asked to rate how badly affected by their condition each is. Patients are then asked to prioritize, using a fixed number of hypothetical points, the areas they would like most to improve. Anamnestic Comparative Self Assessment (ACSA) This is a single scale in which the respondents rate their overall wellbeing on a scale ranging from +5 to –5. The anchors are defined by respondents’ memories of the best and the worst period in their lives.

Proxy ratings of HRQoL Early attempts to measure HRQoL in patients with advanced incurable disease relied heavily on proxy ratings, the underlying assumption being that those patients would not be able to make such assessments themselves. It is now well established that HRQoL is subjective and the ratings provided by healthcare personnel and even by close family often do not tally with the ratings of patients. The consensus, based on research findings, is that: 1 Health professionals and significant others underestimate patients’ quality of life to a significant and comparable degree 2 Healthcare providers tend to underestimate pain intensity 3 Proxy ratings appear to be more accurate when the information sought is concrete and observable

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4 While the ratings of significant others tend to be more accurate when they live in close proximity to the patients, ratings can be biased by the caregiving function of the rater These findings are hardly surprising. Health professionals evaluate patients using their own particular paradigm and this is different from that used by the patient who is experiencing the condition. Even carers who know the patient very well may be applying a particular paradigm that, again, does not tally with that of the patient. Furthermore, patients are not passive in the face of their changing circumstances but use a wide range of coping processes. Findings such as the above, highlight the importance of maintaining ongoing and excellent communication between patients, carers and health professionals.

Adaptation and response shift The Greek philosopher Heraclitus famously said ‘You cannot step in the same river twice…all is flux….all is becoming…both you and the river are changed.’ There is now considerable interest in HRQoL research in exploring the psychological mechanisms by which patients adapt to their illness. Patients’ judgements of their health may stay relatively stable despite large changes in objective measures of health, or their judgement of health may change in a situation where there is little or no objective change. This phenomenon, which is increasingly known as ‘response shift’, is due to the fact that patients may change the criteria they use to make their judgements. For example, a patient’s judgement of his or her health might remain stable despite objective evidence of worsening cancer because, in the course of treatment, they may have seen others who are far worse off. Response shift can help to explain apparently paradoxical findings in the health literature such as: • Patients with chronic diseases often rate their quality of life at a level similar to that of non-patients • Patients tend to rate their quality of life higher than do health professionals or carers • There are usually marked discrepancies between objective measures of health and self-rated health or quality of life The important thing to remember is that patients are actively engaged in trying to cope with their condition and that they will use a variety of coping mechanisms to make their journey more meaningful and more bearable. Health professionals who have the motivation and the communication skills to share the patient’s world view by focusing, not only on the objective indicators of disease, but also on the quality of life of the individual patient can have the privilege of walking part of that journey with the patient. In Kierkegaard’s words they will have discovered the ‘secret of caring’.

FURTHER READING

Further reading Books Fayers P., Hays R. (eds) (2005) Assessing Quality of Life in Clinical Trials. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Joyce C. R. B., McGee H. M., O’Boyle C. A. (eds) (1999) Individualised Quality of Life: Approaches to Conceptualisation and Assessment. Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers. Schwartz C. E., Sprangers M. A. G. (2000) Adaptation to Changing Health: Response Shift in Qualityof-Life Research. Washington: American Psychological Association.

Articles Cohen S. R., et al. (1995) The McGill Quality of Life Questionnaire: a measure of quality of life appropriate for people with advanced disease. A preliminary study of validity and acceptability. Palliative Medicine, 9: 207–19. Kaasa S., Loge J. H. (2002) Quality of life assessment in palliative care. Lancet Oncology, 3: 175–82. Osoba D. (2002) A taxonomy of the uses of health-related quality-of-life instruments in cancer care and the clinical meaningfulness of the results. Medical Care, 40, (6): Suppl. III-31–III-38. Rees J., O’Boyle C. A., McDonagh R. (2001) Quality of life; impact of chronic illness on the partner. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 94(11): 563–6. Schwartz C. E., Sprangers M. A. G. (2002) An introduction to quality of life assessment in oncology: the value of measuring patient-reported outcomes. American Journal of Managed Care, 8(18): S550–S559.

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Chapter 4

Principles of drug use in palliative care1 We can no more hope to end drug abuse by eliminating heroin and cocaine than we could alter the suicide rate by outlawing high buildings or the sale of rope. Ben Whittaker, The Global Fix, 1987

Introduction Drugs are not the total answer for the relief of pain and other symptoms. For many symptoms, the concurrent use of non-drug measures is equally important, and sometimes more so. Further, drugs must always be used within the context of a systematic approach to symptom management, namely: • Evaluation • Explanation • Individualized treatment • Attention to detail In palliative care, the axiom ‘diagnosis before treatment’ still holds true. A particular symptom may have different causes, e.g. in lung cancer vomiting may be caused by hypercalcaemia or by raised intracranial pressure. Clearly, treatment will vary according to the cause. Attention to detail includes precision in taking a drug history. It is important to ascertain, as precisely as possible, the drug being taken, the dose and the frequency and to confirm that the drug alleviates the symptom throughout the day and night. It is very common for patients to be noncompliant with medication for many different reasons. In palliative care, patients may not have understood the reason for taking medication regularly to prevent symptoms. The medication (e.g. analgesic) consequently may not help adequately, leaving him/her either to suffer in pain, thinking that the drug does not work, or to take inappropriately large extra doses which cause side-effects. Patients may also stop taking the drugs because of the side-effects. Vicious circles may develop, adding to patient and family despair. As the patient becomes weaker and less well they may become less able to swallow large numbers of tablets, leading again to less than optimal symptom control.

1 General guidance about the use of drugs in palliative care (www.palliativedrugs.com).

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Principles of drug use

Attention to detail also means providing clear instructions for drug regimens. ‘Take as much as you like, as often as you like’, is a recipe for anxiety and poor symptom relief. The drug regimen should be written out in full for the patient and his family to work from (Fig. 4.1). This should be in an ordered and logical way, e.g. analgesics, antiemetics, laxatives, followed by other drugs. The drug name, times to be taken, reason for use (‘for pain’, ‘for bowels’, etc.) and dose (x mL, y tablets) should all be stated. The patient should also be advised how to obtain further supplies, e.g. from their GP. When prescribing an additional drug, it is important to ask: • What is the treatment goal? • How can it be monitored? • What is the risk of adverse effects? • What is the risk of drug interactions? • Is it possible to stop any of the current medications? Good prescribing is a skill, and makes the difference between poor and excellent symptom control. It extends to considering the size, shape and taste of tablets and solutions; and avoiding awkward doses which force: • Patients to take more tablets than would be the case if doses were ‘rounded up’ to a more convenient tablet size. For example, it is better to prescribe m/r morphine 60mg (a single tablet) rather than 50mg (3 tablets: 30mg + 10mg + 10mg) • Nurses to spend more time refilling syringes for 24h infusions. For example, in the UK, it might be appropriate to prescribe diamorphine 100mg (a single 100mg ampoule) instead of 95mg (3 × 30mg ampoule + 5mg ampoule) It is necessary to be equally thorough when re-evaluating a patient and supervising treatment, because it is often difficult to predict the optimum dose of a symptom relief drug, particularly opioids, laxatives and psychotropic drugs. Some drugs, e.g. steroids, may be given as a trial only and continued or stopped as appropriate after a certain time. Arrangements must be made, therefore, for continuing supervision and adjustment of medication. Finally, it may be necessary to compromise on complete symptom relief in order to avoid unacceptable adverse effects. For example, the sedative side-effects of levomepromazine or the dry mouth caused by octreotide may limit dose escalation in inoperable bowel obstruction. The patient may prefer to reduce the frequency of nausea or vomiting to an acceptable level (i.e. vomit once a day) rather than to tolerate side-effects of higher doses of effective medication. The drugs mentioned in this text are listed alphabetically in the Formulary and are based on as robust evidence as is currently available. Many of these drugs are used outside their current product licences.

Medication Information Chart

Patient details/Identification label Mr Albert Brown 1 Park Road Anytown AB1 2CD

INTRODUCTION

General Advice • Keep this chart with you so that you can show your doctor or nurse a list of your medications. • If you need a further supply, give your GP at least 48h notice. • If your chemist has difficulty in obtaining your medicines, please ask him to contact the palliative care pharmacist, on tel:........................ or in the evening/at weekends contact the on-call pharmacist at.............. Hospital via the switchboard on tel:......................... • Occasionally your medication may be supplied in different strengths or presentations. If you have any concerns about this, check with your local pharmacist or district nurse. • If you need to see a doctor, telephone your GP first unless advised otherwise. • If you, or your family doctor, need any advice, please ring tel:........................ and ask to speak to the Hospice Community Team nurse.

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Fig. 4.1 Sample Medication Information Chart. Adapted with permission from HAYWARD HOUSE Macmillan Specialist Palliative Care Cancer Unit, Nottingham, UK.

Chapter 4a

The use of drugs beyond licence If a lot of cures are suggested for a disease, it means that the disease is incurable. Anton Chekhov, The Cherry Orchard, 1904 The Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency in the UK grants a product licence for a medical drug. The purpose of the drug licence is to regulate the activity of the pharmaceutical company when marketing the drug. The licence does not restrict the prescription of the drug by properly qualified medical practitioners. Licensed drugs can be used legally in clinical situations that fall outside the remit of the licence (referred to as ‘off-label’), for example a different age group, a different indication, a different dose or route or method of administration. Use of unlicensed drugs refers to those products that have no licence for any clinical situation or may be in the process of evaluation leading to such a licence. A recent audit in palliative care found that ‘off-label’ use is common (around 25% of prescriptions affecting 66% of patients in one specialist palliative care unit), but the use of unlicensed drugs is rare. Recommendations from bodies such as the General Medical Council and the medical defence organizations place a duty on doctors to act responsibly and to provide information to patients on the nature and associated risks of any treatment, including ‘off-label’ and unlicensed drugs. Guidance also recommends that such drugs are prescribed by a consultant or GP, following informed consent by the patient, and that this decision is recorded in the patient’s notes. This may not be practical in palliative care where the use of ‘off-label’ medication is routine.

Prescribing outside the licence In the UK, a doctor may legally: • Prescribe unlicensed medicines • In a named patient, use unlicensed products specially prepared, imported, or supplied • Supply another doctor with an unlicensed medicine • With appropriate safeguards, use unlicensed drugs in clinical trials • Use or advise the use of licensed medicines for indications or in doses or by routes of administration outside the licensed recommendations • Override the warnings and precautions given in the licence

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The use of drugs beyond licence

The responsibility for the consequences of these actions lies with the prescribing doctor1,2 or non-medical prescriber. It has been recommended that when prescribing a drug outside its licence, a doctor or non-medical prescriber should:3,4 • Record in the patient’s notes the reasons for the decision to prescribe outside the licensed indications • Where possible explain the position to the patient (and family as appropriate) in sufficient detail to allow them to give informed consent (the Patient Information Leaflet obviously does not contain information about off label indications) • Inform other professionals, e.g. pharmacist, nurses, GP, involved in the care of the patient to avoid misunderstandings

In addition to clinical trials, prescriptions beyond licence may be justified: • When prescribing generic formulations (for which indications are not described) • With established drugs for proven but unlicensed indications • With drugs for conditions for which there are no other treatments (even in the absence of strong evidence) • When using drugs in individuals not covered by licensed indications, e.g. children

1 Anonymous (1992) Prescribing unlicensed drugs or using drugs for unlicensed applications. Drug and Therapeutics Bulletin, 30: 97–9. 2 Cohen P. J. (1997) Off-label use of prescription drugs: legal, clinical and policy considerations. European Journal of Anaesthesiology, 14: 231–50. 3 Atkinson C. V., Kirkham S. R. (1999) Unlicensed uses for medication in a palliative care unit. Palliative Medicine,13: 145–52. 4 The Association of Palliative Medicine, The Pain Society (2002) The Use of Drugs Beyond Licence in Palliative Care and Pain Management. Southampton and London: APM and Pain Society.

Chapter 4b

Drug interactions in palliative care It may seem a strange principle to enunciate as the very first requirement in a hospital that it should do the sick no harm. Florence Nightingale, Notes on Hospitals, 1863 The potential for drug interactions is high in palliative care due to polypharmacy.

Cytochrome P450 isoenzymes Metabolism of drugs in the liver principally involves oxidation or conjugation. There are several types of oxidation reactions, each catalysed by a group of enzymes called cytochrome P450. The most important isoenzymes are CYP3A4 and CYP2D6. Most drugs that are metabolized by the liver are metabolized via several pathways, usually including the cytochrome P450 isoenzyme 3A4. Some drugs such as erythromycin and clarithromycin, some SSRIs, cimetidine, grapefruit juice, amiodarone and itraconazole inhibit CYP3A4 and therefore slow down the metabolism of any other drugs that are metabolized by CYP3A4, which can increase the effects of these other drugs. Drugs that may be affected because they are metabolized by cytochrome 3A4 include warfarin, the dose of which may need to be reduced when these drugs are started in combination with the drugs outlined above. Other drugs metabolized by cytochrome 3A4 include phenytoin, carbamazepine, benzodiazepines and St John’s Wort. The following are some selected drug interactions which are pertinent to palliative care prescribing: Warfarin The anticoagulation effect of warfarin can be affected by many drugs. Some drugs such as amitriptyline may increase or reduce the anticoagulant effect of warfarin. The anticoagulation effect may be reduced by St John’s Wort. Anticoagulation may increase with: • amiodarone • fluconazole, itraconazole, • cimetidine, omeprazole miconazole, ketoconazole • erythromycin, clarithromycin, • clopidogrel ciprofloxacin, metronidazole • possible effect with SSRIs, • NSAIDs, aspirin venlafaxine, mirtazepine • cranberry juice • tramadol • paracetamol

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Drug interactions in palliative care

Amiodarone Amiodarone has a long half-life. There is a potential for drug interactions to occur for several weeks (or even months) after treatment with it has been stopped. Drugs that interact with amiodarone may increase the risk of ventricular arrhythmias and the advice is to avoid them: • tricyclic antidepressants • flecainide (amitriptyline etc.) • quinine • phenothiazines, haloperidol • erythromycin (parenteral), • grapefruit juice co-trimoxazole The low doses of haloperidol used as an antiemetic, and tricyclic antidepressants for neuropathic pain, used in palliative care, probably carry a reduced risk, but one that cannot be completely dismissed. Anticonvulsants Carbamazepine levels are increased (risk of toxicity) with e.g. clarithromycin, erythromycin, fluoxetine and cimetidine. There is also an increased risk of toxicity with hyponatraemia due for instance to diuretics. Carbamazepine reduces the plasma concentration of clonazepam and accelerates the metabolism of steroids. Anticonvulsant effects of carbamazepine are antagonized by antipsychotics. Phenytoin levels are reduced by St John’s Wort and may be increased or decreased by benzodiazepines. Phenytoin reduces the plasma concentration of mirtazepine and clonazepam and accelerates the metabolism of methadone, corticosteroids and ondansetron. The anticonvulsant effects of phenytoin may be antagonized by tricyclic antidepressants, SSRIs and antipsychotics. Absorption is reduced by antacids. Phenytoin levels are increased (toxicity) by: • amiodarone • metronidazole • clarithromycin • cimetidine • fluconazole, miconazole • omeprazole • fluoxetine • trimethoprim The management of patients with cerebral tumours may be affected since carbamazepine, phenytoin and phenobarbital can reduce the efficacy of corticosteroids. Antifungal drugs • Fluconazole increases phenytoin levels • Fluconazole increases the effect of sulphonylureas, e.g. gliclazide, glibenclamide (risk of hypoglycaemia) • Fluconazole inhibits the metabolism of alfentanil (watch opioid side-effects) • Itraconazole and fluconazole increase sedation with midazolam • Fluconazole and itraconazole enhance the anticoagulation effect of warfarin

CYTOCHROME P450 ISOENZYMES

Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) • Omeprazole may increase blood diazepam levels (increase in sedation) • Omeprazole may enhance anticoagulation effect of warfarin Metronidazole • Disulfiram-like reaction with alcohol • Enhances anticoagulation with warfarin • Increases phenytoin blood levels (toxicity) SSRI antidepressants • Antagonize anticonvulsant effects of common antiepileptics and lower seizure threshold • Care with drugs that can stimulate the CNS, e.g. selegeline, tramadol • Interact with cytochrome P450 enzymes • Serious reaction with MAOIs, selegiline (serotonin syndrome) • Increased serotonergic effects with St John’s Wort (avoid) St John’s Wort • Increased serotonergic effects with SSRIs (avoid) • Reduced plasma concentration of amitriptyline • Reduced anticoagulant effect of warfarin • Reduced plasma levels of carbamazepine, phenytoin, phenobarbital (risk of fits) • Reduced plasma levels of digoxin Torsades de pointes An increasing number of drugs (such as haloperidol, ondansetron, SSRIs, erythromycin, ciprofloxacin) have been recognized to prolong the QT interval and potentially cause torsades de pointes, a serious ventricular tachycardia. A register of drugs that cause QT prolongation is available on the internet at http://www.torsades.org

Corticosteroids The use of corticosteroids in palliative care varies considerably from unit to unit and physician to physician. Traditionally they have been used to reduce oedema, to promote appetite and well-being; and for their specific use in disease processes such as asthma, or chronic lymphatic leukaemia, or in emergency situations where their use can buy time until a more definitive treatment can be instituted. Corticosteroids are produced by the adrenal gland and have a number of physiological roles, including catabolic effects on protein, carbohydrate and fat metabolism, and anti-inflammatory effects. They influence water and electrolyte balance and suppress immunity. Dexamethasone is the corticosteroid of choice in palliative care (Table 4b.1).

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Drug interactions in palliative care

Table 4b.1 Indications and daily doses of dexamethasone Indication for use

Daily dose of dexamethasone

Anorexia

2–4mg

Weakness Pain (where caused by tumoral oedema) Improvement in well-being/mood Nerve compression pain

4–8mg

Liver capsule pain Nausea Bowel obstruction Post-radiation inflammation Raised intracranial pressure

12–16mg

Superior vena caval obstruction Carcinomatosa lymphangitis Malignant spinal cord compression

Side-effects of corticosteroids include a rise in blood glucose, increased susceptibility to infection (especially oral thrush), fluid retention and additive insult to the gastrointestinal mucosa with NSAIDs. Insomnia and agitation sometimes lead to a disturbed mental state. Corticosteroids may also give rise to proximal myopathy, often manifesting as difficulty in standing from a sitting position. Classical cushingoid effects may develop, including a very frail skin which bleeds easily on contact. If patients are expected to be on long-term steroids (longer than 6 months or so), consideration may need to be given to prophylaxis for osteoporosis. Equivalent anti-inflammatory effects of steroids: • Prednisolone 5mg • Hydrocortisone 20mg • Methylprednisolone 4mg • Dexamethasone 750mcg • Cortisone acetate 25mg • Betamethasone 750mcg • Triamcinolone 4mg Consider: • Increasing the dose for patients on phenytoin, carbamazepine or phenobarbital • Giving steroids before midday since they may disturb sleep • Prophylactic gastric mucosal protection if also taking NSAIDs • Switching from dexamethasone to prednisolone if myopathy develops • The possibility that steroids may be masking the clinical signs of perforation of an abdominal viscus or sepsis

CYTOCHROME P450 ISOENZYMES

• Carefully weighing up the burden/benefit of continuing steroids subcutaneously should the patient become unable to swallow • Checking blood glucose if any relevant symptoms occur Always: • Reduce dose of steroids to the minimum possible • Review treatment every week, stopping after one week if no benefit • Reduce dose slowly every few days if the patient has taken steroids for longer than two weeks or has been taking a relatively large dose In the terminal care situation the patient’s inability to swallow oral medication is often the provoking factor which leads to stopping steroids. Continuation of steroids by injection (usually SC) should be considered on an individual basis.

Side-effect risks of steroids • Doses of dexamethasone >4mg o.d. are likely to lead to significant side-effects after several weeks • Doses blastic lesions Such patients may benefit (both in terms of reduced pain and reduced risk of fracture) from prophylactic fixation of a long bone. The type of internal fixation used depends on the site of fracture and the patient’s performance status. In all cases internal fixation of the bone should be followed by radiotherapy to control tumour growth and to promote healing. Techniques such as vertebroplasty are available to manage pain invertebrae.

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Chemotherapy I am dying from the treatment of too many physicians Alexander the Great

Identification of agents Chemotherapy generally refers to a group of agents used in the systemic management of cancer. A disparate group, these agents are linked by having demonstrated evidence of anticancer activity and a common range of side-effects. The anticancer activity of these agents has been identified in a number of ways. For some the discovery of antineoplastic activity was serendipitous. Cisplatin was discovered because of using platinum electrodes in an antibiotic experiment. For others this activity was identified during screening of a wide range of natural products (e.g. paclitaxel). Some of these agents have been biochemically modified to reduce their toxicity while retaining their antineoplastic activity (e.g. carboplatin).

Mechanism of action Chemotherapy exerts its anticancer action by a wide variety of mechanisms which are, as yet, incompletely understood ( b see Table 5.1). For many, DNA is believed to be the most important cellular target, e.g. irinotecan inhibits the topoisomerase I enzyme thereby causing double-strand breaks in DNA. For other agents, microtubules, particularly those involved in mitotic spindle formation, appear to be the vital target, e.g. paclitaxel promotes tubulin polymerization and so arrests cells in metaphase. A number of factors determine the likelihood of achieving a useful response to chemotherapy. Some tumours are inherently more sensitive to chemotherapy than others. In general terms, chemotherapy tends to be most effective in tumours with fast cell turnover such as acute leukaemia and high-grade lymphoma. Seminoma, however, a tumour with a long natural history, is also very chemosensitive. Clearly there are other factors, as yet poorly understood, that determine a tumour’s chemosensitivity. Patient-related factors are also important in determining likelihood of response. Patients with poor performance status, for example, respond less well than those with good performance status. The reasons for this are poorly understood but are probably due, at least in part, to a reduced tolerance to the acute toxicity of chemotherapy. While chemotherapy may induce a partial or even complete response, the tumour may regrow with disease that has become chemoresistant. There is evidence in some cases that the tumour may have become more efficient at actively pumping the drug from the cell. Increasingly it is recognized that the ability of cells either to repair or tolerate the damage inflicted by chemotherapy may lead to chemoresistance. The causes of chemoresistance and the development of agents to overcome such mechanisms are active areas of research at present.

CHEMOTHERAPY

Tumours which divide rapidly with short doubling times respond best to chemotherapy.

Adverse effects of chemotherapy Although the specific side-effect profile varies between agents, there are a number of side-effects common to most agents. • Alopecia is a common and often distressing side-effect associated with many agents. Patients can be reassured that hair will regrow. On regrowth the hair may develop waves or curls and will revert towards its previous character over many months. • Nausea and vomiting are common with many agents, although the degree to which this is a problem varies both between agents and between patients. The development of 5-HT3 antagonists (e.g. tropisetron, granisetron) has greatly aided the management of this troublesome side-effect. The efficacy of 5-HT3 antagonists can be improved by the addition of steroids • Myelosuppression is a significant cause of morbidity associated with chemotherapy. The white cells (in particular the neutrophils) are most commonly affected between 1 and 2 weeks following chemotherapy. Patients should be warned of the possibility of developing infection during this time and the urgency with which they should seek help, as they will require immediate treatment with broad-spectrum antibiotics. The development of granulocyte colony-stimulating growth factors has reduced this toxicity by shortening the duration of neutropenia. This has allowed higher doses of chemotherapy to be given more safely in certain situations • Anxiety The prospect of chemotherapy is a frightening concept for many patients—not least due to the (often mistaken) view of the difficult side-effects. It is important that the patient and their carers are fully educated about the type of side-effects they are likely to encounter during treatment and how best to deal with them. Most patients are extremely anxious during this difficult time and information may have to be repeated a number of times. It is very useful to have written information to supplement what has been said in consultations. It is also useful if a relative or friend attends with the patient—they will often be able to help the patient review the information at a later date.

Chemotherapy regimens A wide range of chemotherapy regimens are used in the treatment of patients with cancer. The usual rationale has been to combine drugs that demonstrate activity as single agents but which do not share the same side-effects. More sophisticated techniques to examine synergy and pharmacokinetic interactions in a pre-clinical setting are now developing, and this will guide a logical approach to the optimal combinations of agents.

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• • • •

Oncology and palliative care

Chemotherapy may be given in the following situations: Curative Adjuvant Neoadjuvant Palliative

Curative A small number of solid malignancies are curable by chemotherapy alone; for instance, germ-cell tumours, lymphomas and certain childhood tumours. Chemotherapy regimens used in the treatment of these diseases tend to be intensive and associated with a high incidence of acute toxicity. It is important that patients receive chemotherapy on schedule as there is evidence that dose reductions and prolonging treatment times may adversely affect outcome. Consequently, treatment can exact a high physical and psychological toll on patients and their relatives. Given that the long-term aim of treatment is cure, patients and their carers need encouragement to persevere, which will be easier if physical symptoms are optimally managed. The palliative care team can provide expert assistance at this stage of the patient’s management. Increasingly it is becoming clear that patients who are cured following chemotherapy are at risk of long-term toxicity from their treatment. Such problems include secondary leukaemias and solid tumours, fatigue, infertility and cardiomyopathy. These problems have only become appreciated in recent times. Undoubtedly as more people become long-term survivors of cancer, more problems will emerge. For this reason it is important that long-term survivors of cancer remain on long-term follow-up. Adjuvant Many patients presenting with apparently localized cancer are known to be at high risk of developing metastatic disease. This is presumed to be due to the presence of micrometastases not apparent by current imaging modalities. Chemotherapy given following successful primary treatment for apparently localized cancer may reduce the risk of developing clinical metastatic disease. Cancers where adjuvant chemotherapy is commonly used include breast and colorectal cancer where large, multicentre, randomized controlled trials and subsequent meta-analysis have confirmed the survival gain. At an individual level these gains are small, with absolute improvements in overall survival of 5–15% after five years. At a population level, however, this represents a large number of lives saved in diseases as common as breast and bowel cancer. Presently, surrogate markers such as tumour size, grade and lymph node involvement are commonly used to assess risk of disease relapse and thereby identify those most likely to benefit from adjuvant therapy. Much current research is directed at developing predictive markers to identify more precisely those most likely to benefit. Given that the majority of patients treated will not benefit from treatment as their disease will relapse anyway or because primary treatment has been curative, adjuvant regimens must therefore be well tolerated with a low incidence of serious acute side-effects and long-term side-effects.

CHEMOTHERAPY

Again, as with treatment in the curative setting, positive outcomes from treatment are closely linked to dose intensity and to avoiding delays in chemotherapy. Where acute toxicities are a problem, involvement of the palliative care team may improve symptom management and facilitate delivery of treatment on schedule. Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy may be used ‘up front’ in non-metastatic tumours prior to definitive treatment (usually surgery) for the tumour. This may be employed for a large inoperable primary tumour to shrink the tumour and facilitate surgery. Such an approach is standard practice in very large primary breast tumours or those with skin involvement. Increasingly, neoadjuvant therapy is being utilized for tumours that are operable. Potential advantages of this approach include less extensive surgery in a tumour that has been debulked. From a research point of view, a neoadjuvant approach with biopsies before and after therapy may allow molecular markers that predict chemosensitivity to be identified. Conversely, there are a number of potential problems with neoadjuvant chemotherapy. First, in a responding tumour there may be a loss of potentially useful prognostic information from the subsequently resected tumour specimen. There is also the risk that such an approach may allow interim tumour progression in a lesion that does not respond to chemotherapy. Finally, performing less radical surgery in a tumour that has responded to chemotherapy may compromise local control. This approach is being examined with particular interest in a number of tumours including oesophageal, gastric and breast tumours. Growth for the sake of growth is the ideology of the cancer cell. Edward Abbey 1927–1989 Palliative The majority of solid cancers are not curable in the metastatic setting. Chemotherapy, however, may have a valuable role to play in the palliative treatment of such patients. Clinical trials now include endpoints such as quality of life and toxicity, which are more clinically relevant in this setting than assessing overall survival as a sole entity. Given that improvement or maintenance of quality of life is the aim of palliative chemotherapy, acute toxicities must be easily managed and tolerable. Optimally, a patient is best managed when chemotherapy is administered in conjunction with input from the palliative care team. Such input also facilitates the gradual handing over of care to the palliative care team as the patient’s disease progresses. Such a team-based approach reduces problems of patients feeling neglected by their oncologist when chemotherapy is no longer useful.

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Indications for palliative chemotherapy ‘Treatment decisions are based on a consideration of the balance between the benefits expected and the toxicity and risks of chemotherapy which are different for each patient.’3 • Maintaining or improving quality of life: This is the most important aim of palliative chemotherapy. Chemotherapy may alleviate specific symptoms such as dyspnoea or chest pain in a patient with lung cancer. It may also improve or maintain general well-being with improvements in such factors as appetite and energy. The development of quality-oflife assessment tools, especially those with disease-specific elements, has greatly facilitated the assessment of the effect of chemotherapy on quality of life • Improving survival: While this is a secondary objective in most cases, it is quite clear that chemotherapy given with palliative intent frequently prolongs survival. The extent to which it is expected that survival may be prolonged varies between diseases. Chemotherapy in pancreatic cancer is associated with an improvement in survival of only a few weeks, whereas patients receiving chemotherapy for ovarian cancer may have improved survival of many months or even years • In emergency situations: Potentially life-threatening tumour-related emergencies, such as spinal cord compression or superior vena cava compression, may be treated with chemotherapy where the primary tumour is very chemosensitive. Such tumours include lymphoma and small-cell lung cancer

3 McIllmurray M. (2004) Palliative medicine and the treatment of cancer. In Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine (ed. D. Doyle, G. et al), p. 213. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

CHEMOTHERAPY

Chemotherapy within the palliative setting is increasingly common because of: Earlier referral for palliative care services Chemotherapeutic services and palliative care services can be enhanced by a close working relationship with good lines of communication and early referral. The journey from diagnosis to death is not linear but dynamic, with different interventions governed not by the passage of time but by a patient’s particular needs. With an integrated service and earlier referral patterns there will be an ever-increasing number of patients in the palliative care setting who have just had, are having, or are just about to have, chemotherapy. In many cancer centres patients will be introduced to the palliative care team as part of their initial contact with ‘the cancer service’. Increasing indications for chemotherapy Over the last decade there has been a huge increase in the number of drugs available to treat cancer patients, and clinical trials have identified that these agents may provide palliative benefit in those for whom no treatment would have been available 20 years ago. Patients undergoing clinical trials Patients who have relapsed from their initial chemotherapy may well be involved in clinical trials of other agents if their overall fitness and clinical condition permits. As trials often involve treatments where conventional regimens have failed, such patients may have advanced disease, and need increasing palliative care input. When is chemotherapy offered in the palliative care setting? The decision to use chemotherapy with palliative intent is often a complex matter, and a number of factors must be taken into consideration: • Patient fitness: Generally patients with an ECOG performance status ( b see the Box on p. xxxix) >2 tolerate chemotherapy very poorly—chemotherapy is generally contraindicated in such patients. Possible exceptions include those patients with very chemosensitive tumours that may be expected to respond quickly such as small-cell lung cancer and lymphoma • Patient symptoms: Chemotherapy in the palliative setting is usually delayed until the patient develops symptoms. The potential danger with this approach is that the patient may rapidly develop symptoms which render them unfit for chemotherapy. In some cases, therefore, oncologists may choose to monitor disease and institute treatment when there is evidence that disease, although asymptomatic, is progressing • Disease sites: Generally, large volume disease at life-threatening sites, e.g. the liver, requires urgent chemotherapy even when disease-related symptoms are absent as patients are likely to become symptomatic very quickly. • Relationships: Close relationships may build up between doctors and patients over many years. It may be difficult for doctors to withdraw toxic oncological treatment from a patient who continues to demand

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it, even if it has now become clearly inappropriate. Thus clear and open discussion with patients and their families about the potential benefits and risks of chemotherapy, the aims of treatment and, in particular, agreed criteria for stopping treatment is important. The palliative care team can support the oncology team in these discussions

How will chemotherapy affect the patient and family? Each individual patient and family will have their own particular response to chemotherapy in the palliative care setting. Certain themes may be common to many such individuals. The following are some of the scenarios encountered in GP surgeries, oncology services and palliative care units. • ‘We’ve got to keep on trying.’ Having endured the rigours of their disease and its management, some patients reach the palliative setting protesting their capacity as ‘fighters’. (There is now evidence that psychological disposition has no bearing on disease outcome.) They have coped with their disease by trusting in the system and in being ‘active’ in fighting their cancer. It is very hard to wean such patients off chemotherapy or to stop active treatment, as to do so seems, in their eyes, to admit defeat. Such patients will ask to be put into trials and see their role as patients as being fulfilled only so long as they are participating in active treatment • ‘It was not half as bad as I thought it was going to be.’ Increasingly due to improved symptom control measures and a more holistic approach, patients may be pleasantly surprised by their tolerance of chemotherapy. Most people have had a previous contact with someone going through chemotherapy and their expectations are often adversely affected by this • ‘He has suffered enough.’ Other families come through their disease journey with very ambivalent attitudes towards the system and to chemotherapy. They arrive in the palliative care setting determined that further suffering should be kept to a minimum. They can be reluctant to consider any intervention at all, other than the administration of pain-controlling medications. For such a family the prospect of chemotherapy entering into the palliative setting is anathema, and time may need to be taken to explain the benefits in certain situations, if appropriate • ‘Her hair fell out, then she died.’ Many patients and families come with memories and histories of relatives who have received chemotherapy in the past. Memories seldom show clearly the distinction between problems caused by the illness itself and problems caused by sideeffects. The two merge into a mess of suffering leaving the patient and the family convinced that there is only one thing worse than dying with cancer—and that is dying from cancer with the side-effects of chemotherapy. Doctors and nurses are not inured from such emotional responses

CHEMOTHERAPY

• ‘Whatever you say Doctor.’ Another group of patients cope with their disease by investing their trust in ‘the doctor’ looking after them. Such an approach runs contrary to non-patronizing modern trends but is still present particularly among older patients. To present such patients with a meta-analysis of the benefits of one form of chemotherapy or another and to ask the patient which one they want to choose would be inappropriate • ‘What about Mexican dog weed.’ Some patients and relatives may come into the palliative care setting clutching reams of printouts from the Internet about treatments from clinics around the world. They will often be very articulate and questioning of every intervention. Some will have an alternative medicine approach and be very sceptical of western medicine. Honest communication needs to include how health professionals interpret the clinical research literature and what they would be prepared to do in terms of agreeing to provide a treatment that is controversial, unproven and unlicensed. Boundaries need to be set and unrealistic expectations dispelled, alongside not removing hope that a reasonable quality of life can still be achieved • ‘I’ve had a good life.’ A section of patients come into the palliative setting without illness at the centre of their lives. Instead they are focused on their living and their dying, with its important stages and goodbyes. Such patients have accepted the inevitability of their death and have moved on to preparing for it. They have things that they want to do. When it comes to the possibility of chemotherapy for such people their main concern is, ‘Will it interfere with what I still have to do?’ They are strangely neutral about chemotherapy and it is almost as if they are humouring the professionals by agreeing to it, while they get on with the real business of living • ‘I just can’t face it.’ Some patients have been so worn down by their disease and treatment that the prospect of any more chemotherapy fills them with fear and dread. Sometimes the fears are justified and sometimes they are not. Sometimes their expression of fear about chemotherapy is a way of verbalizing fears about other matters which should be explored. They face the dilemma of risks and fears whether or not they accept chemotherapy and will need a lot of support in reaching a treatment decision

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Cytotoxic drugs ( b see also Tables 5.1–5.4) Alkylating agents Damage DNA by addition of an alkyl group, e.g. cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide, melphalan, busulphan.

Platinum agents Damage DNA by addition of platinum adducts, e.g. cisplatin, carboplatin, oxaliplatin.

Antimetabolites Inhibit production of pyrimidine and purine metabolites, e.g. fluorouracil, methotrexate, capecitabine, mercaptopurine, gemcitabine.

Antitumour antibiotics Variable mechanism, e.g. doxorubicin, epirubicin, mitoxantrone, bleomycin.

Vinca alkaloids Bind to the tubulin-blocking microtubule and therefore interfere with spindle formation at metaphase, e.g. vincristine, vinorelbine, vinblastine.

Taxanes Promote tubulin polymerization and arrest cells at metaphase, e.g. paclitaxel, docetaxel.

Topoisomerase I inhibitors Inhibit topoisomerase I leading to DNA damage, e.g. irinotecan, topotecan.

Hormonal agents Selective oestrogen-receptor modulators (SERMs) Partial antagonists of the oestrogen receptor, e.g. tamoxifen. Aromatase inhibitors Inhibit extragonadal oestrogen production, e.g. anastrozole, letrozole, exemestane. Gonadorelin analogues Inhibit gonadal production of oestrogen and testosterone, e.g. leuprorelin, goserelin. Anti-androgens • Testosterone-receptor antagonists • Cyproterone acetate

Immunomodulatory • e.g. Interferon

CYTOTOXIC DRUGS

Novel agents Many anticancer agents currently in development have been rationally developed to antagonize elements of the neoplastic process at a cellular level. While most of these agents are still in preclinical or early clinical testing, a number have already entered routine clinical practice. As a rule these agents are much better tolerated, but do have a different side-effect profile than conventional cytotoxic drugs, with less myelosuppression, alopecia and emesis. Preclinical testing suggests that many may act as cytostatics rather than cytotoxics and that there may be synergistic interactions with other drugs. The challenge in the future will be the rational design of clinical trials to investigate how these agents are best used.

Monoclonal antibodies • Trastuzumab—a monoclonal antibody to HER-2—a member of the epidermal growth-factor (EGF) receptors overexpressed in approximately 25% of all breast cancers and associated with a poor prognosis. Trastuzumab has demonstrated activity in HER-2 overexpressing breast tumours both alone and in combination with chemotherapy in the adjuvant and palliative settings • Rituximab—a monoclonal antibody to CD-20, a protein expressed in some lymphomas. Again rituximab is active both alone and in combination with chemotherapy • Bevacizumab—inhibits angiogenesis by binding to circulating vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Bevacizumab increases the efficacy of chemotherapy in patients with cancers such as colorectal and breast • Cetuximab—attaches itself to the extracellular portion of the EGF receptor preventing the receptor from being activated. It has been combined with chemotherapy and radiotherapy and is used in the treatment of colorectal and head and neck cancers

Cancer growth inhibitors • Gefitinib and erlotinib—inhibit the tyrosine kinase activity of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Activity is demonstrated as second-line agents in non-small-cell lung cancer. Common side-effects include diarrhoea and skin rashes • Imatinib—inhibits the tyrosine kinase activity of the cKIT proteins found in gastrointestinal stromal tumours and also of the Bcr/Abl fusion protein found in chronic myeloid leukaemia • Bortezomib—inhibits the proteosome, which is the mechanism by which cells dispose of intracellular peptides. It causes a delay in tumour growth and is used in the treatment of multiple myeloma • Sorafenib— is a small molecule inhibitor of Raf kinase, PDGF (platelet-derived growth factor), VEGF receptor-2 and -3 kinases and cKit. It is used in the treatment of renal-cell cancer • Sunitinib—a small molecule multi-targeted receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor which is used in the treatment of renal-cell cancer and imatinib-resistant gastrointestinal stromal tumour (GIST) • Lapatinib—EGFR and HER-2 dual tyrosine kinase inhibitor which is used in the treatment of HER-2 positive metastatic breast cancer in combination with capecitabine

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Class of agent Cytotoxics

Mode of action

Examples in common usage

Alkylating agents

Damage DNA by addition of an alkyl group

Cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide, melphalan, busulphan

Platinum agents

Damage DNA by addition of platinum adducts

Cisplatin, carboplatin, oxaliplatin

Antimetabolites

Inhibit production of pyrimidine and purine metabolites

fluorouracil, methotrexate, capecitabine, mercaptopurine, gemcitabine

Antitumour antibiotics

Variable

Doxorubicin, epirubicin, mitoxantrone, bleomycin

Vinca alkaloids

Bind to tubulin blocking microtubule and therefore spindle formation at metaphase

Vincristine, vinorelbine, vinblastine

Taxanes

Promote tubulin polymerization and arrest cells at metaphase

Paclitaxel, docetaxel

Topoisomerase I inhibitors

Inhibit topoisomerase I leading to DNA damage

Irinotecan, topotecan

Oncology and palliative care

Table 5.1 Classification of anti-cancer agents

Hormonal agents

Selective oestrogen receptor modulators (SERMs)

Partial antagonists of the oestrogen receptor

Tamoxifen, fulvestrant

Aromatase inhibitors

Inhibit extragonadal oestrogen production

Anastrozole, letrozole, exemestane

Gonadorelin analogues

Inhibit gonadal production of oestrogen and testosterone

Leuprorelin

Anti-androgens

Testosterone receptor antagonists

Cyproterone acetate

Immunomodulatory

Interferon

‘Novel’ agents

Antibodies

Opsonization, interrupt growth stimulatory pathways

Rituximab, trastuzumab

Signal transduction inhibitors

Interrupt growth stimulatory pathways

Imatinib, erlotinib, gefitinib, bortezomib, sunitinib, sorafenib, lapatinib

Vascular targeting agents

Target ‘new’ vessels associated with tumours—not in use outwith a clinical trial

Bevacizumab, sunitinib, sorafenib, thalidomide CYTOTOXIC DRUGS

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144

Administration

Excretion

Side-effects

Bleomycin Cytotoxic antibiotic

IV

Renal

Germ cell tumours Lymphoma ‘Flu symptoms; Hyperpigmentation; Allergic reactions; Pulmonary fibrosis— common with doses >300mg

Indications

Busulphan Alkylating agent

p.o.

Renal

Myelosuppression; Hyperpigmentation Leukaemia Pulmonary interstitial fibrosis; Hepato-venous occlusion

Carboplatin

IV

Renal

Myelosuppression especially thrombocytopenia; Emesis

Ovarian cancer

Capecitabine Antimetabolite

p.o.

Renal

‘Hand foot’ syndrome; Diarrhoea; Stomatitis

GI cancer, Breast cancer

Cisplatin

IV

Renal

Emesis; Renal failure; Peripheral neuropathy Ototoxicity; Allergic reactions

Germ cell tumours Lung & ovarian cancer

Cyclophosphamide Alkylating agent

p.o.

Hepatic and renal

Myelosuppression; Alopecia; Emesis Haemorrhagic cystitis (reduced by mesna)

Breast cancer Lymphoma

Cytarabine Antimetabolite

IV, IT, SC

Hepatic and renal

Myelosuppression; Diarrhoea; Stomatitis

Leukaemia

Dactinomycin Cytotoxic antibiotic

IV

Hepatic and renal

Myelosuppression; Mucositis; Diarrhoea Alopecia

Choriocarcinoma Ewing’s sarcoma

Docetaxel Taxane

IV

Hepatic

Myelosuppression; Fluid retention; Alopecia; Peripheral neuropathy

Breast, Prostate and Lung cancer

Caelyx see doxorubicin

Oncology and palliative care

Drug

CHAPTER 5

Table 5.2 Commonly used anti-cancer drugs (new drugs are regularly being introduced)

IV and intravesical

Hepatic

Emesis; Myelosuppression; Mucositis Alopecia; Cardiomyopathy—risk related to total cumulative dose.

Breast cancer Sarcoma

Doxorubicin Liposomal (Caelyx) Cytotoxic antibiotic

IV

Hepatic

Palmar-plantar erythrodysaesthesia; Stomatitis

Ovarian cancer Breast cancer Kaposi’s sarcoma

Etoposide

IV

Renal

Myelosuppression; Emesis; Alopecia Secondary leukaemia

Lung cancer Germ cell tumour

Epirubicin Cytotoxic antibiotic

IV

Hepatic

Similar to Doxorubicin but less cardiotoxic

Breast cancer

Fluorouracil Antimetabolite

IV, topical cream

Hepatic and renal

Mucositis; Diarrhoea; Hand-foot syndrome; Myelosuppression; Gastrointestinal upsets; Cerebellar ataxia (rare); Gritty eyes and blurred vision

Colorectal cancer Breast cancer

Gemcitabine Antimetabolite

IV

Renal

Myelosuppression; ‘Flu like symptoms; Fatigue; Pneumonitis

Pancreatic cancer Bladder cancer Lung cancer

Ifosfamide Alkylating agent

IV

Hepatic and renal

Alopecia; Emesis; Haemorrhagic cystitis; Encephalopathy

Sarcoma, germ cell tumours

Irinotecan Topoisomerase inhibitor

IV

Hepatic and renal

Cholinergic syndrome—associated with infusion; Delayed diarrhoea; Nausea and vomiting; Myelosuppression; Alopecia

Colorectal cancer

Mercaptopurine Antimetabolite

p.o.

Peripheral tissues

Myelosuppression; Hepatic dysfunction; Stomatitis

Leukaemia (Continued)

CYTOTOXIC DRUGS

Doxorubicin (Adriamycin) Cytotoxic antibiotic

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146 CHAPTER 5

Table 5.2 Commonly used anti-cancer drugs (new drugs are regularly being introduced) (Continued) Administration

Excretion

Side-effects

Indications

Methotrexate (+ folinic acid) Antimetabolite

p.o., IV, IM, IT

Renal

Myelosuppression; Mucositis; Skin pigmentation; Nephrotoxicity

Osteosarcoma Breast cancer Leukaemia and lymphoma

Mitomycin Cytotoxic antibiotics

IV or intravesical

Hepatic metabolism

Myelosuppression; Lung fibrosis; Nephrotoxicity; Stomatitis; Diarrhoea; Haemolytic uraemic syndrome

Anal Bladder

Mitoxantrone Cytotoxic antibiotic

IV

Excretion: Bile > urine

Myelosuppression; Emesis; Alopecia; Mucositis; Cardiotoxicity

Lymphoma Leukaemia

Oxaliplatin

IV

Renal

Peripheral neuropathy; Myelosuppression; Nausea and vomiting; Laryngeal spasm

Colorectal cancer

Paclitaxel Taxane

IV

Hepatic

Myelosuppression; Alopecia; Hypersensitivity reactions; Peripheral neuropathy

Ovarian cancer Lung cancer Breast cancer

Pemetrexed (Alimpta)

IV

Renal

Myelosuppression; Rash; Stomatitis, Drowsiness

Mesothelioma

Temozolomide Alkylating agent

p.o.

Emesis; Myelosuppression

Astrocytomas Melanoma

Tioguanine Antimetabolite

p.o. (40mg)

Myelosuppression; Mucositis; Diarrhoea; Hepatic dysfunction

Leukaemia

Renal

Oncology and palliative care

Drug

Thiotepa Alkylating agent

IV

Topotecan Topoisomerase inhibitor

Excreted more in urine than bile

Myelosuppression

Leukaemia

Liver metabolism Urine excretion

Myelosuppression; Emesis; Alopecia; Diarrhoea

Ovarian cancer

Vinblastine Mitotic spindle inhibitor

IV

Hepatic

Myelosuppression; constipation and stomatitis Rare: hair loss or peripheral neurotoxicity

Lymphoma Germ cell tumours

Vincristine Mitotic spindle inhibitor

IV

Hepatic

Peripheral neuropathy; Autonomic neuropathy

Lymphomas Leukaemia

Vindesine Mitotic spindle inhibitor

IV

Hepatic

Myelosuppression; Mild neurotoxicity; Autonomic neuropathy

Leukaemia

Vinorelbine Mitotic spindle inhibitor

IV

Hepatic

Myelosuppression; Phlebitis; Peripheral neuropathy

Breast cancer Non-small cell lung cancer

CYTOTOXIC DRUGS

147

148

Drug

Anti-androgens Bicalutamide Aromatase inhibitors Anastrozole Letrozole Exemestane GNRH analogues* Buserelin Goserelin Leuprorelin

Administration

Side-effects

Comments

p.o. IM

Menopausal symptoms Thromboembolic event Endometrial hyperplasia and cancer Menopausal symptoms

Used first line in adjuvant treatment of ER/PR +ve breast cancer

Hepatotoxicity Gynaecomastia

Used in prostatic cancer sometimes in combination with gonadorelin analogues

Menopausal symptoms Increased fractures

Used in post-menopausal breast cancer

p.o.

SC and intranasal Implant IM

Gynaecomastia; impotence; nausea; fluid retention Menopausal symptoms

Prostate cancer Breast cancer

p.o.

Post menopausal ER/PR + ve breast cancer

* GNRH, gonadotrophin-releasing hormone; Beware initial flare of symptoms when start use in men with prostate cancer. This should be ‘covered’ with the concomitant use of anti-androgens for the first few weeks of therapy.

Oncology and palliative care

SERMs Tamoxifen Fulvestrant

CHAPTER 5

Table 5.3 Hormone and antihormone drugs

CYTOTOXIC DRUGS

Table 5.4 Emetic risk of common chemotherapy drugs Cytotoxic agents

Risk

Cisplatin*

High

Cyclophosphamide >1000mg/m2* Ifosfamide* Melphalan* Actinomycin

Moderate

Amsacrine Busulphan Carboplatin* Chlorambucil Cladribine Cyclophosphamide 150mg/m2 Dacarbazine Daunorubicin Daunorubicin liposomal Doxorubicin Epirubicin Lomustine Methotrexate >1g/m2 Mitoxantrone Procarbazine Bleomycin Cyclophosphamide 50

Dukes’ C

30–40

General comments • Liver metastases often occur and may cause capsular pain. This usually responds well to NSAIDs or steroids. Liver metastases may also lead to hepatomegaly, causing squashed stomach syndrome with delayed gastric emptying and a feeling of fullness. This may respond to a prokinetic agent such as metoclopramide • Perineal and pelvic pain may be caused by advancing disease or be iatrogenic. There is nearly always a neuropathic element to the pain which will only be partially opioid-sensitive. Tenesmus is a unique type of neuropathic pain which requires specialist assessment • Bowel obstruction, unless it can be palliated surgically, should be managed medically using a syringe driver containing a mixture of analgesics, antiemetics and antispasmodics. Bowel obstruction at multiple levels, which is common in relapsed disease, may make surgery inappropriate. Differentiating between a high blockage (where vomiting is a feature) and blockage lower in the bowel can be useful in targeting treatment strategies. Imaging techniques may also be helpful to delineate the level of obstruction • Fistulae between the bowel and the skin or bladder may occur. These can be very difficult to manage and require a multidisciplinary approach with specialist input • Rectal discharge and bleeding are unpleasant and difficult symptoms to manage. Referral to a clinical oncologist is appropriate as radiotherapy may be of benefit • Hypoproteinaemia is common due to poor oral intake and poor absorption from the bowel and may lead to lower limb oedema • Poor appetite is not uncommon and can be helped with the use of steroids

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Breast cancer Background • Accounts for 20% of all cancers in Western Europe and the USA • Lifetime risk for females is 1 in 9 • Factors which increase the risk of breast cancer include increasing age, a family history of breast cancer, nulliparity and the use of HRT or the contraceptive pill • Incidence of breast cancer is increasing, although overall mortality has decreased by 20% in the UK since 1985 • Five year survival is 80% • Male breast cancer is rare—accounting for 90% sensitivity and specificity. All patients with proven invasive disease should have the axilla assessed as part of staging. Traditionally, this includes axillary clearance, but increasingly sentinel biopsy is performed instead. Staging investigations in patients without systemic symptoms rarely detects metastases and are recommended only in patients with (4 or more) lymph nodes involved by tumour.

Prognostic factors Include: • Axillary node involvement—most important prognostic criterion • Tumour grade • Oestrogen receptor (ER)/progesterone receptor (PR) status. More favourable prognosis if ER/PR positive • HER2 status—HER2 overexpression is associated with poor prognosis • Patient age— 4 involved nodes). Adjuvant endocrine therapy: Tamoxifen indicated for all ER- or PR-positive tumours and achieves approximately 30% relative reduction in mortality. Aromatase inhibitors are replacing tamoxifen in postmenopausal women because of improved outcomes and tolerability but the optimal role of these drugs is unclear. Adjuvant chemotherapy: Combination chemotherapy reduces recurrence and improves overall survival. Anthracycline based regimens are more effective than non-anthracycline based regimens; incorporation of a taxane further improves efficacy. Absolute 10 year survival benefit: 7–11% 50 years. Commonly used regimens include Fluorouracil/ epirubicin/cyclophosphamide(FEC), Docetaxel/ doxorubicin/cyclophosphamide (TAC), Doxorubicin/ cyclophosphamide (AC), cyclophosphamide/ methotrexate/fluorouracil (CMF). The benefit risk ratio for chemotherapy must be assessed on an individual patient basis. Adjuvant trastuzumab: early results of large clinical trials have shown significant improvements in relapse free and overall survival with the addition of adjuvant trastuzumab in patients with tumours that overexpress HER-2. Neoadjuvant therapy: May have some advantage in allowing more patients to have breast conserving surgery. Trials to assess the value of a neoadjuvant approach are ongoing.

BREAST CANCER

Table 5.17 Management (Continued) Locally advanced breast cancer (Presence of infiltration of the skin, chest wall or fixed axillary nodes)

The presence of infiltration of the skin, chest wall or fixed axillary nodes requires a neoadjuvant approach. Younger patients and those with ER/PR negative disease may need chemotherapy. Elderly patients with ER or PR positive disease may be treated with hormonal therapy alone (aromatase inhibitors are superior to tamoxifen in this setting).

Metastatic breast cancer The aim is palliation. Usual sites of metastases: lung, liver, bone, brain Bone metastases often respond to hormone manipulation; such patients may survive for many years

Endocrine therapy: indicated in those patients with ER- or PR-positive disease and slowly progressive disease. Responses tend to be slower in onset (3–6 months) than with chemotherapy but also tend to be more durable. Expected response rates of 40–60% to first line hormonal therapy in those with ER- and/or PR-positive tumours. Disease that responds to endocrine therapy and then progresses has a 25% response with second line treatment. Response to a third hormonal agent is 10–15%. Chemotherapy: indicated in situations where a high response rate and rapid time to response are required. Anthracycline based regimens are used in patients not exposed to them in the adjuvant setting. First line response rates are of the order of 40–60%. Taxanes are used in patients who have had prior exposure to anthracyclines with similar response rates. In patients with HER-2 over expression, addition of trastuzumab increases response rate and prolongs survival. In patients unfit for chemotherapy trastuzumab may be used as a single agent. Other agents with activity include capecitabine, vinorelbine and liposomal doxorubicin. Radiotherapy: useful for palliation of painful bone metastases, brain metastases or of soft tissue metastases causing pressure effects. Bisphosphonates: used in the treatment of malignancy related hypercalcaemia. In patients with bone metastases bisphosphonates have been demonstrated to reduce bone pain, skeletal events related to malignancy, and the incidence of hypercalcaemia.

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Prostate cancer Background • Accounts for approximately 25% of all cancers in men in the UK • Second to lung cancer as a cause of cancer deaths in men • Increasing age is major risk factor—70% of men >80 years of age have some evidence of prostatic cancer • Associated with a 78% 5-year survival • Appears to be linked to androgen exposure—rare in men castrated before 40 years of age • Incidence of prostate cancer is rising—due, in part, to increased detection of early disease by PSA screening • Many PSA-detected cancers are clinically unimportant—more research is needed to distinguish patients with raised PSA levels who are at risk of developing metastatic disease

Presentation • • • •

Urinary outflow symptoms Haematuria Symptoms of metastatic disease, e.g. back pain Asymptomatic elevation of PSA

Diagnosis and staging (Table 5.18) • PSA assessment: PSA >4ng/mL: clinical suspicion, requires transurethral ultrasound and needle biopsy • PSA >50ng/mL: often distant metastases • Transurethral ultrasound and biopsy • CT/MRI—may help to assess lymph node involvement • Isotope bone scan Table 5.18 TNM staging of prostate cancer T1—Clinically inapparent T2—Palpable tumour confined to prostate T3—Tumour extends through capsule T4—Tumour is fixed or invades structures other than seminal vesicles N0—No regional nodes N1—Regional lymph node metastases M0—No metastases M1—Metastases present

Management Many prostate tumours are clinically insignificant and will not cause symptoms in the patient’s lifetime. It is important, however, to recognize those patients whose tumours are likely to become clinically apparent. Prognostic factors in patients with cancer confined to the prostate: • Tumour grade—assessed by Gleason Score • Tumour stage—assessed clinically and radiologically

PROSTATE CANCER

• Patient age—younger patients are more likely to develop problems than older patients Cancer confined to prostate gland If aged 5years following diagnosis. The majority of tumours are sensitive to androgens. Hormonal manipulation aimed at reducing the effect of androgens (mainly testosterone) at a cellular level will produce responses in around 70% of men with bone metastases with a median response duration of 12–18 months. Commonly used hormonal treatments include: • Medical castration with luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) agonists. (These can induce a flare of hormone-induced activity on initiating therapy which needs to be suppressed with anti-androgens for the initial two weeks.) • Anti-androgens (cyproterone acetate, flutamide, bicalutamide). These may be used alone or in combination with LHRH agonists. The value of the combination is, however, uncertain. • Oestrogens, such as diethylstilbestrol (stilboestrol) may be used after other hormones have failed. This is used at lower doses than previously to minimize thromboembolic side-effects. • Bilateral orchidectomy is less popular due to the availability of medical methods of castration The side-effects of these hormone treatments include: • Loss of libido and potency • Hot flushes • Change in fat deposition • Osteoporosis • Poor concentration • Decreased energy and drive • Metabolic syndrome

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Local radiotherapy may be useful as an additional palliative measure particularly for bone pain. Strontium-89 and samarium-153, bone-seeking radioisotopes, have proved effective, though expensive, treatments for reducing bone pain. Hormone refractory prostate cancer The prognosis for patients whose disease has progressed through antiandrogen therapy is poor. Therapeutic options at this stage include: • Anti-androgen withdrawal—this results in a response in a small number of patients • Glucocorticoids—low-dose glucocorticoids, such as, dexamethasone 1mg produce clinical benefit in some patients • Chemotherapy—prostate cancer is relatively chemoresistant. Docetaxel and prednisolone improves symptoms with a modest survival improvement but is appropriate only for fitter patients.

Common palliation issues • Pathological fracture may occur without obvious trauma. It may need orthopaedic intervention (pinning or joint replacement) and radiotherapy. Prophylactic orthopaedic intervention may also be required for bone lesions at high risk of fracture • Spinal cord compression requires prompt diagnosis and treatment with high-dose steroids and radiotherapy. A minority of cases may be suitable for surgical intervention. Such patients include those with a single site of disease and those in whom there is uncertainty regarding the diagnosis. These patients should be discussed with a neurosurgeon • Neuropathic pain may be caused by local recurrence of tumour, pelvic spread or a collapsed vertebra. Such pain is partially opioidsensitive but adjuvant analgesics are usually required to supplement the effect of the opioid • Bone pain, specialist advice should be sought about the appropriate use of radiotherapy and radioactive isotopes as well as nerve blockade. Bisphosphonates such as pamidronate and zoledronic acid help to reduce bone pain and also reduce the number of cancerassociated skeletal events and incidence of hypercalcaemia • Bone marrow failure may occur in patients with advanced disease. Typically, the patient has symptomatic anaemia and thrombocytopenia. Support with palliative blood transfusions may be appropriate initially, but their appropriateness should be discussed with the patient and their family when there is no longer symptomatic benefit gained from transfusion • Retention of urine, problems with micturition including haematuria may lead to retention of urine. This may be acute and painful or chronic and painless. If the patient is unfit for transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP) then consider a permanent indwelling urinary catheter. Chronic urinary retention can lead to renal failure

PROSTATE CANCER

• Lymphoedema of the lower limbs and occasionally the genital area is usually due to advanced pelvic disease. It needs to be actively managed if complications are to be avoided • Altered body image and sexual dysfunction can result from the disease or any of the treatment modalities. This may be exacerbated by apathy and clinical depression. Specialist mental and psychological health strategies may be required

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Gynaecological cancer Ovarian carcinoma Background • Fifth commonest cancer in women • Median age at diagnosis 66 years • Approximately 5% are familial • 95% of tumours are epithelial in origin • Risk is reduced by factors that reduce the number of ovulatory cycles, e.g. pregnancy, use of oral contraceptive pill Presentation Ovarian cancer spreads intraperitoneally and may remain silent until late: 80% of patients present with disease which has spread beyond the pelvis. Common presenting symptoms include: • Abdominal distension • Abdominal pain • Altered bowel habit • Weight loss Diagnosis and staging (Table 5.19) Table 5.19 Diagnosis and staging Stage

Description

Five-year survival (%)

Stage I

Confined to ovaries but without pelvic extension

75

Stage II

Tumour with pelvic extension

45

Stage III

Tumour with peritoneal spread outside the pelvis, or involves small bowel; retroperitoneal or inguinal nodes

20

Stage IV

Distant metastases

1cm in diameter). Where optimal debulking is not possible initially, there may be a benefit to survival from performing debulking surgery after three cycles of chemotherapy—the so-called ‘interval debulking’.

GYNAECOLOGICAL CANCER

First-line chemotherapy A platinum/taxane combination is considered by most oncologists to be the optimum treatment for ovarian cancer, the most commonly used combination being carboplatin and paclitaxel. Response rates are about 70–80%, and median survival is 2–3 years with such treatment. Although the introduction of paclitaxel has improved the median survival in this disease, the majority of patients develop progressive disease and 5-year survival is still less than 25%. Treatment at relapse The vast majority of patients who relapse after first-line therapy are incurable. Secondary surgical debulking may be useful in selected patients, but its value is uncertain. The choice of further chemotherapy depends on the interval between completion of previous chemotherapy and relapse. Patients relapsing more than six months after the completion of platinum-based therapy may respond to further chemotherapy and should generally be rechallenged with a platinum agent. If re-challenge takes place more than 2 years from previous chemotherapy the response rate is 60%, whereas re-challenge within 6 months rarely results in tumour response. Patients relapsing less than six months after completion of platinumbased chemotherapy are unlikely to respond to further platinum-based therapy. Fit patients should be considered for liposomal doxorubicin. Eventually all patients who relapse following primary chemotherapy will develop chemotherapy-resistant disease. The majority of these patients will have symptoms related to intra-abdominal disease, including abdominal pain and bowel obstruction. Management of these symptoms can be very challenging and requires a multidisciplinary approach with involvement of palliative physicians, surgeons and oncologists.

Carcinoma of the cervix Background • Strongly associated with human papillomavirus (HPV)-16 (and also, but less strongly, with HPV-18 and -31) • 30–40% of patients with untreated cervical intraepithelial neoplasia progress to invasive squamous-cell carcinoma with a latent period of 10–20 years • Commonest female cancer in South-East Asia, Africa and South America • In the UK incidence and mortality have fallen by approximately 40% since the 1970s Presentation • Unless detected at screening, it is often asymptomatic until the disease is advanced • Postcoital bleeding • Intermenstrual bleeding

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Staging (Table 5.20) Table 5.20 Staging FIGO staging system Ia

Micro-invasive disease (max. depth 5mm, max. width 7mm)

Ib

Clinical disease confined to the cervix

Iia

Disease involves upper 2/3 of vagina but not parametrium

IIb

Disease involves parametrium but not pelvic wall

IIIa

Disease involves lower 1/3 of vagina

IIIb

Disease extends to pelvic side wall

IVa

Spread of tumour to adjacent pelvic organs

IV

Spread of tumour to distant organs

MRI plays an increasingly important role in the preoperative staging of these tumours. Management Management depends largely on disease stage. Patients with Stage Ia may be treated with simple hysterectomy or a conization procedure in those patients wishing to preserve their fertility. For Stage Ib or IIa disease, radical hysterectomy appears equivalent to radical pelvic radiotherapy. For those patients with Stage IIb to IVa disease, recent evidence suggests that a combination of radical pelvic radiotherapy with platinum-based chemotherapy gives the best results. Chemoradiotherapy may also be indicated for patients with Stage Ib and IIa disease with adverse prognostic factors, such as those with bulky tumours. For patients with Stage IVb disease pelvic radiotherapy may be useful in palliating troublesome pelvic symptoms. Cervical cancer is only moderately chemosensitive, with responses to single agents of around 20–30%. Agents with some activity in this disease include cisplatin, ifosfamide and paclitaxel.

Palliative issues in gynaecological cancers • Primary treatment often affects sexual function, fertility and body image, which may impact on coping strategies and need specialist counselling. Ovarian and vulval cancers often present late and specialist palliative care input from the point of diagnosis may be appropriate. Genetic counselling should be considered for close female relatives of patients with ovarian cancer, particularly if there is also a strong family history of breast cancer • Perineal and pelvic pain is common in all three of the common gynaecological malignancies—cervical, ovarian and vulval carcinomas. There is usually a neuropathic element to the pain which may be only partially opioid-sensitive

GYNAECOLOGICAL CANCER

• Lymphoedema affecting one or both limbs develops with uncontrolled pelvic disease. It can develop at any time in a patient’s cancer journey and frequently affects both lower limbs. This needs to be actively managed if complications are to be avoided. Management includes good skin care, avoiding additional trauma to the affected leg(s), and appropriately fitting compression garments • Ascites is particularly common with ovarian cancer and can be difficult to manage. Oral diuretics, particularly spironolactone in combination with a loop diuretic such as furosemide, may provide a little help. Repeated paracentesis may be needed. Consideration of a peritoneovenous shunt may be appropriate in some cases where prognosis is thought to be longer than three months • Acute or subacute bowel obstruction is often not amenable to surgical intervention and should be managed medically using SC medication via a syringe driver. Nasogastric tubes are rarely needed, and hydration can often be maintained orally if the nausea/vomiting are adequately controlled • Renal impairment can develop in any patient with advanced pelvic disease. It may be a pre-terminal event. Ureteric stenting may be appropriate depending on the patient’s perceived prognosis, the patient’s wishes and future treatment options. Renal impairment increases the risk of a patient developing opioid toxicity as renal excretion of opioid metabolites may be reduced • Vaginal or vulval bleeding may respond to antifibrinolytic agents such as tranexamic acid, radiotherapy and/or surgery • Offensive vaginal or vulval discharge can cause considerable distress to both patient and carers. Topical or systemic metronidazole may help as can barrier creams. Deodorizing machines may also help if the patient is confined to one room • Vesicocolic and rectovaginal fistulae need surgical assessment. These can be very difficult to manage and require a multidisciplinary approach with specialist input

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Upper gastrointestinal tract cancer Stomach cancer Background • Sixth most common cancer in the UK • Second most common cancer worldwide—very high incidence in Japan, Korea, central and south America and Eastern Europe • UK incidence of cancer of the distal stomach is falling but incidence of tumours of the cardia or gastro-oesophageal junction is rising • More common in males than females (2:1) and in those over 60 years of age • 90–95% of gastric tumours are adenocarcinomas Presentation • Insidious onset • Anaemia • Early satiety and anorexia • Weight loss • Dyspepsia Diagnosis and staging • Full staging is essential if inappropriate surgery is to be avoided • Endoscopy and biopsy • Endoluminal ultrasound to assess depth of invasion and lymph node involvement • CT scan to assess lymph node involvement and distant metastases • Laparoscopy—may be indicated to assess peritoneal disease if surgery is being considered Treatment Resectable disease Surgery remains the only potentially curative modality of treatment. Partial or total gastrectomy (depending on tumour site and mode of spread) and regional lymphadenectomy is the most commonly performed operation. Factors determining outcome include: • Tumour location—patients with distal tumours do better than those with more proximally located tumours • Tumour extent—patients with tumours beyond the gastric wall have a worse prognosis • Extent of lymph node involvement Following surgery many patients remain at high risk of local and distant disease relapse. Trials have suggested that such patients may benefit from adjuvant chemotherapy or chemoradiation. Combined pre- and postoperative chemotherapy has been shown to increase resectability and to reduce relapse rates in patients with operable gastric cancer. Locally advanced/metastatic disease Palliative operations can be performed to control pain or bleeding or to relieve obstruction for patients with advanced disease. The type of operation performed depends on the status of the patient and on the anticipated disease course.

UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT CANCER

Chemotherapy, with cisplatin and 5-fluorouracil with, or without, epirubicin, has a palliative benefit for patients with locally advanced or metastatic gastric cancer, and may also improve survival by some months. Trials exploring the role of drugs such as oxaliplatin, irinotecan, taxanes and capecitabine in this setting are showing encouraging results. Endoscopic procedures such as stenting or laser coagulation may also provide useful palliative benefits. Radiotherapy may provide useful palliation for bleeding from locally advanced tumours. It may also be useful in palliating pain caused by metastatic disease, e.g. bone metastases. Treatment of the rare gastrointestinal stromal tumours (GISTs) has been revolutionized by the biological therapy imatinib which has had dramatic impact in some patients.

Oesophageal carcinoma Background • Eighth most commonly occurring cancer in the UK • More common in males than females (2:1) • Tumours in the upper two-thirds of the oesophagus are usually squamous-cell cancers • Tumours in the lower third are usually adenocarcinomas—incidence of adenocarcinoma has been steadily increasing • Adenocarcinoma often arises in a Barrett’s oesophagus—endoscopic screening may reduce the incidence • Overall survival in the UK is 80% success rate Spinal infusion of local anaesthetic ± opioids

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Gastrointestinal symptoms

Dyspepsia Gastro-oesophageal reflux/oesophagitis (GORD) Assessment • Exclude or treat oesophageal candida infection • Consider oesophageal spasm • Avoid drugs which cause oesophagitis—potassium, NSAIDs • Consider pain of cardiac origin Treatment • Raise head of bed to reduce acid reflux • Consider paracentesis for tense ascites • Metoclopramide 10mg t.d.s. if signs of gastric stasis or distension • Antacid, e.g. Gaviscon Advance 5–10mL q.d.s. for mild symptoms • PPI, e.g. lansoprazole 30mg daily for moderate or severe symptoms; start with treatment dose then step-down after a few weeks

NSAID and steroid-related dyspepsia Treatment of drug-related dyspepsia • Consider stopping or reducing dose of NSAID/steroids • PPI, e.g. lansoprazole 30mg o.d. for severe symptoms or proven pathology. Start with treatment dose and reduce after four weeks. For milder symptoms start with maintenance dose (15mg) and increase later if needed • If symptoms persist on treatment dose of PPI, and NSAID needed by the patient to control pain, consider changing to nabumetone, which has a relatively favourable gastrointestinal safety profile in comparison with other NSAIDs and has not been associated with the cardiac adverse effects of selective COX-2 inhibitors15 Indications for prophylaxis • Prescribing NSAID with recent history of dyspepsia • Prescribing steroids with recent history of dyspepsia • Co-prescribing NSAID with steroids, anticoagulants, or aspirin • Prescribing NSAID in elderly patient >70 years (less clear evidence—use judgement)

Drugs for dyspepsia Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) • There is little difference in efficacy between the current PPIs available • A single daily dose is appropriate for PPIs rather than divided doses • Lansoprazole and omeprazole can be taken before or after food with equal efficacy

15 Hedner T., et al. (2004) Nabumetone: therapeutic use and safety profile in the management of osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. Drugs, 64(20): 2315–43; discussion 2344–5.

DYSPEPSIA

Despite the variations in dose recommendations in the product literature, omeprazole, lansoprazole and pantoprazole display similar dose– response relationships with similar potency at the same milligram doses. Daily doses of 15–20mg PPI are appropriate for maintenance therapy, prophylaxis, or less severe gastro-oesophageal reflux disease. Doses of 30–40mg daily are appropriate for treatment. Antacids Aluminium-containing antacids cause constipation whereas magnesiumcontaining antacids are laxative. Dimeticone in Asilone is a defoamer, useful for gastric distension/hiccups. Prostaglandin analogues Misoprostol is effective at preventing NSAID-induced ulcers, but is less well tolerated than PPIs, and diarrhoea is a common side-effect. Misoprostol is available in combination with diclofenac, which avoids the problem of non-compliance that can arise when the gastroprotective drug is given separately from the NSAID. H2 antagonists H2 antagonists are less effective at acid suppression than PPIs, and are less effective clinically at healing ulcers. Ranitidine has significantly fewer drug interactions and adverse effects than cimetidine.

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Gastrointestinal bleeding Gastric bleeding and melaena Assessment Consider the commonest causes: • Tumour bleeding • Clotting disorders • Peptic ulcer ±NSAIDs

Management considerations for gastrointestinal bleeding • Review or stop NSAIDs, aspirin, corticosteroids, warfarin • Commence PPI in treatment dose, e.g. lansoprazole 30mg o.d. when able to take orally • Blood tests for clotting screen and platelets and treat if appropriate • Consider radiotherapy referral if bleeding due to tumour • Tranexamic acid 1–2g t.d.s. p.o. (or by slow IV until able to take p.o.) • stop if no effect after one week • continue for one week after bleeding has stopped, then discontinue • only continue long term (500mg t.d.s.) if bleeding recurs • avoid tranexamic acid with history of thromboembolism/CVA, etc. • Small bleeds can herald a larger haemorrhage: • consider siting an iv cannula to administer emergency drugs • Intravenous high-dose PPI, e.g. omeprazole 80mg IV stat., then 8mg/h IV infusion • Arterial embolization • Oral sucralfate • Octreotide is an accepted medical management for bleeding from oesophageal or colonic varices. Circumstantial evidence indicates that the actions of octreotide are mainly mediated by a splanchnic vasoconstrictive effect, possibly with gastric acid suppression and enhancement of platelet aggregation. It is uncertain whether it has a role in gastrointestinal bleeding of other aetiology • Etamsylate

Rectal bleeding Assessment Consider the commonest causes: • Tumour bleeding • Clotting disorders • Pelvic infection • Haemorrhoids NSAIDs can cause lower gastrointestinal bleeding as well as the betterdocumented upper GI bleeding. Treatment • Review or stop NSAIDs • Treat any evidence or signs suggestive of pelvic infection • Consider radiotherapy referral • Blood tests for clotting screen and platelets and treat as appropriate

GASTROINTESTINAL BLEEDING

• Tranexamic acid 1–2g t.d.s. p.o. (or by slow IV until able to take p.o.) • stop if no effect after one week • continue for one week after bleeding has stopped, then discontinue • only continue long term (500mg t.d.s.). if bleeding recurs • avoid tranexamic acid with history of thromboembolism/CVA, etc. • Small bleeds can herald a larger haemorrhage • Consider siting an IV cannula to administer emergency drugs • Arterial embolization • Etamsylate • Oral sucralfate for post-radiation proctitis applied topically

Major gastrointestinal or rectal bleeding If patient’s condition is not stable, with history of major haemorrhage or ongoing bleeding: • Consider if the patient should be transferred to an acute medical/ endoscopy unit • Site an IV cannula to anticipate need for emergency drugs Treat anxiety or distress as needed: • Midazolam 2–5mg initially by slow IV titration (diluted 10mg in 10mL with saline) • If no IV access, midazolam 5–10mg SC (or IM if shocked/vasoconstricted)

The case for PPIs in gastrointestinal bleeding • Acid suppression in early studies did not help in the management of acute bleeding • It has more recently been shown that intensive therapy aimed at achieving complete acid suppression does substantially reduce the risk of recurrent bleeding after initial endoscopic treatment • Pharmacokinetic studies have shown that a bolus of 80mg pantoprazole or omeprazole followed by immediate continuous infusion of 8mg/h will result in an intragastric pH of 7 within 20 minutes. This has been continued for 72h in studies16

Support for patient and family Bleeding is very frightening. Ensure that the patient and family are well supported. Ensure that drugs are readily available for sedation if necessary and that dark bed linen (to disguise the amount of blood loss) is accessible

16 Lau J. Y., et al. (2000). Effect of intravenous omeprazole on recurrent bleeding after endoscopic treatment of bleeding peptic ulcers. New England Journal of Medicine, 343: 310–16.

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Bowel stoma care A bowel stoma is an artificial opening, created surgically, to allow faeces to leave the patient’s body by a new route through a spout or outlet on their abdomen. The majority of stomas encountered in patients with palliative care needs have been fashioned following surgical resection for cancer, or as a bypass for inoperable or recurrent cancers of the bowel or ovary causing obstruction. Any patient with a stoma (whether newly created or created many years ago, e.g. in Crohn’s disease) and malignant intra-abdominal disease is at risk of a number of different symptoms which need appropriate management. These include abdominal pain (constant or intermittent colic), nausea, vomiting, abdominal distension, constipation, diarrhoea and depression, all of which may impact on the holistic management of the patient. Bowel stomas are generally created from the colon (colostomy) or ileum (ileostomy). The bowel proximal to the stoma continues to function in the normal way whereas function distal to this is normally lost.

Temporary (de-functioning) stomas These include loop ileostomies or colostomies, which are usually created to protect an anastomosis or to facilitate decompression or healing in the distal bowel. The bowel loop is usually brought out onto the abdominal wall (right and left iliac fossa respectively for ileostomy and colostomy) and may be supported by a temporary rod or bridge so that it does not retract. The proximal opening allows the passage of stool which is collected in a stoma bag, and the distal opening leads to the redundant section of bowel. Mucus and old faeces may be expelled through the rectum. A temporary transverse colostomy may be created at an emergency operation for bowel obstruction since it is a relatively easy procedure in a sick patient.

Permanent stomas These are end sections of bowel which are brought to the skin surface. The potential stoma site along the path of the bowel is planned preoperatively, if possible, to allow optimal positioning of a stoma bag for the individual. • Panproctocolectomy—a permanent ileostomy is created from the terminal ileum. The rectum and anus are removed • Total colectomy—an ileostomy is formed and the rectal stump is retained which may be brought out onto the abdominal wall as a mucus fistula • Abdominoperineal (A–P) excision—here the rectum and anus are removed leaving a colostomy in the left iliac fossa • Hartmann’s procedure—procedure for excision of sigmoid colon or upper rectum. An end colostomy is formed and the rectal stump is closed and left in the pelvis • Pelvic exenteration—a radical operation removing pelvic organs. A colostomy and urostomy are formed. Men are likely to become impotent. An artificial vagina can be created for a woman

BOWEL STOMA CARE

Issues in stoma management The stool consistency of a sigmoid colostomy is no different from that passed naturally in health through the anus. The stool is less formed the further proximal in the colon the colostomy is. The formation of an ileostomy or colostomy should not in itself interfere with sexual function unless the definitive surgery interfered with the pelvic nerve supply. Stoma appliances and problems Stoma appliances are disposable, self-adhesive and skin-friendly. The type of appliance used is determined by several factors which include the shape and position of the stoma itself, including body contours, the type of effluent, skin type and the needs of the individual such as lifestyle and ability to self-care. Adequate adherence, comfort and skin protection are paramount. Ileostomy appliances are drainable for ease of emptying semi-formed/ liquid stool. Modern appliances have integral Velcro-type closures. The bags are emptied several times a day and changed every 1–3 days. • Colostomy appliances may be in one piece, such that the whole appliance needs removing every time the bag needs changing. Alternatively, a two-piece appliance is used which allows the flange to remain in position for several days, allowing the non-drainable bag to be changed as necessary, thus protecting the skin from the trauma of frequent changes • The flange size should be cut to fit accurately around the base of the stoma. The peristomal skin must be kept healthy and intact • A stoma usually shrinks in size during the first few months but should always retain the bright-red colour, indicating a good blood supply • Checks for colour, odour, consistency and volume should be made routinely Psychological care Enjoyment, comfort and satisfaction with life for the patient and his/her family need support from healthcare professionals, giving adequate time for answering questions and responding to needs. Frequently, patients have a short prognosis and the stoma is a visible daily reminder of this. In addition, they may be distressed by a feeling of no longer being in control. They have to learn new skills at a time when it is important to be concentrating on other more important issues, and they may be having to adapt reluctantly to relying on others for care. Relationships with family, friends and particularly spouses may be affected. Overactive stoma A cause may need to be identified and treated. Diet may need to be altered until overactivity settles. Foods such as cooked white rice and stewed apple may help. Marshmallows and ‘jelly babies’ may help in thickening the output from an ileostomy. Extra fluids orally should be encouraged to maintain hydration, especially in hot weather. A drainable bag may be necessary temporarily for a colostomy if the output is liquid. Some medication, particularly longer acting modified-release preparations, e.g. MST, enteric-coated drugs and capsules, may not be absorbed adequately and are not recommended with ileostomies. Loperamide (taken 45 min before meals) in the form of ‘melts’ or tablets but not capsules may be helpful in patients with an ileostomy.

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Gastrointestinal symptoms

If all else fails, systemic opioids and antisecretory agents may be needed. (b See the section on diarrhoea, p. 324). Constipation A cause should be sought where possible, and may include medication, particularly opioids, partial/complete bowel obstruction and dehydration. It may be necessary to instil warm arachis oil (only 5mL for a short time) through a Foley catheter with the balloon inflated to aid enema retention. The patient will usually be turned on the right side if the stoma is in the left iliac fossa to allow oil to flow across the transverse colon. The oil may cause difficulties with flange adhesion and the possibility of nut allergy should always be considered. Suppositories, phosphate and Microlax micro-enemas may also be useful. As a general rule, bulking aperients such as ispaghula husk (Fybogel) are not used in palliative care. Odour This is rarely a problem with modern appliances which contain charcoal filters. Proprietary stoma deodorizing agents are available. A few drops of vanilla essence placed in a bowel stoma bag may help, while topical metronidazole may be helpful for offensive fungating tumours in the region of the stoma. Bleeding Stomas may bleed due to clotting deficiencies and fungating tumours. Wafers of Kaltostat soaked in tranexamic acid or adrenaline may help with local pressure. Silver nitrate may be used for oozing granulation tissue. Bleeding from local cancer growth may abate with radiotherapy or cryotherapy. Skin excoriation Skin excoriation is a rare occurrence with modern appliances and good skin care. Various preparations are available to aid skin protection, including pastes to make a level surface onto which an appliance can be fitted. This is particularly important in the case of an ileostomy, when damage to the skin from digestive enzymes must be avoided. Flatulence Flatulence can usually be minimized by avoiding various foods and medication such as lactulose. A diet containing fibre such as porridge, root vegetables and brown bread is advised, although the terminally ill may not find these foods palatable. In relatively good health, most people with stomas can eat most foods, although certain food such as vegetables and fruit may cause an increase in stoma activity with embarrassing flatulence and odour. Camomile tea and peppermint tea or capsules may be helpful.

Enterocutaneous fistulae Enterocutaneous fistulae may occur in 3% of patients with advanced malignant disease. Patients with gastrointestinal tumours and those who have had abdominal radiotherapy are most at risk. A dehisced wound may also need management with a stoma appliance. If the effluent is greater than 100mL per 24h a stoma appliance will probably be needed.

BOWEL STOMA CARE

Meticulous preparation of the skin will be needed prior to applying an appliance. Suction may be needed while cleansing and preparing the fistula if there is excessive exudate, or it may need to be spigotted with a balloon catheter for a while. Various pastes, fillers and skin barriers may be needed to protect the skin and ensure a good fit to the edges of the wound. The stoma appliance may need to be adapted with time to take account of the change in size of the tumour and the weight loss of the patient.

Gastrostomy A gastrostomy is used for the purpose of feeding when the patient is unable to swallow adequately or safely, such as those patients with motor neurone disease, or with head and neck cancers. A venting gastrostomy is occasionally used in a relatively fit patient with intestinal obstruction who wants to be able to eat. In this situation, the patient is able to take nutrients by mouth but food contents are expelled through the gastrostomy. However, in patients with advanced disease, the decision to insert a gastrostomy has to be judged carefully. It is important to distinguish starvation, which responds to feeding, from cachexia, which does not respond to feeding alone. The latter is more likely in the presence of large tumour masses, certain tumour types or ongoing sepsis. Types of gastrostomy Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) Inserted under sedation and local anaesthetic using a ‘pull’ technique. Throughout its lifetime, the PEG tube should be rotated through 360° at least twice a week to prevent adhesion formation. Radiologically inserted gastrostomy (RIG) Inserted in the radiology department without sedation by a ‘push’ technique under fluoroscopic control. The tube is thinner than a PEG tube, and is held in place by its pigtail shape. It should not therefore be rotated, or it will dislodge. Surgical gastrostomy Carried out under general anaesthetic, usually when it is impossible to insert a PEG or RIG.

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Care of the gastrostomy tube The fixation plate should be maintained at 1–1.5cm from the abdominal exit stoma. A 50mL flush of sterile water should be used before and after every feed or administration of medication and regularly three times a day. Soda water, but not other fizzy drinks (they are too acidic) can be used to unblock stubborn blockages.17 Feeding Patients should be maintained at an angle of 30–45° during feeding and for 2h after to reduce the risk of aspiration. Many centres are less keen for feeding to occur during sleep because of the aspiration risk.

Problems with gastrostomies • • • •

Dislodgement Leakage: chemical digestion of surrounding skin Overgranulation Infection

A major concern with the use of PEG and RIG tubes in the UK involves ensuring that the best possible decision about when to insert a tube is taken. Often the clinical team that asks for a tube to be inserted is different from the team which carries out the procedure, which in turn is different from the team who manage the tube once it has been inserted. While tube insertion can play a crucial role for certain patients, especially where clear objectives for the intervention have been discussed and documented with the patient and family, figures show that a large percentage of patients die within weeks of tube insertion, perhaps before they have had time to gain benefit from the procedure and its management.

17 Rabeneck L., Wray P., Petersen N. J. (1996) Long-term outcomes of patients receiving per-cutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy tubes. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 11(5): 287–93

FURTHER READING

Further reading Books Doyle D., et al. (eds) (2004) Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine (3rd edn). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Twycross R. (2001) Symptom Management in Advanced Cancer. 3rd edn. Oxford: Radcliffe Medical Press. Watson M., Lucas C., Hoy A. (2006) Adult Palliative Care Guidance (2nd edn). London: The South West London and the Surrey, West Sussex and Hampshire Cancer Networks.

Articles Baines M. J. (2000) Symptom control in advanced gastrointestinal cancer. European Journal of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, 12: 375–9. Becker et al. (2006) Malignant ascites: systematic review and guidelines for treatment. European Journal of Cancer, 42: 589–97. Coco C., et al. (2000) Use of a self-expanding stent in the palliation of rectal cancer recurrences. A report of three cases. Surgical Endoscopy, 14(8): 708–11. Culbert P., Gillett H., Ferguson A. (1998) Highly effective new oral therapy for faecal impaction. British Journal of General Practice, 48: 1599–600. Larkin P.J. (2008) The management of constipation in Palliative Care: Clinical practice recommendations. Palliative Medicine, 22: 7: 796–808. Mertadante S. (1992) Treatment of diarrhoea due to enterocolic fistula with octreotide in a terminal cancer patient. Palliative Medicine, 6: 257–9. Potter K. (2000) Surgical oncology of the pelvis: ostomy planning and management. Journal of Surgical Oncology, 73(4): 237–42. Stephenson J. (2002) The development of clinical guidelines on paracenteis for ascites related to malignancy. Palliative Medicine, 16: 213–18. Sykes N. (2008) Opioid-induced constipation. European Journal of Palliative Care. Supplement.

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Chapter 6c

Cachexia, anorexia and fatigue We must accept finite disappointment, but we must never lose infinite hope. Martin Luther King, Jr

Background The symptoms of weight loss and fatigue affect 70% of patients with advanced cancer, particularly gastric and pancreatic cancer. In addition these symptoms are common to many other patients with non-malignant chronic diseases. Apart from marked weight loss and lethargy, there is also an association with physical, emotional and mental symptoms and loss of motivation and social contact. ‘Listless, sluggish, faint, despondent, apathetic, tired, slack, indifferent, paralysed’, are some of the adjectives used by patients and some even describe the fatigue of advanced disease as ‘pain’, as it is so profound. Cachexia and fatigue are multifactorial. They are seldom seen in isolation from other symptoms experienced by patients with advanced disease, thus adding to the disease burden. Cancer has become more of a chronic rather than an acute illness, because of the improvements in its management. There is an increased awareness of the suffering caused by cachexia and fatigue but they still remain poorly recognized by clinicians. Advances in management have not kept pace with that for other common symptoms in advanced disease.

Definitions Cancer-related fatigue is defined by the National Comprehensive Cancer Network as ‘a persistent, subjective sense of tiredness related to cancer or cancer treatment that interferes with usual functioning.’1 It has further been described in terms of: Perceived energy, mental capacity, and psychological status. It rises over a continuum, ranging from tiredness to exhaustion. In contrast with the tiredness sometimes felt by the healthy individual, cancer-related fatigue is perceived as being of greater magnitude, disproportionate to activity or exertion, and not relieved by rest.2

1 Mock V., et al. (2000) NCCN Practice Guidelines for cancer-related fatigue. Oncology (Huntington), 14: 151–61. 2 Ahlberg K., et al. (2003) Assessment and management of cancer-related fatigue in adults. Lancet; 362: 640–50.

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Patients may describe fatigue subjectively in three dimensions: Physical sensations—unusual tiredness, and decreased capacity for work Affective sensations—decreased motivation, mood and energy Cognitive sensations—decreased concentration and mental agility Patients may describe fatigue objectively as a quantifiable decrease in physical or mental performance. These two experiences of fatigue may not be related, and patients may feel fatigued without any loss of objective performance and vice versa1 The Cancer Anorexia Cachexia Syndrome (CACS) is an involuntary loss of weight that is not caused simply by anorexia. The syndrome includes anaemia and immunosuppression along with a number of biochemical changes indicating some systemic effects of malignancy. Cachexia is a term derived from the Greek word kakos, meaning bad, and hexis, meaning condition.

The Cancer Anorexia Cachexia Syndrome (CACS) • Weight loss (usually defined as more than 5% of premorbid weight in the previous six months) • Cancer tumours produce cytokines, e.g. cachectin—TNF (tumour necrosis factor), interleukins I and VI, lipolytic hormones and PIF (proteolysis-inducing factor) which cause metabolic abnormalities such as lipolysis and protein catabolism • Involves the progressive loss of lean and adipose tissue that is unrelated to anorexia and cannot be reversed by feeding • It is commonly associated with anorexia (the absence or loss of appetite for food) and asthenia (a syndrome of physical fatigue, generalized weakness and mental fatigue) • Affects over 80% of patients with advanced cancer and is a major contributor to cancer morbidity and mortality • Occurs more commonly in solid tumours such as pancreas, lung, stomach, colorectal and oesophagus, but less frequently in carcinoma of the breast and prostate and haematological malignancies • Creates a major source of distress to patients and families who often seek to reverse it by pressurizing the patient to eat more • Has a negative psychological impact due to body image changes • Is a constant reminder to patients of underlying disease • Decreases social interaction and support • Decreases ability to tolerate and respond to oncological treatments

Prevalence Fatigue • Approaching 100% of patients treated for cancer are affected by fatigue • Patients report fatigue more commonly when they are undergoing chemotherapy or radiotherapy, or in the presence of advanced malignancy

BACKGROUND

Cachexia • More than 80% of patients with advanced cancer are cachexic

Aetiology Non-malignant causes of cachexia and fatigue all of which can also contribute to symptoms in advanced cancer ( b see also Fig. 6c.1). Infection

Metabolic and electrolyte disorders

Anaemia Chronic hypoxia

Pharmacological toxicity Cachexia due to HIV/ AIDS or progressive illness

Insomnia

Neurological disorders

Malnutrition

Chronic pain

Psychogenic causes

Over-exertion

Dehydration

Reversible causes of ‘secondary’ anorexia should be actively sought and corrected as appropriate. They include: • Dyspepsia • Altered taste • Malodour • Nausea and vomiting • Sore mouth • Pain • Biochemical • hypercalcaemia • hyponatraemia • uraemia • gastric stasis • Constipation • Secondary to treatment • Drugs • Radiotherapy • Chemotherapy • Anxiety • Depression

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Psychological and CNS Learned food aversion Alterations in taste perception Psychological stress

Tumour effects Mechanical obstruction Substrate consumption Cytokine production by tumour Lipid mobilizing factors

Treatment-related effects Chemotherapy Nausea, stomatitis, mucositis Radiation therapy Xerostomia, fatigue Surgery Pain,ileus

Host-related effects Increased resting energy expenditure Alterations in intermediary metabolism Cytokine production by host macrophages Autonormic dysfunction Gastric emptying

Fig. 6c.1 Multifactorial causes of cancer fatigue and cachexia. From Bruera and Higginson (1996) Cachexia–Anorexia in Cancer Patients. Oxford University Press.

Metabolic effects The metabolic changes seen in cachexia differ from those seen in starvation. In starvation, protein is conserved, energy expenditure reduced and fatty acids and ketones become a major source of energy. This contrasts with cancer cachexia where the resting energy expenditure is increased and both protein and fat are inefficiently utilized, in association with increased gluconeogenesis. The reasons behind these metabolic changes are unknown, but postulated mechanisms may include the following: • A non-specific response to the tumour or factors released by the tumour. The presence of a tumour may cause chronic stimulation of the body’s inflammatory system leading to classic cachexic metabolic changes, including an increase in carbohydrate, fat and protein catabolism. • Solid tumours metabolize glucose anaerobically and thus inefficiently, increasing the resting energy expenditure of the body • The neuroendocrine axis appears to be important in the regulation of appetite • There is evidence of increased insulin resistance in patients with cancer, and reduced glucose tolerance, perhaps caused by an imbalance of cortisol, insulin and glucagons • An increase in protein turnover, particularly in skeletal muscle, is associated with the striking loss of lean muscle mass occurring in malignancy associated cachexia • The acute phase response is the systemic response to inflammation or tissue damage occurring in trauma and sepsis, as well as cancer cachexia. This response appears to be mediated by cytokines.

BACKGROUND

The activity of this response has been shown to correlate with the development of cachexia in patients with malignancy (Fig. 6c.2) Tumour/host reaction Inflammatory products

Tumour products

Release of cytokines

Chronic inflammation Systemic reaction Immune system Anorexia

Brain

Liver

Skeletal muscle

Altered metabolism Weight loss

Fig. 6c.2 The systemic inflammatory response and cancer.

Management Cachexia and fatigue can often be anticipated and various potentially correctable causes actively sought. A multidisciplinary approach maximizes the potential to improve symptoms. National Comprehensive Cancer Network cancer-related fatigue guidelines propose the following:1 • Regular screening of patients using an instrument to evaluate degree of fatigue • For those who describe mild fatigue, the subject is discussed and education provided. For those who describe moderate or severe fatigue a fuller, primary assessment is required, looking in particular for the presence of: • pain • emotional distress • sleep disturbance • anaemia • hypothyroidism If such primary factors are detected, they should be treated according to practice guidelines. If primary factors are not detected a secondary comprehensive assessment is advocated, with referral to other healthcare professionals as appropriate, including: • Review of medications • Assessment of co-morbidities, e.g.: • nutritional/metabolic evaluation • assessment of activity level If specific causes (and therefore treatment) of fatigue and weakness cannot be found, symptomatic interventions should be considered.

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Non-drug interventions • There is a large body of evidence to suggest that a moderate exercise programme can improve functional capacity, reduce fatigue and also improve mood • Nutritional advice—to eat when hungry, what is enjoyed, in frequent small amounts • Pacing activity so that important activities can be carried out. Pacing allows gradual adaptation to lower levels of energy • Promotion of good sleep hygiene • Helping the family: listen to their concerns and explain cachexia. They may need to find other ways of expressing their love rather than being obsessional about quantities of food that can no longer be eaten and that will not alter prognosis, but may threaten to isolate patients who withdraw from the social interactions of mealtimes due to being put under pressure to eat. Drug interventions Corticosteroids (i.e. dexamethasone 4mg o.d.) • Rapid onset of benefits within 2–3 days • Role is limited by the rapid onset of side-effects (i.e. proximal myopathy, fluid retention and insulin resistance) and loss of effectiveness after only a few weeks • They do not increase lean body mass • They may be useful to improve appetite and well-being, particularly when prognosis is limited and a fast response is needed Progestogens (i.e. megestrol acetate 160–320mg/day; medroxyprogesterone acetate 200mg t.d.s.) • Onset of benefit may take up to two weeks • Clear evidence of appetite improvement but less clear evidence of anything other than minimal weight gain. Fluid retention may be a problem • Does not increase lean body mass • Higher doses of progestogens above 800mg/day not noted to be more effective than lower doses • Comparisons between corticosteroids and progestogens show no survival advantage, but more side-effects are noted with corticosteroids Metoclopramide • Useful in situations where there is gastric stasis • Prokinetic action counteracts autonomic dysfunction—common in malignancy • Reduces nausea

BACKGROUND

Erythropoietin • For patients with anaemia, erythropoietin on a weekly basis has been shown to reduce fatigue • It is unclear if the beneficial effect is due to the correction of the anaemia or to a direct erythropoietin effect on its receptors, which have been isolated in several different tissues including the brain • Expensive treatment • Most efficient dosage schedules still to be determined Future treatment possibilities There is growing understanding as to the complex nature of the pathophysiological basis of cachexia. Cytokine activity has been strongly implicated in much of the recent research. The cachexia-promoting cytokines are opposed by weight-promoting cytokines. However, the relationships are not straightforward and research is still exploring potential interventions. It may be that the specific causes of CACS in patients may respond best to specific treatments, but it is very unlikely that one solution will impact on all patients with CACS. Both procatabolic and anticatabolic cytokine involvement, altered inflammatory responses, neuroendocrine effects and the interactions of both tumour and host will all have to be taken into account. The causes of cachexia and fatigue are so multifactorial that it is now increasingly realized that the most potentially successful approach to treatment will require a multifactorial approach. Such work has been pioneered in Montreal in the Cancer Nutrition Rehabilitation programme where a small team of a dietician, therapists and palliative physicians have been working to impressive effect among patients with lung cancer, particularly those noted to have a high CRP level suggestive of an acute phase response. Such a strategy requires an individualized response based on taking a careful clinical history and examination in order to decide which interventions are appropriate. Unfortunately, such a low-tech approach to the problem does not always attract the attention achieved by a drug product. Considerable research activity is taking place into CACS at various centres across the world, and the future holds much promise that some interventions may become available that may, at the very least, reduce the speed of onset of CACS, thus allowing patients the opportunity for increased quality of life and to consider further disease-modifying treatments as their functional status is maintained ( b see Table 6c. 1).

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Table 6c.1 Possible mechanisms of action of established and emerging pharmacological agents in the management of cachexia Possible mechanism

Agent

Central nervous system effects

Metoclopramide Corticosteroids Progestational agents Cannabinoids Thalidomide

Modulate immune response/reduce inflammation

Corticosteroids Progestational agents Polyunsaturated fatty acids Thalidomide Melatonin NSAIDs

Anabolic effect

Growth hormone/insulin growth factors Anabolic agents Beta-2 adrenergic agents

Stimulate gastrointestinal motility/increase gastric emptying

Metoclopramide

Stimulate appetite

Ghrelin

FURTHER READING

Further reading Books Bruera E., Higginson I. (1996) Cachexia–Anorexia in Cancer Patients. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Doyle D., et al (eds) (2004) Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine (3rd edn). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Articles Argiles J. M., et al (2008) Novel approaches to the treatment of cachexia. Drug discovery Today, 13(1–2): 73–8. Inui A. (2002) Cancer anorexia–cachexia syndrome: current issues in research and management. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, 52(2): 72–91. Krzystek-Korpacka M. et al. (2007) Impact of weight loss on circulating IL-1, IL-6, IL-8, TNF-alpha, VEGFA, VEGF-C and midkine in gastroesophageal cancer patients. Clinical Biochemistry, 40(18): 1353–60. MacDonald N., et al. (2003) Understanding and managing cancer cachexia. Journal of the American College of Surgery, 197(1): 143–61. McMillan D. C., et al. (2001) Albumin concentrations are primarily determined by the body cell mass and the systemic inflammatory response in cancer patients with weight loss. Nutrition and Cancer, 39(2): 210–13. McMillan D. C. et al. (1999) A prospective randomized study of megestrol acetate and ibuprofen in gastrointestinal cancer patients with weight loss. British Journal of Cancer, 79(3–4): 495–500. Monk J. P., et al. (2006) Assessment of tumor necrosis factor alpha blockade as an intervention to improve tolerability of doseintensive chemotherapy in cancer patients. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 24(12): 1852–9. Nelson K. A., Walsh D. (2002) The cancer anorexia–cachexia syndrome: a survey of the Prognostic Inflammatory and Nutritional Index (PINI) in advanced disease. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 24(4): 424–8. Radbruch L. (2008) Fatigue in palliative care patients-an EAPC approach. Palliative Medicine 22: 13–32. Stewart G. D., et al (2006) Cancer cachexia and fatigue. Clinical Medicine, 6(2): 140–3. Stone P., et al. (2000) Cancer-related fatigue: inevitable, unimportant and untreatable? Results of a multi-centre patient survey. Cancer Fatigue Forum. Annals of Oncology, 11(8): 971–5. Wang H. S., et al (2007) Elevated serum ghrelin exerts an orexigenic effect that may maintain body mass index in patients with metastatic neuroendocrine tumors. Journal of Molecular Neuroscience, 33(3): 225–31.

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Chapter 6d

Sweating and fever Definition • Sweating (diaphoresis) is the secretion of fluid onto the skin surface to aid cooling • Hyperhydrosis is the production of large volumes of sweat • Sweating is a normal phenomenon in the regulation of body temperature, but in illness can be a troublesome and distressing symptom • Severity of sweating can change with climate, and perception of the symptom may differ with varying cultural norms Measurement tools include • Symptom diary • Three grade severity scale1 • Six-point rating scale2 Causes (common) • Sepsis • Tumour burden3 • Lymphoma (neoplastic fever) • Disseminated malignancy, especially hepatic and renal metastases (neoplastic fever) • Sex hormone insufficiency due to cancer treatment, especially breast cancer (tamoxifen, induction of menopause by chemotherapy or by radiotherapy) and prostate cancer (gonadorelin analogues) Causes (less common) • Endocrine disturbance, e.g. hypoglycaemia, hyperthyroidism • Thermoregulation in response to increase in temperature, exertion or nutrition • Weakness • Hypoxia • Severe pain (infarction, fracture) • Fear and anxiety • Medication, e.g. opioids (rare), antidepressants, ethanol • Drug reactions; blood products (transfusion reaction) • Neuropathy (diabetic, autonomic); autoimmune disease, idiopathic

1 Quigley C. S., Baines M. (1997) Descriptive epidemiology of sweating in a hospice population. Journal of Palliative Care. 13: 22–6 2 Deaner P.B. (2000) The use of thalidomide in the management of severe sweating in patients with advanced malignancy: trial report. Palliative Medicine. 14: 429–31 3 Chang J. C. (1988) Antipyretic effect of naproxen and corticosteroids on neoplastic fever. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 3: 141–4.

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Management • Exclude reversible cause(s) and treat if appropriate • Supportive measures: • decreasing ambient temperature • lowering humidity • increasing airflow around patient (fan) • clothing (modern synthetic materials, e.g. Gore-Tex, allow evaporation)

Pharmacological measures • Sepsis • antibiotics if appropriate • paracetamol 1g p.o./p.r. q.d.s. (effective in palliating sepsis-induced sweating) • Neoplastic fever • naproxen 250–500mg p.o. b.d. can relieve neoplastic fever for 10–14 days; once stopped, fever recurs in 66% of patients3 • patients may benefit from switching to an alternative NSAID4 • corticosteroid therapy with dexamethasone has been shown to reduce symptoms, independently of NSAIDs. However, there is no agreement on starting dose. Suggestion: • start dexamethasone at 1–2mg o.d. and titrate to effect (or to corticosteroid side-effects) • Sex hormone insufficiency • venlafaxine 37.5mg p.o. o.d. is effective, as is clonidine 0.3–0.4mg p.o. nocte • higher doses of venlafaxine may be required, though this drug can also cause sweating5 • diethylstilboestrol 1–3mg p.o. o.d. improves symptoms in men, but risk of thromboembolic events is increased • progestogen therapy is effective in women, but has a high side-effect profile • Non-specific treatments • antimuscarinic therapy can block parasympathetic-mediated sweating, e.g. propantheline p.o. 15mg nocte • drugs used for other antimuscarinic effects, such as glycopyrronium, may also help • thalidomide 100mg p.o. nocte2 has been used in the hospice setting with some effect, though controlled studies are still required

4 Tsavaris N., et al. (1990) A randomised trial of the effect of three non-steroid anti-inflammatory agents in ameliorating cancer induced fever. Journal of Internal Medicine, 228: 451–5 5 Loprinzi C. L., et al. (2001) Management of hot flashes in breast cancer survivors. Lancet Oncology, 2(4): 199–204.

FURTHER READING

• other drugs of reported benefit include: • cimetidine (for opioid induced sweats) • beta-blockers • calcium channel blockers (e.g. diltiazem) • benzodiazepines • gabapentin6 • olanzapine7 • thioridazine8

Further reading Books Back I. (2001) Palliative Medicine Handbook. Cardiff: BPM Books. Doyle D., et al. (eds) (2004) Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine (3rd edn). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Watson M., Lucas C., Hoy A. (2003) Adult Palliative Care Guidance. (2nd edn) London: The South West London and the Surrey, West Sussex and Hampshire Cancer Networks.

Articles Chang J. C. (1988) Antipyretic effect of naproxen and corticosteroids on neoplastic fever. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 3: 141–4. Chang J. C. (1989) Neoplastic fever: a proposal for diagnosis. Archives of Internal Medicine, 149: 1728–30. Economos K. (1995) The effect of naproxen on fever in patients with advanced gynaecologic malignancies. Gynecologic Oncology, 56(2): 250–4. Loprinzi C. L. et al. (2001) Management of hot flushes in breast cancer survivors. Lancet Oncology, 2(4): 199–204. Miller J. I., Ahmann R. D. (1992) Treatment of castration induced menopausal symptoms with low dose diethylstilboestrol in men with advanced prostate cancer. Urology, 40(6): 499–502. Penel N., et al. (2000) Are there criteria for the diagnosis of paraneoplastic fever? La Revue de Médecine Interne, 21(8): 684–92. Quigley C. S., Baines M. (1997) Descriptive epidemiology of sweating in a hospice population. Journal of Palliative Care, 13(1): 22–6. Zhukovsky D. S. (2002) Fever and sweats in patients with advanced cancer. Hematology/Oncology Clinics of North America, 16(3): 579–88.

6 Porzio G., et al. (2006) Gabapentin in the treatment of severe sweating experienced by advanced cancer patients. Supportive Care in Cancer, 14(4): 389–91. 7 Zylicz Z., et al. (2003) Flushing and sweating in an advanced breast cancer patient relieved by olanzapine. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 25(6): 494–5. 8 Abbas S-Q. (2004) Use of thioridazine in palliative care patients with troublesome sweating. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management¸ 27(3): 194–5.

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Respiratory symptoms Fibrosis Lymphadenopathy Respiratory muscle weakness Lymphangitis carcinomatosa Carcinoma ± SVCO COPD/asthma Secondaries

Heart failure, arrythmias Pericardial effusion

Pleural effusion

Mesothelioma

Diaphragmatic weakness or pressure by ascites Other-anaemia, uraemia, anxiety

Pulmonary embolism collapse/consolidation Pneumonia

Fig. 6e.1 Causes of breathlessness.

Breathlessness1,2 • Breathlessness is ‘an uncomfortable awareness of breathing’ • Breathlessness is common in palliative care (40–80% prevalence in some series) and in patients with cancer • Breathlessness is a complex symptom involving physiological, psychological, environmental and functional factors • The pathophysiology of breathlessness is complicated and not fully understood • Normal breathing is maintained by regular rhythmical activity in the respiratory centre in the brainstem. This is stimulated by mechanical receptors (stretch receptors in the airways, lung parenchyma, intercostal muscles and diaphragm) and by hypoxia and high levels of CO2 (detected by chemoreceptors in the aortic and carotid bodies and in the medulla) • In malignant lung disease, breathlessness is usually due to distortion and stimulation of the mechanical receptors, and blood gases may be normal • Fatigue and respiratory muscle weakness are both significant factors contributing to breathlessness among patients with cancer

1 Bruera E. (2000) The frequency and correlates of dyspnoea in patients with advanced cancer. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 19: 357–62. 2 Dudgeon D. J., Lertzman M. (1998) Dyspnea (sic) in the advanced cancer patient. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 16: 212–19.

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Assessment and investigation Aim to identify reversible/treatable causes of breathlessness • A good history and examination are vital • assess timing and speed of onset of breathlessness • consider exacerbating and relieving factors • identify co-morbidities and relevant past medical history • Targeted investigations as appropriate for the individual patient, e.g. • full blood count to identify anaemia • chest X-ray to reveal consolidation, pleural effusion, etc. • V/Q scan or CTPA if pulmonary emboli suspected Note: Do not assume that breathlessness is directly caused by cancer.

Principles of management Consider: • General measures • Treatment of reversible causes • Disease-specific treatments • Symptomatic management—including pharmacological and non-pharmacological measures

General management Explanation of the factors contributing to breathlessness is vital, along with discussion of steps to be taken in its management. Remember the importance of reassurance and building patient confidence, that the awareness of breathing can be reduced by the drugs and that he or she can feel more in control. Patients and carers may find it helpful to discuss fears openly, and to acknowledge the impact of breathlessness on their lives. A calm, positive, logical approach can do much to alleviate the distress of the patient and their family as well as other members of the healthcare team. Consider the need for adjustments to the patient’s lifestyle or expectations.

Treatment of reversible causes and disease-specific measures Reversible or treatable causes of breathlessness should be identified and managed appropriately ( b see Table 6e.1 below). • Interventions need to be considered in terms of the potential benefits versus risks posed to each individual patient, taking into account disease stage, performance status as well as the patient’s wishes • Breathlessness due to lung cancer per se, can be alleviated in a high proportion of patients with radiotherapy or chemotherapy

Symptomatic treatment An approach focused on managing the symptom of breathlessness rather than addressing specific causes may be needed in some individuals, depending on their ability to tolerate specific treatments, stage in disease and symptom burden. Symptomatic management includes both pharmacological and non-pharmacological strategies and involves the multidisciplinary team.

BREATHLESSNESS

Table 6e.1 Management of treatable causes of breathlessness Cause

Management options

Lung tumour

Radiotherapy (RT) or chemotherapy

Bronchospasm

Bronchodilators Corticosteroids

Infection

Antibiotics Add corticosteroids if infective exacerbation of COPD

Pleural effusion

Therapeutic pleural aspiration Drainage and pleurodesis

Pulmonary embolism

Anticoagulation (low molecular weight heparin may be safer in some cases than warfarin)

Heart failure

Diuretics, nitrates, anti-arrhythmics if indicated

Anaemia

Blood transfusion Iron Erythropoietin

Lymphangitis carcinomatosa

Corticosteroids Diuretics?? Bronchodilators

Large airway obstruction

RT Stenting if extrinsic compression Laser treatment Brachytherapy Corticosteroids

SVC obstruction

RT/chemotherapy Stent Corticosteroids

Pharmacological measures Bronchodilators Even in the absence of an obvious ‘wheeze’, there may be an element of reversible bronchoconstriction—consider a trial of bronchodilators. • Beta-adrenoceptor agonists • salbutamol 2.5–5mg p.r.n/6h via nebulizer or 2 puffs p.r.n. via spacer (Beware of increased anxiety, tremor and tachycardia if used regularly) • Anticholinergic bronchodilators • ipratropium bromide 250–500mcg 6h via nebulizer, or 2 puffs q.d.s. via spacer device—can be given in combination with salbutamol (Nebulized saline may liquidize tenacious secretions and aid expectoration) • Sodium chloride 0.9% 5mL via a nebulizer p.r.n. Corticosteroids Steroids are thought to reduce tumour-associated oedema and may improve breathlessness due to multiple lung metastases, tracheal obstruction, SVCO or lymphangitis carcinomatosa. Benefit should be apparent within four to seven days. • dexamethasone 4–8mg p.o. o.d., stop if no improvement within 7 days

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Theophyllines Oral theophyllines are bronchodilators, but their use is limited by a high incidence of side-effects. It is important to be alert to significant interactions with other drugs and remember that there are differences in bioavailability between various brands of oral theophyllines. Brand name must be specified when prescribing. See up-to-date edition of the BNF for full details. Try: • Theophylline m/r e.g. Uniphyllin Continus 200mg b.d. • Aminophylline m/r e.g. Phyllocontin Continus 225–450mg b.d. Caution: • The half-life of theophylline may be increased in hepatic impairment, heart failure, elderly patients and by drugs including cimetidine, ciprofloxacin and erythromycin • The half-life is decreased in smokers, heavy drinkers and by phenytoin, carbamazepine and barbiturates Opioids Morphine reduces inappropriate and excessive respiratory drive and substantially reduces the ventilatory response to hypoxia and hypercapnia. By slowing respiration, breathing may be made more efficient, reducing both the sensation of breathlessness and associated anxiety. Morphine does not cause CO2 retention or clinically significant respiratory depression if used appropriately. There is evidence to support its use among patients with cancer, heart failure, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and pulmonary fibrosis. Try: • Oral morphine 2.5mg p.o. p.r.n. or regularly 4h if dyspnoea is continuous • Substitute SC morphine or diamorphine if patient cannot swallow Morphine modified release (MST) seems to be less effective for breathlessness than immediate release morphine preparations given 4h. A recent article suggests dosing regimes for use of opioids in breathlessness, including use among patients already receiving opioids for pain.3 There is currently no evidence to support the use of nebulized morphine, and in some individuals there is a risk of bronchospasm with its use. There is some interesting work being done on the use of oral transmucosal fentanyl citrate for shortness of breath. Initial findings look promising.4

3 Brown D. J. F. (2006) Palliation of breathlessness. Clinical Medicine, 6(2): 133–6. 4 Gauna A.A, et al. (2008) Oral transmucosal fentanyl citrate for dyspnea in terminally ill patients: an observational cases study. Journal of Palliative Medicine, 11(4) 643–8.

BREATHLESSNESS

Benzodiazepines Panic with hyperventilation and the fear of suffocation may worsen breathlessness. • Longer acting benzodiazepines may be particularly helpful if there is severe anxiety, or at night when breathlessness and associated panic disturb sleep • diazepam 2–5mg nocte, b.d. or p.r.n. • Benzodiazepines with shorter half-lives can be useful in crisis situations, but there is a risk of reactive agitation/anxiety as the effect wears off • lorazepam 0.5–2mg p.r.n. (fast onset, short half-life and is well absorbed sublingually—it can be useful for self-administration by patients) • midazolam 2.5–5mg SC or buccal stat Cannabinoids Nabilone 0.1–0.2mg orally up to four times a day may be given for patients who are continually breathlessness, anxious and who do not tolerate other conventional respiratory sedatives. Sedation and dysphoria may occur with higher doses. Side-effects can be minimized by starting with 0.1mg nocte and gradually titrating the dose. It is unsuitable for patients with heart disease or severe hepatic impairment. .

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Oxygen5 Oxygen may help breathlessness (and/or confusion) in those patients who are hypoxic either at rest or on exertion Fig 6e.2. It may help other breathless patients (with a normal PaO2) because of the effect of facial or nasal cooling, or as a placebo. Hypoxic respiratory drive usually only starts with PaO2 90% of a 20mL/kg water load in 4h, and/or failure to dilute urine to osmolality 20 × 109/L but traumatic bleeding is problematic if the platelet count is less than 40 x 109/L. Sepsis will increase the bleeding tendency. If platelet function is abnormal, bleeding may occur at higher counts. • A platelet transfusion may be considered if there is bleeding which is distressing. It will only raise the platelet count for a few days. This treatment should not be given routinely if there is no evidence of bleeding and the count is greater than 10 x 109/L. If the platelet count is less than 50 x 109/L and the patient is bleeding, platelets should be given • A pool of platelets is derived from four units of donated blood and is approximately 300mL • Platelets must be kept at room temperature and transfused within 30min, using a sterile administration set or a platelet infusion set. Never use an in-line filter • The donor should be ABO compatible with the patient • Occasional reactions with rigors and fever may occur .These respond to chlorphenamine 10mg IV and hydrocortisone 100mg IV It is important to anticipate which patients are likely to require platelet transfusions and to decide the appropriateness prior to a crisis. The whole team should be involved in decisions concerning ongoing regular prophylactic transfusions and their withdrawal. With platelet counts of 10–20 x 109/L the risk of a major bleed is small, severe bleeding occurring mostly with counts less than 5 x 109/L. Tranexamic acid (inhibits fibrinolysis) can be used to control mucosal bleeding due to thrombocytopenia: • 1g orally t.d.s. or slow IV injection • Mouthwash 1g every six hours for oral bleeding • Topical tranexamic acid for superficial fungating tumours On average, it takes two days of therapy to slow down bleeding and four days for bleeding to stop.

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Palliative haematological aspects

Blood products These are less commonly used in the palliative care setting and close liaison with the haematology department is essential when considering administration. The list below outlines some products and their indications.

Indications for blood products Fresh-frozen plasma (FFP) • Disseminated intravascular coagulation • Rapid correction of warfarin overdose • Liver disease • Coagulopathy due to massive blood loss Cryoprecipitate • In DIC when fibrinogen 12yrs: 2.5–5mg b.d. • Licence: rectal preparation is licensed for use in children >1yr with severe agitation. Other forms not licensed for agitation per se Other medication Haloperidol • Form: • tablets: 500mcg, 1.5mg, 5mg, 10mg, 20mg • capsules: 500 mcg • oral liquid: 1mg in 1mL; 2mg in 1mL; 1mg in 5 mL; 5mg in 5mL, 10mg in 5mL ‘specials • injection: 5mg in 1mL, 1mL ampoule; 10mg in 1mL, 1mL and 2mL amps • Dose (oral): • 2–12yrs: 10–25 mcg/kg b.d. (max. 10mg/24h) • >12yrs: 250mcg–15mg b.d. (max. 30mg/24h) • Dose (subcutaneous): • 2–12 yrs: 10–25 mcg/kg b.d. • >12 yrs: 0.25–5mg b.d • Contraindications and warnings: bone marrow suppression, phaeochromocytoma • Licence: injection not licensed for use in children

DELIRIUM

Levomepromazine • Form: • tablets: 25mg, 6mg-named patient • injection: 25mg in 1mL, 1mL ampoule • Dose: (SC/IV continuous infusion): • all ages: 0.35–3mg/kg per 24h then titrate to response (max. adult dose 200mg/24hrs) • Contraindications and warnings: parkinsonism, postural hypotension, antihypertensive medication, epilepsy, hypothyroidism, myasthenia gravis • May reduce seizure threshold • Sedating, especially in SC doses exceeding 1mg/kg per 24h in children under 12 yrs or 25mg/24h in children over 12 yrs • Can be used subcutaneously but may cause inflammation at injection site • Licence: Licensed for this indication in children

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Anorexia Poor appetite and weight loss are common in children with terminal illness, particularly towards the end of life. This causes a great deal of anxiety amongst many parents and carers because: • They may consider one of their main caring roles is to keep their child well-fed • They often perceive eating as a road to recovery • Acceptance that their child doesn’t want to eat may go hand in hand with acceptance that the terminal phase is approaching Consider reversible causes • Oral candidiasis • Pain (in mouth or elsewhere) • Gastro-oesophogeal reflux • Nausea/vomiting • Constipation • Medication

Management General measures • Explanation and discussion with the family may be helpful. Listen to parents’ concerns and reassure as appropriate. It may be helpful for families to understand that as the child becomes less mobile and as the body winds down, the child’s need for fluid and food diminishes • Provide small meals on small plates. The child may prefer to snack through the day rather than sit down to a meal • Make food less effort to eat (e.g. by providing mashed meals or wholesome soups, ice cream and rice pudding) • Offer ‘favourite’ meals • Offer supplementary high-calorie/high-protein drinks • Try not to make an issue out of mealtimes • Low-dose steroids will stimulate the appetite but will not change the course of the disease and may have harmful side-effects. They are almost never given for this indication

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Bleeding Management General measures • Consider a platelet transfusion if bleeding is problematic and related to low platelet count in a child with a reasonable prognosis where a transfusion would improve quality of life • Unfortunately, there are few options for dealing effectively with large bleeds in the palliative stages, focus should instead be on anticipation and relief of anxiety and pain • If bleeding is likely, explain this to the parents and prepare a management plan • If a significant bleed is a possibility then benzodiazepines should be readily available (see below) and the use of dark towels and blankets may be helpful.

Medication Bleeding gums Use a soft toothbrush if possible. If not, avoid brushes altogether. Consider gentle regular antibacterial mouthwash to prevent secondary infection. Absorbable haemostatic agents such as Gelfoam may be useful. Tranexamic acid An antifibrinolytic agent that will help to stabilize blood clots and reduce oozing from the mouth and other mucosal surfaces. Commence treatment at the onset of bleeding and continue for 72h after bleeding has stopped. • Form: • tablets: 500mg • liquid: 500mg in 5mL ‘special’ • injection: 100mg in 1mL, 5mL amp. • Should read: Dose (mouthwash): use undiluted preparation for injection and apply to bleeding point or dilute preparation for infection 1:1 for oral use and mouthwash. • Dose (mouthwash): use undiluted preparation for injection and apply to bleeding point or dilute preparation for injection 1:1 for oral use and mouthwash • Dose (oral): 1month–18yrs: 25mg/kg t.d.s. • Caution: reduce dose in renal failure; do not use in children with haematuria because of the risk of clot retention • Licence: licensed for use in children Small bleeds Tranexamic acid See oral dose above Topical adrenaline • Form: 1:1000 solution • Small external bleeds: soak gauze, apply directly to bleeding point Sorbsan dressing • Haemostatic dressing: apply directly to the bleeding point

BLEEDING

Vitamin K Consider in liver dysfunction with coagulation abnormalities. • Form: • tablets: 10mg • Konakion MM Paediatric: 10mg/mL, 0.2mL ampoule for oral, IM or IV use • Konakion MM: 10mg/mL, 1mL ampoule for IV injection or infusion only • Dose (oral/IM/IV): • < 12 yrs: 300mcg/kg once (maximum 10mg) • >12 yrs: 10mg once • Caution: reduce dose in liver impairment; reports of anaphylactoid reactions • Licence: licensed for use in children for warfarin reversal Vaginal bleeding • May respond to oral progesterone Catastrophic haemorrhage An anxiolytic or sedative drug such as midazolam or diamorphine is useful, as a large haemorrhage is likely to be very frightening if the patient is conscious. If haemorrhage is likely then an anxiolytic in a suitable form (e.g. subcutaneous or buccal) should be readily available, and all carers/staff should be aware of how to administer it. A rapid onset of action may be desirable, so provision should be made for parenteral administration. For example: Midazolam • Form: • injection: 10mg in 2mL • Dose (SC/IV stat): 0.05–0.1mg/kg as a single dose • 1–12 years: 2mg as a single dose • >12 years: • Dose may need to be repeated Terminal haemorrhage may not always be painful and the ‘traditional’ use of diamorphine in this instance may not be appropriate. However, some bleeds are undoubtedly painful and diamorphine should be available if this is a possibility. Diamorphine Dose (SC) stat: Age 1–3 months 3–6 months 6–12 months >12 months 12–18 yrs

Dose 20mcg/kg 25–50mcg/kg 75mcg/kg 75–100mcg/kg 2.5–5mg

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Breathlessness Dyspnoea, like pain, is a subjective symptom and may not correlate with objective signs. Consider causes and treat reversible factors as appropriate: • Anaemia • Airway obstruction • Anxiety • Ascites causing elevated diaphragm • Bronchospasm • Cerebral tumours • Chest pain (musculoskeletal or pleuritic) • Congenital heart disease • Cystic fibrosis • Infection • Metabolic disorders, including uraemia • Raised intracranial pressure • Respiratory muscle dysfunction, e.g. neurodegenerative disorders • Primary or secondary tumours within lung fields or abdomen causing elevated diaphragm. • Pleural effusion/pneumothorax*/haemothorax • Pulmonary fibrosis • Superior vena cava (SVC) obstruction* • Increased secretions • Pulmonary oedema • Pulmonary embolism* • Pericardial effusion* *These are medical emergencies that may require specialist intervention. Swift treatment of these conditions can significantly reduce symptoms.

Management General measures • Anxiety is likely to be an associated feature. Try reassurance, relaxation techniques, distraction and anxiolytics where necessary • Provide a flow of fresh air—fan/window • Try not to overcrowd the room • Optimize position • Excess secretions may respond to gentle physiotherapy and suction Oxygen May be helpful in hypoxic patients but is not without consequences (e.g. wearing a mask can be uncomfortable and interfere with the ability of the child to be close to parents and carers. Equipment can also compromise mobility). The benefits of this intervention need to outweigh the burdens. Children often refuse masks but may tolerate nasal specs. Consider humidifying oxygen which will dry the mouth less. Caution is needed in circumstances where chronic hypercapnia has left the child dependent on hypoxic respiratory drive. Too much oxygen will result in hypoventilation, so titrate carefully.

BREATHLESSNESS

Medication The choice of medication will depend on the underlying cause. Bronchospasm will respond to a bronchodilator. Anxiety that is unresponsive to reassurance, distraction or relaxation techniques may require treatment with a benzodiazepine. Excessive secretions may respond to physiotherapy and/or mucolytic agents. Opioids, however, are generally very effective. Bronchodilators Salbutamol May be helpful if bronchospasm present. Salbutamol may exacerbate anxiety. • Form: • nebulized solution: 2.5mg in 2.5mL; 5mg in 2.5mL • inhaled form: 100mcg/dose • Dose (nebulized): • 6 months–5yrs: 2.5mg t.d.s./q.d.s. • 5–12yrs: 2.5–5mg t.d.s./q.d.s. • >12 yrs: 5mg t.d.s./q.d.s. • Dose (inhaled): • all ages: 1–2 puffs, 4–6 times a day (a spacer device should be used to improve delivery) There is some evidence that small babies do not respond to salbutamol because of receptor immaturity and it is advisable to use ipratropium first in those aged 5 years • Licence: tablets licensed as premedication in children >5 yrs. Injection not licensed in children 1month–18yrs: 100mcg/kg • sublingual/buccal: >1month–18yrs: 500mcg/kg (max. 10mg) • intranasal: >1month–18yrs: 200–300mcg/kg (max 10mg). NB: Important: drop dose into alternate nostrils over 15 seconds. • rectal: >1month–18yrs: 500–750 mcg/kg • Continuous IV/SC infusion: >1month–18yrs: start at 2.5mg/24h (NB: this is not a per kg dose) • Titrate to effect. There is considerable inter-individual variability in the dose required and doses of up to 40mg/24h have been used in palliative care. If high doses are needed, consider trying a different agent • Contraindications and warnings: caution with pulmonary disease, hepatic and renal dysfunction (reduce dose), severe fluid/electrolyte imbalance and congestive cardiac failure. Avoid rapid withdrawal after prolonged treatment • Licence: injection licensed for sedation in intensive care, induction of anaesthesia and conscious sedation in children. Other routes and indications not licensed

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Dexamethasone May be helpful in circumstances such as bronchospasm, bronchial obstruction, lymphangitis carcinomatosa, SVCO and raised intracranial pressure. Administration requires careful consideration as steroids may produce potentially distressing side-effects in children if given for more than a few days. To avoid this, it is preferable to prescribe short courses (3–5 days) of steroids. These can be repeated if necessary. • Form: • tablets: 500mcg and 2mg • oral solution: 2mg in 5mL • injection: 4mg in 1mL, 1mL; can be given orally • Dose (oral): • 1 month–18yrs: 100mcg/kg b.d. • Dose (SC/IV) • can be given in as single doses or as a continuous infusion • Higher doses may be needed in SVCO (consult paediatric oncologist) • If no effect after 3–5 days, stop steroids (no need to tail off dose) • Do not give after midday as steroids can affect night-time sleep • Co-prescribing: consider antacids and anti-thrush treatment • Contraindications and warnings: caution in renal disease, cardiac disease and cystic fibrosis. Avoid in cardiac insufficiency • Licence: not licensed for this indication in children Radiotherapy In cases where dyspnoea is secondary to malignant chest disease, radiotherapy should be considered, although the burden of treatment needs to be weighed against the potential benefits. It is more likely to be beneficial if tumour bulk is close to the major airways rather than distal to them. Radiotherapy also has an important role in managing breathlessness secondary to SVC obstruction, carrying the added advantage of controlling haemoptysis—which even in small volumes can be upsetting for the child and family.

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Constipation Prophylaxis and early intervention are important in managing this distressing symptom. A laxative should always be considered when opioids are commenced. • What are the child’s usual bowel habits?—children vary a lot; what is constipation for one may be a normal pattern for another • Has there been a change in the usual pattern? Consider cause • Inactivity • Metabolic: dehydration; hypercalcaemia; hypokalaemia • Cystic fibrosis • Reduced oral intake • Spinal cord/cauda equina compression • Bowel obstruction • Fear of pain on defaecation: secondary to hard stools, rectal/anal grazes and tears • Drugs: opioids; anticholinergics; anticonvulsants; vincristine chemotherapy • Social: shy about using toilets away from home, not knowing where the toilets are, etc. Liaise with parents

Management General measures • Check for bowel obstruction, faecal impaction and rectal/anal grazes/ tears (NB conduct a rectal examination only if absolutely necessary) • Consider the underlying cause and address it if appropriate/possible • Increase fluid intake where possible and appropriate • If parenterally fed consider altering the feed • Increase mobility if possible • Optimize access to the toilet • Encourage regular toileting, especially after meals • Try oral medication first, then proceed to rectal preparations if necessary Medication Many children with non-malignant conditions will have been on laxatives for some time. Parents often know which laxatives are most effective for their child. It is generally helpful to use a combination of a stimulant laxative (e.g. senna, bisacodyl, docusate or sodium picosulphate) and a softening agent (e.g. Movicol, magnesium hydroxide). Combined preparations are available (e.g. co-danthramer and co-danthrusate) for use in adult palliative care but are less frequently used in paediatrics. As second-line agents, prokinetic agents such as metoclopramide may be helpful. ( b See section on Nausea and vomiting, p. 610 for dose). Movicol (polyethylene glycol) is an iso-osmotic laxative, better tolerated than older osmotic laxatives and increasingly considered the laxative of choice in children. If constipation is morphine-related and resistant to the usual measures, it may be helpful to change to another opioid such as fentanyl.

CONSTIPATION

Polyethylene glycol Stool softener • Form: • powder sachets • mix each sachet with approximately 60mL water or squash • Dose (oral): (Movicol Paediatric Plain) • maintenance therapy in >2yrs: 1–2 sachets/day • in impaction/severe constipation number of sachets/day 2–4yrs 5–11yrs • Day 1 2 sachets 4 sachets • Day 2 4 sachets 6 sachets • Day 3 4 sachets 8 sachets • Day 4 6 sachets 10 sachets • Day 5 6 sachets 12 sachets • Day 6 8 sachets 12 sachets • Day 7 8 sachets 12 sachets • License: not licensed for faecal impaction in children 2yrs, tablets not recommended in children 12yrs: 100mg t.d.s. • Dose (rectal): • 3yrs: 5mL Fletchers’ Enemette • Softener and stimulant • Acts in 24–48h • Licence: capsule not licensed for children. Norgalax enema licensed for children >12yrs. Fletchers Enemette licensed for children >3yrs Lactulose Lactulose is not very effective in opioid-induced constipation. • Form: • solution: lactulose 3.1–3.7g/5ml with other ketoses • Dose (oral): • 10yrs: 15mL b.d. • Mild osmotic laxative, which is very sweet to taste and can cause bloating • Acts in 48h • May cause colic

CONSTIPATION

• Titrate dose up as required • Can be disguised in fruit juice, milk or water • Licence: Licensed for use in children Magnesium hydroxide Stool softener • Form: • liquid: 415mg in 5mL • Dose (oral): • 3yrs 5–10mL nocte (adult 30–45mL nocte) Sodium picosulfate • Form: • sachet: 10mg sachets contain sodium picosulfate 10mg + magnesium citrate powder • sodium picosulfate liquid: 5mg in 5mL • Dose (oral) sachet: • 1–2yrs: ¼ sachet o.d. • 2–4yrs: ½ sachet o.d. • 4–9yrs: ½–1sachet o.d. • >9yrs: 1 sachet o.d. • Dose (oral) liquid: • 2–5yrs: 2.5mL nocte • 5–10yrs: 2.5–5mL nocte • >10yrs: 5–15mL nocte • Effective within 2–3 h • Drink plenty of water before and after administration • Warning: can cause dehydration and electrolyte disturbance • Caution in children with impaired renal or cardiac function Licence: Licensed for use in children >1yr Arachis oil enema • Form: • enema 130mL arachis oil BP • Dose (rectal): • 3–7yrs: {1/3}–½ of the enema • 7–12yrs: ½–¾ of the enema • >12yrs: ¾–1 of the enema • Use as required • Faecal softener • Contraindications and warnings: hypersensitivity to arachis oil or peanuts. • Licence: licensed for children >3 yrs Sodium citrate enema • Form: • micro-enema 450mg sodium citrate/75mg sodium laurylsulphate/5mg sorbic acid in 5mL (Relaxit). Other combinations available, but not licensed for children under 3yrs

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• Dose (rectal): • 1 enema (when using in children 3 yrs Phosphate enema • Form: • enema sodium acid phosphate 21.4g/sodium phosphate 9.4g in 118mL (Fleet) • other combinations available • Dose (rectal): • 3–7yrs: 1/3 –½ enema • 7–12yrs: ½–¾ enema • >12yrs: ¾–1 enema • Osmotic laxative • Licence: licensed for children >3 yrs

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Convulsions Convulsions are most commonly seen in the palliative care setting in children with neurodegenerative disorders or intracranial malignancies. Children with neurodegenerative disorders will often already be on multiple anticonvulsant medications and their parents/carers will be knowledgeable about recognizing and treating fits. For these children fits are often variable in type and may become frequent, severe and more difficult to control towards the end of life. Children with intracranial malignancy will not necessarily develop fits. However, for those who do, it is a frightening new symptom for the child and carers to learn how to manage. If fits are likely then prophylactic anticonvulsants should be considered and parents warned about what to expect. They should be given a clear plan of what to do in the event of a convulsion. The mainstay of medical treatment, a benzodiazepine (lorazepam, midazolam or diazepam), should be readily available with clear instructions as to how and when it should be administered. Not all fits are grand mal: more subtle behaviours (e.g. grimacing or coughing) may also represent seizure activity. These may not require treatment if they are not troubling the child. Investigation and treatment of persistent fitting should be tailored to the child’s stage of illness and discussion will be required with the appropriate medical teams and the family. Consider causes and treat as appropriate The emergence, or increasing frequency/severity, of fits may be caused by worsening disease, but other potentially reversible factors should be considered: • Hypoglycaemia • Electrolyte imbalance • Sub-therapeutic anticonvulsant medication • Infection, e.g. UTI • Raised intracranial pressure/other intracranial pathology

Management • Not all fits require treatment • Where treatment is required, the choice of anticonvulsant depends on the type of fit. Advice from the paediatric unit where the child is being managed should be sought • Single agent therapy is ideal. Where children are already on multiple medications, reducing the number of different anticonvulsants may improve seizure control • Withdrawal or addition of anticonvulsants should be done cautiously as most agents need to be tailed off or titrated down • Relatively higher doses of anticonvulsants are required for children 1 month: 15mg/kg over 5 minutes. Single dose or loading dose, no faster than 1mg/kg per min

CONVULSIONS

• Maintenance dose (IV/SC continuous infusion or as oral doses): • commence 24h after loading dose • 1 month–12yrs: 5–10mg/kg per 24h • >12yrs: 600mg/24h • Review dose after one week as drug induces its own metabolism • Requires separate syringe driver (does not mix) Paraldehyde • Form: • injection 100% (5mL ampoule) • also available as already diluted ‘special’ • Dose (rectal): • 1–3 months: 0.5mL single dose • 3–6 months: 1mL single dose • 6 months–1year: 1.5mL single dose • 1–2years: 2mL single dose • 2–5years: 3–4mL single dose • 5–18years: 5–10mL single dose • Dilute twofold with olive oil or sunflower oil or dilute 1:10 with 0.9% sodium chloride • Incompatible with most plastics so use immediately • Do not give intramuscularly • Licence: not licensed for use in children

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Cough Coughing can be a distressing symptom for child and carers alike if it is impacting on sleep, play and eating. If persistent it can precipitate pain, vomiting and seizure activity in the predisposed child. The primary aim should always be to treat underlying causes but if this is not possible or is more of a burden than benefit, cough suppressants can be used. Consider causes and treat reversible factors if appropriate: • Infection • Bronchospasm • Gastro-oesophageal reflux • Aspiration • Drug-induced (e.g. ACE inhibitors)/treatment related (e.g. total body irradiation) • Malignant bronchial obstruction/lung metastases • Heart failure • Secretions • Cystic fibrosis • Subclinical seizures

Management General measures • Keep child as upright as possible • Raise head of bed: Use blocks under head end of cot/bed or pillows • Consider physiotherapy, suction for children with secretions. Modified physiotherapy is the mainstay of treatment for children with thick secretions • Consider a trial of humidified air/oxygen • Trial of nebulized saline Medication The choice of medication will depend upon the underlying cause. A dry throat may respond to simple linctus. Bronchospasm will respond to bronchodilator therapy. If the underlying cause cannot be reversed, a suppressant such as an opioid will be required. Simple linctus This may be helpful if the cough is exacerbated by a dry throat. • Form: • linctus: paediatric preparation (0.625% citric acid monohydrate); adult preparation (2.5% citric acid monohydrate) • Dose (oral): • 1 month–12yrs: paediatric preparation 5–10mL t.d.s.–q.d.s. • >12yrs: adult preparation 5–10mL t.d.s.–q.d.s. • Licence: licensed for children and adults (appropriate preparation)

COUGH

Codeine linctus Very constipating: laxatives should always be prescribed • Form: • linctus: paediatric preparation: codeine phosphate 3mg in 5mL; adult preparation: 15mg in 5mL • Dose (oral): • 1–5yrs: 5mL paediatric preparation t.d.s.–q.d.s. • 5–12 yrs: 2.5–5mL adult preparation t.d.s.–q.d.s. • Licence: not licensed for use in children under 1yr Dihydrocodeine tartrate • Form: • tablet: 30mg • liquid: 10mg in 5mL • Dose (oral): • 1–4yrs: 500mcg/kg, 4–6h • 4–12yrs: 500mcg–1mg/kg, 4–6h • >12yrs: 30mg, 4–6h • Very constipating: laxatives should always be prescribed • Contraindications and warnings: avoid or reduce dose in moderate/severe renal failure, chronic liver disease and hypothyroidism. Avoid in respiratory depression, cystic fibrosis, head injury and raised intracranial pressure • Licence: not licensed for this indication Morphine linctus • Form: • solution: 10mg in 5mL • Dose: • start with half the paediatric analgesic dose (b See section on Pain, p. 620) and titrate to effect • Licence: not licensed for this indication Bronchodilators Cough can be a manifestation of hyperreactive airways and a trial of nebulized salbutamol/ipratropium may be helpful. Salbutamol • Form: • nebulizer solution: 2.5mg in 2.5mL, 5mg in 2.5mL, 5mg in 1mL (other preparations available, see appropriate text) • inhaled form: 100mcg/dose • Dose (nebulized): • 6 months–5yrs: 2.5mg t.d.s.–q.d.s. • 5–12yrs: 2.5–5mg t.d.s.–q.d.s. • >12yrs: 5mg t.d.s.–q.d.s • Dose (inhaled): • all ages: 1–2 puffs 4–6 times a day (a spacer device should be used to improve delivery) • May induce mild tachycardia, nervousness, tremor or hypokalaemia • Interactions: see appropriate text • Licence: licensed for use in children

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Ipratropium bromide • Form: • nebulizer solution: 250mcg/mL, 500mcg in 2mL • inhaled form: 20mcg/dose and 40mcg/dose • Dose (nebulized): • 12yrs: 500mcg t.d.s.–q.d.s. • Dose (inhaled): • 12yrs: 5–10 mL or 1–2 tablets after meals and at bedtime • Can cause constipation • Licence: liquid and tablets licensed for use in children over 12yrs, for children 20kg: 20–40mg o.d./b.d. • Capsules can be opened and the granules mixed in an acidic drink • If capsules are to be opened and given via gastrostomy or NG tube disperse in 10mL of 8.4% sodium bicarbonate and flush well afterwards (omeprazole readily blocks tubes) • Tablets can be dispersed in water or mixed with fruit juice or with yoghurt • Contraindications and warnings: caution in patients with hepatic impairment • Interactions: see appropriate text • Licence: licensed for use in children >2yrs with severe ulcerating reflux oesophagitis Ranitidine • Form: • injection: 50mg in 2mL • tablets: 150mg, 300mg; effervescent tablets 150mg, 300mg • liquid: 15mg in 1mL

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• Dose (oral): • 1–6 months: 1mg/kg t.d.s.; max. 3mg/kg per day • 6 months–3years: 2–4mg/kg b.d. • 3–12 years: 2–4mg/kg (max 150mg) b.d. Can increase to 5mg/kg (max 300mg) in severe gastro-oesophageal reflux disease • 12–18 years: 150mg b.d. or 300mg o.n. Can double the dose for up to 12 weeks in moderate to severe gastro-oesophageal reflux disease • Dose (IV) • 1 month–18 years: 1mg/kg (max 50mg) every 6–8 hours

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Gastrostomy care Children with life-limiting illnesses commonly have gastrostomy tubes in situ, either a PEG (percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy) or MIC-KEY (Medical Innovations Corporation UK Gastrostomy Button). These allow feeding in the presence of disordered swallowing and ease the administration of medication.

Considerations • Daily cleaning of the skin around the stoma site will help prevent irritation and infection • Formation of granulation tissue is reduced by the regular rotation of the tube by 360° daily • Ensure all connections and tubings are comfortable for the child and not in a position where they can be easily pulled at or dislodged Blockage • Gastrostomy tubes block easily. They should be flushed before and after all feeds and medications. Some drugs are notorious for causing blockages and alternatives should be considered (e.g. lansoprazole instead of omeprazole) • If blocked, flushing with a large (50mL) syringe of pineapple juice may help dissolve the blockage. If not successful Pancrex V (a pancreatic enzyme) can be instilled into the tube for 30 minutes Granulation tissue • Apply topical steroid-based, antifungal cream (e.g. Tri-Adcortyl) twice daily for up to 10 days • May need second course, but prolonged use not advised • If not resolving, swab and exclude infection Infection • Indicated by erythema, swelling, tenderness and oozing around the tubing. Swab before treating • Fucidin cream topically may be sufficient • Consider systemic antibiotics Dislodged tubes • Most families will keep spare Mic-Keys or gastrostomy tubes with them which are easily replaced. If not available, a size 12G Foley catheter can be used to keep the stoma patent until stocks are found.

INFECTION AT THE END OF LIFE

Infection at the end of life Management of infection at the end of life needs careful consideration, and if possible, forward planning. This avoids decisions being made in a crisis and may spare the child from intrusive and futile interventions. Discussing and recording a preferred course of action with the parents, and where appropriate the child, in advance of the terminal phase is ideal. Such plans should always be open for further discussion and revision should this be necessary. Treating infection, even at the end of life should always be considered in terms of benefit and burden. For example, if antibiotics reduce symptoms and make the child more comfortable, the benefits may outweigh the burden of the treatment. Each case must be considered on an individual basis.

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Mouthcare A painful mouth can cause anorexia, discomfort and difficulties eating. It can also make it difficult for the child to take oral medication. Good mouthcare can significantly enhance quality of life for children in the palliative care setting. A general examination should always include inspection of the mouth as oral problems are readily overlooked but can usually be easily managed. Consider cause and treat as appropriate • Oral candidiasis • Dry mouth • Ulcers • Bleeding gums • Dental caries • Impacted teeth • Gum hyperplasia • Medications, e.g. morphine, antidepressants, antihistamines or anticholinergics

Management General measures • If using oxygen, try humidifying it or using nasal prongs • Keep mouth clean and moist • Rinse mouth after vomiting • If possible, brush teeth, gums and tongue and other mucous membranes two or three times a day with a soft toothbrush • Clear a coated tongue by gently brushing with a soft tooth brush, or by using effervescent vitamin C • Sucking pineapple chunks will help maintain a clean mouth but avoid if there is ulceration in the mouth because of pain and mucosal break down with pineapple • If the mouth is too painful to brush, regularly clean with pink sponges dipped in water or mouthwash, particularly after eating or drinking • Avoid preparations containing alcohol • Try water sprays or atomizers • Ice chips may be helpful • Artificial saliva: a number of preparations are available • Moisten lips with petroleum jelly or lip balm • Refer to dentist if appropriate, consider a specialist dentist for children with severe neurodisability Medication Oral candidiasis may present as classic white plaques or less commonly as atrophic candidiasis with a red glossy tongue. Remember that candidiasis may extend beyond the line of vision to the oesophagus. Nystatin • Form: • pastilles: 100 000 units • oral solution: 100 000 units in 1mL • Dose (oral): • 1 month–18yrs: 1mL or 1 pastille, 6hr • for oesophageal candida in the immunocompromised: 5mL, 6hr

MOUTHCARE

• The child should not eat or drink for 20 minutes after taking nystatin • Continue 48h after clinical cure to prevent relapse • Licence: licensed for children Miconazole oral gel • Form: • oral gel: 24mg in 1mL • Dose (topical to inside of mouth, then swallow): • birth–1 month: 1–2mL b.d. • 1 month–2yrs: 2.5mL b.d. • 2–6yrs: 5mL b.d. • >6yrs: 5mL q.d.s. • Licence: licensed for children >1month Fluconazole • Form: • capsules: 50mg, 150mg, 200mg • oral suspension: 50mg in 5mL; 200mg in 5mL • also available IV • Dose (oral): • 1 month–12 yrs: 3mg/kg for 14 days • >12 yrs: 50mg o.d. for 14 days (max 100mg o.d.) • Contraindications and warnings: reduce dose in renal impairment. Co-administration with terfenadine contraindicated, interacts with several drugs: see other texts. May cause haematological and biochemical abnormalities particularly in children with HIV or malignancies • Licence: licensed for use in children

Ulcers/mucositis • Often related to neutropenia resulting from high-dose chemotherapy or radiotherapy • Mouthwash, type will depend on the severity of the mucositis. Chlorhexidine 0.2% (swished for one minute or swabbed three times daily) is generally adequate for those children with mild to moderate mucositis. Hydrogen peroxide mouth rinse (diluted 1 in 8 with water or saline and used two to three times daily) may need to be used in addition to chlorhexidine in children with severe mucositis • An antifungal agent (see above) should be used. This should be given 20–30 minutes after chlorhexidine • Mucositis can be extremely painful and analgesia appropriate to the degree of pain should be given. For children with severe mucositis, opioid analgesia may be required

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Aphthous ulcers Adcortyl in orabase • Form: • oral paste • Dose (topical): • all ages: apply thin layer to affected area b.d.–q.d.s. Choline salicylate (Bonjela) • Form: • clear gel • Dose (topical): • >4 months: ¼ inch (about 0.6 cm) of gel up to six times daily; may sting initially Bleeding gums b See section on Bleeding, p. 576.

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Muscle spasm Muscle spasm, commonly experienced by children with neurodegenerative conditions, can cause significant pain and distress. It may also interfere with positioning and activities. Spasms themselves cause pain leading to further spasms, and a distressing cycle of symptoms can evolve. Muscle spasms may be difficult to distinguish from movement disorders or convulsions and therefore a good history and examination are imperative.

Management General measures • Early involvement of physiotherapy and occupational therapy teams is invaluable for advice on moving, handling, positioning and seating, and is essential to prevent the problem worsening • Long-standing contractures in a child with a relatively long prognosis can inhibit daily caring and may be managed surgically or with botulinum toxin injection. This should be assessed by an orthopaedic surgeon and can now be done under local anaesthetic • Discussion with a paediatric neurologist may also be helpful. • Baclofen and benzodiazepines are the most commonly used drugs, with dantrolene and tizanidine being increasingly used by paediatric neurologists • More invasive techniques, such as intrathecal baclofen pumps, may be considered if the benefits outweigh the burdens of the initial surgery and the necessary follow-up • While it is generally possible to reduce muscle spasm, it may not be possible to abolish it altogether Caution • High tone and muscle spasm may be the only things that allow a child to sit or stand. Therefore, treating spasms will require careful assessment as it may impact on the child’s mobility and also on their independence. • Many of the effective drug therapies may also cause significant sedation Medication Analgesia ( b see section on Pain, p. 618). Baclofen • Form: • tablet: 10mg • liquid: 5mg in 5mL • also available as intrathecal injection for specialist use: see below • Starting dose (oral): • >1yr–12yrs: 2.5mg t.d.s. • >12yrs: 5mg t.d.s. • increase dose every three days to maintenance dose

MUSCLE SPASM

• Maintenance dose (oral): • 1yr–2yrs: 5–10mg b.d. • 2–6yrs: 10–15mg b.d. • 6–10yrs: 15–30mg b.d. • >12yrs: 10–20mg t.d.s. • Baclofen can also be used intrathecally as a continuous infusion into the lumbar intrathecal space via an indwelling catheter and SC pump. The rate of infusion can be altered according to the child’s clinical needs at different times of day • Contraindications, cautions and warnings: may cause drowsiness and hypotonia. Avoid rapid withdrawal. Use with caution in epilepsy. See other texts for interactions • Doses should be reduced in renal impairment • Licence: licensed for oral use in children >1yr Diazepam • Form: • tablets: 2mg, 5mg, 10mg • oral solution: 2mg in 5mL and 5mg in 5mL • suppositories: 10mg; and rectal tubes: 2mg in 1mL: 2.5mg tube, 5mg tube; 4mg in 1ml: 10mg tube • Dose (oral): • 1 month–5yrs: 50–100 mcg/kg b.d.–q.d.s. • 5–12yrs: 2.5–5mg b.d.–q.d.s. • >12 yrs: 5–15mg b.d. • May cause sedation • Licence: tablets and liquid licensed for use in cerebral spasticity and control of muscle spasm in tetany Dantrolene • Form: • capsules: 25mg, 100mg • Dose (oral): • starting dose: • 1 month–12yrs: 500mcg/kg o.d. • >12yrs: 25mg o.d. • Titration: increase dose frequency to t.d.s. then q.d.s. at seven-day intervals. If response unsatisfactory continue increasing the dose in increments of 500mcg/kg in children 12yrs until maximum dose reached • Maximum dose: • 1 month–12yrs: 2mg/kg (or 100mg total) q.d.s. • >12yrs: 100mg q.d.s. • Contraindications and warnings: hepatic impairment. Caution with cardiovascular/respiratory disease. Monitor liver function • Licence: not licensed for this indication in children

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Nausea and vomiting (Fig. 7.1, Table 7.1) Consider cause • Obstruction: gastric outflow/bowel • Constipation • Uraemia/deranged electrolytes/hypercalcaemia • Raised intracranial pressure • Upper gastrointestinal tract irritation • Anxiety • Cough • Pain • Drugs: opioids, chemotherapy, carbamazepine, NSAIDs • Intercurrent illness, e.g. gastroenteritis, urinary tract infection

Management General measures • Treat the underlying cause if possible • Ensure optimal pain management • Avoid strong food smells and perfumes—may antagonize nausea • Keep meals small and remove leftover food quickly

Medication • Give an appropriate antiemetic according to suspected cause (see below), if this is ineffective or the cause is unclear, a phenothiazine such as levomepromazine will usually be effective • Levomepromazine is an effective antiemetic with anticholinergic, antihistaminergic and antidopaminergic actions • Non-oral routes should be used if a child is vomiting (e.g. subcutaneous, parenteral or rectal routes) until symptoms are under control when the oral route can be re-established • Review: if treatment is not successful, reconsider cause

Opioid-induced nausea and vomiting Opioid-induced nausea is mediated predominantly via dopaminergic pathways. Haloperidol is a dopamine antagonist which acts centrally. It is more potent in this action than metoclopramide. Metoclopramide is a dopamine antagonist and acts on both the CTZ and the gastrointestinal tract (prokinetic action). Like haloperidol, it may cause dystonic side-effects, although these can be managed with benztropine. Domperidone is available for oral administration and does not cross the blood–brain barrier. Therefore, this means it is less effective than metoclopramide and haloperidol but that it is also less likely to cause extrapyramidal side-effects. Dexamethasone may be a useful adjuvant agent. Levomepromazine has antidopaminergic activity in addition to its anticholinergic and antihistamine properties.

NAUSEA AND VOMITING

Gastrointestinal tract Obstruction Gastric stasis/ irritation Hepatic

Chemical Medication Biochemical Toxins

Vestibular Motion sickness Local tumour Medication

Central Anxiety Pain Cerebral metastases Raised ICP

Acetylcholine Histamine

Dopamine Serotonin 4

Histamine CTZ Vomiting centre

Dopamine Serotonin 3

Histamine Acetylcholine Serotonin

Fig. 7.1 Suspected causes of nausea and vomiting and suggested receptors/ neurotransmitters involved.

Table 7.1 Receptor site affinities of antiemetics* D2 antagonist

H1 antagonist

ACh antagonist

5-HT3 antagonist

Metoclopramide

++

0

0

(+)

Ondansetron

0

0

0

+++

Cyclizine

0

++

++

0

Hyoscine hydrobromide

0

0

+++

0

Haloperidol

+++

0

0

0

Prochlorperazine

++

+

0

0

Chlorpromazine

++

++

+

0

Levomepromazine

++

+++

++

0

D2 = dopamine; H1 = histamine 1’; ACh = muscarinic, cholinergic; 5-HT3 = serotonin group 3. *Adapted from Twycross R, Back I. (1998) Nausea and vomiting in advanced cancer. European Journal of Palliative Care, 5: 39–45.

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Haloperidol • Form: • tablet: 500mcg, 1.5mg, 5mg, 10mg, 20mg • capsule: 500mcg • oral liquid: 1mg in 1mL, 2mg in 1mL, 1mg in 5mL, 5mg in 5mL, 10mg in 5mL ‘specials’ • injection: 5mg in 1mL, 1mL amps; 10mg in 1mL, 2mL amps • Dose (oral): • 1 month–12yrs: 12.5–50mcg/kg b.d. • >12yrs: 500mcg–2mg b.d.–t.d.s. • Dose (SC): • all ages: 25–85mcg/kg over 24h • Licence: injection not licensed for use in children Metoclopramide • Form: • tablet: 10mg • syrup/oral solution: 5mg in 5mL • paediatric liquid: 1mg in 1mL • injection: 5mg in 1mL, 2mL ampoule • Dose (oral/slow IV/SC): • 1 month–1 yr (less than 10kg): 100mcg/kg b.d. (max 1mg) • 1–3 yrs (10–14kg): 1mg b.d.–t.d.s. • 3–5 yrs (15–19kg): 2mg b.d.–t.d.s. • 5–9 yrs (20–29kg): 2.5mg t.d.s. • 9–18 yrs (30–60kg): 5mg t.d.s. • 15–18 yrs (over 60kg): 10mg t.d.s. • Dystonic reactions can occur with any dose, but the risk increases with dose: reverse with benztropine or procyclidine • Use with caution if intestinal obstruction suspected: if colic develops, reduce dose or stop altogether • Caution: in moderate renal failure use 75% dose, in severe renal impairment use 25–50% dose. Reduce dose in severe liver disease. • Licence: licensed for use in children Levomepromazine • Form: • tablet: 25mg, 6mg named patient • injection: 25mg in 1mL, 1mL ampoule • Dose (oral): • 2–12yrs: 0.1–1mg/kg (max 25mg) o.d.–b.d. • >12yrs: 6.25–25mg o.d.–b.d. • Dose (SC/IV continuous infusion): • all ages: 0.1–0.25mg/kg per 24h (max. 25mg/24h) • Highly sedative in higher doses (SC dose >1mg/kg per 24h) • May reduce seizure threshold • Postural hypotension especially if used with opioids • Little experience in very small children • Caution: parkinsonism, postural hypotension, antihypertensive medication, epilepsy, hypothyroidism, myasthenia gravis • Licence: not licensed for use as antiemetic in children

NAUSEA AND VOMITING

Domperidone Less effective than metoclopramide, but has a reduced risk of dystonic side-effects. May be an alternative for a patient who has responded well to metoclopramide but experienced dystonic side-effects. • Form: • tablet: 10mg • suspension: 5mg in 5mL • suppositories: 30mg • Dose (oral): • 35kg: 10–20mg t.d.s. to q.d.s. (max 80mg/24h) • Dose (rectal): • 15–35kg: 30mg b.d. • >35kg: 60mg b.d. • Use with caution if intestinal obstruction suspected: if colic develops, reduce dose or stop altogether • Licence: only licensed for use in children with nausea and vomiting secondary to radiotherapy/chemotherapy

Chemotherapy/radiotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting 5-HT3 antagonists (e.g. ondansetron) are very effective in relieving nausea and vomiting associated with chemotherapy. Since they are constipating, adjuvant laxatives may be necessary. In refractory cases dexamethasone can be used as a second-line agent, in combination. Levomepromazine is recommended as the third-line agent. High-dose metoclopramide is used in some centres. Ondansetron • Form: • tablet: 4mg, 8mg • tablet (melt): 4mg, 8mg • oral solution: 4mg in 5mL • injection: 2mg in 1mL, 2mL and 4mL ampoules • Dose (oral): • 1m–12yrs: 4mg b.d.–t.d.s. • >12yrs: 8mg b.d.–t.d.s. • Dose (IV over 2–5 minutes): • 1 month–12yrs: 5mg/m2 (max. 8mg) b.d.–t.d.s. • >12yrs: 8mg b.d.–t.d.s. • Ondansetron has been used as continuous IV/SC infusion in palliative circumstances: • Dose (continuous infusion) • 1 month–12years: 5–15mg/m2 per 24h (max 24mg) • 12–18 years: 24mg/24h • Consider co-prescribing a laxative (ondansetron is constipating) • Licence: licensed for post-chemotherapy nausea and vomiting Dexamethasone Caution is required when treating children with steroids. Side-effects include weight gain, and distressing behavioural and emotional changes if steroids are used for more than a few days. For this reason it is preferable

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to prescribe steroids in short courses (3–5 days) and to repeat courses if necessary. • Form: • tablet: 500mcg; 2mg • oral solution: 2mg in 5mL • injection: 4mg in 1mL; can be given orally • Dose (oral, IV): • 12yrs: 4mg t.d.s. • Co-prescribing: consider antacids and anti-thrush treatment • Caution: renal disease, cardiac disease or cystic fibrosis. Avoid in children with cardiac insufficiency • Licence: not licensed for use as an antiemetic in children Levomepromazine • Form: • tablet: 25mg, 6mg named patient • injection: 25mg in 1mL, 1mL ampoule • Dose (oral): • 2–12yrs: 0.1–1mg/kg (max. 25mg) o.d.–b.d. • >12yrs: 6.25–25mg o.d.–b.d. • Dose (SC/IV continuous infusion): • all ages: 0.1–0.25mg/kg per 24h (max. 25mg/24h) • Highly sedative in higher doses. (sc dose >1mg/kg per 24h) • May reduce seizure threshold • Postural hypotension especially if used with opioids • No experience in very small children • Caution: parkinsonism, postural hypotension, antihypertensive medication, epilepsy, hypothyroidism, myasthenia gravis • Licence: not licensed for use as an antiemetic in children

Raised intracranial pressure Cyclizine Possesses anticholinergic and antihistamine activity. Where raised intracranial pressure is a major factor in generating nausea and vomiting, cyclizine is often helpful. Drowsiness is a common side-effect but may be desirable in some circumstances. Cyclizine can be given subcutaneously, and although it does have the potential to crystallize in syringe drivers, this is an uncommon problem in practice. It may cause redness at the infusion site. • Form: • tablets: 50mg • injection: 50mg/mL, 1mL amp. • suppositories: 12.5mg, 25mg, 50mg, 100mg (‘special’) • Dose (slow IV bolus): • >1 month: 500 mcg–1mg/kg t.d.s. max. single dose 6 years 50mg

NAUSEA AND VOMITING

• Dose (IV/SC continuous infusion): • 12yrs: 150mg/24h • Dose (oral/rectal): • 12yrs: 50mg t.d.s. • Tablets may be crushed • Caution: hepatic and renal failure, epilepsy, heart failure • Side-effects: dry mouth, drowsiness, blurred vision, headache, urinary retention, restlessness, insomnia, hallucinations • Cyclizine is compatible with drugs most commonly used subcutaneously including diamorphine • Incompatible with sodium chloride 0.9% solution, mix with water for injection • Licence: tablets licensed for use in children >6 yrs. Injection not licensed for use in children Dexamethasone Dexamethasone has the potential to improve nausea in such cases because, in addition to being an effective antiemetic agent, it may also directly impact on raised intracranial pressure by reducing oedema. Caution is required when treating children with steroids. Side-effects include weight gain, and distressing behavioural and emotional changes can occur with prolonged steroids use, so it is important to weigh the benefits against the burdens. It is preferable to prescribe steroids in short courses (3–5 days) and to repeat courses if necessary. Monitoring blood/urinary glucose may be necessary, and is advised in prolonged courses. Try to avoid prescribing after 3pm as may affect sleep. • Form: • tablets: 500mcg; 2mg • oral solution: 2mg in 5mL • injection: 4mg in 1mL; can be given orally • Dose (oral/IV) • 12yrs: 4mg b.d. • Co-prescribing: consider antacids and anti-thrush treatment • Caution: renal disease, cardiac disease or cystic fibrosis. Avoid in cardiac insufficiency • Licence: not licensed for use as antiemetic in children

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Noisy breathing Excessive respiratory secretions more often cause distress to parents and carers than to the child. Reassurance may be all that is required. But pharmacological intervention may be warranted where the child is distressed. Suction may be helpful, although it is not always available. Drug treatment is more effective when started before or immediately after the secretions are evident. Antisecretory agents may cause drowsiness and anticholinergic sideeffects: glycopyrronium has fewer CNS side-effects than hyoscine hydrobromide because it does not cross the blood–brain barrier. Sometimes, however, a sedative effect may be desirable.

Management Medication Glycopyrronium bromide • Form: • injection: 200mcg in 1mL; 1mL, 3mL ampoules • tablets: 1mg, 2mg; named patient basis only • Dose (IV/SC): • 1 month–18yrs: 4–8mcg/kg (max. 200mcg) t.d.s.–q.d.s. • Dose (continuous SC infusion): • 1 month–18yrs: 10–40mcg/kg per 24h (max. adult dose 1200mcg/24h) • Dose (oral): • 1 month–18yrs: 40–100mcg/kg t.d.s.–q.d.s. • Contraindications and warnings: see appropriate text • Compatible with morphine and midazolam • Licence: not licensed for this indication in children Hyoscine hydrobromide • Form: • self-adhesive patch; drug released at a rate of 1mg over 72h • injection: 400mcg in 1mL amp.; 600mcg in 1mL amp. • Dose (topical): • caution in children with intracranial malignancy: it may cause agitation. Patches may inflame skin, hence rotation of sites is advised • 1month–3yrs: ¼ patch over three days • 3–9yrs: ½ patch over three days • >10yrs: one patch over three days • Hyoscine patches can be cut or cover portion to prevent contact with the skin • Dose (SC, IV): • Single dose given over 2–3 minutes: • 1–12yrs: 10mcg/kg q.d.s. • >12 yrs (>40kg): 400mcg q.d.s. • Subcutaneous continuous infusion: • all ages: 40–60mcg/kg per 24h (max. dose 2400mcg/24h) • Licence: transdermal preparation licensed for use in children >10yrs for motion sickness

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Pain • Adequate pain control can be achieved for the vast majority of children, but requires careful attention to recognition, assessment, treatment and review • Assessment should include a careful history and examination to elucidate the exact nature and likely cause(s) of pain so that the most effective management can be initiated • Assessment should include discussion with parents/carers and staff as well as the child if possible • A number of pain assessment tools are available to aid diagnosis and monitor pain and the analgesic effect • Assessment of pain in children, particularly young infants and nonverbal children, may be difficult • Pain may be under-diagnosed and therefore inadequately treated in children, particularly those who are unable to communicate readily • Pain is closely associated with fear and anxiety Recognizing pain in children with communication difficulties: • Discuss with family/carers who know the child well • Look for signs, including: crying, becoming withdrawn, increased flexion or extension, hypersensitivity, frowning/grimacing on passive movement, poor sleep, increasing frequency of fits

Management General measures • Management should include reducing stress/anxiety as far as possible as well as analgesic measures • Analgesics should be used in conjunction with non-pharmacological techniques • Explanations and discussion often help to reduce anxiety • A calm, quiet environment may help to reduce anxiety • Distraction is a useful tool but should not replace consideration of pharmacological intervention • A formal record of pain scores is helpful when introducing a new intervention, particularly when many carers are involved or when the child’s communication is limited. Such a record may reassure or indicate that further measures are required, and allows comparison between different interventions to be made in a robust manner • Carefully recording all information in medical records on a regular basis is essential to enable anyone who consults the records to easily recognize changes and assess the success of previous interventions Medication Choosing an analgesic: • For mild to moderate pain, it is usual to start by using a non-opioid analgesic on a p.r.n. basis, progressing to regular use • Some non-opioid analgesics may be used in conjunction with one another or in conjunction with opioids for added analgesic effect ( b see below) • If non-opioid analgesics do not control pain effectively then opioid analgesics will usually be helpful

PAIN

• The oral route is preferred and adequate pain relief can be achieved using this route for most children • In the palliative care setting where pain is constant, analgesics should be given regularly rather than p.r.n. • Weak opioids like codeine have a dose limitation. Strong opioids do not, and the dose should be titrated until effective analgesia is achieved or side-effects prevent further escalation. If side-effects are problematic these can be treated with other medication, or the opioid can be changed to a different preparation with a different side-effect profile • If a patient is having regular analgesia of any kind, it is important to prescribe additional p.r.n. analgesia for breakthrough pain • Once stable, it may be possible to change to a slow-release form of medication • Discuss the management plan with the family. If opioids are to be used, a careful explanation is required so that families are prepared for drowsiness, understand that laxatives are necessary and are reassured about issues relating to addiction and dependence • Plan for exacerbations and crises. Make sure appropriate medications and plans for their use are available to the family. This may include parenteral forms of medication for children on oral opioids • All analgesic regimens should be regularly reviewed, particularly during titration • Seek advice from appropriately skilled staff if you are unsure or analgesia is not quickly achieved

Non-opioid analgesics for mild/moderate pain Paracetamol • Form: • tablets: 500mg; dispersible tablet: 120mg, 500mg • oral solution: 120mg in 5mL • oral suspension: 120mg in 5mL; 250mg in 5mL • suppositories: 60mg, 125mg, 250mg, 500mg; other strengths available as ‘special’ • injection:10mg/mL: 50mL, 100mL vials • Dose (oral): • 1 month–12 yrs: 15mg/kg t.d.s.–q.d.s. • >12 yrs: 500mg–1g q.d.s. (see British National Formulary for Children) • Dose (rectal): • birth–1 month: 20mg/kg max. t.d.s. • 1 month–12yrs: 20mg/kg t.d.s.–q.d.s. (max. 90mg/kg per 24h or 4g/24h) • >12yrs: 500mg–1g t.d.s.–q.d.s. (max. 90mg/kg per 24h or 4g/24h)

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• Dose (IV): • 50kg: 1g over 15min. 4–6h (max 4g in 24h) • Contraindications and warnings: dose-related toxicity in hepatic failure; in moderate renal failure (creatinine clearance 10–50mL/min per 1.73m2) the minimum interval between doses is 6h. In severe renal failure (creatinine clearance 12yrs: 200–600mg t.d.s.–q.d.s. (max. 2.4g/24h) • Cautions: avoid if peptic ulcer or history of; risk of GI bleeding if coagulation defects (ibuprofen considered safer than other NSAIDs); avoid if hypersensitivity to other NSAIDs or aspirin. Caution needed in renal, cardiac or hepatic impairment and asthma • Licence: granules and 800mg slow-release tablet not licensed for children. Liquid and immediate-release tablets not licensed for 1yr. Other preparations are not licensed for use in children

Opioid analgesics for moderate/severe pain • Usually commenced when non-opioid analgesics have been tried and have not been fully effective or if pain is severe at presentation • Always co-prescribe a regular laxative: opioids can be expected to cause constipation and it is better to prevent this from the outset Other side-effects which should be anticipated and promptly managed are: • Drowsiness: usually wears off after 3–5 days. Families may need forewarning as they may interpret drowsiness as a severe decline in the child’s condition • Nausea and vomiting ( b see section on Nausea and vomiting, p. 610) • Pruritus: topical measures and antihistamines. Ondansetron may be effective • Urinary retention: Check that constipation is not a contributory factor. Bethanechol may be helpful. Catheterization is required infrequently • Respiratory depression: this is very unlikely if the dose is titrated appropriately. Naloxone will reverse respiratory depression, but this may be at the cost of analgesic effect if not administered carefully • Euphoria, dysphoria • Nightmares: a night-time dose of haloperidol may be useful • Physical dependence: opioids should be weaned and not ceased abruptly or a withdrawal reaction may occur • Tolerance: this is the need for escalating doses to achieve the same therapeutic effect. It is managed by increasing the dose. Families may need to be reassured that tolerance is rare and does not necessarily imply disease progression Weak opioids Codeine phosphate • Form: • tablets: 15mg, 30mg, 60mg • syrup: 25mg in 5mL • linctus: 15mg in 5mL; 3mg in 5mL

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•

• • •

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• injection: 60mg in 1mL (for IM use, never give IV), 1mL amp.; 10mg/mL, 30mg/mL 1mL amps ‘specials’ • suppositories (specials): 1mg, 2mg, 3mg, 5mg, 6mg, 10mg, 15mg, 30mg Dose (oral/rectal/IM*): • birth–12yrs: 500mcg–1mg/kg, 4–6h (max. 240mg/24h) • >12yrs: 30–60mg, 4–6h (max. 240mg/24h) • *Intramuscular injections not recommended in children. Consider all alternative agents/routes Constipation common: prescribe laxatives prophylactically Cautions, contraindications and warnings: little experience in young children, avoid in children 1yr

Dihydrocodeine tartrate • Form: • tablets: 30mg • liquid: 10mg in 5mL • injection: 50mg in 1mL • Dose (oral/SC): • 1–4yrs: 500mcg/kg, 4–6h • 4–12yrs: 500mcg–1mg/kg, 4–6h • >12yr: 30mg, 4–6h • Constipation common: prescribe laxatives prophylactically • Cautions, contraindications and warnings: avoid or reduce dose in moderate/severe renal failure, chronic liver disease and hypothyroidism. Avoid in respiratory depression, cystic fibrosis, head injury and raised intracranial pressure • Licence: licensed for use in children >4yrs Tramadol Synthetic version of codeine with twice the potency of codeine and onefifth the potency of morphine. Less constipating than codeine. • Form: • capsule: 50mg • tablet: 50mg • orodispersable tablet: 50mg • injection: 50mg in 1mL • modified release: 100mg, 150mg, 200mg, 300mg, 400mg • Dose (oral): • >12yr: 50–100mg, 4–6h (max 400mg/day) • Cautions, contraindications and warnings: See under Morphine sulphate, p. 622 • Licence: licensed for use in children >12yrs Strong opioids Morphine sulphate • Form: • tablets: 10mg, 20mg, 50mg • tablets/capsules (modified release): 5mg, 10mg, 15mg, 20mg, 30mg, 50mg, 60mg, 90mg, 100mg, 120mg, 150mg, 200mg

PAIN

• • • • •

•

•

• granules for suspension (modified release): 20mg, 30mg, 60mg, 100mg, 200mg sachets • oral solution: 10mg in 5mL; 100mg in 5mL • injection also available but diamorphine is preferable for this purpose ( b see Diamorphine hydrochloride) • suppositories: 10mg, 15mg, 20mg, 30mg. 5mg is available as special Starting dose (oral/rectal): • 1–12yrs: 200–400mcg/kg, 4h • >12yrs: 5–20mg, 4h Starting dose (SC/IV stat): • 1–12yrs: 100–200mcg/kg, 4 h • >12 yrs: 2.5–10mg/dose, 4h Starting dose (continuous infusion): • >1yr: 10–15mcg/kg per hour NB In children from 6 months–5 years morphine is metabolized more rapidly than in adults, in children 1 month: 200–400mcg/kg nocte • titrate (50% increase every three days) up to 1–3mg/kg nocte • Contraindications and warnings: acute porphyria; hepatic impairment • Caution with cardiac disease (monitor ECG at doses >150mg/day) • Do not use for 3 weeks after discontinuing MAOIs • Interactions and side-effects: see other texts for full information • Causes antimuscarinic effects: sedation, cardiac arrhythmias and lowers seizure threshold • Licence: not licensed for neuropathic pain in children Anticonvulsants Carbamazepine • Form: • tablets (immediate release): 100mg, 200mg, 400mg; chewable tablets 100mg, 200mg • tablets (modified release): 200mg, 400mg • oral liquid: 100mg in 5mL • suppositories: 125mg, 250mg • Dose (oral): • 1 month–12yrs: start with 2.5mg/kg b.d.; increase by 2.5mg/kg b.d. at weekly intervals to a maximum of 10mg/kg b.d. • >12yrs: 200–400mg b.d.–t.d.s. • The medication should be started at the lower end of the dose range and slowly titrated until therapeutic levels are achieved, symptoms are relieved or side-effects are limiting (e.g. ataxia, drowsiness, nausea.) Titrating slowly minimizes side-effects • The suspension is absorbed faster than tablets. This might, therefore, necessitate dividing the total daily dose of suspension into three or four doses in order to maintain therapeutic levels • Contraindications and warnings: A–V conduction abnormalities, history of bone marrow depression, intermittent porphyria, MAOIs within previous two weeks, sensitivity to tricyclics. Reduce dose in those with advanced liver disease. Numerous drug interactions—see other texts for full information • Licence: licensed for use in children Gabapentin • Form: • capsules: 100mg, 300mg, 400mg • Dose (oral): • all ages: start at 10mg/kg once daily for four days then b.d. for four days then t.d.s. • adjust dose according to response. Max. daily dose in adults is 1.8g/24h • capsules can be opened and the contents added to small volumes of fluid or food

PAIN SYNDROMES AND ADJUVANT THERAPY

• Contraindications, cautions and warnings: avoid abrupt withdrawal. Caution in renal failure: reduce frequency of doses • Side-effects are much reduced if dose is titrated slowly as above • Licence: licensed for children >6yrs for epilepsy Ketamine Ketamine is a useful adjuvant agent for patients with neuropathic pain because of its action on NMDA receptors. It has a tendency to cause agitation and hallucinations in higher doses. Seek specialist advice before using.

Nerve blocks, spinal administration and other neuroanaesthetic approaches May be helpful for children who do not respond to any of the above measures, or for whom regular medication is practically difficult or poorly tolerated. Commonly used drugs used for these purposes are opiate analgesics and anaesthetic agents, or a combination of the two. Availability of such interventions varies widely across the world, and early consultation with your local anaesthetic team is advisable before options are discussed with the patient/parents. Spinal infusions can be managed in the community if appropriately trained staff members are available. If this is not possible, single-dose epidural/spinal analgesia may be a more practical alternative and would allow some assessment of whether a continuous infusion is likely to be beneficial in the longer term.

Pain associated with tumour-related oedema Including pain related to intracranial tumours and nerve plexus compression.

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Steroids • Should be used with caution in children • Short courses (up to five days) can be very effective for this type of pain • Potential problems include insomnia, mood and behaviour changes, and in longer-term use rapid weight gain and body image changes and reduced mobility caused by proximal myopathy. Dyspepsia can be anticipated and prophylaxis should be prescribed • Give entire dose before midday to reduce the likelihood of sleep disturbance at night Dexamethasone • Form: • tablets: 500mcg, 2mg • oral solution: 2mg in 5mL • injection: 4mg in 1mL can be given orally • Dose (oral/SC/IV): • 12yrs: 4mg b.d. • Higher doses are needed for those children with raised intracranial pressure or spinal cord compression • Contraindications and warnings: caution in patients with renal disease, cardiac disease or cystic fibrosis. Avoid in cases of cardiac insufficiency • Licence: licensed for use in children for symptoms associated with brain tumours but not specifically for nerve pain

Painful procedures • If a procedure is likely to cause discomfort take preventive action! • Explain all procedures to parents and children as appropriate to reduce anxiety • Undertake procedures in friendly if not familiar surroundings • Have parents/carers or the nurse who know the child best present. • Use anaesthetic creams and distraction techniques appropriate to the age of the child • Benzodiazepines are often employed in small doses in conjunction with analgesia for more difficult procedures, e.g. midazolam given buccally, IV or intranasally gives light sedation and some amnesia Midazolam • Oral: • 1month–12yr: 500mcg/kg. Max. 15mg • Buccal/intranasal: • 1month–12 yr: 200–300mcg/kg half the dose should be dropped into each nostril over 15 seconds. Max. 10mg

PAIN SYNDROMES AND ADJUVANT THERAPY

Nitrous oxide • Inhaled nitrous oxide has analgesic and amnesic properties but is non-sedating, so is generally used in co-operative children aged five years or older. Careful supervision is required Ketamine • Ketamine is another useful agent but requires careful supervision by trained staff and is usually started in an inpatient setting. We suggest contacting the nearest specialist palliative care team for further advice.

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Psychological issues—anxiety and depression Management General measures • Provide an environment and the opportunity for the child to raise his/ her concerns and fears • Children often find relaxation techniques, such as guided imagery, very helpful • Complementary therapies (for example, music therapy) may be useful, particularly in non-verbal children • Counselling and complementary therapies should ideally also be available to parents/primary carers • Formal psychotherapeutic techniques may be also be helpful

Anxiety Medication • Medication should be use in combination with non-pharmacological techniques • Anxiety may be a manifestation of depression, in which case an antidepressant may be more appropriate • The choice of benzodiazepine will depend on the circumstance for which it is being prescribed. Children experiencing brief periods of anxiety or panic attacks may benefit from a benzodiazepine with a short half-life, such as midazolam, given buccally or subcutaneously. Sublingual lorazepam is another option for short-lived anxiety, panic attacks or anxiety related to dyspnoea. Those children who need a longer duration of action may prefer diazepam Midazolam Injection may be diluted in sodium chloride 0.9% or glucose 5% for buccal and intranasal routes. Tastes bitter when given orally but can be mixed with juice or chocolate sauce. Intranasal route may be unpleasant but has a fast onset of action (5–15 minutes) • Form: • injection: 1mg in 1mL, 50mL vial; 2mg in 1mL, 5mL amp; 5mg in mL in 2mL, 5mL, 10mL amps • buccal liquid: 10mg/mL, 5mL, 25mL ‘special’ • oral liquid: 2.5mg in 1mL; only available as special • Single doses: • Oral: 1 month–18 yrs: 500mcg/kg (max. 20mg) 30 mins prior to procedure • Buccal: 6 months–10 yrs: 200–300mcg/kg; >10 yrs: 6mg • Intranasal: 1 month–18yrs: 200–300mcg/kg (max. 10mg) • Rectal: 1 month–18 yrs: 300–500mcg/kg 15–30 mins prior to procedure • Intravenous: 1 month–5 yrs: 50–100mcg/kg; 6–12 yrs: 25–50mcg/kg; >12 yrs: 2.5mg • Continuous intravenous/subcutaneous infusion: >1month–18yrs: 2.5mg/24h (NB: this is not a per kg dose) • Titrate to effect

PSYCHOLOGICAL ISSUES—ANXIETY AND DEPRESSION

• Contraindications, caution and warnings: caution with pulmonary disease, hepatic and renal dysfunction (reduce dose), severe fluid/ electrolyte imbalance and congestive cardiac failure. Avoid rapid withdrawal after prolonged treatment • Licence: licensed for sedation in intensive care and for induction of anaesthesia. Other routes and indications not licensed Clonazepam • Form: • drops: 2.5mg in 1mL (1 drop = 100mcg), named patient • tablets: 0.5mg, 2mg • injection: 1mg in 1mL (1mL ampoule) • oral liquid 500mcg in 5mL, 2mg in 5mL, 12.5mg in 5mL ‘special’ • Dose (sublingual): • all ages: 10mcg/kg per dose (max 500mcg) bd–tds • If necessary, increase by 10–25% every 2–3 days to max. 100mcg/kg per day • Prescribe as number of drops. Count drops onto spoon before administering • Irritability and aggression not uncommon, in which case drug should be withdrawn. Increased secretions may occur in infants and young children Lorazepam • Form: • tablets: 1mg (scored), 2.5mg • suspension: only available as special • injection: 4mg in 1mL, 1mL ampoule • Dose (sublingual, oral): • all ages: 25–50mcg/kg single dose (max. 4mg in adults in 24h) • most children will not need more than 0.5–1mg for trial dose • Well absorbed sublingually (good for panic attacks) and child has control • Injection can also be given sublingually • Contraindications, caution and warnings: severe pulmonary disease, sleep apnoea, coma, CNS depression. Caution in hepatic and renal failure • Licence: tablets licensed as pre-medication in children >5yrs. Injection is not licensed for use in children 12yrs: 2.5–5mg b.d–q.d.s. • Potential for dependency in prolonged courses • Licence: rectal preparation is licensed for use in children >1yr with severe anxiety. Tablets and liquid licensed for night terrors and sleep-walking

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Depression A survey in 1999 by the Office for National Statistics reported a 4% incidence of clinically significant emotional disorders in children (aged 5–15yrs) in the general population of the UK. The incidence of depression in terminally ill children is unknown, but it is likely that for many it remains unrecognized and untreated. The clinical picture will depend on the age and developmental stage of the child, but the expected features of depressed mood—anhedonia, social withdrawal and disturbed sleep and appetite—may be present. The diagnosis is less dependent on somatic symptomatology because of the coexistence of illness. Diagnosis may be difficult: trust the instincts of parents and carers and consult a child psychologist at an early stage. Fluoxetine • Form: • Capsules: 20mg, 60mg • Liquid: 20mg in 5mL • Dose (oral): • 6–18yrs: 10mg o.d. increase slowly to 20mg • Contraindications and warnings: avoid in hepatic or renal insufficiency. Lowers seizure threshold. Do not use with, or within two weeks of taking MAOIs • Interactions: see appropriate text • Licence: not licensed for use in children Amitriptyline Although tricyclic antidepressants no longer constitute the first-line management of depression in children, amitriptyline may be an appropriate choice in circumstances where neuropathic pain and disturbed sleep coexist. • Form: • tablets: 10mg, 25mg, 50mg • oral solution: 25mg in 5mL; 50mg in 5mL • Dose (oral): • all ages: 0.5–1mg/kg nocte • start at lower end of dose range and increase by 25% every 2–3 days until maximum dose (2mg/kg per day) reached or sideeffects preclude further dose increase. Full effect may not be seen for two weeks • Contraindications and warnings: see imipramine • Licence: not licensed for treatment of neuropathic pain in children

PSYCHOLOGICAL ISSUES—ANXIETY AND DEPRESSION

Imipramine • Form: • tablets: 10mg, 25mg • Starting dose (oral): • 6–7yrs: 25mg nocte • 8–11yrs: 25–50mg nocte • 12–18yrs: 25mg t.d.s. or 75mg nocte • Maintenance dose (oral): • 12–18yrs only: increase stepwise to 150–200mg daily in divided doses in first seven days. Continue until definite improvement then gradually reduce dose to long-term maintenance dose of 50–100mg daily • Contraindications, cautions and warnings: acute porphyria and hepatic impairment. Caution in cardiac disease. Do not use with, or within two weeks of taking MAOIs. Lowers seizure threshold • Interactions: see appropriate text • Licence: not licensed for this indication in children • NB: The Committee on Safety of Medicines has advised that citalopram, escitalopram, paroxetine, sertraline, venlafaxine and fluvoxamine are contraindicated in children 1month: 500mcg–1mg/kg t.d.s. Max. single dose 6yrs: 50 mg • Dose: SC/IV continuous infusion: • 1month–2yrs: 3mg/kg per 24h • 2–5yrs: 50mg/24h • 6–12yrs: 75mg/24h • >12yrs: 150mg/24h • Dose: oral/rectal: • 12yrs: 50mg t.d.s. • Caution: hepatic and renal failure, epilepsy, heart failure • Side-effects: dry mouth, drowsiness, blurred vision, headache, urinary retention, restlessness, insomnia, hallucinations • Cyclizine is compatible with drugs most commonly used SC, including diamorphine • Incompatible with sodium chloride 0.9% solution • Licence: tablets licensed for use in children aged over 6 yrs. Inj. not licensed for use in children • Avoid in high concentrations with high concentrations of oxycodone (see page 625)

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Skin Management General measures • Like adults, children with terminal illnesses have skin that is susceptible to breakdown with poor healing abilities • Good nursing care is required to predict and prevent problems, which once established may be difficult to treat • Frequent and appropriate turning is essential to avoid pressure areas breaking down • The use of suitable mattresses and mobility aids should be considered • Consult the tissue-viability nurse if available • Dressing changes can be very painful. Consider the use of a short-acting analgesic such as buccal diamorphine, entonox and/or topical anaesthetic agents such as lidocaine ( b see also section on Procedural pain, p. 630) Medication • At-risk areas: • protect with Opsite, Tegaderm or Cutifilm • Broken areas: • use Duoderm, Spyrosorb • Infection: • send swab for culture. Use Intrasite gel, Iodosorb paste covered with Opsite or Tegaderm and consider antibiotics • Cavities: • pack with Kaltostat or Sorbsan • Fungating tumours and odour: • use topical metronidazole gel, oral metronidazole, charcoal dressings or honey and sugar • Painful ulcers: • consider anaesthetic preparations, e.g. lidocaine/prilocaine (EmLa cream) or a topical morphine gel • Associated cellulites or discharge: • consider antibiotics (oral is usually sufficient) b See also adult section on Skin, p. 381.

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Sleeplessness Disturbed sleep has a major impact upon the child and family’s quality of life. Adequate sleep may be the difference between a family’s ability to cope with the stresses placed upon them or not. Many children with neurodisability have poor sleep patterns related to underlying brain maldevelopment or associated problems such as seizures, reflux, visual impairment or medication.

Management General measures • Address the child’s fears and concerns • Consider the sleep pattern: the child may be sleeping a lot in the day and may be reversing the day/night pattern. It may be appropriate to keep the child awake more in the day or to provide extra stimulation during the day—this will depend on the child’s stage of illness. The child may be unaware of when he is expected to sleep if intervention is needed around the clock • Optimize bedtime routine: bath if possible, story, hot drink if appropriate, lights low • Increase exposure to light in the mornings • Consider complementary therapies to aid relaxation • Try and disturb the child as little as possible during the night: this may mean re-scheduling medications Medication Melatonin • Melatonin helps children to fall asleep faster and in some may increase the length of sleep. • Form: • tablets: 1mg, 2mg, 3mg • tablets (sustained release): 1.5mg, 3mg • Dose (oral): • initial dose: 2–3mg, 30–60min before bedtime. • increase to 4–6mg after 1–2 weeks • Maximum dose: 10mg generally accepted (though higher doses have been used) • Contraindications and warnings: avoid in endocrine disorders. Has been associated with seizures • Licence: not licensed for use in children Temazepam • Form: • tablets: 10mg, 20mg • oral solution: 10mg in 5mL • Dose (oral): • 1 month–12yrs: 1mg/kg nocte (max 20mg) • >12yrs: 10–20mg nocte • Contraindications, caution and warnings: caution in severe liver disease. Avoid in CNS depression and acute pulmonary insufficiency • Interactions: see appropriate text • Licence: not licensed for use in children

SLEEPLESSNESS

Chloral hydrate • Form: • oral solution: elixir paediatric chloral mixture BP 2000: 500mg in 5mL; ‘special’ • chloral elixir paediatric BP 200mg in 5mL, ‘special’ • suppositories: 25mg, 50mg, 60mg, 100mg, 200mg, 500mg only available as ‘specials’ • tablets: chloral betaine 707mg (= chloral hydrate 414mg) • Dose (oral/rectal): • 1 month–12yrs: 30–50mg/kg (max. 1g) nocte • >12yrs: 0.5–1g nocte • Contraindications, caution and warnings: avoid in liver disease and severe renal failure. Caution in cardiac disease, respiratory insufficiency, porphyria and gastritis. Avoid prolonged administration and abrupt withdrawal • Licence: unlicensed for use in children Promethazine hydrochloride • Form: • tablets: 10mg, 25mg • elixir: 5mg in 5mL • injection: 25mg in 1mL, as 1mL ampoule • Dose (oral): • 12yrs: 25–50mg nocte • May be useful in mild cases • Contraindications and warnings: porphyria; CNS depression; hypersensitivity to phenothiazines. Do not use with, or within two weeks of taking MAOIs • Licence: licensed for use in children >2yrs

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Sweating Consider cause • Disease, e.g. malignant pyrexia, lymphoma, neuroblastoma • Drugs, e.g. opioids, amitriptyline, chemotherapy • Infection

Management General measures • Disease-modifying treatment may improve sweating if it is part of a malignant syndrome • Fan, cotton clothing, skin care • Encourage plenty of fluids to avoid dehydration Medication Paracetamol • Form: • tablets: 500mg; dispersible tablets: 120mg and 500mg • oral solution: 120mg in 5mL • oral suspension: 120mg in 5mL; 250mg in 5mL • suppositories: 60mg, 125mg, 250mg, 500mg; other strengths available as ‘specials’ • injection: 10mg/mL, 50mL, 100mL • Dose (oral): • Birth–3 months: 20mg/kg, 6–8h. (max. 60mg/kg per 24h) • 3 months–1yr: 60–120mg, 4–6h (max. 90mg/kg per 24h) • 1–5yrs: 120–250mg, 4–6h (max. 90mg/kg per 24h) • 6–12yrs: 250–500mg, 4–6h (max. 90mg/kg per 24h or 4g/24h) • >12yrs: 500mg–1g, 4–6h (max. 90mg/kg per 24h or 4g/24h) • Dose (rectal): • Birth–1 month: 20mg/kg max. t.d.s. • 1 month–12yrs: 20mg/kg t.d.s.–q.d.s. (max. 90mg/kg per 24h or 4g/24h) • >12yrs: 500mg–1g t.d.s.–q.d.s. (max. 90mg/kg per 24h or 4g/24h) • Dose (IV): • 50kg: 1g over 15min, 4–6h (max. 4g/24h) • Contraindications and warnings: dose-related toxicity in hepatic failure; in moderate renal failure (creatinine clearance 10–50mL/min per 1.73m2) the minimum interval between doses is 6h. In severe renal failure (creatinine clearance < 10mL/min per 1.73m2) the minimum interval is 8h. Significantly removed by haemodialysis but not by CAPD • Licence: licensed for antipyretic and analgesic use in children >3months

SWEATING

Naproxen • Form: • tablets: 250mg, 375mg, 500mg • Dose (oral): • >1 month: 5–15mg/kg b.d. (max. 1g/24h) • Contraindications, caution and warnings: Contraindicated if known hypersensitivity to aspirin or other NSAIDs. Caution in asthma and cardiac, hepatic or renal failure; avoid if creatinine clearance < 20mL/ min per 1.73m2. Extreme caution if current or previous history of peptic ulceration • Licence: not licensed for use in children for this indication Other Dantrolene, steroids and H2-receptor antagonists have also been used with some success in adults.

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Terminal restlessness Restlessness and agitation are not uncommon during the terminal phase. Nursing the child in a calm, peaceful and preferably familiar environment is helpful, as is having a parent or other trusted adult present. Supporting the parents and carers at this point is fundamental, and helpful support will impact on the child indirectly. From the child’s perspective, it is important to exclude poorly controlled pain/other symptoms or inadequate positioning as a cause of distress. Hypoxia may also be a factor. Supporting and nursing a family in this circumstance is extremely challenging, particularly for staff who have established strong bonds. It is important for staff to actively seek their preferred support in order to optimize their ability to function effectively during care-giving and to protect coping mechanisms for the future. The choice of medication to alleviate the restlessness will depend on the clinical circumstances. Midazolam is very effective and can be given via a continuous subcutaneous infusion combined with other medication such as diamorphine as necessary. Levomepromazine is also compatible with these medications and is an appropriate choice for children who have coexistent nausea. Medication Midazolam Injection may be diluted in sodium chloride 0.9% or glucose 5% for oral, buccal and intranasal routes. Tastes bitter when given orally but can be mixed with juice or chocolate sauce. Intranasal route may be unpleasant but has a fast onset of action (5–15 minutes). Drop dose into alternate nostrils over 15 seconds. • Form: • injection: 1mg in 1mL, 50mL vial; 2mg in 1mL, 5mL amp.; 5mg in 1mL, 2mL, 5mL and 10mL amps • buccal liquid: 10mg/mL, 5mL, 25mL ‘special’ • oral syrup: 2.5mg/mL, ‘special’ • Single doses: • intravenous/subcutaneous: >1month–18yrs: 100mcg/kg • buccal/sublingual: >1month–18yrs: 500mcg/kg (max. 10mg) • intranasal: >1month–18yrs: 200–300mcg/kg (max. 10mg) • rectal: >1month–18yrs: 500–700mcg/kg • Continuous intravenous/subcutaneous infusion: • 1 month–18 yrs: 300mcg–1000mcg/kg/24h. Doses of up to 40mg/24h have been necessary. If high doses required consider changing to a different agent • well absorbed subcutaneously • Midazolam is compatible in a syringe driver with morphine, diamorphine, cyclizine and other commonly used drugs • Contraindications, caution and warnings: caution with pulmonary disease, hepatic and renal dysfunction (reduce dose), severe fluid/ electrolyte imbalance and congestive cardiac failure. Avoid rapid withdrawal after prolonged treatment • Midazolam raises seizure threshold, making it a good choice for children likely to fit

TERMINAL RESTLESSNESS

• Licence: licensed for sedation in intensive care and for induction of anaesthesia in children >7yrs. Other routes and indications not licensed Clonazepam • Form: • drops: 2.5mg/mL (1 drop = 0.1mg), named patient basis • tablets: 0.5mg, 2mg • injection: 1mg in 1mL, 1mL ampoule • oral liquid: 500mcg in 5mL, 2mg in 5mL, 12.5mg in 5mL ‘specials’ • Dose (sublingual): • all ages: 10mcg/kg per dose (max 500mcg) • if necessary, increase dose by 10–25% every 2–3 days to max. 100mcg/kg per day • prescribe as number of drops. Count drops onto spoon before administering • Irritability and aggression are not uncommon, in which case drug should be withdrawn. Increased secretions may occur in infants and young children • Licence: not licensed for this indication Levomepromazine • Form: • tablet: 25mg and 6mg • injection: 25mg in mL, 1mL ampoule • Dose (continuous SC/IV infusion): • all ages: 0.5–1mg/kg per 24h. Titrate to effect (max. adult dose 200mg/24h) • Also acts as antiemetic • May lower seizure threshold • Can be used in conjunction with midazolam • Highly sedative in higher doses (SC dose >1mg/kg per 24h) • Postural hypotension especially if used with opioids • Little experience in very small children • Caution: parkinsonism, postural hypotension, antihypertensive medication, epilepsy, hypothyroidism, myasthenia gravis • Licence: not licensed for use as an antiemetic in children

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Ventilation at home Increasing numbers of children with life-limiting or life-threatening illnesses are accessing home ventilation. Most commonly, these children have neuromuscular diseases (e.g. Duchenne muscular dystrophy). Ventilation may also be required for children with craniofacial abnormalities, spinal injuries and congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (Ondine’s curse).

Levels of ventilation Nocturnal ventilation Most children will start with ventilatory support overnight, this may be: • Continuous Positive airway pressure (CPAP) via a face or nasal mask • Positive pressure ventilation (PPV), delivered via a face or nasal mask or via a tracheostomy 24h ventilation • Children may continue to use CPAP or PPV via their mask system, but a tracheostomy may be more practical if ventilation is a long-term option • The commonest home ventilation devices encountered in the UK are the Nippead Ventilator and the Breas Ventilator. Children requiring such support usually have respiratory home support teams who can offer advice if difficulties are encountered with the machines • During acute exacerbations of illness increased ventilation may be required, necessitating alterations in the duration or pressures of ventilation. Consultation and continued communication with a respiratory physician is essential when caring for such children at home

General measures • Feelings of claustrophobia are common when nocturnal ventilation is first experienced. Thus, adequate explanation and reassurance is essential. Different masks exist with differing fixings that may allow the child some input into the decision-making process • The masks are tight fitting and can become uncomfortable, particularly if the child is hot or sweating. Ensure that the environmental temperature and humidification are appropriate • Pressure marks are common, and care is needed to prevent skin breakdown. Consider gauze over the ears and DuoDerm under the edge of the mask • Water may accumulate in the tubing, causing the ventilator to alarm. This can be removed easily by suction or the tubing can be changed before seeking further advice • Ventilators either have an inbuilt battery backup or else a separate battery pack for use in an emergency. These usually last 2–3h. Alternatives should always be available and those caring for a child should be appropriately trained to provide care during a power cut.

EMERGENCY DRUGS’ SUMMARY

Emergency drugs’ summary The following information is given as a rough guide for quick reference only (Tables 7.3–7.7). Many of the following drugs, doses or indications are unlicensed for use in children. Table 7.3 Analgesics Drug

Route

1month–1yr 2–12 yrs

12–18 yrs

Notes

Morphine

p.o./p.r.

100mcg/kg

200– 400mcg/kg

10–15mg

4h starting doses

Diamorphine CSCI

20–100mcg/ kg/h

20–100mcg/ 20–100mcg/ 24h kg/h kg/h starting dose

SC/IV stat

5–15mcg/kg†

5–15mcg/ kg†

2.5–5mg

4-h as needed

p.o.

5mg/kg

5mg/kg

200–600mg

t.d.s.–q.d.s. Max. 2.4g/day

Ibuprofen

†These

are very small doses. Recommendations in BNF: 1–3 months: 20mcg/kg 6 hourly 3–6 months: 25–50mcg/kg 6 hourly 6–12 months: 75mcg/kg 4 hourly 1–12 years: 75–100mcg/kg 4 hourly

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Route

1 month–2yr

2–12yrs

12–18 yrs

Cyclizine

p.o./p.r.

1mg/kg t.d.s.

2–5yrs: 12.5mg t.d.s.

25–50mg t.d.s.

Cyclizine

SC/IV

3mg/kg per 24h

2–5yrs: 50mg/24h 6–12yrs: 75mg/24h

150mg/24h (max.)

Cyclizine

IV

500mcg– 1mg/kg t.d.s. (max. 25mg)

500mcg–1mg/kg tds. 6yrs: max 50mg

>12yrs: 50mg (t.d.s)

Give slowly over 3–5 minutes

Haloperidol

p.o.

12.5–50mcg/kg b.d.

12.5–50mcg/kg b.d.

0.5–2mg b.d.–t.d.s.

Increased risk of extrapyramidal side-effects in children lowers fit threshold.

Ondansetron

IV

5mg/m2 b.d.–t.d.s. (max. 8mg)

5mg/m2 b.d.–t.d.s. (max. 8mg)

8mg b.d.–t.d.s

Give over 3–5min.Can be given as continuous infusion

Ondansetron

p.o.

1mg b.d.–t.d.s –4mg

2–4yrs: 4mg b.d.–t.d.s. 4–12yrs: 4mg b.d.–t.d.s

8mg b.d.–t.d.s

Metoclopramide

p.o./IM/slow IV/SC

100–170mcg/kg t.d.s.

100–170mcg/kg t.d.s.

100–170mcg/kg t.d.s.

Increased risk of extrapyramidal sideeffects in children

Levomepromazine

p.o.

0.1–1mg/kg o.d.–b.d.

6.25–25mg o.d.–b.d.

Very sedating in doses over 1mg/kg/24 h

Levomepromazine

SC/IV

0.1–0.25mg/kg (max. 25mg/24h)

0.1–0.25mg/kg (max. 25mg/24h)

continuous infusion stat

continuous infusion

0.1–0.25mg/kg (max. 25mg/24h)

Notes

Paediatric palliative care

Drug

CHAPTER 7

Table 7.4 Antiemetics

Table 7.5 Sedatives Drug

Route

Midazolam

CSCI SC/IV

1 month–18yrs: 2.5mg/24h 1month–18yrs: 100mcg/kg 1 month–18yrs: 500mcg/kg (max 10mg)

stat Buccal stat

Drug

Route

Hyoscine hydrobromide

SC

Hyoscine hydrobromide

CSCI

Gycopyrronium

SC/IV

Gycopyrronium

CSCI

stat

stat

2–18 yrs

Notes

1–12yrs: 10mcg/kg>12yrs (>40kg): 400mcg

Repeat every 4h as needed Sedating

40–60mcg/kg per 24h

Max dose 2400mcg/24h

1month–18yrs: 4–8mcg/kg

Repeat every 6–8h as needed Doses for drooling much lower, max. 200mcg/dose

1month–18yrs: 10–40mcg/kg per 24hr

Max adult dose 1200mcg/24h

EMERGENCY DRUGS’ SUMMARY

Table 7.6 Antisialogogue (for death rattle)

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Table 7.7 Average weights for healthy children Age

Mean weight (kg)

% Adult dose

Newborn

3.5

12.5

6months

8

22

1yr

10

25

3yrs

15

33

5yrs

20

40

7yrs

25

50

12yrs

40

75

Adult male

70

100

Adult female

60

100

NB: weight in stones × 6 equals weight in kg. The percentage adult dose should only be used as a rough guide when paediatric doses in mg/kg are not available.

FURTHER READING

Further reading Books Bluebond-Langner M. (1978) The Private Worlds of Dying Children. Princeton: Princeton University Press. BNF (2007) BNF for Children (3rd edn). London: BMJ publishing group, RPS publishing and RCPCH. Goldman A. (1994) Care of the Dying Child. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Goldman A., Hain R., Liben S. (2006) Oxford Textbook of Palliative Care for Children. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Herbert, M. (1996) Supporting Bereaved and Dying Children and their Parents. Leicester: BPS Books. Jassah S. S. (2006) Basic Symptom Control in Paediatric Palliative Care: The Rainbow Children’s Hospice Guidelines (6th edn). Loughborough: Rainbow Children’s Hospice. Lidstone V., et al. (2006) Paediatric Palliative Care Guidelines. (2nd edn) London: The South West London and the Surrey, West Sussex and Hampshire and Sussex Cancer Networks. Orloff S., Huff S. (2004) Homecare for Seriously Ill Children: A Manual for Parents. Alexandria: CHI. Royal Children’s Hospital, Brisbane (1999) A Practical Guide to Paediatric Oncology Palliative Care. Brisbane: Royal Children’s Hospital. Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health (2003) Medicines for Children (2nd edn). London: RCPCH. Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health (2004) Withholding or Withdrawing Life-saving Treatment in Children (2nd edn). London: RCPCH.

Articles Leikin S. (1989) A proposal concerning decisions to forgo life-sustaining treatment for young people. Journal of Pediatrics, 115: 17–22. Liben S., Papadatou D., Wolfe J. (2008) Paediatric palliative care: challenges and emerging ideas. Lancet, 371: 852–64. Waechter E. H. (1971) Children’s awareness of fatal illness. American Journal of Nursing, 7: 1168–72.

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Chapter 8

Palliative care in non-malignant disease Introduction The majority of patients in the UK (over 90%) receiving specialist palliative in-patient care services have cancer. There is increasing recognition of the unmet need in patients with other progressive, incurable, non-malignant diagnoses which has been highlighted by recent publications. The Departments of Health in the UK are striving to redress this balance, dictating that all the patients with end-stage illness should have access to the services offered by multidisciplinary palliative care teams. Specialist palliative care inpatient units have traditionally been wary about taking responsibility for patients in whom the prognosis is uncertain, with the fear that precious resources would become overburdened by patients with longer term chronic illness. Studies in motor neurone disease (MND), however, showed that patients did not ‘block’ specialist beds any more than any other patients, and most hospices now accept patients with MND and other progressive neurological diseases into their programmes. It was perhaps the emergence of AIDS in the mid-1980s that made all specialist units take notice of a group of dying patients for whom they felt obliged to take some responsibility. Patients with end-stage non-malignant disease suffer from as many distressing symptoms as those with cancer. Despite this, there remains a lack of confidence in looking after patients with less familiar illnesses. This may partly stem from the fact that the dying phase is often different from that seen in cancer. It has been noted that the trajectories of illness fall into four general patterns.1 Patients dying from cancer often have a plateau phase during which they tend to deteriorate gradually over time until the final three months of life, and usually it becomes obvious when the terminal phase is entered and when treatment and interventions can be aimed more at comfort. Patients dying from organ failure such as chronic heart or lung disease, on the other hand, are often deteriorating over a somewhat longer period, interspersed by acute episodes that may be better managed within a hospital environment, where acute care management is both appropriate and readily available. Patients with dementia and general frailty, however, generally have poor function from much earlier in the trajectory, and their care needs reflect this increased dependency. The fourth group is made up of people who suffer sudden, unexpected death. This may highlight educational and training issues, but does not mean that the palliative care team should take over the role of other specialist teams. Rather they should work alongside specialists in the other fields, ensuring

1 Lunney J. R., et al. (2003) Patterns of functional decline at the end of life. Journal of the American Medical Association, 289: 2387–92.

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that the principles of palliative care are upheld and that patients and their families receive optimal treatment. The percentage of the population over 65 years has increased and will continue to do so. The main causes of death are organ failure such as heart disease, cerebrovascular and neurological disorders and chronic respiratory disease making up approximately one-third of deaths, dementia, debility and frailty forming a further third and cancer making up one-quarter of deaths. Sudden death accounts for the final twelfth.2 Palliative care teams will need to find a way to deliver appropriate care to all patients regardless of diagnosis. To this end, there is a higher percentage of patients with non-malignant disease in the hospice movement in the USA (20–30%) and there is evidence that this trend is increasing in the UK, particularly within hospital specialist palliative care services. With increasing dialogue, partnership, research and funding, the vision of providing services where they are needed should be a realistic aim.

Prognosis in non-cancer Several attempts have been made to develop prognostic indicators for non-cancer patients, in an attempt to plan the best palliative care for this diverse group. As with cancer prognostic schemes, a search has been made to find one or more measurable indices which could correlate with survival. However, the approach using a combination of functional ability and specific laboratory parameters seems to be the most fruitful so far. The Gold Standards Framework and the Royal College of General Practitioners have developed the Prognostic Indicator Guidance which is helpful.2

2 www.goldstandardsframework.nhs.uk

Chapter 8a

Palliative care in non-malignant respiratory disease Introduction • The course of chronic respiratory disease is often marked by slow, inexorable decline with prolonged periods of disabling dyspnoea, reducing exercise tolerance, recurrent hospital admissions and of premature death • Symptoms in the late stages of disease can often be worse than those in patients with advanced lung cancer • Patients also experience loss of dignity, social isolation and psychological problems, with increasing dependency on family and carers. Thus, a holistic approach to management is crucial • Regardless of diagnosis, the needs of the dying patient should be met by palliative care services • Barriers to the provision of excellent holistic end-of-life care include the highly unpredictable disease trajectories of non-malignant respiratory diseases and the failure to appreciate that these disorders are life-threatening

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Non-malignant respiratory disease

The potential requirement for palliative care in end-stage pulmonary disease Respiratory disease accounted for 153 168 of 632 062 (24.2%) deaths in the United Kingdom in 1999 (Table 8a.1): Table 8a.1 Deaths from respiratory disease in 1999 Condition

Deaths (%)

All respiratory disease

153 168 cases (100)

Pneumonia and TB

67 591 cases (44.1)

Cancer

35 879 cases (23.4)

Progressive non-malignant causes

39 939 cases (25.1)

COPD + asthma

(21.0)

Pulmonary circulatory disease

(4.1)

Pneumoconiosis

(0.8)

Cystic fibrosis

(0.1)

Sarcoidosis

(0.07)

Others (congenital, foreign body, etc.)

9759 cases (6.4)

It is predicted that chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) will be the third leading cause of death globally by 2020. Research into symptomatology, survival, appropriate care and utilization of services is needed if the needs of this population are to be met.

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Non-malignant respiratory disease

Terminal symptoms, quality of life, and survival of patients with end-stage pulmonary disease Symptoms presenting in the final weeks and months of life include dyspnoea, cough, fever, haemoptysis, stridor and chest wall pain—a similar picture to symptoms experienced by patients with lung cancer. The inability to predict disease trajectory in patients with non-malignant terminal disease makes end-of-life decisions difficult. Studies indicate that quality of life is at least as poor as those suffering from malignant lung disease.

Symptom pathophysiology and assessment Less than 5% of patients with non-malignant disease die in hospices compared to at least 20% of lung cancer patients. More palliative care services are available to cancer patients. Dyspnoea Dyspnoea can be defined as difficult, uncomfortable or laboured breathing, or, when an individual feels the need for more air. It is the most frequently experienced symptom in those with end-stage respiratory disease and is multifactorial in origin. Not clearly understood, the mechanism of dyspnoea has been described as a mismatch between central motor activity and incoming afferent information from chemo- and mechanoreceptors. A person’s emotional state, personality and cognitive function also influence its perception. A good history and examination is invaluable. (b See Chapter 6e.) Recurrent aspiration This is often a feature in the development of respiratory failure. There may be a bulbar cause, e.g. MND, CVA, or there may be repeated microaspiration leading to bronchiectasis. The right main bronchus is the most direct path to the lungs, leading more commonly to right lower lobe infections. Diagnosis can be made clinically, on CXR or on barium swallow. Treatment includes: • Nursing in a semi-recumbent position • Speech and language therapy assessment • Thickened foods and fluid • Nasogastric tube • Treatment of the associated pneumonia with antibiotics and physiotherapy

TERMINAL SYMPTOMS, QUALITY OF LIFE, AND SURVIVAL

Management of end-stage respiratory disease The end-stage is not easy to recognize but usually comprises: • Persistent dyspnoea despite maximal therapy • Poor mobility and loss of independence • Increased frequency of hospital admission • Decreased improvements with repeated admission • Expressions of fear, anxiety • Panic attacks • Concerns expressed about dying Drugs for dyspnoea Anxiolytics Anxiety can exacerbate breathlessness. Clinical experience suggests that low-dose anxiolytics (diazepam) can result in improvements despite a lack of evidence. Antidepressants Tricyclic antidepressants and serotonin selective re-uptake inhibitors have been shown to be beneficial. Oral opioids • Site of action may be central (brainstem) or peripheral lung receptors, or they may help by decreasing anxiety. Opioids can cause serious side-effects such as CO2 retention, nausea, drowsiness and respiratory depression, so care is needed • A trial of opioid in COPD patients without CO2 retention is appropriate with close monitoring • Low doses and small increments should be used, e.g. 2.5mg morphine elixir 4 hourly • Subcutaneous diamorphine can be used in patients unable to swallow • In the terminal phase, opioid therapy is justified for the treatment of dyspnoea even in the presence of CO2 retention Mucolytics N-Acetylcysteine can be used, as can steam inhalers and nebulized saline. Palliative oxygen therapy A significant proportion of patients will have resting hypoxia, although its degree may not correlate with the level of dyspnoea. Symptoms may be improved by oxygen. Even in the absence of hypoxia, oxygen may relieve dyspnoea in COPD patients. Non-pharmacological measures General • Vaccinations—influenza and pneumococcal • General nursing care—fan, open windows, regular repositioning, relief of constipation • Good nutrition • Physiotherapy—forced expiratory technique, controlled coughing, chest percussion • Psychological support—aims to improve communication, recognize the impact of anxiety and depression, reduce delays in end-of-life

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•

• • • •

Non-malignant respiratory disease

decision-making, provide strategies to relieve symptoms and maximize quality of life Pulmonary rehabilitation—participants enrol in a programme designed to optimize functional status and reduce symptoms through self-management education and training, psychosocial support and nutritional counselling Controlled breathing techniques—e.g. pursed lip/slow expiration Non-invasive mechanical ventilation—shown to decrease the need for intubation Lung reduction surgery—initial benefit in FEV1, but lasts only 3–4 years Lung transplantation—emphysema is the most common indication

COPD Pharmacological treatments Bronchodilators • Beta-2 agonists, e.g. salbutamol • Anticholinergic agents (may aggravate prostatism or glaucoma), e.g. ipratropium bromide • Inhaled bronchodilators ± spacers should be used where possible as nebulizers deliver medication less efficiently Inhaled/oral steroids These benefit 15–20% of patients with stable COPD. As such, a trial with steroids is indicated, where at least a 20% increase in FEV1 would justify their continued use. Theophylline The pharmacokinetics of theophylline are unstable and there is a narrow therapeutic range. However, if used judiciously, it may have a place in COPD management. Oxygen • Has a definite place in the management of selected hypoxic patients • Usually employed overnight, followed by intermittent daytime use through to continuous use • Care needs to be taken where headaches, drowsiness or confusion appear, indicating potential carbon dioxide retention Long-term oxygen therapy (LTOT) This can extend life expectancy if administered for 12–15h per day, although there is a lack of evidence to support an increased quality of life.

TERMINAL SYMPTOMS, QUALITY OF LIFE, AND SURVIVAL

Indications for LTOT: • • • • • • • • • •

PaO2 6.0kPa Two measurements separated by 4 weeks when clinically stable Clinical stability = no exacerbations or peripheral oedema for four weeks FEV1 1/12

Respiratory infections

URTIs Pneumonia Pleural effusion

Recurrent pneumonia Chronic otitis media

Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP)

Miliary Lower lobes Mediastinal nodes

Extensive bilateral Resistant

Pulmonary TB

Other TB

Skin

Pericardial Peritoneum Spine/bone Meningitis Shingles H. simplex Dry Itchy papules Tinea corporis

Severe shingles Pellagra Stevens– Johnson syndrome Vaginal thrush

Persistent genital ulcers

CLINICAL FEATURES

Table 8e.1 WHO clinical staging of HIV/AIDS (modified) (Continued) Clinical stage Seroconversion Early (1) (2) Mouth

Aphthous ulcers Reiter’s syndrome Gingivitis

CNS

Bell’s palsy Guillain– Barré syndrome

Intermediate Late (3) (4) Oral thrush Progressive gingivitis

Painful feet Paraplegia 25% dementia Cryptococcal meningitis Toxoplasmosis

Cancer

Lymph nodes

Oesophageal thrush

Kaposi’s sarcoma Invasive cancer of the cervix Lymphoma Generalized

Generalized

Generalized

Generalized or absent

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CHAPTER 8E

AIDS in adults

Natural history Following infection by HIV, the natural progression of this illness is very variable. For many, there are few symptoms initially and it is only after several years of relatively normal health that the typical clinical features of AIDS become apparent. In others, the initial seroconversion may be more pronounced, with fever, body pains, headache, ulceration of the mucosa of the mouth and genitalia, a maculopapular rash as well as hepatosplenomegaly and generalized lymphadenopathy. These symptoms usually resolve spontaneously over a few weeks. During this phase the person may, however, develop Bell’s palsy or Guillain–Barré syndrome, indicating early neurological involvement. After about 12 weeks the body reaches a steady state with a partial recovery of the immune system and a decline in the number of circulating viral particles. Now follows a phase of clinical latency where the only clinical signs may be of a generalized lymphadenopathy and occasional episodes of sweating, especially at night. While a small proportion of infected people may progress rapidly to full-blown AIDS within one or two years, in the majority AIDS takes eight to ten years to develop. A few individuals progress very slowly and may be still alive after 20 years, even without ARVs. As the immune system begins to become exhausted, the person becomes susceptible to a wide range of infections including recurrent upper respiratory tract infections, pneumonia, tuberculosis, a wide variety of intestinal micro-organisms, cryptococcal meningitis, herpes zoster and monilial infections of the mouth, vagina and oesophagus. The emergence of extreme drug-resistant tuberculosis in many parts of the world is a very worrying development as this poses a threat to everyone, whether HIV+ or not. The variability of the resilience of the immune system together with the potentially fatal nature of some of the infections, make it difficult to estimate the prognosis of an individual.

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CHAPTER 8E

AIDS in adults

The effects and limitations of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) The advent of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) has radically changed the prospects for many people with AIDS. An emaciated person who appears to be beyond all help may start rapidly improving on ARVs. This has been nicknamed the ‘Lazarus syndrome’. In Europe and North America, numerous hospices and hospital wards dedicated to caring for dying AIDS patients have been able to empty their beds and concentrate on other forms of care. ARVs are the best available form of palliation for AIDS at present. The decision when to start ARVs and which combination to use may at first seem complex. The key to success is for the affected person and the doctor to negotiate the most suitable timing of the start of ARVs and the most suitable combination. Good stories are a very effective way of explaining the use of ARVs and getting the right message across to less well-developed and educated communities, e.g.:1 Imagine you are hiking through the bushveld and enjoying the birdlife and the game. But, in the distance, you see a lion stalking you. You aren’t too worried because you have a gun. But there are only two bullets in the gun, so you need to be quite sure about the best time to shoot. If you shoot too soon there is a good chance that you will miss the lion, and that the explosion will chase away all the wildlife. If you leave it too late the lion may be on top of you before you can take aim. The lion represents AIDS and the distance between you and the lion shows how strong your immune system is—the closer the lion the weaker your immune system. The gun with the two bullets is your antiretroviral therapy, which you need to learn how to use properly so that you don’t hurt yourself. The sound of the gun being fired represents the potential side-effects of the antiretroviral therapy—a real nuisance if the lion is far away, but the last thing you’d worry about when the lion is getting close! The decision to start ARVs must not be hurried, they need to be used responsibly.2 Time needs to be taken to help the person understand the various options and the need for strict adherence as fully as possible: • Treatment needs to be taken for life • It is very important to choose the first treatment regimen carefully as it is the one most likely to have the best results

1 Orrell C., Wilson D. (2003) The art of HAART: a practical approach to antiretroviral therapy. CME, 21(6): 306–12. 2 Brechtl J. R., Breitbart W., Galietta M., et al. (2001) The use of highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART) in patients with advanced HIV infection: impact on medical, palliative care, and quality of life outcomes. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 21: 41–51.

THE EFFECTS AND LIMITATIONS OF (HAART)

• Once the virus has been exposed to ARVs, subsequent regimens are less likely to give good results • The start of ARVs should be delayed until the CD4 count is below 350/microlitre, or the symptoms of the infection are very troublesome. The exact timing of initiating ARVs is still hotly debated, but according to the WHO and other authorities (IAPAC—International Association of Physicians in AIDS Care) a cut-off point of 350 is currently international best practice • Social and psychological problems, especially depression, need to be resolved where possible before starting ARVs, otherwise these will make adherence difficult • The choice of drugs is growing rapidly. The inexperienced clinician should ask for advice from someone experienced with using ARVs • In an effort to make the decision as simple as possible, the WHO is recommending fixed combinations in a similar way to the TB regimens: see www.who.int/hiv/pub/prev_care/draft/en/ • Efavirenz or nevirapine (NNRTIs) should be used in combination with zidovudine and lamivudine or stavudine and lamivudine (NRTIs from different categories) ( b see Table 8e.2). If they are available, tenofovir (TDF) and emtricitabine (FTC) are currently the best agents to use in combination with the NNRTIs for first-line therapy—firstly because of their low risk of mitochondrial toxicity, and secondly because their long half-lives make once-a-day dosing possible and reduces the risk of resistance and virological failure Table 8e.2 Classification of antiretroviral drugs* Category I Category II (NRTIs) (NRTIs)

Category III (NRTI)

Category IV Category V (NNRTIs) (PIs)

Stavudine (d4T)

Abacavir (ABC)

Nevirapine (NVP)

Nelfinavir (NFV)

Efavirenz† (EFV)

Indinavir/RTV (IDV) Lopinavir/RTV (combination) Ritonavir (RTV)‡

Didanosine (ddl)

Zidovudine Lamivudine (3TC) (AZT)

NRTI = nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor NNRTI = non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor PI = protease inhibitor *For initiation of therapy in an ARV-naïve patient use two NRTIs (one from category I and one from category II) together with one NNRTI (category IV) †EFV is teratogenic ‡ RTV is most often used in combination with another PI at a low dose of 100mg twice daily. Here it is used as a p450 inhibitor to boost the levels of the combined PI. It is not a useful antiretroviral agent at this low dose. In adults, it is rarely used as an antiretroviral in its own right (600mg twice daily) due to increased adverse events (e.g. diarrhoea)

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• The immunocompromised person who develops TB presents the clinician with an additional dilemma, as ARVs do not combine well with the standard anti-TB drugs. Where possible, the TB should be treated first. When the CD4 count is, however, 200/microlitre)

Emotional and mental symptoms The diagnosis of being HIV-positive presents the infected person not only with the prospect of a fatal illness but also the stigma associated with AIDS. Many strong emotions crowd the mind including: • Fear of rejection by others • Fear of infecting others • Anger and a sense of betrayal • Sense of shame for having contracted the disease • Sorrow in anticipation of the loss of everything • Worry about how to cope and how one’s children will survive It is little wonder that anxiety and depression are common throughout the course of the illness, especially shortly after diagnosis and again as the symptoms of advanced AIDS become apparent. Family and community support, however, can help the infected person come to terms with the situation. Without support, the HIV-positive person may lose hope. Suicide then becomes a strong possibility. Support groups for people living with AIDS have proved very effective in Africa in countering the despair and hardship that so often accompany this illness. Many HIV-positive people have become involved in caring for those who are sick at home, looking after the infants left behind and comforting the grieving. Some have been brave enough to speak out in public and have been very effective in breaking down stigma and prejudice. This has never been easy and at times it has been dangerous, kindling the wrath of an already outraged community. Being a neurotropic virus, over 80% of people with AIDS will show some cognitive impairment, while 25% will go on to develop HIV-associated dementia or psychosis. Most are apathetic and withdrawn, while a few may become delirious and agitated, requiring sedation.

Nutrition While good nutrition is essential for maintaining an adequate immune system, great care needs to be taken to ensure that the role of particular diets, such as the use of garlic, lemon juice and olive oil, is not seen as an alternative to effective medical care. The sick have always been vulnerable to exploitation by quacks and ‘snake oil’ salesmen. While vitamins and other micronutrients have their place, ‘a round pill’ should not replace ‘a square meal’. Where possible, six small balanced meals a day should be encouraged. Increased energy can be obtained by adding sugar, vegetable oil, peanut butter, eggs or dried milk powder to the local staple food. Alcohol should be avoided. In the underprivileged areas of developing countries, both vegetable gardening and small-scale subsistence farming needs to be encouraged, as a means of survival and for the sense of well-being they encourage.

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Social issues The young adult is the main age group affected by the AIDS pandemic. Young adults may be the main ‘bread-winners’ and the parents of small children. Their deaths have a devastating effect on the community. In developing countries, the loss of income, the multiple bereavements, the growing orphan population, the child-headed households and children who have to leave school to care for dying parents and siblings are all causing great economic and emotional suffering.

Impact on Africa In a survey of affected households in South Africa in 2002, it was found that 45% had an income of less than $150 a month, 57% had no running water inside their homes and 25% had no toilet. The plight of children is desperate. It was found that 22% of children under 15 years had lost at least one parent and 50% of children often went to bed hungry. The sick family members required care for extended periods, often as long as 12 months. Twenty per cent were too weak to wash and 16% were incontinent. The average life expectancy in South Africa has dropped by 10 years. (SA Health Review 2002)3 Despite some countries having child support grants and disability pensions, multiple administrative obstacles may prevent access to these funds. The capacity of the health and social welfare services to cope in most Sub-Saharan countries is being stretched to the limits.

Spiritual issues Fear, discrimination, stigma, rejection and isolation have added to the burden of those affected and infected by HIV/AIDS. While community organizations and religious groups are playing a role in helping those in need, the perception that AIDS sufferers have ‘only themselves to blame’ is still prevalent and will take much wisdom and compassion to overcome. Health professionals need to be aware of the way different communities perceive illness and misfortune. In Africa, there is a common perception that some conditions are ‘natural’ while others are not. Unfamiliar illnesses or conditions that are not easily cured may be attributed to evil influences of ‘sorcerers’ or the jealousy of neighbours. In addition to seeking help from health professionals at a hospital or clinic for the symptoms of the disease, the affected person will consult a traditional healer to discover the person responsible for the misfortune. The ‘victim’ will also expect to be given some means of protection from this evil. An example of this is the common interpretation for the persistently painful feet of the peripheral neuropathy that so often accompanies AIDS. This will be interpreted as being caused by an enemy who has sprinkled ‘poison’ just outside the front gate of the home of the affected person. Unless the poison can be neutralized there will be no lasting cure.

3 http://www.hst.org.za/publications/527

THE EFFECTS AND LIMITATIONS OF (HAART)

Great care is needed in dealing with spiritual issues, especially if there are cultural and language differences between the ill person and the healthcare worker. A helpful approach is for the health professional to admit his/her ignorance of the beliefs and customs of the community and to ask the ill person or the family for help in understanding their needs.

Medico-legal issues AIDS is a minefield of medico-legal issues. The right to confidentiality, the concerns of the public and the fears of the health professionals have caused many heated debates and even several court cases. The way information is entered into medical records and on death certificates has needed to be revised and improved. Disclosure even to another health worker must be on a legitimate ‘need to know’ basis and only after proper informed consent has been gained (b see section Death Certification, p.996). Laws relating to employment, dismissal and benefits need to be reviewed. When others are at risk, especially within a family, the infected individual needs to be helped and encouraged to disclose their HIV status. Communities also need to deal with the issues of HIV-positive children attending community schools. Proper education and the introduction of universal precautions have helped to allay the fears of parents in most cases. All health workers are exposed to the risk of needlestick injuries. Therefore, prophylactic drugs, appropriate laboratory investigations, supportive counselling and a clear written policy of the process to be followed should be in place.

Care during the dying phase The transition from fighting against a terminal illness to preparing for death is never easy, especially when the person is young. In addition, the opportunistic infections are often treatable. Thus both doctor and patient may remain focused on cure. Families find it equally difficult to let go. However, a time comes sooner or later when, despite all efforts, recovery does not take place. The same approach is needed to care for patients dying from AIDS as for those dying with cancer. The medication regimen should be simplified to only those drugs needed to provide good symptom control. This may include stopping ARVs and even anti-TB treatment. As long as the person is no longer sputum-positive for TB, there is little risk to others. It may be prudent to continue antifungals and agents for herpes simplex. Treatment and ongoing prophylaxis for CMV retinitis may also be important, especially if retinal lesions are near the optic nerve or fovea. Some 50% of patients develop progressive sight deterioration within 2–3 weeks of stopping treatment. Home-based care in developing countries has become a practical alternative to overcrowded public hospitals. With the support of established hospices, community groups have taken on the task of supporting affected families. Unfortunately, some families may perceive discharge from hospital as inappropriate. They are likely to take the ill person to another hospital for readmission and the unnecessary repeat of all investigations.

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Bereavement and AIDS Loss and grief are difficult to deal with at the best of times. Friends, neighbours and family members usually rally round and help to bear the burden of coping without the lost loved one. In developing countries, the multiple deaths of the AIDS epidemic are leaving the survivors with little support. It is not uncommon for an elderly widow, who has been struggling to survive on her small pension, to find herself having to care for six or seven grandchildren whose parents have died one by one in a short space of time. In this state of ‘distracted grief’ there is little time for anything other than survival. The stigma of AIDS creates further barriers within the wider community.

Frustrations, fears and compassion fatigue Despite the warnings and predictions of the scale and complexity of the AIDS epidemic in the late 1980s, most health services in developing countries were ill prepared for the numbers of sick and dying patients that began to crowd hospitals and clinics in the 1990s. In South Africa, this dramatic rise began in 1997. Wards in public hospitals became overcrowded with emaciated men and women with chronic diarrhoea and persisting cough. More than 50% of deaths in the adult wards could be directly attributed to AIDS, while in the paediatric wards the figure was closer to 85% in some areas.

Advances The identification of the causative organism, accurate diagnostic testing, HAART and the initial development of vaccines and microbicides against this virus are some of the advances that have taken place. Although there is a long way to go yet before we can even begin to consider that AIDS is under control, the future looks a lot brighter than it did ten years ago.

FURTHER READING

The challenge AIDS is no longer just a disease, it is a human rights issue. Nelson Mandela, November 2003. Many international funders have made treatment possible in developing countries, the most well known are UNAIDS, PEPFAR (President’s Emergency Plan For AIDS Relief—a US initiative) and Bill and Belinda Gates’ Foundation. Sadly, however, the WHO’s ‘3x5’ campaign—aiming to have placed three million people on ARVs by 2005—never reached its target. In South Africa for instance, less than 20% of patients in need of ARVs are currently receiving them. It is clear that in order to achieve the WHO millennium development goal Target 7: ‘To have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS’, more than the money for the drugs will be required: the entire infrastructure of health services in developing countries will need supporting.

Resources The following are a small selection of internet sites with information on AIDS: Africa Alive—a forum for sharing ideas and strategies Website: http://www.africaalive.org AIDS Education Global Information System—a wide range of HIV/AIDS related topics Website: http://www.aegis.com Aidsmap—The British HIV Association Website: http://www.aidsmap.com/ Medscape—a web site of educational activities Web site: http://www.hiv.medscape.com/

Further reading Books O’Neill J., Selwyn P., Schietinger H. (eds) (2003) A Clinical Guide on Supportive and Palliative Care for people with HIV/AIDS. Washington: US Dept of Health and Human Services. (The guide is available as a free download from www.hab.hrsa.gov.) Wilson D., et al. (eds) (2003) Handbook of HIV Medicine. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Articles Cameron D. (2002) Saving the history of the defeated and the lost—ethical dilemmas in the midst of the AIDS epidemic. South African Family Practice, 25(4): 15–18. Fassin D., Schneider H. (2003) The politics of AIDS in South Africa: beyond the controversies. British Medical Journal, 326: 495–7. Gallant J., et al. (2006) Efficacy and safety of tenofovir DF (TDF), emtricitabine (FTC) and efavirenz (EFV) compared to fixed dose zidovudine/lamivudine (CBV) and EFV through 96 weeks in antiretroviral treatment-naïve patients. Oral abstract session: AIDS 2006—XVI International AIDS Conference; Abstract no. TUPE0064.

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Gazzard B. (2006) British HIV Association guidelines for the treatment of HIV-infetal adults with antiretroviral therapy. HIV Medicine, 7: 487–503. Jayasuriya A., et al. (2007) Twenty-five years of HIV management. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 100(8): 363–6. Norval D. A. (2004) Symptoms and sites of pain experienced by AIDS patients. South African Medical Journal, 94: 450–4. Orrell C., Wilson D. (2003) The art of HAART: a practical approach to antiretroviral therapy. CME, 21(6): 306–12.

Chapter 8f

Palliation in the care of the elderly1 Old age is associated with disease, it does not cause it. The large majority of the population over the age of 85 years live at home; 20% live in nursing homes. Elderly patients with palliative care needs often have a constellation of complex and chronic requirements including: • Management of physical and psychological symptoms of both acute and chronic illnesses • Appropriate therapeutic interventions that can preserve function and independence and help patients maintain quality of life • Clear communication on the usual course of illness so that they and their family members can make appropriate arrangements • Recognition and management of caregiver stress Elderly people in the UK may receive palliative care in a number of settings, including: • At home with the care of a GP and community team • In a residential or nursing home with support from a GP and nursing staff • In a community hospital • On a care-of–the-elderly unit/facility • In an acute hospital

Background • While a child born in 1900 could expect to live fewer than 50 years, life expectancy for a child born in 2010 is expected to increase to 86 years for a girl and 79 years for a boy.2 The implication for increasing input from supportive and palliative care is clear • In developed nations, the overwhelming majority of deaths occur in elderly patients suffering from multiple coexisting and progressive chronic diseases • Some studies suggest that elderly patients are excluded from lifeprolonging interventions even if they might be appropriate. This may be due to de facto rationing based on age rather than an emphasis on individualizing the goals of care. Specialist care-of-the-elderly teams are skilled at devising goals of care that are appropriate for an individual’s particular needs • Data suggests that elderly patients receive less pain medication than younger persons for both chronic and acute pain. Chronic pain syndromes

1 Meier D., Monias A. (2004) Palliative medicine and care of the elderly. In Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine (3rd edn) (ed. D. Doyle, et al.), pp. 935–944. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2 Field M. J., Cassel C. K. (1997) Approaching death: Improving care at the end of life. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

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such as arthritis, and other musculoskeletal problems affect 25–50% of the community-dwelling elderly and are also typically under-treated

Carer burden • The tremendous growth in the number of people over 65 years of age with chronic health problems challenges both national and personal resources • In the UK, the duration of caring for an elderly relative can often exceed ten years • Caregiving in general is not valued in western societies, where sometimes those involved in full-time caring can be made to feel that life is passing them by • A large proportion of carers have financial difficulties Risks to the carer include: • Physical risks • increased mortality—many of the carers are themselves elderly and vulnerable • development of particular conditions, such as musculoskeletal diseases through lifting and handling • Emotional risks • major depression, and associated comorbidities • Social risks • isolation and loss of contact with friends and social circle. Close to 90% of carers say they need more help in caring for their loved ones in one or more of the following areas, including: • personal care • nursing • transportation • loss of income • loss of status within society How can we address the needs of an elderly, frail and depressed woman who is shortly to be bereaved, and who through the course of caring for her demented husband over many years has lost contact with any support network of friends or family?

PALLIATION IN THE CARE OF THE ELDERLY

Medical goal-setting in the care of the elderly with chronic illness (Table 8f.1) Table 8f.1 A checklist for palliative care throughout the course of chronic illness in the elderly Early

Middle

Late

Discuss diagnosis, prognosis and course of disease

Assess efficacy of diseasemodifying therapy Access appropriate support

Discuss changing goals of care with patient and family

Discuss diseasemodifying therapies Manage comorbidities

Review course of disease

Confirm previous Advance Directives

Discuss goals of care, hopes and expectations

Reassess goals of care and expectations

Actively manage symptoms

Discuss advance care planning

Confirm Advance Directives and ensure a healthcare proxy is appointed

Review financial resources and needs

Advise financial planning/consultation with a social worker for future needs

Review long-term care Recommend physio/ occupational therapies needs and discuss options to preserve function and promote socialization Review behavioural and pharmacological symptom control

Inform patient and family about support groups Inquire about desire for spiritual support

Treat mood disorders Suggest support groups for patient and caregiver

Consider if palliative care needs are being well met in current care setting

Review behavioural and pharmacological symptom control

Offer social and emotional support to caregivers

Consider referral/ planning to ensure peaceful death

Treat mood disorders

Review long-term care options and resource needs

Assess spiritual needs Offer respite care

Reproduced from Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine.3

3 Meier D., Monias A. (2004) Palliative medicine and care of the elderly. In Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine (3th edn) (ed. D. Doyle, et al.), pp. 935–944. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Early in illness Healthcare professionals should discuss goals of care with their patients. These goals may change as the disease progresses but may include: • Prolonging life • Preserving autonomy and independence • Maintaining social activities • Forming a plan for advanced stages of disease • Staying at home

Mid-disease The middle disease period is characterized by: • Increased medical needs • Declining function • Loss of independence, and increased dependence on caregivers for assistance in basic activities of daily living. For example, patients with dementia require increased supervision, while patients with Parkinson’s disease, heart failure or rheumatological diseases may need more help with ambulation Patient needs • Treatment for physical symptoms of chronic disease such as pain, dyspnoea, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, changes in bowel habit and insomnia which may become prominent during this phase of disease. These symptoms should be effectively treated as outlined in other chapters Caregiver needs • Help in supervision of the patient, the lack of which results in great caregiver stress, leading to unnecessary consideration of nursing home placement • Information about local resources for adult day care, respite care, home care services and support groups • Help to maintain physical, financial and emotional strength for the tasks ahead by providing opportunities to discuss and address their particular difficulties • Where appropriate, encouragement of a regular rotating schedule of respite support from family and friends Home needs • Home evaluation for adaptive devices such as raised toilet seats, shower seats and other equipment

Late in disease of chronic illness In the later stages of disease, the goals may shift to providing maximum comfort and security. Patient needs • To be treated as an individual, and as a person with particular characteristics and needs • Careful attention to symptom control as, particularly in the last few months of life, patients may lose the ability to complain of pain and other symptoms (e.g. pain is often under-treated in end-stage dementia.)

PALLIATION IN THE CARE OF THE ELDERLY

• Ensuring that their wishes, fears and concerns, as far as possible, are discussed and addressed • Ensure enjoyment of life as much as possible • At this stage of disease, mortality is 50% at six months, and the goals of care shift to minimize suffering and maximize quality of life, according to the values and expressed wishes of the patient • Physicians should discuss the merits, or otherwise, of continuing routine procedures with the patient and carers Carer needs • Patients in end-stage chronic disease may be bed or chair-bound. They can become completely dependent on caregivers for feeding, toileting, bathing and dressing and are often incontinent, which can be extremely distressing both for the patient and the carer • As patients deteriorate carers can enter a chronic state of loss as they witness their relative’s physical and mental deterioration. Recognition of the loneliness and pain of such a state can bring important comfort and help • Due to increased care demands and exhaustion, the patient’s family may benefit from respite admissions to allow the patient’s choice to stay at home long term to be achieved Placement needs • It is important that efforts are made to find out where a patient would prefer to die, and where possible to ensure that this decision is, as far as possible, respected • Patients who reside in a nursing home and want to remain there in the comfort and security of familiar surroundings may not want to be transferred routinely to the hospital for intercurrent illness or for symptoms that can be managed in the nursing home. ‘Do not transfer’ instructions should be discussed with the patient, family and staff where possible, and, if appropriate, to prevent an emergency move to an acute setting when the patient’s condition deteriorates • No one place is the ideal setting for terminal care for every person, as physical, emotional and social resources will all need to be balanced in the selection of place of care

Ageism and the care of the elderly Ageist attitudes can inhibit the quality of palliative care available to elderly patients. Such attitudes may be displayed overtly or covertly: • In hospitals— ‘a disproportionate percentage of patients who are left waiting on trolleys for admission in the UK are elderly’ • By doctors and nurses—‘He is too old to benefit from a hip replacement’ • By relatives—‘Granny wouldn’t want to be told about her disease’ • By the elderly themselves—‘Why should anyone bother with me? I’ve had my day’

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Common issues in palliative care of the elderly Physical issues Infection • The late stages of many terminal illnesses are commonly complicated by life-threatening infections • Immobility, malnutrition, incontinence, lung aspiration and decreased immunity increase the risk of pneumonia, cellulitis, decubitus ulcers, urinary tract infections and sepsis • Decreased ability to express oneself and atypical presentation may lead to delayed recognition of infections • Palliative care should focus on reducing the risk factors for infection by providing patients with good skin care, ambulation training and aspiration precautions • As with all other treatments, the risks and benefits of antibiotic therapy need to be weighed Pressure ulcers • Many patients who are bedbound, incontinent and poorly nourished do not develop decubitus ulcers. This is due, in large measure, to the quality of care provided • Those who do develop ulcers often do so in spite of excellent care • The appearance of an ulcer may be a marker of deteriorating physical condition rather than a sign of poor medical or nursing care • Use of pressure-relieving mattresses and cushions prior to the development of skin problems and good nursing care are the mainstays in preventing ulcers • In the terminal phase, care should focus on relieving pain and limiting odour, not on ulcer cure • analgesia should be provided prior to all dressing changes • odour can be controlled with topical metronidazole gel, or silver sulfadiazine, or charcoal dressings • Although the development of decubitus ulcers is not an independent risk factor for death, the presence of a pressure wound is a marker of advanced stage disease and poor prognosis Pain Treatment of pain in the elderly generally follows the same guidelines as in younger adults. Studies on clinical pain perception indicate that pain from headache and visceral pain decrease in the elderly, but musculoskeletal, leg and foot pain are more commonly reported by the elderly. Pain is undertreated in the elderly. Concomitant diseases that are likely to cause chronic pain have a higher prevalence in the elderly and often exist alongside the major cause of pain, i.e. the development of bowel cancer will not prevent a patient from continuing to suffer the pain of rheumatoid arthritis.

COMMON ISSUES IN PALLIATIVE CARE OF THE ELDERLY

Therefore a careful assessment of the actual cause of the patient’s pain(s) is essential. Nausea and vomiting Common causes of nausea and vomiting in the elderly include: • Drug reactions, including opioids • Gastroparesis due to autonomic system dysfunction (especially caused by diabetes) • Constipation Management of nausea and vomiting in the elderly is the same as for younger patients, with particular attention being paid to possible sideeffects from antiemetic medication. (‘Start low, go slow.’) Constipation Constipation is a nearly universal complaint of elderly patients. Over half of the elderly living in the community give a history of constipation. Risk factors include: • immobility • female gender • depression • chronic diseases • common medications, e.g. opioids, calcium, iron, calcium channel blockers, tricyclic antidepressants and diuretics Management A patient who presents with a history of constipation should be given a rectal examination to exclude faecal impaction. (b See Chapter 6b.) Diarrhoea If patients are bedbound this symptom can be particularly exhausting and demeaning to patients and caregivers. A pattern of diarrhoea following a period of constipation often signifies overflow incontinence. The incidence of Clostridium difficile enterocolitis has been highlighted recently as a common cause of diarrhoea in the elderly, particularly after the use of antibiotics (for Management b see Chapter 6b.) Cough Common non-malignant causes of chronic cough in the elderly include oesophageal reflux disease, COPD and heart failure, and should be treated accordingly. Cough can also be a result of medications such as ACE inhibitors. Dizziness • Dizziness is a common complaint in elderly patients with chronic disease and may reflect a wide variety of physical problems • The key to good management is a clear assessment, diagnosis and appropriate treatment of the underlying cause • Secondary prevention is also important, reducing the risks of falls through education, and risk assessment of the patient’s home.

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Oral symptoms Elderly patients are particularly prone to developing mouth problems arising as a result of denture problems, medication, mouth dryness and fungal infections. • Infection should be treated appropriately and patients and caregivers instructed on oral hygiene • Medications are the most common cause of dry mouth in elderly patients and should be kept under constant review • When symptoms are not relieved with sips of water or ice, artificial saliva or commercial preparations containing mucin may provide relief Falls All patients who have had a fall should have a full history, examination and appropriate investigations looking for reversible causes whether or not they have a terminal illness. The consequences of the fall, e.g. hip fracture, subdural bleed, etc. will need managing on an individual basis according to clinical frailty and patient’s wishes. Assessment should include the following. Blood pressure Postural hypotension should be assessed by measuring the blood pressure both lying and standing. If there is a significant blood pressure drop on standing, reversible possibilities should be sought such as medication (e.g. diuretics, antihypertensives, antimuscarinics, beta-blockers, phenothiazines, withdrawal of steroids), anaemia, dehydration, insufficient adrenocortical function, etc. Patients should be advised to rise slowly from a lying/sitting position, to sleep propped up with pillows and to consider support hosiery. If no obviously reversible cause is found, treatment with fludrocortisone 0.05–0.1mg o.d. may be appropriate. Medication review Consider reducing or stopping: • Hypotensive drugs: antimuscarinics, beta-blockers, phenothiazines, etc. • Sedative drugs: benzodiazepines, opioid analgesics etc. • Anticonvulsants (ataxia) • Corticosteroids (proximal myopathy) Neurological assessment: • Spinal cord compression • Cerebellar dysfunction • Parkinson’s disease or extrapyramidal symptoms • Long tract signs suggestive of hemiparesis, etc. • History suggestive of a seizure, TIA, etc. Physiotherapy assessment: • Balance • Transfers • Gait

Emotional issues It can be particularly challenging in the elderly to differentiate between dementia, depression and delirium. The distinction is crucial, as adequate

COMMON ISSUES IN PALLIATIVE CARE OF THE ELDERLY

management of both delirium and depression may significantly improve the patient’s quality of life.

Dementia ‘A syndrome consisting of progressive impairment in two or more areas of cognition sufficient to interfere with work, social function or relationships in the absence of delirium or major non-organic psychiatric disorders.’ Some 5–8% of all people over the age of 65 suffer from moderate to severe dementia, with the prevalence doubling every 5 years reaching over 20% in 80 year olds. Agitation in the chronically confused • Up to 70% of patients with dementia may suffer from insomnia or ‘sun-downing’, a syndrome of increasing confusion during the evening • daytime exercises, a consistent bedtime routine and minimizing daytime napping can help improve sleep patterns • encouraging patients to participate in their own grooming and bathing may decrease agitation • sponge baths and adjusting water temperature may make bathing less threatening • familiar music and frequent social activities may also exert a calming influence • Low doses of neuroleptics can ameliorate confusion, hallucinations and delusions • Where medication is required then haloperidol 0.5mg p.o. can be given two-hourly up to a maximum dosage of 5mg in 24 hours. (British Geriatric Guidelines, Jan 2006) While second-generation antipsychotic drugs (risperidone and olanzapine) cause less extrapyramidal toxicity than first-generation antipsychotics, concern about cardiac side-effects limit their use in this situation. All patients still need to be monitored for parkinsonism, and doses should always be started as low as possible to minimize side-effects • Successful management of agitation can prevent hospital admissions and nursing home placement Anxiety Being elderly and ill can often provoke considerable anxiety. Such anxiety may relate to: • Concern about the process of dying: they may have had bad experiences of illness and death which lead them to anticipate that their end of life will inevitably be painful, undignified and difficult • Concerns about leaving dependent relatives • Concerns about unresolved conflicts or issues within the family • Concerns about financial or housing matters

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Anxiety may be helped by open discussion and isolation of the particular points of concern. General, non-specific, ‘don’t worry’ advice tends to increase rather than decrease anxiety levels, as patients need a plan as to what they can do to address their concerns.

Prescribing in the elderly This is a huge issue, and each year many patients (particularly the elderly) are admitted to hospital due to the effects of injudicious prescribing. Particular concerns include the following: • Decreased renal function and liver metabolism places elderly patients at higher risk of drugs accumulating to toxic levels • Multiple complex physical and psychological conditions can lead to a wide range of medication being prescribed for different complaints, with increasing likelihood of drug interactions causing dangerous side-effects • Complex prescribing schedules and lack of support networks can lead to irregular medicine ingestion, with higher risks in a population where memory, eyesight and dexterity may not be as good • It is easier to increase medication than it is to reduce or stop drugs which have been started by another specialist team • Elderly patients may be particularly sensitive to the confusional sideeffects of medication; therefore, it is important to exclude iatrogenic cause(s) in situations where patients suddenly exhibit confusion • Medication which a patient has taken faithfully for many years to help with a symptom due to, for example, high blood pressure may no longer be strictly necessary, but the patient or family may have a belief in that particular tablet, which makes stopping it even in the last days of life very difficult • Routes of administration can become an important issue in prescribing if an elderly patient loses the ability to swallow General rules • Give as few medications as possible • Start medication at low doses and slowly increase • Regularly review medication and reduce any unnecessary tablets • Use pre-filled drug administration boxes or other devices that may help with concordance • Remember that age should not exclude patients from either effective, expensive or innovative drug therapy where it is appropriate, and prescribe with care and consultation

Ethical issues Artificial nutrition and hydration (b See Chapter 1) General issues • Patients suffering from end-stage dementia as well as other chronic neurological illnesses may develop dysphagia, which predisposes them to aspiration pneumonia • In the late stages of dementia, patients frequently refuse food, clamp their mouths shut, or hold food without swallowing • Feeding may become a frustrating battle between the patient and caregiver, who may feel that the patient is deliberately being difficult.

COMMON SOURCES

Carers will need support and information to understand that this may be involuntary and due to the dementia Possible management options • Changing the texture of the diet to a purée, or liquids thickened with cornstarch or potato starch, may support safe swallowing • Improving the taste of food may provide increased enjoyment of the process of eating • Training caregivers to feed the patient in an upright position, with the head forward, using small spoonfuls Artificial nutrition and hydration is an emotionally charged issue for many caregivers. They may believe that their loved one would suffer hunger without artificial nutrition and hydration. Family members should understand that loss of appetite is an integral part of the dying process. Full assessment is necessary to exclude a reversible cause. Decisions regarding the appropriateness of commencing artificial feeding need to be taken with great care and sensitivity and involve the full multidisciplinary team as well as the patient’s formal and informal carers. The process of decision formation at this critical time needs to be conducted thoroughly so that where possible a consensus can be reached. Very little is known about the degree to which patients with severe dementia experience hunger or thirst, but great comfort can be given to caring families if they can continue to provide their loved one with small amounts of comfort food For a fuller discussion of these issues b see Chapter 1.

Common sources of suffering and discomfort in the elderly • Patients may suffer even when they are free of pain or other symptoms • Healthcare professionals need to ask about suffering as well as pain • Questions should be open-ended in order to help make the patient feel comfortable with discussing fear, anxiety and other non-physical symptoms: ‘How are you feeling inside yourself ?’ • A sample question to family members is, ‘Are you concerned that your family member may be suffering or uncomfortable?’ As in younger patients, relief of pain goes hand in hand with treatment of the emotional and spiritual components that contribute to it.

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Care of the carer Carers of elderly patients in the end-stage of chronic disease often need as much or more attention from the medical team as the patient. While family carers may take enormous satisfaction from their ability to provide safe and loving care for their loved one, most also feel varying degrees of exhaustion, guilt and frustration. • By listening to and trying to help address the concerns of carers, the medical team conveys the fact that the carer is not alone and that their concerns are legitimate and important • Carer stress does not end after placing the patient in a nursing home • Carers continue to worry about the patient as well as suffering guilt over the necessity of nursing home placement • Carers universally have to face difficult medical (and goals of care) decisions when the questions arise of tube feeding, hospitalization for predictable infection and use of antibiotics

Hospice care and the elderly population Concern exists within the palliative services of being overwhelmed by elderly patients with chronic long-term care needs: • Although hospice care may be appropriate for certain patients with end-stage dementia and other chronic illnesses, a hospice is accessed less frequently for these patients than for those with cancer. This may be because it is more difficult to accurately identify a limited prognosis among such patients • The needs of elderly patents suffering from long-term illnesses in the last year of life may far exceed the needs of patients with malignancy, yet the services available to meet those needs are often much fewer • Quality palliative care does not require admission to a hospice, but does require access to a healthcare team committed to providing holistic, individualized, planned and communicated care in whatever setting is appropriate for the particular patient

Conclusions Growing old is a natural process which often changes our bodies, minds and what we regard as being important. A life which has been well lived can provide an elderly person with great comfort and satisfaction as they contemplate their pending death. Having the opportunity to ‘sort things out’ and to ‘tidy up loose ends’ can provide ease of mind to someone who is coming to the end of their life, and is a process that should be facilitated and not regarded as ‘morbid’. The essence of palliative care is providing holistic care tailored to the particular needs of the individual patient. The same can be said of care of the elderly. Remaining open to all the possibilities of old age and the dying journey will prevent our care of the elderly in this very important part of their lives becoming stereotyped or sentimental and will help carers face the realities of their own mortality.

FURTHER READING

Further reading Books Hughes J. (2006) Palliative Care in Severe Dementia. London: Quay Books. Meier D., Monias A. (2004) Palliative Medicine in care of the elderly. In Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine (3rd edn) (ed. D. Doyle, et al), pp. 935–944. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Articles Aminoff B., Adunsky A. (2005) Dying dementia patients: too much suffering, too little palliation. American Journal of Hospice and Palliative Medicine, 22(5): 344–8. Aminoff B., Adunsky A. (2006) Their last 6 months: suffering and survival of end-stage dementia patients. Age and Ageing, 35(6): 597–601. Bernabei R., et al. (1998) Management of pain in elderly patients with cancer. SAGE Study Group: Systematic assessment of geriatric drug use via epidemiology. Journal of the American Medical Association, 279(23): 1877–82. Convey V. (2008) How are the carers being cared for? A review of the literature. European Journal of Palliative Care. 15(4): 182–185 Feldt, K. S., Gunderson J. (2002) Treatment of pain for older hip fracture patients across settings. Orthopedic Nursing, 21(5): 63–4; 66–71. Krulewitch H., et al. (2000) Assessment of pain in cognitively impaired older adults: a comparison of pain assessment tools and their use by nonprofessional caregivers. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 48(12): 1607–11. Lawlor P. G., et al. (2000) Delirium at the end of life: critical issues in clinical practice and research. Journal of the American Medical Association, 284(19): 2427–9. Ouldred E., Bryant C. (2008) Dementia Care, Part 3: end-of-life care for people with advanced dementia. British Journal of Nursing. 17(5): 308–314. Toye C., et al. (2006) Fatigue in frail elderly people. International Journal of Palliative Nursing 12(5): 202–8.

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Chapter 9

Spiritual care Spirituality is a construct, a way of thinking about human experience that can be helpful, but only up to the point at which one begins to believe it exists. The word ‘spirit’ is widely used in our culture. Politicians speak about the ‘spirit’ of their party, veterans talk about the war-time ‘spirit’; religious people discuss the ‘spirit’ as that part of human being that survives death, whereas humanists might regard the human ‘spirit’ as an individual’s essential, but non-religious, life force. Related words are equally common and diverse: footballers describe their team as a spiritual home; there are spiritual healers, spiritual life coaches, spiritual directors, spiritual music, spiritual art, and spiritually revitalizing beauty care products. Increasingly, the terms ‘spirit’, ‘spiritual’ and ‘spirituality’ are used by healthcare professionals. But these complex words need to be used with care and understanding. Their origins are essentially theological and/ or philosophical and as such their primary meanings denote technical theological and philosophical ideas. However, they have also developed more commonly used secondary or derived meanings, and it is these that connote some of the more popular understandings.

Beneficial effects of religion and spirituality A number of studies report reduced mortality rates among religious and spiritual people. One US study found those attending religious services weekly were: • 53% less likely to die from coronary disease than those who did not • 53% less likely to die from suicide; • 74% less likely to die from cirrhosis1 The religious community seems to be protected from the effects of social isolation. Religion provides and strengthens family and social networks, gives a sense of belonging and self-esteem and offers spiritual support in times of adversity. A study by Bernardi et al.2 showed that rosary prayer and yoga mantra had an effect on autonomic cardiovascular rhythms. Recitation of the rosary, and also of yoga mantras, slowed respiration to 6/minute and enhanced heart rate variability and baroreflex sensitivity. Reduced heart rate variability and baroreflex sensitivity are powerful and independent predictors of poor prognosis in heart disease. Spirituality helps to induce calm, improve concentration and create a sense of well being by reducing adrenaline and cortisone levels and increasing endorphins.2

1 Pandya L (2005) Spirituality, religion and health. Geriatric Medicine, May.

2 Bernardi L., et al. (2001) Effect of rosary prayer and yoga mantras on autonomic cardiovascular rhythms: comparative study. British Medical Journal, 323; 1446–1449.

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Definitions The root of ‘spirit’ is breath (Latin: spiritus) and it is easy to imagine how it became associated with the idea of life essence: when an ancient died their breath (spiritus) departed them.

Western theological/philosophical traditions In the West, spirit is the third component of human being, alongside body and soul. (With Descartes ‘soul’ becomes ‘mind’.) May God himself, the God of peace, sanctify you through and through. May your whole spirit [pneuma], soul [psyché] and body [sõma] be kept blameless at the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ. The New Testament, 1 Thessalonians 5:23 • ‘Spirit’, or breath, is that which gives life to the body • Soul—or mind (psyche)—is conceived in terms of ‘the essential immaterial part of a human, temporarily united with its body’.3 • The Western tradition has been more interested in soul than spirit.

Eastern theological/philosophical traditions Eastern spiritual teachers shared similar interests, although their emphasis on consciousness led to their tendency to speak about ‘the self’, atman. • Early Vedic texts links the atman with the life breath (prana) • In the later Upanishads, atman becomes consciousness, the essence of human being that transcends the body and its experiences • Buddhist ‘non-self’ highlights the inter-being of all states of awareness

Separation of spirituality and secular medicine The separation of spirituality from the practices of modern, secular medicine is rooted in eighteenth century Enlightenment debates about the nature of science and religion. The success and subsequent dominance of scientific method has left little place for the non-material soul. Freud’s hostility towards religion and mystical experience is taken as further support for rejecting language of the soul as anachronistic. However, in coining the name ‘psychoanalysis’, Freud made conscious reference to the myth of Eros and Psyche (the soul). It was Freud’s emphasis on the soul that made his analysis different from others. What we think and feel about man’s soul—our own soul—is all important in Freud’s view. Bruno Bettelheim4 Healthcare professionals need to be clear about the concepts they are using. And an effective definition is needed that can, for a contemporary context, make sense of the theological–philosophical roots of these ideas.

3 Swinbourne R. G. (1995) Soul. In: The Oxford Companion to Philosophy (ed. T. Honderich), p. 823. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 4 Bettelheim B. (1983) Freud and Man's Soul. New York Alfred A. Knopf.

DEFINITIONS

A humanistic–phenomenological definition The humanistic-phenomenological definition of spirituality proposed by Elkins et al.5 is helpful insofar as it regards spirituality in very broad terms as ‘a way of being’: Spirituality…is a way of being and experiencing that comes through awareness of a transcendent dimension and that is characterized by certain identifiable values in regard to self, others, nature, life, and whatever one considers to be the Ultimate.5 In these terms, spirituality, as a way of being, is characterized by how one relates to: • one’s self • others • nature • life • that which one considers to be Ultimate: • God • Spirit • The transcendent Self • Nature/the Universe Such a humanistic–phenomenological definition makes possible a much closer association of areas of thought and practice that have too long been kept separate and discrete. For this reason, psychotherapists and spiritual carers are beginning to speak of ‘psychospiritual care’—a care for the spirit that unites traditional pastoral care, the ‘cure of souls’, with psychotherapy, which ‘attends to the soul’.6 If I were to choose a phrase that encapsulates the way I currently see myself working, it would be soul attender which…is a literal translation of the word psychotherapist.7 Most importantly, a humanistic–phenomenological definition of spirituality allows healthcare professionals, who may not be in any way religious, to be much clearer about spiritual care and their involvement in it.

5 Elkins D. N., et al. (1988) Towards a humanistic–phenomenological spirituality. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 28(4): 10. 6 Nolan S. (2006) Psychospiritual care: a paradigm (shift) of care for the spirit in a non-religious context. The Journal of Health Care Chaplaincy, 7(1): 12–22. 7 West W. (2004) Spiritual Issues in Therapy: Relating Experience to Practice, p. 128. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

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Spirituality and religion In contemporary speech, ‘spirituality’ is increasingly used as a contrast to ‘religion’—usually in its institutional forms and often with the inference that that which is spiritual is more authentic than that which is religious. The two orders are intimately related, but while it is possible to be authentically spiritual without being religious, it is difficult to be authentically religious without being spiritual. For this reason, religion can be viewed as one way in which people express their spirituality; but it is by no means the only way.

The effect of culture on individual spirituality An individual’s spirituality is shaped by the culture in which they live. So, where the language, foods, dress, social structures and customs are shaped by religious beliefs and practices, say in Roman Catholic, Hindu or Muslim countries, spirituality will be expressed through those cultural forms; and effective spiritual care will aim to support the expression of those cultural/religious forms. When Rajendra was admitted to the Hospice it was clear that his prognosis was very limited. His district nurse had asked that he be admitted to a side room because his family, who were devoutly Hindu, wanted to be able to fulfil their familial and spiritual responsibilities to him without upsetting other patients. The family were extremely attentive to his personal physical care and also to his religious requests. Through the reading of the Hindu scriptures and the burning of incense Rajendra seemed to derive great comfort. The Hospice was a Christian foundation, with strong links to the local churches and an active chaplaincy department, which visited Rajendra regularly at his request. Several members of staff found the overt Hindu practices very distressing as they were concerned about demonic influences. A decision was taken that such members of staff would be assigned to different patients. Several weeks after his death the family returned to say how much they had valued their last days together with Rajendra in the Hospice. They had been nervous when admission had been suggested because they had been aware of the Christian ethos of the Hospice. They also shared how Rajendra’s greatest spiritual comfort and solace in his last days had come from the sense of love, care and acceptance he had received from hospice staff, particularly because in his business life as a shop owner, he had had to put up with a great deal of racial and religious harassment. In secular Western cultures, where beliefs and values are transmitted in the home and/or the faith community, spirituality finds expression in a variety of forms, not necessarily religious. Again, effective spiritual care will understand that spiritual needs are none the less pressing for being non-religious.

SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGION

The effect of personal journey on individual spirituality Spirituality is also shaped by the individual’s life journey, the experiences they have and their encounters with others. In particular, being faced with one’s own mortality has a profound spiritual impact, which can fundamentally disturb long–held beliefs and values. This may not in itself be a bad thing, and patients may come to value the kind of freedom a changed perspective brings. However, the distress provoked by re-evaluating beliefs can be upsetting for carers, professionals and family alike, and a person experiencing the doubt, conflict and confusion that goes with the disintegration of existing belief, may need sensitive support in order to find a place of reintegration. Equally, a life-threatening illness may reawaken dormant beliefs in those who have no particular affiliations with any faith group. But this reawakening may be sustaining or threatening depending on how the individual perceives it.

Research on belief and the ‘good death’ The assumption underpinning much literature on spirituality, i.e. that a terminal illness intensifies patients’ search for meaning, lacks empirical support. However, there is some research supporting anecdotal evidence that, in a terminal illness, what matters is not so much what a patient believes, but the strength of their beliefs. • McClain-Jacobson et al. found that belief in an afterlife was associated with lower levels of end-of-life despair (desire for death, hopelessness, suicidal ideation), but was not associated with levels of depression or anxiety, and concluded that spirituality has a much more powerful effect on psychological functioning than afterlife beliefs.8 • Smith et al. noticed a significant curvilinear relationship between a patient’s perspective about death and their actual fear of death, ‘suggesting that [actual] beliefs are a less critical determinant of death fear than is the certainty with which these beliefs are held’.9 The findings indicate the majority did not seek religious comfort or conversion as a response to the challenge of terminal illness, even when this was seen as desirable. Although participants were not actively inspired to be religious as a result of their illness, they did hold a number of spiritual perspectives that were actively at play.10

8 McClain-Jacobson C., et al. (2004) Belief in an afterlife, spiritual well-being and end-of-life despair in patients with advanced cancer. General Hospital Psychiatry, 26(6): 484–6. 9 Smith D. K., Nehemkis A. M., Charter R. A. (1983) Fear of death, death attitudes, and religious conviction in the terminally ill. International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 13(3): 221–32. 10 McGrath P. (2003) Religiosity and the challenge of terminal illness. Death Studies, 27(10): 881–99.

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Faith practices It is always unhelpful to make assumptions about how a patient may value their faith and its practices. It is important to remember that, in most cultures of the world, spirituality has a practical, social and material impact on people’s daily lives—it is the experience of Western culture that is exceptional. Spirituality plays a vital role in the well-being of large numbers of British residents, and in a pluralistic culture many will value being able to express their spirituality through their religious and cultural traditions. The complexion of British multicultural society is increasingly diverse, and it is very difficult for non-specialists to understand the nuances of faith traditions. Chaplains or Spiritual Care specialists are an important resource for addressing patients’ religious and cultural requirements, but the real experts will be the patients themselves and/or their faith community leaders/spiritual advisors. Healthcare professionals should always consult the patient directly, or if this is impossible, the patient’s family, about their religious and cultural requirements. However, caution will be needed as, while some patients may identify belonging to a particular faith group, they may wish to deviate from what their family consider ‘orthodox’ practices. A woman born Roman Catholic and who later converted to Islam, married a Muslim man with whom she raised an Islamic family. Against the wishes of her son and now divorced husband, she wanted to have a Roman Catholic funeral and be cremated. Her nurse referred her to the chaplain!

Spiritual care team It is normal for members of the spiritual care team to be able to meet the religious and cultural requirements (sacraments, etc.) of the majority of patients, and to act as a resource to the multidisciplinary team for advice on dietary and ethical issues.11 • Where patients come from minority faith traditions, as far as possible the spiritual care team will liaise with spiritual advisors/faith community leaders • The spiritual care team will also be skilled in conducting, arranging or even creating ‘bespoke’ services that address the pastoral needs of individual patients: • informal bedside prayers or meditations • ad hoc prayers for impromptu family gatherings • reaffirmation of marriage vows • in extremis wedding services • baby memorials • spiritual healing services, etc.

11 For further help, see www.faithandfood.com

FAITH PRACTICES

• The spiritual care team is likely to have religious artefacts (prayer mats, beads, icons, etc.) and texts that patients will want to use to aid their spiritual practices.

Supporting patients’ religious practice It is important to remember that a patient’s frustrations with low energy levels during illness are likely to impact on their ability to follow the routine practices of their faith, which may in turn impact on their spiritual well-being. Religious disciplines are normally relaxed during ill health, for example, the fast during the Muslim holy month of Ramadan. Faith practices can be particularly helpful in times of stress and change. In the context of illness and the inevitable medicalization inherent in modern treatment pathways, faith practices can help to maintain a person’s sense of identity distinct from that of ‘patient’. Around the period of death, faith practices can have particular value, underscoring the transition from life to death. These practices may help patients and relatives: • Make sense of their loss • Be supported through the pain of transition and loss • Provide a framework for dealing with the process of letting go

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Spiritual pain The realization that life is likely to end soon may well…give rise to feelings of…the unfairness of what is happening, and at much of what has gone before, and above all a desolate feeling of meaninglessness. Here lies, I believe, the essence of spiritual pain.12 Saunders’ closely identified spirituality with the human search for meaning. Her approach to ‘spiritual pain’ has been influential: Spiritual relates to a concern with ultimate issues and is often seen as a search for meaning. Peter Speck13 The diagnosis of life-threatening disease has a profound effect on people who are ill and…questions relate to identity and self-worth as patients seek to find an ultimate meaning to their lives. NICE Guidance on Cancer Services14 [A] number of themes echo through most discussions about spirituality. The link between human spirituality and existential questions about meaning and purpose seems to be at the heart of these themes. Gillian White15 It is the health care professionals’ role to assist individuals to make sense and find meaning in times of crisis such as the acceptance of a terminal diagnosis. Wilfred McSherry16, 2006 These assertions seem to be based on Saunders’ own conviction, which she draws from the existential psychotherapy of Viktor Frankl. This implies that terminal patients engage (at some level) in a conscious/intellectual process of meaning making. If so, this distorts how Frankl understood ‘spiritual’. Frankl12 saw the ‘spiritual’ as the defining mark of what it means to be human: ‘human existence is spiritual existence’. He regarded being human as being ‘existentially responsible, responsible for one’s own existence’, and argued that the search for meaning is the making of a response.

12 Saunders C. (1988) Spiritual pain. Journal of Palliative Care, 4(3): 29–32. 13 Speck P. (1988) Being There: Pastoral Issues in Time of Illness. London: SPCK. 14 NICE (2004) Guidance on Cancer Services: Improving Supportive and Palliative Care for Adults with Cancer. London: NICE. 15 White G. (2006) Talking about Spirituality in Health Care Practice: A Resource for the Multi-professional Health Care Team. London & Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. 16 McSherry W. (2006) Making Sense of Spirituality in Nursing and Health Care Practice: An Interactive Approach (2nd edn). London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

SPIRITUAL PAIN

What is the meaning of life?…man is not he who poses the question, What is the meaning of life? but he who is asked this question, for it is life itself that poses it to him. And man has to answer to life by answering for life; he has to respond by being responsible; in other words, the response is necessarily a response-in-action.17 Spirituality, then, can be understood as an often unconscious response to the question posed by particular life crises: ‘How shall I live?’; ‘How will I be in this situation?’; ‘How will I face my dying?’ Because spiritual pain causes patients to suffer, and because palliative care is about the relief of suffering, spiritual pain is often taken as something that healthcare professionals must strive to relieve. McSherry18 borrows an expression from St John of the Cross, a sixteenth century Spanish mystic, to describe spiritual pain as ‘the dark night of the soul’. But McSherry misrepresents the idea in terms of spiritual search and confusion. Yet the sense of crisis that often accompanies ‘the dark night’ is not necessarily pathological. Spiritual pain can be the pain associated with spiritual growth, and may: • Draw out compassion, or even rekindle love between estranged friends/relatives/partners • Prompt in the patient a reappraisal or re-evaluation of their life • Lead to the recovery of values, beliefs, talents, ways of being long since lost or forgotten • Be a transition point along the patient’s journey towards greater selfunderstanding I was angry, very angry—angry at the world—and that’s not me. I’m not like that. I’m usually very calm. That’s not the way I want to be. I think that’s a quite natural reaction; but I don’t want to be angry, I don’t want to die angry. But actually, I feel as if I’m moving on from that now. I feel as if I’m moving into trying to making sense of what is ahead. This is not the old theological idea that humans are sinful and that, therefore, suffering is necessary and good; rather, it develops Saunders’ idea that: ‘The last part of life may have an importance out of all proportion to its length.’ • The patient may have important things yet to do, which in the short term may cause distress, but which may ultimately be healing • The desire always to relieve spiritual pain, even when it is a feature of spiritual growth, may conflict with the patient’s need to do ‘life-work’ • In which case, the desire to intervene prematurely in spiritual pain may say more about how healthcare professionals deal with pain in others and about how Western culture currently views death and dying

17 Frankl V. E. (2000) Man’s Search for Ultimate Meaning, p. 29. New York: Basic Books. 18 McSherry W. (2006) Making Sense of Spirituality in Nursing and Health Care Practice: An Interactive Approach (2nd edn). London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

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Spiritual pain can be thought of as the pain of growth associated with the patient’s struggle to respond to the question: How shall I be—with my self, with others, in the world, nature, and towards the Ultimate—when I am facing my own death? However many dying people I’ve known, this person is dying for the first time and I don’t know what they need: everyone has different needs. You must hold your previous experience of dying patterns very lightly… Death reveals that life’s about change, so how can we hold to our fixed ideas? Buddhist staff member of a US hospice If this is the case, the spiritual pain of a patient poses a profound question to the healthcare professional: ‘How will I respond to the patient in front of me?’ ‘Will I be their…’: • Consultant? • Social worker? • Nurse? • Physiotherapist? • Chaplain? ‘Or will I simply be with them as another human being who has a particular set of knowledge and skills that might be of some help?’ I couldn’t bring rule books about how to be with dying people. When I walked into a room with a person who was dying, there was just the person and me and here we are. And if I’m full of hiding in roles and identities I cut myself off from them and they’re left alone, which is the hardest way to die. Ram Dass19

Anticipatory grief Those who care for a dying person also experience spiritual pain. When circumstances force a carer to live incongruously the experience can be profoundly disturbing. • Awareness of their own needs—repressed or suppressed by the demands of constant care—may cause them to feel they are betraying or abandoning their partner, parent or friend • They themselves may feel betrayed or abandoned by their loved one, and they may be shocked by the strength of their anger towards the one for whom they care • Anticipating what life will be like after the death, or even planning for the funeral, may seem premature and again shocking, and may arouse strong feelings of guilt

19 Dass R. (1992) Death is not an outrage. A talk given by Ram Dass to the National Hospice Organisation. Available from www.ramdasstapes.org

SPIRITUAL PAIN

For some time Maureen had been planning a foreign holiday. Caring nonstop for six months, she was feeling in real need of her break. However, her first husband had died while she was away and she feared the same would happen again. Nonetheless, she was determined that she had to go. When her husband had been admitted to the hospice and was expected not to have long to live, Maureen’s immediate question had been, ‘Will I still be able to get away?’ She felt guilty and embarrassed that her first thoughts had been of herself. In her carers group she talked about guilt and responsibility, and about what long-term caring for a dying person does to the carer. Maureen spoke about wanting the best for her husband, but felt she needed an end to her stress. The seemingly endless experience created emotions within her that made her think and feel in ways that were incongruent with how she would normally have expected to have thought and felt. Maureen was being squeezed into a spiritually detrimental situation: living inauthentically against herself over an extended period.

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Spiritual assessment It cannot be assumed that all patients have spiritual needs at all times, and when they do, that they always want or need to share them with health professionals.20 Assessment has been defined as ‘the process of gathering, analyzing, and synthesizing salient data into a multidimensional formulation that provides the basis for action decisions’.21 There are two contrasting approaches to spiritual assessment: • The use of a formalized ‘spiritual assessment tool’ • The intuitive use of interpersonal skills

Formalized spiritual assessment Formalized assessment tools include sets of both quantitative and qualitative questions aimed at understanding the patient’s current spiritual needs. These may be based around the taking of a spiritual history. HOPE22 • What sources of Hope, strength, comfort, meaning, peace, love and connection does the patient have? • What role does Organized religion play in the patient’s life? • What is the patient’s Personal spirituality and practices? • What will be the Effects of these factors on the patient’s medical care and end-of-life decisions? • Advantages of formalized assessment tools: • provide a frame within which healthcare professionals can open conversations about spiritual issues with a patient • promise a means by which any healthcare professional can make a spiritual assessment • Limitations of formalized assessment tools: • patients may experience such assessment as intrusive and insensitive to their need to be met at the level of their subjectivity • inept use of an assessment tool may dehumanize the patient and hinder the formation of a compassionate therapeutic relationship

20 Farvis R. A. (2005) Ethical considerations in spiritual care. International Journal of Palliative Nursing, 11(4): 189. 21 Hodge D. R. (2001) Spiritual assessment; a review of major qualitative methods and a new framework for assessing spirituality. Social Work, 46(3): 203–15. 22 Anandaraha G., Hight E. (2001) Spirituality and medical practice: Using the HOPE questions as a practical tool for spiritual assessment. American Family Physician, 63(1): 81–8.

SPIRITUAL ASSESSMENT

Intuitive spiritual assessment A more intuitive approach to spiritual assessment is the use of interpersonal skills developed through reflective practice on ‘being with’ patients. This depends entirely on the particular experience, skill and personality of the spiritual assessor, and is rooted in the quality of the relationship between healthcare professional and patient. • Challenge of intuitive assessment: • demands high levels of self-awareness and empathy on the part of the healthcare professional • requires the healthcare professional to demonstrate ‘a personal awareness of the “spiritual” dimension, [be] themselves searching for meaning, have experienced a life crisis, recognize “spiritual” care as part of their role and [be] particularly sensitive and perceptive people’.23 The intuitive approach to spiritual assessment relies on careful listening to the stories patients tell about themselves and the particularities of the language they use.

The language of spiritual pain Loss: As a child, I had a place in my mind where I would go until things became safe again. I need it now, but I’ve lost it…I can’t find it. Helplessness: Ah well, nothing to be done, nothing to be done…nothing to be done. Isolation: There’s no way really to know that what you’re going through is normal. Fear (of losing control): If I could only get control of my emotions then everything would be fine. Pointlessness: This shouldn’t be happening…We used to do this differently. Years ago, they would’ve just up’d the morphine. While it is the case that all members of the multidisciplinary team contribute to spiritual care, it is debatable whether all are qualified to undertake spiritual assessment. Farvis questions whether it is even ‘reasonable to expect nurses who are unfamiliar with the concept of their own spirituality to engage in spiritual care at all?’ 20

Possible questions for initiating a conversation about spiritual assessment • What is important to you at the moment? • How is all this affecting you? • How’s it going?

23 Johnson C. P. (2001) Assessment tools: are they an effective approach to implementing spiritual health care within the NHS? Accident and Emergency Nursing, 9: 177–86.

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Skills needed in spiritual care Spiritual care is less about imparting specialist knowledge, be that of theology, philosophy or ritual practice, than it is about the ability to be genuinely present to another person during an episode of spiritual pain. Consequently, spiritual care is not the sole prerogative of paid specialists; any multidisciplinary team member can offer spiritual care. However, only those capable of what Walter calls ’watch-with-me vulnerability’24 actually do provide real spiritual care. The ‘cure of souls’ (‘traditional’ spiritual care) and ‘soul attending’ (psychotherapy) are closely associated, and the skills of psychospiritual care are similar to those of counselling and psychotherapy: • Self-awareness—understanding how one is affected by others; understanding one’s limits and triggers • Unconditional positive regard—‘prizing’ the other; love • Empathy—intuitively sensing the patient’s world ‘as if’ it were one’s own, but without ever losing the ‘as if’ quality • Active listening • Sense of humour 25 • Spiritual integrity—balancing one’s personal spirituality with what at times can be the challenging beliefs of others When the client’s world is this clear to the therapist, and he moves about in it freely, then he can both communicate his understanding of what is clearly known to the client and can also voice meanings in the client’s experience of which the client is scarcely aware Carl R. Rogers26

Spiritual companion: Anam Cara Spiritual care, particularly of those facing their own death, demands the response of a wise and compassionate ‘spiritual friend’ (Celtic: Anam Cara). Not every member of the multidisciplinary team will be equipped to offer this level of spiritual care. But each one contributes to enabling patients to find a ‘way of being’ that will enable them to go through the experience of dying in the way appropriate to them.

24 Walter T. (1997) The ideology and organization of spiritual care: three approaches. Palliative Medicine,11: 21–30. 25 Taylor E. J., Mamier I. (2005) Spiritual care nursing: What cancer patients and family caregivers want. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 49(3): 260–7. 26 Rogers C. (1957) The necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic personality change. Journal of Consulting Psychology 21: 95–103.

FURTHER READING

The spirituality of those who care for the dying must be the spirituality of the companion, of the friend who walks alongside, helping, sharing and sometimes just sitting, empty handed, when one would rather run away. It is a spirituality of presence, of being alongside, watchful, available, of being there. Sheila Cassidy

Further reading Books Cassidy S. (1988) Sharing the Darkness. London: Darton, Longman & Todd. Doyle D., et al. (eds). (2004) Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine (3rd edn). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Frankl V. E. (2000) Man’s Search for Ultimate Meaning. New York: Basic Books. McSherry W. (2006) Making Sense of Spirituality in Nursing and Health Care Practice: An Interactive Approach (2nd edn). London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. NICE (2004) Guidance on Cancer Services: Improving Supportive and Palliative Care for Adults with Cancer. London: NICE. O’Donohue J. (1999) Anam Cara: Spiritual Wisdom from the Celtic World. London: Bantam Books, Ram-Prasad C. (2005) Eastern Philosophy. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. Speck P. (1988) Being There: Pastoral Issues in Time of Illness. London: SPCK. Stanworth R. (2004) Recognizing Spiritual Needs in People who are Dying. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wilcock P. (1996) Spiritual Care of Dying and Bereaved People. London: SPCK. White G. (2006) Talking about Spirituality in Health Care Practice: A Resource for the Multi-professional Health Care Team. London & Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Articles Marie Curie Cancer Care. Spiritual & Religious Care Competencies for Specialist Palliative Care. Available at http://www.mariecurie.org.uk/forhealthcareprofessionals/spiritualandreligiouscare/

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Chapter 10

The contribution to palliative care of allied health professions Introduction Palliative care has been very successful at taking ideas, values and techniques from other disciplines in healthcare. Such borrowing of ideas has nearly always included considerable adaptation from the parent discipline. However, the notion of cross-boundary, interdisciplinary working is now highly developed in palliative care. Some disciplines such as medicine and nursing have become core parts of the specialist team, whereas others have been accessed on an as-required basis. Increasingly, individual allied health professions have seen the need to evolve the palliative care specialism within the generic discipline. Allied health professionals (AHPs) include occupational therapists, physiotherapists, nutritional experts, speech and language therapists, clinical psychologists, social workers and chaplains, pharmacists, art and music therapists.

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Chapter 10a

Rehabilitation Palliative rehabilitation aims to improve the quality of survival. The emphasis of palliative rehabilitation is to attempt to restore quality of life by a maintenance and compensatory approach even if a ‘normal’ functional level is not possible. The length of survival for most patients with cancer and other chronic progressive cardiac, respiratory and neurological illnesses has increased over the past 25 years. In some patients this is associated with prolonged disability due to the disease itself and/or the side-effects of treatment. In general medicine, rehabilitative techniques are generally associated with chronic benign disease and disability with an aim of restoring functional independence. In palliative care, rehabilitation shares the same principles of maximizing a person’s potential regardless of life expectancy. Most patients are fearful of being dependent on others, however they can be helped to be as independent as possible and to live a fulfilled life within the constraints of their illness. This not only helps patients but also relieves the stress of caregivers. Patients within palliative care settings are deteriorating and techniques need to be individually tailored to the rate of clinical deterioration. Techniques include setting realistic and achievable goals which are determined in conjunction with the multidisciplinary team. These goals must be reassessed continually in parallel with the exacerbations and remissions of disease and symptoms. In the later stages of the disease trajectory the goals may have to be reassessed on a day-to-day or even hour-to-hour basis. At different stages of the illness the purpose of goals may vary. It may be appropriate for a patient with a prognosis of weeks/months to set goals for mobilizing with comfort in order to get away for a holiday or to attend an important family event. For patients with a prognosis of days/weeks, goals may include providing physical, emotional, social and spiritual support to both patient and carers to enable them to manage a home death with confidence.

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Rehabilitation

Palliative rehabilitation • • • • • • • •

Helps patients gain opportunity, control, independence and dignity Responds quickly to help patients adapt constantly to their illness Takes a realistic approach to goal setting Takes the pace from the individual Looks at restoration of quality of life Adds life to patient’s days not days to their lives1 Is an attitude as well as a process Adopts a compensatory approach with a focus on problem solving and the promotion of coping strategies

Assessment of potential for successful palliative rehabilitation Biological/medical status A careful medical assessment of the underlying disease, and other disease pathologies which may be contributing to morbidity, needs to be undertaken in order to direct treatment to optimize the control of symptoms (e.g. correction of anaemia or congestive heart failure, treatment of spinal cord compression). In the absence of reversible pathology the empirical control of symptoms is paramount. Consideration should also be given to prognosis. In this way, patients will be in the best position to be able to achieve their own realistic goals. Psychological status Patients experience many losses as their illness progresses. These include loss of mobility, self-esteem, position or role in the family as well as expectations for the future. These factors, together with loss of control over their lives, may intensify their feelings of anger, apathy, depression and hopelessness, which will have a negative impact on rehabilitation. A lack of motivation may need to be explored, to ensure that there are no reversible factors such as clinical depression which may impede their ability to think in any positive way about the future. A competent unwillingness to participate in rehabilitation, on the other hand, should be respected. Palliative rehabilitation offers positive psychological support to overcome lack of confidence, poor motivation and to adjust to losses. • Decreased cognition: patients must be able to follow instructions and retain information in order to benefit maximally from palliative rehabilitation. However, limited functional goals can still be met despite limited cognition • Social and environmental factors: such factors as family and social support, emotional (and sometimes financial), impact on a patient’s confidence in goal-setting and achievement

1 Twycross (2003). Introducing Palliative Care, p. 3 (4th edn) Abingdon: Raddiffe Medical Press.

FURTHER READING

Successful palliative rehabilitation depends on: • • • •

Speed of team response Setting of realistic goals Adapting constantly to changing circumstances Supporting patients and carers through change

Rehabilitation team • • • • • • • • • • • •

The patient, family and carers Medical staff Nursing staff—ward- and community-based Occupational therapist Physiotherapist Speech and language therapist Social worker Chaplain Psychologist Complementary therapists Dietician Other specialists, according to need

Members of the rehabilitation team will have specific expertise and skills to optimize the benefit of rehabilitation, but it is important to understand that there will be some overlap of treatments and roles. The palliative rehabilitation approach is holistic, taking place at any stage of a person’s disease process and in the environments of the ward, home or day hospice.

Further reading Book Crompton S. (2000) Fulfilling Lives: Rehabilitation in Palliative care. London: National Council for Hospice and Specialist Palliative Care Services. NICE (2004) Improving supportive and palliative care for adults with cancer. London: NICE.

Articles Eva G., Lord S. (2003) Rehabilitation in malignant spinal cord compression. European Journal of Palliative Care, 10(4): 148–50. Fialka-Moser V., et al. (2003) Cancer rehabilitation: particularly with aspects on physical impairments. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 35(4): 153–62. Hopkins K. F., Tookman A. J. (2000) Rehabilitation and specialist palliative care. International Journal of Palliative Nursing, 6(3): 123–30. Montagnini M., Lodhi M., Born W. (2003) The utilization of physical therapy in a palliative care unit. Journal of Palliative Medicine, 6(1): 11–17. Schleinlich M.A. (2008) Palliative care rehabilitation survey: a pilot study of patients’ Priorities for rehabilitation goals. Palliative Medicine, 22(7): 822–831. Young l. (2004) The importance of cancer rehabilitation. Cancer Nursing Practice, 4(3): 31–4.

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Chapter 10b

Occupational therapy Occupational therapy enables people to achieve health, well-being and life satisfaction through participation in occupation (College of Occupational Therapy).1 In working with people who are terminally ill, occupational therapists value an individual’s remaining life, help a client live in the present, recognize an individual’s right to self-determination and acknowledge and prepare for the approaching death. The occupational therapist (OT) uses an activity–based, symptom-led rather than a disease- or diagnosis-led approach to treatment. The OT assesses various factors prior to advising on an appropriate intervention strategy.

Occupational history A profile of the patient is built up based on family history, past self-care abilities, work experience, leisure and recreational patterns. A functional assessment is then made which includes: • Self-maintenance: looking after oneself • Productivity: productive to life, either in the form of domestic activities or earning a living • Leisure Self-esteem A degree of social equilibrium and homeostasis is needed for a peaceful life, in harmony with all that life brings. When patients are diagnosed with a life-threatening illness and are changing from being totally independent to fluctuating or increasing levels of dependency, chaotic feelings can emerge. The natural protective reactions to this assault on self-esteem include anger, loss, resentment, bitterness and hostility. These feelings are energy wasting, serve no useful purpose and can lead to withdrawal, apathy and depression: behaviours that can significantly impact on an individual’s quality of life. Furthermore, carers are inevitably entrenched in this vicious circle of trying to cope not only with their own feelings but those of the patient, who may be continuing to verbalize that their present life is unacceptable. This extra burden and stress can trigger feelings of helplessness, hopelessness and uselessness in both patients and carers. People are only able to feel self-worth if they are in a position to contribute, as a result of which they can engender respect in others. The role of the OT is to help identify and analyse the cause of these feelings and reactions and to provide the patient with coping strategies to facilitate empowerment and a sense of control. This may be through the interview process or through the selective use of a more specific psychological approach such as cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT).

1 Occupational Therapy Standard Terminology Project (2005) London: College of Occupational Therapists: Appendix B.

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Physical systems An analysis of the patient’s physical capabilities will depend on the diagnosis and the course of the illness. The OT will need to have an understanding of the likely symptoms and prognosis in order to advise realistically, sensitively and appropriately while recognizing palliative patients’ dual states of both living and dying. The OT assesses physical dysfunction as it relates to muscle strength and endurance, assessing the degree to which disuse may have affected this and to what extent some rehabilitative potential might exist. The OT will need to be aware of muscle spasms and other pain and what factors trigger them. They will also assess ambulation and balance. The impact of cognitive and perceptual abilities will also be relevant and techniques will be found to compensate for these. Quality of life Quality of life is defined by the individual. As professionals, we can see potential and give advice that we believe might improve satisfaction (subjectively) in the patient and carer, and from which achievement can be measured (objectively). However, it is ultimately the choice of the individual, which must be valued and respected, to take or reject advice. A patient may, for example, feel that they gain more by not fighting physically or mentally to retain any vestige of their independence. Goals With the patient’s full cooperation, the OT can help to set realistic goals. The goals must be feasible and structured. If a patient has always been very independent and is ‘internally motivated’, it may be very difficult for them to accept having to adapt to different methods of performance and what they perceive as unacceptably low goals yet still maintain their pride and dignity. Carers may find pursuing goals a burden. For instance, they may worry about hurting the patient or themselves. They should not be asked or be required to do more than they are physically or emotionally capable of doing. Carers are often reassured by being told that they will be taught what to do. They need support from health professionals and other support groups, and advice for the often unspoken, unrecognized and unrewarded burden of care. Occupational therapy also has a role in educating both patient and carers about energy conservation, lifestyle changes, leisure activities and alternative means of carrying out activities of daily living.

Treatment planning Patients and families are vulnerable and often fearful of the uncertain future. They may vacillate chaotically between objective, logical thought and subjective, emotional despair. The aim is to work alongside these feelings and to raise the level of functioning by helping independence. A problem-solving compensatory approach is usually required to achieve this. Both patients and carers can regain a semblance of order, structure, purpose and control. Sometimes, however, change or deterioration can happen quickly or unexpectedly and OTs will need to be able to react to that. Continuous review is essential to ensure that the therapist is still

OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY

working towards the priorities of the individual and that priorities are still realistic and achievable. Examples of occupational therapy interventions • Carrying out home assessments and modifications to enable independence • Retraining in personal activities, including toileting, feeding, bathing and dressing • Retraining in domestic activities with the use of appropriate equipment, e.g. kitchen activities • Ensuring a safe environment, for example devising and implementing complex manual handling plans using adaptive equipment • Liaising with appropriate organizations in the community for packages of care • Encouraging increasing engagement in purposeful activity. Teaching time management and the usefulness of daily routines. Redeveloping a sense of purpose and accomplishment to increase self-esteem • Facilitating lifestyle management with continued engagement in hobbies and leisure pursuits. Promoting therapeutic activity programmes, such as involvement in creative activities and socialization, while encouraging the achievement of individual treatment goals • Providing relaxation training and stress management. Training in energy conservation and work simplification techniques to cope with fatigue either as individual sessions or group work • Supporting and educating carers • Facilitating psychological adjustment to loss of function, e.g. through the use of CBT. Retraining in cognitive and perceptual dysfunction, e.g. learning compensatory techniques to improve procedural memory during domestic tasks • Assessing for and prescribing wheelchairs, pressure-relief posture management and seating. Assessing muscle flexibility and positioning. Where necessary, having splints made and aiding transfers as well as incorporating both indoor and outdoor needs Occupational therapists define a clear, structured, graded plan of action with the patient and carers to provide strength of purpose and dignity. Life is a delicate balance: a matter of coping and adapting to a situation in which being productive and feeling valued are paramount. The OT is critical to facilitating a person’s sense of mastery and competence and for re-instilling substance and control into the quality of living.

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Further reading Book Cooper J. (ed.) (2006) Occupational Therapy in Oncology and Palliative Care (2nd edn). Chichester: Wiley.

Articles Armitage K., Crowther L. (1999) The rôle of the occupational therapist in palliative care. European Journal of Palliative Care, 6(5): 154–7. Bye R. (1998) When clients are dying: occupational therapists’ perspectives. Occupational Therapy Journal of Research, 18(1): 3–24. Ewer-Smith C., Patterson S. (2002) The use of an occupational therapy programme within a palliative care setting. European Journal of Palliative Care, 9: 30–3. Graff M., et al. (2006) Community based occupational therapy for patients and their caregivers: randomized controlled trials. British Medical Journal, 333(7580): 1196–9. Pearson E., et al. (2007) How can occupational therapists measure outcomes in palliative care? Palliative Medicine, 21(6): 477–85.

Chapter 10c

Dietetics and nutrition Laughter is brightest where food is best. Nutrition is not solely concerned with refuelling the body, but has profound emotional and cultural significance. Food preparation symbolizes tangible care and affection and, as far as possible, should continue to be part of daily social interaction. For carers, a good intake by the patient is often thought of as a hopeful sign, whereas a decreasing intake, particularly as the patient deteriorates, often causes much conflict and distress. The patient may feel guilty for not eating and often forces him/herself to eat in order to please the family. You must eat up if you want to get better. A good assessment of factors affecting nutritional status is important. Nutritional intervention focuses on ensuring that symptoms of disease or side-effects of treatment are managed well and on initiating appropriate dietary advice and strategies to prevent further morbidity. The aims of nutritional support in palliative care will change as the disease progresses. Aggressive nutritional intervention is needed during the earlier stages of illness, allowing the patient to cope with: • Metabolic demands of illness and treatment • Repair of tissue and prevention of infection • Maintenance of well-being and quality of life Palliative nutritional care, on the other hand, concentrates on symptom control and targeted nutritional intervention later in the disease process, in order to enhance quality of life. The incidence of malnutrition in patients with cancer is high and nutritional screening is required for all patients. Anorexia (b see Chapter 6c) Anorexia is the absence or loss of appetite despite obvious nutritional needs. Reversible causes of anorexia must be addressed. Cachexia Cachexia is the metabolic inability to use nutrients effectively, resulting in weight loss, lipolysis, loss of muscle and visceral protein, anorexia, chronic nausea and weakness.

Role of the dietitian in palliative care State registered dietitians are experts in nutrition and are, therefore, able to translate scientific theory into practical advice for patients, carers and other health professionals depending on the patient’s needs. They can be accessed within the hospital or the community setting and work closely with other members of the multidisciplinary team. Their role is to enhance quality of life.

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Tasks for the professional advising on nutrition: • Assess a patient’s nutritional status • Elicit the patient’s goals regarding nutrition • Provide specialized nutritional advice at diagnosis, during treatment and in the palliative phase • Advise on food preparation/fortification/supplementation as appropriate • Relax dietary restrictions if possible, i.e. for patients with diabetes and hypercholesterol states • Recommend and calculate feeding regimens to suit an individual patient’s requirements, using enteral or parenteral access • Provide psychological and emotional support • Listen to patients’ fears Dietitians don’t just give out nice little boxes of milky supplements!

Dietary management of common symptoms affecting nutritional status The common symptoms experienced require a multidisciplinary team approach. Loss of appetite • Eat small frequent meals or snacks • Eat slowly and relax after meals • Use nutritious snacks if unable to manage full meals, e.g. baked beans, scrambled egg, cheese on toast, or tinned, frozen or convenience meals, i.e. macaroni, ravioli, cottage pie • Consider ‘take-aways’ and pre-cooked, delivered meals: these do not need to be prepared so can be useful for stimulating appetite • Take simple exercise or a glass of alcohol, if permitted: these can be useful stimulants • Consider avoiding soups pre-meals: the volume may prevent further appetite for more nutritious foods Sore mouth • Choose foods with plenty of sauce or gravy, e.g. casseroles, fish in parsley sauce • Moisten food with milk, butter, cream • Choose soft foods, e.g. pasta dishes with sauces, creamy soups, egg dishes, milk puddings and mousses • Avoid irritants such as citrus fruits (or juice), spicy or salty foods and rough, coarse, dry foods such as raw vegetables, toast, crackers • Cook foods until they are soft and tender and cut into small pieces • Use a blender or food processor to puree foods • Sip fluids rather than gulping: sipping is more refreshing than gulping • Keep the mouth clean—brush teeth, gums and tongue at least three times a day with a soft toothbrush • Use mouthwashes regularly • Suck ice before being treated with 5-fluouracil, other than in head and neck cancer as it helps to prevent mucositis

DIETETICS AND NUTRITION

Nausea and vomiting • Cold foods may be more acceptable than hot • Eat small amounts slowly • For sickness in the morning, eat prior to getting out of bed, e.g. plain biscuits, dry toast, or cracker • Keep meals dry, do not add gravy or sauces • Sip fluids after meals • Keep upright whilst eating and for 2h afterwards • Drink fizzy drinks—especially ginger ale and soda water which can help with nausea • Use a fan to direct away odours, especially in hospital • Grill foods: fatty foods may make nausea worse • Check for other reversible causes, such as opioid medication, constipation, patient anxiety Taste changes • Try chicken, fish, milk, cheese, beans or nuts if the patient finds red meat tastes unpleasant. These foods are bland in taste and may be more acceptable • Marinate meat in lemon juice or vinegar to improve flavour • Use herbs and spices to mask the taste of meat • Freshen the mouth with oranges, grapefruit, pineapple and lemon fruits or juices • Consider cold food: these may taste better than hot food. It may suit the patient to have frequent cold snacks throughout the day rather than a more traditional three-meal pattern • Avoid food and drink which contains saccharin or other artificial sweeteners since they may give food a bitter taste • It is important to keep the mouth clean, brush teeth three times a day and use a recommended mouthwash • Use plastic utensils if the patient experiences a metallic taste Diarrhoea • Discourage a high-fibre intake, i.e. reduce bran, fruit, vegetable, pulses • Avoid strong tea and coffee which are gut stimulants • Avoid spicy foods • Reduce greasy, fatty foods: certain fats may make diarrhoea worse • Check inappropriate laxative use • Consider malabsorption The above includes only some of the advice available and is a guideline only to the merits of a formal dietetic assessment.

Nutritional supplements In the UK see the British National Formulary for a full range and the nutritional composition of prescribable products. Oral supplementation is available to assist rather than replace food, but it will not increase weight or prolong the life of patients with cancer. Their benefits include increasing calorie and nitrogen intake and stimulating the appetite. Many products are available on the market which range in nutritional support and can be expensive. Ideally, they should be recommended after

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the patient has been assessed by a state-registered dietitian who will then select the most appropriate product for that individual, according to their preferred taste and perceived need. The challenge for dietitians working with patients in the palliative care setting is to use their expertise to cater for the particular needs of the individual patient whose requirements and goals may change rapidly. Oral nutritional supplements can be divided into the following categories: Oral sip feeds • Some are nutritionally complete and provide a full range of vitamins and minerals • Milk, juice or yoghurt options are available • A good source of protein and energy Fortified puddings • Provide protein and calories in small volumes • Are useful for dysphagic patients Modular supplements • Are a concentrated source of carbohydrate/protein fat • Beneficial only if used in conjunction with a diet plan to ensure that a range of nutrients is provided • Carbohydrate drinks are unsuitable for diabetics without supervision • In powder form they can be incorporated into foods without increasing volumes • Need to be calculated to patient requirements to maximize use and reduce risk of volume overload Tube feeding Tube feeding is generally nasogastric, or gastric through a percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) or radiologically inserted gastrostomy (RIG) but rarely may be duodenal or jejunal. The aim of feeding may be to replace normal food intake or to supplement it. There is some evidence that artificial feeding prior to definitive oncological treatment, including surgery, may assist in stabilizing weight, improving quality of life and contribute to better treatment results. However, there is no evidence that artificial feeding prolongs life in those patients with advanced cancer. The decision to feed artificially requires clinical judgement within the multidisciplinary team and good understanding of the patient’s needs and feelings. If used appropriately (e.g. for some patients with neurological conditions when proper counselling and discussion have taken place, and occasionally in patients with head and neck cancer), it can be useful and take the pressure off patients and carers when eating has become a burden and food can no longer be tolerated or enjoyed. Future developments There has been a lot of interest in using eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; an omega-3 fatty acid present in oily fish) as a treatment for patients with cancer for a variety of reasons, including modulation of aspects of the inflammatory response implicated in cancer cachexia, halting and reversing weight loss and prolongation of survival in some patients. The therapeutic potential in the management of end-of-life malnutrition includes its efficacy

FURTHER READING

in reducing weight loss and improving quality of life. EPA is given either as a capsule or enriched oral nutritional supplement. However, further research is required before a consensus is reached on its value.

Ethical issues Healthcare professionals working within the palliative care setting are faced with ethical dilemmas daily. Decisions should be made with the support of the team and consideration of the patient and carers. In order to make a justifiable, considered decision, the following questions should be considered prior to commencing artificial feeding: • What are the patient’s wishes? • What benefit will it bring to the patient? • How much discomfort is caused by eating and drinking normally? • How keen or able is the patient to continue eating and drinking? • What are the risks and discomforts associated with artificial feeding? Documents are available to offer guidance on nutrition and hydration to health professionals and some are listed below.

Further reading Books British Medical Association (2007) Withholding and Withdrawing Life-Prolonging Medical Treatment: Guidance for Decision making (3rd edn). London: BMA. Lennard-Jones, J. E. (ed.) (1998) Ethical and Legal Aspects of Clinical Hydration and Nutritional Support. Redditch: The British Association for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition. National Council for Palliative Care (2007) Artificial Nutrition and Hydration—Guidance in End of Life Care for Adults. London: NCPC and APM.

Article Elia M., et al. (2006). Enteral (oral or tube administration) nutritional support and eicosapentaenoic acid in patients with cancer: A systematic review. International Journal of Oncology, 28: 5–23.

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Chapter 10d

Physiotherapy A physiotherapist is a healthcare professional concerned with human function and movement and maximizing potential’. A physiotherapist will use physical approaches in the promotion, maintenance and restoration of an individual’s physical, psychological and social well-being, taking account of variations in health states. In palliative care, the role of the physiotherapist is to reduce the degree to which disabilities, caused by the disease or the treatment, interfere with everyday life. This is particularly pertinent for those patients whose disease trajectory may be short and are deteriorating rapidly. Physiotherapists are important members of the multidisciplinary palliative care team. They may be involved in all healthcare settings in the treatment of patients with any progressive deteriorating condition, which most commonly includes cancer, chronic end-stage respiratory, neurological and cardiac disease. As part of the rehabilitation team, the specialist physiotherapist is in a good position to identify the needs and coordinate the responses of colleagues working in a wide variety of complementary fields. The physiotherapist, with a knowledge of the underlying pathological condition, adopts a problem-solving approach in which goals of treatment are planned jointly with the patient. This gives the patient, who may feel helpless because of a loss of independence, a measure of control. These goals must be realistic and achievable for the phase of the disease and must be continually reassessed. Goals may be simple (to be able to sit comfortably in bed) or more complex (to attend and enjoy a wedding). This is known as ‘active readaptation’. A physiotherapist has a detailed knowledge of functional anatomy and ergonomics, and is able to analyse movement and posture in its relationship to the environment. For instance, weakness and immobility may lead to poor posture, which places a strain on muscles and ligaments and can cause pain, particularly around joints. These stresses may be relieved by strategic physical positioning. The physiotherapist may be the first professional to be alerted to the signs and symptoms of spinal cord compression due to malignant disease. Alongside immediate medical treatment, the initial aim will be an attempt to minimize loss of function. Should a more complete picture of motor, sensory and autonomic impairment develop, the physiotherapist will be instrumental in helping the patient cope with adapting to a drastic reduction in functional ability by helping the patient to develop a strategy for the future. This may involve balance training, development of upper body strength, instruction in transfers and the use of a wheelchair. Relatives and other carers will also require instruction in passive movements, the positioning of paralysed limbs, the use of wheelchairs and in moving and handling techniques.

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Physiotherapy interventions Optimizing mobility As diseases progress, mobility becomes more challenging. Initially, a stick or crutches may be necessary to support independence, but later the provision of a walking frame or working towards independent mobility in a wheelchair may be more appropriate. Facilitating independence of transfers by strategically positioned furniture or the use of a sliding board may allow patients to remain independent within a smaller environment. Pain management Bone pain and neuropathic pain due to cancer are notoriously difficult to manage. Relief may be obtained by the use of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS). Local applications of heat, in the form of heat pads or wheat bags, are also used for pain relief. Progressive disease often leads to immobility and pain may be experienced due to stiffness of joints and poor posture. Maintenance of joint range and muscle power Massage and exercise therapy are the core skills of all physiotherapists. Maintenance of joint range by the use of active or passive exercises along with therapeutic massage will be beneficial. Therapeutic massage using stroking and gentle kneading may be used to reduce muscle spasm, to relieve pain and aid relaxation. Maintenance of joint range is also important in the management of neurodegenerative diseases, and passive movements and active assisted exercises need to be implemented and taught to relatives and other carers. Physiotherapists also provide and fit neck collars, splints and various other supports for weakened muscles. These will help to correct posture or reduce deformities and facilitate improved function. Breathlessness management Breathlessness is very frightening and distressing for patients and carers, making them feel out of control. All physiotherapists are trained in giving respiratory care and can teach patients and their carers techniques to reduce the work of breathing, to encourage relaxation, to aid in the expectoration of secretions and to advise on coping strategies in order to improve breathing control. The physiotherapist is a key member of the multidisciplinary team involved in running breathlessness groups. Some physiotherapists are trained in various complementary therapies that can be used to help the control of breathlessness, e.g. acupuncture, reflexology and aromatherapy. Physiotherapists often help in the management of patients, using noninvasive ventilation for respiratory failure e.g. secondary to neuromuscular disability such as in Motor Neurone Disease. Lymphoedema management (b see Chapter 6F Skin problems in palliative care) Chronic oedema may develop in an arm following treatment for breast cancer or as a manifestation of recurrent axillary lymph node disease, or in the legs secondary to impedance of lymphatic drainage from disease in the pelvis. A swollen limb is heavy and affects posture and mobility, placing stresses on weakened muscles and joints.

FURTHER PHYSIOTHERAPY READING

Lymphoedema management includes using exercise as well as correct positioning, compression hosiery, multilayer lymphoedema bandaging, manual lymph drainage techniques and skin care. In palliative care, oedema of mixed aetiology is common, resulting in immobile, dependent limbs and oedema of the trunk. The physiotherapist may need to be adaptive in the management of these patients. Psychological support The physiotherapist often works on a one-to-one basis with patients. Patients may discuss their hopes and fears with a sensitive listener. They feel safe to ask searching questions in these situations and, therefore, the physiotherapist needs to be adequately prepared and informed to deal with these issues and to communicate relevant issues to the team, within the bounds of confidentiality.

Further reading Book Doyle D., et al. (2004) Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine (3rd edn). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Articles Chartered Society of Physiotherapy (2003) The Role of Physiotherapy for People with Cancer— Chartered Society of Physiotherapy Position Statement. Available at: www.csp.org.uk/uploads/ documents/csp_pos_state_cancer1.htm Oldervoll L., et al. (2006) The effect of a physical exercise program in palliative care: a phase ll study. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 31(5): 421–30. Robinson D. (2000) The contribution of physiotherapy to palliative care. European Journal of Palliative Care, 7(3): 95–8.

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Chapter 10e

Speech and language therapy Speech and language therapy (SLT) is necessary in palliative care since patients often have difficulties with communication and swallowing. Some palliative care teams have their own SLT service, others access SLT from local hospital or community services. The abilities to both communicate effectively and swallow safely are integral to being autonomous social creatures and maintaining life, in sickness as well as in health. Therefore, any problem with communication is an adverse symptom and reduces the patient’s independence, quality of life and informed decision-making. Similarly, swallowing problems reduce quality of life and give rise to risks of reduced intake, choking and aspiration. The SLT plays an important role in the multidisciplinary team at all stages of disease management, at diagnosis and in symptom control, palliative rehabilitation and terminal care.

Aims and principles of SLT intervention SLT assessment contributes to diagnosis, monitoring of disease progression and prognosis, and provides accurate identification of the type, severity and causes of the communication or swallowing problem. This allows appropriate and relevant intervention. The aim of SLT input in this context is the maintenance and facilitation of remaining function within the limits of the disease and compensation for deficits, rather than the restoration of original abilities. SLT is helpful in contributing to an assessment of competence and also at times when the patient needs to communicate their wishes or symptoms or to discuss prognosis but communication is difficult, e.g. due to fear, fatigue, pain or to a specific problem with speech. SLT helps patients make informed, realistic and timely choices, and to set appropriate personal goals for communication and swallowing by: • Early involvement: to build understanding and trust, monitor progression and anticipate future problems • Patient-led, whole-person approach: to enable relevant, appropriate and timely management for the individual • Accurate identification of problems and causes: e.g. differentiating dysphasia from dysarthria, due to cortical vs bilateral brain lesions or brainstem disease • Immediate strategy formation to maximize function, manage symptoms and reduce risk: e.g. swallow techniques to reduce choking and the risk of aspiration • Patient, relative, carer and team support, information and education: to increase understanding and improve appropriateness and effectiveness of management • Anticipation of future problems, preparation and planning

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Speech and language therapy

Communication difficulties The ability to communicate is always important, but particularly so when an individual has to understand unfamiliar or frightening information, ask difficult questions and express emotionally complex ideas, as happens in palliative care. Even apparently mild problems with communication give rise to heavy physical, cognitive, emotional, psychological as well as time burdens on the patient and also on their relatives, friends and healthcare staff. It can result in the patient withdrawing and others avoiding contact. A significant number of palliative care patients have been shown to have previously unidentified communication problems and have also reported concern about their communication, feeling it is impaired. Dysphasia Dysphasia is a difficulty with verbal language and the processing of words. It includes problems with word-finding, syntax, writing and spelling (i.e. expressive dysphasia) and with understanding spoken words and reading (i.e. receptive dysphasia). The type and severity of the expressive and receptive problems vary between patients, but there is almost always an element of comprehension deficit even though this may not be obvious. For a variety of reasons, patients, relatives and even healthcare staff tend to underestimate the degree of comprehension, but it is also important not to underestimate the underlying competence of the patient. Usually, dysphasia is caused by damage to the cortex of the dominant left hemisphere of the brain. It is frequently present in palliative care as a result of stroke or primary or metastatic cerebral disease. Examples of strategies that may help patients with dysphasia include: • Allow additional time, not being rushed, and ensure a reduction in background noise and distractions • Establish a reliable yes/no response • Word-finding—encourage to talk around the target word or describe the object (circumlocution), substitute another word or focus on the initial sound, or use pointing or gestures • Auditory comprehension—speaker slows own speech down, simplifies what is being said, shortens sentences and ‘chunks’ information, uses pauses, repeats and reiterations • Use of a picture-based communication chart or aid Dysarthria This is a motor (movement) problem of speech. There is a reduction in the range, speed or coordination of facial and oral movements, affecting articulation and resulting in slow or slurred speech and reduced intelligibility. The specific type of dysarthria depends on which motor pathway has been affected and where. Dysarthria can be caused by stroke and cerebral tumours, and occurs in almost all the progressive neurological conditions such as motor neurone disease (MND), Parkinson’s disease (PD), progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), cerebellar atrophy, multiple system atrophy (MSA) and multiple sclerosis (MS), dependent on the disease progression. Sometimes cognitive problems complicate diagnosis and management. Ill health, general weakness and breathing difficulties may also give rise to dysarthria.

SPEECH AND LANGUAGE THERAPY

In addition, articulation difficulties are almost always a problem for those patients with head and neck cancers, due to structural changes as a result of the disease, surgery or oncological treatment (b See Chapter 6h—Head and neck cancer.) Examples of strategies that may help patients with dysarthria: • Allow additional time and ensure a reduction in background noise and distractions • Encourage them to sit up straight and breath slowly and deeply • Encourage them to slow their speech down, shorten phrases, breath between phrases and over-articulate • Use of an alphabet or text-based chart or aid Dysphonia This is a problem with the voice: it may be quiet or hoarse or it may disappear intermittently or completely. The causes in palliative care are numerous. There may be reduced breath support to make the vocal cords vibrate, due to lung disease or general weakness. There may be a vocal cord palsy due to a lesion of the recurrent laryngeal nerve, as can happen in the spread of lung tumours and disease in the neck. Dysphonia can also be caused by cerebrovascular disease and occurs in progressive neurological diseases such as MND, PD and MS. Patients with head and neck cancers frequently have voice problems caused by structural changes due to the tumour or treatments. In those patients with laryngeal cancer treated by radiotherapy with or without chemotherapy, there are long-term structural changes to the vocal cords which affect how they vibrate and, therefore, the sound they produce. When laryngeal cancer is treated by laryngectomy the larynx, including the vocal cords, is removed and the patient no longer has the anatomy to make normal voice sounds ( b see Chapter 6h—Head and neck cancer). Examples of strategies that may help patients with dysphonia: • Reduce background noise • Ensure good vocal hygiene—see explanation below • Encourage adequate breath support, frequent top-ups of breath and not speaking on residual air • Encourage patients to open their mouths wide to let the sound out and project the voice but not strain it • Use an amplifier Vocal hygiene ‘Hygiene’ is used in the sense of ‘good care’ or ‘cleanliness’. So vocal hygiene means doing things that are good for the voice/vocal cords/larynx and not doing things that are harmful. Speech and language therapists and ear, nose and throat specialists give standard vocal hygiene advice to almost everyone they see with a voice problem, with good explanation and support. Bearing in mind that patients with palliative care needs may have a short time to live and that the emphasis is on quality of life, advice will need adapting to the individual patient’s circumstances. Vocal hygiene includes: • Increasing fluid intake • Avoiding carbonated, caffeine-containing or diet drinks • Managing reflux (with medication as necessary) • Humidifying the environment if possible

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• Avoiding smoky environments and other known irritants, such as car fumes and some cleaning fluids • Trying not to talk against background noise • Not shouting • Stopping habitual throat-clearing and coughing • Stopping throat lozenges, pastilles and sweets • Trying steam inhalations • Trying to build voice ‘rest periods’ into the patient’s timetable • Stopping smoking • Avoiding alcohol, especially spirits

Swallowing difficulties Dysphagia or swallowing difficulties occur when there are structural, malignant or neurological changes to the lips, tongue, cheeks, upper and lower jaw, teeth, palate, pharynx, larynx and oesophagus. It can also occur when the level of responsiveness is reduced, there are cognitive problems or as a secondary effect of disease elsewhere. Dysphagia leads to reduced intake and may result in choking and putting the patient at risk of aspiration. Dysphagia is caused by head and neck, brain and other cancers and their treatments. It is also caused by stroke and is seen in almost all progressive neurological diseases, such as MND, PD and MS. Dysphagia and reduced eating and drinking are also part of the terminal stage of disease and the dying process. The type and severity of dysphagia depends on which structures are affected, how and why they are affected and how severely. Therefore, an SLT assessment establishes the type and severity of dysphagia, including symptoms requiring palliation, risks and prognosis. The SLT can then suggest strategies to make swallowing easier, more efficient and safer. The SLT works closely with all members of the multidisciplinary team in the management of dysphagia, including the dietitian, physiotherapist and occupational therapist. In circumstances where there is a long-term high risk of repeated choking and aspiration and inadequate intake (such as in MND and some head and neck cancers) it is appropriate to consider stopping or supplementing oral intake using tube feeding via a PEG or RIG. Examples of strategies that may help patients with dysphagia: • Ensuring thorough frequent mouth care • Advising on an upright sitting posture with head in the mid-line • Limiting the amount eaten and drunk at one time—little and often • Modifying the consistency of foods and drinks may help to overcome a delayed swallow and make swallowing safer, e.g. soft, wet, mashable foods rather than hard foods, and syrup-thick drinks (pre-thickened, or hand-thickened, e.g. with Nutilis) rather than thin fluids • Modifying head position and using various swallow manoeuvres may compensate for a weak or ineffective swallow and poor airway protection, e.g. head turn to the affected side, supraglottic swallow The SLT should be consulted whenever a patient is having difficulties, as described above, in order to explain which strategies are appropriate.

FURTHER READING

Further reading Book Logemann J. (1998) Evaluation and Treatment of Swallowing Disorders (2nd edn). Austin, Texas: PRO-ED.

Articles Barret R., Roe J. (2004) A team approach to the management of dysphagia in advanced cancer. Complete Nutrition, 4(6): 9–11. Glasgow Allied Health Professions Palliative Care Project 2004. Available at: www.palliativecareglasgow.info/ Patterson J. (2005) Head and neck cancer dysphagia. Speech & Language Therapy in Practice, Autumn: 12–14. Roe J. (2005) Oropharyngeal dysphagia in advanced non-head and neck malignancy. European Journal of Palliative Care, 12(6): 229–32. Salt N., Davies S., Wilkinson S. (1999) The contribution of speech and language therapy to palliative care. European Journal of Palliative Care, 6(4): 126–9. Salt N., Robertson S. (1998) A hidden client group? Communication impairment in hospice patients. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 33: 96–101.

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Chapter 10f

Clinical and other applied psychology in palliative care Psychologists do not necessarily draw a sharp distinction between work in palliative care and oncology. Job descriptions may require that they work across this range and the evidence-base indicates similar roles and activities are required in both fields. Even so, the workforce is tiny and, although in recent years numbers have been growing, demand has outstripped the supply of suitably qualified and experienced practitioners to take on the responsibilities asked of them. The alternative is to access existing services within community mental health teams and primary care. If considering referring to these services it is necessary to bear in mind: • Access to these services is often restricted to those with significant mental health pathology • Mental healthcare professionals have little training in the special issues of patients with palliative care needs and may struggle to adapt their skills accordingly • Patients may have difficulty with the perceived stigma of being referred to services for the mentally ill, and may see this as a sign that they are not believed and may refuse this help Much of the work of psychologists in palliative care is directed towards supporting or working in collaboration with other staff: this can only be achieved by becoming an integral member of the palliative care team. Mindful of the fact that those turning to this section of the Handbook are likely to be considering contacting or employing a psychologist there is a need to clarify: • The roles a psychologist may perform, together with some of the terminology used in job titles and treatments • Who can claim, with justification, to be suitably trained to develop and lead palliative care psychology services

Roles for the applied psychologist in palliative care Professional training incorporating psychology modules has changed clinical practice, and many healthcare professionals can identify ways in which their psychological knowledge benefits the care of patients, from communication skills to symptom management. One consequence is that any description of the role of the psychologist in palliative care is likely to meet a chorus of ‘but I do that’ from other members of the team. The palliative care psychologists usually spend a substantial amount of their time working with patients, but a major role for them is multidisciplinary teamwork, supporting and reinforcing the psychological work of other team members, adding new perspectives and updating knowledge as research-led developments occur.

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The activities of applied psychologists can be considered under five main headings: treatment; assessment; teaching and training; consultancy; research and audit. 1. Treatment Often the primary reason for including a psychologist in the palliative care team is to provide additional treatment. Because of a broadening of the definition of ‘palliative care’ and improvements in treatments, more people receiving palliative care have a lifespan that enables psychological interventions to be effective. Changed circumstances lead to changed perspectives, priorities and duties for the palliative care patient. Psychological intervention can facilitate adjustment, resilience and restitution of an essentially normal life. Commonly occurring problems include: • Difficulties adjusting to change • Loss of hope • Lack of purpose and direction • Passivity and dependency induced by being cared for • Fear of the future • Poor anger control • Communication difficulties in the family and with health professionals • The need for better coping strategies The body of psychological research in cancer and chronic pain has been especially productive in devising intervention strategies to facilitate: • Constructive acceptance and adjustment to disability and shortened lifespan • Beneficial emotional expression and regulation, including anger control • Skilful coping and personal control despite disease progression • Purposeful living and improved motivation • Effective communication with carers • Enhancement of self-esteem despite appearance changes and loss of roles Mental ill-health problems of anxiety, depression and anger are often reasons for referral, whilst pain management referrals are also appropriate where prolonged experience of chronic pain is experienced. Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) encourages people to modify their unhelpful thoughts and behaviours, thereby constructively changing situational outcomes (e.g. resolving a dilemma), emotional responses (e.g. raising low mood) and physical reactions (e.g. reducing muscle tension). The attraction of this therapeutic approach is partly because of its brief pragmatic interventions focused on current problems, and partly because of the substantial research evidence-base on which this approach is developing. However, a characteristic that often distinguishes psychologists from counsellors is a reluctance to be closely allied to any one particular treatment model. Evidence-based techniques often determine psychologist interventions rather than therapeutic models. Thus psychologists, may, for example, use a mix of CBT methods with others selected from the psychodynamic ways of working (exploring the effects of early life experiences) and a systemic approach (examining interactions and roles, particularly within the family).

PSYCHOLOGY IN PALLIATIVE CARE

2. Assessment The psychologist’s basic history and information gathering is identical to any good in-depth initial interviewing conducted by other healthcare professionals, but it may also include some less common features such as the use of questionnaires and between-session record-keeping. Tools measuring psychological adjustment and psychopathology are used to assess distress and changes in a patient’s mental state, and to screen the need for psychological interventions. The psychologist’s role is to make professional interpretation and comparison of results with these assessment instruments, especially those that have been less rigorously evaluated. Other psychometric tools—including measures of cognitive functioning, intellectual ability, attainments, personality and aptitudes— rarely form part of the palliative care psychologist’s role. Since devising new rating scales and questionnaires is a skill for which psychologists receive training, they can, therefore, also assist others who are developing assessment tools. 3. Teaching and training Many psychological skills are transferable to other professionals.1 Applied psychologists expect to keep updating their fellow team members in relevant psychological knowledge and skill developments.2 The NICE guidance3 places particular emphasis on this role and that of supervision for staff working at lower levels in their model of psychological assessment and support. Psychologists frequently use an educational approach (‘psychoeducation’) to groups of patients in preference to a therapy group as an effective means of enhancing insight and coping skills. 4. Consultancy Giving advice and support to fellow team members is often more appropriate than seeing the patient personally. This is particularly true towards the patient’s end of life when time may be of the essence and meeting new professionals should be minimized. The psychologist can offer advice (and sometimes techniques) to staff that enables them to proceed in providing skilful assistance with more self-assurance; team meetings and case reviews can be strengthened by this means as well. 5. Research and audit Some psychologists are involved in aspects of healthcare primarily from a research perspective. A culture of undertaking research is integral to psychologist training, so most psychologists seek to develop or support local research and audit projects.

1 Mannix K., et al. (2006) Effectiveness of brief training in cognitive behaviour therapy techniques for palliative care practitioners. Palliative Medicine, 20: 579–84. 2 Sage, N., et al. CBT for Chronic Illness and Palliative Care: A Workbook and Toolkit. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. (In press). 3 NICE (2004). Improving Supportive and Palliative Care for Adults with Cancer. London: NICE.

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Types of applied psychologist employed in healthcare • Assistant psychologists are psychology graduates without additional training. They carry out research and clinical support tasks under the supervision of a vocationally trained psychologist and are not normally employed in other roles. • Research psychologists who have an academic background and no vocational training similarly limit their role to supervised or non-clinical activities as agreed within local clinical governance arrangements. (Role 5 above.) • Health psychologists have postgraduate training focused around the psychological aspects of illness, healthy and unhealthy behaviours, health-related attitudes, health promotion and communication, as well as research into psychological aspects of healthcare delivery. Although health psychologists are few in number and are a very new group of qualified and experienced applied psychologists, their skills are relevant in palliative care, particularly with reference to communication skills, information needs and service provision research. (Roles 2–5 above.) • Counselling psychologists are also a relatively new breed of applied psychologist, but numbers have increased substantially in the past few years and they are now present in many psychology services. Training tends to be focused around a thorough knowledge of therapeutic models; therefore they are especially well equipped to provide specific therapy services for patients and carers. (Roles 1–5 above.) • Clinical psychologists remain the most common of all the applied psychologists offering clinical care. They have been part of the healthcare system for over fifty years and their training aims to provide a wide experience of different aspects of that system and its clientele. Breadth of psychological knowledge is often greater than that of the health or counselling psychologist, but is perhaps achieved by limiting depth during training. The all-rounder quality of training makes the clinical psychologist a good choice in the development of palliative care psychological services. (Roles 1–5 above.) All applied psychologists need to receive supervision of their work from more experienced applied psychologists. In the first instance, new or small palliative care services should employ psychologists with at least five years practice or arrange contracts with larger local psychology services.

Further reading Books Moorey S., Greer S. (2002). Cognitive Behaviour Therapy for People with Cancer. New York: Oxford University Press. Sage N., et al. (2008). CBT for Chronic Illness and Palliative Care: A Workbook and Toolkit. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.

Articles Mannix K., et al. (2006) Effectiveness of brief training in cognitive behaviour therapy techniques for palliative care practitioners. Palliative Medicine, 20: 579–84. Payne S., Haines R. (2002) The contribution of psychologists to specialist palliative care. International Journal of Palliative Nursing, 8(8): 401–6.

Chapter 10g

Social work Social workers are an integral component of the palliative care team, and address many non-physical issues crucial to the holistic care of patients and their families. It is relatively easy to recognize physical problems such as shortness of breath, but healthcare professionals often assume that health concerns are the most important issues in the patient’s mind, whereas family relationships and problems of everyday living may be just as, or more, important. When someone suffers from a life-threatening illness it affects all family members and changes the dynamics, roles and relationships within the family. The social worker’s focus is on the effects of the illness on the family, and other social and community networks important to the patient. He or she is, therefore, often in the best position to enable patients to express and deal with emotional, psychological and social issues in their lives, helping them to reduce fear and anguish and enabling them to feel reconnected with friends, family and community. Social work has three main roles: 1 To strengthen people in managing and dealing with emotional, psychological and social consequences of what is happening to them 2 To enable people to make the best possible use of welfare services and family, social network and community resources that will help them 3 To develop community organizations and groups to provide mutual help and support for people in dealing with the problems in their lives It is not always possible to treat physical symptoms until the patient’s emotional, psychological, social and spiritual distress is understood and addressed, and until difficulties in accessing and using practical help and welfare services are resolved. All members of the multidisciplinary team attend to some of these needs, but patients may not want to talk about their emotions to the professionals who are giving them physical care. Also, they may be inhibited from raising family and welfare issues with team members whose focus is mainly healthcare. Social workers usually approach clinical problems from a different angle, being guided first and foremost by the patient and their family, empowering them to identify and express what they feel are their most important needs. Families come in many different shapes and sizes; they are the set of relationships within which a patient experiences kinship, child–parent and caring and support relationships (e.g. a gay or lesbian relationship may be more important for caring and support than the patient’s parents, siblings or children). Friends, family members and partners need help to cope with their fear and anger at the situation as well as the patient. They need to feel involved in care and decision-making, which is essential in order to avoid additional grief in their bereavement. Patients, families, partners and friends can be helped to say their goodbyes, to be given the opportunity to heal rifts and to complete unfinished business. Working together to enable a person to die at peace with him/herself is a fundamental goal for all members of the multidisciplinary team, but the social worker’s skills specifically equip them to empower patients and those close to them to

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say, ‘I love you’, ‘Thank you’, ‘Sorry’ and ‘Goodbye’—perhaps the most important messages people need to give to each other at the end of life. Families and individuals who are particularly vulnerable and at risk will be identified following a full social work assessment and offered appropriate interventions and support. A full assessment is often aided by constructing the family genogram ( b see Figure 19e.1), finding out who is important to the patient and highlighting relationship issues. Among the issues to think about when preparing and talking about a genogram to a patient or family member are: • The stage of life that each family member is at • Their special responsibilities in the family (e.g. caring for a family member with learning disabilities) • Important memories (e.g. previous deaths) and expectations (e.g. to be cared for in old age) • Strengths and resources of each member • The availability of support or likely demands from the extended family, the patient’s social networks or community connections • Moving into ‘gaps’ (e.g. children ‘replacing’ a dead person) • Who cares for whom? Who cares for carers? • What changes, separations, illnesses, losses, have children and others experienced • Who was involved in or absent from family crises, deaths, funerals? • Who confides in whom? • Who is in conflict with whom? Who gets left out? The social network may include ethnic and cultural issues that need to be understood to facilitate family communication. A genogram may be adapted to show wider social networks. Alternatively, a network diagram may be a useful addition. This shows links between the patient and others with whom they have regular contact, remembering that the way in which contact is made (e.g. weekly phone call, visits from the contact by car, visits to the contact by bus) will affect its value as the patient’s disability increases, and it is helpful to be aware of the importance of the contact to the patient (often weighted from 1–3). Strong, unfamiliar and often conflicting feelings can be a barrier to open communication. Rifts within families and social networks may emerge and will, therefore, need managing sensitively, often allowing the reconciliation and rebonding of relationships. However, barriers to communication can also occur when families want to protect each other from the pain of bad news and the limited future. Families may need help so that they feel more confident about knowing how to tell and involve their children. They may try to protect children (and other dependants, such as family members with learning disabilities) by trying to keep up an unrealistic front about the illness or prognosis. Telling children and young people about someone in the family suffering from a serious illness early is helpful because it prevents problems arising and reduces difficulties later. Children are helped by feeling included and valued, and they need to be prepared for possible eventualities in much the same way as adults. Children affected by the illness of a close relative include daughters and sons, grandchildren, nephews and nieces. It is natural for adults to want to soften the pain and shock of bad news, but it is important for children to be told when something is wrong. Sometimes

SOCIAL WORK

adults want to delay telling children bad news because they hope the next test results or treatment will enable the telling to be less painful. However, there is probably never a ‘right’ time and putting things off usually makes the difficulties greater. A ‘good’ time may never arrive and it may become increasingly difficult to explain why such important information was not given earlier. Sometimes adults think that by not saying anything about someone’s illness their children will somehow not be affected. However, the reality is that, even if adults try to hide from their children what is happening, children notice when something is wrong and may blame themselves (e.g. ‘I made my mum’s illness worse because I behaved badly’) unless things are properly explained to them. Children who are not included in being helped to understand such profound changes in their family situation may later feel angry at having been excluded. Social workers can help parents and other close family members think about making memory boxes or writing letters for their children. A memory box is a collection of significant items, including writings, drawings, recordings of favourite music and pictures that will remind a bereaved child or adult of important shared experiences. Usually, a memory box will contain photographs, details of special family events, information about the person who is dying as well as particular items that help a person to understand more about the dying family member later on. A memory box helps a person to understand their own life story by giving information about the past and so helps the person to feel more confident about themselves, their identity and roots. Social work may also help to address spiritual pain, by helping to relieve isolation and giving comfort, knowing that concerns, even if unanswered, are taken seriously and recognized as being important and valid. Difficulties such as body image, sexuality and intimacy may need discussion with a social worker. Patients rarely volunteer these problems and may need prompting to see if they want to talk about them. Appropriate guidance is needed to help patients and families cope with the changing circumstances. Practical help involves enabling patients to make decisions and exercise choice, both for practical reasons and also to promote a sense of worth and dignity. They may need basic assistance in obtaining grants to help with the extra costs incurred as a result of their changed circumstances, paying bills, or to execute more complicated tasks such as preparing a will and thinking about the future of dependants. It is important to ensure that patients receive benefits to which they are entitled, for instance Attendance Allowance and Disability Living Allowance. The patient and family may want to know about the law and other social institutions, family and mental health legislation and community services according to their particular situation. Social workers, along with other palliative care professional workers have a duty to ensure that vulnerable people who are unable to make their own decisions are empowered and protected by the statutory framework set out in the Mental Capacity Act 2005. Ensuring that patients receive packages of care to enable them to stay in their own home is also part of the social work role. Some people may need support making decisions about an alternative placement, such as a nursing home. Funding private nursing care is often a source of real anxiety and

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the social worker can advise and arrange NHS-funded care if the eligibility criteria are met. Continuing care is a complex and sensitive area of healthcare provision and can affect people at a very vulnerable stage in their lives. Social workers can advise people about the different types of NHS funding, including the principles of eligibility and the assessment process, which in England are set out in the National Framework (2007) on NHS continuing healthcare and NHS-funded nursing care.1 Carers may be entitled to a Carers’ Allowance. Carers themselves are legally entitled under the Carers (Recognition and Services) Act 1995 and the Carers (Equal Opportunities) Act 2004 to an assessment of their own needs while caring for someone, which can be arranged by the palliative care social worker. Carers’ rights were strengthened by subsequent government policy, including the Carers’ Strategy 1999 and the Carers and Disabled Children Act 2000. Carers may need support at such a distressing time and by having their own needs assessed they can receive appropriate help and relief. Caring for someone who is terminally ill can place huge personal, financial, emotional and practical demands on family members and close friends. Carers’ groups are often established and facilitated by social workers to give support to people in similar circumstances. Social workers seek to enable patients and families retain or regain control and promote empowerment and choice, to help people find inner strength and confidence. Families and other carers can feel so powerless in these situations, but social workers can help them to set realistic goals and make plans to enable them to enjoy the important time that is left. After death, bereavement support is fundamental to the role of palliative care social workers, who commonly work with bereavement support workers and counsellors within the team. Families may be offered individual, family or group counselling. Social workers may also organize and run special bereavement sessions for children and teenagers.

Financial and practical help in the UK Attendance allowance This is a non-means tested benefit for people 65 and over who have difficulty looking after themselves (for example, with washing or dressing). It is paid at variable rates according to dependency. People with a terminal illness (prognosis of six months or less) can receive the benefit quicker and the formalities are simpler. Disability living allowance This is a non-means tested benefit for people under 65 who have difficulty walking or looking after themselves (or both). Similar rules apply for dependency and terminal illness (see above).

1 Department of Health (2007) National Framework for NHS Continuing Healthcare and NHSfunded Nursing Care. London: Department of Health.

SOCIAL WORK

Other possible benefits • Council tax benefit • Housing benefit • Statutory sick pay • Disability working allowance • Funeral payments (social fund) • Bereavement payment • Bereavement allowance • Widowed parents allowance • Severe disablement allowance • Income support • Invalid care allowance • Incapacity benefit • Working tax credit Social Services may be able to provide: • Home care for personal care • Help with housework • Occupational therapy aids • ‘Meals on wheels’ or frozen meals • Residential/nursing care • Disabled parking badge (usually blue) • ‘Dial a ride’ access to community transport • Relief for carers • Respite care

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Further reading Books Beresford P., Adshead L., Croft S. (2007) Palliative Care, Social Work and Service Users: Making Life Possible. London: Jessica Kingsley. Department of Health (2007) National Framework for NHS Continuing Healthcare and NHS-funded Nursing Care. London: Department of Health. Monroe B. (2004) Social work in palliative medicine. In Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine (3rd edn) (ed. D. Doyle, et al.), pp. 1007–17. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sheldon F. (1997) Psychosocial Palliative Care: Good Practice in the Care of the Dying and Bereaved. Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes.

Articles Murtagh F., et al. (2007) The value of cognitive interviewing techniques in palliative care research. Palliative Medicine, 21(2): 87–93. Payne M. (2007) Know your colleagues: role of social work in end-of-life care. End of Life Care, 1(1): 69–73. Reith M. (2007) Care of families during and after the death of a loved one. End of Life Care, 1(2): 22–6.

Chapter 10h

Chaplaincy Chaplaincy addresses the spiritual, religious, pastoral and cultural needs of patients, relatives and staff in a healthcare context that is increasingly dynamic and pluralistic. • Cultural needs include the need to be in an environment that reinforces the familiar—this takes in language, food, dress, family and social structures, customs, etc. • Religious needs include the need for support to practise sacred rituals and hold certain beliefs, and will require provision for prayers, sacraments, Holy books, religious artefacts (e.g. prayer mats, rosary beads) • Pastoral needs include the need for support at life’s critical moments— relationship formation, illness, death, etc.—typically addressed with reference to particular beliefs or values, religious or otherwise • Spiritual needs include the need for a sense of ‘well-being’, which is often nurtured by being well related to one’s self, others, and one’s source of ultimate meaning; some chaplains refer to this as ‘psychospiritual need’ (b See A humanistic–phenomenological definition, p. 741.) All members of the multidisciplinary team contribute to spiritual care, but because chaplains set high value on their own spiritual development, usually formed within the spiritual disciplines of a faith tradition, they are uniquely qualified as specialists in this area. Although most chaplains have a religious affiliation, it is against their codes of professional practice to proselytize—chaplains only address spiritual needs; they never seek to create them.

Religious needs The appointment of chaplains will often reflect the proportionality of religious affiliation among the patient group. Networking with local faith communities Chaplains routinely network among those religious groups not represented on the chaplaincy staff, and so are able to provide local information to address the usual needs of religious minorities. Respect for the religious beliefs and practices of patients, relatives and staff is fundamental to the ethos of Chaplaincy. Dedicated sacred space/chapel/quiet-room As far as possible, provision must be made for a dedicated space for quiet reflection and prayer. Respecting the sensibilities and needs of all, this sanctuary/chapel/prayer-room will be available for religious services.

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Pastoral needs Marriage The sanctuary/chapel/prayer-room may be used for marriages. In extremis, registrars normally attend a patient at very short notice; however, divorced people must ensure they present all necessary documents to the registrar. Religious restrictions may put limits on the involvement of some ministers/ priests, for example the marriage of divorcees by Church of England clergy. Advice must be sought in advance of any proposed ceremony. Funerals Chaplains are an important resource to families with technical questions about funerals, access to services and beliefs. Many chaplains receive requests to take funerals, either because they have developed a special relationship with a patient or because they were particularly helpful to the patient’s relatives. However, the practice of individual chaplains varies: • Some want to continue an established pastoral relationship, in order to personalize the funeral, or to encourage a more open attitude to the funeral liturgy; • Others prefer to encourage the community-based provision of bereavement and pastoral aftercare. Bereavement and remembrance services Where chaplains are not centrally involved in providing bereavement support they are likely to work closely with the Bereavement Service to organize remembrance events. Most hospices hold regular remembrance services, and many have an annual event, usually around Christmas-time.

Spiritual needs Chaplains offer themselves to patients and their carers as ‘soul friends’ and, according to their training, they provide a broad range of support: • Listening/counsel • Prayer/sacrament • Life-review/reminiscence Sharing the patient’s journey—to the extent to which they are invited— chaplains will contain anxiety, absorb hostility (directed at their representative role), challenge and stand by patients and families. Chaplains will be non-judgemental. Healing (b See Spiritual healing, p. 826.) Healing can be understood as physical cure, medical or miraculous. But it is also applied to a range of therapeutic activities. Most religious traditions include prayers and rituals for healing, and many chaplains have experience or training in healing prayer. • A ministry of healing is normative in many Christian churches, and ranges from informal prayers to short, formalized liturgical services; either may include ‘the laying on of hands’.

CHAPLAINCY

• Trained spiritual healers, with no particular allegiance to an established faith tradition, are an emerging feature within spiritual care. Independent, i.e. healers who are not themselves chaplains or not part of the chaplaincy team, should belong to a healing organization regulated by UK Healers,1 e.g. the National Federation of Spiritual Healers.

1 UK Healers: PO BOX 207, Leeds LS16 5WX. www.ukhealers.info.

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Chaplaincy

Chaplains as professional colleagues Multidisciplinary working Chaplains bring a particular perspective to the multidisciplinary team, and expect to participate fully in team meetings. Because chaplains work with the highest regard for confidentiality, there should be an easy flow of communication between chaplains and multidisciplinary colleagues.

Training levels Currently, there is no universally required qualification for palliative care chaplains. Traditionally, chaplains have been recruited from within the faith traditions, and will normally have a religious formation. However, the professionalization of healthcare chaplaincy is beginning to demand graduate entry, and several Masters level programmes are available. Professional bodies (Association of Hospice & Palliative Care Chaplains, College of Health Care Chaplains, Scottish Association of Healthcare Chaplains) now expect ongoing, in-service training as well as continuing professional development.

Assessment ( b See Spiritual assessment, p. 750.) A number of assessment models are available, but it is often inappropriate to attempt a formal assessment of spiritual need. Chaplains will consider a patient’s spiritual, religious, pastoral as well as their cultural needs, and will welcome insights from colleagues on the multidisciplinary team. Chaplains will continually assess patients’ spiritual needs, which they will document in patient notes as appropriate.

Availability Chaplaincy provision is a requirement of specialist palliative care, but staffing levels depend upon the resources of the individual unit. The chaplaincy time with patients will vary. Most units have 24-hour cover from chaplains, sometimes with support (voluntary or paid) from local clergy; some units have teams of chaplains.

Staff support Chaplains invariably have a role in staff support within the organization. This may be in one-to-one counselling/support, in clinical supervision of individuals or groups, or it may be in the spiritual support of the organization by creating memorials and/or ceremonies to mark important moments in the life of the institution.

Education and research Many chaplains are involved in teaching staff, and some also undertake research. Subjects depend on individual interests, experience and expertise, and are often published in peer-reviewed journals, including The Journal of Health Care Chaplaincy and the Scottish Journal of Health Care Chaplaincy.

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Awareness of religious diversity All religions contain a wide range of variation, from orthodox practitioners, for whom correct procedures are vitally important, to liberal groups, who are less likely to take offence if treated with sensitivity, respect and openness. Religious obligations frequently relate to: • Alcohol • Cross-gender care • Food • Religious objects • Privacy • Washing • Touching/preparing the body after death All religions have a concern with death and provide rituals and customs associated with the processes of dying. Some religious ministers may be required to carry out particular rituals, while some faiths allow suitably experienced lay people to officiate.

Avoiding assumptions in caring for religious needs Even when patients identify with a religious group it should be kept clearly in mind that people are individuals and that their belonging will always be particular to them. It is not unusual for the beliefs and the behaviours of a healthy individual to change, sometimes dramatically, when they become terminally ill: a religious label noted on a hospital form is a poor indicator of an individual patient’s past or current beliefs or practices. If a dying patient is to be sensitively and efficiently cared for it will be necessary to understand their philosophy of life, religious beliefs and their expectations about what might happen after death. Chaplains are skilled in gaining this kind of information by a sensitive mix of observation, careful listening and tactful questioning of the patient and family. The following guidelines indicate only very general points around ‘Care for the dying’ and ‘Procedure at death’ for patients from faiths most commonly encountered in the UK.

Two helpful principles: • Always check with the patient (and/or family) concerning beliefs and practices, even if these are many years past. • When in doubt, follow the more orthodox procedures.

Buddhists Care of the dying • A basic Buddhist belief is that a person’s state of mind at the moment of death influences the character of their rebirth • Some patients may want help to find quiet for meditation, and they may welcome Buddhist chanting to influence their state of mind • Some may wish to avoid palliative treatments that lessen conscious capacity or awareness as they approach the moment of death • Buddhists may require vegetarian food Procedure at death • It may be necessary to contact a Buddhist priest after a death • Buddhists normally prefer cremation to burial

AWARENESS OF RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY

Christians Care of the dying • Most Christians will want access to a Bible. Some may welcome a prayer book or hymn book • Even where the chaplain shares their faith, practising Christians may want their own religious minister to pray with/for them • Pentecostal Christians may want to pray for physical healing, even if the patient is close to death. The patient may welcome this, but staff should be clear about the patient’s desires and respond appropriately • Roman Catholic/Orthodox Christians will want a priest to hear their confession, bring Holy Communion and offer the Sacrament of the Sick Procedure at death • There are no special requirements

Hindus Care of the dying • For Hindus, there is religious significance in dying at home, and Hindu patients may welcome support to die in their home setting • In-patients may welcome the priest (pandit) to read holy texts and perform holy rites Procedure at death • Non-Hindus should not touch or wash the dead body, and family members will want to wash and prepare their dead relative • In the absence of family members, healthcare staff should: • use disposable gloves to straighten the limbs and close the eyes • leave jewellery, sacred threads and religious objects on the body • wrap the body in a plain sheet • Hindus normally request cremation

Jews Care of the dying • Orthodox Jews will want Jewish (kosher) food, which their relatives may want to provide; the family or a rabbi should be consulted for advice and they may need help to meet this requirement • There are no ‘last rites’, although a Jewish patient may want a rabbi to visit; staff should try to find the appropriate rabbi for the patient, i.e. orthodox for orthodox, liberal for liberal • The Jewish emphasis on the present life may mean that patients or families question treatments that could be seen to weaken the fight for life Procedure at death • If possible, the body should not be touched by non-Jews. However, if this causes difficulties, even the strictest Jews will permit healthcare staff to do the following: • bind the lower jaw • straighten the arms and lay the hands at the side of the body • wrap the body in a plain sheet • Ideally, the dead body should not be left alone, and some Jews have watchers to stay and recite Psalms

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• The family, or in their absence a Jewish undertaker, should be informed immediately and (except during the Sabbath [Friday dusk to Saturday dusk] or festivals) a funeral held as soon as practicable, preferably within 24 hours • Post-mortem examinations are forbidden unless ordered by the coroner, in which case they must be carried out as soon as possible

Muslims Care of the dying • Fasting during the Holy month of Ramadan is a requirement of all Muslims, however, sick patients are exempt • The majority of Muslims will want Islamic (halal) food; some will not accept medicines if they contain alcohol • Muslims will need facilities for washing as an essential prerequisite to performing their daily prayers Procedure at death • People of the opposite sex should only touch the body if absolutely necessary and should wear disposable gloves; family members will want to prepare their dead relative for burial • In the absence of family members, healthcare staff should: • turn the head towards the right shoulder so that the body can be buried facing Makkah (Mecca) • avoid washing the body • wrap the body in a plain sheet • Because Islam teaches the resurrection of the body, normally Muslims will request burial, which should be arranged as soon as possible • Post-mortem examinations are forbidden unless ordered by the coroner, in which case they should be carried out as soon as possible.

Sikhs Care of the dying • As an act of faith, Sikhs wear five symbols (known as the Five Ks): uncut hair (Kesh); small comb in the hair (Kangha); steel wrist band (Kara); dagger (Kirpan); white shorts (Kaccha)—these symbols must be respected at all times • Sikhs may get strength from reciting hymns from their holy book, the Guru Granth Sahab; any practising Sikh may help with this Procedure at death • Family members will want to wash and prepare the body, but there are no restrictions on non-Sikhs attending a dead Sikh • In the absence of family members, healthcare staff should: • pay special regard to the Five Ks • refrain from cutting or trimming the hair or beard • straighten the limbs and wrap the body in a plain sheet • Sikhs normally request cremation

FURTHER READING

Further reading Books Gatrad R., Brown E., Sheikh A. (2006) Palliative Care for South Asians: Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs. London: Quay Books. Neuburger J. (2004) Caring for Dying People of Different Faiths (3rd edn). Oxford: Radcliffe Medical Press. Rinpoche S. (2002) The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying. London: Rider. Speck P. (1988) Being There: Pastoral Issues in Time of Illness. London: SPCK. Weller P. (ed.) (2001) Religions in the UK: A multi-faith Directory. Multi-Faith Centre at the University of Derby in association with the Inter Faith Network for the United Kingdom.

Articles AHPCC (2006) Guideline for Hospice and Palliative Care Chaplaincy. (rev. edn). Association of Hospice & Palliative Care Chaplains. AHPCC (2006) Standards for Hospice & Palliative Care Chaplaincy. (2nd edn). Association of Hospice & Palliative Care Chaplains. AHPCC, CHCC & SACH (2005) Association of Hospice and Palliative Care Chaplains et al. Health Care Chaplains Code of Conduct (2nd edn). Nolan S. (2006) Psychospiritual care: a paradigm (shift) of care for the spirit in a non-religious context. The Journal of Health Care Chaplaincy, 7(1): 12–22.

Useful websites Chaplaincy websites www.ahpcc.org.uk—Association of Hospice and Palliative Care Chaplains www.healthcarechaplains.org—College of Health Care Chaplains www.sach.org.uk—Scottish Association of Healthcare Chaplains www.mfghc.com—Multifaith Group for Healthcare Chaplaincy

Religion/culture websites www.bbc.co.uk/religion—BBC Religion & Ethics www.faithandfood.com—Food & Faith www.derby.ac.uk/multifaith/religions—MultiFaithNet www.shap.org—The Shap Working Party on World Religions in Education

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Chapter 10i

Pharmacy Within the last ten years recognition of the knowledge and skills that a pharmacist can contribute within palliative care has led to an increasing number of hospitals and hospices appointing a specialist palliative care pharmacist to work as an integral member of the multiprofessional palliative care team. They carry responsibility for specialist medicine and pharmaceuticalrelated issues in the care of palliative patients. Palliative care patients are often prescribed several medicines to manage the symptoms or sideeffects created by their treatment or medication, and the specialist palliative care pharmacist can assist the patient to achieve concordance with the optimal treatment for their particular problems. The role of the specialist palliative care pharmacist will vary according to local practice but should include most of the following aspects.

Provision of a clinical service to palliative patients Specialist palliative care pharmacists working within a hospital or hospice will have a clinical responsibility to the inpatients in their respective establishments, and their duties may include some or all of the following: • Responsibility for specialist advice on the use of medicines in palliative care, especially as many medicines are used off-licence • Providing assistance in rationalizing patients’ medication on admission to the hospital or hospice • Monitoring inpatient prescribing for appropriate dose, formulation, interactions and compliance with guidelines and policies • Liaison with other healthcare professionals to resolve any medication-related issues • Participation in consultant-led ward rounds and multiprofessional team meetings to provide highly specialized advice • Practice as a supplementary or independent non-medical prescriber to assist in timely alterations to the inpatient prescription in response to change in a patient’s symptoms

Helping patients to accept and understand their medication As patients’ symptoms change, their medication regimens will change and the pharmacist will be in a position to counsel and reassure patients and/ or their carers by: • Explaining to patients and/or their carers why their medicines have been prescribed or changed, and how the medicines work to alleviate their symptoms • Ensuring that medication is in an acceptable form for the patient, whether as solid dose, liquid, buccal, rectal, transdermal or parenteral preparations and advising on alternatives as the patient’s condition or symptoms progress • Ensuring that the patient knows when and how to take their medicines to achieve optimum relief of their symptoms with minimal side-effects,

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for example use of a modified-release opioid for regular analgesia and immediate-release opioid to manage breakthrough pain, incident pain or dyspnoea.

Liaison with community pharmacy services and nursing homes on discharge from hospital or hospice Palliative patients are frequently weak and debilitated, anxious about their medication and they should have access to a prompt and efficient community pharmacy service. The specialist palliative care pharmacist is ideally situated to: • Communicate with the community pharmacist to ensure consistent standards of care with a continued supply of specialist medication on the patient’s discharge from hospital or hospice • Provide individualized advice to nursing homes on the use of medicines to manage a patient’s symptoms • Provide written information on the specialist use of medicines for the patient and carer, community pharmacist, GP and other healthcare professionals when necessary • Provide aids to assist the patient and/or their carer in coping with medication at home

Teaching and training other healthcare professionals in palliative care pharmacy-related issues The principles of palliative care enshrine the principles of good practice for all healthcare professions and a specialist palliative care pharmacist may be expected to: • Contribute to the provision of training on medicine use in symptom control for pharmacy students, medical students, nurses and other healthcare professionals • Assist nurse specialists in the provision of syringe driver training for nursing staff • Assist in training on prescribing for syringe drivers to medical and pharmacy staff

Participation in service development, research and audit Palliative care is a relatively new specialty within pharmacy and there is an expanding knowledge base on the use of medicines and their accepted side-effects to manage symptoms in palliative care. A specialist palliative care pharmacist is in a position to: • Contribute to the development of local, regional or national guidelines and protocols in the light of a growing evidence-base • Audit local prescribing practice for compliance with guidelines and protocols to ensure safe, maximal patient care • Develop the service within their own locality to provide safe, legal, timely and convenient access to medicines for the optimum benefit of patients and their carers

Chapter 10j

Art therapy Art therapy is a form of psychotherapy that uses art media to produce images as its primary mode of communication. Images may be 2D or 3D. Patients need no previous experience or skill in art. The overall aim is to enable a patient to effect change and growth on a personal level through the use of art materials in a safe and facilitating environment. The relationship between the therapist and the patient is of central importance. Art therapy differs from other psychological therapies in that it is a three-way process between the patient, the therapist and the image. It offers the opportunity for expression and communication and can be particularly helpful when people find it hard to express their thoughts and feelings. Issues may emerge very quickly when working on an image, enabling the patient to explore and resolve them within a limited time frame or even one session. Art therapists have considerable understanding of art processes which are underpinned by a sound knowledge of therapeutic practice, and work with both individuals and groups in a variety of palliative care settings. The process—what happens in a session—is confidential between the patient and therapist and a degree of privacy is essential. Art therapists have become adept at securing this privacy even when working at the bedside in a busy ward or in the client’s home as part of the community team. Many facilities now have a designated art therapy space with good lighting, an accessible work area and secure storage for images. The art therapist is a key professional in the provision of psychosocial support, working within the interdisciplinary team, attending team meetings and providing assessments and feedback. Art therapists can also provide staff support and team reflection where there has been a particularly difficult or complex death. Bereavement programmes for children and families, partners or parents often have a significant art therapy component. Art therapists work psychodynamically with complex and challenging issues, which call for skill and sensitivity in working with this particularly vulnerable client group. The training, which combines theoretical and experiential work, is a Postgraduate Diploma to be completed over two years full-time or three years part-time. Art therapists are consequently qualified and experienced to work at levels 3 and 4 in the recommended model of psychological support in NICE guidance.1 Art therapists maintain high standards of professional care and must be registered with the Health Professions Council and subscribe to the British Association of Art Therapists (BAAT) Code of Ethics. To protect both the patient and therapist, professional clinical supervision is required (usually on a monthly basis) with an ongoing programme of continuing professional development. Creative Response (CR) is the special interest group of BAAT whose members work in palliative care, AIDS, cancer and bereavement with 1 NICE (2004) Improving Supportive & Palliative Care for Adults with Cancer, p. 76. London: NICE.

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clients of all ages. CR is a member of the Help the Hospices Network of Professional Associations.

Further reading Pratt M., Thomas G. (2007) Guidelines for Arts Therapies and the Arts in Palliative Care Settings. London: Help the Hospices. Pratt M., Wood M. J. M. (eds) (1998) Art Therapy in Palliative Care—The Creative Response. London: Routledge.

Chapter 10k

Music therapy And lull’d with sound of sweetest melody? William Shakespeare, 2 Henry IV, III. i. 7–16 References to the therapeutic use of music across many cultures date back to ancient Egypt. In the twentieth century, a growth in interest in the therapeutic properties of music from musicians, psychologists and doctors culminated in the formation of professional groups such as the UKs Association of Professional Music Therapists, and more recently State Registration with the Health Professions Council, alongside other arts therapies and allied health professions. Early work in special needs education laid the foundations for music therapy in a wide range of fields including mental health, neurology, care of the elderly and palliative care. Postgraduate training courses, leading to qualifications at diploma and masters level, equip therapists with an understanding of child development, of psychology, psychodynamic theory and the physical and emotional effects of music. As with art therapy, clinicians are experienced to work at levels 3 and 4 in the recommended model of psychological support in NICE guidance.1 Music therapists may use techniques which involve the use of prerecorded music to meet specific clinical goals such as relaxation or pain control. However, more often they will create music with patients in joint musical improvisation or song writing, where the nature and scope of the work is multidimensional. Such interactive techniques may provide the vehicles for individuals to express their inner feelings relating to suffering and loss, or help them gain a sense of meaning and control over their lives. Whilst no musical skill is required to participate in therapy, the experience of co-producing improvised music and songs with therapists may open up new avenues of creativity as well as providing a sense of accomplishment for patients. Music therapy may take place in designated therapy rooms (ideally sound-proofed), hospital wards, day hospices or the patients’ homes. Palliative care providers are increasingly incorporating music therapy posts as part of their psychosocial provisions for patients, the bereaved and carers, with the discipline’s holistic approach providing a natural ‘fit’ with palliative care philosophy.

1 Pratt M., Thomas G. (2007) Guidelines for Arts Therapies and the Arts in Palliative Care Settings. London: Help the Hospices.

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This expansion has provided the impetus for a wide range of studies, ranging from those exploring patient and staff experiences of music therapy,2,3 to the more empirical investigations providing evidence for pain reduction, improved mood, decreased fatigue and increased spirituality.4 Music has been described as the most social of all art forms. This is well illustrated by the ability of music therapists to collaborate with a wide variety other disciplines—for example, joint physiotherapy/music and movement work, music reminiscence projects and with spiritual care professionals in planning remembrance services. Sensitively performed live music may also enhance healthcare environments, i.e. providing a humanizing influence on clinical settings such as hospital wards. However, professionals untrained in music therapy wishing to utilize the benefits of music should seek guidance from registered clinicians, as patients may be defenceless against the emotional impact of this powerful medium.

Further reading Books Aldridge D. (1999) Music Therapy in Palliative Care: New Voices. London: Jessica Kingsley. O’Callaghan C. (2004) The Contribution of music therpy to palliative medicine. In Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine (3rd edn) (ed. D. Doyle, et al., p. 1041–6. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Website address Association of Professional Music Therapists and British society for music therapy: http://www. apmt.org/ Towersey Foundation (music therapy in palliative care): http://www.towerseyfoundation.org.uk/

2 O’Kelly J., Koffman J. (2007) Multi-disciplinary perspectives of music therapy in adult palliative care. Palliative Medicine, 21(3): 235–43. 3 O'Callaghan C. (2001) Bringing music to life: a study of music therapy and palliative care experiences in a cancer hospital. Journal of Palliative Care, 17(3): 155–60. 4 Hilliard, E. (2005) Music therapy in hospice and palliative care: a review of the empirical data Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2: 173–8.

Chapter 11

Complementary and alternative medicine in palliative care Introduction Complementary and alternative medicines (CAM) comprise a diverse array of treatment modalities that are not presently considered part of conventional/mainstream medicine. CAM emphasize a holistic approach towards healthcare, i.e. they are based on the belief that mind, body and spirit are interconnected and that health depends on wholeness and balance between them.

Definitions • Alternative treatments aim to replace conventional treatments. • Complementary treatments are used alongside the conventional treatments • Integrated (or American: integrative) treatments aim to combine best conventional treatments with best complementary treatments: a superfluous term with largely the same meaning as that of evidence-based medicine

Types of therapy In palliative and supportive care, CAM is primarily used to increase the client’s well-being, e.g. by alleviating pain and other symptoms of the disease, improving sleep, reducing stress and anxiety, or by reducing the adverse effects of conventional treatments. They are often used as an addition to conventional treatments. Some CAM modalities claim a direct effect in the prevention or treatment of cancer. Widely practised treatments are acupuncture, aromatherapy, herbalism, homeopathy, hypnotherapy, reflexology, relaxation and spiritual healing. The individual therapies described in this chapter will be considered under four headings: alternative medical concepts; mind–body interventions, biologically based therapies and manipulative therapies.

Principles of CAM A central tenet of CAM is the strong belief in the uniqueness and wholeness of the individual and the power of the body to heal itself. Often, patients who consult complementary practitioners have chronic conditions that are difficult to manage, such as HIV infection, multiple sclerosis, rheumatological conditions and cancer. The interest in CAM in the palliative care setting is perhaps not surprising given the inherent need for the terminally ill to feel supported with regard to physical, psychosocial and emotional domains, in achieving an acceptable quality of life.

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Prevalence Precisely what constitutes complementary medicine differs considerably between countries. Different historical developments and traditions have meant that therapies such as herbal medicine and massage are firmly established in mainstream medicine in many European countries, while they are often classified as complementary outside Europe. Regardless of these national differences and inconsistencies in many surveys, there is evidence that CAM is used by a sizeable proportion of both adult and paediatric populations (see Table 11.1). Table 11.1 One-year prevalence of CAM in general population samples Country

Year

Sample (n)

UK

2001

669*

Prevalence (%) 28

USA

2004

31 044*

36 (excl. prayer)

Germany

2004

1750*

62.3

Japan

2002

1000**

76

*Representative; **random.

Prevalence studies in patients with life-threatening or chronic illnesses from Europe and the US report an average CAM use in cancer patients of 35–40%. Another survey reports CAM use in cancer patients to be between 7% and 54%. Small surveys in the UK have reported similar results. An increasing number of departments of oncology in Britain employ at least one type of CAM practitioner in the palliative care setting, with most hospices now offering a range of complementary therapies for their patients. Initially, therapists were largely volunteers but units increasingly recognize CAM as part of basic and expected care. Today, there are an estimated 120 000 CAM practitioners in the UK.

Reasons for seeking CAM One important and consistent finding is that the majority of CAM use does not occur instead of conventional medical care, but in addition to it. A number of explanations for patients seeking CAM have been proposed. Perhaps the most obvious reason for trying CAM is that, persuaded for instance by the media, or by personal past experience, many consumers are convinced that CAM is effective and improves psychosocial functioning. CAM is often also wrongly perceived as the only medicine that addresses the cause of an illness rather than the symptoms. Certain fundamental premises of most forms of CAM contribute to its persuasive appeal. One of these is the perceived association of CAM with nature. It is linked with certain terminology such as ‘natural’ rather than ‘artificial’, or ‘pure’ as opposed to ‘organic’: ‘natural’ is also often somewhat naively equated with ‘safe’. Another fundamental component of CAM is ‘vitalism’. The enhancement or balancing of life forces or psychic energy, which is central to many forms of CAM, has an intuitive appeal to

INTRODUCTION

patients because of the non-invasive notion of healing from within. Many therapies have long intellectual traditions and sophisticated philosophies contributing to their credibility and authority. Spirituality, which bridges the gap between the domains of medical science and (religious) belief, is a further element in the appeal of CAM. CAM’s approach tends to be more person-centred; the language is one of unity and holism in contrast to the often distant, reductionist terminology of normative science. The main reasons why people use CAM can be categorized in ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors.

Possible factors contributing to CAM use Push factors • Dissatisfaction with orthodox medicine: • ineffective • adverse effects • poor communication with doctor • waiting lists • Rejection of orthodox medicine: • anti-science or anti-establishment attitude • Desperation Pull factors • Philosophical congruence: • emphasis on holism • active role of patient • explanation intuitively acceptable • natural treatments • Personal control over treatment • Good relationship with therapist: • on equal terms • time for discussion • allows for emotional factors • Accessibility

Evaluation Negative attitudes towards research in the palliative care setting, which encompass ethical and methodological issues, particularly when patients are reaching their last few weeks of life, are pertinent. In addition, there are those who argue that scientific evaluation of CAM in the palliative care setting is not needed since patients feel better after therapy. But these attitudes, and the relative lack of research evidence, have long been a barrier to collaboration between conventional and complementary practitioners. The provision of CAM in mainstream care can, however, only be based on solid evidence and research efforts have been demonstrably increased over the last decade. The evidence for or against CAM treatments in palliative care that have been tested in controlled clinical trials are discussed in the respective therapies sections below.

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Safety A common reason for using CAM is that it is erroneously considered safe, certainly safer than conventional medicines. Even when a particular therapy’s effectiveness is in doubt it is often still taken because of the belief that ‘it may not work but it won’t do any harm’. Although some CAM treatments are associated with only mild and rare risks, others are harmful in a number of ways. Herbal medicines have been associated with toxicity, herb–drug interactions and contamination. Acupuncture and chiropractic have been associated with serious adverse events such as pneumothorax or stroke, hypnosis may be associated with negative physiological and psychological effects. There are also more general safety issues associated with CAM as a whole. CAM can be dangerous when it causes the patient either to be misdiagnosed or if it delays access to life-saving treatments. CAM is potentially dangerous when patients self-medicate. Often, patients do not tell their doctors about their CAM use, and doctors usually fail to ask patients about it. The notion that CAM is safe and harmless can be dangerously misleading. The situation is not helped by a serious level of under-reporting of adverse events. To date, no effective system is in place for recording and analysing the occurrence of adverse events.

Practitioner accountability There is no legislation that restricts the practice of CAM in the UK. Osteopathy and chiropractic are the only two complementary professions that, so far, have achieved statutory regulation in the UK. Since the House of Lords Report on Complementary and Alternative Medicine in 2000 there has been a move towards regulation, but progress is slow as there is considerable fragmentation within the various therapeutic disciplines. Initiatives for regulating acupuncture and herbal medicine are underway. The Faculty of Homeopathy trains and examines medical doctors, veterinary practitioners and other medical professionals, while the Society of Homeopaths is the regulatory body mainly for non-medically qualified practitioners; membership is, however, not compulsory. The General Medical Council (GMC) provides guidelines regarding the accountability of doctors considering making a referral or delegating a patient’s care. It is important that patients consult a CAM practitioner who is fully qualified and a member of a recognized body or association and holds professional liability insurance cover, and also that the recognized body has a code of ethics and conduct, as well as a complaints and disciplinary procedure. Useful resources of how to find a practitioner are: • http://www.nhsdirectory.org/—NHS health professionals can search for suitable practitioners using the NHS health directory, which is a searchable database of CAM practitioners • http://www.complementaryalternatives.com/—the online magazine Complementary Alternatives, published in association with the NHS Trusts Association, also has a searchable practitioner database

INTRODUCTION

• The various CAM organizations hold lists of registered members and can be approached directly. Website addresses of organizations or councils can be found at the end of the respective therapy sections in this chapter

Conclusions The use of CAM alongside conventional medicine in palliative care is increasing and is perceived as contributing to improvements in symptom control, well-being and satisfaction. It is seen as an important component of best practice in cancer care and is supported by the National Cancer Strategy, and the NICE Guidance on Support and Palliative Care for Adults with Cancer. It is, however, important to use treatment modalities backed up by research evidence and not to deceive patients.

Useful organizations • Prince’s Foundation for Integrated Health is a lobby group set up by the Prince of Wales to facilitate the development and delivery of integrated healthcare. The website contains resources for professionals interested in establishing integrated practices, for example databases of training courses, guidelines and reports http://www.fihorg.uk/; E-mail: info@fihorg.uk; Tel: 020 3119 3100 • The British Complementary Medicine Association is an umbrella organization for over 60 CAM organizations/associations, schools and colleges. The website offers information about different CAM modalities, registered therapists and training courses. http://www.bcma.co.uk; E-mail: offi[email protected]; Tel: 0845 345 5977 • Penny Brohn Cancer Care (formerly the Bristol Cancer Help Centre) is the UK’s leading charity in complementary cancer care. Its vision is to enable world-wide access to complementary care and support through the Bristol Approach. http://www.pennybrohncancercare.org; E-mail: [email protected]; Confidential helpline: 0845 123 23 10 • The Research Council for Complementary Medicine’s website provides a variety of resources aimed at providing practitioners and patients with information about CAM efficacy. One of the major resources is the Complementary and Alternative Medicine Evidence Online (CAMEOL) database which displays the systematic reviews available for each entry. http://www.rccm.org.uk/; E-mail: info@rccm. org.uk; Tel: none

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Further reading Books Ernst E.. et al. (2006) The Desktop Guide to Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2nd edn). Edinburgh: Mosby. Ernst E., et al. (2008) Oxford Handbook on Complementary Medicine. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (2005) Jonas, W. B. (2005) Mosby’s Dictionary of Complementary and Alternative Medicine. St Louis: Mosby. Micozzi M. S. (2007) Complementary and Integrative Medicine in Cancer Care and Prevention: Foundations and Evidence-based Interventions. New York: Springer. NICE (2004) Improving Supportive and Palliative Care for Adults with Cancer. London: NICE. Spencer J. W., Jacobs J. (2003) Complementary and Alternative Medicine: an Evidence-based Approach (2nd edn). St. Louis: Mosby. Yuan C. S., et al. (2006) Textbook of Complementary and Alternative Medicine. London: Informa Healthcare.

Articles Barton D. L., et al. (2006) Can complementary and alternative medicine clinical cancer research be successfully accomplished? The Mayo Clinic–North Central Cancer Treatment Group experience. Journal of the Society for Integrative Oncology, 4: 143–52. Cassileth B. R., Deng G. (2004) Complementary and alternative therapies for cancer. Oncologist, 9(1): 80–9. Deng G., et al. (2004) Complementary therapies for cancer-related symptoms. The Journal of Supportive Oncology, 2(5): 419-26. (Discussion 427–9.) Ernst E., et al. (2003) Evidence-based complementary medicine for palliative cancer care: does it make sense? Palliative Medicine, 17: 704–7. Ernst E., et al. (2007) Complementary/alternative medicine for supportive cancer care: development of the evidence-base. Supportive Care in Cancer, 15: 565–8. Kronenberg F., et al. (2005) The future of complementary and alternative medicine for cancer. Cancer Investigation, 23: 420–6. Mansky P. J., Wallerstedt D. B. (2006) Complementary medicine in palliative care and cancer symptom management. Cancer Journal, 12: 425–31. Mao J. J., et al. (2007) Use of complementary and alternative medicine and prayer among a national sample of cancer survivors compared to other populations without cancer. Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 15: 21–9. Monti D. A., Yang J. (2005) Complementary medicine in chronic cancer care. Seminars in Oncology, 32: 225–31. Post-White J. (2006) Complementary and alternative medicine in pediatric oncology. Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing, 23: 244–53. Schmidt K., Ernst E. (2004) Assessing websites on complementary and alternative medicine for cancer. Annals of Oncology, 15: 733–42. Scott J. A., et al. (2005) Use of complementary and alternative medicine in patients with cancer: a UK survey. European Journal of Oncology Nursing, 9: 131–7. Yates J. S., et al. (2005) Prevalence of complementary and alternative medicine use in cancer patients during treatment. Supportive Care in Cancer, 13: 806–11.

Website http://www.gmc-uk.org/guidance/

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Group 1: Alternative medical systems Alternative medical systems are complete systems of theory and practice. Examples of alternative medical systems developed in Western cultures are homeopathy and naturopathy. Others have evolved apart from and earlier than the conventional medical approach used in the West, e.g. such as traditional Chinese medicine and Ayurveda.

Acupuncture Background and theory The history of acupuncture dates back 2000 years. It is an integral part of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and based on its principles. Acupuncture involves the stimulation of certain points on the body by inserting fine needles, whereas acupressure involves firm manual pressure on these points. The workings of the human body are thought to be controlled by a vital force or energy called ‘qi’ (pronounced chee) which circulates between organs along channels called meridians. The twelve main meridians are thought to correspond loosely to twelve major functions or organs of the body. On these meridians, more than 350 acupuncture points have been defined, and it is believed that qi energy must flow through each of the meridians and organs for health to be maintained. The acupuncture points are situated along the meridians and through these the flow of qi can be altered. Traditional acupuncture theory is based on the concept of yin and yang, which should be in balance: any imbalance (particularly blockage or deficiency) in the continuous flow of energy causes illness. Acupuncture point stimulation redresses this balance, allowing the healthy unimpeded flow of qi. There are many different schools of acupuncture. Western medical acupuncturists relate acupuncture points to various physiological and anatomical features such as peripheral nerve junctions. The concept of ‘trigger points’, has also been recognized, whereby areas of increased sensitivity within a muscle cause referred pain in relation to a segment of the body. There is no evidence to confirm the physical existence of qi or the meridians. However, attempts have been made to explain the effects of acupuncture within a conventional physiological framework. It is known that acupuncture stimulates A delta nerve fibres which enter the dorsal horn of the spinal cord and mediate segmental inhibition of pain impulses carried in the slower unmyelinated C fibres. Through their connections with the midbrain, descending inhibition of C fibre pain impulses is also enhanced at other levels of the spinal cord. It is also known that acupuncture stimulates the release of endogenous opioids and other neurotransmitters such as serotonin, which are involved in the modulation of pain. Uses Acupuncture is used, for example, in the management of pain, anxiety, fatigue and digestive disorders. Practical application Acupuncture may be delivered in a number of different ways. Between four and ten needlepoints are typically selected. These points are often

GROUP 1: ALTERNATIVE MEDICAL SYSTEMS

located in areas where they represent the relevant local, regional and distant meridians. Needlepoints may also be centred around the area of pain. In the UK, the practice is to use sterile disposable needles which are usually inserted to a depth of about 5 millimetres (or more deeply into muscle). Needles are left in situ for approximately 15 minutes. Needle sizes differ, but typically measure up to about 30mm long and 0.25mm in diameter. It is possible that the sensation of ‘de qi’ (pronounced dechee) which causes feelings of soreness or numbness at the point of needling is necessary both to indicate that the anatomically correct site has been needled and that the treatment will work well. However, the treatment is also often considered successful in the absence of de qi or any sensation at the point of skin puncture. Stimulation of the acupuncture point can be increased by gentle turning/ manipulation of the needles, using a small electric current, laser beams or ultrasound. Acupuncture studs remain in situ and may be pressed by the patient as necessary to give more sustained stimulation. In moxibustion, the needles are heated by smouldering a substance called moxa over the points. Acupuncture treatments are often given once a week for 6–8 weeks and thereafter as necessary. Evidence of effectiveness Good evidence exists to support acupoint stimulation in treating the nausea and vomiting induced by chemotherapy: adjunct stimulation with needles and electroacupuncture reduced the incidence of acute vomiting but not nausea, while acupressure reduced nausea but not vomiting. For relieving cancer pain some encouraging short-term results have been reported, but there is not enough evidence available to make any firm conclusions. Similarly, insufficient evidence is available for the relief of cancer-related fatigue, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, dyspnoea, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, pain associated with cystic fibrosis and chronic heart failure. Hence, acupuncture is unlikely to be beneficial for neuropathic pain associated with AIDS/HIV. Safety Acupuncture is generally considered to be a relatively safe form of treatment with a low incidence of serious side-effects if practised by a skilled practitioner. Some events, such as nausea and syncope, can be mild and transient. While there is no official mechanism for reporting adverse events, there have, however, been accounts of pneumothorax, septicaemia, spinal injuries and hepatitis B/C transmission. The use of acupuncture studs in the ear may result in perichondritis of the underlying cartilage. Acupuncture should be used with care in any patient in whom there is a risk of infection or bleeding. It should be avoided in patients with valvular heart disease. Acupuncture to spinal muscles should be safe unless there is an unstable spine, in which case it is contraindicated. Extra care should be exercised in those patients receiving their first acupuncture treatment as they may react strongly, with dizziness and drowsiness. The initial treatment should be given supine and patients should be advised not to drive or to operate machinery for a few hours.

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Homeopathy Background and theory Homeopathy was founded by the German physician Samuel Hahnemann (1755–1843). This method often uses highly diluted preparations of a variety of different substances. Homeopathy is based on two key principles. The first is that ‘like cures like’. Here, patients are given preparations whose effects when administered to healthy subjects correspond to the manifestations of the disorder (symptoms, clinical signs and pathological states) in the unwell patient. For instance, hayfever, which presents with lacrimation, stinging and irritation around the eyes and nose, might be treated with the remedy Allium cepa, derived from the common onion. According to the second principle, remedies are prepared by a process of serial dilution and succussion (vigorous shaking). The greater the number of times this process of dilution and succussion is performed, the greater the potency of the remedy. Homeopathic medicines are diluted so much that they are unlikely to contain even a single molecule of the original substance. Prescribing strategies vary considerably. In ‘classical’ homeopathy, practitioners aim to identify a single medicine that is needed to treat a patient, taking into account current illness, medical history, personality and behaviour. ‘Complex’ homeopathy involves the prescription of combinations of medicines. Common homeopathic medicines include those made from plants (such as belladonna, arnica and chamomile), minerals (e.g. mercury and sulphur), animal products (e.g. sepia (squid ink) and lachesis (snake venom), and more rarely, biochemical substances (such as histamine or human growth factor). Uses Many different, often chronic and recurring conditions are treated with homeopathic medication. Self-prescription for various conditions such as the common cold, bruising, hayfever and joint sprains is common. Practical application A very detailed history is taken in order to find the optimally matching drug (‘similimum’). Information is also gathered about mood and behaviour, likes and dislikes, responses to stress, personality and food reactions. A ‘symptom picture’ is thus built up and matched to a ‘drug picture’ described in the homeopathic Materia Medica. One or more homeopathic medicines are then prescribed, usually in pill form, either as one or two doses or on a more regular basis. A patient’s initial symptom picture commonly matches more than one drug picture. Follow-up allows the practitioner to define the best medication for a particular patient. Evidence of effectiveness Controlled clinical results report encouraging but not fully convincing results for homeopathic treatment of chemotherapy-induced stomatitis and radiodermatitis. No convincing effects of homeopathy have been reported for general radiotherapy-related side-effects, menopausal symptoms in breast cancer survivors and oestrogen withdrawal in breast cancer patients.

FURTHER READING

The effectiveness of homeopathic remedies for HIV/AIDS has not been established. Overall, there is no convincing evidence of the effectiveness of any homeopathic remedy for any condition. Safety Serious adverse effects of homeopathic medicines are rare. However, symptoms may become acutely and transiently worse (aggravation reactions) after starting treatment and patients should be warned of this possibility. The occurrence of an aggravation reaction is interpreted by homeopaths as a sign that the treatment will be beneficial. The more serious issue is the view of some practitioners who adamantly believe that conventional medication reduces the efficacy of homeopathic remedies. Serious adverse effects have occurred when patients have failed to comply with conventional medication.

Further reading Books Aung S. K. H., Chen W. P. D. (2007) Clinical Introduction to Medical Acupuncture. New York: Thieme. Owen D. (2007) Principles and Practice of Homeopathy. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier.

Articles Bardia A., et al. (2006) Efficacy of complementary and alternative medicine therapies in relieving cancer pain: a systematic review. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 24: 5457–64. Chung A., et al. (2003) Adverse effects of acupuncture. Which are clinically significant? Canadian Family Physician, 49: 985–9. Ernst E. (2006) Acupuncture—a critical analysis. Journal of Internal Medicine, 259: 125–37. Ezzo J.M., Richardson M.A. Vickers A, Allen C., Dibble S.I., Issell B.F., Lao L., Pearl M., Ramirez G., Roscoe J.A., Shen J., Shivnan J.C., Streitberger K., Treish I., Zhang G. Acupuncture point stimulatiion for chemotherapy-induced nausea or vomiting. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2006, Issue 2. Art. No.: CD002285. DOI: 10.1002/14651858. CD002285.pub2. http://www.mrw.interscience.wiley.com/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/CD002285/frame.html Milazzo S., et al. (2006) Efficacy of homeopathic therapy in cancer treatment. European Journal of Cancer, 42(3): 282–9. Mills E., et al. (2005) Complementary therapies for the treatment of HIV: in search of the evidence. International Journal of STD & AIDS, 16(6): 395–403. Sood A. (2007) A critical review of complementary therapies for cancer-related fatigue. Integrative Cancer Therapies, 6: 8–13. Walach H., et al. (2005) Research on homeopathy: state of the art. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 11: 813–29.

Professional organization British Acupuncture Council: http://www.acupuncture.org.uk/ British Homeopathic Society: http://www.trusthomeopathy.org/

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Group 2: Mind–body therapies Mind–body medicine uses a variety of techniques designed to enhance the mind’s capacity to affect bodily function and symptoms.

Relaxation therapy Background and theory Relaxation therapy uses a range of techniques for eliciting the ‘relaxation response’ of the autonomic nervous system. This results in decreases in oxygen consumption, heart rate, respiration and skeletal muscle activity and in the normalizing of blood supply to the muscles. One of the most common techniques is progressive muscle relaxation, which consists of progressive clenching followed by the conscious relaxation of all the muscles in the body in parallel with concentration on breathing control. Other relaxation techniques involve passive muscle relaxation, refocusing or imagery. In imagery-based relaxation, the idea is to visualize oneself in a place or situation associated with relaxation and comfort. Uses Relaxation therapies are commonly used for the relief of anxiety, stress disorders, musculoskeletal pain and headaches. Practical application Relaxation is usually taught in groups or by listening to tapes. With progressive muscle relaxation, the muscle groups are systematically contracted, then relaxed in a predetermined order while the patients lie on their back. In the early stages, an entire session will be devoted to a single muscle group. With practice, it becomes possible to combine muscle groups and then eventually relax the entire body all at once. Several months of daily practice are needed in order to be able to evoke the relaxation response within seconds. Evidence of effectiveness In cancer palliation, relaxation has been shown to be a useful adjunct for preventing nausea and vomiting associated with chemotherapy and other treatment-related symptoms in patients undergoing, for example, radiotherapy, bone marrow transplantation or hyperthermia. It has also proved to have a significant effect on anxiety. Encouraging effects have been reported for the reduction of tension and amelioration of the overall mood, but not enough data are available. Similarly, data from rigorous trials into the benefits of relaxation therapy are too scarce to make any recommendations for its use in cancer-related fatigue, hot flushes in breast cancer patients, dyspnoea associated with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and chronic heart failure. Safety Relaxation techniques are not associated with any serious safety concerns. They are, however, contraindicated in schizophrenic or actively psychotic patients. Those techniques requiring inward focusing may intensify depressed mood.

FURTHER READING

Further reading Book Payne R. (2004) Relaxation Techniques: A Practical Handbook for the Health Care Professional. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.

Articles Kwekkeboom K. L., Gretarsdottir E. (2006) Systematic review of relaxation interventions for pain. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 38: 269–77. Rheingans J. I. (2007) A systematic review of nonpharmacologic adjunctive therapies for symptom management in children with cancer. Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing, 24(2): 81–94. Sood A. (2007) A critical review of complementary therapies for cancer-related fatigue. Integrative Cancer Therapies, 6: 8–13. Tipton J. M., et al. (2007) Putting evidence into practice: evidence-based interventions to prevent, manage, and treat chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. Clinical Journal of Oncology Nursing, 11(1): 69–78.

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You see things; and you say, ‘Why?’ But I dream things that never were; and I say, “why not?” George Bernard Shaw (1921), Back to Methuselah, Part 1, Act 1

Hypnotherapy Background and theory Hypnotherapy involves the induction of deep physical and mental relaxation, inducing an altered state of consciousness which leads to a greatly increased susceptibility to suggestion. Once patients are guided into a hypnotic trance, they may recall memories not easily accessed by their conscious minds. The dissociation between the conscious and the unconscious mind can be used to give therapeutic suggestions, thereby encouraging changes in behaviour and the relief of symptoms. The goal of hypnotherapy is to gain self-control over behaviour, emotions or physiological processes. A fundamental principle of hypnotic phenomena is that the hypnotized individual is under his own control and not that of the hypnotist. Uses Hypnotherapy is more commonly used for anxiety, for disorders with a strong psychological component (such as asthma and irritable bowel syndrome) and for conditions that are modulated by levels of arousal, such as pain. Practical application Sessions typically last between 30 and 90 minutes, with an average course comprising 6–12 sessions. The initial visit involves gathering a history and discussion about hypnosis, suggestion and the client’s expectations of the therapy; various tests for hypnotic suggestibility may also be conducted. The hypnotic state is achieved by first relaxing the body, then shifting attention away from the external environment towards a narrow range of objects or ideas suggested by the therapist. Sometimes hypnotherapy is carried out in group settings. Evidence of effectiveness In children with cancer, hypnosis has potential as a clinically valuable intervention for procedure-related pain and distress. It has also been shown to be helpful for anticipatory and post-chemotherapy nausea, again particularly in children. More data are required for its usefulness in the relief of pain, anxiety, fatigue and of hot flushes in patients with breast cancer. Safety Hypnosis is generally safe when it is practised by a clinically trained professional. It can, however, sometimes exacerbate psychological problems and is contraindicated in psychosis and personality disorders.

FURTHER READING

Further reading Book James U. (2005) Clinical Hypnosis Textbook: A Guide for Practical Intervention. Oxford: Radcliffe Publishing.

Articles Anbar R. D. (2006) Hypnosis: an important multifaceted therapy. Journal of Pediatrics, 149: 438–9. Bardia A., et al. (2006) Efficacy of complementary and alternative medicine therapies in relieving cancer pain: a systematic review. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 24: 5457–64. Richardson J., et al. (2006) Hypnosis for procedure-related pain and distress in pediatric cancer patients: a systematic review of effectiveness and methodology related to hypnosis interventions. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 31: 70–84. Richardson J., et al. (2007) Hypnosis for nausea and vomiting in cancer chemotherapy: a systematic review of the research evidence. European Journal of Cancer Care 16: 402–12.

Professional organization The British Association of Medical Hypnosis. http://www.bamh.org.uk/

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Guided imagery and visualization Background and theory Guided imagery is a visualization technique based on the notion that the mind can affect the body. It uses imagination and mental images to encourage physical healing, promote relaxation and bring about a change in attitude or behaviour. Stimulating the brain through visualization may have direct effects on the endocrine and nervous systems and may lead to changes in immune and other functions. Uses Imagery is commonly used by those patients undergoing conventional cancer treatment or surgery, for stress and anxiety as well as chronic pain conditions. Practical application Imagery is generally taught in small classes. Sessions usually last for 20–30 minutes, or longer if needed, once or twice weekly for several weeks. Patients will either sit in a chair or lie on a treatment table or a floor mat. Sessions usually begin with general relaxation exercises and then move on to more specific visualization techniques, introduced by the practitioner. Patients will be led to build a detailed image in their mind. Patients with cancer, for example, may be asked by their practitioner to picture their cancer being attacked by their immune system, their tumours shrinking or their body freeing itself of cancer. Evidence of effectiveness In cancer patients, guided imagery seems to be psychosupportive, decreasing anxiety and depression and increasing comfort. Although some encouraging effects on cancer-related pain have been reported, the available data are insufficient to make any firm recommendations. Guided imagery may increase oxygen saturation in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, but further data are required to make any firm recommendations. Not enough data are available for its usefulness in patients with AIDS and multiple sclerosis; it is unlikely to be beneficial for chemotherapy-associated nausea and vomiting. Safety Although guided imagery and visualization are generally safe, they are contraindicated in those with severe mental illness, latent psychosis and personality disorders.

FURTHER READING

Further reading Books Hall E., et al. (2006) Guided Imagery: Creative Interventions in Counseling and Psychotherapy. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Articles Bardia A., et al. (2006) Efficacy of complementary and alternative medicine therapies in relieving cancer pain: a systematic review. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 24(34): 5457–64. Roffe L., et al. (2005) A systematic review of guided imagery as an adjuvant cancer therapy. Psychooncology, 14: 607–17.

Professional organization National Federation of Spiritual Healers: http://www.nfsh.org.uk

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Meditation Background and theory Meditation refers to a range of practices aimed at focusing and controlling attention to suspend the strategies of thoughts and relax body and mind. It is believed to result in a state of greater physical relaxation, mental calmness and psychological balance. Meditation comprises a very diverse array of practices, most of which are rooted in Eastern religious or spiritual traditions (e.g. transcendental meditation, Sahaja yoga/meditation, mindfulness meditation as well as meditative prayer). They are based on listening to breathing, repeating a mantra, detaching from the thought process or self-directed mental practices. Meditation is aimed at inducing physiological changes, e.g. altering the fight or flight response. It is believed to reduce activity in the sympathetic nervous system and increase activity in the parasympathetic nervous system. The specific mechanisms remain, however, unknown. Uses Meditation is often used for the relief of anxiety, asthma, stress, drug and alcohol addiction, epilepsy, heart disease, hypertension. Practical application Two common approches to meditation are mindfulness meditation and transcendental mediation. In mindfulness meditation the meditator learns to concentrate on the sensation of the flow of the breath in and out of the body and focus on what is being experienced, without reacting to or judging that experience. Eventually the meditator should learn to experience thoughts and emotions in normal daily life with greater balance and acceptance. Transcendental meditation uses a mantra or e.g. a word, sound, or phrase repeated silently, in order to prevent distracting thoughts from entering the mind. Eventually this should allow the mind to come to a quieter state and the body into a state of deep rest. Meditators are initially instructed by a teacher in several sessions and should then practise regularly twice daily for 15–20 minutes. Continuous regular practice is expected to increase the effects. Evidence of effectiveness Positive results in patients at the end of life have been reported for mood disturbance, anxiety, depression, anger/hostility, emotional suppression, psychological distress, stress, intrusive images, confusion and coping mechanisms. For other symptoms and signs there are not enough data available for and including nausea and vomiting, quality of life, sleep disturbance and fatigue. Meditation may improve the quality of life in patients with chronic heart failure, but not enough data are available. For stress, anxiety or anger in AIDS patients, there are too few data available to make any recommendations. Safety Although meditation is generally safe, patients suffering from psychiatric problems who wish to take up meditation should be supervised by a qualified psychiatrist or psychotherapist experienced in the use of such techniques in a therapeutic context. People with epilepsy or those at risk of developing epilepsy should consider the theoretical risk of precipitating attacks before proceeding.

FURTHER READING

Further reading Articles Canter P. H. (2003) The therapeutic effects of meditation. British Medical Journal, 326: 1049–50. Krisanaprakonkit T., Krisnaprakornkit W., Piyavhatkul N., Lagopaiboon M. Meditation therapy for anxiety disorders. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2006, Issue 1. Art. No.: CD004998. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004998.pub2. http://www.mrw.interscience.wiley.com/cochrane/articles/CD004998/frame.html Lafferty W. E., et al. (2006) Evaluating CAM treatment at the end of life: a review of clinical trials for massage and meditation. Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 14: 100–12. Ott M. J., et al. (2006) Mindfulness meditation for oncology patients: a discussion and critical review. Integrative Cancer Therapies, 5: 98–108.

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Spiritual healing Background Spiritual healing uses spiritual means in treating disease. A healer and a patient interact with the intention of generating improvements or a cure of the illness. Healers believe they channel ‘energy’ (for example, of cosmic or divine origin) into patients which helps the body heal itself. The concept is not supported by scientific plausibility. Uses Healing is used to alleviate symptoms and recovery in a variety of clinical situations including anxiety, pain and general well-being. Practical application Spiritual healing is generally given in two ways, laying-on of hands or distant healing. In the former, healers hold their hands near to but not touching (or only lightly touching) the body, detecting areas of concern and transmitting ‘energy’ into the patient’s body, which allegedly enhances self-healing. In the latter, healers send signals mentally as meditation, prayer or healing wishes from a location that can be many miles away from the patient. A session may last 30–60 minutes. Typically, weekly sessions are prescribed. A series of treatments may consist of 6–10 sessions, which may be repeated regularly. Many varieties of healing are available. While therapeutic touch is the most familiar, there is also: Reiki, derived from Japanese traditions; Shamanism which may include chanting and dancing; intercessory prayer; Johrei; faith healing; psychic healing; and paranormal healing Evidence of effectiveness There is not enough evidence available to support spiritual healing as a treatment for any condition. Although encouraging results for healing touch on cancer-related pain are available, the data are not sufficient to make any firm recommendations. Spiritual healing has shown encouraging results in reducing anxiety levels and increasing well-being, but studies are methodologically weak. Not enough data are available for its efficacy in reducing anxiety in AIDS patients. Safety Healing is generally a safe treatment and has no known serious side-effects, although it is contraindicated in those patients with psychiatric illnesses.

FURTHER READING

Further reading Books Jonas W. B., Crawford C. (eds) (2003) Healing, Intention, and Energy Medicine. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.

Articles Bardia A., et al. (2006) Efficacy of complementary and alternative medicine therapies in relieving cancer pain: a systematic review. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 24(34): 5457–64.

Professional organization National Federation of Spiritual Healers: http://www.nfsh.org.uk/

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Creative therapies (b See Art and Music therapies pages 803–6) Background and theory In creative therapies art, music, prose and poetry are used as alternative forms of expression and communication. Therapy may release suppressed deep fears and feelings and evoke memories that, with careful and sensitive guiding by the therapist, may be used in trying to help the patient work through them constructively and positively. Receptive music therapy uses the analgesic and anxiolytic properties of music, which are mainly due to the lowering of stress levels and stress hormone production similar to the relaxation response. Uses Art and music therapies are popular in palliative care, helping with the patients’ feelings of loss, fear, anger, guilt, anxiety and depression. Practical application Both art and music therapists work in a wide range of settings using art or music to achieve therapeutic goals. Art therapy combines traditional psychotherapeutic theories and techniques with an understanding of the psychological aspects of the creative process, especially the affective properties of the different art materials. In music therapy, the most basic distinction is between receptive music therapy (listening to music played by the therapist or recorded music) for relaxation and pain relief and active music therapy (the patient is involved in music-making) as a form of expression. Evidence of effectiveness Only preliminary data exist for the evaluation of art therapy. They relate to improving coping resources in women with primary breast cancer undergoing radiotherapy and increasing positive and collaborative behaviour in children during painful procedures. Music therapy has been shown to be beneficial for procedure-related anxiety. In a range of conditions, music therapy has shown encouraging effects but there are not enough data available to draw any firm conclusions. Clinical music therapy might improve quality of life in patients with terminal cancer; preliminary data are positive for psychological problems in cancer palliation; and it may have some effect in relieving nausea and vomiting associated with chemotherapy. Similar encouraging, yet only preliminary, results have been reported for recorded music as an adjunct during routine chest physiotherapy for cystic fibrosis, for reducing agitation and aggressive behaviour in Alzheimer patients, strengthening of respiratory muscles through the coordination of breath and speech in multiple sclerosis, and for motor, affective and behavioural functions in Parkinson’s patients. The data are methodologically too limited in patients with dementia. Safety There are no known safety concerns associated with art or music therapy.

FURTHER READING

Further reading Books Gilroy A. (2006) Art Therapy, Research and Evidence-based Practice. London: Sage Publications. Karkou V. (2006) Arts Therapies. Edinburgh: Elsevier Churchill Livingstone.

Articles Hilliard R. E. (2005) Music therapy in hospice and palliative care: a review of the empirical data. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2: 173–8. Oster I., et al. (2006) Art therapy improves coping resources: a randomized, controlled study among women with breast cancer. Palliative & Supportive Care, 4: 57–64. Scott JT, Harmsen M, Prictor MJ, Sowden AJ, Watt I. Interventions for improving communication with children and adolescents about their cancer. Cochrane Database of systematic Reviews 2003, Issue 3. Art. No.: CD002969. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD002969. http://www.mrw.interscience. wiley.com/cohrane/clsysrev/articles/CD002969/frame.

Professional organization The British Association of Art Therapists: http://www.baat.org/ The British Society for Music Therapy: http://www.bsmt.org/

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Group 3: Biologically-based practices Herbal medicine Background and theory Plants have been used for medicinal purposes since the dawn of humanity. They form the origin of many modern medicines, e.g. digoxin from Digitalis purpurea (foxglove) or salicin from Salix spp. (willow). Herbal extracts contain plant material with pharmacologically active constituents. The active principle(s) of the extract, which is in many cases unknown, may exert its effects at the molecular level and may have, for instance, enzymeinhibiting effects (e.g. escin). A single main constituent may be active, or a complex mixture of compounds produces a combined effect. Known active constituents or marker substances may be used to standardize preparations. Modern Western herbalism or phytomedicine as practised in many European countries such as Germany is integrated into conventional medicine with compulsory education and training for physicians and pharmacists. It follows the diagnostic and therapeutic principles of conventional medicine. Other more traditional systems include Chinese herbal medicine, which is based on the concepts of yin and yang and qi energy. In China, ill health is seen as a pattern of disharmony or imbalance and Chinese herbal medicines are believed to harmonize these energies and ultimately restore health. In Japan, this system of traditional herbal medicine has evolved into kampo. Ayurveda, the traditional Indian medical system, frequently uses herbal mixtures. Characteristic of these systems is a high degree of individualization of treatments. In contrast to modern phytomedicine, all traditional herbal medicine systems predominantly use complex mixtures of different herbs. Uses Herbal medicine is generally used for a wide range of conditions. In palliative care it is used for anxiety, depression, pain, radiation-induced dermatitis, chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting, hot flushes and quality of life, as well as for the prevention and treatment of cancer. Practical application During an initial treatment session the practitioner will usually take the patient’s medical history. Information may also be sought on the patient’s personality and background, which may influence the selection of herbs. Individualized combinations of herbs may be prescribed. Follow-up appointments may be arranged and the herbal preparations and regimen reviewed. The regimen depends largely on the nature and severity of the condition, but consists generally of either one or two appointments per week for a treatment period ranging from one to several weeks. Medication is usually administered orally in the form of tablets, capsules, tinctures or teas. Topical applications, e.g. ointments and compresses, are also used.

GROUP 3: BIOLOGICALLY-BASED PRACTICES

Evidence of effectiveness No convincing evidence exists for any herbal medicine in the treatment of cancer. The effectiveness of a range of herbal medicines in cancer palliation is unclear due to insufficient data being available: cannabinoids for pain-control, appetite or quality of life; ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba) for lymphoedema; ginseng (Panax ginseng) for fatigue and quality of life; marigold (Calendula officinalis) for radiation-induced dermatitis in breast cancer; the Chinese herbal remedy huangqi for nausea and vomiting induced by chemotherapy. Aloe vera showed no convincing effects on radiation-induced skin irritation or oral mucositis. The results regarding black cohosh (Actaea racemosa) on hot flushes are contradictory and it has been associated with liver damage. Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) and phytoestrogens showed no efficacy in the treatment of prostate cancer symptoms or for hot flushes, respectively. In patients with AIDS the effectiveness of boxwood (Buxus sempervirens) as well as tea tree oil (Melaleuca alternifolia) for oral candidiasis are unknown. Many different preparations of Chinese herbal mixture exist but the data are not encouraging for their use in patients with AIDS. No evidence of effectiveness is available for St John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum) on antiviral activity or for topical application of capsaicin to reduce pain. Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba) improves cognition and function in Alzheimer’s disease. The Kampo medicine choto-san might lead to a general improvement. Not enough data are available for Huperzia serrata, lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) and sage (Salvia officinalis). Ginseng (Panax ginseng) is likely to be ineffective for improving somatic symptoms, depression and anxiety. In chronic obstructive pulmonary disease the effects of Chinese herbal mixtures, ginseng (Panax ginseng) on lung function and ivy (Hedera helix) leaf extract for dyspnoea are not clear. Studies of pomegranate (Punica granatum) juice were negative. In chronic heart failure, extracts from the leaf and flower of the hawthorn (Crataegus spp.) improve maximal workload, while milk vetch (Astragalus spp.) has been shown to improve left ventricular ejection fraction. The evidence for shengmai, a combination product including Panax ginseng, Ophiopogon japonicus and Schisandra chinensis, is inconclusive due to the low quality of the studies. Not enough data are available to make any firm recommendations for Ayurvedic medicines, Chinese medicines, Ginseng (Panax ginseng) and Kanlijian. St John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum) has been shown to be effective in the treatment of mild to moderate depression. The results so far from studies of cannabis (Cannabis sativa) for multiple sclerosis are somewhat contradictory, but some data suggest there is an improvement in mobility, pain and sleep. It might also reduce the number of incontinence episodes but not enough data are yet available. It is unlikely to be beneficial in reducing tremor. Some preliminary data for Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba) suggest it may improve fatigue, symptom severity and functionality but not cognitive function. In Parkinson’s disease, preliminary data are encouraging for the use of Mucuna pruriens, a traditional Ayurvedic herbal medicine, which is a natural source of L-dopa. Cannabis (Cannabis sativa) is unlikely to reduce tremor.

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Safety Because plant extracts have pharmacological effects, their potential for adverse effects and interactions needs to be considered. They vary for each individual herb and should be evaluated individually. St John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum), for example, interacts with warfarin and the contraceptive pill, while kava kava (Piper methysticum) has been associated with liver damage. In general, those patients taking herbal medication on a regular basis should receive regular follow-up and appropriate biochemical monitoring. Patients should always be asked about self-prescription use of herbal medicine. There is currently no reporting system for adverse events and interactions of herbal medicines. Other safety issues associated with herbal medicines are toxicity, contamination (in particular traditional Chinese medicines), adulteration, misidentification or quality issues.

Further reading Books Basch E. M., Ulbricht C. E. (eds) (2005) Herb and Supplement Handbook: The Clinical Bottom Line. St Louis, MO: Elsevier Mosby. Braun L., Cohen M. (2005) Herbs and Natural Supplements: An Evidence-based Guide. Sydney: Elsevier Mosby. Capasso F., et al. (2003). Phytotherapy: A Quick Reference to Herbal Medicine. Berlin: Springer.

Articles Birks J, Grimley Evans J. Ginkgo biloba for cognitive impairment and dementia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2007, Issue 2. Art. No.: CD003120. DOI:10.1002/14651858.CD003120.pub2. http://www.mrw.interscience.wiley.com/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/CD003120/frame.html Linde K., et al. (2005) St John’s Wort for depression. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2: CD000448. Liu JP., Manheimer E., Yang M. Herbal medicines for treating HIV infection and AIDS. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2005, Issue 3. Art. No.:CD003937. DOI: 10.1002/14651858. CD03937.pub2. http://www.mrw.interscience.wiley.com/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/CD003937/frame.html Pittler M. H., et al. (2003) Hawthorn extract for treating chronic heart failure: Meta-analysis of randomized trials. American Journal of Medicine, 114: 665–74. Zajicek J., et al. (2003) Cannabinoids for treatment of spasticity and other symptoms related to multiple sclerosis (CAMS study): multicentre randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet, 362: 1517–26.

Databases Natural Standard: http://www.naturalstandard.com/ The Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database: http://www.naturaldatabase.com/

Professional organization The British Herbal Medicine Association: http://www.bhma.info/

FURTHER READING

Aromatherapy Background and theory Aromatic plants, and the infusions prepared from them, have been employed in medicines and cosmetics for thousands of years. Aromatherapy uses oils extracted from plants, which are usually referred to as ‘essential oils’. These are the pure, concentrated hydrophobic liquids containing the volatile essences of plants: flowers (e.g. rose), leaves (e.g. peppermint), barks (e.g. cinnamon), fruits (e.g. lemon), seeds (e.g. fennel), grasses (e.g. lemongrass), bulbs (e.g. garlic) and other plant substances. Fresh plant material usually yields 1–2% by weight of essential oil on distillation. A typical essential oil contains a complex mixture of over 100 different chemical compounds which give the oil its smell, therapeutic properties and, in some cases, its toxicity. Essential oils are highly toxic if ingested undiluted. Essential oils are considered to act not only on the body, by stimulating physiological processes, but also on the emotions and the mind. Odour stimulates the olfactory senses and these relay to the limbic system, which is central to the emotions and memory. In turn, the limbic system is associated with the hypophyseal–pituitary axis which regulates the endocrine system, affecting a person’s reactions to fear, anger, metabolism and sexual stimulus. Practical application Usually, diluted essential oils are applied to the skin through gentle massage. The individual choice of oil is determined by the experience of the therapist. Occasionally, essential oils are also used in baths or diffusers. One session typically lasts around 1 hour. A full series may include about ten sessions. Evidence of effectiveness Aromatherapy in combination with massage has positive short-term effects on psychological well-being in cancer patients, with the effect on anxiety supported by limited evidence. However, the effects on physical symptoms such as nausea are not supported by sufficient evidence. Evidence is mixed as to whether aromatherapy enhances the effects of massage. Encouraging results have been reported for reducing agitation and neuropsychiatric symptoms in dementia patients and symptom control and well-being in patients with Alzheimer’s disease, but there are insufficient data to make any firm recommendations. Aromatherapy failed to show benefits in terms of symptom control in cancer patients, pain control, anxiety or quality of life in hospice patients, as well as on psychological outcomes during radiation therapy. Safety Essential oils should not be taken orally or used undiluted on the skin. Some oils cause photosensitivity. Allergic reactions are possible with all oils. Some oils have carcinogenic potential and certain oils should be avoided in cancer patients. Patients with cancer are often highly sensitive to the sense of smell, which may have altered due to chemotherapy. Certain smells can be very nauseating, and this should be assessed with the patient before therapy.

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Further reading Books Lis-Balchin M. (2006) Aromatherapy Science: a Guide for Healthcare Professionals. London: Pharmaceutical Press.

Articles Fellowes D., Barnes K., Wilkinson S. Aromatherapy and massage for symptom relief in patients with cancer. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2004, Issue 3. Art No.: CD002287. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD002287.pub2 http://www.mrw.interscience.wiley.com/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/FD002287/frame.html Graham P. H., et al. (2003)Inhalation aromatherapy during radiotherapy: results of a placebo-controlled double-blind randomized trial. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 21: 2372–6. Soden K. (2004) A randomised controlled trial of aromatherapy massage in a hospice setting. Palliative Medicine, 18: 87–92. Thorgrimsen L., et al. (2003) Aroma therapy for dementia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 3. Wilcock A., et al. (2004) Does aromatherapy massage benefit patients with cancer attending a specialist palliative care day centre? Palliative Medicine, 18: 287–90. Wilkinson S. M., et al. (2007) Effectiveness of aromatherapy massage in the management of anxiety and depression in patients with cancer: a multicenter randomized controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 25: 532–9.

Professional organization The Aromatherapy Council: http://www.aromatherapycouncil.co.uk/

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Group 4: Manipulative and body-based therapies These therapies in CAM are based on manipulation and/or movement of one or more parts of the body. Some examples include chiropractic or osteopathic manipulation, and massage.

Massage Background and theory Massage is one of the oldest healthcare practices in existence. It was documented in Chinese texts more than 4000 years ago and has been used in Western healthcare since Hippocrates in the fourth century BC. Massage therapy is the manipulation of the soft tissues of the body for therapeutic purposes. It consists of manual techniques that include applying pressure and traction. The friction of the hands as well as the mechanical pressure exerted on cutaneous and subcutaneous structures affect all body systems, in particular the musculoskeletal, circulatory, lymphatic and nervous systems. Uses Massage is widely used in the treatment of a variety of conditions including lymphoedema, stress, anxiety, back and other pain, and insomnia. Through the relaxation of muscle tension and the relief of anxiety, massage therapy may reduce blood pressure and heart rate. Massage may also enhance the immune system. Abdominal massage may be useful for constipation. Practical application Either the whole body or relevant specific parts may be treated. The practitioner may play background music depending on the patient’s preference. Patients may be encouraged to breathe steadily and to communicate with the therapist. Oils, including aromatherapy oils, may also be used, depending on the individual patient and the aims of treatment. Massage usually lasts one hour, and one or two sessions per week for a treatment period of 4–8 weeks are recommended initially. Evidence of effectiveness Both massage and/or aromatherapy have been shown to have positive effects on the well-being of cancer patients in general, and on anxiety in particular. The question whether essential oils are important remains unanswered. It has also been shown to be beneficial for the relief of anxiety of various causes. Encouraging results exist for the effect of massage in chemotherapyrelated nausea as well as anxiety and depression in multiple sclerosis, but further data are required. Although massage may improve quality of life, anxiety and low mood in HIV patients, its effects on immune function are not clear. For Alzheimer’s disease there is only a limited amount of reliable data available which prevents any firm conclusions. The relaxing effects of massage may have some, albeit non-specific, influence on the well-being of most patients.

FURTHER READING

Safety Massage is comparatively safe and adverse effects are extremely rare. There is no evidence that it encourages the spread of cancer, although it is contraindicated where it might damage tumour or frail normal tissue, particularly in treatment-related areas. It is generally contraindicated in patients who have advanced heart disease, phlebitis, thrombosis and embolism, kidney failure, infectious diseases, contagious skin conditions, acute inflammation, infected injuries, unhealed fractures, conditions prone to haemorrhage and psychosis. It is also contraindicated in the acute flare-up of rheumatoid arthritis, eczema, goitre and open skin lesions. (b For aromatherapy massage, see the Aromatherapy section, p. 833.)

Further reading Books Rich G. J. (2002) Massage Therapy: the Evidence for Practice. Edinburgh: Mosby.

Articles Corbin L. (2005) Safety and efficacy of massage therapy for patients with cancer. Cancer Control, 12: 158–64. Fellowes D., Barness K., Wilkinson S. Aromatherapy and massage for symptom relief in patients with cancer. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2004, Issue 3. Art. No.: CD002287. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD002287.pub2 http:\\www.mrw.interscience.wiley.com/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/CD002287/frame.html

Professional organization Massage Therapy UK: http://www.massagetherapy.co.uk

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Reflexology Background and theory The therapeutic use of hand and foot pressure for the treatment of pain and various illnesses existed in China and India over 5000 years ago. It is suggested that there are ten longitudinal, bilateral reflexes or zones running along the body which terminate in the hands and feet. All systems and organs are reflected onto the skin surface, particularly that of the palms and soles. By applying gentle pressure to these areas it is possible to relieve blockages or imbalances of energy along the zone. It is believed that specific organs as well as the interrelationship between organs and bodily systems can be influenced to regain and maintain emotional, physical and spiritual homeostasis resulting in the relief of symptoms and facilitating the prevention of illness and the promotion of healing. Malfunction of any organ or part of the body is thought to cause the deposition of tiny calcium and uric acid crystals in the nerve endings, particularly in the feet. These deposits are then broken down and eliminated by gentle pressure. This is referred to as ‘detoxification’, which may lead to a ‘healing crisis’ including ’flu-like symptoms, a feeling of being light headed and lethargic, feeling cold 3–4 days’ post-treatment, a reduction in blood pressure, an increase in excretory functions and an alteration in sleep pattern. Uses Reflexology is used for a variety of clinical problems. Of particular relevance to palliative care are control of pain and anxiety, induction of deep relaxation and improvement in sleep. Practical application Although there are different schools of teaching in the application of reflexology, the underlying principles are consistent. The foot is treated by applying gentle pressure along each zone systematically until the dorsum, sides and sole have been covered. The practitioner then repeats the treatment on the other foot. Initially, gentle massage and stroking movements are used, followed by deep thumb and finger pressure. The reflex areas on the foot may feel tender or painful if ‘blocked’, but is relieved as the treatment works and the ‘blockage’ is removed. Treatment may take up to an hour and be repeated weekly as necessary. Evidence of effectiveness There is no convincing evidence of the effectiveness of reflexology from controlled clinical trials to support its use for any indication, including symptom control in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, agitation in dementia, motor sensory and urinary symptoms in multiple sclerosis. It is unlikely to be beneficial in improving quality of life in patients with cancer. Safety Contraindications to reflexology include its use in the first trimester of pregnancy. Care should be taken in patients with depressive and manic states, epilepsy and acute conditions. Patients receiving reflexology may notice an increase in urination and body discharges, leading to fears that medicinal drugs such as chemotherapy agents might be eliminated more quickly from the body and thus be less effective. However, there is no evidence for this.

FURTHER READING

Further reading Books Barraclough J. (ed.) (2007) Enhancing Cancer Care: Complementary Therapy and Support. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ernst E. (2007) Complementary Therapies for Pain Management: An Evidence Based Approach. St Louis: Mosby. Mackareth P., Tiran D. (ed.). (2002) Clinical Reflexology: A Guide for Health Professionals. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone,

Articles Devlin B. (2006) The art of healing and knowing in cancer and palliative care. International Journal of Palliative Nursing, 12(1): 16–19. Stephenson N. L. N., et al. (2000) The effects of foot reflexology on anxiety and pain in patients with breast and lung cancer. Oncology Nursing Forum, 27(1): 67–72.

Professional organization The Reflexology Forum: http://www.reflexologyforum.org/

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Palliative care in the home Palliative care at home embraces what is most noble in medicine: sometimes curing, always relieving, supporting right to the end.1 The major part of continuing care for palliative patients is provided by the primary healthcare team, whether with malignant or non-malignant diagnoses: such continuing care cannot realistically be the responsibility of specialist palliative care. The reality is that primary care and the generic hospital services currently provide, and will continue to provide the great majority of palliative care.2 Palliative care in the community is important. Primary care contributes a vital role, which is greatly appreciated by patients and carers, and has a significant impact on other services. Many general practitioners (GPs) and district nurses feel that palliative care represents the best of all medical care, bringing together the clinical, holistic and human dimensions of primary care. They know their patients well, and are in a key position to provide the best support for them and their families at this most crucial stage, with the backing of specialist palliative care and hospice expertise, advice and resources. GPs and district nurses often prioritize care of the dying, some claiming that it reconnects them with their reasons for entering healthcare and also affects their standing in a community. However, care at home can break down or become suboptimal for a variety of reasons such as lack of planning, poor communication, limited round-the-clock coordination, difficulties in symptom control, inadequate support for carers, misunderstanding of the specialists’ role and availability out of hours, etc. Good palliative care is appreciated by our patients and their families, and is at the core of good primary care, and in many ways is probably the best thing we do. (A Northern Ireland GP)

1 Gomas J.-M. (1993) Palliative care at home: a reality or ‘mission impossible’? Palliative Medicine, 7(Suppl. 1): 45–59. 2 Barclay S. (2001) Palliative care for non-cancer patients: a UK perspective from primary care. In Palliative Care for Non-cancer Patients (ed. J. Addington-Hall, I. Higginson), pp. 156–172. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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First paradox of community palliative care3 Most dying people would prefer to remain at home, but most of them die in institutions.

Second paradox of community palliative care Most of the final year of life is spent at home, but most people are admitted to hospital to die. Despite most patients expressing a preference to remain at home and to die there if adequately supported, most patients die in institutions. Disturbingly, most are not even formally consulted as to their wishes. Home is the place that reminds us of living as well as dying and is where we feel more fully ourselves. The community provision of palliative care services is a vital part of integrated palliative care, and affects hospital and hospice admission rates and capacity, particularly for non-cancer patients. Many more patients with non-malignant disease, and as many cancer patients, die in care homes as in hospices, so good palliative care in this setting, where a fifth of all people die, is also essential. The goal is that quality palliative care should be available to patients who need it irrespective of their diagnosis or the setting. Many hospice-based, hospice-at-home services successfully supplement and support generic services. The original palliative care principles are being mainstreamed into standard healthcare across the world. From the early days of the movement the proliferation of hospices was discouraged in favour of broad dissemination of ‘terminal care’ principles throughout the health service, including acute hospital and community services. Ideally, there should be a means to optimize generalist palliative care at home so that, regardless of the setting, the diagnosis and the possible disease timescale, patients should receive the highest standard of palliative care at all times, i.e. the ‘...care of the dying should be raised to the level of the best’ (NHS Cancer Plan England 2000). I think that terminal care is probably if not the most important then certainly one of the most important things that GPs can become involved in. I feel it’s that personal involvement that is often the most important thing.4

3 Thorpe G. (1993) Enabling more dying people to remain at home. British Medical Journal, 307: 915–18. 4 Jeffrey D. (2000) Cancer from Cure to Care: Palliative Care Dilemmas in General Practice Manchester Hochland and Hochland.

PALLIATIVE CARE IN THE HOME

Community palliative care key facts • 90% of the final year of life for most patients is spent at home • People are now living longer with serious illnesses, and mainly in the community • GPs have always been, and will continue to be, the main providers of palliative care for the majority of patients • Patients especially appreciate: • continuity of relationship • being listened to • an opportunity to ventilate feelings • being accessible • effective symptom control • GPs’ palliative care role can be optimized by specialist support, especially if there is some formalized engagement.5 ‘It is better to help a colleague with a difficult case than to tell him he is wrong, and that he should make way for the expert’6 • On average, each GP will look after 30–40 patients with cancer at any one time, or about 200 patients per practice team of 10,000 patients, or 3500 for every Primary Care Trust (PCT) • On average, 8 patients will be newly diagnosed with cancer/GP per year, 50 per practice and 750 per PCT • The ‘average’ UK GP will have about 20 patient deaths/year, of which about 5 will be from cancer, 5 from organ failure (e.g. heart failure or COPD), 7 or 8 as a result of multiple pathology, dementia and decline, and 2 or 3 sudden deaths, e.g. myocardial infarction, road traffic accident, etc. • Palliative care occupies a greater proportion of a district nurse’s time, including out-of-hours care, than patient numbers would indicate • There is less support available for patients and carers with nonmalignant end-stage illness, and limited support for GPs managing such patients • There is a steady shift in the place of care for many patients with palliative care needs, away from the hospital setting into the community, for the majority of their last year of life • Hospital death is more likely if patients are poor, elderly, have no carers, are far from other services or have a long illness trajectory • The home death rate in England is low (23% for cancer patients and 19% for all deaths) • The hospital death rate in England is high (55 % for cancer patients and 66 % for all deaths) • There is a clear preference from most patients and carers for a home death and an increasing choice of hospice death

5 Mitchell G. (2002) How well do general practitioners deliver palliative care? A systematic review. Palliative Medicine, 16: 457–64. 6 Pugsley R., Pardoe J. (1986) The specialist contribution to the care of the terminally ill patient. Journal of Royal College of General Practitioners, 36: 347–8.

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• For hospitals, improving community palliative care services will help: reduce the numbers of patients with palliative care needs from occupying acute beds; improve capacity and waiting lists; and reduce the standard hospital mortality ratio • According to the National Audit Office, it is estimated that 4000 patients a day could be discharged from hospital if there were adequate community places for them • Gaps are apparent in community care, e.g. for symptom control management, 24h nursing care, night sitters, access to equipment, out-ofhours support—and there are concerns that this picture may worsen in future with changes in out-of-hours provision • Specialist palliative care has raised standards of care and symptom control • Hospice care is changing: with the average length of stay now reduced to two weeks • 50% of patients admitted to hospices will be discharged back to the community • Improved palliative care services can have a very positive effect on a family’s bereavement journey • GPs and district nurses repeatedly demonstrate they are keen to improve the quality of the palliative service they provide, and they regard palliative care as important and intrinsic to primary care • In England, national directives emphasize the vital role of community palliative care*

The care of the dying is a test of a successful NHS NHS Chief Executive Sir Nigel Crisp, March 2003

* www.goldstandardsframework.nhs.uk www.mcpcil.org.uk/liverpool-care-pathway www.endoflifecareforadults.nhs.uk.

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Patients’ needs The user viewpoint You matter because you are you. You matter to the last moment of your life and we will do all we can not only to help you die peacefully but to live until you die. Dame Cicely Saunders John had wanted to stay at home as he became weaker. But suddenly one weekend it all went badly wrong and he went into hospital in the middle of the night. He never came home. I will never forgive myself for this. I will have to live with this feeling of guilt all my life, wishing I could have done more. Mary, wife of John, a cancer patient

Listening to patients The care provided both in the provision of day-to-day clinical care at the bedside and, strategically, in the planning of services must be based on the needs of patients. Listening to the ‘user view’ is obvious, increasingly important in both scenarios, yet sometimes still avoided. The importance of the views of the patient and their carers is becoming recognized more formally with the emergence of user groups in cancer networks and elsewhere. How much do we listen to patients’ needs and respond accordingly? Unfortunately, workload pressure and the daunting task of facing sensitive situations that require good communication skills can easily deflect from taking time to acquire the patient’s view. Some assessment tools have been developed to help facilitate this important task, such as the Problems and Concerns Assessment Tools or Patient/Carer Feedback sheets. I think that the most important thing is that we must listen to what the question is and try to hear what is behind the actual words used. Cicely Saunders7

Truth telling, communication skills and retaining control Patients and carers cannot be full participants in decision-making without having clear information; if they are left uninformed, they will have less sense of retaining autonomy and control. There is a common, wellintentioned but misguided assumption, present at all stages of cancer care, that what people do not know does not harm them. ‘Truth may hurt but deceit hurts more.’8 Healthcare professionals often censor the information they give to patients in an attempt to protect them from potentially hurtful, sad or bad news. However, less than honest

7 Clark D. (2002) Cicely Saunders, Founder of the Hospice Movement—selected letters 1959–1999. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 8 Fallowfield L. J., Jenkins V. A., Beveridge H. A. (2002) Truth may hurt but deceit hurts more: communication in palliative care. Palliative Medicine, 16: 297–303.

PATIENTS’ NEEDS

disclosure and the desire to shield patients from the reality of the situation often create even greater difficulties for patients, carers and other members of the healthcare team. Although it may be well meant, such a conspiracy of silence often results in a heightened state of fear, anxiety and confusion for patients who may even feel betrayed by such a process, which actually does little to promote patient calm and equanimity. Ambiguous or deliberately misleading information may afford short-term benefits, but denies individuals as well as their families opportunities to reorganize and adapt their lives towards the attainment of achievable goals, realistic hopes and previously planned-for aspirations. Having said this, breaking bad news is always difficult. Skills in discussing sensitive information can be learned and practised, and most areas run communication skills’ learning, now an integral part of the Supportive and Palliative Care Guidance in England. As the Age Concern's 12 Principles of a Good Death confirms (Table 12.1), in 8 out of 12 assertions, retaining control is a vital element for patients, and our role should be more to enable than to instruct, ever respectful of the boundaries set by our patients. Table 12.1 Age Concern’s 12 principles of a good death9 1 To be able to retain control of what happens 2 To have control over pain relief and other symptom control 3 To have choice and control over where death occurs (at home or elsewhere) 4 To have access to hospice care in any location, not only in hospital 5 To have control over who is present and who shares the end 6 To be able to issue Advance Directives which ensure wishes are respected 7 To know when death is coming, and to understand what can be expected 8 To be afforded dignity and privacy 9 To have access to information and expertise of whatever kind is necessary 10

To have access to any spiritual or emotional support required

11

To have time to say goodbye, and control over other aspects of timing

12

To be able to leave when it is time to go, and not to have life prolonged pointlessly

9 Henwood M. (1999) The Future of Health and Care of Older People. London: Age Concern.

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Preferred place of death Asking and noting where patients would like to be cared for in their dying phase is a very significant step towards tailoring services to meet patients’ preferences and needs. This is a key issue in developing a real sense of choice, maintaining some control and self-determination in a world seemingly turned upside down for patients and their carers. The literature confirms that where someone has been asked about preference for place of care it is more likely to be attained, and choice of place of death is increasingly seen now as a patient’s right. However, many may express a preference for home or hospice care, but are currently unable to achieve this. Carers are our patients in primary care and also have their own needs, as the toll of caring for the dying patient may be considerable.10 Table 12.2 Place of death Higginson I (2003) Priorities for End of Life Care in England Wales and Scotland National Council Place:

Home

Hospital

Hospice

Preference

56%

11%

24%

Care Home

Cancer

25%

47%

17%

12%

All causes

20%

56%

4%

20%

4%

Patient needs We all have needs, whether acknowledged or not. In 1943, Maslow proposed that we are all motivated by our wish continually to satisfy our needs. He commented that there were at least five sets of goals which he called ‘Basic needs’. Briefly, these are: • Physiological (food, sleep, warmth, health) • Safety (security, protection from threats) • Social (belonging, association, acceptance, friendship, love) • Esteem (self-respect, reputation, status, recognition) • Self-actualization (personal growth, accomplishment, creativity, achievement of potential). • Spiritual, involving non-clinicians Maslow described a hierarchy of needs to show that at any moment we concentrate almost exclusively on one of our unmet needs. We do not bother much about our social status if we are starving. Once the most immediate need is fairly well satisfied we are impelled to move on to the next most pressing need. Patients recently diagnosed with cancer find themselves returned starkly to the bottom of Maslow’s hierarchy, to the level of the need to survive. Dying is not just a physical or medical journey, for it is essentially a human one, common to us all: something of metaphysical or spiritual significance that is set within a cultural context. If we, as healthcare professionals, can fully support our patients in the first two stages of the hierarchy above,

10 Simon C. (2001) Informal carers and the primary care team. British Journal of General Practice, 51: 920–3.

PATIENTS’ NEEDS

i.e. as far as possible maintain comfort, freedom from symptoms and provide a sense of security and support, then our patients are more likely to be able to proceed with other stages of their journey towards greater depths of relationships, self-acceptance and spiritual peace. By alleviating symptoms and reducing fear we create the space for people to travel. Our prime business is to play our role within the medical context; hence, maintaining patients symptom-free, secure, supported and enabled to die in their place of choice. These are three of the goals of the Gold Standards Framework.11 The essential concept is that the doctor, or at least the practice, will stay firmly with the patient and relative at their time of need and not desert them…When a patient is dying at home, it makes a big difference if the doctor continues to call regularly…otherwise patient and family are likely to feel abandoned and deserted when they least expect it…The promise of a regular visit gives a special kind of support unlike any other.12

What do patients and carers want from the services? • Being treated as a human being. People want to be treated as individuals, and with dignity and respect • Empowerment. The ability to have their voice heard, to be valued for their knowledge and skills, and to exercise real choice about treatments and services • Information. Patients and carers should receive all the information they want about their condition and possible treatment. It should be given in an honest, timely and sensitive manner. Always document and do not forget updating with new data as available • Having choice. Patients and carers want to know what options are available to them from the NHS, voluntary and private sectors, including access to self-help and support groups and complementary therapy services • Continuity of care. Good communication and coordination of services between health and social care professionals working across the NHS and social sectors is essential • Equal access. People want access to services of similar quality wherever they are delivered • Meeting physical needs. Physical symptoms must be managed to a degree acceptable to patients • Meeting psychological needs. Patients and carers need emotional support from professionals who are prepared to listen to them and are capable of understanding their concerns • Meeting social needs. Support for the family, advice on financial and employment issues and provision of transport are necessary • Meeting spiritual needs. Patients and carers should have support to help them explore the spiritual issues important to them. From Cancerlink survey, Cancer Supportive Care Services Strategy, User’s Priorities and Perspectives 2000 11 www. goldstandardsframework.nhs.uk 12 Brewin T. (2001) Personal view: deserted. British Medical Journal, 322: 117.

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Examples of needs-based predicting and fulfilling needs Two examples of refocusing and structuring care around patients’ needs are: • The Seven Promises, produced in the USA by Joanne Lynn, President of ABCD (Americans for Better Care of the Dying) and co-director of the Institute of Healthcare Improvements Breakthrough Series13 • Summary of suggested needs-based care, which was the basis of the development of the Gold Standards Framework in the UK (Table 12.2) Lynn, writing about the current position of end-of-life care in the USA, asks why we feel ‘lucky’ if things go well in the final stages of life, in an age when we are surrounded by highly complex and sophisticated innovations that we take for granted at any other stage. Ask any American about the death of a family member or friend and you will usually hear a sad tale of pain, fear, confusion, along with a mismatch of services offered and services needed. Less often, you will hear about a decent close of life, one that included appropriate and respectful healthcare, time with family and friends and support from the community. Even so, that good story will have a strange conclusion: ‘Weren’t we lucky!’ How odd! We don’t attribute good conclusions from other important events to luck—we know that airplanes land safely and patients wake up after surgery because lots of people do their jobs well, in systems designed to help people do their jobs well. Yet, we accept almost without question that the last few months or years of life—when we are most often chronically ill, dependent and frail—will be miserable. Should our final days be comfortable only with good luck? How did we come to do so poorly on care at the end-of-life? A fundamental reason is we have simply never been here before. We face problems our grand-parents would envy—the problems that come from growing quite old and dying rather slowly…So what will we need when we have to live with eventually fatal chronic disease? More than anything else we need reliability. We need a care system we can count on. To make excellent care routine we must learn to do routinely what we already know must be done…All it takes is innovation, learning, reorganisation and commitment. People should not expect end-of-life care to be miserable and meaningless…we should get good care for our expense without having to hope for good luck.14

13 Lynn, J (2000) Improving Care for the End of life: a sourcebook for Health Care Managers and Clinicians. 14 Accelerating Change Today (2000) Promises to keep: Changing the Way we Provide Care at the End of Life. Boston, USA: The National Coalition on Health Care and the Institute for Healthcare Improvement

PATIENTS’ NEEDS

The Seven Promises—a vision of a better system For patients in the advanced stages of serious illnesses, it is impossible to promise cure or restoration of health. However, here are seven promises that really seem to make a difference to such patients. In each case, we define the promise, its core statement and list a few examples of what it might mean to put practices in place to deliver on that promise. 1 Good medical treatment: • You will have the best of medical treatment, aiming to prevent exacerbation, improve function and survival, and ensure comfort • Patients will be offered proven diagnosis and treatment strategies to prevent exacerbations and enhance quality of life, as well as to delay disease progression and death • Medical intervention will be in accord with best available standards of medical practice and evidence-based when possible 2 Will never be overwhelmed by symptoms: • You will never have to endure overwhelming pain, shortness of breath or other symptoms • Symptoms will be anticipated and prevented when possible, evaluated and addressed promptly and controlled effectively • Severe symptoms, such as shortness of breath, will be treated as emergencies • Sedation will be used when necessary to relieve intractable symptoms near the end-of-life 3 Continuity, coordination and comprehensiveness: • Your care will be continuous, comprehensive and coordinated • Patients and families can count on having certain professionals to rely upon at all times and reassured that professionals talk to each other • Patients and families can count on an appropriate and timely response to their needs • Transitions between services, settings and personnel will be minimized in number and made to work smoothly 4 Well-prepared—no surprises/crisis: • You and your family will be prepared for everything that is likely to happen in the course of your illness • Patients and families come to know what to expect as the illness worsens, and what is expected of them • Patients and families receive supplies and training needed to handle predictable events 5 Customized care, reflecting your preference: • Your wishes will be sought and respected, and followed wherever possible • Patients and families come to know the alternatives for services and expect to make choices that matter • Patients never receive treatments they refuse • Patients who want to live out the end of their life at home, usually can 6 Use of patient and family resources—financial, emotional and practical: • We will help you and your family to consider your personal and financial resources, and we will respect your choices about the use of your resources

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• Patients and families will be aware of services available in their community and the costs of those services • Family caregivers’ concerns will be discussed and addressed • Respite, volunteer and home aid care will be part of the care plan when appropriate 7 Make the best of every day: • We will do all we can to see that you and your family will have the opportunity to make the best of every day • The patient is treated as a person, not a disease, and what is important to the patient is important to the care team • The care team responds to the physical, psychological, social and spiritual needs of the patient and family. Families are supported before, during and after the patient’s death

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Barriers to community palliative care The care of all dying patients must improve to the level of the best. DoH, The NHS Cancer Plan, September 2000 Palliative care is a barometer for all our other care…and we only have one chance to get it right. A district nurse, Liverpool Several studies confirm that GPs, district nurses and other community professionals prioritize the care of the dying. Yet, despite this high priority, service provision can be less than optimal. This may be due to lack of pre-planning and communication, poor team working, out-of-hours factors, limited carer support or difficulties with symptom control. However, commonly, the major problem is that the different instruments in the orchestra are not playing together. The challenge is to orchestrate the service so that the patient and carers feel enveloped in professional, seamless, supportive care allowing them ‘a good death’ in the place of their choice. Current gaps in community palliative care provision include (key factors in bold): • Clinical competence: • assessment of symptoms and diagnostic skills • symptom control and drug usage. Ability to predict evolution of symptoms depending on diagnosis • when to refer or seek help • Organizational: • communication and information transfer • access to other support—social care and carer support • continuity, including out-of-hours • primary care issues—workforce, time and workload • teamwork and co-working with specialists. Clarification of specialists’ role, and cross-boundary working • Human dimension: • individual's control, autonomy and choice • supportive care • listening to deeper underlying needs and spiritual reflections

Specific issues • Role of the primary healthcare teams. Primary care teams play a pivotal role in the delivery and coordination of care. The use of a framework to increase consistency of standards and formalize good practice ensures fewer patients ‘slip through the net’. Community or district nurses play a crucial role in needs’ assessment, the development of a therapeutic relationship and are well placed to liaise across the boundaries of care between community and inpatient services

BARRIERS TO COMMUNITY PALLIATIVE CARE

• The main barriers to effective community palliative care however, are the lack of an organized system or plan of care • Out-of-hours palliative care and 24h district nurses. The out-ofhours gap in provision can cause significant breakdown in home care and inappropriate crisis admissions to hospitals. Anticipatory planning, along with better access to information (e.g. via a handover form), drugs left in the home or carried by the on-call provider (as in palliative care bags held by out of hours providers) and better access to support at home and specialist advice, can prevent many crises. Lack of out-of-hours district nursing is an important issue and is a first step to improving community palliative care. More terminally ill patients are kept at home where 24h district nursing is available • The social care of patients and carers at home is seen consistently as one of the key factors that will prevent institutionalized care, as confirmed in the literature and the experience of professionals. So the availability and coordination of night sitters, Marie Curie nurses, social services input, rapid response teams, etc. play a vital role in maintaining home care. This is sometimes overlooked in strategic planning of services. Well functioning cooperation between healthcare and social services is crucial, with continuing care funds or their equivalent, carer assessments, non-medical support, respite care, carer support groups, grants and financial advice being of vital importance • Preferred place of care. Care customized to patient need is another crucial factor, and one vital element of this is choice over where a person wishes to be in their final days. Most people would choose to remain at home to die, but this is less likely to occur with some groups of patients, particularly the poor, the elderly, women, etc. Asking and recording the patient’s preferred place of death/care has been shown to make this more likely to be fulfilled. This requires time, good communication skills and a trusting relationship with the patient and carers. Good use should be made of: assessment tools, discussions with the patient and family of their management plans (Advance Care Planning), Advance Directives, discussion of ‘do not resuscitate’ (DNR) decisions (and informing ambulance staff) and ‘route-maps’ of likely options. These all help to involve patients and families in decisions, enabling some retention of control and self-determination. In addition, better planning and communication may also prevent some disasters, e.g. emergency calls, failed attempted resuscitations in the ambulance or inappropriate coroners’ cases (b see chapter 19a and b) • Specialist palliative care and effective symptom control. There is a need for specialists to work effectively with generalists and there are many good examples of this working well in the UK. Clear referral criteria and regular formalized contact at primary care team meetings, plus the availability of telephone advice, can enable more effective working relationships. Symptom control in the community can be difficult, so supportive relationships with specialists helps, along with targeted education programmes, better assessment tools, and agreed guidelines • Communication and transfer of information. Poor organization in this area can create an unbridgeable chasm for all involved, reducing

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patients’ confidence in their professional carers and adding stress to staff. Several factors have been shown to improve information transfer: • using practice registers • handover forms for out-of-hours providers • patient-held records or medication cards, electronic transfer of information • ensuring patients and carers have written information at home to consult when problems arise • home packs (potentially needed medication and equipment) • Non-cancer patients. There is less access to specialist palliative care for patients with non-malignant disease than for cancer patients. GPs will have more patients dying from organ failure, e.g. heart failure or COPD, than cancer, yet the disease trajectory is less predictable and the end-stages harder to recognize. Crisis hospital admissions are more frequent, but there is less specialist involvement or access to supportive cancerrelated services such as Marie Curie or Macmillan nurses. Those dying from chronic ‘multiple pathology’ illnesses causing general decline or dementia may be disadvantaged further. The learning gained from cancer patients may be transferred to the care of other patients with end-stage illnesses (as in the Gold Standards Framework ( b see Table 12.2) ), and it is well recognized that patients with other end-stage illnesses should be able to benefit from palliative care symptom control, advice and services. • Other care settings. Some patients dying in other settings may be significantly disadvantaged, as they currently do not fully benefit from specialist palliative care services or even from generalists within the primary care teams. Provision for good palliative care in other settings therefore needs to be included in the area-wide strategic plan, e.g. in care homes, community and private hospitals, and prisons

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Improving community palliative care—the Gold Standards Framework ( b see also Table 12.2) Increasingly within primary care there are agreed protocols of care, just as in the management of patients with other conditions such as diabetes or hypertension. Often, however, there are no such systems for the effective organization of care for the most seriously ill patients nearing their end of life. Not every patient has diabetes or hypertension, yet every one of our patients eventually dies. There is a need to formalize a model of good care to ensure that every dying patient receives top quality care. Hospices and palliative care specialists have largely led the way in this, but this needs also to be mainstreamed into generalist care, to encompass all dying patients. In primary care, use of a framework, such as the Gold Standards Framework in community palliative care, can bridge this gap; it can also enable local ownership and release the creativity of staff to respond to the needs of patients relevant to their area of care. GSF is the bedrock of community palliative care. In our team, we didn’t have a system of care before for dying patients so sometimes patients would slip through the net—now we do, and we all feel better for it, patients and their families, as well as doctors and nurses.

Developing a system-best care for every patient every time It is said that care should be: • Knowledge-based—best science, best practice, best evidence • Systems minded—cooperation across boundaries, working at systems delivery • Patient centred—put patients in control of their care, ACTIVELY customize care to patients’ needs15, 16 In other words: • Clinical competence—knowledge-based, e.g. assessment and diagnostic skills, knowledge of what to do, which treatments to use, when to refer, symptom control, etc., the ‘what to do’—the head. Response: Education and training, audit, etc. • Good organization—systems-minded protocols/processes /systems, e.g. communication and information transfer, accessing other support, coordination and continuity, out-of-hours provision, workload issues and managed systems of care—the ‘how to do it’—the hands Response: improve the system—e.g. Gold Standards Framework

15 Berwick D. (2002) A users manual for the IOM’s Quality Chasm Report. Health Affairs, 21(30): 80. 16 Berwick D., Nolan T. (1998) Understanding medical systems. Annals of Internal Medicine, 128: 293–8.

IMPROVING COMMUNITY PALLIATIVE CARE

• Affirmation of the human dimension of care—this includes the commitment to improve the patient’s experience of care, compassion, preserving patient dignity, patient and carer autonomy/choice, ‘loving medicine’—the ‘why’ we do it—the heart Response: e.g. patient/carer involvement, needs focused, preference of place of care, etc. We know what we’d like to do—but it doesn’t always seem to happen.

Head

Hands

—knowledge —clinical competence —‘what to do’

—process/organization —systems —‘how to do it’

Heart —compassion/care —human dimension ‘why’ —experience of care Fig. 12.1 The head, hands and heart of palliative care.

We need all three elements—focusing purely on education will miss the importance of developing practical systems or protocols that will lead to continuous quality improvements. It is most often the systems organization or ‘hands’ that let us down.

The Gold Standards Framework (GSF)17 The aim of the Gold Standards Framework is to develop a practicebased system to improve and optimize the organization and quality of supportive/palliative care for patients in their last 6–12 months of life. GSF is recommended as an example of a generalist community framework in the Improving Supportive and Palliative Care for Adults with Cancer guidance18 and is currently being used extensively across the UK to improve the delivery of primary palliative care.

17 Thomas K. (2003) Caring for the Dying at Home: Companions on the Journey. Oxford: Radcliffe Medical Press. (Or contact [email protected]) 18 NICE (2004) Improving Supportive and Palliative Care for Adults with Cancer. London: NICE.

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There are three central processes of the GSF, all of which involve improved communication. • Identify the key group of patients, i.e. using a register • Assess their main needs, both physical and psychosocial, and that of the carers • Plan ahead for problems, including out-of-hours—move from reactive to proactive care by anticipation and prevention

The five goals of the Gold Standards Framework are to enable patients to ‘die well’ • • • • •

G1 Symptom-free as far as possible G2 In their preferred place of choice G3 Feeling safe and supported with fewer crises G4 Carers feeling supported, involved, empowered and satisfied with care G5 Staff feeling more confident, satisfied, with better communication and teamworking with specialists

Essentially, the GSF is a simple, common-sense approach to formalizing best practice, so that good care becomes standard for all patients every time. GSF users find it affirms their good practice, regularizes quality palliative care activities and improves consistency of care. We are doing much of it ‘piecemeal’ already, but it formalizes and coordinates what we do, so under pressure it’s more likely to happen. A GP, Halifax The GSF is the one thing in palliative care over recent years that has really made a difference. A district nurse, Glasgow It is in the attention to such details, in the context of an overall management plan, that transforms the quality of palliative care provision in the community.

IMPROVING COMMUNITY PALLIATIVE CARE

3. Plan 2. Assess

Communicate

Communicate 1. Identify Communicate Fig. 12.2 The three central processes of the Gold Standards Framework.

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Key elements of the Gold Standards Framework19 The seven ‘gold standards’ of community palliative care—The Seven Cs • • • • • • •

C1 Communication C2 Coordination C3 Control of symptoms C4 Continuity, including out-of-hours C5 Continued learning C6 Carer support C7 Care in the dying phase

The seven C’s C1: Communication Practices maintain a supportive care register (paper or electronic) to record, plan and monitor patient care, and act as a focus for regular monthly PHCT meetings. The aims of these meetings are: • To improve the flow of information • Advanced care planning/proactive care • Measurement and audit, to clarify areas for future improvement at patient, practice, PCT and network level C2: Coordination Each PHCT has a nominated coordinator for palliative care (e.g. a district nurse) to ensure good organization and coordination of care in a practice by overseeing the process, i.e.: • Maintaining the register of problems/concerns, summary care plans, symptom sheets, handover forms, audit data, etc. • Organizing PHCT meetings for discussion, planning, case analysis, education, etc. • Using tools such as a checklist of potential symptoms that need to be assessed Coordinators meet regularly together with the local facilitator to share experience and discuss ways to overcome local barriers to good care. C3: Control of symptoms Each patient has their symptoms, problems and concerns (physical, psychological, social, practical and spiritual) assessed, recorded, discussed and acted upon, according to an agreed process. The focus is on actively assessing and responding to the patient’s agenda.

19 Thomas K. (2003) Caring for the Dying at Home: Companions on the Journey. Oxford: Radcliffe Medical Press.

KEY ELEMENTS OF THE GOLD STANDARDS FRAMEWORK

C4: Continuity Transfer of information to the out-of-hours service for palliative care patients, for example, using a handover form, ensuring appropriate drugs are available in the home and use of an out-of-hours protocol. This builds in anticipatory care to reduce crises and inappropriate admissions. Information should also be passed on to the other relevant services, such as hospice/oncology departments. Record and minimize the number of professionals involved, i.e. note lead GP, lead district nurse, etc. C5: Continued learning The PHCT will be committed to the continued learning of skills and information relevant to patients seen: ‘learn as you go’. • Practice-based or external teaching, lectures/videos • Use of Significant Event Analysis (SEA) • Practice and personal development plans • Audits/appraisal • A practice reference resource • Learning involves clinical, organizational/strategic and attitude domains • Involvement and co-working of specialists is crucial • Protected time for a review meeting, e.g. after six months, allows audit, assessment of current practice, planning for improvement and development of a practice protocol C6: Carer support Carers are supported, listened to, kept fully informed, encouraged and educated to play as full a role in the patient’s care as they wish. They are regarded as an integral part of the team. • Practical support: • practical hands-on support is supplied where possible, e.g. night sitter, respite, commode • Bereavement: • practices plan support, target ‘high risk bereavement’, organize visits, tag notes, keep others informed, etc. • Staff support: • inbuilt, leading to better teamwork and job satisfaction • a shift to no-blame culture (e.g. SEA) enables ‘systems thinking’ and improving care • debriefing sessions for complex situations C7: Care of the dying ( b see Table 12.3) Patients who are in their last days of life (terminal phase) are cared for appropriately, for example by following the Liverpool Integrated Care Pathway. (b See Chapter 13.) This includes: • Stopping non-essential interventions and drugs • Considering comfort measures • Psychological and religious/spiritual support • Bereavement planning • Communication and care after death being assessed, recorded and acted upon

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Table 12.3 Minimum protocol for the dying—C7 of GSF 1

Diagnosis of dying—awareness of signs of the terminal phase

2

Current medication assessed, non-essentials discontinued, essential treatment converted to subcutaneous route via syringe driver

3

As-required drugs written up as per protocol, including pain, agitation, respiratory secretions and nausea and vomiting

4

Ensure the carers know the patient is dying

5

Spiritual, religious needs assessed and met regarding patient and carers

6

There is an agreed plan of ongoing assessment and care, including symptom control (pain, agitation, respiratory tract secretions, mouth care, pressure areas, psychosocial support)

7

Relatives are aware of what to do when the patient dies at home

8

Communication with others—handover form for out-of-hours providers updated, secondary/specialist services informed and hospital appointments cancelled after a death, etc.

Adapted from the Liverpool Care Pathway20. (b See also Chapter 13)

Once the above minimum protocol is established, consider developing this further as an area/PCT, by adopting an integrated care pathway for the dying (e.g. the Liverpool Care Pathway, used in the last few days of life) to ensure standardizing and benchmarking best care. Contact [email protected], or see Ellershaw and Wilkinson.19

Doing both? Suggested plan for the introduction of the GSF and Liverpool Care Pathway (LCP) • In the community—GSF first then add LCP • In care homes—LCP then add GSF • In hospitals and hospices—LCP and then link with GSF practices The Gold Standards Framework has transformed our practice’s approach to the care of the dying. The whole team no longer perceives palliative care as all doom and gloom and is more confident that we can make a positive contribution. The teamworking, care coordination and anticipation of problems mean that our patients experience fewer crises and have a much better outcome. We are so pleased that we have decided to start applying the principles of the Gold Standards Framework to all of our cancer patients from the point of referral onwards. A GP, Runcorn, GSF Phase 2

20 Ellershaw J., Wilkinson S. (2003) Care of the Dying: A Pathway to Excellence. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

KEY ELEMENTS OF THE GOLD STANDARDS FRAMEWORK

How to do it Gold Standards Framework—how to implement it in your primary healthcare team • Identify palliative care patients within the practice population who are approaching the end of their lives—using a register to centralize information. Discuss these patients as a team regularly—encouraging better proactive planning, communication. Give someone in the practice the task of coordinating the care, e.g. handover form sent, drugs left in home, patient’s choice of place of death noted, etc. (C1 and C2) • Use tools to assess patient and carer choices, needs, symptoms and problems and respond or refer, as appropriate (C3): • reflect on your practice, linking in learning with palliative care specialists, e.g. local hospice community nurse • audit your care to target changes and commission better local resources • link with practice clinical governance and set your own standards • measure improvement and celebrate teamwork and success (C5) • Proactive planning and improved communication: • send the handover form to the out-of-hours’ team and leave the appropriate drugs and equipment in the home (C4) • link with social services. Consider carers’ needs and provide information and contact details, especially for a crisis (C6) • build in bereavement care and be aware of other local services for the bereaved • plan for good care in the last days of life (C7 checklist) • review and reflect on achievements and learning after six months • agree a practice protocol for all dying patients, so that the best of care becomes normal practice—‘this is what we do for our palliative care patients’ Gold Standards Framework—a 6–12 month plan of how to implement it in an area (such as a UK Primary Care Trust) For more details and resources see the websites—www.gsf.org.uk and www.macmillan.org.uk • Each area funds a GSF facilitator, e.g. one day a week with administrative back-up • Facilitator introduces GSF to a few interested practices, e.g. 4–10 at a time • Each practice team agrees to use GSF for at least 6–12 months, nominates a practice GSF coordinator (DN or manager) (C2) backed up by a supportive GP and DN, and undertakes a baseline questionnaire • GSF facilitator links with a larger group, e.g. Cancer Network, Macmillan, project team, etc. and receives training in GSF and ongoing support plus resources, to be distributed to each practice team via a coordinator

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• GSF facilitator organizes regular GP pratice coordinators’ meetings (e.g. monthly) to teach GSF principles, share experiences, audit, develop local commissioning, develop new ideas, etc. This group is an important backbone of the work as it nurtures relevant local ownership and momentum, commissions local changes and also develops sustainability. It raises awareness of palliative/supportive care and builds better relationships between teams and with specialists. Specific teaching can be tailored to learning needs • Practice coordinator sets up supportive care registers using the suggested templates provided (amended if needed) (C1). Criteria for inclusion outlined in Prognostic Indicator Guidance in GSF. b see p. 871 • This can be prioritized into those with most need, moderate need and future need, e.g. colour-coded, star-rated, ‘poorlies and pending’, etc.: • pre-printed forms for identification, planning and handover are available • Practice coordinator organizes a regular primary healthcare team meeting to discuss relevant patients on the register, patient and carer needs, management plan, preferences for place of care and patients anticipated requirements—this builds in better communication and proactive care. Palliative care specialists can be invited and teaching integrated • Practice coordinator develops a system of tasks, i.e. sends and ensures delivery of information/handover form to the out-of-hours provider (C4), agrees assessment tools in line with local arrangements (C3), provides information to carers, e.g. home pack (C6), uses a minimal protocol for the last days of life or a care pathway (C7), etc. • Practice coordinator plans a team review meeting, e.g. six monthly, to review and audit care, reflect on positive and negative issues (e.g. use of significant event analysis), to develop and refine an agreed practice protocol which then embeds changes into mainstream care. • Extend application of GSF to patients with other end-stage illnesses, to other settings (e.g. in care homes or community hospitals) and to supportive care at an earlier stage (e.g. from diagnosis). Improve carer support and patient information and empowerment. Introduce, e.g. Liverpool Care Pathway for the Dying if agreed locally, and continually improve generalist palliative care in the community with education and strategic planning of services

The results in practice One of the big shifts in practice using such a framework is the move from reactive to proactive care. Here are two examples of typical patient journeys, as described by two district nurses, Rosie Norbury and Anne Fearnley of West Yorkshire. NB The first may not be considered to be a ‘bad death’ by many, but one that may be suboptimal but not untypical, especially after team reflection or discussion with the carer.

KEY ELEMENTS OF THE GOLD STANDARDS FRAMEWORK

Reactive patient journey before GSF Mr B. in the last months of his life GPs and district nurse ad hoc visiting arrangements—no agreed care plan and no preferred place of death discussed or communicated among the team Problems with symptom control—high anxiety—carer uninformed Crisis call out-of-hours, e.g. no information, plan or drugs available Admitted to hospital (inappropriate use of an ‘acute’ bed) Dies in hospital—(over-intervention/medicalization of natural process) Carer given minimal support in grief No reflection or improvements by primary care team

Proactive patient journey using GSF Mrs W. in the last months of her life On Supportive Care Register—needs and care plan discussed at team meeting Social benefits administration such as the UK DS1500 form and information given to patient + carer (e.g. home pack) Regular support, visits, phone calls—anticipatory not reactive visits Assessment of symptoms—referral to specialist palliative care services— customized care to patient and carer needs Carer assessed, including psychosocial needs—information given for crises Preferred place of care noted and provision organized Handover form sent to out-of-hours service—drugs issued for home Minimal protocol for terminal care/Liverpool Care Pathway used Patient dies in preferred place—bereavement support Staff reflect—significant event analysis, audit gaps, learn, improve care

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Twenty measurable outcomes in GSF Seven Cs goal (b see pp. 862) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Identification of palliative care patient using a register* C1 G2 Team meeting to discuss advanced care planning* C1 G2 Co-working with specialists C1 G1, G3 Team coordinator named—cross-boundary communication C2 G2 Management plans including advanced care planning noted C2 G2 Preference for place of care/death noted* C2 G2 Preferred place of death attained* C2 G2 Staff teamwork satisfaction and confidence* C5 G5 Symptom control better—assessment tools used C3 G1 Confidence in assessment of symptoms and management* C3 G1 Out-of-hours information/handover form sent* C4 G3 Required drugs left in home* C4 G3 Crises reduced, e.g. fewer acute admissions in last days* C4 G3 Review meeting (e.g. six monthly), audit and reflection C5 G5 Targeted learning, use of SEA and protocol developed C5 G5 Information given specifically to carer* C6 G4 Carer separately assessed and supported* C6 G4 Staff support, communication and teamwork improved* C6 G5 Use of protocol for last days of life* C7 G1 Application to non-cancer patients, other settings, etc. * = most important

Four levels of GSF Adoption It is easiest to take GSF in stages, or four gears, but once the basics are established at Level 1, to move on beyond this to include all areas for maximum effect.The first stage may take about 2-3 months to establish but all can be achieved within 6-12 months. A few teams remain at Level 1, with just a register and meeting, but most benefit is gained when teams develop and integrate GSF more deeply into level 2, 3 and 4

Level 1 - First Gear Set up Register, Meeting and Coordinator

Level 2 - Second Gear Assessment Tools, out of Hours Handover, Education, Audit and Reflective Practice

Level 3 - Third Gear Carer/ family support, bereavement plan and care in the final days

Level 4 - Fourth Gear (sustain embed extent) Sustain and build on all developments as standard practice Embed - develop a practice protocol Extend - to other settings e.g. care homes, non Cancer, Advanced Care Planning, pathway for the last days (LCP) and other areas

KEY ELEMENTS OF THE GOLD STANDARDS FRAMEWORK

Prognostic Indicator Guidance - three triggers suggesting inclusion on the supportive/palliative care registers 1 Surprise question - would you be surprised if the patient was to die within 1 year

2 Patient preference for comfort care/need 3 Clinical indicators for each specific disease eg co-morbidity, metastatic cancer, NY Stage, FEV1, functioning score, etc *

Benefits of GSF 1 Attitude awareness and approach • Better quality of care perceived • Greater confidence and job satisfaction • Immeasurable benefits-communication, teamwork, roles respected especially that of nurses • Focus and proactive approach 2 Patterns of working, structure/processes • Better organisation + consistency of standard, even under stress • Fewer slipping through the net-raising the baseline • Better communication within and between teams, co-working with specialists • Better recording, tracking of patients and organisation of care 3 Patient outcomes • Reduced crises/hospital admissions/length of stay • More patients dying in preferred place • More recorded advanced care planning discussions

*www.goldstandardsframework.nhs.uk

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Specific issues in community palliative care Out-of-hours palliative care It was awful, I—just panicked! My husband was in agony. It was three o’clock in the morning. We were at home all alone. It was dark and frightening and we didn’t know what to do or who to turn to. Things all came together to make his pain seem much worse than it really was. Reducing the burden of symptoms suffered by patients and their carers at home remains a challenging round-the-clock priority. For this to be addressed we need to plan for out-of-hours palliative care services in the community, dovetailing generalist palliative care from GPs, district nurses and their out-of-hours providers with the available specialist palliative care skills and resources.21 Several protocols have been developed22—one such four-point plan has been shown to improve care as judged by practitioners’ experience.23

21 Thomas K. (2000) Out-of-hours palliative care—bridging the gap. European Journal of Palliative Care, 7: 22–5. 22 Munday D. (2002) Out-of-hours and emergency palliative care. In Primary Palliative Care (ed. R. Charlton), pp. 97–111. Oxford: Radcliffe Medical Press. 23 King N., Bell D., Thomas K. (2003) An out-of-hours protocol for community palliative care. International Journal of Palliative Nursing, 9(7): 277–82.

SPECIFIC ISSUES IN COMMUNITY PALLIATIVE CARE

Suggestions to improve out-of-hours palliative care in the UK • Develop a local protocol—coordinate a meeting of all out-of-hours health professionals involved in the care of the seriously or terminally ill. This would include the GP cooperative, the deputizing service, PCT or health authority, district nurses and specialist doctors. Improve anticipatory care and proactive planning by the PHCT • Look at communication and the efficient transfer of information between those working in-hours and out-of-hours. Use a paper or electronic handover form which is kept by the patient/the district nurse and out-of-hours service. Make sure the patient and the carer know what to do in an emergency • Ensure 24h carer support, including 24h access to nursing care. Night sitters and respite care should also be easily available, thereby preventing a breakdown in the carer system, which is key to avoiding inappropriate crisis admissions • Make best use of the specialist advice out-of-hours and expertise available through the local hospice/SPC service. • Keep in the patient’s home an adequate supply of drugs (including a range for increases in doses) and p.r.n. drugs for predictable symptoms, e.g. hyoscine, midazolam, diamorphine and cyclizine or haloperidol. Coordinate equipment access. On-call cars or out-ofhours centres could hold special palliative care bags. See the five recommendations of the Macmillan Out of hours Palliative Care report at: www.macmillan.org.uk or info@goldstandardsframework. nhs.uk

Improving access to palliative care drugs • Suggested list of drugs to be left in the home of every palliative care patient: morphine, cyclizine, midazolam, hyoscine butylbromide • Suggested drug list in palliative care bags carried by out-of-hours provider to be locally agreed: • midazolam, haloperidol, cyclizine, hyoscine butylbromide, levomepromazine, rectal diazepam, dexamethasone, metoclopramide, glycopyrronium, diclofenac controlled drugs used with special CD measures—morphine, oral morphine solution

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Summary of four point plan for out-of-hours palliative care From Calderdale and Kirklees Health Authority West Yorkshire 1 Communication: • use handover form—GP/DN to write and fax to on-call service, keep in DN notes • inform others e.g. hospice • does the carer know what to do in a crisis? 2 Carer support: • coordinate pre-emptive care e.g. nightsitters, 24h district • nursing service • give written information to carers • emergency support e.g. Rapid Response Team 3 Medical support: • anticipated management in handover form • crisis pack, guidelines etc and ongoing teaching • 24h specialist advice available from hospice 4 Drugs/equipment: • leave anticipated drugs in home • Special palliative care bag with drugs and information available on-call • on-call stocked pharmacists Communication—handover form The handover form has two important functions: • To improve information transfer • To build in anticipatory care The process of completing such a form is part of the benefit—if you think that a patient might become agitated or develop a ‘rattly chest’ over a weekend, leave some midazolam or hyoscine in the home for administration either by the on-call doctor or district nurse. If the on-call doctor presented with the handover form notes that the patient has stated a preference to remain at home, there is more chance that they will be enabled to do so. Many of the handover forms are developed electronically and are being used by central coordinating agencies, e.g. NHS Direct. Once discussed with the family (as well as the patient, if possible), some have added ‘not for CPR’ or ‘Do Not Resuscitate’ statements, to inform emergency staff and prevent the tragic indignity of inappropriate resuscitation. Confirming written details with the carers of what to do in an emergency and informing other agencies such as hospice staff is also important. Carer support Round-the-clock access to nursing care is a basic prerequisite for good palliative care in the community. Some areas have ‘Rapid Response Teams’, a crisis-only service for patients who would otherwise be admitted to hospital. There are examples of good coordination of care with a centralized number for all services (NHS Direct may increasingly be involved in this in England).

SPECIFIC ISSUES IN COMMUNITY PALLIATIVE CARE

Medical support Handover forms inform the visiting on-call doctor of the GP’s care plan and the patient’s current medication. When faced with a difficult medical symptom, crisis symptom sheets (often kept in the palliative care bags in the on-call cars) or local guidelines are invaluable, backed by teaching. Most specialist palliative care services provide some on-call advice. Drugs and equipment For drug access, there are three suggestions: • Leaving anticipated drugs in the home, prompted by the handover form • Keeping a stock of drugs with the out-of-hours service • Stocking the on-call pharmacist with an approved list of drugs

Carer support It is worth reminding ourselves that the principal providers of care are actually the relatives. We are still not doing nearly enough to empower, strengthen, educate and support carers and to use imaginative means to help and support them through this difficult time.24 When my wife, Joy, was diagnosed with cancer of the liver, our excellent GP said three things: first, we can do a great deal to control pain these days; second, we must see that the quality of life will be as good as it can be; third, we must see that she dies at home. With the help of our Macmillan nurse all these points were met. At every stage of the next 14 months our GP, district nurse and Macmillan nurse were on hand to suggest, reassure and predict, helping not only Joy but me and our children. Their assistance in dark days was priceless. M. C., widower and carer If the needs of carers cannot be addressed, an almost inevitable result will be the breakdown of home care, with the majority of patients dying in institutions. Carer support is one of the most important aspects of the care provided by primary healthcare teams. The experience of most healthcare professionals, reflected clearly in the literature, is that carer breakdown is often the key factor in prompting institutionalized care for dying patients. Some suggest that the impact of cancer (or other serious illness) on the carer can be even greater than that on the patient. Certainly, there is resounding evidence that without the support from family and friends it would be impossible for many patients to remain at home. Those without carers are less likely to be able to remain at home to die—they present particular difficulties for primary care. Carers’ anxiety is rated alongside patients’ symptoms as the most severe problems by both patients and families.25

24 Doyle D. (1998) The way forward. In National Council for Hospice and Specialist Palliative Care Services: Promoting Partnership: Planning and Managing Community Palliative Care, pp. 44–50. London: NCHSPCS. 25 Ramirez A., Addington-Hall J., Richards M. (1998) ABC of palliative care; the carers. British Medical Journal, 316: 208–11.

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The reason my husband had to go into a nursing home in the end was quite simply that I couldn’t lift him to the commode. It all came to a head after a fall and I felt I couldn’t cope on my own any more. We were both heartbroken. Elderly carer of a cancer patient For the carer, despite their natural feelings of trepidation beforehand, there can be a great sense of consolation in bereavement if they have been able to fulfil the patient’s wishes to remain at home during their final days. However, this places a great strain on carers, both emotionally and physically. The NHS Executive White Paper Caring about Carers: A National Strategy for Carers26 describes the difficulties that carers face, and emphasizes that carers should be treated as partners in the team but with specific and sometimes unmet needs of their own. We intend to make progress so that more carers—and eventually all carers feel adequately prepared and equipped to care if that is what they choose to do, feel cared for themselves, and feel their needs are understood.

26 Department of Health (1999) Caring about Carers. London: DoH.

SPECIFIC ISSUES IN COMMUNITY PALLIATIVE CARE

A primary care team response to carer needs27,28 • Acknowledge carers, what they do and the problems they have • Flag the notes of informal carers so that in any consultation you are aware of their circumstances • Treat carers as you would other team members and listen to their opinions • Include them in discussions about the person they care for • Give carers a choice about which tasks they are prepared to take upon themselves • Ask after the health and welfare of the carer as well as the patient • Provide information about the condition the person the carer is looking after suffers from • Provide information about being a carer and support available • Provide information about benefits available • Provide information about local services available for both the person being cared for and the carer • Be an advocate for the carer to ensure services and equipment appropriate to the circumstances are provided • Liaise with other services • Ensure staff are informed about the needs and problems of informal carers • Respond quickly and sympathetically to crisis situations • Provide training, e.g. in lifting, giving medication, etc. • Allow carer time to confide in and be listened to, express their needs and feel supported, often outside the home • Discuss coping strategies, both internal (faith, positive attitude, etc.) and external (social networks) • Develop a bereavement protocol and raise awareness of bereaved patients in practice teams. Assemble a list of local contacts for bereavement support I was terrified at first when they said they would discharge him home— I didn’t think I could cope. But in looking after Peter dying at home, I felt I was fulfilling his wishes and we were a real family—this really helps me now. Our GPs and district nurses were really caring and professional and kept pace with us at every stage—we felt very grateful to them. Although it was so sad, it was also in some ways a very good and satisfying experience, etched forever on our minds. The children and I are glad that we were able to look after him at home, where he wanted to be, with the help of our marvellous team. Maureen, wife of Peter, a cancer patient

27 Piercy J. (2002) The plight of the informal carer. In Primary Palliative Care (ed. R. Charlton), pp. 143–153. Oxford: Radcliffe Medical Press. 28 Simon C. (2001) Informal carers and the primary care team. British Journal of General Practice, 51: 920–3.

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The vast majority of care in the last year of life is not provided by professionals, but by relatives and friends of the patient, especially wives and daughters. The support provided by a family caregiver may make all the difference to the dying person in their place of death: some have reported that up to 90% of terminal admissions to hospice are due to the stress of caring on the relatives, or a lack of resources available to support the patient at home. The relationship between carers and professionals is often an ambiguous one. For over half of the carers, the only supportive service they are in touch with is their GP.29

Bereavement (b see Chapter 17) The loss of a loved person is one of the most intensely painful experiences any human being can suffer, not only is it painful to experience, but it is also painful to witness.30 There is a significant increase in morbidity and mortality in grief, making dying of a broken heart a reality for some. The main causes of bereavement-associated death are heart disease, alcohol-induced cirrhosis, suicide, road accidents or other violent death. Bereavement is the greatest psychological trauma people can go through, and yet in some cases the carers are not given the ‘preventive care’ that could ameliorate future problems. The immediate bereavement visit straight after a death is much appreciated, but will not in itself constitute the kind of help that heals. Initiating regular support and contact, actively listening, planning even brief followup care, tagging notes, awareness of risk factors, etc. as well as referral to specialist groups are all proactive means of caring for carers and preventing the feeling of desertion at this most vulnerable time. Recognizing the sense of loss that staff may feel is also important, and this is where the development of a team approach through shared meetings can be of benefit, especially when there is a sense of guilt regarding less than perfect care. Care of dying patients, though very rewarding, is also an area of care that many professionals find stressful and challenging, so support for staff is essential.

Other providers of community palliative care include Specialist palliative care services Clinical nurse specialists, Macmillan and Marie Curie nurses, hospice general staff and home care teams as well as the Hospice at Home initiatives have long been involved in bringing quality palliative care services into patients’ homes. However, this can only be successfully achieved in partnership with generalists from the patient’s usual primary care team.

29 Barclay S. (2001) Palliative care for non-cancer patients: a UK perspective from primary care. In Palliative Care for Non-cancer Patients (ed. J. Addington-Hall, I. Higginson), p. 172–188. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 30 Bowlby J. (1969) Attachment and Loss, Vol. 1. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

SPECIFIC ISSUES IN COMMUNITY PALLIATIVE CARE

• Specialist palliative care services eg CNS, Macmillan/Marie Curie nurses/ Hospice home care teams

• Allied Health professionals

• Hospice at home as rapid response teams

• GPs with a special interest (GPwSI)

• Community hospitals

• Social Services specialist support;

• ‘Key workers’ community matrons etc. • ‘Night sitters’ and support for other care assistants

Developments of GSF 1. Prognostic Indicator Guidance - Better identification of patients approaching the end of their lives – guidance on which patients to include on the register 2. EOLC Strategic planning- as part of life care supportive care strategy SC Framework 3. GSF adapted for use in other settings • GSF Care Homes Programme • Community Hospitals • GSF used in prisons • GSF in-reach to hospitals 4. Advance Care Planning • Use of ACP and DNAR • Communication 5. Education • Resource Packs • Links with The Princess Alice Certificate in Essential Palliative Care 6. Childrens GSF 7. OOHs ‘Just in Case Boxes’ 8. Patient Informatiion 9. Measures and evaluation After Death Analysis tool – comparative and benchmarking 10. Needs/Support Matrices - describing the right support required at key times 11. Admission avoidance 12. Examples of good practice + Resource packs are a new initiative, especially useful in areas short of palliative medicine specialists.

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DH End of Life Care Strategy July 2008 http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/Publications PolicyAndGuidance/DH_086277 EOLC website - http://www.endoflifecareforadults.nhs.uk/eolc/ ADRT website - http://www.mcpcil.org.uk/liverpool_care_pathway PPC wevsute - http://www.cancerlancashire.org.uk/ppc.html GSF website to PIB - http://www.goldstandasframework.nhs.uk/gp_contract. php GSF website to ACP - http://www.goldstandardsframework.nhs.uk/advanced_ care.php

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Working partnerships with palliative care specialists Good effective partnerships with palliative care specialists will ensure the best care for patients and their families. Involvement of specialists in primary palliative care can be very fruitful, e.g. in local education and training programmes, targeted teaching on individual patient case histories, invitations to team meetings, agreed use of assessment tools and templates, out-of-hours protocols and advice, the strategic planning of services and hospice outreach, etc. With good relationships and lines of communication, and with roles and responsibilities clarified, there can be excellent dovetailing of generalist and specialist skills, for the benefit of all.

Referral to specialist palliative care services Eligibility criteria for specialist palliative care help clarify what is expected of both generalist and specialist palliative care providers.31 By attempting to crystallize and improve ‘generalist’ palliative care, and better integration with the ‘specialist’ services available then a more comprehensive and equitable service for those in the last stages of life could be provided.

Eligibility criteria for referrals to specialist palliative care services32 Eligible patients have: • Any active progressive and potentially life-threatening disease • Anticipated or actual unresolved, complex needs that cannot be met by the caring team, i.e. physical, psychological, social and spiritual needs, for example complicated symptoms, specialist nursing needs, difficult family situations, ethical issues regarding treatment decisions • Been recently assessed by a member of one of the specialist palliative care teams

31 Ellershaw J. E., Boyes L.M., Peat S. (1995) Assessing the effectiveness of a hospital palliative care team. Palliative Medicine, 9: 145–52. 32 Bennett M., et al. (2000) Leeds Eligibility Criteria for specialist palliative care services. Palliative Medicine, 14(2): 157–8.

FURTHER READING

Further reading Books Addington-Hall J., Higginson I. (eds) (2001) Palliative Care for Non-cancer Patients. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Charlton R. (ed.) (2003) Primary Palliative Care. Oxford: Radcliffe Medical Press. Cooper J. (ed.) (2000) Stepping into Palliative Care: a Handbook for Community Professionals. Oxford: Radcliffe Medical Press. Doyle D., Jeffrey D. (2000) Palliative Care in the Home. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ellershaw J., Wilkinson S. (2003) Care of the Dying: A Pathway to Excellence. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lee E. (2002) In Your Own Time: A Guide for Patients and their Carers Facing a Last Illness At Home. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lynn J. (2000) Improving Care for End of Life: A Sourcebook for Health Managers and Clinicians. New York: Oxford University Press. Thomas K. (2003) Caring for the Dying at Home: Companions on the Journey. Oxford: Radcliffe Medical Press.

Useful websites www.goldstandardsframework.nhs.uk/gsf www.ncpc.org.uk www.macmillan.org.uk www.palliativedrugs.com www.palliative-medicine.org

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Respite care Evidence suggests that 90% of terminally ill patients spend the majority of their last year of life at home.33 It is widely accepted that keeping patients at home weighs heavily on those family members who will provide care and support. Caring for someone on a daily basis can be very tiring, both physically and emotionally, leading some carers to feel unable to manage, which may result in unplanned admissions to hospital.34 One strategy to help carers in this situation is for hospices to offer planned respite care, either as an in-patient or on a day basis within a day hospice, to enable carers to have a rest from caring. This may be sufficient to enable them to ‘recharge their batteries’ and continue the care they provide, thus allowing their family member to stay at home. Respite care can be for as short as a few days or as long as two weeks. The exact length is often negotiated at the time of referral and varies from organization to organization. One of the benefits of having allocated beds is that respite can be booked in advance, so providing carers with the comfort of knowing that a rest is planned and enabling families to book a holiday for the future. Hospices may need to review their respite provision, with specialist palliative care being offered to patients who have life-limiting illnesses other than cancer. Many patients with non-malignant diseases will have long-term conditions with complex treatment regimes and routines. Carers may have been looking after their family member for many years and developed strategies and routines to manage. It is often difficult and stressful to relinquish this role. Hospices need to consider how to develop strategies to enable a smooth transition for the patient from home to hospice and then to return home which causes least amount of stress to the patient and their carer.

What should be the key factors for respite care? • To provide a place of care within fixed dates which have been agreed prior to admission • To continue the patient’s normal routine as closely as possible, with changes only being made if clinically indicated. If respite care is about providing a place of care whilst a carer has a break, the main focus of care should be nursing care that enables the patient to maintain their normal routine and return home after an agreed time. Medical intervention should be kept to a minimum. That is not to say that the patient’s condition may not change or deteriorate during their admission, in which case the focus of care would, therefore, need to be reviewed.

33 Hinton J. (1994) Which patients with terminal cancer are admitted from home care? Palliative Medicine, 8: 197–210. 34 Skilbeck J., et al. (2005) An exploration of family carers’ experience of respite services in one specialist palliative care unit. Palliative Medicine, 19(8): 610–18.

RESPITE CARE

One example of respite care is the nurse-led approach. The respite nurse would carry out a home visit prior to the patient’s admission to discuss their care needs during admission, write a care plan that includes the patient’s routine and answer any questions. The same nurse would liaise with in-patient staff prior to admission about any specific requirements, e.g. nutritional needs, mattresses, equipment, etc. This respite nurse would then admit the patient to the hospice, review them during the admission and assist in organizing their discharge. Only if there was a clinical need would doctors or allied health professionals become involved.

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Palliative care in the community: A perspective from a resource-poor country The number of people living on less than $US1 per day has exceeded 1.3 billion and is steadily rising. The income of the 500 richest people in the world exceeds that of the poorest 416 million. This, coupled with the increasing commercialization of healthcare, with decreasing public spending on healthcare and the introduction of high-technology interventions means good healthcare is becoming less accessible to people with chronic and incurable diseases living in resource-poor countries. To add further burden to this already difficult situation, 80% of deaths from chronic diseases occur in resource-poor settings. Of the 56 million people dying annually, 44 million reside in developing countries, and it is estimated that 33 million would benefit from palliative care services (80% only present at a late stage).1 The cruel reality is that palliative care services are an unattainable luxury for the majority of people in resource-poor countries, with isolated services providing care for few. It is precisely those in greatest need of health care who are least able to afford and obtain it.35 Palliative care should be readily accessible and provided in a manner appropriate to the patient’s needs and culture. Putting this into practice using an institutionalized model is very difficult. Institutions provide highquality care for the few, for specified periods. Numerous studies have highlighted the fact that patients consistently wish to be cared for in their own home by their relatives and trained professionals wherever possible. When this argument is transferred to the global realm of palliative care needs, the idea of an institutional model for delivery of palliative care becomes untenable. Therefore, there is a need for a culturally appropriate system of palliative care, accessible to those who need it and provided in the communities in which they reside, at a cost they can afford. A ‘public health’ or ‘primary care’ approach to palliative care has been discussed for some time as the only realistic option for reaching the millions in need, supported by specialist services. The idea of creating community-based primary healthcare systems involving local people and resources from the locality is not new. In 1979, the WHO issued the Alma Ata Declaration, urging healthcare providers at all levels to provide appropriate and sustainable healthcare with meaningful coverage at the community level. Analysis of this almost 30 years on is a depressing read, but it remains the only realistic option to get good care to many. The financial implications of end-of-life care can be prohibitive. An exception to this, which has caught the attention of the WHO, is a pioneering initiative in Kerala, south India, called the ‘Neighbourhood Network in Palliative Care’ (NNPC).

35 Stjernsward J., Clark D. (2004) Palliative medicine and a global perspective. In: Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine (3rd edn) (ed. D. Doyle et al.) p. 1199.

PALLIATIVE CARE IN THE COMMUNITY

The ‘Neighbourhood Network in Palliative Care’ is an initiative started in 2001, in an attempt to provide comprehensive, long-term supportive and palliative care to those in need in northern Kerala. It empowers the community to provide high-quality emotional, psychological, financial and spiritual support, working with professionals who provide the medical and nursing care, thus realizing the concept of ‘total care’ in its truest sense. The NNPC programme: • A public awareness session is conducted, to tell people about palliative care, what it is, why it is important and how they can help • Those interested and who can spare 2 hours per week take part in a structured training programme, with 16 hours of interactive theory sessions and 4 supervised clinical days, followed by an evaluation • On completion, the volunteers either join existing clinics, or start a new one in an area of need • The umbrella organization, NNPC, helps with guidance about how to set up a clinic and also provides doctors and nurses trained in palliative care and initial funding • The volunteers organize the running of the clinic and fundraising, the majority of clinics becoming financially independent within 6 months • The initiative does not aim to replace healthcare professionals with volunteers. Instead, it aims to augment the service provided by both doctors and nurses • With the limited time they have to see the large number of patients, physical symptoms are, understandably, the priority • Continuity of care and out-of-hours care is difficult as the large number of patients means it is simply not practical for doctors and nurses to see each patient each week • The type of emotional, psychological and spiritual problems faced by the patients may be new to the healthcare professionals and they may be unable to empathize as fully as someone from the patient’s own neighbourhood • The volunteers receive extensive training in communication skills, counselling and basic psychological interventions, how to handle collusion and other difficult issues and bereavement support. In this way they are actually more qualified than medical or nursing graduates, as these areas, along with palliative care, are largely missing from their undergraduate curricula Thus the Kerala initiative aims to empower the local community to look after the chronically ill and dying people in their community with the support of trained professionals. The belief underlying the NNPC programme is that chronic illnesses are social problems with medical aspects, rather than the commonly held converse view. In this way, different people in the community must be mobilized to take care of financial, spiritual and emotional problems and to find the means of dealing with them. Trained doctors and nurses support the process.

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Quotes from community volunteers: Many of these people were socially active in the past. They are now bedridden and brooding over their fate. These people can have a lot of problems, they can feel social isolation. Similarly in the spiritual domain, there can be a lot of problems. A doctor can address only a small fraction of these. Most of the others can be addressed by laypeople in the community. They can address social isolation by visiting the patient regularly, listening to him, his worries and fears. When the family do not have food, the patient’s main worry will be about the children starving; in June, when the school opens, many parents worry more about the expenses in sending the child to school than about his pain. A doctor cannot do anything about these. A doctor who sees a patient once a week or once a month is incapable of intervening in most of these issues. But a supportive neighbourhood that knows the patient can do a lot in all these areas…It was the realization that the problems of the patient can be addressed only by the community that made us take this work to the community. This helps the togetherness of the community. People are often not aware of other’s problems. Getting them together and linking them to those in difficulty can enhance the attitude in the community to help the needy. Such collectives in a community are positive on their own. In many, gramasbhas in the area have recently started hearing raised voices about the problems of incurable patients alongside demands for roads and electricity I believe this can be successfully established in any place once we find a group and pass on the message. It doesn’t involve a particular belief system or anything magical. Anyone should be able to find a team like this. Begin with it…initiate and plan to involve everyone in the region, people with a similar attitude will be there in any place, any time. He said he didn’t believe in God but his conviction was that he would participate in this work if it meant the relief of pain in one person. That’s it. Those in the movement with religious convictions and those without such faith, means this thing, that with their work they can relieve a brother’s discomfort, that is the common factor. It grew beyond Malappuram to the rest of northern Kerala because there was the attitude to help each other. The potential exists not just here, but everywhere. Such projects can, in all places where people form collectives, address issues.

Chapter 13

Hospital liaison palliative care Introduction The hospital, probably more than any other healthcare setting, is a challenging environment in which to support the human dimension in patient care. The focus is on investigation, treatment and cure; priorities, such as quality-of-life issues, can get overshadowed. Developments, such as the National Cancer Plan1 and the recent emphasis on End of Life Care2 initiatives from the Department of Health, including the widespread introduction of the Liverpool Care Pathway3 for the dying patient, have helped raise the profile of palliative care and have engaged clinicians but there are still many challenges. Most hospitals in the UK currently have some form of hospital liaison support, varying from a single nurse to consultant-led multidisciplinary teams. Models exist for in-patient hospital beds where the palliative care specialist provides clinical leadership, but the majority of teams work in an advisory capacity and are known as Hospital Specialist Palliative Care Teams (HSPCTs). Many teams have direct relationships with the local specialist palliative care providers, through joint working contracts.

1 Department of Health (2000) The NHS Cancer Plan: a plan for investment, a plan for reform. London: DoH. www.dh.gov.uk/publications 2 www.endoflifecareproducts.nhs.uk/eolc. 3 www.mcpciL.org.uk/liverpool_care_pathway.

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The need for a hospital palliative care liaison service • Up to 90% of patients receive some form of hospital care in their last year of life.4 Approximately 22% of hospital bed days are taken up by people in their last year of life5 • Some 5–23% of hospital in-patients have been estimated to have palliative care needs at any one time6 • The large majority of patients die in hospitals, despite the research clearly showing that the majority of people would want to die at home7 • Just under 50% of cancer deaths in the UK occur in hospital, and this percentage is much higher for those with a non-cancer diagnosis. Although some of the factors involved in preventing this need to be addressed within the community, there are also many challenges for hospital services. • Studies show that the experience of dying in hospitals is often poor: high prevalence of symptoms which are poorly assessed and managed; poor communication and patient involvement in decision-making; poor recognition of dying; lack of privacy; and lack of emotional support8,9 • These unmet needs are even greater in those patients with a non-cancer diagnosis,10 who, until recently, have not had ready access to specialist palliative care (SPC) support. Although this is changing, the large majority of patients under SPC teams still have a cancer diagnosis. Given the high proportion of patients with non-cancer diagnoses dying in acute hospitals, this is a particular challenge for hospital teams • The ready availability of intensive treatments can skew the balance of patient-centred care and lead to the over-treatment of some patients. Many elderly patients at the end of life prefer a treatment plan focused on comfort11

4 Fallon M., Hanks G. (2006) ABC of Palliative Care (2nd edn). Oxford: Blackwell Press. 5 Skilbeck J., Small N., Ahmedzai S. (1999) Nurses’ perceptions of specialist palliative care in an acute hospital. International Journal of Palliative Nursing, 5(3): 110–15. 6 Gott C., Ahmedzai S., Wood C. (2001). How many in-patients at an acute hospital have palliative care needs? Comparing the perspectives of medical and nursing staff. Palliative Medicine, 15: 451–60. 7 Higginson I., Sen-Gupta G. (2000) Place of care in advanced cancer: a qualitative systematic literature review of patient preferences. Journal of Palliative Medicine, 3: 287–300. 8 Dunne K., Sullivan K. (2000) Family experiences of palliative care in the acute hospital setting. International Journal of Palliative Nursing, 6(4): 170–8. 9 Willard C., Luker K. (2006) Challenges to end of life care in the acute hospital setting. Palliative Medicine, 20: 611–15. 10 The SUPPORT Principal Investigators (1995) A controlled trial to improve care for seriously ill hospitalized patients: the study to understand prognosis and preferences for outcomes and risks of treatments. Journal of the American Medical Association, 274: 1591–8. 11 Lynn J., et al. (1997) Perceptions by family members of the dying experience of older and seriously ill patients. Annals of Internal Medicine, 126(2): 97–106.

THE NEED FOR A HOSPITAL PALLIATIVE CARE LIAISON SERVICE

• The majority of complaints received by hospital trusts involve communication problems. The highly emotive situation of end-of-life care, compounds this • Despite these identified needs, HSPCTs have been shown to be under-utilized12

Challenges to enable more patients to be discharged to die at home • Early recognition of dying, in order to stop investigations and treatments that are not going to impact on outcome and to allow the change in focus which can enable a safe and timely discharge • Recognition of the potential for dying, in order to facilitate discussions around future care preferences • Improving communication skills to support discussions around end-of-life care • Good multidisciplinary team (MDT) structures to support timely assessments and planning for discharge to die at home • Recognition by the MDT that dying at home is possible

12 Lagman R. et al. (2007) The underutilization of palliative medicine services in the acute care setting. Journal of Palliative Medicine. 10(4): 837–8. (Letter)

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The challenges in an acute hospital setting • Busy, stretched staff: in one study, ward nurses had an average of 3 minutes per patient per shift for psychological care13 • Lack of consistency in treating teams: e.g. shift working, multiple ward moves, weekly team change-over of junior medical staff, changing consultant team of the week and frequent staff turnover • Variability in models of communication amongst the MDT: there are some good models of MDT working but this is not consistent • Difficulty accessing clinical information: this is particularly important on admission to hospital and when a patient comes to A&E. Good communication between community/hospital teams and hospital/ hospital teams is invaluable. The use of electronic records, where available, should facilitate communication. In the absence of this there is no substitute for consulting widely. Inadequate information leads to inadequate care! • Environment: there is frequently lack of privacy; lack of quiet rooms in which to talk; lack of attention of dignity; difficulty accessing outside green spaces; difficulty for loved ones to stay overnight; lack of free and/or convenient parking for visitors • Attitudes and skills: there is variability in knowledge and acceptance of a palliative care approach; generalists may see palliative care professionals as ‘giving up’ on patients; there is fear in prescribing drugs used for symptom control eg. morphine • Bureaucracy as a limit: to creativity and empowering patient-centred choices: strict visiting times; lack of flexibility in food choices • Hospital-acquired infections: with the vulnerable being most at risk • Providing support out of hours: given the small size of many hospital teams and lack of funding, out of hours provision is often inadequate

13 McDonnell M., et al. (2002) Palliative care in district general hospitals: the nurse’s perspective. International Journal of Palliative Nursing, 8(4): 169–75.

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Aims and evaluation of a hospital specialist palliative care team Aims • Integrate hospice values and practice into the acute care setting • Be a visible and practical support and resource within the hospital • By working in an advisory capacity, support the needs of both patients and their families • Be dedicated specialists, with the time and focus to truly influence the patient experience • Develop models of MDT working and communication; foster trusted relationships with consultant colleagues and other specialists involved in caring for those patients with advanced progressive illnesses, e.g. clinical nurse specialists working with neurodisabilities, such as Parkinson’s disease, Motor Neurone Disease • Help identify and be present at junctures in the patient’s experience, to ensure review and resetting of treatment plans in the light of (changing) patient preferences, e.g. close working with oncology colleagues by attendance at cancer site-specific MDTs and outpatient clinics; presence at ward rounds or outpatient clinics for e.g. heart failure/ end-stage renal disease • Optimize collaborative working with the local community and hospice services. Different models exist which range from joint appointments of staff working across multiple settings, community team attendance at hospital MDT meetings or outpatient clinics, to fully integrated community/hospital palliative care teams • Develop MDT education programmes to raise standards throughout the hospital, covering all aspects of holistic care, e.g. physical, emotional, social, spiritual and ethical elements. Provide informal and formal teaching covering a wide variety of staff, including those at the periphery of patient care who may still be affected and interact with patients, e.g. porters and ward clerks • Provide and/or develop patient information in an accessible form • Promote clear ethical decision-making through joint working with clinicians and education/participation in hospital clinical ethical committees • Promote audit and research to evaluate service and ensure best care • Influence policy development and raise the profile of palliative care within the hospital, through involvement at all levels. It is crucial to engage with management in order to change culture • Represent and participate in hospital and regional groups, e.g. cancer locality groups, cancer or other disease networks • Be a role model and mentor; empower and enthuse professional colleagues and encourage the next generation of palliative care specialists

AIMS AND EVALUATION OF A HOSPITAL SPECIALIST

Evaluation There are inherent difficulties in evaluating hospital palliative care teams. The evidence-base showing a benefit for HSPCTs is limited,14 reasons for which include the difficulty in evaluating advisory teams, attrition rate of patients and bias, and the clinical complexity of patients with whom palliative care teams are involved e.g. those who have intractable pain or difficult psychosocial problems. However, there are a few established tools, such as the Palliative Care Assessment Tool (PACA) and Palliative care Outcome Score (POS) which have shown benefit from HSPCT involvement in a variety of areas, such as pain, symptom control and patient and carer insight.

14 Higginson I. J., et al. (2002) Do hospital-based palliative teams improve care for patients or families at the end of life? Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 23(2): 96–106.

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Things to think about when considering a referral to the hospital palliative care team • • • • • • • •

What are your team’s plans for ongoing care? What treatment options are available? What are the patient’s wishes for care or place of care? If there are symptoms, what do you think is the underlying cause and what steps have already been taken to address them? If the referral is for terminal care, has your team reached a consensus that this is the aim of care? Is this reflected in the care which is being provided? Have you thought through and identified the specialist palliative care needs of your patient, e.g. difficulties with pain and symptom management, psychological and social needs and dying? Have you made sure the patient is aware of and in agreement with any referral? This will usually imply a level of understanding of their illness and prognosis Do you want to refer to the HSPCT or the community SPCT? There may be a separate referral route for the latter

Of course, difficulties in the above areas may be the exact reason why you want to refer to the HSPCT. By thinking these issues through before contacting the HSPCT you will pre-empt their questions!

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Urgent discharge of a dying patient who wants to die at home Sometimes, following sudden realization of a rapid decline, a patient may decide that he/she wants to go home to die. In these changing circumstances, time can be short and clinicians need to be flexible for this to be possible. Steps are outlined below to aid clinicians facilitate safe discharge. There is a new Department of Health Fast Track Pathway process for NHS Continuing Healthcare, which allows speedy access to continuing care support for such patients.

Steps (Adapted from the resource pack for healthcare professionals from the South West and South East London Cancer Networks, Supportive and Palliative Care Subgroups.) Communication Remember to enhance understanding through consideration of first language, learning disability and literacy skills. Use of interpreters or advocates may be needed. Patient • Ensure it is the patient’s wish to die at home • Explain the level of care available and ensure he/she is aware of limitations in support and the impact of the discharge on carers • Re-check that the patient still wants to go home to die Family/carer, where possible with patient • Is the family/carer in agreement with the patient’s wishes? • Are they aware of the aims of care and the short prognosis? • Does the family understand the medications? • Ensure the family knows which community agencies will be involved and what their roles and level of commitment are • Give the family contact numbers for ‘in-hours’ and ‘out-of-hours’ GP, district nursing, community palliative care and other involved agencies • Advise the family that when a patient dies at home, they must inform the GP Ward nurse • Verbal referral supported by fax to district nurse • Nursing letter should include details of the patient’s diagnosis, their nursing needs, medication, poor prognosis, understanding and wishes. Indicate other referrals made • Consider local supports that may be available, including Marie Curie night nursing, hospice-at-home schemes, etc. (Liaise with the HSPCT.) • Provide a letter/form to go with the patient, for the in-hours/ out-of-hours district nursing service • Verbal referral supported by faxed referral/update to the Community Specialist Palliative Care Team (CSPCT) • If patient is oxygen-dependent, check adequate oxygen availability at home. If not, ensure arrangements are made for home oxygen through local policies. There is the facility for urgent provision, where time is short

URGENT DISCHARGE OF A DYING PATIENT

• Ensure urgent referral for Continuing Care Category 1 utilizing the Fast Track Tool, to optimize the level of care available. The more detailed form can follow on after discharge • Ensure regular liaison with MDT members involved in the patient’s discharge from hospital discharge, e.g. coordinators, occupational therapists, etc. • Book ambulance: ensure the ambulance service is aware that the patient is not for resuscitation, and that a written DNAR order is with the patient (e.g. in the form of a letter, or a copy of the hospital DNAR order; local policies will apply) • Liaise with the HSPCT for advice and support Doctor • Verbal update supported by fax to the GP ± out-of-hours GP service. Emphasize the patient’s wish to die at home. List the medications. Ensure an early review by the GP who will also need to undertake death certification • Complete and fax out-of-hours handover forms, where available, to local GP out-of-hours service and, where agreements exist, the local ambulance service • Ensure DNAR form is both signed and current Medication Doctor • Prescribe at least 1 week of oral medication. Include p.r.n. analgesia and antiemetics • Even if the patient can swallow on discharge, they are likely to become unable to swallow in the near future, so subcutaneous medication must also be prescribed • Prescribe regular medication needs for delivery via syringe driver, plus p.r.n. medication needs for possible distressing symptoms. ( b see Chapter 16, The terminal phase). Remember also to prescribe water for injection • Doctors must write a prescription chart for the syringe driver and p.r.n. SC medications to go home with the patient, so that district nurses can administer medications. This can be in the form of a letter or utilization of local charts, as available Nurse • Provide a written medication chart to go home with the patient. Include information about the reason for the medication, dosage and frequency • Explain to the patient and family and ensure understanding Equipment Ward nurse’s responsibility for equipment needed for discharge: • For patients with a syringe driver, either: • supply a clearly labelled syringe driver for early return by district nurse, or other explicit arrangement; or: • give stat medications prior to transfer to cover the known symptoms and arrange for the district nurse to set up the syringe driver shortly after the patient’s arrival at home

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• When sending the patient home with a hospital syringe driver, Remember to include: • a spare battery • a range of Luer-lock syringes: 2mL, 10mL, 20mL, 30mL (× 4) • needles: orange, blue and green (× 4) • syringe driver lines (× 4) • Tegaderm (× 4) • labels for barrel of syringe • water for injection • sharps box (× 1) • For patients with additional needs discuss with the district nurses the need for: • dressings (× 4) • incontinence pads • catheter bags for patients who are catheterized • colostomy/ileostomy/ileal conduit bags • vomit bowls • urine bottles, bed-pan, commode • hospital bed/mattress • gloves, apron • mouth sponges It may not be possible to provide all the equipment, but don’t let this stop you from fulfilling the patient’s wishes. Where items are not available, discuss possible solutions with district nurse/patient/family. Communication is key to a successful discharge • At any stage, liaise with the HSPCT for advice and support

URGENT DISCHARGE OF A DYING PATIENT

Case A 95-yr-old widower was admitted to hospital with pneumonia. He had had previous strokes, which significantly affected his mobility. He lived alone and had no children or close family. Early in the admission he said that he didn’t want any more treatment and wanted to be allowed to die. His infection caused intermittent confusion and the treating team were concerned that he did not have capacity to refuse treatment. They felt he could benefit from treatment and so continued to offer antibiotics. He then became increasingly distressed and mistrustful of staff and started to refuse all treatment, including symptomatic measures such as pain control. He was referred to the HPCT for symptom control, support and in the knowledge that, despite their efforts, he was probably dying. On meeting him, the HPCT were able to talk through his understanding of his condition and his wishes for care. He had nursed his wife through a long illness and saw her death as a blessing. He had also lost close friends recently. He felt he had a poor quality of life due to his strokes and did not want to prolong his life any more. He had agreed to come in to the hospital so he could die in a place of safety, but he had not anticipated the battle to keep him alive. He understood there would be friends who would be upset by his dying, but said he had spoken to them and said his goodbyes. He was, at that moment, competent in his refusal of life-sustaining treatment. He also had many other symptoms that had either not been addressed (nausea, shortness of breath associated with his anxiety, constipation), or had been inadequately managed (regular analgesia had been prescribed, but he had refused). The HPCT were able to talk through his drug chart, rationalize medication for comfort only and spoke with staff so they would explain clearly what was being given. By meeting with the treating team, the team were able to clarify aims of care and to ensure consistency of care. This reassured him. He did not want a single room, as he liked the activity of the open ward. He deteriorated steadily and within 24 hours was started on the Liverpool Care Pathway for the dying patient. A syringe driver and p.r.n. medications were advised and he died comfortably a few hours later.

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Dying in the intensive care unit (ICU) A large number of patients who die in hospital spend some time on the ICU during their last admission.15 But the experience of dying on an ICU is reported as variable, with a high prevalence of symptoms and poor communication around the end-of-life preferences. In such an aggressive treatment environment focused on saving life, ensuring a peaceful death may get lost as a central goal of clinical care. In the US SUPPORT (the Study to Understand Prognosis and Preferences or Outcomes and Risks of Treatments) study7, from the perspective of bereaved relatives, 60% of patients would have preferred comfort care. Poor communication around end-of-life issues may, therefore, influence admissions to ICU and lead to invasive treatment which does not always follow patients’ wishes. A study that looked at the quality of dying in an ICU, from the perspective of bereaved relatives, showed that 24% of patients were never aware of dying and that 34% were only aware in their last week of life. The most important aspects of the perceived quality of dying were good pain control, being prepared for death, having control over events, feeling at peace, maintaining dignity and self-respect. More than 70% of deaths on an ICU can be predicted, e.g. by withdrawal of treatment that has failed. Withdrawal of treatment can precipitate, in some circumstances, a very rapid death within minutes to hours. Some patients will be stable enough to be transferred to other areas. HSPCTs clearly have a role in supporting end-of-life care in an ICU and the challenge is to develop relationships with ICU colleagues to allow this. Opportunities include: developing joint education programmes to raise the profile of a palliative care approach, for it to be seen as a core goal of care, not a failure of care; ensuring clear criteria for referral to HSPCTs; looking at models of MDT working; adapting approaches to the dying phase in the light of the often fast clinical deterioration and by highlighting variations in routes and types of medications needed. The National Liverpool Care Pathway Centre has developed an ICU version of the LCP which is currently being evaluated. The HSPCT can actively support the transition of dying patients who are transferred from ICU to other settings. Throughout the hospital, the team has a role in promoting the need for early communication around end-of-life preferences with patients, enhancing their control over events and supporting the staff in the communication skills needed in these difficult situations.

15 Rady M., Johnson D. (2004) Admission to intensive care unit at the end of life: is it an informed decision? Palliative Medicine, 18: 705–11.

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Using the Liverpool Care Pathway for the dying patient (LCP) in the hospital setting The LCP was originally developed to bring the hospice model of care of the dying to the acute hospital setting. It has since been disseminated to other settings and is one of the three End of Life Care initiatives promoted by the Department of Health. Experience with the LCP in the acute hospital setting shows that more than 50% of dying patients have a non-cancer diagnosis, so it is successfully reaching patients who have not previously accessed hospice care. There is widespread enthusiasm amongst staff who feel they are empowered by the LCP (b see box, p. 942). Senior doctors are given flexibility within the Variance to allow individualized care and clinical judgement. Within an acute hospital setting, it is essential to ensure senior medical involvement in the decision to start the LCP, and this is ensured by the paperwork requiring the consultant or their agreed deputy (usually the specialist registrar) to agree. The structure of the tool is welcomed by busy ward staff. It provides an effective audit and educational tool, which also reinforces other palliative care education programmes. Analysis of Variances can help reflection and support learning. However, it is essential to monitor quality beyond the purely paper assessment, and sustaining the LCP in a busy hospital with large staff turnover has its challenges. Although a tool for generalists, its implementation has been largely led by the HSPCTs. One of the challenges, especially in the treatment-focused hospital, is the recognition of dying and patient involvement in decision-making. There is a need to raise skills in communication at the end of life as well as using ethical frameworks for reflection and decision-making.

FURTHER READING

Quotes on the use of the LCP by healthcare professionals …‘a very good tool to explain to the family care of the dying patient and reassure them about the existence of such a protocol’ Pre-registration house officer in care of the elderly ‘I find it simple and easy to understand. I don’t miss any care or comfort measures for the patient and family, as everything is there to remind me’ Sister, Medical Unit ‘The thing I like about the LCP is that a firm decision is made by the team and you don’t get a half-hearted approach to terminal care’ Medical Pre-registration house officer ‘Having a specific plan of nursing care for the patient facilitates open communication with the family’ Staff nurse, Medical Unit ‘I have noted that it has improved the confidence of ward nurses in dealing with dying patients and their families’ Staff nurse, Medical Unit Kingston Hospital Pride of Nursing Prize 2007

Further reading Articles Cunningham C., Archibald C. (2006) Supporting people with acute dementia in acute hospital settings. Nursing Standard, 20(43): 51–5. Formiga F., et al. (2007) Dying in hospital of terminal heart failure or severe dementia: the circumstances associated with death and the opinions of care givers. Palliative Medicine, 21(1): 35–40. Willard C., Luker K. (2006) Challenges to end of life care in the acute hospital setting. Palliative Medicine, 20(6): 611–15.

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Chapter 14

Palliative care for people with learning disabilities People with learning disabilities are a part of us rather than being apart from us Todd, 2006 Learning disability has been described as a significantly reduced ability to understand new or complex information and to learn new skills, and a reduced ability to cope independently, which started before adulthood, with a lasting effect on development. Around 2.5% of the population in the UK has a learning disability, with figures higher in deprived and urban areas. It has been suggested that the number of people with learning disabilities may increase by around 1% each year over the next fifteen years; and, due to their increased longevity and age-related disease, people with learning disabilities are more likely to require palliative care services in the future. About one-third of people with Down syndrome over 35 years of age may be expected to show clinical evidence of dementia. In the presence of Down syndrome and dementia, the person’s health can often deteriorate quite quickly. The highest cause of death in people with a learning disability is respiratory disease. People with learning disabilities tend to have: • Higher healthcare needs, but less access to healthcare services • A late diagnosis of cancer, due in part to lack of access to screening, and a subsequent poor prognosis • A higher incidence of gastrointestinal cancer • An increased incidence of dementia (and significantly earlier onset in people with Down syndrome) The diagnosis of an advanced progressive disease is equally one of the most distressing and traumatic life experiences for the person with a learning disability as it is for anyone else. Yet people with a learning disability are a disadvantaged and devalued group, who, for a variety of reasons, are often excluded from discussions about death, dying and bereavement, which makes it particularly difficult for these people to be actively involved in necessary decision-making. It seems that the more complex the disability, the less likelihood there is of the person being actively involved in these discussions.

Key points • People with a learning disability have the same needs as any other patient group at the end of life, and may also have additional needs as a result of their disability • Meeting the needs of someone with a learning disability at the end of life may present a challenge to professionals’ working practices

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• Partnership and collaboration between palliative care and learning disability services is essential to ensure the exchange and fusion of knowledge and skills in meeting the needs of this vulnerable population • Palliative and end-of-life care for people with learning disabilities should be patient-centred and family-oriented • People with learning disabilities have more similarities to people without learning disabilities than differences, particularly at the end of life

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Communication It is a truism that people ‘cannot not communicate’. It is important to remember that all people with learning disabilities have communication abilities, even when these do not appear immediately apparent. For many people with learning disabilities the spoken word may not be their ‘first language’. • Take time to establish a relationship with the person with learning disabilities and their carers • Undertake any assessment over a length of time, possibly in a range of settings and with the support of people who know the person • A clear positive, focused assessment that provides an indication of receptive and expressive communication abilities and needs should be undertaken in collaboration with family members, carers and the speech and language therapist, if necessary • In seeking to establish effective communication, it may be necessary for staff to refine their skills in observation and listening, as well as in explaining new information General Breaking Bad News’ models require adapting for someone with a learning disability who may not understand the ‘warning shot’ or the need to ask questions in order to get information. The language used should be straightforward, non-euphemistic, consistent and be supplemented or supported in a variety of different ways, such as using books, photographs, pictures or picture boards (Table 14.1). Whenever possible, a familiar person, of the patient’s choice, should be actively involved. Allow time for the patient to inspect and digest new information, either verbally or visually. People with learning disabilities should be given the opportunity to be involved as much as possible (and as much as they are able to be) in communication about his or her illness, subsequent treatment options and eventual death.

COMMUNICATION

Table 14.1 A model to promote communication when breaking difficult news Prepare d

The environment should not be too noisy, busy, over-stimulating or intimidating Liaise with family/carers to determine what the person’s levels of understanding and communication are, and what resources are already present (e.g. a person-centred plan or communication passport) Establish the patient’s previous experience of serious illness and any fears or phobias, e.g. ‘needle phobia’

Ask d

Always use the person’s name. Find out what he or she already knows. Use straightforward questions and noneuphemistic language to elicit information. Find out what the person wants to know. Remember that some people with learning disability take longer to process questions or new information, so allow extra time between questions or statements. Be aware of the danger that the person is acquiescing to what they perceive is wanted rather than really understanding or expressing their own opinion.

Repeat and clarify d

Be prepared to go over information time and time again, and make use of a variety of media (e.g. books, photographs, etc.). Simplify language using concrete statements. Actively listen. Be guided by the individual. Remember that people with learning disability sometimes have difficulty in sequencing information and, therefore, they will require such explanations which facilitate this.

Check level of understanding d

Explore what the person understands (cognitively); and what they have ‘taken in’. Explore the potential impact. Go back to a previous stage, if necessary. Be guided by the individual.

Help the person to express their feelings d

Encourage expression; acknowledge feelings and give constructive feedback; where appropriate, help the person to describe their feelings; explore what they feel they might need next. Explore the future support options. Follow up where necessary.

Follow-up d

It is unlikely that the information will be completely understood or retained after only one visit and, therefore, a follow-up appointment will need to be offered. This should be with the lead physician or another member of the team who can take a lead role in ongoing communication and liaison.

The pressure from family, or other carers, to maintain a ‘conspiracy of silence’ rather than truth telling may be immense. In a client group who often already lack control and choice this can result in a greater loss of autonomy, and skill and sensitivity and time are, therefore, required in dealing with this situation.

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Consent All people with learning disabilities can make some decisions; a key question is determining which decisions they can make. All adults, including people with learning disabilities, are considered capable of providing consent unless demonstrated otherwise. Furthermore, all people with learning disabilities have the right to give, withdraw and withhold consent to examination, treatment and care; withholding/ withdrawing consent is not equal to non-compliance. • It is not permissible to say that a person with learning disabilities can make no decisions • The person’s ability to make each decision must be considered. • The only way to establish that a person cannot give valid consent is to seek to obtain it • Remember that in doing so it is necessary to make all ‘reasonable adjustment’ in providing information and to do this throughout the decision-making process • Staff should seek advice in relation to any Disability Discrimination and Capacity/Incapacity legislation, which must be followed If an adult cannot give consent, including a person who has learning disabilities, no one can consent on their behalf and a consent form must not be signed. Instead, a careful and clearly documented process of ‘best interests’ decision-making should be followed. Central to this is being able to clearly show that any decision taken was primarily in the best interests of the person with learning disabilities.

PAIN AND SYMPTOM ASSESSMENT

Pain and symptom assessment • Adults with a mild learning disability are often able to locate pain in the same way as those who do not have a learning disability • A body map, photographs and the involvement of a carer (with support for their needs as carers) who knows the person well may be helpful • In people with more severe disabilities the presence of pain may be expressed in atypical ways, such as a behavioural change (both positive and negative), or vocalization such as the use of a specific word, phrase, mannerism or laugh • In palliative and end-of-life care the concept of ‘total pain’, which reflects the multidimensional suffering (physical, emotional, spiritual and social) that can occur, influences holistic pain assessment and its multidisciplinary management. There is a recognized need for effective symptom assessment tools for people with learning disabilities. The DisDAT (Disability Distress Assessment Tool) is one tool which has been developed in the UK to assist in the identification of distress. Identifying the source of distress, whether physical pain or another cause, is pivotal. People with learning disability may tolerate symptoms or express them through irritability, inactivity, loss of appetite or sleep disturbance. Carers need information that will assist them to recognize signs of potential ill-health, such as weight loss, clothes being to loose or too tight, loss of appetite or changes in toilet habits. Careful assessment is required in patients with learning disabilities who have gastrointestinal cancer, i.e. due to the risk of intestinal obstruction which may not be readily diagnosed.

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Loss, grief and bereavement People with learning disabilities do experience grief, but may express it in idiosyncratic or different ways, and it may take time for the reality of the loss to be realized. They may experience multiple and successive losses too, as their main carers die and alternative accommodation is urgently organized. Therefore, accurate record keeping is crucial to long-term effective support. Carers may be anxious about involving people with learning disabilities in bereavement, perhaps because they remain unsure as to how that person may react, or they feel uncomfortable in this area of support. The most important point to remember is to be human, kind and understanding. People deliberately excluded from participating in bereavement are likely to experience disenfranchised grief, which may lead to complicated grief. • Be prepared to repeat information often • Keep language clear and consistent and avoid using euphemisms about death that may only confuse the person over time • Use everyday opportunities (such as stories on the TV or news items) to encourage individuals to talk about loss and death and to minimize the taboos around the topic with this population Some people with a learning disability may feel uncomfortable when carers rely on spoken language only. It, therefore, remains important to be creative when acknowledging and facilitating feelings, giving accurate information and creating time and a confidential space. There are easy to read, pictorial books to help in this process. Memory books and life-story books, in accessible formats, are constructive and helpful ways of helping the person to remember their loved ones, and serve to create continuing links with loved ones who have died.

LOSS, GRIEF AND BEREAVEMENT

Richard’s story I live in my own flat supported by an outreach team. This is about what I went through when my dad died. My dad died in hospital. He had been sick for about ten months and had been having treatment in hospital. My sister wrote to me because I am not able to use telephones because I am also deaf. She wrote to tell me that our dad was in hospital. I was able to visit him before he died. I used to visit him on my own. This was very hard because I didn’t know about cancer and what it does to people. No-one in the hospital told me what was happening to him. I didn’t know that he was going to die. I thought he was going to get better. I only knew he was going to die just before he died because I could see that he was very weak. He wasn’t eating or drinking. No-one in my family told me that he was going to die either. The last time I went to the hospital to visit him, he wasn’t there. I didn’t know where he was. I asked a nurse what was happening to him. She took me to a private room and told me that he had died. She didn’t tell me anything else and I was too upset to ask her any questions. My dad had died the same day. The nurse didn’t tell me that I could have seen my dad after he had died. I didn’t get to say goodbye to my dad. The nurse didn’t tell me where they had taken his body. She didn’t tell me that there was a chaplain that I could talk to. She didn’t tell me that there was a quiet place that I could go to…She didn’t tell me about these people that you can talk to when a person dies. It would have been better if she had told me about these things. It would have been better if everything was written down in an easy way so that I could have looked at it later. I think that it would have been better if the health people had talked to me about cancer and radiotherapy and chemotherapy. I think it would have been easier for me to understand what was happening to my dad. I want to end with these messages: People with learning disabilities should be given the same information about death and dying that other people are given Information needs to be accessible, using pictures, photographs, easy words and/or video This information should be given to us by everyone who works with people with learning disabilities, for example health, social services, voluntary people, family, etc. It would be good to plan and work with people with learning disabilities who have cancer and talk about how services can make their needs better People with learning disabilities need support when going through something like this (where they have lost someone who has died)—support can come from family and friends as well as people who work with us

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Richard highlights how people with a learning disability are often excluded in the name of protecting them and are treated as children, shielded away from the painful and raw realities of life. Sometimes, individuals are left having to make sense of things that are happening around them because they are not kept fully informed about what is happening and what to expect. They subsequently lack the knowledge and information to make informed decisions regarding coping with the loss of those close to them. They may also become unnecessarily anxious about the health of their remaining carers and their own health. • Collaboration is the key to effective support, this requires the development of mutual trust between people with learning disabilities, carers and people delivering palliative care, in both learning disability and generalist/specialist palliative care services • Carers, be they family members or other carers, supporting people with learning disabilities at such sensitive times need support too

Useful contacts National Network for Palliative Care of People with Learning Disabilities (NNPCPLD); website: http:www.helpthehospices.org.uk/NPA/uk website: www.bereavementanddisability.org.uk

FURTHER READING

Further reading Books Blackman N. (2003) Loss and Learning Disability. London: Worth Publishing. Blackman N., Todd S. (2005) Caring for People with Learning Disabilities who are Dying. London: Worth Publishing. Doka K. J. (ed.) (2002). Disenfranchised Grief: New Directions, Challenges and Strategies for Practice. Illinois: Research Press. McEnhill L. (2004) Disability. In Death, Dying and Social Differences (ed. D. Oliviere, B. Monroe), pp. 97–118. Oxford: Oxford University Press. McEnhill L. (2006) The role of hospices. In Palliative Care for People with Learning Disabilities (ed. S. Read), pp. 13–25. London: MA Healthcare. Read S. (2006) Palliative Care for People with Learning Disabilities. London: Quay Books. Read S. (2006) Communication in the dying context. In Palliative Care for People with Learning Disabilities (ed. S. Read), pp. 91–104. London: MA Healthcare. Read S. (2007). Bereavement Counselling and Support: A Manual to Develop Practice. London: Quay Books. Royal College of Nursing (2006) Meeting the Health Needs of People with Learning Disabilities. London: RCN. Todd S. (2006) A troubled past and present—a history of death and disability. In Palliative Care for People with Learning Disabilities (ed. S. Read), pp. 13–25. London: MA Healthcare

Articles Department of Health (2001) Valuing People: A New Strategy for Learning Disability for the 21st Century. London: DoH. Deudney C. (2006) Patients with Autistic Spectrum Disorders: Information for Health Professionals. London: NAS Information Centre. Read S., Elliot D. (2003) Death and learning disability: A vulnerability perspective. Journal of Adult Protection, 5(1): 5–14. Regnard C.,et al (2003) Difficulties in identifying distress and its causes in people with severe communication problems. International Journal of Palliative Nursing, 9(3): 173–6. Ryan K. R., McQuillan R. (2005) Palliative care for disadvantaged groups: people with intellectual disabilities. Progress in Palliative Care, 13(2): 70–4. Tuffrey-Wijne I. (2003) The palliative care needs of people with intellectual disabilities: a literature review. Palliative Medicine, 17: 55–62. Tuffrey-Wijne I., Davies J. (2006) This is my story: I’ve got cancer. British Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35: 7–11. http://www.intellectualdisability.info/mental_phys-health/DadDied_west.html

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Chapter 15

Emergencies in palliative care While this chapter focuses on the common oncological emergencies in palliative practice, other emergencies include a wider range of issues such as: • An emergency discharge so a patient’s wish to die at home can be met • Emotional emergencies, with high levels of expressed anxiety • Spiritual/existential/social emergencies with pressure to ‘sort things out’ before it is too late It is important to have a clear understanding of the management of emergencies in palliative care as clear thinking is crucial in handling such situations. Providing transparent decisiveness to the patient, their family and staff can transform a crisis situation filled with anxiety. Faced with an emergent, acute problem in the palliative care setting, clinicians would do well to establish quickly the answer to three simple questions: • Where is the patient on their disease trajectory? • What is causing this particular problem at this particular time? • What ideas, concerns and expectations does the patient/family have? The time frame for normal hospice and palliative care interventions are modulated by the need for calmness and patient comfort. There are, however, several emergency situations which can occur for hospice patients requiring urgent and prompt diagnosis and management. This may create some dissonance among staff and other patients. It is vital that all staff appreciate the nature of these emergencies and the appropriateness of an urgent response.

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Sepsis in the neutropenic patient All clinical staff should be acutely aware of the serious risk and precarious condition of patients who have become neutropenic and febrile following oncological treatments. If not managed rapidly and effectively, these patients will die from overwhelming infection. An absolute neutrophil count of less than 0.5 × 109/L is defined as severe neutropenia, although the risk of infection increases as the count falls below 1.0 × 109/L Initially, patients may develop general influenza-type symptoms, highlighting the need for vigilance and a high index of suspicion in patients who have recently received either cytotoxic chemotherapy or immunosuppressant therapy. Patients should be admitted to a unit where essential investigations can be carried out rapidly and where intravenous antibiotics can be given and suitable monitoring maintained. Appropriate facilities are not usually available within a hospice unit. Occasionally, patients may develop neutropenic sepsis while in a palliative care setting, which can create a dilemma. After full discussion, emphasizing the gravity of the situation and the high chance of a good response to optimal management in an acute unit, patients may still refuse transfer, preferring to stay in the hospice and receive suboptimal care. This should be discussed with their oncologist if possible. Empirical treatment of a febrile neutropenic patient should be instigated and an appropriate antibiotic regime started, with advice from the local bacteriologist since antibiotic regimes vary across the country. A regime currently being advocated at The Royal Marsden Hospital is outlined below as an example1

1 Antibiotic Guidelines for the Royal Marsden Foundation Trust (2008)

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Spinal cord compression Signs of spinal cord compression • • • • •

Back pain (present in 90% of cases) Weak legs Increased reflexes Sensory level Urinary hesitancy (late feature)

Spinal cord compression occurs in 3–5% of patients with cancer, and 10% of patients with spinal metastases develop cord compression,2 the frequency being highest in multiple myeloma and cancers of the prostate, breast and bronchus. • Malignant causes: • intramedullary metastases • intradural metastases • extradural compression (80%) —vertebral body metastasis —vertebral collapse —tumour spread —interruption of vascular supply It is important to have a high index of suspicion for possible cord compression, because of the consequences of paraplegia and urinary and faecal incontinence with a delay in diagnosis.

Symptoms and signs • Spinal cord compression must be considered in all cancer patients with back pain. Pain often pre-dates neurological changes by some considerable time • A sensation of weakness in the legs and often vague sensory symptoms in the legs may be early manifestations. Patients may complain of a band-like pain, particularly on coughing or sneezing • For those presenting with profound weakness, a sensory ‘level’ and sphincter disturbance, which are relatively late features, the outcome is poor and the compression is much less likely to be reversible • Tenderness along the bony spine may be present

The site of compression is: • thoracic in 70% • lumbosacral 20% • cervical 10% Lesions above L1 (lower end of spinal cord) will produce upper motor neurone signs and often a sensory level, whereas lesions below L1 will produce lower motor neurone signs and perianal numbness (cauda equina

2 Kaye P. (1999) Decision-making in Palliative Care, p. 167. Northampton: EPL Publications.

SPINAL CORD COMPRESSION

syndrome). Multiple sites of compression may produce different and confusing neurological signs (Table 15.1). Table 15.1 Neurological signs of upper and lower motor neurone lesions Upper motor neurone lesion

Lower motor neurone lesion

Power

Reduced/absent

Reduced/absent

Tone

Increased

Reduced

Sensation

Sensory loss

Sensory loss

Reflexes (plantars)

Increased (upgoing)

Absent/reduced (downgoing)

Management High dose corticosteroids (dexamethasone 16mg/day) to relieve peritumoural oedema (with proton pump inhibitor cover); urgent referral to oncology centre. Spinal cord compression is an emergency and two questions need to be answered urgently: • Does this patient have a reasonable likelihood of having spinal cord compression? • Would this patient benefit from instituting emergency investigation and treatment? Does this patient have a reasonable likelihood of having spinal cord compression? Even the most skilled clinician is unable to diagnose spinal cord compression with absolute certainty. Often by the time clinical signs are ‘classic’, it is too late for patients to benefit from treatment, as it has a limited role in reversing symptoms which are already established. Thus if intervention to prevent paraplegia is to be successful, potential compression needs to be diagnosed early.

The keys to diagnosing spinal cord compression include: • Having a high index of suspicion in patients with spinal metastases, particularly in patients with breast, lung and prostate cancer and with pain and tenderness on palpation or percussion of the vertebra at the level of the suspected lesion • Taking patients’ complaints about back pain, odd sensations in the legs and difficulties in passing urine seriously

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Would this patient benefit from instituting emergency investigation and treatment? The patient will need to be transferred to a specialized unit where an MRI scan can be carried out and treatment given. In the context of metastatic cancer, radiotherapy is often the most appropriate treatment, but surgery may need to be considered in specific circumstances. Deciding whether the particular course of treatment is appropriate for a particular patient involves an overall assessment.

Key questions in deciding on emergency investigations and management • • • • •

Does the patient want emergency management? Is the patient still walking? Is the patient suffering from severe back pain? Does the patient already have established cord compression? Does the patient have a short prognosis (e.g. week by week deterioration)?

Where suspicion of spinal cord compression is high, it is quickest to telephone the oncological team in the cancer centre where the patient has been managed, who can then coordinate the necessary scan and appropriate emergency treatment (Table 15.2). Table 15.2 Definitive treatment of spinal cord compression Indications for surgical decompression

Indications for radiotherapy

• Uncertain cause—to obtain histology • Radiotherapy has not been effective or symptoms persist despite maximum radiotherapy • Radioresistant tumour, e.g. melanoma, sarcoma • Unstable spine • Major structural compression • Cervical cord lesion • Solitary vertebral metastasis

• Radiosensitive tumour • Multiple levels of compression • Unfit for major surgery • Patient choice

Patients with spinal cord compression provide great challenges to the multidisciplinary team. These challenges include: • Mobility management (risk of venous thrombosis) • Skin management in a patient confined to bed (risk of pressure sores) • Bowel management • Urinary system management • Psychological management. There is no consensus on the optimum time to start mobilizing patients diagnosed with cord compression. In general, if the spine is stable and the pain is relatively well controlled it would seem wise to introduce physiotherapy as soon as possible to maintain muscle tone and motor function.

SPINAL CORD COMPRESSION

The occupational therapist will be crucial in helping with goal-setting and rehabilitative techniques. Steroids are usually continued at high dose to start with, and then tailed off gradually and completely discontinued after some time (4–6 weeks), or to the lowest dose that maintains stability. Radiation-induced oedema may exacerbate symptoms and the dose of steroids may need to increase temporarily during treatment.

Prognosis Overall, 30% of patients may survive for one year. A patient who is ambulant after treatment may survive for 8–9 months, but the life expectancy for a patient who remains paraplegic is a few weeks only. Function will be retained in 70% of patients who were ambulant prior to treatment, but will return in only 5% of those who were paraplegic at the outset. Return of motor function is better in those with incomplete spinal compression and particularly so with partial lesions of the cauda equina. Loss of sphincter function is a bad prognostic sign. In practice, most patients with an established diagnosis are relatively unwell and have multiple metastases, and will be referred for radiotherapy, achieving similar results to those of surgery.

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Superior vena cava obstruction Superior vena cava obstruction (SVCO) may be due to external compression, thrombus formation inside the SVC, or direct invasion of the vessel by malignancy. It is caused most commonly by carcinoma of the bronchus (75%)—particularly small or squamous cell—and lymphomas (15%). Cancers of the breast, colon, oesophagus and testis account for the remaining 10%.

Symptoms and signs Symptoms are those of venous hypertension, including breathlessness (laryngeal oedema, tracheal or bronchial obstruction/compression), headache or fullness particularly on bending or lying down (cerebral oedema), visual changes, dizziness and swelling of the face, neck and arms. Signs include engorged conjunctivae, periorbital oedema, non-pulsatile dilated neck veins and dilated collateral veins (anterior chest, forehead and arms). If the latter sign evolves, the symptoms of SVCO may stabilize. Papilloedema is a late feature.

Management In the palliative care setting, the diagnosis (usually of carcinoma of the bronchus) is already established. SVCO can present acutely, resulting in very distressing symptoms. The patient should be referred to the oncology centre for urgent management. • Dexamethasone 8–16mg p.o. or IV (with proton pump inhibitor cover). There is no good evidence for the efficacy of steroids, but they may be helpful in reducing oedema (if there is associated stridor), or as an antitumour agent for lymphoma • Furosemide 40mg p.o. or IV • Consider a prophylactic anticonvulsant as these patients are at risk of seizures • Appropriate analgesia may be necessary for the relief of headache • Supplemental oxygen may be indicated where breathlessness is associated with hypoxia • Treatment is the standard oncology treatment for the particular underlying cancer, e.g.: chemotherapy for small-cell lung cancer (SCLC) and lymphoma; radiotherapy for non-small cell carcinoma of the bronchus • An intraluminal stent can be inserted via the femoral vein and is the treatment of choice for patients with severe symptoms • Thrombolysis may be considered prior to stenting

Prognosis Without treatment, SVCO can progress over several days leading to death. Prognosis is poor in a patient presenting with advanced SVCO unless the primary cancer is responsive to radiotherapy or chemotherapy. Generally, the prognosis is that of the underlying tumour.

HAEMORRHAGE

Haemorrhage Haemorrhage may be directly related to the underlying tumour, or caused by treatments, e.g. steroids or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) resulting in gastric/duodenal erosion. A generalized clotting deficiency, seen in thrombocytopenia, hepatic insufficiency or anti-coagulation therapy are also contributory factors in patients with cancer. Non-acute haemorrhage Treatments for non-acute haemorrhage include oncological, systemic and local measures. Palliative radiotherapy is very useful for treating superficial tumours and those of the bronchus and genitourinary tract. If radiotherapy is not appropriate, coagulation should be enhanced with oral tranexamic acid 1g t.d.s., but caution is necessary with haematuria since clots may form resulting in further problems such as urinary retention. Local measures for superficial tumours, such as topical tranexamic acid or adrenaline (1:1000) soaks, may be useful. Sucralfate may act as a local astringent to stop stomach mucosal bleeding in addition to a proton pump inhibitor such as lansoprazole. Acute haemorrhage Erosion of a major artery can cause acute haemorrhage, which may be a rapidly terminal event. However, it may be possible to anticipate such an occurrence, and appropriate medication and a red blanket to reduce the visual impact should be readily available. Relatives or others who witness such an event will need a great deal of support. If the haemorrhage is not immediately fatal, such as with a haematemesis or bleeding from the rectum, vagina or superficially ulcerated wound, the aim of treatment is local control (if possible) and sedation of a shocked, frightened patient. Rectal or sublingual diazepam (Stesolid)10mg or midazolam 10mg SC or buccally act quickly. Members of the palliative care team need to balance the anxiety of alerting and preparing the family for such an event against the likelihood of it occurring. If the patient chooses to be looked after at home, the issues of managing acute haemorrhage need to be discussed with the family and the home care team and a clear plan worked out. It may be appropriate to have emergency medication in the home to sedate the acutely bleeding patient. Such a strategy needs lengthy discussion with the family, carers and the patient’s GP, along with clearly documented plans.

Convulsions (b see Chapter 6J)

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Hypercalcaemia (b see Chapter 6i Endocrine and metabolic complications of advanced cancer) Hypercalcaemia occurs in 10% of patients with cancer. The pathogenesis of hypercalcaemia in malignancy may be related to lytic bone lesions, the production of parathyroid hormone-related peptide (PTHrP) or uncontrolled vitamin D conversion. Calcium is released from bone, and there may also be a decrease in the excretion of urinary calcium. Malignancies most commonly associated with hypercalcaemia include squamous cell carcinoma of the bronchus (and other squamous cell tumours), carcinoma of the breast, prostate and renal tract, multiple myeloma and lymphoma. A corrected plasma calcium concentration above 2.6mmol/L defines hypercalcaemia. It is often mild and asymptomatic and significant symptoms usually only develop with levels above 3.0mmol/L, but the rate of rise of blood calcium dictates the symptoms and signs. Levels of 4.0mmol/L and above will cause death in a few days if left untreated. Symptoms include drowsiness, confusion, nausea, vomiting, thirst, polyuria, weakness and constipation.

Management Treatment is only necessary if there are symptoms of hypercalcaemia and may be unnecessary if the patient is very near to death. Patients should be encouraged to mobilize if appropriate. The absorption of calcium from the gut is generally reduced, so patients may eat what they wish regardless of the calcium content of food. Hypercalcaemia usually responds to specific antitumour therapy if appropriate. Fluid replacement Patients are usually dehydrated and need adequate fluid replacement. A high oral intake of fluid should be encouraged as appropriate for the individual clinical situation. Alternatively, extra fluid should be given intravenously. Fluid replacement alone improves symptoms but rarely achieves total control. Bisphosphonates Bisphosphonates inhibit osteoclast activity and thereby inhibit bone resorption. Because of poor alimentary absorption, they are usually given intravenously initially. Both disodium pamidronate or sodium clodronate are effective in 70–80% of patients for an average of two to three weeks. Zoledronic acid can be given over a shorter period and the effect lasts for longer. However, patients receiving bisphosphonates may develop transient fever and bone pains; they may also become hypocalcaemic and need to be monitored. • e.g. zoledronic acid 4mg in 50mL sodium chloride 0.9% over 15 minutes • e.g. disodium pamidronate 60–90mg in sodium chloride 0.9%, 500mL over 2–4h • e.g. sodium clodronate 1.5g in sodium chloride 0.9%, 500mL over 4h

FURTHER READING

Plasma calcium levels start to decline after 48h and fall progressively for the next six days. Oral bisphosphonates have been reported to delay the recurrence of hypercalcaemia and may be important for maintenance. The introduction of once- or twice-daily oral bisphosphonates have made compliance easier.

Prognosis Some 80% of cancer patients with hypercalcaemia survive less than one year.

Further reading Books Currow D., Clark K. (2006) Emergencies in Palliative and Supportive Care. Oxford: Oxford University Press Doyle D., et al (eds) (2004) Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine (3rd edn). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Falk S., Reid C. (2006) Emergencies in Fallon M., Hanks G. ABC Palliative Care (2nd edn.) 40–43. Kaye P. (1999). Decision-Making in Palliative Care, pp. 162–163. Northampton: EPL Publications. The Royal Marsden Hospital (2008) Prescribing Guidelines, including Symptom and Control Guidelines, London: Royal Marsden NHS Trust. Twycross R., Wilcock A. (2001) Symptom Management in Advanced Cancer (3rd edn). Oxford: Radcliffe Medical Press.

Articles Chaichana K I. (2008) Predictors of ambulatory function after decompressive surgery for metastatic epidural spinal cord compression. Neurosurgery 62(3): 683–692. Cole J. S. (2008) Metastatic epidural spinal cord compression. Lancet Neurology 7(5): 459–466. Drudge-Coates J. (2008) Diagnosis and management of spinal cord compression Part 1. International Journal of Palliative Nursing 14(3): 110–115. Drudge-Coates J. (2008) Diagnosis and management of spinal cord compression Part 2. International Journal of Palliative Nursing 14(4): 175–180. Eva G., Lord S. (2003) Rehabilitation in malignant spinal cord compression. European Journal of Palliative Care, 10(4): 148–50. Falk S., Fallon M. (1997) ABC of Palliative Care. Emergencies. British Medical Journal, 315(7121): 1525–8. George R., Jeba J., Ramkumar G., Chacko A. G., Leng M., Tharyan P. Interventions for the treatment of metastatic extradural spinal cord compression in adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2008, Issue 4. Heatley S. (2004) Metastatic bone disease and tumour-induced hypercalcaemia: treatment options. International Journal of Palliative Nursing, 10(1): 41–6. Hillier R., Wee B. (1997) Palliative management of spinal cord compression. European Journal of Palliative Care, 4: 189–92. Kramer J. A. (1992). Spinal cord compression in malignancy. Palliative Medicine, 6: 202–11. Penas-Prado M. (2008) Spinal cord compression in cancer patients: review of diagnosis and treatment. Current Oncology Reports 10(1): 78–85.

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Rowell N. P., Gleeson F. V. (2005) Steroids, radiotherapy, chemotherapy and stents for superior vena cava obstruction in carcinoma of the bronchus. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2): CD001316. Saunders Y., et al. (2004) Systematic review of bisphosphonates for hypercalcaemia of malignancy. Palliative medicine, 18(5): 418–31. Smith A. M. (1994) Emergencies in palliative care. Annals of Medicine, 23(2): 186–90. Walji N. (2008) Common acute oncological emergencies: diagnosis, investigation and management. Postgraduate Medical Journal 84: 418–427. Watkinson A. F. (2008) Endovascular stenting to treat obstruction of the superior vena cava. British Medical Journal 336: 1434–7. Weissman D. E. (2004) Decision making at a time of crisis near the end of life. Journal of the American Medical Association, 292(14): 1738–43.

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The terminal phase Death is not extinguishing the light; it is putting out the lamp because the dawn has come. Rabindranath Tagore

Prognosis Patients frequently ask, ‘How long have I got?’ It is notoriously difficult to predict when death will occur, and it is wise to avoid the trap of making a prediction or an incorrect guess. If pushed to do so, it should be made clear that any predictions are only a guide. It is best to talk in terms of ‘days’, or ‘weeks’ or ‘months’, as appropriate. For example: "When we see someone deteriorating from week to week we are often talking in terms of weeks,; when that deterioration is from day to day then we are usually talking in terms of days, but everyone is different." Patients may have expressed wishes regarding the manner and place of their death. A key factor to facilitating these wishes is for the health professional to know when the patient is dying. However, predicting when someone is going to die is infrequently simple and often complex, particularly when caring for a patient with a long-term chronic illness.

Signs and symptoms of death approaching1 The clearest signs of approaching death are picked up by the day-by-day assessment of deterioration (Table 16.1). Table 16.1 Signs and symptoms of approaching death Profound tiredness and weakness

Reduced interest in getting out of bed Needing assistance with all care Less interest in things happening around them

Diminished intake of food and fluids Drowsy or reduced cognition

May be disorientated in time and place Difficulty concentrating Scarcely able to cooperate and converse with carers

Gaunt appearance Difficulty swallowing medicine

1 National Council for Hospice and Specialist Palliative Care Services (2006) Changing Gear—Guidelines for Managing the Last Days of Life in Adults (Revised ed). London: NCPC.

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Should such symptoms develop suddenly over a matter of days instead of the usual weeks, it is important to exclude a reversible cause of the deterioration such as infection, hypercalcaemia or adverse effects of medication changes.

Goals for the last 24h • Ensure the patient’s comfort physically, emotionally and spiritually • Make the end-of-life peaceful and dignified • By care and support given to the dying patient and their carers, make the memory of the dying process as positive as possible It is very important to continually seek the patient’s views on the treatment, and their feelings about it, while they remain conscious, even when the weakening state makes communication difficult. Relatives also need to be given time to have their questions, concerns and requests for information listened to and answered as clearly as possible. As the patient deteriorates, the family’s advocate role becomes more important, though their wishes need to be balanced with the palliative care team’s understanding of the patient’s best interest. Where possible, families and carers should be offered the opportunity to participate in the physical care of patients. Carers should be invited to stay, if they want to, while nursing and medical procedures are carried out. Very occasionally, relatives would like to participate in carrying out the last offices after death, and this can be a very important part of their last ‘duty’ on behalf of their dead loved one. The events and the atmosphere which are present at the time of a patient’s death can greatly influence the grieving process of those left behind.

Different cultures Different religious and cultural groupings have divergent approaches to the dying process. It is important to be sensitive to their possible beliefs. If in doubt, ask a family member. Offence is more likely to be caused by not asking than by asking. (b see Chapter 1Oh Chaplaincy).

The patient’s wishes The process of dying is a very individual event. Helping to explore patients’ wishes about death and dying should, if possible, take place before final days of life are reached. Important discussions can still, however, take place even at this late phase and professionals should encourage this dialogue. The family gain great comfort in knowing that they have made the most of precious moments and that they have the answers to issues that are important to them. Some of these questions can include preferred place of death or burial/cremation and financial or ‘unfinished’ business issues. Time to say the last goodbyes to close family members, children and dependants and time to forgive and bury guilt can be crucial to enable a normal bereavement.

PROGNOSIS

Collaborative multidisciplinary approach Effective terminal care needs a team approach. No single member of the palliative care team, no matter how committed or gifted, can meet all the palliative care needs of a patient and his/her family.

Effective multidisciplinary working depends on: • Recognizing the centrality of patient and family needs • Good communication • Clear understanding and respect for the value, importance and role of other professionals • Early referral to specialist palliative services if needed

Referral to specialist palliative care services is appropriate when: • One or more distressing symptoms prove difficult to control • There is severe emotional distress associated with the patient’s condition • There are dependant children and/or elderly vulnerable relatives

Assessment of patients’ needs The focus of assessment in the last few days of life is to discover what, apart from dying itself, the patient is most concerned about and which concerns need to be addressed. Patients may under-report their symptoms which distress families. Although families may be very helpful in understanding non-verbal cues, in their own distress, they may also misinterpret and exaggerate the patient’s symptoms, which needs careful handling. Physical needs Common problems that need to be addressed are nausea, pain, oral problems, sleep disturbance, weakness, feeling confused (and sometimes hallucinating), pressure sores as well as the burden of having to take medication. Skilled nursing care can be crucial to ensuring that the patient’s comfort is maintained, e.g. using a pressure-relieving mattress to reduce the risk of pressure sores and the need for frequent turning; offering the patient a urinary catheter if they are too weak to get out of bed; and ensuring the mouth is kept clean and moist when nutrition and fluid input is reduced. Patients rarely worry about nutritional and fluid intake, but this may be a major concern for the family. Psychological needs The key to psychological assessment is finding out what the patient wants to know in a sensitive and unhurried manner. Gently assessing how the patient feels about their disease and situation can shed light on their needs and distress (Table 16.2). How the patient interprets their disease and its symptoms may be a cause of suffering itself. However, deep probing at this stage is inappropriate as the goal is psychological comfort and peace, now.

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Anxiety and agitation may need to be managed with medication. Patients are more often concerned about their family at this stage than about themselves. Table 16.2 Patients’ fears Fears associated with symptoms e.g. 'the pain will escalate to agony', 'breathing will stop if I fall asleep' Other emotional distress

e.g. dependence on family (‘I am a burden and it would be better if I was out of the way’)

Past experience

e.g. past contact with patients who died in unpleasant circumstances and with unresolved issues

Preferences about treatment or withholding treatment

e.g. ‘What if nobody listens to me or takes my wishes seriously?’

Fears about morphine

e.g. ‘If I use morphine now, it will not work when I really need it’

Death and dying

e.g. Patients frequently adapt to the fact that they will die, but are fearful of the process leading up to death

Dignity (b see p. xxxiv) The palliative care team needs to have as a goal the maintenance of the patient’s dignity in a manner which is appropriate to that particular patient. What is dignified for one patient may not be for another, which is one of the reasons why many hospices have both single rooms and small wards. Spiritual needs Particular religious tasks may need to be accomplished, for instance absolution, confession or other forms of religious preparation. Spiritual disquiet or pain may be relieved by allowing the expression of feelings and thoughts, particularly of fear and loss of control. Patients are more often concerned about the family at this stage than about themselves and may need to address issues of unresolved conflict or guilt. Families often want to know that the patient is comfortable and not suffering. If appropriate, it may be helpful for them to be aware of the experiences of people who have had near-death experiences, which are described as tranquil and peaceful. Many mechanisms have been used to explain this phenomenon, including the release of endorphins (natural analgesics), retinal hypoxia with resultant neuronal discharge (particularly in the fovea where there are many neurones) so that a bright spot looks like the end of an inviting tunnel. Temporal lobe seizures may also provide an explanation. Whatever the mechanism, nature seems to have a way of allowing dying people to feel comforted and at peace at the end.

PROGNOSIS

Talking about death and dying As a taboo subject, few people feel comfortable about discussing death and dying, even though it is natural, certain and is happening all around us all the time. Opening up discussion can be very liberating to patients who can feel they have not been given permission to talk about dying before as this would be admitting defeat. Sometimes the direct question ‘Are you worried about dying?’ is most appropriate. Often a patient’s biggest fears are groundless and reassurances can be given. Where reassurance cannot be given, it is helpful to break the fear down into constituent parts and try to deal with the aspects of the fear that can be dealt with (b see Chapter 2 Communication).

Physical examination Examination at this stage is kept to the minimum to avoid unnecessary distress. Examine: • Any site of potential pain. Patients may be comfortable at rest but in pain on being turned, which they may not readily admit • Any relevant area of the body that might be causing discomfort as suggested by the patient’s history or non-verbal signs • Mouth

Investigations Any investigation at the end of life should have a clear and justifiable purpose, such as excluding reversible conditions where treatment would make the patient more comfortable. There is little need for investigations in the terminal stages.

Review of medication At this stage comfort is the priority. Unnecessary medication should be stopped but analgesics, antiemetics, anxiolytics/antipsychotics as well as anticonvulsants will need to be continued. If the patient is unable to swallow their essential medicines, an alternative route of administration is necessary. These changes needs to be explained to relatives, who may become anxious that tablets which the patient has had to take for years have now suddenly stopped ( b see Management of diabetes p. 456–460).

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Routes for medicine delivery in the terminal phase • The intramuscular route for injections should be avoided as it is too painful • If buccal medicines are given it is important that the mouth is kept moist • The rectal route can be very useful for certain patients, although it is more or less accepted in different cultures • Topical fentanyl or buprenorphine patches should be avoided for pain in the terminal stage unless they have been used before this time, since it takes too long to titrate against a patient’s pain • In many instances a syringe driver is used so that finer adjustments can be made in accord with the patient’s changing state

Even when patients are dying, it is often possible to communicate with them and to get their consent for certain treatment, such as subcutaneous medication. As the patient becomes less aware, however, it is the family and the nursing staff who become the patient’s advocate. At this point a clear plan of goals needs to be agreed between the doctors, nurses, family members and other carers. • The potentially sedative side-effects of analgesia needs to be explained • The use of alternative routes of medication need to be discussed, as the oral route may be more difficult • The treatment plan should define clearly what should be done in the event of a symptom breakthrough

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Common problems in the last 48 hours • • • • • •

Respiratory tract secretions Restlessness/anguish Pain see p. 215 Breathlessness see p. 363–371 Nausea/vomiting see p. 308–313 Myoclonic twitching see p. 243

Respiratory Tract Secretions Weakness in the last few days of life can result in an inability to clear respiratory secretions leading to noisy, moist breathing (death rattle). It occurs in 50% of dying patients and is caused by fluid pooling in the hypopharynx. This is often very distressing to family members, and should be treated prophylactically as it is easier to prevent secretions forming than removing those that have gathered in the upper airways or oropharynx.

Management General measures include re-positioning the patient and reassuring the relatives. Explain to the family that the noise is due to secretions collecting which are no longer being coughed or cleared as normal. They should also know that the secretions are not causing suffocation, choking or distress. Specific measures These specific guidelines are for patients who are imminently dying and develop ‘rattling’ or ‘bubbly’ breathing (the death rattle). The following guidelines should be used with caution, particularly if the patient is still aware enough to be distressed by the dry mouth that will result from treatment. (Acute pulmonary oedema should be excluded, and treated with furosemide.) • Give hyoscine hydrobromide 200–400mcg stat subcutaneously, and start hyoscine hydrobromide 1.2–1.6mg/24h CSCI • Wait for 30min and reassess the patient • If there is still an unacceptable rattle, and there has not been a marked improvement: • give a further dose of hyoscine hydrobromide 200-400mcg stat SC • wait for half an hour and reassess • If the noise has been relieved, but recurs later, give repeat doses of hyoscine hydrobromide 400mcg to a maximum of 800mcg in any 4h • Increase CSCI to 2.4mg/24h NB Hyoscine hydrobromide can cause sedation and confusion. If the patient is conscious, and their respiratory secretions are not too distressing, it may be adequate to use a transdermal patch (Scopaderm 1.5mg over three days or sublingual tablets (Kwells). • Alternatives to hyoscine hydrobromide include: • glycopyrronium bromide 0.2mg stat or CSCI 0.6–1.2mg/24h (glycopyrronium does not cause sedation or confusion. It is useful for the patient who is still conscious and wishes to remain as alert as possible)

COMMON PROBLEMS IN THE LAST 48HOURS

• hyoscine butylbromide (Buscopan) 20mg SC stat. and 60–90mg CSCI. Buscopan does not cross the blood–brain barrier, so is less sedating than hyoscine hydrobromide • If the respiratory rate is >20 breaths/min, the noise may be reduced by slowing the respiratory rate: give e.g. morphine 2.5–5mg SC (or one-sixth of the 24h dose if already on CSCI) and repeat after 30min if the respiratory rate still above 20/min • If the patient is deeply unconscious, try using gentle suction • Ensure that the patient is not distressed, using sedative drugs such as midazolam if necessary

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Restlessness/Anguish All potentially reversible causes of agitation (see the ‘Think list’ below) in the terminal phase should be excluded. A diagnosis of terminal agitation can only be made if reversible conditions are excluded or are failing to respond to treatment. If the patient is clearly distressed, some degree of sedation will probably be warranted. This decision should be discussed with the patient, if at all possible, and the family if they are also involved in the discussions. ‘Think list’ for some common reversible causes of terminal agitation: • Pain • Urinary retention • Full rectum • Nausea • Cerebral irritability • Anxiety and fear • Side-effects of medication • Poor positioning

Management Examination and explanation Once any treatable causes of agitation have been excluded it is important to inform the family in attendance of your clinical findings, and of the management options, emphasizing clearly that the goals of treatment in this situation are primarily comfort and dignity. Medication • Midazolam 5–10mg SC stat. and 30–60mg/24h given by CSCI. If the patient remains distressed, other medication (e.g. levomepromazine) should be added. Clonazepam (1–4mg CSCI/24h) is sometimes used instead of midazolam, particularly if the patient has neuropathic pain and can no longer take effective medication by mouth. • Levomepromazine 25mg SC stat and 50–100mg/24h by CSCI. It is unusual for patients to require larger doses but, if necessary, up to 200mg/24h can be given. • Haloperidol 5mg SC stat. and 10–20mg/24h CSCI may be used but extrapyramidal symptoms can occur, particularly at higher doses. • Phenobarbital 100mg SC stat and 300–600mg/24h by CSCI should be effective but higher doses may be needed; a second syringe driver is needed as phenobarbital is incompatible with most other drugs. If a syringe driver is unavailable, alternative phenothiazines or benzodiazepines may be given sublingually or rectally, e.g. chlorpromazine 25mg per rectum 4–6 hourly with escalation to response (up to 100–200mg 4h) and/or diazepam rectally 10mg p.r.n. or clonazepam sublingually 0.5mg and titrate upwards. • Propofol, an anaesthetic agent, has been used intravenously to treat intractable cases, although under specialist supervision.

COMMON PROBLEMS IN THE LAST 48HOURS

Cerebral oedema Rising intracranial pressure due to cerebral oedema, in the terminal stages of cerebral tumours, can cause a rapid and severe escalation of headache (which can be made worse by opioids) and terminal agitation. Generous doses of opioids, however, may be effective in addition to an NSAID and midazolam. Avoid drugs that will lower the seizure threshold such as levomepromazine unless given with adequate doses of a benzodiazepine. In a dying unconscious or semiconscious patient, it should not be necessary to replace oral steroids with subcutaneous steroids provided that adequate pain control and sedation is given. Usually by this stage the oedema is not well controlled by steroids and, at best, may only serve to prolong the dying phase.

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The Liverpool Care Pathway for the dying patient Sections detailing the last few days of life, practical issues and bereavement in this Handbook clearly outline good practice for the care of the dying. The Liverpool Integrated Care Pathway for the Dying Patient (LCP) aims to translate such best practice into a template of care to guide healthcare professionals with limited or infrequent experience of caring for dying patients. The LCP provides guidance on the different aspects of care required, including comfort measures, anticipatory prescribing of medicines and discontinuation of inappropriate interventions. In the UK the LCP is widely used within hospitals, hospices, care homes and the community setting. There are three sections of the LCP for the dying patient: 1 Initial assessment 2 Ongoing care 3 Care after death

Initiating the Liverpool Care Pathway for the dying patient (LCP)—diagnosing dying Before a patient is commenced on the LCP it is important that the MDT has agreed that the patient is in the dying phase. This decision in itself can sometimes lead to conflict within the team, but it is important to make a clear diagnosis if appropriate care and communication is to be achieved. In cancer patients, if the patient’s condition has been deteriorating over a period, i.e. the last weeks/days, and two of the following four criteria apply: • Bed-bound • Semi-comatose • Only able to take sips of fluid • Unable to take tablets it is likely that the patient is entering the dying phase. These criteria may not be appropriate in a non-cancer population. It is important to highlight that a patient who is clinically in the dying phase may occasionally recover and stabilize for a time. However, this should not prevent the clinical team from using the LCP to provide the appropriate physical, psychological, social and spiritual care.

The three sections of the Liverpool Care Pathway for the dying patient Section 1—Initial assessment see Fig. 16.1 This section identifies the key goals that should be achieved when a patient enters the dying phase. These goals are directly related to and support the guidance referred to this chapter. A key component of the LCP is the supporting guidelines for the symptoms of pain, nausea/vomiting, agitation and respiratory tract secretions. These guidelines ensure that the appropriate oral medication is converted to a subcutaneous regimen and that patients have p.r.n. (as required) medication available should they require it.

THE LIVERPOOL CARE PATHWAY FOR THE DYING PATIENT

In care settings where the LCP is not in common usage, healthcare professionals can use the goals of care in Fig. 16.1 to guide and inform their practice. Section 2—Ongoing care The LCP promotes multidisciplinary working and a joint approach to the care of the patient and their family. In caring for a dying patient, at least four-hourly observations of symptom control should be made, and the appropriate action taken if problems are identified. Particular attention is given to pain, agitation, respiratory tract secretions, nausea and vomiting, mouthcare and micturition problems. In addition, support regarding the psychological, social and spiritual aspects of care for both the family and the patient need to be continued in the dying phase. Section 3—Care after death The LCP incorporates the certification of death within the document, identifies any special needs for the patient who has died and support for the family and carers immediately after death. It particularly focuses on the information needs of the family at this distressing time.

How does using the Liverpool Care Pathway benefit patients? In providing a template of care for the dying phase, the LCP promotes discussion within the clinical team with regard to the diagnosis of dying, and facilitates the initiation of care that is appropriate for the dying phase. The LCP integrates local and national guidelines into clinical practice. This powerful educational tool can be used to facilitate the role of specialist palliative care teams and to empower generic health workers to deliver a model of excellence for the care of the dying. Healthcare professionals also benefit by knowing that they have delivered a good standard of care to the patient. In the words of the National Cancer Plan ‘The care of all dying patients must be improved to the level of the best.’

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Example of Chart in LCP - Initial Assessment.

Fig. 16.1 Initial assessment and care of the dying patient. (Adapted from The Liverpool Care Pathway for the Dying Patient2)

2 Ellershaw J. E., Wilkinson S. (eds) (2003) Care of the Dying: A Pathway to Excellence. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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International perspectives in care pathways An integrated care pathway for India The successes of the Liverpool Care Pathway (LCP) in the UK have led to considerations of its use further afield. As an example, this section details the development of an integrated care pathway for end-of-life care in India.

Palliative care in India There are currently 100 palliative care physicians working in India, a country with a population of over one billion. Despite islands of high-quality palliative care, the national average for coverage of palliative care remains under 1%. With the burden of chronic diseases being increasingly shouldered by resource-poor countries, the development of comprehensive palliative care services is an imperative. Attempts to develop these services should focus on the provision of services in areas of unmet need, to measure and improve the quality of existing centres as well as the capabilities for training health professionals in palliative care.

The role of the LCP in India • To improve existing services through the process of setting standards of best practice and audit • To facilitate the spread of skills from established palliative care centres to new, developing services (specialist–specialist) • To facilitate the spread of skills and knowledge from palliative care centres to general healthcare settings (specialist–generalist) • As an educational tool for both specialist palliative care workers and general healthcare workers

The Indian project One of the fundamental principles of an integrated care pathway is that it reflects locally determined best practice. Ownership is critical for the success of the LCP. Thus, a pathway developed in one setting cannot be exported and used in another, but must be redesigned to incorporate local needs. The process of the multidisciplinary team sitting together to determine their standards of best practice is integral to the success of the LCP. The pathway was redesigned in an established centre of excellence by multidisciplinary focus groups ‘blind’ to the goals of the LCP. This produced a generic pathway for use in the Indian setting. The LCP Central Team UK recommend that the goals of care remain the same during the translation process and, therefore, were coded in sequence to enable the future benchmarking of LCP’s success across sector, organizations and countries. The LCP India fully complied with this process and was ratified by the LCP Central Team UK. The pathway is now undergoing piloting in four centres around the country, after being adapted locally at each setting. These pilot centres cover a range of settings, from hospice and hospital to the community.

INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES IN CARE PATHWAYS

Results from the first pilot centre A comparison of the documentation pre- and post-implementation of the pathway shows improvement in almost all parameters, from anticipatory prescribing to the discussion of emotional issues with family members. Analysis of the improvement showed both an increase in documentation of care and in the care actually given. A series of semi-structured interviews was conducted with the original focus group, six months after the introduction of the pathway. There has been a very positive reception to the project. Comments centred around five main themes: Improved documentation ‘The pathway means we have improved documentation of things like the patient’s address which has stopped a lot of confusion at the time of the death certificate. Generally, we can see what care we have given the patient over the past day. This was really needed.’ Addressing emotional issues ‘Emotional issues of the patient and family are a higher priority now we are using the pathway’ Communication ‘It allows us to tell the family what is happening directly and clearly’ Improved observations ‘The regular checking of symptoms is good and improves the interaction and relationship with the patients and relatives.’ Training ‘If there is a new member of staff it is easy to teach them how best to care for the dying on the ward’

Difficulties The concept of ‘variance’ has proved difficult to explain to staff. This has often led to the pathway being used as a set of guidelines rather than an integrated care pathway. New staff require training before using the pathway, which can take a significant amount of time. Staff members are reluctant to stop recording information in the original case sheet, leading to a duplication of documentation. Variance analysis must be undertaken by staff and this is an added burden for a busy team.

The future After completion of the four pilot projects in India generic documentation for each of the settings will be produced. A core team of national trainers will then be developed to allow training days to be run for new centres interested in using the pathway. The pathway will then be launched nationally and a formal evaluation will follow.

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Further reading Books de Luc K. (2000) Developing Care Pathways. Oxford: Radcliffe Medical Press. Department of Health (2000) The NHS Cancer Plan—A Plan for Investment, A Plan for Reform. London: DoH. Ellershaw J. E., Wilkinson S. (eds) (2003) Care of the Dying: A Pathway to Excellence. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Fenwick P., Fenwick E. (2008) The Art of Dying. London: Continuum.

Articles Campbell. et al. (1998) Integrated care pathways. British Medical Journal, 316: 133–7. Ellershaw J. et al. (2001) Care of the dying. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 21: 12–17. Elllershaw J. E., Ward C. (2003) Care of the dying patient: the last hours or days of life. British Medical Journal, 326: 30–4. Wee B.L. (2008) Death battle: its impact on staff and volunteers in palliative care. Palliative Medicine 22(2): 173–176.

Chapter 17

Bereavement How small and selfish is sorrow. But it bangs one about until one is quite senseless. Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother, in a letter to Edith Sitwell shortly after the death of King George VI Grief is a normal reaction to a bereavement or other major loss. Its manifestations will vary from person to person but will often include physical, cognitive, behavioural and emotional elements. For a close personal bereavement, grief is likely to continue for a long time and may recur in a modified form, stimulated by anniversaries, future losses or other reminders. Although people are likely to be changed by the experience of grieving, most, in time, find they are able to function well and enjoy life again. A compassionate approach surrounding the death can positively impact on bereavement.

Normal manifestations of grief Physical manifestations Symptoms experienced by a bereaved person may include a hollow feeling in the stomach, tightness in the chest or throat, oversensitivity to noise, shortness of breath, muscle weakness, lack of energy and dry mouth. People may misinterpret these symptoms as indications of a serious illness and require reassurance.

Emotional manifestations For many, a sense of shock and numbness is the initial emotional response to bereavement. Feelings of anger (directed at family, friends, medical staff, God, the deceased or no one in particular) and feelings of guilt (relating to real or imagined failings) are common, as is a yearning or desire for the return of the deceased. Anxiety and a sense of helplessness and disorganization are also normal responses. Sadness is the most commonly recognized manifestation of grief, but the greatest depth of sadness, something akin to depression, is often not reached until many months after the death. Feelings of relief and freedom may also be present, although people may then feel guilty for having these feelings.

Cognitive manifestations Disbelief and a sense of unreality are frequently present early in a bereavement. The bereaved may be preoccupied with thoughts about the deceased and ruminate about the lost person. It is also not uncommon for the bereaved to have a sense (visual, auditory, etc.) of the presence of the deceased. Short-term memory, the ability to concentrate and sense of purpose are frequently detrimentally affected.

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Behavioural manifestations Appetite and sleep may be disturbed, and dreams that involve the deceased, with their attendant emotional impact for the bereaved, are not infrequent. The bereaved person may withdraw socially, avoid reminders of the deceased or act in an absent-minded way. They may also engage in restless overactivity, behaviour which suggests that they are at some level searching for the deceased, or visit places or carry objects that remind them of the deceased. Some people contemplate rapid and radical changes in their lifestyle (e.g. new relationship or move of house), which may represent a way of avoiding the pain of bereavement. Such rapid changes soon after a bereavement are not normally advisable.

Psychological/psychiatric models He was my North, my South, my East and West, My working week and my Sunday rest, My noon, my midnight, my talk, my song; I thought that love would last forever: I was wrong. W.H. Auden (1907–73): Funeral Blues, 1936 Grief and bereavement have been analysed over many years, and it is generally agreed that there are no single ‘correct’ or ‘true’ theories that explain the experience of loss or account for the emotions, experiences and cultural practices which characterize grief and mourning. Within broad cultural constraints, individuals manage bereavement in different ways, reflecting the diverse range of human responses and cultures. In the UK there are a number of accepted ways to behave, but most are characterized by stoicism and emotional restraint, especially in public. In contrast, bereavement support services emphasize the importance of emotional expression, acknowledgement of the reality of the loss and the sharing of thoughts and feelings with others. Theories of grief Most cultures provide accounts of what happens after death (such as religious accounts of an after-life) and provide guidance about how the bereaved should feel and behave, but in an increasingly secular society these may now have less influence. The range of beliefs, practices and rituals associated with death is large, particularly in multicultural societies, although many adapt to the customs of the host culture.

Psychological models These are based on developmental notions of change and growth. It is assumed that bereavement is a process in which there is an outcome: individuals need to progress through phases or stages and tasks need to be accomplished. The theories are based on the assumption that people have some control over their feelings and thoughts and that these can be accessed through talk. Individuals need to accept the reality of the loss so that the emotional energy can be released and redirected. The effortful, mental process of withdrawing energy from the lost person is referred to as ‘grief work’. It is regarded as essential to break

NORMAL MANIFESTATIONS OF GRIEF

relationships with the deceased, and to allow reinvestment of emotional energy in new relationships with others. The most influential and earliest theories emerged from psychoanalysts such as Freud,1 who also described normal and pathological grief. Bowlby2 proposed a complex theory of close human relationships in which separation triggers intense distress and behavioural responses. Parkes3 proposed that people progress through phases in coming to terms with their loss and that they have to adapt to changes in relationships, social status and economic circumstances. Kubler Ross4 also proposed a staged model of the emotional expression of loss, described in terms of shock/denial, anger, bargaining, depression and ultimately acceptance. Worden5 based his therapeutic model on phases of grief and tasks of mourning. He suggested that grief was a process, not a state, and that people needed to work through their reactions to loss to achieve a complete adjustment. Tasks that need to be accomplished in order to allow recovery from mourning included: Task 1—To accept the reality of the loss Task 2—To experience the pain of grief Task 3—To adjust to an environment in which the deceased is missing Task 4—To emotionally relocate the deceased and move on with life Each of these theories have been modified and developed by their authors and, despite subsequent criticisms, they remain very popular ways to explain bereavement and grief and are used by the public and health professionals. Staged or phased models provide guidance that bereaved people are progressing satisfactorily along a path over time, even though this progression may not be linear. However, some people may become ‘stuck’ and unable to move through grief satisfactorily. Various techniques are used to support and encourage people to move forward and to begin engaging in life again. Stress and coping model These ideas are based on an assumption that if certain things, called ‘stressors’, are present in sufficient amounts, then they trigger a stress response which is both physical and psychological. People are able to adapt to most things, but things that challenge the adaptation process are considered to be stressful. Lazarus and Folkman’s transactional model of stress and coping6 proposed that any event may be seen as threatening, and that cognitive appraisal is undertaken to estimate the degree of threat needed to mobilize the resources to cope with it. Coping may focus on

1 Freud, S. (1961) Mourning and melancholia. In The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Vol. 14 (ed. and transl. J. Strachey), pp. 243–58. London: Hogarth Press. (Original work published 1917.) 2 Bowlby J. (1969) Attachment and Loss, Vol. 1. Harmondsworth: Penguin. 3 Parkes C. M. (1996). Bereavement (3rd edn). London: Routledge. 4 Kubler-Ross E. (1969) On Death and Dying. London: Tavistock Publications. 5 Worden J. W. (1991) Grief Counselling and Grief Therapy (2nd edn). London: Routledge. 6 Lazarus R., Folkman S. (1991) Stress and Coping (3rd edn). New York: Columbia University Press.

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dealing with the threat directly (problem-focused), or may emphasize the emotional response (emotion-focused). Stroebe and Schut7 developed this idea, proposing that after death people oscillate between restoration-focused coping (dealing with everyday life) and grief-focused coping (e.g. expressing their distress). People move between these extremes but become more restoration-focused with time. This is known as the ‘dual processing model’. Social and relationship-focused models This is based on an assumption that people wish to maintain feelings of continuity and that, even though physical relationships may end at the time of death, relationships become transformed but remain important within the memory of the bereaved individual. Walters8 in the UK and Klass et al.9 in the US, have suggested that continuing relationships (emotional bonds), emphasize the importance for the living of integrating the memory of the dead into their ongoing lives, recognizing the enduring influence of the deceased.

7 Stroebe M., Schut H. (1999) The dual process model of coping with bereavement. Death Studies, 23: 197–224. 8 Walters T. (1996) A new model of grief. Mortality, 1: 7–25. 9 Klass D., Silverman P., Nickman S. (eds) (1996) Continuing Bonds. London: Taylor & Francis.

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Bereavement support Give sorrow words. The grief that does not speak whispers the o’erfraught heart, and bids it break. William Shakespeare, Macbeth, IV, iii, 209–10 In practice, bereavement support, whether through GPs or professional accredited counsellors, helps clients tell their story. GPs may become involved in grief counselling, but their main role is to screen for people who may be most at risk ( b see p. 875–6) from a complicated bereavement. Most bereaved people manage well with their own resources and with the help of community and faith groups such as Cruse (a charity offering free bereavement counselling and support groups). Specialist palliative care and bereavement The philosophy of the hospice movement encompasses the care of patients and their families after death and into the bereavement period. The provision of bereavement support is regarded as integral to their services. Most services are based on the assumption that bereavement is a major stressful life event but that a minority of people experience substantial disruption to their physical, psychological and social functioning. A multidisciplinary team (MDT), including social workers, nurses, chaplains, counsellors and doctors, is usually involved. But, occasionally, clients present such difficult and complex problems that psychiatrists, clinical psychologists or other specialist healthcare workers may be required. NICE10 recommends that three levels of support should be available, depending upon the complexity of the needs of the bereaved person. • Component 1: All bereaved people should be offered information about grief and how to access support services • Component 2: About one-third may require additional support to help them deal with the emotional and psychological impact of loss by death • Component 3: Specialist interventions are required by a small proportion (7–10%), which will involve referral to a range of services including mental health services, psychological support services, specialist counselling services, etc. There is evidence that offering support to people who have adequate internal and external resources can be disempowering and detrimental to their coping. Bereavement support may include a broad range of activities such as social evenings, befriending, one-to-one counselling and support groups, etc. (Table 17.1).

10 NICE (2004) Services for families and carers, including bereavement care. In Improving Supportive and Palliative Care for Adults with Cancer. Chapter 12. London: NICE.

BEREAVEMENT SUPPORT

Table 17.1 Types of hospice and palliative care bereavement support for adults Social activities

Supportive activities

Therapeutic activities

Condolence cards

Drop-in centre/coffee mornings

One-to-one counselling with professional or trained volunteer

Anniversary (of death) cards

Self-help groups

Therapeutic support groups

Bereavement information leaflets

Information support groups

Drama, music or art therapy

Bereavement information resources (videos/books)

Volunteer visiting or befriending

Relaxation classes

Staff attending the funeral Social evenings

Complementary therapies Psychotherapy

Memorial service or other rituals From M. Lloyd-Williams (ed.) (2003) Psychosocial Issues in Palliative Care. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Complicated grief Normal and abnormal responses to bereavement cover a continuum in which intensity of reaction, presence of a range of related grief behaviours, and time course betray the presence of an abnormal grief response. Complicated grief involves the presentation of certain grief-related symptoms at a time beyond that which is considered adaptive. We hypothesize that the presence of these symptoms after approximately 6 months puts the bereaved individual at heightened risk for enduring social, psychological and medical impairment. Prigerson, et al., 1995 Complicated mourning means that, given the amount of time since the death, there is some compromise, distortion or failure of one of more of the…processes of mourning. Full realization of the pain of living without the deceased is denied, repressed or avoided The deceased is held on to as though alive. Symptoms do not resolve spontaneously and need active intervention Rando, 1993 …is more related to the intensity of a reaction or the duration of a reaction rather than the presence or absence of a specific behavior. Worden, 1982

Risk factors for developing complicated grief Personal • Markedly angry, ambivalent or dependent relationship with the deceased • History of multiple losses and/or concurrent losses • Mental health problems • Perceived lack of social support Circumstantial • Sudden, unexpected death, especially when violent, mutilating or random • Death from an overly lengthy illness such as dementia • Loss of a child • Mourner’s perception of loss as preventable Historical • Previous experience with complicated grief • Insecurity in childhood attachments Personality • Inability to tolerate extremes of emotional distress • Inability to tolerate dependency feelings • Self-concept, role and value of ‘being strong’ Social • Socially unspeakable loss (e.g. suicide) • Socially negated loss (e.g. loss of ex-spouse) • Absence of social support network • Absence of a body on which to conduct funeral rites (e.g. lost at sea)

COMPLICATED GRIEF

Complicated grief includes the following in abnormal intensity or duration (Table 17.2): • Symptoms of depression • Symptoms of anxiety • Grief-specific symptoms of extraordinary intensity and duration that include: • preoccupation with thoughts of the deceased • disbelief • feelings of being stunned • Lack of acceptance of the death • Yearning for the deceased • Searching for the deceased • Crying Common psychiatric disorders related to grief include: • Clinical depression • Anxiety disorders, alcohol abuse or other substance abuse and dependence • Psychotic disorders • Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) While frank psychiatric disorders following bereavement are reasonably straightforward to diagnose, it is more difficult to pick up complicated grief, in which the pathological nature of the grief response is only distinguishable from normal grief by its character. Recognition of complicated bereavement calls for an experienced clinical judgement that does not ‘rationalize’ the distress as understandable. Table 17.2 Clinical presentations of complicated grief Category

Features

Inhibited or delayed grief

Avoidance postpones expression

Chronic grief

Perpetuation of mourning long-term

Traumatic grief

Unexpected and shocking form of death

Depressive disorders

Both major and minor depressions

Anxiety disorders

Insecurity and relational problems

Alcohol and substance

Excessive use of substances impairs

abuse/dependence

adaptive coping

Post-traumatic stress disorder

Persistent, intrusive images with cues

Psychotic disorders

Manic, severe depressive states, and schizophrenia

From Doyle D. H., et al. (eds). (2004) Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine (3rd edn), p. 1140. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Warning signs of complicated grief • • • • • • • • •

Long-term functional impairment Exaggerated, prolonged and intense grief reactions Significant neglect of self-care Substance overuse or abuse Frequent themes of loss in conversation, activity, behaviour Idealization of the deceased Impulsive decision-making Mental disorders following loss PTSD-like symptoms

Ways of helping a bereaved person • • • • • • • • • • •

‘Being there’ for them Non-judgemental listening Encouraging them to talk about the deceased Giving permission for the expression of feelings Offering reassurance about the normality of feelings and experiences Promoting coping with everyday life and self-care (e.g. adequate food intake) Screening for damaging behaviours (e.g. increased alcohol use, smoking, etc.) Providing information, when requested, about the illness and death of their loved ones—also about the range of grief responses Educating others (family members and other support networks) about how best to help the bereaved person Becoming familiar with your own feelings about loss and grief Offering information about local bereavement support services, e.g. hospice services or Cruse

Bereavement involving children One feature of the grief of most children is that they do not sustain grief over continuing periods of time, but tend rather to dip in and out of grief—jumping in and out of puddles, rather than wading through the river of grief. Adults should be aware that children will learn what is ‘acceptable grief’ from the adults around them. Childhood bereavement services seek to support children with their loss experience and to help parents deal with a bereaved child. Payne and Rolls (2008)

COMPLICATED GRIEF

Children’s grief Children may be bereaved of family members (e.g. siblings, parents or grandparents) and this will precipitate a cascade of changes and loss. They will become a child of bereaved parents who may need help in dealing with their own loss and also help in how to parent a bereaved child. Children will be helped by knowing that the expression of feelings is acceptable. Children may express their emotions and grief in many ways, e.g. through play, artwork, music, drama, etc. Children’s understanding, responses and needs will be affected by many factors, including their previous experiences of loss and how these were handled. It is also important to consider the age and the developmental level of the child, although any attempt to consider responses according to age will require flexibility as there is, of course, considerable crossover between different children. Children under the age of 2–3 years may have little concept of death, but will be aware of separation and may protest against this by detachment or regressive behaviour. Children of this age need a consistent caregiver, familiar routines and the meeting of their physical and emotional needs. Children aged between 3 and 5 years do not see death as irreversible. Rather, their concerns will relate to separation, abandonment and the physical aspects of death and dying. Their response may include aggressive and rejecting behaviour. They may also become withdrawn or demonstrate an increase in clinging or demanding behaviour. There may also be regression to infant needs. Routine, comfort, reassurance and a simple answering of their questions will help a child of this age. They should be allowed to participate in family rituals and to keep mementos of the deceased. Adults should be aware of the words they use since they can be misinterpreted (e.g. do not associate death with sleep or a long journey). Children aged between 6 and 8 years seek causal explanations. A whole range of behaviours may be evidence of their response to grief—withdrawal, sadness, loneliness, depression, acting-out behaviour or becoming a ‘perfect’ child. Short, honest, concrete explanations will help a child of this age, as will maintaining contact with friends and normal activities. Short-term regression may be allowed and they should be reassured that they will always be cared for. Involvement in the family’s grief-related rituals will also help. Pre-teenage children appear to have a calmer and more accepting attitude to death. They often have a good factual understanding of what has happened. The child should be encouraged to talk about the deceased and be provided with clear and truthful answers to their questions. The feelings of adults do not need to be hidden, allowing the child to provide mutual help and reassurance. Teenaged-year children are engaged in a search for meaning and purpose in life and for their identity. They feel that they have deep and powerful emotions that no one else has experienced. Teenagers may exhibit withdrawal, sadness, loneliness and depression, or else they may act-out in an angry, hostile and rejecting way. They may seek to cover up fears with joking and sarcasm. Young people of this age need as much comfort as possible, involvement, boundaries, a sense that their feelings are being taken seriously and reassurance that their feelings are normal. Continuing contact

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with their peers should be encouraged. Young people will often identify for themselves someone with whom they feel comfortable to talk.

Risk factors for complicated grief in bereaved children These may be divided into three groups: Features of the loss • Traumatic • Unexpected Features of the child • History of psychiatric disorder • Multiple losses • Child under 5 years old • Adolescent Features of the relationship • Ambivalent/conflicted • Unsupportive family • Death of a father (adolescent boys) • Death of a mother (very young children) • Mental illness in surviving parent • Child of a single parent who has died

Bereavement due to death of a child The death of a child is a devastating loss, particularly in times where most childhood illness can be prevented or cured. It profoundly affects all those involved—parents, siblings, grandparents, extended family, friends and others involved in caring for the child. As a community we rarely experience the death of a child, which makes it all the more difficult when we do. There is a sense that the natural order of things has been upset. Principles for working with bereaved parents • Make early contact and assess the bereaved parents • Provide assurance that they can survive their loss, but acknowledge the uniqueness of their pain • Allow adequate time for parents to grieve • Facilitate the identification and expression of feelings, including negative feelings such as anger and guilt • Encourage recall of memories of the deceased child • Maintain a professional and realistic perspective—not all pain can be ‘fixed’ • Allow for individual differences in response relating to gender, age, culture, personality, religion and the characteristics of the death • Assist in finding a source of continuing support • Promote confidence in their parenting of their surviving children • Identify complicated grief reactions and refer to the appropriate services Interpret resolution of grief to parents, and that it is not a betrayal of their deceased child. Health professionals need to recognize the significance they may have in a family’s life. Many children are treated over long

COMPLICATED GRIEF

periods and the hospital/hospice may become something of a second home. Health professionals also care for families during the intense highs and lows of serious illness, and may even be present at the time the child dies. The significance of this cannot be overstated. These relationships cannot be abruptly ended and many (but not all) families will want ongoing contact with those people they feel truly understand what they have experienced. A follow-up appointment with the child’s paediatrician should always be offered to discuss the child’s illness and treatment, the results of any outstanding investigations including post-mortem examinations and how the family is coping.

Sibling grief Siblings almost universally experience distress, but many feel unable to share this for fear of burdening their already fragile parents. One of the many factors which influence sibling grief is developmental level and the impact this has on the child’s understanding of illness and death. Most children learn to recognize when something is dead before they reach three years of age. However, at this early age, death, separation and sleep are almost synonymous in the child’s mind. As children develop and experience life, their concept of death becomes more mature. Table 17.3 shows the six subconcepts acquired during this process (average age of attainment in brackets). Table 17.3 Six subconcepts of children’s understanding of death Separation (age 5)

Dead people do not coexist with the living

Causality (age 6)

Death is caused by something, be it trauma, disease, or old age

Irreversibility (age 6)

A dead person can not ‘come alive’ again

Cessation of bodily functions (age 6)

The dead person does not need to eat or breathe

Universality (age 7)

All living things will die

Insensitivity (age 8)

The dead can not feel fear or pain

Supporting bereaved children • Adjusting to the loss of a loved person does not necessarily require ‘letting go’ of the relationship. Indeed, bereaved children (and adults) often maintain a connection to the dead person. The relationship is reconstructed over time and maintained by remembering the person, keeping their belongings and sometimes talking to them. Children spend most of their time in the care of their parents. It is therefore important to empower parents to support siblings by equipping them with knowledge and ideas. Staff can encourage the family to: • provide information in simple, developmentally appropriate language • be alert to misunderstandings which may arise as a consequence of an incomplete death concept • set aside special time for the child/young person

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• openly express emotion • recruit family, friends and teachers to help • allow the child to play with friends and reassure them that it is OK to have fun • help the child create memories, e.g. stories, photos, drawings, memory books • maintain normal routines and discipline as much as possible • allow the child/young person opportunities to feel in control • resist any temptation to ‘fix their grief’ • encourage them to do what feels right for them • be there—to provide love, reassurance and routine • allow the child time alone. Private ‘space’ is important • talk about the death • answer questions, no matter how explicit • do not be surprised if children use symbolic play, stories and art to make sense of their experience.

School grief The following is adapted from A Practical Guide to Paediatric Oncology Palliative Care, Royal Children’s Hospital, Brisbane, 1999. After the family, the school community may contain the people most affected by the death of a child—friends, fellow students, teachers, administrative staff. Parents form part of a wider school community. It may well be the first bereavement experience for the child’s peers, their parents and teachers. Close attachments are formed between children and their teachers, so that the death of a child may be a personal as well as a professional loss. In a school, there will be a range of grief responses. It is anticipated that both staff and students will be vulnerable to stress and may express themselves differently. For the student, the closer they were to the child the more profound will be the consequences. Teachers may notice a change in the other student’s behaviour, thought processes, concentration and academic performance. A greater level of support, monitoring and care may be warranted, even for those students who may not be expressing their grief in an obvious way. People who may be at increased risk are: • Those who have already experienced significant loss in their lives • Those who have a close relationship with the child who has died or the child’s siblings, and those who have similar health problems themselves or in their family The school is in an ideal position to provide opportunities for students to be supported as well as to identify those who may be experiencing difficulty. The child’s parents should always be consulted before any information is released so that their privacy and the best interests of any siblings are considered and respected. Ways in which the school can help include: • Informing staff and students of the child’s death as a priority. Anxiety and misinformation are fuelled by uncertainty and delay • Senior staff need to acknowledge the sadness of what has happened, perhaps by way of assemblies, class announcements and letters home

COMPLICATED GRIEF

• Staff and children need the opportunity to talk about what has happened, to ask questions and to express their feelings. This is best done in familiar small groups, though it may also be appropriate to set aside a time when people can come and talk together. Students can also be given opportunities to write farewell letters or tributes, and to create artwork as an expression of their thoughts and feelings • A sense of routine provides reassurance to staff and students who have experienced trauma. It is, therefore, important that the school continues to function as a supportive and stable part of the staff and students’ environment • Staff need their own support. Staff meetings provide an opportunity to provide information, monitor the reactions of the children and discuss feelings. In some cases, it may be helpful to hold a special meeting facilitated by someone with expertise in this area. Senior staff are usually required to manage the immediate crisis and may experience a ‘delayed reaction’ • The school can maintain contact with the family in a number of ways. This may be through friends or formal rituals. Some families welcome the participation of the school in the funeral for example, and may wish to be involved in school memorial services. The child may also have expressed wishes regarding the involvement of their school friends

Assessment of bereavement risk The assessment of bereavement risk presupposes that some individuals will display a grief reaction that does not fit a ‘normal’ or expected pattern or level of intensity. The factors that influence complicated bereavement are: • Stage of the life cycle particularly when: • the bereaved parent is an adolescent and family support is perceived as inadequate • the surviving parent of a deceased child is a single mother/father as a result of divorce or being widowed • A history of previous losses, particularly if unresolved. Losses may include: • loss of a pregnancy • loss of a job • divorce • The presence of concurrent or additional stressors such as: • family tension • compromised financial status • dissatisfaction with caregiving • reliance on alcohol and psychotropic medications, pre-bereavement • Physical and mental illness particularly: • current/past history of mental health problems that have required psychiatric/psychological support • family history of psychiatric disorders • High pre-death distress • Inability or restriction in use of coping strategies such as: • maintenance of physical self-care • identification of prominent themes of grief • attributing meaning to the loss

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• • •

• •

Bereavement

• differentiation between letting go of grief and forgetting the bereaved • accessing available support Isolated, alienated individuals Low levels of internal control beliefs, such as: • feeling as if he/she has no control over life The availability of social support particularly if: • people in the immediate environment are, or are perceived to be, unsupportive • support from family and friends immediately prior to death was good and following death it subsided The bereaved lack a confidant with whom to share their feelings, concerns, doubts, dreams and nightmares The bereaved is dissatisfied with the help available during their child’s illness

Further reading Books Dyregrov A. (2008) Grief in young children: a handbook for adults. London: Jessica Kingley. Dyregrov A. (2008) Grief in children: a handbook for adults. 2nd ed. London: Jessica Kingsley. Payne S., Rolls L. (2008) Support for bereaved family carers. In Family Carers in Palliative Care (ed. P. Hudson, S. Payne). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Rando T. A. (1993) Treatment of Complicated Mourning. Champaign: Research Press.

Articles Becker G., et al. (2007) Do religions or spiritual beliefs influence bereavement? A systematic review. Palliative Medicine, 21(3): 207–17. Prigerson H. G., et al. (1995) Inventory of complicated grief. Psychiatry Research, 59: 65–79. Roberts A. (2008) The nature and use of bereavement support services in a hospice setting. Palliative Medicine 22(5): 612–626. Winston’s Wish: www.winstonswish.org.uk. Zhang B., et al. (2006) Update on bereavement research: evidence-based guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of complicated bereavement. Journal of Palliative Medicine, 9(5): 1188–203.

FURTHER READING

Fig. 17.1 A charter for bereaved children.© Winston’s wish 2002. Charity registration number 1061359.www.winstonswish.org.uk/reproduced with permission.

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Self-care for health professionals It is your responsibility to your patients/clients and your human right for yourself, to nurture and maintain your physical, emotional, intellectual and spiritual being. Brigid Proctor

Impact of caring for dying people Background Sources of stress are multiple, may be accumulative and are linked to all areas of an individual’s life. Working with dying people may be stressful, particularly if staff experience personal bereavement and loss, and where such work can put staff in touch with personal anxiety about loss and death.1,2,3 Palliative care staff also find it very stressful to deal with patients who experience intractable pain, those who have young children and those patients who are afraid to die. Symptoms that leave nurses feeling helpless, useless and impotent are the most stressful to deal with, as is dealing with distressed relatives.4 Overall, however, stress and burnout in palliative care has been found to be less than in other specialties. Some research has shown that this is an area where there is very high degree of job satisfaction, and that staff feel they are privileged to be in the position to provide this care.1,2,3 Working with dying people has also been found to influence the attitude of staff towards death and dying. In death anxiety scoring, people who coped well in this field of work scored higher on inner-directedness, self-actualizing value, existentiality, spontaneity, self-regard, self-acceptance, acceptance of aggression and capacity for intimate contact. They were also more likely to live in the present, rather than the past or future.1,2,3 It is suggested that the reason for lower stress and burnout within hospice palliative care units is probably due to the recognition that stress may be inherent to the field of death, dying and bereavement, and consequently more robust support mechanisms have been built into those organizations that provide palliative care.1,2,3 1 Vachon M. (1995) Staff stress in hospice/palliative care: a review. Palliative Medicine, 9: 91–122. 2 Vachon M. (1997) Recent research into staff stress in palliative care. European Journal of Palliative Care, 4(3): 99–103. 3 Vachon M. (2005) The stress of professional caregivers. In Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine (3rd edn) (ed. D. Doyle, et al. (eds), pp. 992–1004. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 4 Alexander D. A., Richie E. (1990) ‘Stressors’ and difficulties in dealing with the terminal patient. Journal of Palliative Care, 6(3): 28–33.

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Hospice and hospital palliative care teams differ considerably, and it has been found that palliative care physicians based in hospitals experience more stress than their hospice colleagues. However, a comparison of 401 specialist registrars’ experience of occupational stress in palliative medicine, medical oncology and clinical oncology showed there was no significant difference between the specialties.5 One in four of the specialist registrars (SpRs) experienced stress and more than one in ten showed clinically important levels of depression. The most common suggestions for reducing stress were improved relationships with colleagues and having ‘supportive seniors’. The importance of coping strategies received far more emphasis from the group of palliative medicine trainees than those SpRs in clinical or medical oncology.5

Supportive environments The Health and Safety Executive recommend that all organizations have a stress policy that outlines the responsibilities of managers and staff to identify stress in the workplace, and provides strategies that may be used to manage this stress and support the staff within the organization. Of note, they recommend the provision of specialist advice and awareness training. A supportive environment and supportive working relationships are essential ingredients in managing the potential stress of working with dying and bereaved people; in addition, it has been found that satisfaction with support in training is protective against stress. Of importance are: regular team meetings, where time is provided to evaluate and reflect on difficult situations encountered by the team; promoting shared decisionmaking in the management of patient care as the norm; and respecting each other’s expertise. Organizations also need to provide effective training for their staff who work with dying and bereaved people, such as the development of advanced communication skills and ‘professional competence’, i.e. knowledge, technical skills, relationship insight and the appropriate attitudes. One means by which this can be achieved is through education in ethics: specifically, virtue ethics or philosophy of care. This is an important component of education in fields of care that involve intense human interactions, as occurs in palliative care.6 Another is to the provision of protected time for clinical supervision and/or reflective practice sessions that support clinical learning and development within a supportive framework. Furthermore, there is a need to support staff in developing realistic expectations of clinical interventions in order to minimize any sense of failure and helplessness.4

Sources of stress Personal life • Personal relationships—spouse/partner, children, carer responsibilities, no close relationships/loneliness

5 Berman R. et al. (2007) Occupational stress in palliative medicine, medical oncology and clinical oncology specialist registrars. Clinical Medicine, 7(3): 235–41. 6 Olthuis G., Dekkers W. (2003) Professional competence and palliative care: an ethical perspective. Journal of Palliative Care, 19(3): 192–7.

IMPACT OF CARING FOR DYING PEOPLE

• Illness—in self or one close to self • Recent bereavement • Minority related stress—victim of racism, sexism, ageism, disability prejudice, etc. • Gender related stress—pressure to do everything/pressure to provide Patients/clients • Inability to create relationships • Negative attitudes—hostility, open dislike, anger • Potential/actual physical violence • Emotional pressures • Problems of emotional involvement • Guilt feelings—feeling responsible • Dependent clients Colleagues • Inability to create relationships • Lack of support • ‘Each doing their own thing’—no teamwork • Open conflict—practice undermined • Bullying • Negative/pessimistic attitudes to work • Bringing problems at home to work • Own anxieties about work • Resentful of others’ positions—professional jealousy Managers • Lack of support—no supervision, etc. • No attention paid to personal development • ‘Routines’ before ‘people’ • Little positive feedback • Discriminatory behaviour • Bullying • Given inappropriate client group, caseload, etc. • Practice skills not recognized • Overwork, heavy demands • Faced with crises • Lack of involvement in decision-making Organizational issues • Lack of resources • ‘Routines’ before ‘people’—bureaucracy • Impersonal links with ‘hierarchy’ • Poor pay/poor conditions of service • Lack of clarity in roles • Little professional ‘expertise’ • Administrative procedures/paperwork • Functions limited by resources • Lack of clarity of work expectations—low status • Poor Staffing ratios • Staff shortages/vacancies not filled

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Warning signs of prolonged stress Physical • Palpitations • Chest pains • Recurrent headaches • Heartburn • Stomach cramps • Stomach full of gas Intellectual • Memory problems • Poor concentration • Anxiety • Errors in judgement • Feeling ‘woolly’ headed • Inability to make decisions Emotional • Frequent feelings of anger, irritation and frustration • Feeling dull and low • Feelings of helplessness and insecurity • Inability to love and care • Feeling tearful • Sleep disturbance

Strategies for coping with stress Organizational • Developing a supportive culture within the organization • Opportunities to express work-related feelings and discuss problems in the workplace • Regular team meetings • Mandatory clinical supervision • Provision of a counselling service for staff • Support in developing competencies for working in palliative care • Robust education programmes for staff that include: developing insight into individual/personal potential areas of difficulty; avoiding excessive involvement with particular clients; handling emotions; advanced communication skills; etc. Personal coping strategies • Having a sense of competence, control and satisfaction in working in palliative care • Having control over workload • Taking time off • Having non-job-related outside activities • Engaging in physical activities and diversions • Ensuring adequate sleep and nutrition • Using relaxation techniques, e.g. physical activity, yoga, meditation, complementary therapies • Developing a personal philosophy regarding death that may or may not relate to individual religious or spiritual beliefs

Chapter 19a

Legal and professional standards of care Doctors like all other healthcare professionals (HCPs) work in an increasingly litigious climate, which is paralleled by increasing legal regulation of healthcare. Sadly, for both patients and doctors, a simple failure by doctors to appreciate the nature and extent of their legal and professional responsibilities is one of the commonest errors leading to significant medicolegal problems. Thus, in addition to familiarity with the high standards set by the GMC within its professional codes of conduct and statements of professional responsibility, it is just as essential that doctors be acquainted with the medicolegal requirements of care. This is particularly true in palliative medicine, where doctors are involved at a highly emotional time in patients’ and families’ lives when numerous ethical issues are encountered, e.g. deciding best interests or deciding capacity. Recently, the Mental Capacity Act 2005 (MCA 2005), by looking at the legality of interventions for adults who lack the capacity to make their own decisions, has helpfully clarified many key medicolegal aspects of healthcare provision within English statute law, reducing some of the clinical dilemmas created by the previous uncertainty and legal inconsistency. Doctors’ key legal and professional responsibilities cover: • Capacity • Best interests — for children and adults with or without capacity • Advance decisions (previously advance directives or living wills) • The right to medical treatment • Appropriate withholding and/or withdrawing of treatment • Clinical negligence • Provision of care for patients with mental health disorders • Dealing with violent or aggressive patients • Caring for victims of mental and/or physical abuse • Informed consent, battery/trespass • Communication with patients and colleagues • Medical records: keeping adequate clinical notes and patient access to records — data protection and patient confidentiality • Witnessing of patients’ wills or advance decisions • Prescribing controlled drugs for patients travelling abroad • Medical cause of death certification and notification of the coroner • DVLA notification of patients’ fitness to drive

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Mental Capacity Act 2005 (MCA)1 Before April 2007, doctors in the UK were expected to make decisions on behalf of patients lacking capacity according to common law and accepted best practice. However, it was feared that without clear legislation inconsistencies could follow and that patients’ autonomy could be undermined. There were particular concerns around the lack of any formal legal status for a ‘next of kin’ and the risk of unfair presumptions of incapacity based only on diagnosis. The increasing numbers of people lacking mental capacity, up to 2 million in England and Wales, also added to the pressure for new legislation (e.g. people with dementia, learning difficulties, mental health problems, stroke, brain injuries or intoxication). The Mental Capacity Act 2005 (MCA) was enacted to cement the principles from case law and best practice into UK statute law and to reform the existing relevant statute. It received Royal Assent in April 2005, and came into force in stages between April 2007 and October 2007. The MCA provides England and Wales with a clear legal framework to define and govern the clinical decision-making process for people who lack mental capacity, to protect and promote patients’ rights (particularly autonomy), to involve and guide relatives/representatives and to protect and guide professionals (with a binding ‘Code of Practice’). Greater clarity, legal backing and the improved options provided within the MCA empower patients’ self-determination and improve consistency within decision-making processes after capacity is lost. This has meant that the MCA has been broadly welcomed, despite some inevitable limitations.

The MCA is underpinned by five key principles • Presumption of capacity: • capacity is assumed unless established otherwise • Supported decision-making: • the right to receive all practical support to enhance capacity and hence to be as self-determining as possible • Acceptability of unwise decisions: • the right to make seemingly eccentric or unwise treatment decisions • The requirement of best interests: • any action or decision made for people without capacity must be in their best interests • Least restrictive interventions: • any action or decision made for people without capacity should be the least restrictive of their basic rights and freedoms

1 Mental Capacity Act 2005. London: TSO.

MENTAL CAPACITY ACT 2005 (MCA)

The MCA clarifies the legal position when decisions need to made for a person who lacks mental capacity: • The MCA describes who can act on someone else’s behalf; when it is appropriate; and how it should be done • The MCA specifies the ‘test’ to assess capacity and the need to support people to enhance their capacity • The MCA provides a checklist of relevant information and views to consider when deciding best interests. This is broader than the traditional ‘medicalized’ perspective including: • the patient’s general welfare • multi-professional working • the views of family and carers, who gain the legal right to be consulted The MCA enables people to put plans in place to ensure their healthcare wishes are still adequately represented if they later lose capacity • It specifies the process to make a written statement to refuse treatment (an advance decision) • It specifies the appointment of substituted decision-makers: • ‘Lasting Power of Attorney’ (LPA) • ‘Independent Mental Capacity Advocate’ (IMCA) • ‘Court Appointed Deputy’ • It ensures a person’s known wishes and feelings are still considered Realizing the complexity of end-of-life treatment decisions, the uniqueness of each scenario and how a lack of capacity further clouds the picture, it is inevitable that the MCA contains limitations. The MCA’s guidance cannot resolve: • Differing opinions on best interests; where consensus cannot be reached despite all reasonable attempts at resolution, e.g. differing religious beliefs within the same family or conflicts between HCPs and LPAs, when it is questionable who is best representing the patient’s views • Disputes as to the applicability of advance decisions: • some doubt will be unavoidable in view of the potential for different interpretations of a patient’s actual meaning (particularly if an advance decision uses vague or lay terms or was written by a third party) • the inherent difficulty for anyone to reliably predict their wishes for an unfamiliar future event. Patients with capacity can and do change their minds when actually facing situations. And many patients, despite lacking the capacity for complex treatment decisions, may still have an unexpectedly good quality of life • The required formalities deterring some patients, particularly elderly patients, from making advance decisions • Legal defensiveness fuelled by an increasing exposure to formal advance decisions that may undermine the value of informal decisions • Either, the need to re-assess capacity/best interests every time patients lacking capacity move from one setting to another, e.g. on admission to the hospice for terminal care from home, or to opt for a continuity of decisions model, which ‘risks’ assumptions of persisting validity and applicability of existing non-treatment decisions and adequate

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adherence with the legal requirements of the MCA by referring colleagues

MCA 2005 and assessing capacity Everyone normally has the mental capacity to make everyday decisions for themselves, e.g. what to eat and where to live. This self-determination extends to deciding whether to accept or refuse medical treatments. The MCA clarifies that anyone from the age of 16 years is assumed to have the capacity to make their own decisions. However, a judgement of capacity must be made if it is felt that a person is unable to make a decision for themselves as a result of a specific brain or mind dysfunction (e.g. dementia, learning difficulties, mental health problems, stroke, brain injuries or intoxication). The MCA specifies the best practice approach (optimistically described as the ‘single clear test’) to assess whether a person lacks capacity.

Capacity A person lacks capacity on an issue if, because of their brain or mind dysfunction, they cannot understand, retain and use the relevant information to reach and then communicate their decision on that specific task at that time The ‘burden of proof ’ lies with confirming that, even after receiving all practical assistance, someone lacks capacity and, crucially, this adjudged lack of capacity is specific only to that decision at that time. To demonstrate capacity a person must meet all five required domains: • Brain or mind dysfunction/impairment • Understand the relevant information: • the information must be given in a clear and understandable way; appropriately tailored to a person’s needs, e.g. using simple language or visual aids • the ‘relevant information’ includes the nature and need for a decision, in particular the likely consequences, of any accepting/ refusing a treatment, of any alternative options; or of not deciding • Retain that information: • for sufficient time to reach a decision, i.e. not necessarily any longer • Use or weigh the relevant information: • to reach a balanced decision • Communicate their decision: • this can be by any means. Thus ‘failure to express wishes’ should rarely be given as the sole justification of incapacity, i.e. only where all help to communicate has failed A lack of capacity cannot be established merely by reference to, or the presumptions around: • Age, appearance or behaviour • Any underlying medical conditions • The likely duration of brain dysfunction

MENTAL CAPACITY ACT 2005 (MCA)

MCA 2005 and deciding best interests The concept of a patient’s ‘best interests’ is difficult to define precisely. Historically, it has appeared sufficient that any intervention should potentially offer a net benefit to the patient.2 A central tenet of the MCA is that any decisions made for people without capacity must be in their best interests. It is down to the person providing the care or treatment to decide what is in the best interests of the person lacking capacity. Although the MCA does not define ‘best interests’ directly, it does provide a checklist of factors that any decision-makers must consider when deciding the best interests for a person they reasonably believe lacks capacity. In addition to the relative medical merits, consideration of broader ethical, social and moral components is required. These ‘requirements’ to determine best interests apply equally to: donee(s) of LPA, court appointed deputies, Independent Mental Capacity Advocates (IMCAs) and professionals within healthcare and social services.

Deciding best interests • • • •

Confirm the person lacks the capacity for that decision at that time Weigh the relative medical benefits of the treatment Clarify current wishes and feelings of the person who lacks capacity Clarify past wishes, feelings, beliefs and values, to deduce what the person would want from: • any written statements from the person (formal and informal) • views of legally designated decision-makers and all other relevant sources, including carers and family as well as professionals

Deciding best interests is not an individual opinion determining what the person would have wanted (i.e. it is not just a ‘substituted judgement’), but an attempt to reach a consensus, as objectively as possible, to decide what would be best for the person after all due consideration. Specifically carers and family members have gained a legal right to be consulted within the process of deciding best interests (previously this was only good practice; a ‘next-of-kin’ had no legal rights). Also, the MCA formally provides for a person to make an advance decision and/or appoint an LPA. The presumed wishes of patients who lack capacity should carry the same weight in ‘best interests’ as a contemporaneous decision from a patient with capacity. This means that doctors are expected to follow a presumed refusal of treatment but they are not obliged to go along with any presumed request for a treatment that goes against their best judgement. When deciding best interests around life-sustaining treatment, there is a strong presumption in favour of continuing treatment to prolong life: • Unless the prolonged quality of life would be ‘intolerable’ for the patient (and so not be in their best interests) • And any determination to stop treatment must not be motivated by any desire to bring about death 2 BMA, (2007). ‘Withholding and Withdrawing Life-prolonging Medical Treatment. (3rd Edn.) Oxford: Blackwell.

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Ultimately, if there is uncertainty or disagreement after appropriate consultation, it is a judge (not a doctor) who makes the determination of ‘best interests’ for a patient lacking capacity.

Checklist for determining best interests When determining a person’s best interests it is necessary to consider all the known relevant circumstances (as is reasonable), in particular: • Confirm that, even after receiving all practical assistance, the person lacks capacity for that decision at that time: • if not permanent, can any decisions be put off (without risking irreversible mental or physical harm) until capacity is regained? • Fully consider the relative medical merits of any healthcare decisions: • treatments should offer a realistic chance of a net gain in health, in terms of quality of life and quantity of life, with a reasonable expectation of cost-effectiveness • Involve the person who lacks capacity to deduce what that person wants: • allow, encourage and facilitate the person’s ability to participate, as fully as possible, in any decisions • include current wishes/feelings • Include the person's past wishes/feelings to deduce what that person would want: • any relevant written statements made before capacity was lost • any beliefs and values that would be likely to influence their decision • any other specific factors to the decision • Involve any legally designated decision-makers (as is practicable and appropriate) to deduce what that person would want: • a donee of a LPA • any deputy appointed by the court • Consult and take all other relevant views into account (as is practicable and appropriate) to deduce what that person would want: • someone named by the person to be consulted • anyone caring for the person or interested in their welfare Conversely, there are factors that are not relevant when determining a person’s best interests. Best interests cannot be determined merely on the basis of, or following unjustified assumptions around: • Age, appearance or behaviour • Any underlying medical conditions

MENTAL CAPACITY ACT 2005 (MCA)

Background to advance decisions to refuse treatment (previously advance directives or living wills) Historically, patients with life-threatening illnesses were comparatively content for doctors to make many treatment decisions on their behalf, and doctors would typically presume that most patients would want all available treatments. However, this is no longer the case, with increasing patient-led care and ongoing technological advances within medicine shifting the balance. Medical developments such as artificial ventilation, artificial hydration/ nutrition, renal dialysis and even cardiopulmonary resuscitation, may potentially prolong life, and could theoretically be offered to all dying patients. However, in advanced disease, such interventions may offer relatively little meaningful survival or symptomatic benefit, yet they still come with burdensome toxicities. Thus doctors may be unsure of their true value; many patients may not desire a prolongation of life that is only possible through what they see as ‘intolerable’ means. Open discussion and agreement with patients prevents the pursuit of inappropriate and undesirable medical interventions. Respect for patient autonomy is a fundamental aspect of medical professionalism; it is a prerequisite of the doctor–patient relationship and is enshrined in UK law. A patient with capacity can refuse any treatment for any or no reason, rational or not, even if their life may be shortened. In general, a HCP is not even allowed to touch a patient without consent (otherwise it is a battery, even if an intervention has proved helpful). However, there are exceptions; consent has not been needed in common law if there is necessity or in an emergency. • Doctrine of Necessity: acting in the best interests of a patient who is not competent to give valid consent (now reflected in the MCA) • Emergency: to prevent immediate serious harm to a patient or to others or to prevent a crime Doctors are not as a rule legally obliged to follow any patient’s requests for a specific treatment. Patient choice cannot force HCPs to give treatments against their best judgement, i.e. if it appears clinically unnecessary, futile or inappropriate, or lacks any reasonable expectation of costeffectiveness. However, a demand for artificial nutrition and hydration in order to be kept alive from a patient with capacity must be followed (any failure to comply could leave a doctor at risk of criminal proceedings). Patients cannot exercise the same autonomy once they lack capacity. The resulting fear is of losing capacity and then being unable to refuse futile treatments; particularly of being kept alive artificially, with no prospect of recovery and no perceived quality of life. This has prompted society to draw up guidance to ensure that patients’ right to refuse treatment is not lost when capacity is lost. Similarly, HCPs are keen to be protected when stopping treatments at the end of life, so they do not feel pressured to provide seemingly unbeneficial and burdensome interventions to such patients lacking capacity, merely because those patients are unable to refuse the treatment. Of note, once capacity is lost, patients no longer have the same absolute right to artificial nutrition and hydration to keep them alive.

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Advance decisions (or advance directives/living wills) allow a patient with capacity to formally express and register their wishes about future treatment decisions in the event that they may lose capacity (and then be unable to consent or refuse treatment). Following proposals dating from the late 1960s, the first legal decision to validate an advance directive occurred in New Jersey Supreme Court, USA, March 1976. This followed the high profile legal case of Karen Ann Quinlan, which was the first to deal with the dilemma of withdrawing life-sustaining treatment from a patient who lacked capacity but was not terminally ill.

Karen Ann Quinlan In 1975, 21-year-old Karen Ann Quinlan lapsed into a persistent vegetative state after coming home from a party (as a result of hypoxic brain damage, following two respiratory arrests). Without the legal option for non-treatment (as she was not brain-dead), the hospital refused to stop her artificial ventilation, despite the request of her parents. Subsequently, in 1976, the Supreme Court found that her ventilation could be discontinued, on ‘privacy’ grounds, if the hospital ethics committee believed her condition was irreversible. The court regretted that it could not discern her supposed choice based on her previous conversations, but had no doubt that Karen would decide to stop the life-support if she could, even if it led to her death. Once off the ventilator, unexpectedly she continued to breathe on her own and remained in a PVS until she died from infection in 1985. At appeal the judicial principles upheld were: • When a patient lacks capacity, someone else may exercise their right to make treatment decisions, preferably their families with medical input (rather than the courts) • End-of-life care decisions should balance any treatment invasiveness against the likelihood of recovery • Patients can refuse treatment even if this refusal might lead to death A similar high-profile debate on the role of advance decisions took place in the UK in 1993, following the case of Tony Bland; the first patient to be allowed to die following the decision of an English court to allow the withdrawal of life-prolonging treatment.3

3 Airedale NHS Trust Bland [1993] I All ER 821.

MENTAL CAPACITY ACT 2005 (MCA)

Tony Bland Tony Bland was left in a persistent vegetative state aged 18 years, following the crush at the Hillsborough football stadium disaster in 1989. Subsequently, the hospital, with the support of the Bland family, made an application to the court to lawfully withdraw all life-prolonging treatment, because such action at that time would otherwise have amounted to the crime of murder in UK law. On appeal the court decided that: • Though at no time had Mr Bland actually given ‘any indication of his wishes’, it was felt that he would not have wished to continue living as a PVS patient • Artificial nutrition and hydration were to be counted as treatment and not basic care (as previously), so they could be withdrawn legally A House of Lords Select Committee on Medical Ethics decided that legislation was unnecessary, favouring the development of a ‘code of practice’. Consequently in 1995, the British Medical Association’s document Advance Statements about Medical Treatment outlined the ethical and legal issues.4 At that time, the UK Government was satisfied that this BMA document, together with case law, provided sufficient clarity and flexibility to enable the validity and applicability of advance decisions to be decided on a case-by-case basis. However, to improve both clarity and consistency, UK legislation on advance decisions was brought in during 2007 within the MCA.

MCA 2005 and advance decisions to refuse treatment Advance decision According to the MCA, an ‘advance decision’ describes the formal provision of clear instructions to cover any future loss of capacity, so a person can specify which treatment(s) should be then stopped or not started and under which circumstances By formalizing anticipatory decision-making, the MCA brings statutory rules and clear safeguards to improve the process. Though no set instructions for preparing an advance decision have been formalized (because of their inherently individualized nature), the MCA clarifies the necessary content and ramifications of an advance decision. In summary, advance decisions; • Can only be made by informed, adult patients with specific capacity • Must stipulate the relevant treatments and circumstances • Only cover refusal of treatment • Can be oral or written, unless authorizing refusal of life-sustaining treatment, when they must also comply with further formalities, i.e. written, signed, witnessed and clarifying ‘even if life is at risk’

4 BMA (1995) Advance Statements about Medical Treatment. Code of Practice with Explanatory Notes. London: BmJ Publishing Group.

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Open discussions with relevant HCPs will help ensure that the patient has the relevant information to complete an advance decision. Advance decisions to refuse treatment are the outcome from, and are not a substitute for, ongoing communication with HCPs and careful deliberation. To make informed choices, patients need to be aware of: the predictable phases of their disease; the diagnosis; prognosis; rehabilitation potential; and all available treatment options. Patients also need to know what will happen if no treatment is carried out. Advance decisions do not encompass other anticipatory decision-making: • Advance statements describing a patient’s preferences for treatment • Oral or unwitnessed refusals of life-sustaining treatment • General commentaries on a patient’s fundamental values • A non-specific desire not to be treated Though these areas (even if documented) are not legally binding in the same way as specific advance refusals, they remain relevant to deciding ‘best interests’ and therefore still need to be incorporated into decisionmaking. That said, nothing in an advance decision (formal or not) can force HCPs to give treatments against their best judgement. Similarly, an advance decision from a patient under the age of 18 years should be taken into account and accommodated if possible, but a court or a person with parental responsibility can overrule it. The legal weighting of any undocumented verbal advance decisions may prove uncertain if contested. Where possible, HCPs should record any verbal advance decisions to refuse treatment in the patient’s medical notes as fully as is practical. Healthcare professionals: • Are liable to follow an advance decision to refuse treatment if it appears valid and applicable to the prevailing circumstances, just as if the person had made a contemporaneous decision with capacity (failure to comply could risk a claim of battery) • Carry no liability for the consequences of giving or not giving a treatment according to an advance decision that the HCP has sufficient grounds to reasonably believe to be valid and applicable • Can provide a treatment ‘refused’ in an advance decision if they are not satisfied that the advance decision is both valid and applicable, and as long as the treatment is in the patient’s best interests • Are protected from any liability if a failure to comply with an advance decision results from their lack of awareness of its existence If an advance decision is contested, the court can be asked to decide if it exists, if it is valid and if it is applicable to a proposed treatment. Specifically, life-sustaining treatment to prevent a serious deterioration can be provided while awaiting the court’s decision. If the validity or applicability of an advance decision remains uncertain, common law suggests the court would be likely to favour continuing with life-sustaining treatments. Advance decisions to refuse treatment are not valid if… • Made by someone under 18 years (not binding, but can still carry influence) • Made by someone who lacked the necessary capacity when the advance decision was completed. If capacity could potentially be open

MENTAL CAPACITY ACT 2005 (MCA)

•

• •

•

•

• • •

to subsequent contest, it may be prudent to seek HCP assessment to confirm and document capacity The nature or implications of any unwanted treatments were not fully understood when the advance decision was completed. Though not compulsory, it is therefore ‘very important’ that patients have sufficiently discussed any plans to refuse life-sustaining treatments with HCPs in order to make an informed refusal. Similarly, all other potential stakeholders should be involved in discussions, to limit any later doubts around validity or applicability The advance decision has subsequently been altered or withdrawn by the patient when they still had capacity A LPA was created after the advance decision that conferred authority over the specific decision. Of note, an advance decision overrules any previously appointed LPA and can still be valid despite the existence of a subsequent LPA if the LPA does not convey the relevant authority The patient’s subsequent actions are clearly inconsistent with the advance decision remaining fixed, suggesting that the patient might have changed his/her mind before capacity was lost. Regular updates, particularly after any key life events will improve the perceived validity of an advance decision Advance decisions to refuse life-sustaining treatment are not valid unless written, signed, witnessed and explicit specifying that the decision stands ‘even if life is at risk’. The patient (or someone explicitly directed by the patient) must have signed the document in front of a witness. This witness must then also have signed the document, in the patient’s presence, to witness both the signing and that the document was intended to reflect the patient’s wishes, but not to witness the presence of capacity (which is presumed). By contrast, if a HCP witnesses an advance decision, satisfactory capacity could be implied, though this alone would not suffice as proof. Thus, it would appear good practice for any HCPs witnessing an advance decision to also perform and document a formal assessment of capacity Patients are refusing future basic care. Advance decisions cannot refuse: warmth, comfort, shelter, hygiene or the offer of food and drink Made by someone thought to have been coerced, under perceived pressure or clinically depressed when the advance decision was completed, sufficient to undermine the decision Applying the advance decision could potentially put others at risk of serious harm

Advance decisions to refuse treatment are not applicable if… • The patient still has capacity to give or refuse consent, or would regain capacity within an adequate timeframe to allow a delayed capacitydecision with no compromise • The treatment in question is not specified in the advance decision • Any circumstances specified in the advance decision are absent • There are reasonable grounds to believe the existing circumstances had not been anticipated within the advance decision and these would affect any decision

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• Refusing treatment that was subject to compulsory treatment under mental health legislation, Part 4 (Consent to Treatment) of the Mental Health Act 1983 which permits treatment without consent An ‘advance decision’ to refuse treatment can be… • Expressed in layman’s terms • Withdrawn or altered at any time by the patient, if capacity is retained • Withdrawn or altered verbally by the patient, except for the need to be in writing to cover refusing life-sustaining treatments (though a prior refusal of life-sustaining treatments can be revoked orally) An ‘advance decision’ cannot be followed if it is not available when needed • The patient should be encouraged to store the document safely. It is the patient’s responsibility to ensure its availability. A copy should be sent to the GP, specialist team and stored in the case notes as well as with carers, family and friends. Patients should consider carrying a specific bracelet or card to flag the existence and whereabouts of an advance decision • In an emergency situation, HCPs should make all reasonable efforts to acquaint themselves with the contents of the Advance decision if they know or have reason to believe that one is available, but they should not delay treatment in anticipation of finding one

Guidance on a written advance decision Though there is no set format for written advance decisions, as with any legal document, it should be clear, comprehensive and unambiguous. It must be readily accessible when needed, it should be reviewed regularly (to appear as up-to-date as possible) and all stakeholders should be kept aware of the contents to prevent avoidable distress and disputes when implemented. Meticulous preparation and adherence with the additional requirements is needed for any refusal of life sustaining treatments, to prevent any doubts around validity or applicability, which may otherwise undermine the patient’s expressed wishes, if the advance decision were to be contested in court.

MENTAL CAPACITY ACT 2005 (MCA)

Possible format of written advance decisions • Patient’s full name, address and date of birth • Document name and address of GP, and any other key HCPs stating if they have a copy • Clarify the extent of HCP advice sought when writing the advance decision; give any additional names and addresses • Clear statement that the document should apply if the patient lacks capacity to make their own treatment decisions • If potentially open to question, seek HCP confirmation and documentation of capacity at the time of writing • Make a clear statement of the patient’s decision: • clarify the specific treatment(s) to be refused • clarify the specific circumstances when the refusal would apply • confirm the decision stands ‘even if life is at risk’ if refusing life-sustaining treatments • Date of first and any subsequent drafts and the current review • Clarify if a LPA has been appointed and any other nominated persons who should be consulted: • document names, addresses and telephone numbers • clarify their awareness of the contents of the document • Signature of patient or of their nominee (confirming signing for the patient, in the patient’s presence) • Signature of the witness: clarify that it has been signed with the patient present, to witness both the signing and that the signature confirms that the document reflects the patient’s wishes • Witness’ full name, address and their relationship to the patient • Accessibility: details should be given of where all copies of the advance decision are expected to be kept • Attach a statement to better inform future ‘best interests’ decisions (not binding but still must be taken into consideration) • set out the patient’s general wishes, feelings and values • make any specific requests for treatment, or a general request to receive all medically reasonable efforts to prolong life • state where the patient would like to be cared for

MCA 2005 and designated decision-makers to act for someone who lacks capacity • A competent person can appoint someone they trust as a ‘LPA’, who can then have full legal powers to act on their behalf on matters of health, welfare and finances, should they lose capacity (as detailed below) • Independent Mental Capacity Advocates (IMCAs) are an extra safeguard for particularly vulnerable people in specific situations. An IMCA is appointed to represent and support any person who lacks capacity when there is no one available (as is practicable) to speak on their behalf. An IMCA is required in decisions of ‘serious medical treatment’ or, as in most cases during the pilot phase, decisions of significant changes of residence (e.g. discharge from hospice to nursing home). The IMCA brings all the factors relevant to a decision to the

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attention of the decision-maker, including the person’s wishes, feelings, beliefs and values. The IMCA can challenge the decision-maker. The Department of Health website provides a list of IMCA providers (from local authorities or NHS bodies) • The new Court of Protection will appoint a deputy when facing a series of decisions where the Court cannot resolve the issues with a one-off ‘court order’. As specified, deputies can then make decisions on welfare (including health) and/or financial matters, but deputies cannot refuse consent to life-sustaining treatment or override a LPA and they must act in the person’s best interests

MCA 2005 and lasting power of attorney (LPA) A ‘power of attorney’ is a legal document that enables a person to choose someone else to act on their behalf. The MCA has updated and extended the scope of the previous UK statute on ‘(Enduring) Power of Attorney’ which covered only finances, replacing it with ‘Lasting Power of Attorney’ (LPA) which can, in addition, cover decisions on health and welfare. The new documents allow a person, the donor, to choose one or more representative(s), the ‘donee(s)’, to officially act on their behalf. The scope of legal authority passed within a LPA can cover any or all aspects within either or both types of LPA.

Two types of LPA • Property and affairs: • replaces the previous Enduring Power of Attorney • can be activated either before or after capacity is lost, as specified • Personal welfare: • a new option to appoint someone to ‘consent’ on health and other welfare matters • can only be activated once the donor has lost capacity Thus, a patient can now appoint a trusted representative to cover not only relatively mundane decisions such as access to medical records, diet and daily care routine, but also to accept or decline potentially life sustaining treatment on their behalf should they lose capacity. Such a role carries a ‘very heavy burden’; a LPA may have to make potentially life and death decisions for someone they care about, with in practice, limited clear-cut instructions. Creating a LPA requires: • The appropriate appointment of a donee(s): • donees must be aged 18 years or more (or a trust corporation if only covering property and affairs) • donees must not be bankrupt, if the LPA conveys authority over property and affairs • two or more persons may act as a LPA jointly (shared role) and severally (independent roles) • a replacement donee can only be appointed by the donor

MENTAL CAPACITY ACT 2005 (MCA)

• That the document is drawn up in accordance with the MCA: • donor had reached 18 years of age and had the required capacity at the time • written and complies with further specific requirements. For an LPA to be able to authorize the giving or refusing of consent to life-sustaining treatment, the document must contain explicit authority • That the LPA is registered with the Office of the Public Guardian (OPG) (P. 985) before it can be used The authority conferred by a LPA is subject to: • Confirmation that, even after receiving all practical assistance, the person lacks capacity for that decision at that time • The LPA, in the prescribed form, having been registered with the OPG • The donee being fully informed of the nature, risks and consequences to the donor of accepting or refusing any proposed treatment • As applicable, consultation with any donee with ‘joint’ responsibility to reach agreement (by contrast, if multiple donees carry ‘several and joint’ responsibility, then they can all independently give the needed authority) • Any specified limitations to the scope of powers, as set by the donor • Compliance with all the provisions within the Act. In particular, donee(s) must adhere to ‘the principles’ and so they must make decisions that are in the donor’s ‘best interests’. Thus, no one person can act as a true patient proxy (i.e. able to give consent); in being obliged to follow best interests, if contested in court the scope of a donee’s authority may not prove comparable to that of a patient with capacity or an accepted advance decision • Consensus with HCPs and other relatives/carers; if conflict cannot be resolved, the case will need referral to the Court of Protection. While discord around ‘best interests’ decisions should be infrequent, it is not yet clear if LPAs will convey the power of veto, to overrule clinicians. For example, could a LPA refusal prevent the necessary hoisting of a patient lacking capacity, despite the potential health and safety issues for staff (but crucially not the patient), pending any decision by the Court of Protection? A donee of a LPA cannot authorize restraint unless: • The LPA reasonably believe the donor lacks the necessary capacity • The LPA reasonably believe that restraint is necessary to prevent harm to the donor • The restraint is proportionate to the likelihood and seriousness of harm

MCA 2005 and restraint/deprivation of liberty The MCA’s protection of patients’ rights include guidance on the ‘restraint’ of people lacking capacity. • Restraint is defined as any restriction to the liberty or movement of an incapacitated person or the use or threat of force should the person resist: • restraint is only permitted if the person using it reasonably believes it is necessary to prevent harm to the incapacitated person • any restraint must be proportionate to the likelihood and seriousness of potential harm • any restraint must represent the least restrictive option

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• In 2004, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that a patient had been unlawfully detained, despite being admitted to hospital under the UK Common Law Doctrine of Necessity. This led to an update to the MCA via the Mental Health Act 2007 to fill the ‘Bournewood gap’. The ‘Bournewood gap’ refers to the lack of legal safeguards for patients who lack capacity (but are not covered by the Mental Health Act) when they need to be deprived of their liberty in their best interests. This includes admitting people with significant learning difficulties, dementia or cerebral malignancies for treatment or care (to protect them from harm). To prevent European Convention on Human Rights incompatibilities, there was a need to ensure these patients had recourse to adequate formal legal procedures if admission were needed. Consequently the MCA makes any deprivation of liberty unlawful unless there is ‘Bournewood authorisation’ or Court of Protection support. In ‘an emergency’ an institution (e.g. a hospice) can issue urgent authorisation for any patient felt to be at risk of deprivation of liberty while obtaining standard authorization through a local authority.

MCA 2005 and clear parameters for research The MCA introduces strict safeguards for research involving people lacking capacity. The MCA balances the potential risks of this vulnerable population against the potential benefits of properly conducted research for patients who lack capacity. Specifically, the individual’s interests are put ahead of science or society’s interests. Any research involving people lacking capacity must: • Be sanctioned by an ‘appropriate body’ of independent experts (e.g. a Research Ethics Committee) • Be safe and necessary; with a net benefit to the person or to derive new scientific knowledge • Be intended to help understand or treat the person’s condition: and thus not as valuable if as when performed by recruiting people who have mental capacity • With minimal risk, intrusion or interference with the person’s rights (e.g. case-note reviews) • Have ongoing permission from carers or an independent nominated third party; agreeing that the person lacking capacity would have consented to participate • Ensure a person is withdrawn if there are any signs of distress, resistance or refusal

MCA 2005 and legal requirements for provision of care The MCA offers some protection and guidance to clinicians and caregivers. A person can provide care or treatment for a patient who lacks capacity with no additional legal liability, providing reasonable steps are taken to establish that: firstly, the patient lacks capacity; and, secondly, the decisions made appear in the patient’s best interests at the time. Thus the legal liability for any healthcare interventions for patients who appear to lack capacity is exactly the same as that seen for patients with capacity who have consented, providing that: • Having followed the specified assessment of capacity, HCPs should have a ‘reasonable belief ’ that the patient lacks capacity

MENTAL CAPACITY ACT 2005 (MCA)

• Having followed the specified requirements for deciding best interests, HCPs should have a ‘reasonable belief ’ that any decisions are in the patient’s best interests • The HCP has not acted in conflict with a valid and applicable advance decision or the decision of a LPA or court deputy when acting within their authority and in accordance with the Act The Code of Practice fleshes out the broad framework set out by the MCA. This Code (running to 302 pages) has legal force and applies to anyone with a prescribed role that impacts on persons lacking capacity including: • Anyone with formal powers (attorneys, deputies and IMCAs) • A professional or someone with a paid role, e.g. in health or social care • Anyone with a research remit covered by the MCA The Code also serves as a good practice guide for anyone else working with or caring for people who may lack capacity. In addition, the general approach appears transferable to any complex healthcare decision-making process, even in patients with capacity, while consensus is sought. The MCA has added further legal provisions to protect vulnerable people: • A legal obligation to comply with the Act is placed on both individuals and employing NHS Trusts • The MCA introduces a new criminal offence of ill-treatment or wilful neglect of a person who lacks capacity, liable to imprisonment for up to five years. It applies to anyone caring for a person (of any age) who lacks capacity. This includes family carers as well as healthcare and social care staff providing care in any setting (hospital, hospice, care home or home), Court-appointed deputies and LPAs. The MCA does not cover areas considered too individual or personal to allow someone else to make decisions for a person lacking capacity. These include marriage/civil partnerships, divorce, sexual relationships and voting.

Two new public bodies to support the statutory framework of the MCA 2005 • The Court of Protection is a single specialized Court that combines the previous Court of Protection (property and affairs) and High Court jurisdiction (on welfare including healthcare). The ‘Court of Protection’, was created to oversee the new legislation, with jurisdiction across the whole Act, and is the final arbiter for complex matters of capacity or best interests. It has trained staff to consider property, affairs and welfare issues, with a regional presence but an informal style. In addition to adjudicating in one-off financial or difficult welfare decisions, if a single court order is insufficient, the Court of Protection can appoint deputies to assist ongoing decision-making • The ‘Office of the Public Guardian’ (OPG) has replaced the Public Guardianship Office. The OPG will be the registering and supervising authority for both LPAs and Court-appointed deputies. They will

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respond to any concerns raised about the way in which an attorney or deputy is operating and provide guidance to the public and information to the courts. Court-appointed deputies have replaced receivers, and can be appointed to decide on financial or welfare matters or both. The deputy must still allow the person who lacks capacity to make whatever decisions they are able to, and must only make decisions that are in the person’s best interests

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Clinical negligence Claims of clinical negligence will result when doctors are deemed to have acted outside of sound medical practice. While clinical opinion may vary, in medical litigation the central question is whether or not a doctor attained the standard of care as required by law. The UK legal standard expected is one of ‘reasonable care’ as defined by case law. This is judged by taking into account all the circumstances surrounding a particular situation and by balancing the diversity inherent in medical practice against the interests of the patient. • In determining the required standard of care, the court traditionally uses the Bolam test; a doctor has not been negligent if they can show they acted in line with the accepted practice of responsible peers, even if another body of medical opinion takes a contrary view • Subsequently, the judgment from the ‘Bolitho’ case has imposed an additional requirement above the standard of clinical care as was defined by the Bolam test. The courts must now take a more enquiring stance, testing the medical evidence offered by both parties in any litigation, to determine if such opinion is ‘reasonable’, ‘respectable’ and ‘responsible’. The courts must be satisfied that the medical experts have considered all the risks and benefits to reach a defensible and logical conclusion. Thus, though unlikely, a doctor acting in line with the accepted practice could still be found to be negligent if the court believes the accepted medical practice in question is not sufficiently balanced or logical. That is, just the occurrence of similar medical practices is no longer a sufficient defence in itself; to be defensible, clinical care must also reflect balanced, comprehensive and logical decision-making

The Bolam Test, 19575 In 1954, Mr Bolam underwent electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) for clinical depression. At that time medical opinion differed on how best to minimize the risk of injuries possible from convulsions induced by ECT. In Mr Bolam’s case the technique of manual restraint was ineffective and as a result fractured his pelvis. He subsequently argued that the doctor had been in breach of the standard of care in providing treatment and that the hospital had been negligent. The Judge in his direction to the jury said that a doctor is not guilty of negligence if he has acted in accordance with the practice accepted as proper by a responsible body of medical opinion skilled in that particular art. If, therefore, a medical practice is supported by a body of peers, then the Bolam test is satisfied and the practitioner has met the required standard of care in law. This test has been used on numerous occasions in cases of medical litigation.

5 Bolam v Friern Hospital Management Committee [1957] I WLR 582.

CLINICAL NEGLIGENCE

Bolitho, 19986 In 1984, a two-year old boy was re-admitted to hospital with breathing difficulties a day after discharge, following a 4-day admission for croup. During this stay a doctor failed to attend when called by nurse colleagues to assess further episodes of breathing difficulties. Subsequently, the child arrested and sustained severe brain damage. By the time of the court case the child had died. A breach of duty from the non-attendance was established, while the doctor’s defence that they would not have intubated the child if they had attended was not considered germane. The question of negligence rested with the need for intubation and if this intubation could have then prevented the arrest. Conflicting medical evidence was given on whether intubation would have been the proper course of action. In line with the Bolam Test, the doctor was initially deemed not negligent since not intubating was supported by one of the two sets of responsible medical opinion. Though the courts ultimately dismissed the case, it went to appeal and the House of Lords. The Bolam principle was perceived as being excessively reliant upon the medical testimony supporting the defendant. Contrary to the spirit of Bolam the presence of expert medical opinion supporting the defendant was deemed insufficient in itself to avoid a claim of clinical negligence. Rather the court had to be satisfied that any body of medical opinion relied upon by the defence had demonstrated that it had a logical basis, having weighed all the competing risks and benefits. Reassuringly, it was deemed ‘very seldom’ that a judge would question a competent medical expert opinion.

6 Bolitho v City and Hackney HA [1998] AC 232.

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Further reading Books BMA, (1995) Advance Statements about Medical Treatment. Code of Practice with Explanatory Notes’. London, BMJ Publishing Group. BMA, (2007). ‘Withholding and Withdrawing Life-prolonging Medical Treatment. Guidance for Decisionmaking’. (3rd edn.) Oxford: Blackwell.

Articles Jacoby R, Steer P (2007) How to assess capacity to make a will. British Medical Journal, 335: 7611: 155–157. Johnston C, (2007) The Mental Capacity Act 2005 and Advance decisions Clinical Ethics, 2: 80–84. Luttrell S (1996) living wills do have legal effect provided certain criteria are met. British Medical Journal, 313: 1148. Samanta A., Samanta J., (2006) Advance directives, best interests and clinical judgement; shifting sands at the end of life. Clinical Medicine, 6(3): 274–8. Sheather J, (2006) The Mental Capacity Act 2005 Clinical Ethics, 1: 33–36. Travis S., et al. (2001) Guidelines in respect of Advance Directives: the position in England. International Journal of Palliative Nursing, 7(10): 493–500. Department for Constitutional Affairs (2007) ‘Code of Practice for. London: The Stationery Office (TSO) The Mental Capacity Act 2005. Available on-line; at: http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/en2005/ ukpgaen_20050009_en_cop.pdf. Department of Health (2007) ‘Background to the IMCA Service’ from: www.dh.gov.uk/en/socialcare/ Deliveringadultsocialcare/mentalcapacity/IMCA/DH_4134876 Mental Capacity Act 2005 London. HMSO. Re B (Consent to treatment: capacity) [2002] All ER 449.

Chapter 19b

Death certification and referral to the coroner Registration of death Every death occurring in the UK has to be registered in the Register of Deaths local to the place of death. This chapter relates to procedures in England and Wales, although other jurisdictions e.g. Scotland have very similar procedures. The information recorded in the Register comprises personal details of the deceased person and medical information as to the cause of death. The death must be formally registered (within 5 days) at the Register Office for Births, Deaths and Marriages local to the place of death, although it is now possible to provide the personal details needed to register at any registry.

Personal details The relevant personal details (including the deceased’s full name, home address, dates and places of birth and death, occupation, matrimonial/ partner status, etc.) will be provided by the ‘informant’ (normally a close relative who has personal knowledge of the deceased) who attends the Register office, and is able to respond to the various questions asked by the registrar.

Medical details and completion of the Medical Certificate of Cause of Death The medical details will be provided by the registered medical practitioner who has been in attendance on the deceased during his/her last illness. He/she is required to furnish a certificate in the prescribed form (‘Medical Certificate of Cause of Death’ or MCCD). It should be completed, by the certifying doctor, with the cause of death to the best of the doctor’s information, knowledge and belief. The MCCD should be completed promptly, giving clear statements that set out the sequence of the disease process that led to death. It should not give a ‘mode’ of death as the only entry nor should abbreviations be used. The doctor is legally responsible for the delivering the MCCD to the registrar, although normally the informant acts as the doctor’s agent and hands it to the registrar. The registrar will copy all the medical details from the MCCD (using the identical words and spelling) into the register.

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Reference to the coroner Deaths that cannot be readily certified as due to natural causes should be referred to the coroner. Once a death has been reported to the coroner, he/she has a duty to investigate the cause of death. This may be done by way of informal inquiry carried out by the coroner or a coroner’s officer, by a post-mortem examination made to establish a cause of death or by an inquest. If the family objects to the post-mortem, whether for religious or other reasons, an appeal can be made, but this may delay the funeral. The registrar (but no one else) has a statutory duty to report any death to the coroner if, on the basis of information coming to the registrar’s notice, it may be one that, by law, the coroner is required to investigate (see below). Nevertheless, doctors are encouraged to report voluntarily any death that the registrar may subsequently refer to the coroner. This will save time and reduce uncertainty for the family. Coroners and their officers are always prepared to discuss individual cases and, in this way, ensure that families are neither inconvenienced nor troubled unnecessarily.

Coroner’s inquiries The coroner will address the duties of investigating a death by informal inquiry carried out by the coroner or a coroner’s officer, by a postmortem examination made to establish a cause of death or by an inquest. If the case is one where an inquest is held, the registration in the Register of Deaths is completed by the coroner when the inquest is finally concluded. A coroner’s inquest is a limited public inquiry, convened by the coroner, to find factual answers to who the deceased person was and how, when and where the death occurred. The coroner does not address matters of blame (i.e. liability).

Registrar’s duty to report to the coroner The registrar is required to report the death to the coroner if: • It appears to the registrar the deceased was not attended during his last illness by a registered medical practitioner • The registrar has been unable to obtain a duly completed MCCD • The deceased was not seen by the doctor: • either after death, or • within 14 days before death • The cause of death appears to be: • unknown, or • unnatural, or • the death was caused by: —violence, or —neglect, or —abortion; or • the death was attended by suspicious circumstances; or • the death occurred: —during an operation, or —before recovery from the effect of an anaesthetic; or

REFERENCE TO THE CORONER

• the death appears to have been due to: —industrial disease, or —industrial poisoning 24 hours In addition, it is sometimes argued that if the deceased was only under the care of the doctor for less than 24 hours before death ensued, that doctor may not have sufficient knowledge as to the cause of death for him/her to complete the MCCD. The coroner’s office will always advise informally about this.

Certifying deaths in the hospice setting In a hospice setting it is not uncommon for a patient to die with a pathological fracture or to die within a short time of arrival at the hospice. The local coroner will be very pleased to discuss these cases.

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Completing the MCCD Doctors have a legal duty to state all they know. However, it is relatively easy for any member of the public to obtain a copy of the death register entry that will include the cause of death. There is, therefore, the potential for a breach of confidence. The Office of Population Census and Surveys (OPCS) accepts that the present system is unsatisfactory. The current practice of stating a superficial cause of death rather than the underlying disease process in such cases is widespread. Although it is technically illegal, it is condoned by the OPCS—provided the box on the reverse side of the certificate is ticked stating that additional information may be forthcoming. This point has yet to be tested in the courts. These comments often apply to patients dying with AIDS-related illnesses.

Other points Burial and cremation The registration process also provides authorization for burial or cremation. The authorization issued by the registrar should be handed to the funeral director to be used by the family. If the case is one where an inquest is held, the authorization of the burial or cremation is given by the coroner. Cremation New regulations apply to cremation in the UK from 2009. If a body is to be cremated a certificate of medical attendant (Form 4) and a confirmatory medical certificate (Form 5) should be completed. In Form B, if the doctor has not attended the deceased within 14 days of death, the coroner should be notified. The doctor must see the body after death. Form C must be completed by a registered medical practitioner of not less than five years standing, who shall not be a relative of the deceased or a relative or partner of the doctor who has given the certificate in Form B. The doctor must see and examine the body after death. In addition, the doctor must have seen and questioned the medical practitioner who completed Form B. The applicant for cremation has a new right to inspect form Cremation 4 or 5. Some of the information may have been given to the doctor by the deceased in confidence. If it is included in the form, it may be disclosed to the applicant for cremation if they choose to inspect the form. If this would be a breach of confidence information may be given to the medical referee on a separate sheet of paper attached to the Form with explanatory reasons. Death certificate When completed, the entries in the Register of Deaths will form ‘the death certificate’, the proof of death required for the various legal and social processes as well as overall statistics of causes of death. Copies of the death certificate can be obtained from the registrar.

OTHER POINTS

Wills If there is a will, the executors named in the will (or if there is no will, the deceased’s personal representative) is responsible for arranging the funeral and looking after (and subsequently disposing of) the person’s assets and property. If there is a will, the executor should ‘prove’ this to obtain probate of the will. If there is no will, the deceased’s personal representative should apply for letters of administration. Funeral director The funeral director will need to know whether the body is to be buried or cremated (over 75% of deaths in the UK are now followed by cremation). They will need to know of any religious customs or rituals that might be necessary. Bodies may be ‘partially’ embalmed routinely or this might be discussed with the family. Traditionally, embalming involves draining blood from the body and replacing it with formaldehyde plus a pinkish dye pumped under pressure, which has a hardening and disinfecting effect. Nowadays, the blood is not drained, but a small amount of embalming fluid is infused to help prevent the body smelling and to make the face more presentable; This is particularly relevant either for hygienic reasons or if the families wish to view.

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Chapter 19c

Fitness to drive In the interest of road safety those who suffer from a medical condition likely to cause a sudden disabling event at the wheel or inability to safely control their vehicle from any other cause should not drive. The Secretary of State for Transport acting through the medical advisers at the Drivers Medical Group at the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency (DVLA) has the responsibility to ensure that all licence holders are fit to drive. It is the duty of the licence-holder to notify the DVLA of any medical conditions which may affect safe driving. Most patients are sensible and responsible and, with the support of family members, are safe on the roads. They will avoid driving when their physical or mental condition begins to affect their judgement and ability to react quickly to unpredictable circumstances. Driving is often seen as an important factor in maintaining the struggle for independence. It may be very hard for the patient, on both a practical and emotional level, to agree to letting go of the last vestiges of control over their lives. Very sensitive handling is needed. If a patient is obviously unfit to drive for any reason and refuses to comply, the GMC issues the following guidelines: • The DVLA is legally responsible for deciding if a person is medically unfit to drive. They need to know when driving licence holders have a condition which may, now or in the future, affect their safety as a driver • Therefore, where patients have such conditions, the doctor should make sure that the patient understands that the condition may impair their ability to drive. If a patient is incapable of understanding this advice, for example because of dementia, you should inform the DVLA immediately • Explain to patients that they have a legal duty to inform the DVLA about the condition. If the patient refuses to accept the diagnosis or the effect of the condition on his/her ability to drive, you can suggest that he/she seeks a second opinion, and make appropriate arrangements for this. You should advise patients not to drive until the second opinion has been obtained • If patients continue to drive when they are not fit to do so, you should make every reasonable effort to persuade them to stop. This may include telling their next of kin • If you do not manage to persuade patients to stop driving, or you are given, or find, evidence that a patient is continuing to drive contrary to advice, you should disclose relevant medical information immediately, in confidence, to the medical adviser at DVLA • Before giving information to the DVLA you should inform the patient of your decision to do so. Once the DVLA has been informed, you should also write to the patient to confirm that a disclosure has been made

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CHAPTER 19C

Fitness to drive

Driving and drugs that might impair cognitive and motor skills Doctors have a duty to inform patients when they are prescribed medication which may impair their driving (GMC guidelines). Patients should be reminded that motor insurance may become invalid if there are changes in medical circumstances.

Many drugs used in palliative care may impair cognitive and motor skills including:Opioid analgesics Benzodiazepines Antidepressants Phenothiazines Antihistamines

e.g. morphine, oxycodone, etc. e.g. diazepam, lorazepam e.g. amitriptyline e.g. levomepromazine e.g. cyclizine

Patients on longer-term stable doses of opioids show only minor effects in terms of diminished cognition, perception, coordination or behaviour related to driving. Patients, however, who are started on opioids or who are prescribed an increase above their ‘normal’ stable dose may show cognitive impairment for a few weeks or so. These patients should be advised not to drive during this period.

Driving and brain tumours The diagnosis of a high-grade primary or secondary brain tumour, whether or not a convulsion has occurred, must be notified to the DVLA. Patients will not be allowed to drive for at least two years after treatment.

Driving and heart/vascular conditions Patients with heart failure may usually be safe to drive provided that there are no symptoms that may distract the driver’s attention. There are restrictions for those with intracardiac defibrillating devices. Patients with an abdominal aortic aneurysm of >6.5cm will be disqualified from driving.

Driving and dementia Patients with poor short-term memory, disorientation, lack of insight and judgement will almost certainly not be fit to drive. There is acknowledgement, however, that presentation and progression of dementia is variable and that the risk of a crash is acceptably low for up to three years after the onset of dementia; in early dementia, while sufficient skills remain and progress is slow, the medical adviser may allow driving but will require a yearly review.

Driving and seat belts Exemption from having to wear a seat belt may be sought if it is thought to pose a danger to the patient’s safety, such as in the situation of significant intra-abdominal disease. Application forms for a Certificate of Exemption from compulsory seat belt wearing in the UK may be obtained through the NHS Response telephone line (0300 123 1002).

FURTHER READING

Useful contacts Drivers Medical Group DVLA Swansea SA99 1TU Tel: 0870 600 0301 DVLA At A Glance—Current medical standards of fitness to drive— www.dvla.gov.uk (reviewed 6 monthly)

Further reading Breen D., et al. (2007) Driving and dementia British Medical Journal 334: 1365–9.

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Chapter 19d

Dermatomes

Fig. 19d.1 Dermatomes.

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CHAPTER 19D

Dermatomes

Fig. 19d.1 (Continued)

1003

Chapter 19e

Genograms Key: Man

Man (died)

Man (patient)

Woman

Woman (died)

Woman (patient)

Marriage relationships: Married

Civil partnerships

Separated Divorced Cohabiting 1

2

3 Second and third marriages/civil partnerships

First

Second

Third

Parent-child relationships: Parents

Children Twins Example: Mr Green

Ron

Elsie

Sam Jane

Colette Ann

Peter (18) Gail (16) Sam (14) Mike (11)

Fig. 19e.1 Genograms.

Gail Brenda

David

Jill Smith Mary Judd

Wayne Sian Celia Paul Sheila (14) (18/12) (11) (10) (3)

Paul (2)

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1005

Chapter 19f

Peripheral nerve assessment C5,6

C5 C6,7,8 C7,8

C6,7

C6,7

Pronation & Supination C6

L2,3 L4,5

S1,2 C7,8 T1

L4,5 L3,4

L5,S1 Fig. 19g.1 Peripheral nerve assessment.

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Chapter 19g

Travelling abroad It is not uncommon for terminally ill patients to want to travel abroad in order to see family or to die in their home country. A wish to travel by air needs to be balanced against the risk to the individual and the inconvenience and cost to fellow passengers and airlines in the event of unscheduled changes to flight plans. If there is any doubt, the airline medical officer, who will give the final authorization, should be contacted well in advance of travel.

In flight Changes in air pressure occur during flight and po2 may be reduced. For this reason, patients with marked breathlessness (who are unable to walk more than 50 metres), with Hb less than 7.5g/L, ischaemic heart disease, cardiac failure or those who are oxygen-dependent may have difficulty. In-flight cabin oxygen is inadequate for such patients. Extra supplies of oxygen may be made available as necessary if the airline is aware in advance. Air expands at lower atmospheric pressures, and for this reason patients with a pneumothorax, large bullae, ear/sinus disease and recent surgery or colonoscopy should not fly without advice. Other conditions to consider carefully are intracranial tumours or confusion. Patients will be at risk of thromboembolism on long-haul flights, especially if they are unable to mobilize adequately; the use of support stockings or foot rocking devices may be appropriate.

Special arrangements Transport to and from airports is arranged by the patient. If a stretcher is required, nine economy class seats are required, the cost of which is borne by the patient. Cabin staff are not authorized to look after personal care needs, medical treatment or specialized medical equipment.

An escort for a patient who is flying will be needed if: • • • • • •

A patient is relatively dependent A patient has a syringe driver A patient has surgical drains Emergency management of symptoms may be needed Medication might need to be given by injection The journey is long and interrupted by several transfers

It is important to remember that all medication or equipment that might be needed during the flight are kept as hand luggage. This includes all regular medication including analgesics, antiemetics, anticonvulsants, steroids, insulin, inhalers and any medication such as glyceryl trinitrate which might be needed on an ‘as required’ basis. Syringes, needles, spare batteries

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CHAPTER 19G

Travelling abroad

and a sharps disposal box, if appropriate, should be remembered. All controlled drugs need to be in their original packaging and all carried in hand luggage.

Controlled drugs If a patient is taking regular controlled drugs, a Home Office licence will be required if the trip is longer than three months. If the dosage and therefore total quantity of drug is high, a licence may be required for less time away. A letter from the prescribing doctor is required which is to be carried by the patient. The letter should contain the following information: • The patient’s name • Address • Date of birth • Outward and returning dates of travel • The country being visited • The drugs being carried, including dosages and total amount • Generic and not brand names should be used It is also advisable to contact the Embassy/Consulate/High Commission of the country being visited to ensure that they will not refuse entry to someone with controlled drugs.

Travel Insurance Any patient travelling abroad should be advised to obtain travel insurance in the event of them becoming unwell. Getting travel insurance when a patient has an advanced disease can be difficult so they should be encouraged to look as early as possible. There are companies which specialize in providing cover for individuals with medical problems. Although the European Health Insurance Card (EHIC) entitles the patient to free or reduced cost emergency treatment within the European Union, there is a risk that they will need to pay the costs at the time and then claim back the money. Also, the EHIC does not include medical evacuation back home. It is recommended that patients have both an EHIC and private travel insurance.

Useful information address Home Office Licensing Department For taking opioids abroad Tel: 020 7035 4848

Further reading http:www.cancerbackup.org.uk/Resourcessupport/practicalissues/Travel/TakingMedicinesabroad

Chapter 19h

Tissue donation Human organ and tissue transplantation has proven to be a successful method for treating many medical conditions. However, the demand for organs and tissues continues to exceed supply. The intensive care unit is generally considered the only clinical area where individuals can donate organs and tissue. However, individuals who die in other clinical areas can potentially donate a variety of tissues including occasionally, their kidneys. Although tissue donation does not enjoy the same high public profile as organ donation, it nevertheless holds many significant benefits for recipients. For example, the transplantation of new valves to patients with diseased or infected heart valves, can be life saving. Skin donation can be used to treat severe burns and corneal transplantation has the ability to improve or even restore sight for those with diseased corneas, enhancing the recipient’s quality of life. Tissue donation is also subject to fewer contraindications and restrictions than is associated with solid organ donation. Collection times are less urgent, varying from 24 hours after death for corneas to 48 hours for heart valves. Thus, many patients who die in environments outside intensive care have the potential to be non-heart beating donors. There is evidence that donation, far from increasing relatives' distress, may help in bereavement, families gaining comfort and meaning to the death. Studies have shown that relatives are generally happy to talk about donation and to feel some good has resulted from the death. Some professionals feel that there is a ‘duty to ask’ for tissue donation and, indeed, some families have felt cheated by not being given the opportunity to discuss the issue. The subject of tissue donation may be straight forward if it has been discussed with the patient prior to death and if a donor card is available. However even in this situation, consent should always be sought from the next of kin. In practice, it is easiest for corneas to be donated since this can be organized (it must be within 24h) at the location of death without the need for transfer to a hospital pathologist. The transplant coordinator will arrange for the eyes to be removed. (The eye sockets are packed and shields inserted to ensure the original appearance of the donor is restored.) A fear in popular culture that mutilation of the body, particularly the eyes, affects the deceased’s beauty, identity or personhood and the idea that vision is necessary for the after-life, may be some of the reasons cited for families being reluctant to agree to donation. Debate continues on presumed consent with an ‘opt out’ clause. There is evidence that those who consent to donation do so not out of social duty but out of altruism and generosity, from which they gain positive rewards. The subject of tissue donation remains a very individual and sensitive issue which needs careful handling in inevitably vulnerable families.

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CHAPTER 19H

Tissue donation

There are various practical considerations, some are outlined below in Table 19i.1. Table 19i.1 Practical considerations for tissue donation Cornea

Heart valves and trachea

Max. age of donor

Any age

60 years

Kidneys 70 years

Max. time from asystole to tissue removal

24h

72h

1h

Contraindications The criteria for the acceptability of tissues for donation are inevitably becoming more stringent. In the UK, a donor coordinator is available 24h a day and gives very helpful advice.

Follow–up The donor coordinator writes an acknowledgement letter to the family informing them of how the tissues have been used. Families usually find this very comforting.

Further Reading Book Sque M., Payne S. (ed) (2007) Organ and Tissue Donation: an Evidence Base for Practice. Maidenhead: Open University Press.

Chapter 19i

Help and advice for patients UK national resources Cancerbackup Helps people with cancer, their families and friends to live with cancer. Cancer nurses provide information, emotional support and practical advice by telephone or letter. Booklets, factsheets, a newsletter, website and CD-ROM provide information.  0808 800 1234 Y http://www.cancerbackup.org.uk/ Macmillan Cancer Support Funds Macmillan nurses: referral via GP or hospital. Information line. Financial help through patient grants, applications for patient grants through hospital and hospice nurses, social workers and other healthcare professionals. Macmillan Cancerline 0808 808 2020 Y http://www.macmillan.org.uk/ Marie Curie Cancer Care Hands-on palliative nursing care, available through the local district nursing service. Also runs inpatient centres: admission by referral from GP or consultant. Both the services are free of charge. Y http://www.mariecurie.org.uk/ Tenovus Cancer Information Centre Information and support for patients, their families, carers. Helpline staffed by experienced cancer trained nurses, counsellors and social workers. Individual counselling service; free literature. 43 The Parade Cardiff CF24 3AB  0808 800 1010 Y http://www.tenovus.com/

Bereavement Asian Family Counselling Services Includes bereavement counselling.  020 8571 3933 CancerBACUP Counselling  020 7833 2451 Y http://www.cancerbacup.org.uk Cruse Bereavement Care Bereavement counselling  0844 477 9400 Y http://www.cruisebereavementcare.org.uk

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CHAPTER 19I

Help and advice for patients

Samaritans/Age Concern/Citizens Advice Bureaux  From local telephone directory The Compassionate Friends A self-help group of parents whose son or daughter (of any age, including adults) has died from any cause.  0845 123 2304 Y http://www.tcf.org.uk

Carers Carers UK Information and support to people caring for relatives and friends. Free leaflets and information sheets.  0808 808 7777 (Wed.–Thurs. 10am–midday, 2pm–4pm) Crossroads—Caring for Carers Provides a range of services for carers, including care in the home to enable the carer to have a break.  0845 450 0350 Y http://www.crossroads.org.uk

Children ACT—Association for Children’s Palliative Care  0845 108 2201 Y http://www.act.org.uk

Complementary therapies Bristol Cancer Help Centre  0845 123 2310 Y http://www.beehive.thisisbristol.com British Acupuncture Council  020 8735 0400 Y http://www.acupuncture.org.uk British Homoeopathic Association  0870 444 3950 Y http://www.trusthomeopathy.org Institute for Complementary and Natural Medicine  020 7922 7980 Y http://www.i-c-m.org.uk National Federation of Spiritual Healers  0845 123 2777 Y http://www.nfsh.org.uk

Conditions other than cancer Alzheimer’s Society  0845 300 0366 Y http://www.alzheimers.org.uk

HELP AND ADVICE FOR PATIENTS

British Brain and Spine Foundation Helpline provides information and support about neurological disorders for patients, carers and health professionals.  0808 808 1000 Y http://www.brainandspine.org.uk Motor Neurone Disease Association Professional and general enquiries:  01604 250505  Helpline: 0845 7626 262 Y http://www.mndassociation.org Parkinson’s Disease Society  0808 800 0303 Y http://www.parkinsons.org.uk Stroke Association  0845 303 3100 Y http://www.stroke.org.uk

Specific cancers Breast Cancer Care  0808 800 600 Y http://www.breastcancercare.org.uk/ Lymphoma Association  0808 808 5555 (Mon–Fri 9am–6pm) Y http://www.lymphoma.org.uk/ Oesophageal Patients Association  0121 704 9860 Y http://www.opa.org.uk Ovacome A support organization for women with ovarian cancer.  0845 3710554 or 020 7299 6654 (Mon.-Fri. 9am-4pm) Y http://www.ovacome.org.uk/ovacome Prostate Cancer Charity  0800 074 8383 (Mon.-Fri. 10am-4pm) Y http://www.prostate-cancer.org.uk/ Prostate Cancer Support Association (PSA)  0845 601 0766 Y http://www.prostatecancersupport.co.uk The Roy Castle Lung Cancer Foundation  0800 358 7200 Y http://www.roycastle.org/

Specific health problems Changing Faces Offers information, social skills training and counselling for people with facial disfigurements.  0845 4500 275 Y http://www.changingfaces.org.uk/

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CHAPTER 19I

Help and advice for patients

Colostomy Association  0118 939 1537  Freephone: 0800 32842 57/0800 587 6744 Y www.colostomyassociation.org.uk Let’s Face It A contact point for people of any age coping with facial disfigurement.  01843 833 724 Y http://www.letsfaceit.force9.co.uk Lymphoedema Support Network  020 7351 4480 Y http://www.lymphoedema.org/ National Association of Laryngectomee Clubs  020 7730 8585 Y http://www.nalc.ik.com Sexual Dysfunction Association  0870 774 3571 Y http://www.impotence.org.uk/ Urostomy Association  01889 563 191 Y http://www.uagbi.org

Specific patient groups Chai-Lifeline Emotional, physical, practical and spiritual support to Jewish children, their families and friends.  020 8731 6788 Y http://www.chailifeline.org.uk Gayscan Offers completely confidential help and support to gay men living with cancer, their partners and carers.  Helpline: 020 8368 9027 (10am-7pm except Sundays) Y [email protected] Lesbians and Cancer Y http://www.lesbiansandcancer.com/index.html National Network for Palliative Care of People with Learning Disability  01284 766 133

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Chapter 19j

Laboratory reference values These are guides only—different labs use different ranges. Pregnant women and children also have different normal ranges—consult the lab.

Haematology Measurement White cell count (WCC) Red cell count (RCC) Haemoglobin Packed cell volume (PCV) or haematocrit Mean cell volume (MCV) Mean cell haemoglobin (MCHC) Neutrophils Lymphocytes Eosinophils Basophils Monocytes Platelet count Reticulocyte count Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) International normalized ratio (INR) Prothrombin time (PTT) Factors I, II, VII, X Activated partial thromboplastin time Factor VIII, IX, XI, XII Red cell folate

Reference interval 4.0–11.0×109/l Men: 4.5–6.5×1012/l Women: 3.9–5.6×1012/l Men: 13.5–18g/dl Women: 11.5–16.0g/dl Men: 38.5–50.1% Women: 36.0–44.5% 76–97fl 32.7–34.6 g/dl 2.0–7.5×109/l 40–75% WCC 1.3–3.5×109/l 20–45% WCC 0.04–0.44×109/l 1–6% WCC 0.0–0.1×109/l 0–1% WCC 0.2–0.8×109/l 2–10% WCC 150–400×109/l 25–100×109/l 0.8–2% RCC* Depends on age 0.8–1.2 Ranges for warfarin therapy depend on indication 12–17 sec. 28–40 sec.

180–300 ng/ml

* Only use percentages as reference interval if red cell count is normal. Otherwise use absolute value.

1016

CHAPTER 19J

Laboratory reference values

Biochemistry Substance Adrenocorticotrophic hormone Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) Albumin Alkaline transaminase (AST) A-amylase Aspartate transaminase (AST) Bicarbonate Bilirubin Calcium (total) Creatine kinase (CK)

P P P P P P P P P P P

Creatinine (b see Chapter 8d) Ferritin Folate Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT, GGT) Glucose (fasting) Iron

P P P P/S

Luteinizing hormone (LH) Osmolality Phosphate (inorganic) Potassium Prolactin

P P P P P

Prostate specific antigen (PSA) (b see p.186) Protein (total) Sodium Thyroxine (T4) Total iron binding capacity Triglyceride Urate

P P P P S P P

Urea Vitamin B12

P S

P P S

Reference interval 25u/l post menopause Men: 11–51iu/l Women: 7–33iu/l 3.5–5.5mmol/l Men: 14–31µmol/l Women: 11–30µmol/l 3–16u/l 278–305mosmol/kg 0.8–1.45mmol/l 3.5–5.0mmol/l Men: