Out of Place Artifact

 

Out-of-place artif artifact act

 

Contents 1

Out-of-p Outof-place lace arti artiffact

1.1 Examp Example less   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 Unu Unusual sual artif artifacts acts   . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.2 Ques Questio tionabl nablee inte interpre rpretati tations ons   . . . . . 1.1.3 Unli Unlike kely ly inte interpre rpretati tations ons   . . . . . . . . 1.1.4 Natural ob objects jects mistak mistaken en fo forr artif artifacts acts   . 1.1.5 Erron Erroneous eously ly date datedd ob objec jects ts   . . . . . . .

2

3

4

 

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

1

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

1 1 2 2 3 3

1.1.6 Modern-day creati creations, ons, for forgeries geries & hoaxe hoaxess   . 1.1.7 Enti Entirel relyy fic fictio tional nal  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 1.22 Se Seee al also so   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 Auth Authors ors and work workss   . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Ref Referen erences ces   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Exter ternal nal lilinks nks   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Ex

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

3 3 3 3 4 5

Acámba Acá mbaro ro figu figures res

 

6

2.1 Histor oryy   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Hist 2.2 Da 2.2 Dati ting ng   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6 7

2. 2.33 See See al also so   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Ref Referen erences ces   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Ex Exter ternal nal lilinks nks   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7 7 7

Aiud Aiu d ob objec jectt

8

 

3.1 Ref Referen erences ces   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8

Ancient Anci ent Disc Discov overi eries es

9

 

4. 4.11 Epis Episod odes es   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1 Ser 4.1.1 Serie iess 1 (20 (2003) 03)   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.2 Ser 4.1.2 Serie iess 2 (20 (2005) 05)   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9 9 9

4.1.3 Seriess 3 (20 (2007) 07)   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.3 Serie 4.1.4 Seri Series es 4 (ear (early ly 2008)   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9 9

i

 

ii

 

4.1.5 Seri Series es 5 (late 2008) 2008)   . 4.1.6 Serie iess 6 (20 (2009) 09)   . . . 4.1.6 Ser 4.2 Ref Referen erences ces   . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Ex Exter ternal nal lilinks nks   . . . . . . . . 4.4 Se 4.4 Seee al also so   . . . . . . . . . . . 5

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

Antikyth Anti kythera era mec mechani hanism sm

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

 

9 9 9 9 9 10

5.1 Histor oryy . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Hist 5.1.1 Di 5.1.1 Disco scove very ry   . . . . . 5.1. Orig igin in   . . . . . . . 5.1.22 Or Descri cripti ption on   . . . . . . . . 5.2 Des 5.2.1 Ma Major jor fragm ragments ents   . 5.2.2 Mino Minorr fr fragme agments nts   . 5.3 Mec Mechan hanis ism m . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Ope 5.3.1 Operat ratio ionn   . . . . . 5.3. Face cess   . . . . . . . 5.3.22 Fa

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

10 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12

5.3.33 Do 5.3. Door orss   . . . 5.3. Gear arin ingg   . . 5.3.44 Ge 5.3 5.3.5 .5 Ac Accu curac racyy   . Seee al Se also so   . . . . . . Referen Ref erences ces   . . . . . Furth Fur ther er re readi ading ng   . . 5. 5.6. 6.11 Bo Book okss   . . . 5.6. 6.22 Jo Jour urna nals ls   . . 5. 5.6. Othe herr   . . . 5.6.33 Ot Exter Ex ternal nal lilinks nks   . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

16 16 20 20 20 22 22 22 23 23

5.4 5.4 5.5 5.6

5.7 6

. . . . .

CONTENTS 

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

Baghd Bag hdad ad Bat Batte tery ry

6.1 Physic Physical al desc descripti ription on   . . . . . . . . 6.2 Theorie Theoriess concerni concerning ng operation   . . 6.2.1 Supp Supporti orting ng exp experim eriments ents   . 6.3 Cont Controv roversi ersies es ov over er use   . . . . . . 6.3.1 Batt Battery ery hyp hypothe othesis sis   . . . . 6.3.2 Elec Electrop troplati lating ng hypo hypothe thesis sis   . 6.3.3 Bit Bitume umenn as an ins insulato ulatorr   . . 6.3.4 Alte Alternati rnative ve hyp hypothe othesis sis   . . 6.4 In the me medi diaa   . . . . . . . . . . . .

 

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

24

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

24 24 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

6.55 See See al also so   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 6. 6.6 Ref Referen erences ces   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

 

 

CONTENTS 

7

Bat Cree Creek k insc inscripti ription on

7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.66 7. 7.7 7.88 7. 7.9 8

 

Geographic and historic historical al contex contextt   . Archaeological Archaeolo gical exc excavati avations ons   . . . . Analysi Anal ysiss and deb debate ate   . . . . . . . . Recent Rece nt com commen mentary tary   . . . . . . . . Current Curre nt loca locatio tionn   . . . . . . . . . . Seee al Se also so   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Referen Ref erences ces   . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sour So urce cess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Exter Ex ternal nal lilinks nks   . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

Branden Bran denbur burg g ston stonee

8.1 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 9

iii

. . . . . . . . .

28

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

 

Histor Hist oryy . . . . . . . . . . Claims Clai ms of We Welsh lsh ori origin gin   . Authenti Auth enticit cityy   . . . . . . . Referen Ref erences ces   . . . . . . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

Calav Cal aver eras as Sku Skull ll

. . . .

28 29 30 31 32 32 32 33 33 34

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

 

34 34 35 35 36

9.1 Hist 9.1 Histor oryy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 9.2 Seee also also   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 9.2 Se 9.3 Ref Referen erences ces   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 (film) 10 Chariots of the Gods (film)

 

38

10.1 Other versions   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2 Ref 10.3 External links   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Coso artifa artifact ct

11.1 Discovery   . . . . . . . Criticism ism and analysi analysiss   . 11.2 Critic 11.3 See also   . . . . . . . . 11.4 Ref Reference erencess   . . . . . . . 11.5 External links   . . . . . 12 Crys Crystal tal skull skull

 

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .  

38 38 38 39

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

39 39 39 39 40 41

Collections  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 12.1 Collections Research   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 12.2 Research  artifacts of controversial controversial origin origin   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 12.3 Other artifacts 12.4 Individual Individual skulls skulls   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 12.4.1 Mitch Mitchell-Hedge ell-Hedgess skull skull   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

 

iv

 

CONTENTS 

12.4.2 British Museum skull   . . . . . . . . . 12.4.3 Pari Pariss sku skullll   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4.4 Smithsoni Smithsonian an Skull Skull   . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5 Paranormal claims claims and spiritual spiritual associations associations   . 12.6 In popular culture   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.7 Notes   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.8 Ref Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.9 External links   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

13 Dendera light

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

 

13.1 Interpretation   . . . . . . . 13.1.1 Mainstream view   . 13.1.2 Frin Fringe ge vie view w . . . . 13.2 See also   . . . . . . . . . . 13.3 Ref Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . 13.4 External links   . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

14 Dorche Dorchester ster Pot

50

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

 

14.1 Geological context context   . . . . . . . . . 14.2 The pot   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3 Fringe theories theories  . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4 Mainstream view viewss   . . . . . . . . . 14.5 Ref Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.6 Other Dorchester Dorchester Pot Reference Referencess   .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

44 44 45 45 45 46 47 49

. . . . . .

15 Eiserner Mann

50 50 50 50 50 51 52

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

 

52 52 52 52 54 54 55

15.1 Sign content   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.2 Ref

56

16 Eltanin Antenna

History  . . . . . . . . . . 16.1 History 16.2 Identifi Identification cation as sponge   . 16.3 Ref Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . Further er read reading ing   . 16.3.1 Furth 17 Esperanza Stone

 

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .  

57

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

57 57 58 58 59

17.1 Discovery   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 17.2 Description   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 17.3 Legend  Legend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 17.4 Meaning of the symbols   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

 

 

CONTENTS 

v

Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.5 Ref 18 Geof Geofact act

 

59 60

Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 18.1 Ref 18.2 See also   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 19 Oklahoma runesto runestones nes

 

19.1 Heav Heavener ener Runestone Runestone   . . . . . 19.2 Poteau Stone  Stone   . . . . . . . . . 19.3 Shawnee and Pawnee Pawnee Stones Stones   Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . 19.4 Ref 19.5 See also   . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

62

. . . . .

20 Helicopte Helicopterr hieroglyphs hieroglyphs

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

 

64

20.1 Ref Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.2 External links   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Hidde Hidden n character character stone

 

21.1 Area   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.2 History  History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.3 Description   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.3.1 Fiv Five-charact e-character er versi version on  . . . . . . . . 21.3.2 Six-charac Six-character ter versi version on   . . . . . . . . 21.3.3 Traditi Traditional onal and Simplifi Simplified ed chinese chinese   . 21.3.4 Anal Analysi ysiss   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.4 Cultural ref reference erence   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.5 Ref Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Ica stone stoness

22.1 Description   . . . . . . . . 22.2 Background   . . . . . . . . 22.3 Populari Popularization zation by by Cabrera  Cabrera   . Impact   . . . . . . . . . . . 22.4 Impact 22.5 See also   . . . . . . . . . . 22.6 Footnotes   . . . . . . . . . 22.7 External links   . . . . . . .

23 Iron pillar pillar of of Delhi

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .  

. . . . . . .

62 63 63 63 63

64 64 65

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

65 65 65 65 65 66 66 66 66

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

67 67 68 68 69 69 69

 

67

70

23.1 Physi Physical cal descriptio descriptionn   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

70

23.2 Inscriptions   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.2.1 Inscripti Inscription on of of king king Chandra Chandra   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71 71

 

vi

 

23.2.2 Samva Samvatt 1109 inscripti inscription on   23.3 Original location   . . . . . . . . 23.3.1 Rel Relocat ocation ion   . . . . . . . 23.4 Scienti Scientific fic analysi analysiss   . . . . . . . . 23.5 Eviden Evidence ce of cannonball cannonball strike strike   . . 23.6 See also   . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.7 Ref Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . . 23.7.1 Biblio Bibliography graphy   . . . . . . 23.8 External links   . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

CONTENTS 

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

24 Kensi Kensington ngton Runestone Runestone

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

 

73 73 74 74 75 76 76 77 78 79

24.1 Provenance   . . . . . . . . . . . 24.2 Tex Textt and translatio translationn   . . . . . . . Linguisticc analysis analysis   . . . . . . . . 24.3 Linguisti 24.3.1 Lexic Lexical al evid evidence ence   . . . . 24.3.2 Grammatic Grammatical al evid evidence ence   .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

79 80 81 81 81

24.3.3 Paleograp Paleographic hic evid evidence ence   24.4 Purported historical historical contex contextt   . . 24.5 See also   . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.6 Ref Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . 24.7 Literature   . . . . . . . . . . . 24.8 External links   . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

81 82 83 83 85 85

. . . . . .

25 Kingoodie artif artifact act

 

86

25.1 Notes   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 26 Klerksdo Klerksdorp rp sphere sphere

 

26.1 Description   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.2 Geologica Geologicall explanation explanation of their origin origin   . 26.3 Critic Criticism ism of “out of of place” claims claims   . . . 26.4 See also   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.5 Ref

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

87

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

27 Lake Winnipesaukee Winnipesaukee mystery mystery stone

History . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.1 History  27.2 Symbols   . . . . . . . . . . . Analysiss and interpretat interpretation ion   . 27.3 Analysi 27.4 See also   . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

 

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

87 87 88 89 89 90

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

90 90 90 91

Referencess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.5 Reference Bibliography   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.6 Bibliography 

91 91

 

 

CONTENTS 

vii

27.7 External links   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Llygad Llygadwy wy

 

92

28.1   Time Team excavation   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.2 Ref 28.3 External links   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 London Hammer

 

30 Los Lunas Decalogue Decalogue Stone Stone

. . . . .

. . . . .

 

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

92 92 93 94

History  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.1 History 29.2 Ref Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30.1 History  History . . . . . . . 30.2 Controversy   . . . . 30.3 Similar landmarks   . 30.4 See also   . . . . . . 30.5 Notes   . . . . . . .

91

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

96

. . . . .

96 97 97 97 97

30.6 Ref Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30.7 External links   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

98 98

31 Misraħ Għar il-Kbir il-Kbir

. . . . .

94 94

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

 

99

31.1 Origin of the tracks   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Reference erencess  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 31.2 Ref 31.3 External links   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 32 Newar Newark k Holy Stones Stones

 

101

32.1 Discovery   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 32.2 Skepticism . Skepticism  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 32.3 Hoax theories   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.3.1 David Wyric Wyrickk  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.3.2 Rev. John W. McCarty’s and stonecutter stonecutter Elijah Elijah Sutton Sutton   . discoveries eries   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.4 Related discov 32.5 See also   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.6 Ref Reference erencess  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.7 Further reading   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Olmec alternative alternative origin speculation speculationss

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .  

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

102 102 103 103 103 103 104 105

scientific fic consensus consensus .  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 33.1 Mainstream scienti African can origins origins  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 33.2 Afri 33.2.1 Epigraphic Epigraphic evid evidence ence  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 33.2.2 Genetic evi evidence dence   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

 

viii

 

33.2.3 Osteologi Osteological cal evi evidence dence .  . 33.3 Chinese origins   . . . . . . . . 33.4 Jaredite origins   . . . . . . . . 33.5 Nordic origins   . . . . . . . . . 33.6 See also   . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.7 Footnotes   . . . . . . . . . . . Reference erencess  . . . . . . . . . . . 33.8 Ref

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

CONTENTS 

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

Pangbochee Hand Hand 34 Pangboch

Story  . . . . . . 34.1 Story . 34.2 DNA Testing   . 34.3 Ref Reference erencess  . . . 34.4 External links   .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

 

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

111

. . . .

35 Oklahoma runesto runestones nes

Heavener ener Runestone Runestone .  . . . . . . 35.1 Heav 35.2 Poteau Stone Stone .  . . . . . . . . . . 35.3 Shawnee and Pawnee Pawnee Stones Stones   . 35.4 Ref Reference erencess  . . . . . . . . . . . 35.5 See also   . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

 

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

36 Quimba Quimbaya ya artifacts artifacts

106 106 107 107 108 108 109

. . . . .

. . . . .

111 112 112 112 113

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

 

113 114 114 114 114 115

36.1 See also   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 36.2 Ref Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 37 San Pedro Mountains Mountains Mummy Mummy

 

116

37.1 See also   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 37.2 Ref Reference erencess  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 37.3 External links   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 38 Saqq Saqqara ara Bird Bird

Conventional ideas ideas  . . . . . . . . . . 38.1 Conventional 38.2 Controv Controversial ersial ideas   . . . . . . . . . 38.2.1 Attem Attempts pts to prove the claim claim  . 38.2.2 Posi Position tion of tailplane tailplane .  . . . . . 38.3 See also   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.4 Ref Reference erencess  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 The Starving Starving of Saqqara Saqqara

 

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

117

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .  

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

117 117 118 118 118 118 120

39.1 Ref Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 39.2 External links   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

 

 

CONTENTS 

ix

Tecaxic-Calixtlah c-Calixtlahuaca uaca head 40 Tecaxi

 

40.1 Find   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.2 Eviden Evidence ce for for Roman manufacture manufacture 40.3 Hypotheses   . . . . . . . . . . . 40.4 See also   . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.5 Ref Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . . 40.6 Bibliography   . . . . . . . . . . 40.7 External links   . . . . . . . . . .

.   . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

41 Tucson artif artifacts acts

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

121

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

 

History . . . . . . . . . . . 41.1 History  41.1.1 Latin inscripti inscriptions ons   . 41.2 View Viewss on authentici authenticity ty   . . . Supporte orters rs   . . . . 41.2.1 Supp 41.2.2 Ske Skepti ptics cs .  . . . . . . Possible le creator creator   . . 41.2.3 Possib

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

121 121 121 122 122 122 122 123

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

123 123 124 124 124 124

41.3 In popular culture   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 41.4 See also   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 41.5 Ref Reference erencess  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 42 Wolf Wolfsegg segg Iron Iron

42.1 42.2 42.3 42.4

History   . . . . . . . Analysis   . . . . . . . Out-of-placee artifact Out-of-plac artifact   Notes   . . . . . . . .

 

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

43 AVM Runesto Runestone ne

43.1 Discov Discovery ery and investigati investigation on   . 43.2 Conf Confessio essionn and explanation explanation   . 43.3 See also   . . . . . . . . . . . 43.4 Sources   . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Bour Bourne ne stone stone

126

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

 

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

126 126 127 127 128

. . . .

 

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

128 128 129 129 130

44.1 Ref Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 45 Grav Gravee Creek Stone Stone

 

131

45.1 Discovery   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 45.2 Artifact   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Inscription  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 45.3 Inscription . 45.4 Recent research   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

 

x

 

CONTENTS 

Reference erencess  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 45.5 Ref 46 Narragans Narragansett ett Runestone Runestone

 

133

46.1 Provenance   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 46.2 Media   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Disappearance  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 46.3 2012 Disappearance . 46.4 See also   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 46.5 Ref Reference erencess  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 runestones nes 47 Oklahoma runesto

 

47.1 Heav Heavener ener Runestone Runestone .  . . . . . . Stone .  . . . . . . . . . . 47.2 Poteau Stone 47.3 Shawnee and Pawnee Pawnee Stones Stones   . 47.4 Ref Reference erencess  . . . . . . . . . . . 47.5 See also   . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

48 Spirit Pond Pond runestones runestones

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

 

48.1 Interpretati Interpretation on and authentic authenticity ity .  . 48.2 See also   . . . . . . . . . . . . 48.3 Ref Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . 48.4 Further reading   . . . . . . . . 48.5 External links   . . . . . . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

49 Vérendr Vérendrye ye Runestone Runestone

49.1 Discovery   . . . . . 49.2 The stone’s fate   . . 49.3 Speculated origins  . Reference erencess   . . . . 49.4 Ref

135

. . . . .

137

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

 

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

50 Nazc Nazca a Lines Lines

History  . . . . . . . . . . 50.1 History 50.2 Purpose   . . . . . . . . . 50.3 Alternati Alternative ve explanati explanations ons .  . Environmental ental concerns concerns .  . 50.4 Environm 50.5 Images Images .  . . . . . . . . . . fiction .  . . . . . . . . . 50.6 In fiction 50.7 See also   . . . . . . . . . 50.8 Notes   . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

137 137 138 138 138 139

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

 

. . . . . . . .

135 136 136 136 136

139 139 139 139 140

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

140 141 142 142 143 144 144 144

50.9 Ref Reference erencess   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 50.10External links   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

 

 

CONTENTS 

xi

51 Piri Reis Reis map map

51.1 Description   . . . . . . . . . History . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.2 History  51.3 Analysis   . . . . . . . . . . . 51.3.1 The Antarctic coast   . 51.4 See also   . . . . . . . . . . . 51.5 Notes   . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.6 Ref Reference erencess  . . . . . . . . . . 51.7 External links   . . . . . . . .

 

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

147

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

52 Stone spheres spheres of of Costa Rica

52.1 Description   . . . . . . . . . . . 52.2 Geographic setting and locatio locationn  . 52.3 Site description   . . . . . . . . . 52.4 Pre-Colum Pre-Columbian bian history   . . . . . 52.5 Post-co Post-contact ntact history   . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

 

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

147 148 148 148 149 149 150 151 152

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

152 153 153 153 153

52.6 Historical al archers background . background . . on  .  .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 52.7 Historic Early researchers rese in the . region in regi 52.8 Current research research .  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.9 Tourism   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.10Myths   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.11See also   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.12References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.13External links   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.14Text and image sources, contributors, and license licensess   . 52.14.1 Text xt .  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.14.1 Te 52.14.2 .2 Imag Images es   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.14 52.14.3 Content license   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

115544 155 155 155 155 155 156 157 157 164 170

 

Chapter 1

Out-of-place artifact “OOPArts” redi “OOPArts” redirec rects ts here. For The Pillo Pillows’ ws’ album, see technology more advanced than that of modern times.[1] OOPArts (album) (album).. For th thee SYUN alb album, um, see see OOPARTS  OOPARTS (SYUN album). album).

1.1 1.1

 of hisAn  Out-of-place artifact   (OOPArt) is an artifact an artifact of torical, archaeological, archaeological, or paleontolo paleontological gical interest found in an unusual context, that challenges challenges convention conventional al historical  historical ch chron ronol ology ogy by be being ing“to “tooo adva advanc nced” ed” for the thele leve vell of civi civiliz lizaahuman presence" tion that existed at the time, or showi showing ng ""human presence" before humans were humans were known to exist exist.. The term is rarely rarely used by his histori torians ans or scie scientis ntists. ts. Its use is largely confined to cryptozoologists, proponents of astronaut  theories, Young ancient astronaut theories,  Young Earth creationists creationists,, and [1] paranormal enthusiasts.  enthusiasts. The term is used to describe a paranormal wide variety of objects, from anomalies studied by mainstream stre am sci scienc encee and pseudoarchaeology far outs outside idethe the main main- or to stream to objects that have been shown to be hoaxes be hoaxes or have mundane explanations. Critics argue that most purported OOPArts which are not hoaxes are the result of mistaken interpretation, wishful thinking, or a mistaken belief that a particular culture couldn't have created an artifact or technology due to a lack of knowled knowledge ge or materi materials. als. In some cases cases,, the uncertainty results results from inaccura inaccurate te descriptions. For example: the Wolfsegg the Wolfsegg Iron was Iron was said to be a perfect cube, but in fact it is not; the Klerksdorp the Klerksdorp spheres spheres were  were said to be perfect spheres, but they are not; and the Iron the  Iron pillar of Delhi was Delhi was said to be “rust proof”, but it has some rust near its base. Supporters regard OOPArts as evidence that mainstream science is overlooking huge areas of knowledge, either Manyy wri writer terss or rewillfull willf ullyy or throu through gh ignoranc ignorance. e.[1] Man searchers who question conventional views of human history have used purported OOPArts in attempts to bolster their arguments.[1] Creation Science relies Science relies on allegedly anomalous finds in the archaeological record to challenge scientific chronologies and models of human evolution. [2] Claimed OOPArts OOPArts have been used to support religious descriptions of pre-history, ancient astronaut theories, and the notion noti on of vani vanishe shedd ci civili vilizati zations ons that thatposse possessed ssed kno knowled wledge ge or

Ex Exam amp ples les

Thefo The follo llowing wingare are exampl examples es of ob objec jects ts that thathav havee been beenargue arguedd by various fringe authors (see (see list list)) to have been OOPArts:

1.1.1

Unusual Unusual artifacts artifacts

A minority of alleged OOPARTs are at least debatably unusual within the scientific mainstream, although not impossible for their time period. •

 Antikythera mechanism: clockwork-lik ork-likee appearmechanism: Its clockw ance, dating to about 1,000 years before clocks were invented, has been claimed by fringe sources to be evidence of alien visitation,[3] and authors such as Zecharia Sitchi Sitchinn  argue that this artifact is a product “not of Man, but of the gods”. [4] However, mainstream consider thecomputer Antikythera mechanism to be a scientists form of mechanical of  mechanical computer created  created around 150–100 BCE based on the theories of astronomy and mathematics developed by the ancient Greeks. Its design and workmanship reflect a previously unknown, but not implausible, degree of sophistication. [5][6]

•

 Maine penny: penny: Some auth authors ors argue the 11th-ce 11th-century ntury Nativee American Americanshell shell midden in Norse coinfoundina Nativ Maine, Maine, United States States is  is evidence of direct of direct contact betweenn Viki twee Vikings ngs and Native Native Ame Americ ricans ans in Main Maine. e. Main Main-stream belief is that it was brought to Maine from Labrador or Newfoundland via an extensive northern native trade network.[7] Over 20,000 objects were Site in  in found overMaine. a 15-year period at the Goddard the  Goddard Site Brooklin, . The sole non-Native artifact was the Maine [8] coin.

1

 

2

 

1.1.2 •

Questio Questionabl nablee interpr interpretat etation ionss

 Baghdad Battery Battery:: Vase and rods made in Parthian in  Parthian or  or Sassanid Persi Persiaa. Ma Mayy hav havee bee beenn used as aa galvanic  galvanic cell for for electroplating electroplating,, thou though gh no electro electroplat plated ed artif artifacts acts [9][10] from this era have been found.

•

 Dorchester Pot Pot:: A metal pot clai claimed med to hav havee been

•

blasted out of solid rock in 1852.  Kingoodie artifact artifact:: An object resembling a corroded nail, said to have been encased in solid rock[13][14]

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 1. OUT-OF-PLACE OUT-OF-PLACE ARTIFA ARTIFACT  CT 

•

•

 Abydos helicopter helicopter:: A pareidolia  pareidolia based  based on palimpsest on  palimpsest carving in an ancien ancientt Egyptian temple.  Aiud object object:: An ob objec jectt said to be compose composedd of 90 percent aluminum, claimed to be at least 400 years old (long before aluminum smelting) and as much as 250,000 years old.  [19]

[11][12]

•

•

  Lak Lakee Winn Winnipes ipesauk aukee ee my mystery stery ston stonee: Ori Origina ginallllyy thought to be a record of a treaty between tribes, subsequent analysis has called its authenticity into question.[15][16]  Tecaxic-C  Tecaxic-Calixtlahua alixtlahuaca ca head head:: A  terracotta   offering  appearance, found beneath head seemingly of Roman of Roman appearance, three intact floors of a Pre-Columbian a  Pre-Columbian burial  burial site in Mexico, dated between 1476 and 1510. Howe Mexico, However, ver, the artifact has been determined to be older and ancient Roman provenance has not been excluded.[17][18]

1.1.3

•

•

•

•

•

•

Unlikel Unlikely y interpr interpretat etation ionss •

•

•

•

megaliths  Baalbek megaliths: : Supposedly mpossible to mo move ve with Bronze Age technology technology. . iimpossible  Dendera Lamps: Lamps: Supposed to depict light bulbs, but made in Ptolemaic Egypt.   Iron Man (Eiserner (Eiserner Mann): Mann): An old iron pillar, said to Europe.. be a unique oddity in Central in  Central Europe   The Hidden The Hidden character stone, stone, a Chinese petroglyph. Delhi:: Supposedly de demonstrate monstratess more  Iron pillar of Delhi advanced advan ced metallurgy than was available in 1st millennium India.  The "London "London Hammer Hammer", ", also known as the “London Artifact”, hammer made of iron and wood that was found in London, in London, Texas in Texas in 1936. Part of the hammer is embedded in a limy rock concretion.  NazcaLine Supposedly imp impossi ossible ble to des design ignwith without out  Nazca Liness: Supposedly the aid of an aerial view. Stones,, used as extremely unlikely   The Newark The Newark Holy Stones evid eviden ence ce that that He Hebre brews ws lilive vedd in the the Ame Ameri ricas cas,, butmo but more re probably a hoax.  Pacal’s sarc  Pacal’s sarcoph ophagus agus lid lid:: De Desc scri ribe bedd by by   Erich von Däniken as Däniken  as a depiction of a spaceship.  Piri Reis map: Severall ancient astronauts authors, and map: Severa Menzies and  and Charles  Charles Hapgood, others suchthat as  Gavin as Gavin Menzies   Turkish, suggested this map, compiled by theHapgood admiral Piri Reis, Reis, shows Antarctica shows Antarctica long  long before it was discovered.

•

•

•

The iron pillar of Delhi 

Quimbaya ya airplanes airplanes:: Go Gold lden en ob obje ject ctss fou ound nd in   Quimba Colombia and  and made by Quimbaya by Quimbaya civilization culture, civilization culture, Colombia they are supposed supposed to represent m modern odern airplanes. In the Gold the Gold Museum, Bogotá, Bogotá, they are described as figures of birds and insects. Bird: Supposed to depict a glider, but made  Saqqara Bird: in Ancient Egypt.   Shakōkidogū Shakōkidogū:: Smal Smalll humano humanoid id and anima animall  figurines ma made de dur during ingth theJapan, e lat latee Jōmo Jōmon period od (14,0 (14,000–40 00–4000 BCE) of prehistoric said ntoperi resemble extraterrestrial astronauts.

 

 

1.2. SE SEE E ALSO  ALSO 

•

 Stone spheres of Costa Rica: Rica: Inaccurately described as being perfectly spherical, and therefore demonstrating inggre greate aterr stone stone-wo -worki rking ng skill skill than than was waspre presen sentt in pre pre-Columbian times.

•

•

1.1.4 •

•

Natural objects objects mistaken for artifacts artifacts

  Bai Baigon gongg Pi Pipe pess: Their natural origins are challenged. [20][21][22]

•

 Eltanin Antenna Antenna:: Actually a sponge a sponge..[23][24] •

•

  Kle Klerks rksdo dorp rp sp sphe here ress: [25][26] concretions. concretions.

1.1.5 •

•

•

Actually

Precambrian

Erroneou Erroneousl sly y dated ob object jectss

artifact:: Tho Thought ught to be prehi prehistori storic; c; actu actuall allyy a  Coso artifact 1920s spark 1920s  spark plug plug..[2]

3

  Crystal skulls: Suppos posedl edlyy de demo monst nstrat ratee mo more re adskulls: Sup vanced stone-cutting skill than was present in preColumbian Columb ian Mesoamerica. Appear to have been made in the 19th century. stones: Depict Inca  Ica stones: Depict Inca dinosaur-hunters, dinosaur-hunters, surgery  surgery,, and other modern or fanciful fanciful topics. Collecte Collectedd by Javier Cabrera Cab rera Darq Darquea, uea, who whobeli believ eved ed them themto to be pre prehist historic oric..  Kensington Runestone Runestone:: Purports to have been made Ericson's's colony. by 15th century descendents of Leif of Leif Ericson Generally believed to be a modern-day hoax.   The Michigan The Michigan relics, relics, supposedly ancient artifacts that are   archaeological forgeries   and were supposed to prove that people of an ancient Near ancient  Near Eastern Eastern culture  culture had lived in Michigan in Michigan,, USA.

•

  The Tucson The Tucson artifacts, artifacts, a hoax.

•

Skull,, an admitted hoax.   The Calaveras The Calaveras Skull

•

Malachi chite te Man Man:: Th Thou ough ghtt to be from rom th thee ea earl rlyy   Mala [27][28] Cretaceous ; actually a post-Columbian burial. Cretaceous;

Stone : Supp  Los Lunas Decalogue Stone: Supposedl osedlyy made bbyy Pre-Colu PreColumbi mbian an Israe Israelit litee visito visitors rs to the Amer America icas. s. Generally believed to be a modern-day hoax.

Entirely fictional fictional  W Wolfse olfsegg gg Iron Iron:: Tho Thoug ught ht to be from romth thee Tertiary epoch; 1.1.7 Entirely actually from from an early mining operation. Inaccurate Inaccurately ly   Dropa stones stones:: Popularized by David by David Gamon Gamon (as  (as David  David described as a perfect cube perfect cube.. Agamon)) as part of his false Agamon his  false document Sungods in Exile. •

1.1. 1.1.6 6

Moder Modernn-da day y crea creati tion ons, s, for orge geri ries es & hoaxes

1. 1.2 2 •

 Ancient technology

•

  Anachronism

•

•

razor  advocates that among competing hy Occam’s razor advocates potheses, the one that makes the fewest assumptions should be selected.  Paluxy River – River – became famous in 1930s when locals found dinosaur and supposed human footprints in the same rock layer.

1.2.1 1.2 .1  Ica stone stone depicting  depicting dinosaurs  An An Ica

See See al also so

Auth Authors ors and work workss

•

Fort, researcher of anomalous phenomena  Charles Fort,

•

  Fortean Times 

•

 Peter Kolosimo

•

  dinosaurs, Acámbaro Acámbaro, attributed figures:: Mid-2 figures Mi d-20th 0th ccen entur tury y   figurines   of dinosaurs by  Waldemar by Waldemar Julsrud Julsrud to  to an ancient society.

•

 Erich von Däniken, Däniken, the most famous ancient famous  ancient astronauts theorist nauts  theorist

 

4

 

•

  Chariots of the Gods? , one of his notable

works •

 Zecharia Sitchin

•

  Fingerprin Fingerprints ts of the Gods  book  book by Graham by Graham Hancock

•

 Michael Cremo Cremo,, author of several books including Forbidden Archeology

•

•

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 1. OUT-OF-PLACE OUT-OF-PLACE ARTIFA ARTIFACT  CT 

[10] Flatow, Flatow, I (2012) (2012) Archaeologists Revisit Iraq.  interview with Elizabeth Stone, Stone, Talk of the Nation, National Public Radio. Washington, DC. [11] Steiger, B. (1979)   Worlds Before Our Own.   New York, New York, Berkley Publishing Group. 236 p.  ISBN 9781-933665-19-1 [12] Fitzpatrick-Matthews, Fitzpatrick-Matthews, K, and J Doeser (2007) Metallic vase  from Dorchester, Massachusetts. Bad Archaeolo Archaeology. gy.

 Charles Berlitz Berlitz,, famous linguist and writer of anoma[13] Sir David, B (1854)  Queries and Statements concerning a lous phenomena   The Mysterious Origins of Man   originally aired on

NBC in NBC in 1996 •

  Strata (novel)

•

 Warehouse 13, a television science fiction series

1.3

Re Refferen erence cess

Nail found imbedded in a Block of Sandstone obtained from Kingoodie (Mylnfield) Quarry, North Britain.  Report of the

Fourteenth Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science vol. 51, John Murray London. [14] Fitzpatrick-Matthews, Fitzpatrick-Matthews, K, and J Doeser (2007) A nail in Devonian sandstone from Kingoodie, Scotland.  Bad Archaeology. [15] anonymous (nd) The Mystery Stone. Museum Exhibits, Exhibits, New Hampshire Historical Society, Concord, New Hampshire.

[1] O'Hehir, O'Hehir, Andrew (August (August 31, 2005).   “Archaeology from [16] Klatell, JM (July 23, 2006).  New England’s 'Mystery Stone':  the dark side”. side”. Salon.com. Retrieved 19 April 2010. New Unexplained Artifact 134 Years  Later.Hampshire  AssociatedDisplays Press. Retrieved March 8, 2014. [2] Str Stromb omberg, erg, P, and PV Heinrich (2004) The Coso Artifact  Mystery from the Depths of Time? , Reports of the National Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca. alixtlahuaca. Genoves (2001) Tecaxic-C Center for for Science Education. Education. 24(2):26-30 (March/April [17] Hristov, RH, and S. Genoves Dept. of Anthropology Anthropolo gy at the University Universit y of New Mexico, 2004) Retrieved March 8, 2014. Albuquerque, New Mexico. [3]  “The Antikythera Mechanism”. Mechanism”. Skeptoi Skeptoid.co d.com. m. Retrieved Retrieved [18] Schaaf, P and GA Wagner Wagner (1991) Comments on 'Mesoamer2011-08-24. ican Evidence of Pre-Columbian Transoceanic Contacts,' by

[4] Zechar Zecharia ia Sitchi Sitchinn (25Jan (25 Januar uaryy 2011). 2011).  Jour Journeysto neysto the Myth Mythical  ical  Hristov and Genovés.  Ancient Mesoamerica. 10:207-213. Past . Inner Tradit Tradition ionss / Bear & Co. pp. 171–. ISBN 171–.  ISBN 9781-59143-951-6.. Retrieved 19 June 2013. 1-59143-951-6 [19] Plummer Plummer (2016) (2016) “Does  “Does this mysterio mysterious us piece of aluminium prove UFOs visited Earth 250,000 years ago?", ago?" , The Daily [5] "The "The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project", Project", The AnMail, London. tikythera Mechanism Research Project. Project. Retrieved 2007-0701 Quote: “The Antikythera Mechanism is now understood understood [20] Anonymou Anonymouss (2002) Mysterious Pipes Left by 'ET' Reported  to be dedicated to astronomical phenomena phenomena and operates as  from Qinghai.  People’s Daily Online, Online, Beijing, Beijing, China China.. Rea complex mechanical “computer” which tracks the cycles trieved March 8, 2014. of the Solar System.” [21] Anonymous (2002)  Chinese Scientists to Head for Suspected  [6] Paphitis Paphitis,, Nicholas Nicholas (December (December 1, 2006).   “Experts: FragET Relics.  People’s Daily Online, Online, Beijing, China. Retrieved mentss an Anci ment Ancient ent Comp Computer” uter”..   The Washing Washington ton Post . March 8, 2014. ATHENS, Greece. Imagine tossing a top-notch laptop into the sea, leaving scientists from a foreign culture to scratch [22] Dunning, B (2009)  The Baigong Pipes.   Skeptoid: Critical theirr heads over its corr thei corroded oded remains remains centuries centuries later. A Analysis of Pop Phenomena. Retrieved Phenomena.  Retrieved March 8, 2014. Roman shipmaster inadvertently did something just like it 2,000 2,000 years yearsagooff agooff sou southe thern rn Greece Greece,, ex exper perts ts sai saidd lat latee ThursThurs- [23] Brookesmith, Times. Brookesmith, P (2004) The Eltanin Enigma.  Fortean Times. day. (May 2004). Retrieved March 8, 2014. [7]   “Vinland Archeology”. Archeology”. Smithson Smithsonian ian Instituti Institution on National National [24] Heezen, BC, and CD Hollister (1971) The Face of the Deep. Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 2011-08-24. Oxford University Press, New York. 659 pp.  ISBN 0-19501277-1 [8]  “Bye, Columbus”. Columbus”.  Time. December 11, 1978. rational expla TheFinishing. Baghdad batCairncross, (1988) [9] tery Von -Handorf, and Plating DE Crotty : TheBSout South h African Af “Cosmic rican Lapida Lacannonballs” pidary ry Magazine. Magazaine. v. 30, no. myth or DE, reality?  and(2002) Surface Surface vol. [25] nation 1, pp. 4-6. 89, no. 5, pp. 84–87.

 

1.4. EXTERNAL EXTERNAL LINKS  LINKS 

[26] Heinrich, Heinrich, PV (1997) (1997) Mystery spheres : National Center for Scienc Sciencee Educa Educatio tionn Repor Reports. ts. v. 17, no. 1, p. p. 34. (Ja (Jannuary/February 1997) [27] Coulam, NJ, and AR Schroedl Schroedl (1995) The Keystone azurite mine in southeastern Utah.  Utah Archaeology. 8(1):1-12. [28] Kuban, GJ, (2005)   “Moab Man” - “Malachite Man” .   The Paluxy Dinosaur/"Man Track” Controversy.   Retrieved March 8, 2014.

1. 1.4 4 •

•

•

Ex Exte tern rnal al li link nkss

  Cr Criti itical cal pers perspect pectiv ivee on Crea Creatio tionist nist and New Age claims related to out-of-place artifacts at artifacts at Bad Archaeology   Archaeolog Archaeologyy from the dark side at  at Salon.com  Salon.com

article at  at Cult and Fringe Ar Out-of-place artifacts article chaeology

 

5

 

Chapter 2

Acámbaro figures he brought back. Eventually, the farmer and his assistants brought brou ght him ov over er 32,00 32,0000 figur figures es whi which ch include includedd rep represe resentantations of everything from the supposed dinosaurs to peoples Egyptians,, Sumerians Sumerians,and ,and from romall allov over er theworld theworld incl includi uding ng Egyptians [1]  Caucasians". ". “bearded Caucasians “bearded The figures attracted little attention from scholars and scientists, and when Julsrud began to assert that they were accurate representations of dinosaurs created by an ancient society, he only alienated himself further from serious scientific investiga investigation. tion. Tabloi Tabloids ds and popular media sources covered the story, however, and the figures steadily became somewhat famous. Archaeologist  Charles C. Di Peso  was working for the Amerind Foundation Foundation,, an anthropological organizati organization on dedicated to preserving Native preserving Native American culture. American culture. Di Peso exThe Acámba Acámbaro ro figures are abo about ut 33,000 33,000 small small ceram ceramic ic figfig- amined the figures and determined that they were not auurine uriness alleg allegedl edlyy foun oundd by Wald aldem emar ar Jul Julsru srudd in Jul Julyy 1944, 1944, in then thentic, tic,and and had inst instead ead been beenprod produced ucedby by loca locall modern-d modern-day ay [3][4] the Mexican city of Acámbaro of Acámbaro,, Guanajuato.  Guanajuato. The figurines farmers.  and are sometim sometimes es are said by some to resemble dinosaurs resemble  dinosaurs and cited as anachronisms as anachronisms.. Some  Some young-Earth creationists have creationists have He concluded that the figurines were indeed adduced the existence of figurines as credible evidence for fakes: fakes: their surfaces displayed no signs of age; no the coexistence coexistence of dinosaurs and humans, in an attempt to dirt was packed into their crevices; and though cast doubt on scienti scientific fic dating methods and potentiall potentiallyy ofsomefigur some figurine iness wer weree brok broken, en, no pie pieces ces wer weree miss miss-fnarrative er su suppo pport literal al in inter terpre pretat tatio ionn of theGenesis the Genesiscreatio creationn ing and no bro broke kenn sur surffaces aces wer weree wor worn. n. Fur Fur-narrative. .rt[1]for a liter thermore, the exc excavati avation’s on’s stratigrap stratigraphy hy clearl clearlyy show showed ed tha thatt the theart artif ifac acts ts we were re pla placed cedin in a rec recent ently ly However, there is no known reliable evidence for the validdug hole filled with a mixture of the surrounding  artifacts;; and ity of the Acámb Acámbaro aro figures as actual ancient ancient artifacts archaeological archaeolo gical layers. DiPeso also learned that a many have questioned questioned the motiv motives es of those who argue for [2] local family had been making and selling these their validity. figurines to Julsrud for a peso apiece since 1944, presumably inspired by films shown at Acámbaro’s cinema, locally available comic books and 2.1 2.1 Hi Hist stor ory y newspapers, and accessible day trips to Mexico City’s Museo Naciona Nacional.l.[5] The Acámbaro figures were uncovered by a German immigrant and hardware merchant named Waldemar Julsrud. Others, however, argued that Di Peso could not have conAccording to Dennis Swift, a young-Earth a  young-Earth creati creationist onist and  and ducted a thorough investigation in the four hours he spent [6]

Charles Hapgood Hapgood, of pole of pole major ma jor proponent of the JJulsrud ulsrud upon the at Julsrud’s home. theory, , became one of the figures’ most, pioneer high profile andshift defigures while riding his figures, horse and hiredstumbled a local farmer to theory [7] included Earle Stanley dig up the remaining figures, paying him for each figure vout supporters. Other supporters included Earle 6

 

 

2.5. EXTERNAL EXTERNAL LINKS  LINKS 

Gardner,, the prolific novelist and creator of the character Gardner Perry Mason Mason,, who came to Julsrud’s defence, claiming that the 32,000 figures could not possibly have been produced by a single person or group of people and that the figures were not a hoax. The figures continue to draw attention in the present day.  books such They have been cited in some pseudoscientific some pseudoscientific books as  Atlantis Rising  b  byy David Lewis. wis. Another young-Earth Earth creationist, Don Patten, hasLe emerged as theiryoungstaunchest supporter. He has proposed some new lines of evi evidence, dence, including the figure’s resemblance to the dinosaurs depicted in in Robert Bakker’s book, Dinosaur Heresies .[8]  Robert Bakker’s

2.2 2.2

Dati ting ng

Attem ttempt ptss have have be been en ma made de to date date th thee figure guress usin usingg dating. The earliest results, from thermoluminescence (TL) dating. tests done when TL dating was in its infancy, suggested a However, ver, later tests contradicted date around 2500 BC.[5] Howe thesee findi thes findings. ngs. In 1976, Gary W. Carri Carrive veau au and Mark

7

[4] DiPeso, DiPeso, C.C. (1953). “The Clay Monsters Monsters of Acambar Acambaro”. o”. Archaeology. 6(2):111-114. Acámbaro, o, Mexico”. Mexico”.  Ex[5] Pezatti, Alex (2005). "Mystery " Mystery at Acámbar  pedition Magazine. 47(3):7-8. University University of Pennsylvania Pennsylvania Museum. [6] Childress, Childress, David Hatcher Hatcher (1993). (1993).   Lost Cities of North & Central America. Stelle, Stelle, Illinoi Illinois: s: Ad Advent ventures ures Unlimited Unlimited Press. p. 209. ISBN 209.  ISBN 0932813097. 0932813097. [7]   Hapgo Hapgood, od, Charles Charles   (2000).   Myster Mysteryy in Aca Acamba mbaro: ro: Did  Dinosaurs Survive Until Recently? . Ad Advent ventures ures Unl Unlimit imited ed Press. ISBN Press. 0-932813-76-3.  ISBN 0-932813-76-3. dinosaurs”.. [8] Blanton, John John (October 1999). “The 1999).  “The Acambaro dinosaurs” Newsletter of The North Texas Skeptics .   13 (10).   Archived from from the original on 27 December 2007. Retrieved 200712-19. [9] Carriveau, Carriveau, G. W.; Han, M. C. (1976). “Thermolumi “Thermoluminescent nescent Dating and the Monsters of Acambaro”.   American Antiquity. 41(4):497-500.

C. Han attempted to datethat twenty Acámbaro using TL dating. They ffound ound the figures had figures been fired at 2.5 2.5 Exte Extern rnal al link linkss temperatures between 450 °C and 650 °C, which contra  Acámbaro Acámbaro figures and the Julsrud Museum at Museum at Municdicted claims that these figures had been fired at temperipality of Acámbaro official page. atures too low for them to be accurately dated. However, all of the samples failed the “plateau test”, which indicated  ArchyFantasies Podcast - Episode 48: Acámbaro Figthat dates obtained for the Acámbaro figures using standard ures & Ica Stones high-temperature TL dating techniques were unreliable and lackedd any chronolo lacke chronological gical si significanc gnificance. e. Based on the degree of signal regeneration found in remeasured samples, they estimated that the figures tested had been fired approximately 30 years prior to 1969.[9] •

•

2.3 2.3

Se Seee al also so

•

 Ica stones

•

 Out-of-place artifact

2.4

Re Refferen erence cess

[1]  “The Dinosaur Figurines Of Acambaro, Mexico”. Mexico”. The In from the original on teractive Bible. 2003-07-27. Archived 2003-07-27.  Archived from 14 December 2007. Retrieved 2007-12-19. [2] Isaak Isaak,, M. (20 (2007) 07)..   The Coun Counter-C ter-Creat reationism ionism Han Handbook  dbook . University of California California Press, Press, Berkeley, Berkeley, California. California. p. 362. ISBN 978-0-520-24926-4 [3] DiPeso, DiPeso, C.C. (1953). “The Clay Clay Figurines Figurines of Acambaro Acambaro,, Guanajuato, Mexico”.  American Antiquity. 18(4):388-389.

 

Chapter 3

Aiud object The Aiud Object  (or

“Aiud Artifact”) is a claimed  outof-place artifact said artifact  said to have been found by construction workers in 1974 in the Mureș the  Mureș River River in  in central Romania central  Romania,, near the town of Aiud of  Aiud,, and said to be of ancient (possibly pre-human) origin. origin. Mainstream ne news ws sources  [1] and paranormal sites   [2] have suggested the object may have been left behind by extraterrestrial visitors to Earth. The object is shaped like a wedge or possibly a fragment of machinery, and is composed of 12 metals, including about 89% aluminum 89%  aluminum..[3] The object was discovered with confirmed mastodon fossils said to establi established shed its extrem extremee antiquity, with the earliest estimates placing its origin in a period well before humans had established metalworking. Dates asserted for the artifact have ranged from 250,000 years B.P. to 400 years B.P. Since even the later date would establis esta blishh an origin origin app approxi roximate mately ly 2000 yea years rs bef before ore huma humans ns learned to process aluminum in 1825, the object’s object’s composition is said, along with its unusual form, to be evidence of its extraterrestrial origin.[4] At least one other commentator has commented on the object’s physical and possible chemical similarity to a mechanical part from digging equipment, known as an excavator bucket tooth (EBT). A row of these form the digor   backhoe   configuration. ging edge of a  steam shovel   or  While these teeth are usually made of carbon steel, buckets with aluminum alloy teeth are used when excav excavating ating in the presence of volatile compounds compounds like coal, tar sands, or [3] object ject was found in a coal-producing petroleum. As the ob region, its possible modern provenance could place it in the category of erroneously of erroneously dated objects objects..

3.1

[3] Hilblairious (2014) “Aluminum, (2014) “Aluminum, Aliens (1): What “THEY” left Behind in Aiud”, Aiud”, Hilblairious.blo Hilblairious.blogspot.ca. gspot.ca. Things ngs You Sho Should uldKno Know w Ab About out the theAiu Aiudd [4] “Ivan” “Ivan” (20 (2014) 14) “15 Thi Object Aluminum Wedge”, Wedge”, Ancient-Code.com

Re Refferen erence cess

 “Does this mysterio mysterious us piece of aluminium [1] Plummer Plummer (2016) (2016) “Does prove UFOs visited Earth 250,000 years ago?", ago?" , The Daily Mail, London. [2] Cool Interest Interesting ing Stuff (2016) “Aluminium (2016) “Aluminium Wedge of Aiud Mystery”,, CoolInterestingStuff.com. Mystery” CoolInterestingStuff.com.

8

 

Chapter 4

Ancient Discov Discoveries eries series that  that Ancient Discoveries was a television a  television series

premiered on December 21, 2003, on The on The History Channel Channel.. The program focused on ancient technologies ancient  technologies.. The show’s theme was that many inventions many  inventions which  which are thought to be modern have ancient roots or in some cases may have been lost and then reinvented. reinvented. The program was a follow-up follow-up to a special originally broadcast in 2005 which focused on technologies from the Anci Ancient ent Roma Romann era era such such as th thee Antikythera mechanism and anism  and inventors such as Heron as Heron of Alexandria. Alexandria. Episodes of the regular series expanded to cover other areas such as Egypt, China Egypt,  China and  and East  East Asia Asia,, and the Islamic the Islamic world world.. Ancient Discoveries  was  was made for The History Channel by Wild Dream Films based in Cardiff in  Cardiff in  in the UK. Much of the filming filming was on loca locatio tionn across the world. The seri series es used contributions from archaeologists and other experts, footage of historical sites and artifacts, computer generated reconstructions, reconstruc tions, and dramatized reconstructi reconstructions ons along with experiments and tests on reconstructed artifacts.

4.1.4 4.1 .4

Serie Seriess 4 (earl (early y 2008 2008))

4.1.5 4.1 .5

Serie Seriess 5 (late (late 200 2008) 8)

4.1.6 4.1 .6

Serie Seriess 6 (2009) (2009)

An episode about ancient surgery is available through Comcast OnDemand,  OnDemand, even though it has not aired on HisComcast tory.

4.2

Re Refferen erence cess

Discoveries”.. TV.com. Retrieved 2009[1]   “TV.com Ancient Discoveries” 12-16. [2]  “TVguide.com Ancient Discoveries” Discoveries”.. TVgui TVguide. de.co com. m. Retrieved 2009-12-22. TVms msn. n.co com. m. ReRe[3]   “TVmsn.com Ancient Discoveries”. Discoveries”. TV trieved 2009-12-22.

4.1 4.1

Ep Epiiso sod des 4.3 4.3

4.1.1 4.1 .1

Serie Seriess 1 (2003) (2003)

Michael Carroll was the initial narrator of the series for The History Channel (US).

Exte Extern rnal al link linkss

•

 Official Site (History Channel)

•

 Official Site of Wild Dream Films

•

 Ancient Discoveries    at the Internet the  Internet Movie Database

(Incomplete Episode Listings) 4.1.2 4.1 .2

Serie Seriess 2 (2005) (2005)

•

Phil Crowley was narrator of this series of episodes and for all subsequent episodes for The History Channel (US).

  Anci Ancient ent Disc Discov overi eries es on Zap2 Zap2It It   (Most Comp Complet letee Episode Listings)

4. 4.4 4 4.1.3 4.1 .3

Serie Seriess 3 (2007) (2007)

•

•

This was This was thefirst ser serie iess of episo episode dess pre prese sente ntedd in wide wide scree screenn format on The History Channel (US). 9

See See al also so

 Ancient Inventions  The Re-Inventors

 

Chapter 5

Antikythera mechanism -i-kiFor the BT song “The Antikythera Mechanism”, see This see  This The   Antikythera mechanism mechanism   (/ˌæntᵻkᵻˈθiːrə/   ANT -i-ki-i-KITH -ə-rə -ə-rə) is an anBinary Universe. Universe. THEER-ə   or or /ˌæntᵻˈkɪθərə/  /ˌæntᵻˈkɪθərə/   ANT -icient analogue cient  analogue computer[1][2][3][4] and and orrery  orrery used  used to predict astronomical dict  astronomical positions  positions and eclipses and eclipses f  for or calendrical  calendrical and  and [5][6][7] astrological purposes, as well as the Olympiads the Olympiads,, the astrological  purposes, cycles of the ancient the ancient Olympic Games Games..[8][9] Found housed in a 340 millime millimetres tres (13 in) × 180 millimetres (7.1 in) × 90 millimetre millimetress (3.5 in) wooden box, the demechanism composed  composed of at vice is a complex clockwork complex  clockwork mechanism least 30 meshing bronze meshing bronze gears gears.. Its remains were found as one lump, later separated in three main fragments, which are now divided into 82 separate fragments after conservation tion work works. s. Four Fourof of these these fr fragme agments nts cont contain ain gears gears,, whil whilee inscriptions are found on many others.[10][11] The largest gear (clearly visible in Fragment A at right) is approximately 140 millimetres (5.5 in) in diameter and originally had 223 The teeth. Antikythera mechanism (Fragment A – front) The art artef efac actt was rec recov overe eredd pr proba obabl blyy in Jul Julyy 190 19011[12] from the Antikythera the  Antikythera shipwreck off shipwreck  off the Greek island of [13] Antikythera Antikythera.. Believed to have been designed and constructed by Greek by Greek scientists scientists,, the instrument has been dated eitherr between 150 and 100 eithe 100 BC  BC,,[5] or, according to a more recent view, in 205 BC.[14][15] After the knowledge of this technology was lost at some point in antiquity in  antiquity,, technological artefacts approaching its complexity and workmanship did not appear again until the development of mechanical astronomical mechanical astronomical clocks clocks in  in Europe [16] in the fourteenth century. All known fragments of the Antikythera mechanism are in  Athens,, kept at the National the  National Archaeological Museum, Museum, in Athens along with a number of artistic reconstructi reconstructions ons of how the [17] mechanism may have looked.

The Antikythera mechanism (Fragment A – back)

5.1 5.1

Hi Hist stor ory y

See also: Antikythera also:  Antikythera wreck

10

 

 

5.2. DESCRIPTIO DESCRIPTION  N 

5.1.1 5.1 .1

Disco Discove very ry

The Antikythera mechanism was discovered in 45 metres (148 ft) of water in the Antikythera the  Antikythera shipwreck shipwreck off  off Point Glyphadiaa on the Greek island of Glyphadi of Antikythera  Antikythera.. The wreck divers ers,, was was found ound in Ap Apri rill 19 1900 00 by a grou groupp of Gr Gree eekk sponge div who retrieved numerous artefacts, including bronze and marble statues, pottery, unique glassware, jewell jewellery, ery, coins, and the mechanism. mechanism. All were transf transferred erred to the National Museum of Archaeology in Athens for storage and analysis. Merelyalumpofcorrodedbronzeandwoodatthetime, the theme mech chani anism sm we went nt unn unnoti otice cedd for two two years years whi while le mus museu eum m [16] staff worked on piecing together more obvious statues. On 17 May 1902, archaeologist 1902,  archaeologist Valerios Stais Stais was  was examining the finds and noticed that one of the pieces of rock had a gear wheel embedded in it. Stais initi initially ally belie believed ved it wasan was an astro astronom nomic ical al cl clock ock,, butmos but mostt sch schola olars rs con consi side dered red th thee device devi ce to be be prochronistic  prochronistic,, too complex to have been constructed during the same period as the other pieces that had been discovered. discovered. Inves Investigati tigations ons into the ob object ject were soon dropped until British science historian and Yale University professor, Derek professor,  Derek J. de Solla Price Price became  became interested in it in 1951.[18] In 1971, both Price and Greek nuclear physicist Charalampos Karakalos made X-ray and gamma-ray and  gamma-ray images of images  of the 82 fragments. Price published an extensive 70-page paper on their findings in 1974.[16] It is not known how the mechanism came to be on the cargo ship, but it has been suggested that it was being taken  Rhodes to  to Rome  Rome,, together with other looted treasure, from Rhodes from to support a triumphal a triumphal parade being parade being staged by Julius by  Julius Cae[19] sar.. sar

11

world.[6] In 2006, continued research by the  Antikythera Mechanism Research Project suggested Project suggested the concept for the mechanism originated in the colonies of  Corinth  Corinth,, since some of the astronomi astronomical cal calculation calculationss seem to indicate observations that can be made only in the Corinth area of ancient Greece.   Syracuse was Syracuse  was a colony of Corinth and the home

of Archimedes of Archimedes, , which imply a ry connection withcoi the sch school ool of Arc Archim himede edes. s.[8]might Another Anoth er theo theory sug suggest gestss that coins ns Cousteau in  in the 1970s at the wreck site found by Jacques by Jacques Cousteau date to the time of the device’s construction, and posits its origin may have been from the ancient Greek city of Pergamon Pergamon,,[25] home of the Library the  Library of Pergamum. Pergamum. Wi With th its many scrolls of art and scienc science, e, it was second in imporAlexandria during  during the Hellenistance only to the Library the Library of Alexandria [26] tic period. The ship carrying the device also contained vases in the Rhodian style, Rhodian  style, leading to a hypothesis the devi device ce was con philosopher structed at an academy founded by the Stoic the  Stoic philosopher Posidonius Posidonius on  on that Greek Greek islan island. d. A busy tradi trading ng port in antiquity, Rhodes was also a centre of astronomy and mechanical chanic al engineering, home to the astronomer astronomer Hipparchus  Hipparchus,, active from about 140 BC to 120 BC. That the mechanism uses Hipparchus’s theory for the motion of the moon suggests the possibility he may have designed, or at least worked on it.[16] Cardiff University professor University professor Michael Edmunds, who led a 2006 study of the mechanism, described the device as “just extraordinary, the only thing of its kind”, and said that its astronom astro nomyy was “ex “exactl actlyy rig right”. ht”. He rega regarded rdedthe the Anti Antikyth kythera era [27][28] Lisa". ". mechanism as “more valuable than the Mona the Mona Lisa In 2014, a study by Carman and Evans argued for a new dating of approximately 200 BC.[14][15] Moreover, accord5.1. 5.1.2 2 Orig Origin in ing to Carman and Evans, the Babylonian arithmetic style Generally referred to as the first known  analogue com- of prediction fits much better with the device’s predictive [14]

puter,,f[20] puter the of the manu manuf actu acture re quality sug suggest gestssand it complexity has undi undisco scover vered ed mechanism’s pred predece ecessors ssors period..[21] Its construction remade during the Hellenistic the Hellenistic period lied upon theories of astronomy and mathematics developed by Greek astronomers, and is estima estimated ted to have been created around the late second century BC.[5] In 1974, Derek 1974, Derek de Solla Price concluded Price concluded from gear settings and inscriptions on the mechanism’s faces that it was made about 87 BC and lost only a few years later. [13] Jacques Cousteau and Cousteau  and associates visited the wreck in 1976 [22] and rec recov overe eredd coin coinss da dated ted to bet betwe ween en 76 and 67 BC BC..[23] Though its advanced state of corrosion has made it impossible to perform an accurate compositional accurate  compositional analysis analysis,, it is believed the device was made of a low-tin low-tin bronze  bronze alloy  alloy (of approx[24]

models than the traditional Greek trigonometric style. Further dives are being undertaken in the hope of discovering more of the mechanism.[15]

5.2 5.2

Desc Descri ript ptiion

The ori origin ginal al me mech chani anism sm ap appar parent ently ly cam camee out of the the Mediterranean as a single encrusted piece. Soon afterw Mediterranean afterward ard it fract ractured ured into intothree threema major jor pie pieces. ces. Oth Other er sma smallll pie pieces ces hav havee broken off in the interim from cleaning and handling, [29] and still others were found on the sea floor by the Cousteau expedition. expedi tion. Other ffragments ragments may still be in storage, undis-

All its instructions are light imately in Koine copper, tin).the consensus since initial Fragment Fnts, came to  Koine Greek, , and among scholwritten in95% Greek5% licovered ght in tha that t wa wayytheir in 200 2005. 5. Ofrecovery; the the82 82 kno known wn frag ragme ments , sev seven en ars is that the mechanism was made in the Greek-speaking are mechanically significant and contain the majority of the

 

12

 

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 5. ANTIKYTHE ANTIKYTHERA RA MECHANISM  MECHANISM 

5.3.1 Operat Operatio ion n mechanism mechani sm and insc inscript ription ions. s. Ther Theree are also also16 16 sma smaller llerparts parts 5.3.1 that contain fractional and incomplete inscriptions.[5][8][30] On the front face of the mechanism (see reproduction here:[32] ) there is a fixed ring dial representi representing ng the the ecliptic  ecliptic,, the twelve  twelve   zodiacal signs zodiacal  signs marked off with equal 30 de5.2.1 Major Major fragment ragmentss gree sectors. sectors. This matc matched hed with the Babyl Babyloni onian an custom of assigning one twelf twelfth th of the ecliptic to each zodiac sign 5.2.2 5.2 .2 Minor Minor fra ragme gment ntss equally equa lly,, even even thou though gh the constellation boun boundari daries es wer weree vari vari-able. Outside of that dial is another ring which is rotatable, Many of the smaller fragments that have been found con- ma Egyptian mark rked ed off wi with th the the mo mont nths hs an andd da days ys of the the So Soth thic icEgyptian tain nothing of apparent value, however, a few have some calendar calendar,, twelve months of 30 days plus five intercalary five  intercalary inscript insc ription ionss on them. Fragm Fragment ent 19 cont contains ains sig signifi nificant cant days days.. The months are marked with the Egyptian names for backdoor back doorinsc inscript ription ionss inc includi luding ng one read reading ing "...76 "...76yea years....” rs....” the months transcribed into the Greek alphabet. The first cycle.. Other inscriptions inscriptions seem task, then, is to rotate the Egyptian calendar ring to match which refers to the Callippic the Callippic cycle to describe the functio functionn of the back dials. In addition to the current zodiac points. points. The Egyptian calend calendar ar ignored this important minor fragment, 15 further minor fragments leap days, so it advanced through a full zodiac sign in about [31]:7 :7 have remnants of inscriptions on them.[31] 120 years.[6] Theme The mech chani anism sm was ope operat rated ed by turnin turningg a small small han handd crank crank (now lost) which was linked via a crown a crown gear to gear to the largest gear, the four-spoked gear visible on the front of fragment 5. 5.3 3 Me Mech chan anis ism m A, the gear named b1. This moved the date pointer on the front dial, which would be set to the correct Egyptian calendarr day. The yea enda yearr is not sele selecta ctable, ble, so it is nece necessary ssary to know the year currently set, or by looking up the cycles indicated by the various calendar cycle indicators on  tables for the day of the back in the Babylonian ephemeris Babylonian  ephemeris tables the year currently set, since most of the calendar cycles are not synchronous with the year. The crank moves the date pointe pointerr abo about ut 78 da days ys per perffull ullrot rotati ation, on,so so hitti hitting ng a par partiticu cular lar day on the dial would be easily possible if the mechanism were in good working condition. condition. The action of turning the handd cra han crank nk wo would uld al also so cause cause all interl interloc ocke kedd ge gears ars wi withi thinn the the mechanism to rotate, resulting in the simultaneous calcula and Moon  Moon,, the moon the moon phase phase,, tion of the position of the Sun the  Sun and eclipse, and calendar cycles, and perhaps the locations of eclipse, planets planets..[33]

The also to two be aware of theonposition the spiraloperator dial pointers pointe rs had on the large dials the back.ofThe pointer had a “follower” that tracked the spiral incisions in the metal as the dials incorporated four and five full rotations of the pointers. When a pointer reached the termin terminal al month location at either end of the spiral, the pointer’s follower had to be manually moved to the other end of the [5]:10 :10 spiral before proceeding further.[5] 5.3. 5. 3.2 2 Schematic of the artefact’s known mechanism

Face Facess

Front face

dialofhasthe ecliptic concentric, circular scales that Information oniries the specific data from by’s The  ecliptic through  through the heavens. Therepreouter sent front the path thetwo the thelat lates estt in inqu quiri es are detai detailed ledin in gleaned the thesu supp pple leme ment nttheto ruins Fre Freeth eth’s [5] ring is marked off with the days of the 365-day Egyptian 365-day  Egyptian 2006 Nature article.

 

 

5.3. MECHANISM  MECHANISM 

•

 ΠΑΥΝΙ (Payni)

•

  ΕΠΙΦΙ (Epiphi) (Epiphi)

•

 ΜΕΣΟΡΗ (Mesore)

•

  ΕΠ (Ep[agomene] (Ep[agomene]))

13

The Zodiac dia dial l contain cont s Gree Greek inscript ions s of members bers of the zod zodia iac, c, whi which ch ains is beli be liev eved edk insc to beription ada adapte pted d tothe the thmem e tropical [31] :8 month version month  version rather than the sidereal the sidereal::[31]:8

Computer-generated front panel of the Freeth model 

calendar, or thethere Sothic based the the Sothic  Sothic cycle. cycle . On calendar the inner, ring, is ayear, second dial on marked with the Greek signs of the Zodiac the Zodiac and  and it is divided into degrees. The outer calendar dial may be moved against the inner dial to compensate for the effect of the extra quarter day in the  solar year by bytur turnin ningg the thesc scale alebac backwa kward rd oneday everyfou everyfourr years. years. 1 Callippicc cyc cycle le circ circaa 330 A365  ⁄ 4 -d -day ay ye year ar was was used used in th thee Callippi BC and in the Decree the Decree of Canopus Canopus during  during 238 BC, but that is not reflected in the dials. The position of the sun on the ecliptic corresponds to the current curr ent date in the yea year. r. The orbi orbits ts of the moon and the five planets known to the Greeks are close enough to the ecliptic to make it a convenient reference for defining their positions as well. Front panel of a 2007 recreation

The on following following Egyptian  Egyptian months are inscribed, in Greek letters the outer ring: months are •

 ΘΟΘ (Thoth)

•

  ΚΡIOΣ (Krios [Ram], [Ram], Aries)

•

 ΦΑΩΦΙ (Phaophi)

•

  ΤΑΥΡΟΣ (Tauros (Tauros [Bull], Taurus)

•

 ΑΟΤΡ (Athyr, Hathor)

•

 ΔIΔΥΜΟΙ (Didymoi [Twins], Gemini)

•

 ΧΟΙΑΚ (Choiak)

•

  ΚΑΡΚIΝΟΣ (Karkinos [Crab], [Crab], Cancer)

•

 ΤΥΒΙ (Tybi)

•

  ΛEΩΝ (Leon [Lion], [Lion], Leo)

•

 ΜΕΧΕΙΡ (Mecheir)

•

 ΠΑΡΘEΝΟΣ (Parthenos [Maiden], Virgo)

•

  ΦΑΜΕΝΩΘ (Phame (Phamenoth) noth)

•

  ΧΗΛΑΙ (Chelai [Scorpio’s [Scorpio’s Claw or Zygos], Libra)

•

•

  ΦΑΡΜΟΥΘΙ (Pharm (Pharmouthi) outhi)  ΠΑΧΩΝ (Pachon)

•

•

 ΣΚΟΡΠΙΟΣ (Skorpios [Scorpion], Scorpio)  ΤΟΞΟΤΗΣ (Toxotes [Archer], Sagittarius)

 

14 •

•

•

 

  ΑIΓOΚΕΡΩΣ (Aigok (Aigokeros eros [Sea goat], Capricorn)  YΔΡΟΧΟΟΣ (Hydrokhoos [Water carrier], Aquarius)  IΧΘΥΕΣ (Ichthyes [Fish], Pisces)

Also on the zodiac dial are a number of single charac[32] ). The They ters keyed at specific points (see, reconstruction are to a  parapegma a precursor of here: the modern dayy almanac inscribed  inscribed on the front face beyond the dials. They almanac mark the locations of longitudes on the ecliptic for specific stars. Some of the parapegma reads (brackets indicate inferred text): •

 {Κ} Evening

•

 {Λ} The Hyades The Hyades set  set in the evening

•

 Taurus begins  begins to rise   {Μ} {Μ} Taurus

•

 Vega rises  rises in the evening   {N} {N} Vega

•

 {Θ} The Pleiades The Pleiades rise  rise in the morning

•

 {Ο} The Hyades The Hyades rise  rise in the morning

•

 Gemini begins  begins to rise   {Π} {Π} Gemini

•

  {Ρ} {Ρ} Altair  Altair rises  rises in the evening

•

 Arcturus sets  sets in the morning   {Σ} {Σ} Arcturus

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 5. ANTIKYTHE ANTIKYTHERA RA MECHANISM  MECHANISM 

in addition to the position.[34] The indicator was a small ball embedded in the lunar pointer, half-white and half-black, which rotated to show the phase (new, first quarter, half, third quarter, full, and back) graphically. graphically. The data to support this function is available given the sun and moon positions tions as angul angular ar rota rotatio tions; ns; esse essenti ntially ally,, it is the angle betw between een the two, translated into the rotation of the ball. It requires a differential gear gear,, a gearing arrangement that sums or differences two angular inputs. Among its other first-known aspects, the Antikythera Mechanism is the earliest extant construction of a deliberate differential gear scheme in history.

Rear face

At least two pointers indicated positions of bodies upon the eclip ecliptitic. c. A lun lunar ar poi pointe nterr indi indica cated ted the thepos posititio ionn of the mo moon, on, and a mean sun pointer also was shown, perhaps doubling as the current date pointer. The moon positi position on was not a simple mean moon indicator that would indicate movement uniformly around a circular orbit; it allowed for the acceleration and orbit, deceleration of whatextant is known today as an  epicyclic elliptical throughtypical the earliest use of epicyclic of gearing.. gearing It also tracke trackedd the precessi precession on of the elliptical orbit around the ecliptic ecliptic in an 8.88 year cycle. The mean sun positi position on is, by definitio definition, n, the current dat date. e. It is specu speculate latedd that since such pains were taken to get the position of the moon [31] :20, 24 then there also was likely to have been a correct,[31]:20, “true sun” pointer in additi addition on to the mean sun pointer likewise, to track the elliptical anomaly of the sun (the orbit of Earth around the sun), but there is no evidence of it among the ruins of the mechanism found to date. [6] Similarly, neither is there the evidence of planetary orbit pointers for the five planets planets known to the Greeks among the ruins. See schemes below.  below. Proposed planet indication gearing schemes Finally, mechanical engineer Michael Wright has demonstr strate atedd tha thatt the there re was wasaa me mech chani anism sm to supp supply lythe thelun lunar ar ph phase ase

Computer-generated back panel 

 

 

5.3. MECHANISM  MECHANISM 

In July 2008, scientists reported new findings in the journal  Nature  showing that the mechanism not only tracked the Metonic the Metonic calendar and calendar and predicted solar predicted solar eclipses eclipses,, but also Games..[8] Incalculated the timing of the Ancient the Ancient Olympic Games scriptions on the instrument closely match the names of the Epirus in northwe northweststmo month nthss tha thatt are areuse usedd on calen calendar darss from romEpirus ern Greece and with the island of Corfu of Corfu..[35][36] On of thethe Metonic mec mechani hanism, sm, and there five, dial dials: the  Metonic and theare the Saros  Saros, ands:three two the largeback displays, the the Callippic,, and the smaller indicators, the Olympi Olympiad, ad,[8] the Callippic [5] [5]:11 :11 Exeligmos.. Exeligmos The Metonic Dial is the main upper dial on the rear of the mechanism. mechani sm. The Metonic cyc cycle, le, defined in several physical units, is 235 synodic 235  synodic months months,, which is very close (to within less than 13 one-millionths) to 19 tropical years. It is therefore a convenient interval over which to convert between lunar and solar calendars. The Metonic dial covers 235 months in 5 rotations of the dial, following a spiral track with a follower on the pointer that keeps track of the layer of the spiral. The pointer points to the synodic month, counted from new moon to new moon, and the cell contains names..[8][37] the Corinthian the Corinthian month names

15

The Olympiad dial is the right secondary upper dial; it is the only pointer on the instrument that travels in a counterclockwise direction as time advances. The dial is divided into into four oursec sector tors, s, eac eachh of whi which ch is inscr inscribe ibedd wi with th a year year indiindiGames:: the “cro “crown” wn” cator and the name of two Panhellenic two  Panhellenic Games  Olympia,,  Nemea  Nemea,, and Pythia and  Pythia;; and two games of Isthmia of  Isthmia,,  Olympia lesser games: Naa (held at Dodona at Dodona)) and another Olympiad location that to date, has not been deciphered. [38] The inscriptions on each one of the four divisions are:[5][8] The Saros dial is the main lower spiral dial on the rear of [5] :4–5, 10 The  Saros cycle  cycle is 18 years and 11 The Saros the mechanism.[5]:4–5, 1  ⁄ 3 days long (6585.333… days), which is very close to 223 synodic months (6585.3211 days). It is defined as the cycle of repetition of the positions required to cause solar and lunar eclipses, and therefore, it could be used to predict them — not only the month, but the day and time of day. Note that the cycle is approximately 8 hours longer than an integer number of days. Translated into global spin, that means an eclipse occurs not only eight hours later, but one-third of a rotation farther to the west. Glyphs in 51 of the 223 synodic month cells of the dial specify the occurrence of 38 lunar and 27 solar eclipses. Some of the abbreviations in the glyphs read:

1. ΦΟΙΝΙΚΑΙΟΣ (Phoinikaios)

•

  Σ = ΣΕΛΗΝΗ (Moon)

2. ΚΡΑΝΕΙΟΣ (Kraneios)

•

  Η = ΗΛΙΟΣ (Sun) (Sun)

•

  H\M = ΗΜΕΡΑΣ (of the the day)

•

  ω\ρ = ωρα (hour) (hour)

•

 N\Y = ΝΥΚΤΟΣ (of the night)

3. ΛΑΝΟΤΡΟΠΙΟΣ (Lanotropios) 4. ΜΑΧΑΝΕΥΣ (Machaneus,  “mechanic” , referring to Zeus the  the inventor) Zeus 5. ΔΩΔΕΚΑΤΕΥΣ (Dodekateus) 6. ΕΥΚΛΕΙΟΣ (Eukleios) 7. ΑΡΤΕΜΙΣΙΟΣ (Artemisios) 8. ΨΥΔΡΕΥΣ (Psydreus) 9. ΓΑΜΕΙΛΙΟΣ (Gameilios) 10. ΑΓΡΙΑΝΙΟΣ (Agrianios) 11. ΠΑΝΑΜΟΣ (Panamos) 12. ΑΠΕΛΛΑΙΟΣ (Apellaios) Thus, setting the correct solar time (in days) on the front panel indicates indicates the current lunar month on the back panel, with resolution to within a week or so. The Callippic dial is the left secondary upper dial, which follo ollows ws and a 76-y 76-year eardial cy cycle cle. . The Callippi Callippic cycle cyc le isfour fourMetonic Me Meton tonic ic cycles, this indicates whichc of the cycles is the current one in the Callippic cycle.

The glyphs show whether the designated designated eclipse is solar or lunar, and give the day of the month and hour; obviously, solar eclipses may not be visible at any given point, and lunar eclip eclipses sesare are visi visibl blee onl onlyy if themoo the moonn is abo above ve the theho horiz rizon on [31] [31]:6 :6

at the appointed addition, the inner the cardinal points ofhour. the SarosIndial indicat indicate e the startlines of aatnew full moon cycle. cycle. The Exeligmos Dial is the secondary lower dial on the rear  cycle is a 54-year triple of the mechanism. The Exeligmos The Exeligmos cycle Saros cycle cycle that is 19,756 days lo long. ng. Since the length of the Saros cycle is to a third of a day (eight hours), so a full Exeligmos cycle returns counting to integer days, hence the [5]:10 :10 inscriptions. The labels on its three divisions are:[5] •

•

•

  Blank or o ? (represe (representing nting the num number ber zero, assumed, not yet observed)  H (number 8) means add 8 hours to the time mentioned in the display   Iϛ (number 16) means add 16 hours to the time mentioned in the display

 

16

 

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 5. ANTIKYTHE ANTIKYTHERA RA MECHANISM  MECHANISM 

Thus the dial pointer indicates how many hours must be thesis thesis of the sun anom anomaly. aly. T Thei heirr system, system, they they clai claim, m, is mor moree added to the glyph times of the Saros dial in order to calcu- authentic than Wright’s model as it uses the known skill sets late the exact eclipse times. of the Greeks of that period and does not add excessive complexity or internal stresses to the machine. [6] The gear teeth were in the form of equilateral of equilateral triangles with triangles with 5.3. 5.3.3 3 Door Doorss an av avera erage ge circ circula ularr pitc pitchh of 1.6 mm mm,, an av avera erage ge wh whee eell thick thick-ness of 1.4 mm and an average air gap between gears of 1.2 The The me mech chan anis ism m has has a wood wooden en casi casing ng with with a front ront an andd a ba back ck door, both containi containing ng inscriptions.[8][31] The back door ap- round mm. The teeth probably wereiscreated rom a blank using hand tools; this evidentffrom because notbronze all of pears to be the “Instruction “Instruction Manual”. On one of its ffragrag- them are even.[6] Due to advances in imaging and X-ray and  X-ray ments is written “76 years, 19 years” representing the Cal- technology it is now possible to know the precise number lippic and Metonic Metonic cycle cycles. s. Also written is “223” fo forr the of teeth and size of the gears within the located fragme fragments. nts. Saros cycle. On another one of its fragments, it is written Thusthebasicoperationofthedeviceisnolongeramystery “on the spiral subdivisions 235” referring to the Metonic and has been replicated accurately. The major unknown redial. mains the question of the presence and nature of any planet [31] :8 indicators.[31]:8 A table of the gears, their teeth, and the expected and com5.3. 5.3.4 4 Gear Gearin ing g puted rotations of various of the important gears follows. [8] The mechanism is remarkable for the level of miniaturisa- The gear functions come from Freeth et al. (2008) and for the lower half of the table from Freeth and Jones tion and the complexity of its parts, which is comparable those [6] to that of fourteenth-cen fourteenth-century tury astronomical cloc clocks. ks. It has at 2012. The computed values start with 1 year/revolution least 30 gears, that although mechanism Michael Wright has suggested the Greeks of thisexpert period were capable of implementing a system with many more gears.[33] There is much debate that the mechanism may have had indicators for all five of the planets known to the ancient Greeks. No gearing for suc suchh a planetary display survi survives ves and all gears are accounted for—with the exception of one 63-toothe 63-to othedd gear (r1) othe otherwise rwise unac unaccoun counted ted for for in fragme ragment nt [6] D. The purpose of the front face was to position astronomical sphere along  along the ecliptic the ecliptic,, bodies with respect to the celestial the  celestial sphere in reference to the observer’s position on the Earth. That is irrelevant to the question of whether that position was computed using a heliocentric or geocentric view of the solar system; either computational method should and does, result in the same position (ignoring ellipticity), within the error factors of the mechanism. Ptolem Ptol emy’s y’s epi epicy cycli clicc solar solarsys system tem(sti (stillll 300 yea years rs in the future future from the apparent date of the mechanism), carried forward with more epicycles, was more accurate predicting the positions of planets than the view of Copernicus, until Kepler introduced the possibility that orbits are ellipses.[39] Evans Evans et al. su sugge ggest st tha thatt to disp displa layy th thee me mean an pos posititio ions ns of th thee fiveclassic five classical al planets wo woul uldd req requi uire re only only 17 furt urthe herr gea gears rs that that could be positioned in front of the large driving gear and indicated using individual circular dials on the face.[40] Tonyy Free Ton Freeth th and Ale Alexan xander der Jone Joness hav havee mode modelled lled and published details of toa the version several gear trains mechanically-similar lunarusing anomaly system allowing for indication of the positions of the planets as well as syn-

b1 gear, the The remainder are computed ffor romthegear teeth and rati ratios. os. gears mark marked ed with andirectly asterisk (*) are missing, or have predecessors missing, from the known mechanism; these gears have been calculated with reasonable gear teeth counts.[8][31] Table notes: 

[1] Change Change from traditi traditional onal naming: naming: X is the main year axis, axis, turns once per year with gear B1. The B axis is the axis with gears B3 and B6, while the E axis is the axis with gears E3 and E4. Other axes on E (E1/E6 and E2/E5) are irrelevant to this table. [2] “Time” is the interval represented represented by one complete rev revoluolution of the gear. [3] As viewed from from the front front of the Mechanism. The “natural” view is viewing the side of the Mechanism the dial/pointer in question is actually displayed on. [4] The Greeks, being in the northern northern hemisphere, hemisphere, assumed proper daily motion of the stars was from east to west, ccw when the ecliptic ecliptic and zodiac zodiac is viewed viewed to the south. south. As viewed on the front of the Mechanism. [5] On average, due to epicyclic gearing causing causing accelerations and decelerations. decelerations. [6] Being on the reverse reverse side of the box, the “natural” ro rotation tation is the opposite [7] This was the only visual pointer naturally naturally travelling in the counter-clockwise direction. [8] Internal and and not visible.

 

5.3. MECHANISM  MECHANISM 

 

17

shor ortt pin pin on k1 inse insert rted ed into into a sl slot ot in k2 k2.. The two two gearshav gearshavee [9] Prograde motion; motion; retrograde retrograde is obviously obviously the opposite direc- sh tion. different centres of rotation, so the pin must move back and There are several gear ratios for each planet that result in close matches to the correct values for synodic periods of the planets planets and the sun. The one oness chosen abo above ve seem to provi pro vide de goo goodd accu accurac racyy wit withh rea reason sonab able le too tooth th count counts, s, but th thee specific gearsunknown. that may[6]have been used are, and probably will remain, Known gear scheme

A schematic representation of the gearing of the Antikythera Mechanism, including the 2012 published interpretation of existing gearing, gearing added to complete known functions, and proposed   gearing to accomplish additional functions, functions, namely true sun pointe pointer  r  and pointe pointers rs for the fiv fivee then-k then-know nownn pla planet nets, s, as propos proposed ed by Freeth and Jones, 2012.[6] Based also upon similar drawing in the Freeth 2006 Supplement [31] and Wright 2005, Epicycles Part  2.[41] Proposed (as opposed to known from the artefact) gearing crosshatched.

forth in the slot. That increase increasess and decreases the radius at which k2 is driven, also necessarily varying its angular velocity (presuming the velocity of k1 is even) faster in some parts of the rotation than others. Over an entire revol revolution ution the average velocities are the same, but the fast-slow variation models the effects of the elliptical orbit of the moon, in laws.. The modconsequence of Kepler’s of Kepler’s second and third laws elled rotational period of the moon pointer (average (averagedd over a year) is 27.321 days, compared to the modern length of a lunar siderea sidereall mon month th of 27.32 27.321661 1661 day days. s. As men mentio tioned, ned, the pin/slot driving driving of the k1/k2 gears varies the displacement over a year’s time, and the mounting of those two gears on the e3 gear supplies a precessional advancement to the elliptici lipt icity ty mod modelli elling ng with withaa peri period od of 8.882 8.88266 yea years, rs, comp compared ared with the current value of precession period of the moon the  moon of  of [5][8][42] 8.85 years. The system also models the phases the phases of the moon moon.. The moon pointer holds a shaft along its length, on which is mounted a small gear named r, which meshes to the sun pointer at B0 (the connection between B0 and the rest of B is not visible in the original mechanism, so whether b0 is the current date/mean sun pointer or a hypothe hypothetical tical true sun pointer is not known). The gear rides around the dial with the moon, but is also geared to the sun — the effect is to perform a  differential gear operation, gear  operation, so the gear turns at the synodic month period, measuring in effect, the angle of the difference diff erence betw between een the sun and moon pointe pointers. rs. The gear drives a small ball that appears through an opening in the moon pointer’s face, painted longitudinally half white and half black, displaying displaying the phases pictori pictorially. ally. It turns with a modelled rotational period of 29.53 days; the modern value for the synodic month is 29.530589 days.[5][8][42] The Metonic The  Metonic train  train is driven by the drive train b1, b2, l1, l2, m1, m2, and n1, which is conn connected ected to the pointer. The

mod model elled ledrot rotati ation onal althe perio period d of five-rotation thepoi the pointe nterr isspiral), the thelen length gth of the the the 6939.5 days (over whole while modern mod ernva value lueffor the the Met Metoni onicc cycl cyclee is 693 6939.6 9.699 da days. ys.[5][8][42] The Olympiad The  Olympiad train  train is driven by b1, b2, l1, l2, m1, m2, n1, n2, and o1, whi which ch mou mounts nts the poi pointer. nter. It has a computed modelled rotational period of exactly 4 years, as expected. Incide Incidentally, ntally, it is the only po pointer inter on the mec mechahanism that rotates counter-clockwise; counter-clockwise; all of the others rotate clockwise.[5][8][42] The Callippic The  Callippic train  train  is driven by b1, b2, l1, l2, m1, m2, n1, n3, p1, p2, and q1, which mounts the pointer. It has a computed modelled rotational period of 27758 days, while the modern value is 27758.8 days.[5][8][42] The Saros The  Saros train  train  is driven by b1, b2, l1, l2, m1, m3, e3, pointer. er. The modelle modelledd pointer poin ter congear the system fron frontt fac face. e. The gears k1 andpair k2 of form an e4, f1, f2, and g1, which mounts the point epicycli yclic system; ; they are an identical gears epic rot rotati ation onal al perio pe riod d of theSar the Saros os pointe poi nter r is 164 1646.3 6.3 da days ys (i (inn four that don' don'tt mes mesh, h, but rath rather, er, the theyy oper operate ate faceace-to-f to-face, ace, wi with th a The Sun gear  is

from hand-operated (connected to gearoperated (connected a1, drivin driving g thethe large four-s four-spoked poked crank mean su sunn gear, gear, b1 b1)) an andd in turn turn dri drives ves th thee rest rest of th thee gear gear sets sets.. Th Thee sun gear is b1/b2 and b2 has 64 teeth. It directly dri drives ves the date/m date/mea eann su sunn pointe pointerr (ther (theree ma mayy ha have ve bee beenn a secon second, d, “true sun” pointer that displayed the sun’s elliptical anomaly; it is discussed below in the Freeth reconstruction). In this discussion, cussio n, reference reference is to modelle modelledd rotational period of various pointers and indicators; they all assume the input rotation of the b1 gear of 360 degrees, correspo corresponding nding with one tropical year, and are computed solely on the basis of the gear ratios of the gears named.[5][8][42] The Moon train starts with gear b1 and proceeds through c1, c2, d1, d2, e2, e5, k1, k2, e6, e1, and b3 to the moon

 

18

 

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 5. ANTIKYTHE ANTIKYTHERA RA MECHANISM  MECHANISM 

rotations along the spiral pointer track); the modern value is 1636.33 days.[5][8][42] The Exeligmos The  Exeligmos train  train is driven by b1, b2, l1, l2, m1, m3, e3, e4, f1, f2, g1, g2, h1, h2, and i1, which mounts the pointer. poin ter. The mode modelled lled rotat rotation ional al period of the Exeli Exeliggmos pointer is 19,756 days; the modern value is 19755.96 days.[5][8][42] Apparently, gears m3, n1-3, p1-2, and q1 did not survive in the wreckage. wreckage. The fun function ctionss of the pointers were de  Freeth et al. proposal duced from the remains of the dials on the back face, and reasonable,, appropri reasonable appropriate ate gearage to fulfi fulfillll the functio functions ns was Michael Wright  was the first person to design and build proposed, and is generall generallyy accepted.[5][8][42] a model with not only the known mechanism, but also, with his emulation of a potential planetarium system. He suggested that along with the lunar anomaly, adjustments would have been made for the deeper, more basic solar anoma ano maly ly (kn (know ownn as the the “fi “first rst ano anomal maly”) y”).. He incl include udedd pointpointers for this “true sun”, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, in addition to the known “mean sun” (current time) and lunar pointers.[6] Evans, Eva ns, Carman, Carman, and Thorndik Thorndikee pub publis lished hed a solu solutio tionn with Proposed gear schemes schemes significant differences from Wright’s.[40] Their proposal centred on what they observed as irregular spacing of the Because of the large space between the mean sun gear and inscriptions on the front dial face, which to them seemed to indicate catean an off-c off-centr entree sun indi indicato catorr arrang arrangeme ement; nt; this wou would ld the front of the case and the size of and mechanical fea- indi simplifyy the mechani mechanism sm by remov removing ing the need to simulat simulatee tures on the mean sun gear it is very like likely ly that the mecha- simplif suggested ted that rather than acnism contained further gearing that either has been lost in the solar anomaly. They also sugges curate planetary indication (rendered impossible by the offor subsequent to the shipwreck or, was removed before being ingloa loaded ded ont ontoo the ship ship..[6] Thi Thiss lac lackk of evid eviden ence ce and nat nature ure set inscriptions) there would be simple dials for each indiof the front part of the mechanis mechanism m has led to numerous at- vidual planet showing information such as key events in the cyclee of pla plane net,t, initi initial al and andfin final al ap appea pearan rance cess in the the nigh nightt sky, sky, tempts tem pts to em emula ulate te what what the the Gre Greek ekss of thepe the perio riodd wou would ld ha have ve cycl direction changes. This system would lead to done and, of course, because of the lack of evidence many and apparent direction a much simplified gear system, with much reduced forces solutions have been put forward. and complexity, as compared to Wright’s model.[40] Their proposal used simple meshed gear trains and accounted for the previously previously unexplained 63 toothed gear in fragment D. They proposed two face plate layouts, one with evenly spaced dials, and another with a gap in the top of the face to account for criticism regarding their not using the apparent fixtures fixtures on the b1 gear. They proposed that rather than bearings and pillars for gears and axles, they simply Wright proposal held weather and seasonal icons to be displayed through a window.[40] In a paper published in 2012 Carman, Thorndike, and Evans also proposed a system of epicyclic gearing with pin and slot followers.[43] Freeth and Jones  published their proposal in 2012 after extensive extens ive resea research rch and work. They came up with a compact and feasible solution to the question of planetary indication. cati on. The Theyy also prop propose ose indi indicat cating ing the solar anom anomaly aly (tha (thatt is, the sun’s apparent position in the zodiac dial) on a separat rate e poi pointe nterr from the the date date poi pointe nter, r, whi which ch indi indica cates tes the the me mean an Evans et al. proposal SUN MERCURY VENUS

SUN

INFERIOR

SUPERIOR

MARS

 

VENUS

JUPITER

SA T TU U RN

ME RCU R Y

MARS  JUPITER SATURN

 

20

 

be set upon the board in accordance with [their] nature natu re exc except ept ffor or the Sun and Moon. And let the Sun be golden, the Moon silv silver, er, Kronos [Saturn] of obsidian, Ares [Mars] of reddish onyx, Aphrodite [Venus] [Venus] lapis lazuli veined with gold, Hermes [Mercury] turquoise; let Zeus [Jupiter] be of (whitish?) stone, crystalline (?)...[44] 5.3.5 5.3 .5

Accu Accurac racy y

Investigations by Freeth and Jones reveal that their simulated mechanism is not particularly accurate, the Mars pointer being up to 38° off at times. This is not due to inaccuracies in gearing ratios in the mechanism, but rather to inadequacies inadequacies in the Greek theory. The accurac accuracyy could not have been improved until first Ptolemy put forth his Planetary Hypotheses  Hypotheses   in the second half of the second century AD and then the introduction of Kepler’s of  Kepler’s Second [6] Law.. Law In short, the Antikythera Mechanism was a machine designed to predict celestial phenomena according accordi ng to the sophisti sophisticated cated astronomica astronomicall theories current in its day, the sole witness to a lost history of brilliant engineering, a conception of pure genius, one of the great wonders of the ancientworld—butitdidn’treallyworkverywell! [6] In addition to theoretical accuracy, there is the matter of mechanical mechani cal accurac accuracy. y. Freeth and Jones note tha thatt the inevitable “looseness” in the mechanism due to the handbuilt gears, with their triangular teeth and the fricti frictions ons between gears, and in bearing surfac surfaces, es, probably would have swamped the finer solar and lunar correction mechanisms built into it: Though the engineering was remarkable for its era, recent research indicates that its design conception exceeded the engineering precision of its manufacture by a wide margin—with considerable accumulative inaccuracies in the gear trains, which would have cancelled out many of the subtle anomalies built into its design. [6][45]

•

•

5.5

Re Refferen erence cess

[1]  “Project overview” overview”.. The Antikythera Mechanism Research Pro Project. ject. Retrieved 1 July 2007. The Antikythera Mechanism nism is now now unders understoo toodd to be dedic dedicate atedd to ast astro rono nomic mical al phephenomena and operates as a complex mechanical 'computer' which tracks the cycles of the Solar System. [2] [2] SSea eama man, n, Bi Billll;; Rö Röss ssle ler, r, Otto Otto E. (1 Ja Janu nuar aryy 20 2011 11). ). Neosentience: The Benevolence Engine. Intellect Books. p. 111.   ISBN 978-1-84150-404-9. 978-1-84150-404-9. Retri Retrieve evedd 28 May 2013. Mike G. Edmunds and colleagues used imaging and highresolution X-ray tomography tomography to study fragments of the Antikythera tikyt hera Mechanism, Mechanism, a bro bronze nze mechanica mechanicall analog analog computer computer thought to calculate astronomical astronomical positions [3]   Swe Swedin din,, Eri Ericc G. G.;; Fer Ferro ro,, Da David vid L. (24 October October 2007). 2007). Computers: The Life Story of a Technology. JHU Press. p. 1.  ISBN 978-0-8018-8774-1. 978-0-8018-8774-1. Retrieved 28 May 2013. It was a mechanical computer for calculating lunar, solar, and stellar calendars. [4] Paphitis, Nicholas Nicholas (30 November 2006).   “Experts: Fragments an Ancient Computer”. Computer”. Wa Washing shington ton Post. Post. Imag Imagine ine tossing a top-notch laptop into thetheir sea,heads leaving from a foreign culture to scratch overscientists its corrodedd remains rode remains centuries centurieslater later.. A Roma Romann shipmaste shipmasterr inadverinadvertently did something just like it 2,000 years ago off southern Greece, experts said late Thursday. [5] Fre Freeth eth,, To Tony; ny; Bit Bitsak sakis, is, Yanis; anis; Mou Moussa ssas, s, Xenop Xenopho hon; n; Seir Seirad adak akis is,, John John.. H.; H.; Ts Tsel elik ikas as,, A.; A.; Ma Mang ngoou, H.; H.; Zafeir Zaf eiropo opoulo ulou, u, M.; Had Hadlan land, d, R.; et al. (30 Novem November ber 2006).   “Decoding the ancient Greek astronomical calculator known as the Antikythera Mechanism”  (PDF).   Nature.   444 (7119): 587–91. Bibcode 587–91.  Bibcode::2006Natur.444..587F 2006Natur.444..587F.. doi::10.1038/nature05357 10.1038/nature05357..  PMID 17136087 17136087.. Retrieved 20 doi May 2014. [6] Freeth, Tony; Tony; Jones, Alexander (2012). “The (2012).  “The Cosmos in the Antikythera Mechanism”. Mechanism”. Institute fo forr the Study of the Ancient World. World. Retrieved 19 May 2014. Antikythera [7] Pinot Pinotsis sis,, A. D. (30 August August 2007). 2007).   “The Antikythera mechan mec hanis ism: m: who was its cre creato atorr and what was its use and purpose?". purpose?".   Astronomic Astronomical al and Astr Astroph ophysica ysicall Tran Transs2007A&AT...26..211P. actions .   26: 211– 211–226 226..   Bibcode: Bibcode:2007A&AT...26..211P. doi::10.1080/10556790601136925 10.1080/10556790601136925.. Retr Retrie ieve vedd 9 Janu Januar aryy doi 2015.

 Astrolabe

[8] Fre Freeth eth,, To Tony; ny; Jones Jones,, Ale Alexa xande nder; r; Ste Steel ele, e, John John M.; Bit Bit-sakis, Yanis (31 July 2008).   “Calendars with Olympiad Olympiad disp di spla layy an andd ec eclilips psee pr pred edic icti tion on on th thee An Anti tiky kyth ther eraa Mechanism”   (PDF).   Nature.   454   (7 (720 204) 4):: 61 614– 4–7. 7. Bibcode:2008Natur.454..614F Bibcode: 2008Natur.454..614F..   doi doi::10.1038/nature07130. 10.1038/nature07130. 18668103. Retrieved 20 May 2014. PMID 18668103.

 Orrery  Planetarium

 “The,  The World’s Wor ld’s Oldest Com[9] puter Kaplan, Sarah SarahRevealing (June 14, Its 2016). “The 2016). Is Still Secrets” Secrets”, Washington Post . Retrieved June 16, 2016.

5.4 5.4 •

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 5. ANTIKYTHE ANTIKYTHERA RA MECHANISM  MECHANISM 

Se Seee al also so

 

5.5. REFERENC REFERENCES  ES 

 

21

Antikyther ytheraa Mecha Mechanism nism - Investi Investigati gation on [24]   “What was it made made of?". of?". Antikythera Mechanism Research [10]   “Decoding “Decoding The Antik Pro Project. ject. 4 July 2007. Retrieved 16 May 2012. of An Ancient Astronomical Calculator”. Calculator”. Bib Biblio liotec tecapapleyades.net. leyades.n et. Retrieved 13 November 2012. [25] Freeth, Freeth, Tony Tony (December (December 2009).   “Deco “Decoding ding an Ancient Ancient värld::   Bron Bronsklu sklumpen mpen som kan fö förutsä rutsäga ga [11]   Vetenskapens Vetenskapens värld Computer” (PDF). Computer”  (PDF).  Scientific American: 78. Retrie Retrieved ved 26 framtiden..   SVT framtiden SVT.. 17 October October 2012.   Archived 20 Archived  20 October November Novem ber 2014. 2012 at the Wayback the Wayback Machine. Machine. [26] Article “Pergamum”, “Pergamum”, Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia, [12]  “History | The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project”. Project”. 6th Edition, 1. www.antikythera-mechanism.gr . Retrieved 2016-05-02. [27] Sample, Ian.   “Myst “Mysterie eriess of comp computer uter from from 65 BC are [13] Price, Derek Derek de Solla (1974). “Gears from from the Greeks. Greeks. The solved”.. The Guardian. “This device is extraordinary, the solved” Antikyther Antik ytheraa Mechanism: Mechanism: ACalendar Computer Computer from from ca. 80 only thing of its kind,” said Profe Professor ssor Edmunds. “The asB. C.”.  Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, tronomyy is exactly right ... in terms of historic and scarcity tronom New Series .  64  (7): 1–70. doi 1–70.  doi::10.2307/1006146. 10.2307/1006146. value, I have to regard this mechanism as being more valuable than the Mona Lisa.” and “One of the remaining mys[14] Carman, Christián C.; Evans, James James (15 November November 2014). teries is why the Greek technology invented for for the machine “On the epoch of the Antikythera mechanism and its eclipse seemed to disappear.” predictor”..   Archive for History of Exact Sciences .   68  (6): predictor” doi::10.1007/s00407-014-0145-5 10.1007/s00407-014-0145-5.. Retrieved Retrieved 26 [28] Johnston, Ian (30 November 693–774.   doi November 2006). “Device 2006). “Device that let Greeks November Novem ber 2014. decode solar system”. system”.   The Scotsman. Retri Retrieved eved 26 June June 2007. [15] Markoff, Markoff, John(24 John (24 Novembe Novemberr 2014). “OntheTrailofanAn2014). “OntheTrailofanAncient Mystery - Solving the Riddles of an Early Astronom- [29] Marchan Marchant,t, Jo (2006). (2006).  Decodin  Decodingg the Hea Heavens  vens . Da Capo Capo Press Press.. ical Calculator”. Calculator”.  New York Times . Retrieved 25 November p. 180. mechanica mechanicall engineer engineer and forme ormerr curator curator of London’s London’s 2014. Wright  tells of a piece breaking Science Museum Michael Wright tells off in his inspection, which was glued back into place by the [1 [16] 6] Mar March chan ant,t, Jo (30 Nove Novemb mber er 2006 2006). ).   “In sea searc rchh museum staff. of lo lost st ti time me””.   Nature.   444   (711 (7119) 9):: 534– 534–53 538. 8. Bibcode:2006Natur.444..534M Bibcode: 2006Natur.444..534M..   doi doi::10.1038/444534a 10.1038/444534a.. [30] Wright, Wright, Michael T. (2007). “The Antikythera Mechanism 17136067.. Retrieved 20 May 2014. PMID 17136067 reconsidered”.   Interdisciplinary Science Reviews .   32  (1):  doi::10.1179/030801807X163670 10.1179/030801807X163670.. 21–43. doi 21–43. [17]   “The Antikythera Mechanism at the National ArchaeologiArchaeological Museum”. Museum”. Retrieved August 8, 2015. [31] [31] Fre Freeth eth,, To Tony ny (20 (2006) 06)..   “De “Decod coding ing the Ant Antiky ikythe thera ra Mechan Mec hanism ism:: Sup Suppl pleme ementa ntary ry Not Notes es 2”   (PDF).   Nature. [18 [18]] Haugh Haughton ton,, Brian Brian (26Dec (26 Decem ember ber 2006). 2006). Hidden Histo History: ry: Lost  444   (71 (7119) 19):: 587–91 587–91..   Bibcode: Bibcode:2006Natur.444..587F 2006Natur.444..587F.. Civilizations, Secret Knowledge, and Ancient Mysteries . Cadoi doi::10.1038/nature05357 10.1038/nature05357..  PMID 17136087 17136087.. Retrieved 20 978-1-56414-897-1.. Reree reerr PPre ress. ss. pp. 43–44. 43–44.   ISBN 978-1-56414-897-1 May 2014. trieved 16 May 2011. front of the Antikythera Mechanism”. Mechanism”. [32]   “The Cosmos on the front secrets”. Archived from [19]   “Ancient 'computer' starts to yield secrets”. the original original on  on 13 March 2007. Retrieved 23 March 2007. [33] [33] Fr Free eeth th,, T. (2 (200 009) 9).. “D “Dec ecod odin ingg an An Anci cien entt ComComputer”.   Scien Scientifi tificc Amer American ican.   301   (6 (6): ): 76 76–8 –83. 3.  Quantum Informa[20] tion Angelakis AngeProcessing: lakis,, Dimitris G.Theory (2 Mayto2005). doi::10.1038/scientificamerican1209-76 10.1038/scientificamerican1209-76..  PMID 20058643 20058643.. doi Process ing: From Experiment  Exper iment  . Proceeding Proc eedingss of the NATO Advanced Study Institute on Quantum Com- [34] Wright, Wright, Michael Michael T. (March (March 2006). “The 2006). “The Antikythera Mechputation and Quantum Information. Information. Chania, Crete, Greece: anism and the early history of the moon phase display” IOS Press (published 2006). p. 5. ISBN 5.  ISBN 978-1-58603-611(PDF).  Antiquarian Horology.   29 (3): 319–329. Retrieved 9. Retrieved 28 May 2013. The Antikythera mechanism, as 16 June 2014. it is now known, was probably the world’s first 'analog computer' – a sophisticated device for calculating the motions of [35] Wilford, J. N. (31 July 2008).   “Discovering how greeks computed in 100 B.C.”. B.C.”.  The New York Times . stars and planets. This remarkable assembly assembly of more than 30 gears with a differential... [36] Connor, Connor, S. (31 July July 2008). “Ancient 2008).  “Ancient Device Was Used To Predict Olympic Games”. Games”.   The Independent . London. Re[21] Allen, Martin (27 May 2007).   “W “Were ere there there others? others? The trieved 27 March 2010. Antikythera Mechanism Research Project”. Project”. Antikythe Antikytheraramechanism.gr. Archived from the from the original on original on 21 July 2011. [37] [37] Fr Free eeth th,, T (2 (200 009) 9).. “D “Dec ecod odin ingg an An Anci cien entt ComComRetrieved 24 August 2011. puter”.   Scien Scientifi tificc Amer American ican.   301   (6 (6): ): 76 76–8 –83. 3. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1209-76 doi: 10.1038/scientificamerican1209-76..  PMID 20058643 20058643.. [22] Lazos, Lazos, Christos Christos (1994).  The Antikythera Computer . AEOLUS PUBLICATIONS GR. [38]  “Olympic link to early 'computer'" 'computer'"..  BBC News . Retrieved [23]   “Jacques-Yv “Jacques-Yves es Cousteau”. Cousteau”. 15 December 2008.

 

22

 

[39]  “Does it favour a Heliocentric, or Geocentric Universe?". Universe?". Antikythera Mechanism Research Project. Project. 27 July 2007. Archived from the from the original on original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 24 August 2011. [40] Evans, James; Carman, Carman, Christián Christián C.; Thorndyk Thorndyke, e, Alan (February 2010). “Solar 2010).  “Solar anomaly and planetary displays in the Antikythera Mechanism” (PDF). Mechanism” (PDF). Journal for the history of astronomy.  xli : 1–39. Retrieved 20 May 2014.

[41] Wright, Wright, Michael T. (June 2005). “The Antikythera Antikythera Mechanism: a new gearing scheme”.  Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society.  85 : 2–7.

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 5. ANTIKYTHE ANTIKYTHERA RA MECHANISM  MECHANISM 

•

 Russo, Lucio (2004). Lucio  (2004).  The Forgotten Revolution: How Science Was Born in 300 BC and Why It Had To Be Reborn. Berlin: Springer. ISBN Springer.  ISBN 3-540-20396-6. 3-540-20396-6.

•

•

•

[42] Edmunds, Mike G.; Freeth, Tony Tony (July 2011). “Using Computation to Decode the First Known Computer”. IEEE Com puter Magazine. 2011-7.

 Steele, J. M. (2000).   Observations and Predictions  Predictions  of Eclipse Times by Early Astronomers . Dor Dordre drech cht:t: 0-7923-6298-5.. Kluwer Academic. ISBN Academic.  ISBN 0-7923-6298-5  Historical Eclipsesgeand the  Stephenson, F. R. (1997).dge, Earth’s Rotation . Cambri Cambridge, UK: Cambrid Cambridge Uni Univ. v.  ISBN 0-521-46194-4 0-521-46194-4.. Press. ISBN Press.

  Toome Toomer,r, G. J. (1998). J. (1998).  Ptolemy’s Almagest . Translated by Toomer, Toomer, G. JJ.. Princeton, New Jersey Jersey:: Princeto Princetonn Univ.. Press. Univ

5.6. 6.2 2 Jo Jour urna nals ls [43] Carman, Christián Christián C.; Thorndy Thorndyke, ke, Alan; Evans, Evans, James James 5. (2012).   “On the Pin-an Pin-and-Slo d-Slott Device of the Antikythera Antikythera  Bromley, A. G. (1990  Bromley, (1990). ). “Th “Thee Antikyt Antikythera hera Mec MechahaMechanism, with a New Application to the Superior Plannism”.  Horological Journal .  132 : 412–415. ets”   (PDF).   Journal ets” Journal for the Histor Historyy of Astronomy Astronomy.   43: 93–116.   Bibcode: Bibcode:2012JHA....43...93C 2012JHA....43...93C.. Retrieved 21 May  Bromley,  Broml ey, A. G. (1990 (1990). ). “Th “Thee Antikyt Antikythera hera Mec Mechaha2014. •

•

[4 [44] 4] An extr extrac actt from rom a 2n 2ndd or 3r 3rdd ce cent ntur uryy AD pa papy pyrus rus (P.Wash.Univ.in (P.Was h.Univ.inv. v. 181+221) about an “Astrologer’s “Astrologer’s Board”, where the astrologer lays out particular stones to represent the Sun, Moon and planets [45] Geoffrey, Geoffrey, Edmunds, Michael (2011-08-01). “An (2011-08-01). “An Initial Assessment of the Accuracy of the Gear Trains in the Antikythera Mechanism”. Mechanism”.   orca.cf.ac.uk . Retrieve Retrievedd 2016-0510.

5.6 5.6. 5.6.1 1 •

•

•

•

•

Fur Furth ther er re readi ading ng

•

•

•

Book Bookss

  Lin, Jian-Liang; Yan, Hong-Sen (2016).   Decoding the Mechanisms of Antikythera Astronomical Device. Berlin [u.a.]: Springer. ISBN Springer.  ISBN 9783662484456 9783662484456..  Allen, M.; Ambrisco, W.; e.a. (2016).   The Inscriptions of the Antikythera Mechanism. Alm Almage agest st 77.1. .1.  ISSN 1792-2593 1792-2593.. Turnhout: Brepols Publis Publishers. hers. ISSN  James, Peter; Thorpe, Nick (1995).   Ancient Inventions . New York: Ballantine. ISBN 0-345-40102-6.. Ballantine.  ISBN 0-345-40102-6  Decoding ding the HeavHeav  Mar March chant ant,, Jo (6 No Nove vemb mber er 200 2008). 8). Deco ens: Solving the Mystery of the World’s First Computer . William Heinemann Ltd. ISBN Ltd.  ISBN 0-434-01835-X. 0-434-01835-X. Evolution: The De Rosheim, E. (1994)..  Robot velopmentMark of Anthrobotics   ISBN John Wiley & Sons. ISBN Sons. 0-471-02622-0.. 0-471-02622-0

nism: A Reconstruction”.   Horological Journal .   133 (1): 28–31.   Bromle Bromley, y, A. G. (1990) (1990).. “Obs “Observ ervati ations ons of the Antikythera Mechanism”.  Antiquarian Horology.  18  (6): 641–652.   Char Charet ette te,, Fr Fran anço çois is (20 (2006 06). ). “Hig “Highh tech tech fr from om Ancient Anci ent Greec Greece”. e”.   Nature.   444   (7119): 551–552.   Bibcode Bibcode::2006Natur.444..551C. 2006Natur.444..551C. doi: 10.1038/444551a. PMID 17136077. 17136077. doi:10.1038/444551a.

 Edmunds, Mike & Morgan, Philip (2000). “The Antikythera Mechanism: Still a Mystery of Greek Astronomy”.  Astronomy & Geophysics .   41  (6): 6–10. Bibcode::2000A&G....41f..10E 2000A&G....41f..10E..   doi doi::10.1046/j.1468Bibcode 4004.2000.41610.x..  (The authors mention that an “ex4004.2000.41610.x tended tend ed account” account” of their their researche researchess titl titled ed “Computin “Computingg Aphrodite” is forthcoming in 2001, but it does not seem to have appeared yet.)

•

•

•

 Freeth, T. (2002). “The Antikythera Mechanism: 1. Challenging the Classic Research”.   Mediterranean Archeologyy and Archeaometry.  2  (1): 21–35. Archeolog   Freeth, T. (2002). “The Anti Antikyhera kyhera Mechanis Mechanism: m: 2. Is it Posidonius’ Orrery?".   Mediterranean Archeology and Archeaometry Archeaometry.  2  (2): 45–58.   Freeth Freeth,, T.; Bit Bitsaki sakis, s, Y.; Mouss Moussas, as, X.; Sei Seiradak radakis, is, J. H.; H.; et al al.. (2 (200 0066). “De “Decod odiing tthhe an anccient Greekk astro Gree astronomi nomical cal cal calcula culator tor kno known wn as the An  Nature tikythera Mechanism”. .   444   (7119):. 587–591. Mechanis Bibcode   m”. Bibcode: :2006Natur.444..587F 2006Natur.444..587F. doi: doi:10.1038/nature05357. 10.1038/nature05357. PMID 17136087. 17136087.

 

 

5.7. EXTERNAL EXTERNAL LINKS  LINKS 

•

•

•

•

•

•

  Free Freeth, th, T. (2009 (2009). ). “De “Decod codin ingg an Anci Ancient ent Com Com-puter”.   Scien Scientitific fic American American.   301   (6): 76– 83.   doi doi::10.1038/scientificamerican1209-76 .   PMID 20058643.. 20058643   Jones, Jones, A. (1991). “Th “Thee adapta adaptatio tionn of Babyl Babyloni onian an methods in Greek numerical astronomy”.  Isis .  82  (3): 440–453. doi 440–453.  doi::10.1086/355836 10.1086/355836..

•

•

  John A. K Koulo oulouris, uris,(Esq.) (Esq.) (2008 (2008). ).   “The Heavens of Poseid Poseidon: on: The Histor Historyy and Discov Discovery ery of th thee AntiKythera Mechanism (In GREEK)"   (PDF).   IN  NOMINE Portal .  1 : 1–12.   Ste teeele le,, J. M. (2 (200 000) 0)..

.

 (5): 421–

  Weinberg, G. D.; Grace, V. R.; Edwards, G. R.; Robin Rob inson son,, H. S.; et al al.. (19 (1965) 65).. “T “The he An Antik tikyth ythera era Trans ans Am Phil Philos. os. Soc . Shipwreckk Reconsi Shipwrec Reconsidered”. dered”.   Tr 55 (New (New Serie Series) s) (3): 3–48.   doi doi::10.2307/1005929 10.2307/1005929.. JSTOR 1005929. 1005929.   Edmu Edmund nds, s, M. G. (201 (2014) 4).. “T “The he Ant Antik ikyt ythe hera ra Mecchani Me hanism sm and and th thee Me Meccha hani nica call Univ niverse erse”. ”. Co Conte ntemp mpor orary ary Physi Physics  cs .   55: 263–285. doi:10.1080/00107514.2014.927280 doi: 10.1080/00107514.2014.927280.. Othe Otherr

  He Helle lleni nicc Minis Ministry try of Cultur Culturee and the Nat Natio ional nal Arc Archae hae-ological Museum, The Museum,  The Antikythera Mechanism Research Projec Projectt   Rice, Rob S. (4–7 September 1997). The Antikythera posium. Thessaloniki. pp. 19–25. Antikythera Mecha  Panos, Kristina (2015).   “The Antikythera nism”..  Hackaday. Retrieved 24 November 2015. nism”

5. 5.7 7 •

•

•

“E “Ecclips lipsee pred prediicti tion on in

Mechanism: Physical and Intellectual Salvage from the 1st Century B.C. USNA Eleventh Naval History Sym-

•

•

Diomidis (May  (May 2008).   “The Antikythera  Spinellis, Diomidis Mechanism: A Computer Science Perspective”. Perspective”.  Com puter .  41  (5): 22–27. doi 22–27. doi::10.1109/MC.2008.166 10.1109/MC.2008.166..

5.6. 5.6.3 3 •

•

•

  Arch. Hist. Exact Exact Sci    54

•

•

 Price, D. de S. (1959)  Price, (1959).. “An Anci Ancient ent Gree Greekk ComScientific American American.   200   (6): puter”.   Scientific (6): 60 60–6 –67. 7. doi: doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0659-60 .

Mesopotamia”. 454. doi 454.  doi::10.1007/s004070050007. 10.1007/s004070050007. •

•

Ex Exte tern rnal al li link nkss

 The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project

•

23

 The Antikythera Mechanism Exhibitions coordinated by the National Hellenic Research Foundation  Video Feature Nature, 30 July 2008   Jo Marchant, Marchant, Archim Archimede edess and the 20002000-yea year-ol r-oldd computer New Scientist, Scientist, 12 December 2008  Hublot painstakingly recreates a mysterious, 2,100year-ol yea r-oldd clockwor clockworkk relic relic – but why? Gizm Gizmag ag,, 16 November 2011   The Two Thousand-Year-Old Computer  One hour BBC television programme television programme on the Antikythera Mechanism, 10 May 2012.  3D model simulator of Price and the Antikythera Mechanism Research Project’s representations   Antikythera Mechanism on Mechanism on the Wolfram Demonstrations Pro Pr oject.   YAAS - Een 3D interactive virtual reality simulator in VRML   Videos related to the Antikythera Mechanism, Mechanism, shown at the National Archaeological Museum and at exhibitions around the world

 

Chapter 6

Baghdad Battery 6.1

Ph Physi ysical cal des descrip criptio tion n

 pots approximately 130 The artifacts consist of terracotta of  terracotta pots mm (5 in) tall (with a one-and-a-half-inch mouth) containinga cylinder ma made de of a ro rolllled ed copper she sheet, et, wh whic ichh hous houses es a single iron single  iron rod.  rod. At the top, the iron rod is isolated from the copper by bitumen by bitumen,, which plugs or stoppers, and both rod and cylinder cylinder fit snugly insi inside de the opening of the jar. The copper cylinder notldwatertight, so if therod jaraswere with a liquid, thisiswould wou surround the iron well.filled The artifact had been exposed to the weather and had suffered corrosion.  Parthian pe peKönig thought the objects might date to the  Parthian riod riod,, betw betwee eenn 25 2500 BC an andd AD 22 224, 4, but but acco accord rdin ingg to StJohn Simpso Sim psonn of the Near NearEaste Eastern rn de depar partm tment ent of the theBrit British ish Museum,, their original seum their original excavation and context were context were not wellrecorded, and evidence for this date range is very weak.  Sassanid (224 (224Furthermore, the style of the pottery is  Sassanid 640).[2][10] Most of the compone components nts of the obj objects ects are not particular particularly ly amenable to advanced to  advanced dating methods. methods. The ceramic pots dating,, but this could be analysed by thermoluminescence by  thermoluminescence dating

Drawing of the three pieces.[1]

Baghdad The acts or dParthian isasetofthree artif artifacts whichBattery were foun found together:Battery a ceramic pot, a tube of one metal, and a rod of another. Although the Seleucia vessels do not have the outermost clay jar, they are otherwise almost identical.[2][lower-alpha 1] Wilhelm König was König was an assistant at the National the National Museum of Iraq in Iraq  in the 1930s. In 1938 he authored a paper [3] offering cell,, the hypothesis that they may have formed a galvanic a  galvanic cell [2][4]  silver objects.  objects. perhaps used for electroplating for electroplating gold onto gold onto silver This interpretation is generally rejected today.[5][6] While some researchers refer to the object as a battery, the origin and purpose of the obj object ect remains unclear.[7] In March 2012, Professor Elizabeth Stone, of Stony of  Stony Brook University,, an expert on Iraqi archaeology, returning from University

ha has s of no notthe t yet yetpots, been bes,enwhi do done ne; an anyynec case case, , itarily wo woul only date te mplet the the fir firing ingof pot which ch;isinnot necess essari ly uld that thadton oflythe thda e co compl eteeartifact.

6.2

Theo Theorie riess con concern cerning ing ope operati ration on

juicee, grape jui juice ce,, or vinegar Some believ Somebeli evee that wine wine,, lemon juic was used as an acidic an  acidic electrolyte electrolyte solution  solution to generate an electri electricc current current from  from the difference between the electrode the  electrode potentials of potentials  of the copper and iron electrodes iron  electrodes..[2][10] König had observed a number of very fine silver objects

the firstthat archaeological in Iraq after 20 years, from from ancient with very thin using batteries layers batteries with of gold, with and stated she does notexpedition know a single archaeologist who speculated thatIraq, theyplated were electroplated using were electroplated [8][9] believed that these were batteries. these as the cells. 24

 

 

6.4. IN THE THE MEDI MEDIA A

25

other reasons concludes that even if this was in fact a battery, it could not have been used for electroplating. HowAfter the Second the Second World War, War, a man named Willard Gray ever, Keyser still supported the battery theory, but believed  such as mild  electrotherapy such demonstrated current demonstrated  current production  production by a reconstruction of the it was used for some kind of mild electrotherapy [10][13] [4] through electroacupuncture.. inferred inferred battery design when filled with grape with grape juice. juice. W. pain relief, possibly through electroacupuncture benzoquinone (some beetles proJansenn exp Janse experim erimente entedd with withbenzoquinone duce quinones duce  quinones)) and vinegar in a cell and got satisfactory 6.3.3 6.3 .3 Bitume Bitumen n as as an an ins insula ulator tor performance.[4] In 1978, Arne Eggebrecht reportedly reproduc reproduced ed the elecbeing  thermoplastic,, would be extremely troplati trop lating ng of gold onto a sma smallll statue. The There re are no (di- A bitumen seal, being thermoplastic rect) written or photographic records of this experiment. inconvenient for a galvanic cell, which would require frethe  electrolyte (if  (if they were intended [lower-alpha 2] The only records are segments of a television quent topping up of the electrolyte [5][14][15] for extended use). show. 6.2.1

6.3

Supporti Supporting ng experim experiments ents

Con Contro trove versi rsies es over over use

6.3.4

Alternati Alternative ve hypothes hypothesis is

The artifacts strongly resemble another type of object with a known purpose – storage vessels for sacred scrolls sacred  scrolls 6.3.1 Battery Battery hypothes hypothesis is from nearby Seleucia nearby  Seleucia on the Tigris. Tigris.[16] Those vessels do The The artif artifac acts ts do not notfform ormaa use usefful volta voltaic ic for seve several ral reaso reasons: ns: not have the outermost clay jar, but are otherwise almost identi identical. cal. Sinc Sincee these vesse vessels ls were expos exposed ed to the [2][lower-alpha 3]

it pletel is possible any  papyrus  papyrus    or 1. Gas is evolved at an iron/copper/el iron/copper/electroly ectrolyte te junction. elements, parchment insid insidee had com comple telyy rotte rotteddthat awa away, y, perha perhaps ps lea leavv[17] Bubbles form a partial insulation of the electrode. ing a trace of slightly acidic organic  residue. acidic organic residue. Thus the more the battery is used, the less well it works.

6.4 In the the me medi dia a 2. Alth Althou ough gh se seve veral ral volts volts can be pro produc duced ed by con con-- 6.4 necting batteries in series, the voltage generated by The idea that the terracotta jars in certain circumstances iron/copper/electrolyte junctions is below 1 volt.[11] could have been used to produce usable levels of electrici tricity ty has been put to the tes testt at le least ast twi twice ce.. On the 6.3.2 Electrop Electroplatin lating g hypothe hypothesis sis 1980 Britis Britishh Tele Televisi vision on series Arthur C. Clarke’s Mysterious World , Egyptologist  Egyptologist Arne  Arne Eggebrecht created a voltaic with  grape juice juice,, to produce half a König himself seems to have been mistaken on the nature cell using a jar filled with grape volt of  of electricity, demonstrating for the programme that of the objects objects he thought were electr electroplated. oplated. They were volt fire-gilded (with mercury). Paul ul Cra Cradd ddoc ockkregio th thene apparently British BritishMuseum Museum sai saidd “Th “The e examp exmercury ample less ).wePa see fromthis reofgion and era are conventi conventional onal gold plating and mercury gilding. There’s never been any irrefutable evidence to support the electroplating theory”.[2] David A. Scott, senior scientist at the Getty the  Getty Conservation Institute and Institute  and head of its Museum Research Laboratory, wrote that “There is a natural tendenc tendencyy for writers dealing with chemical technology to envisage these unique ancient objects of two thousand years ago as electroplating accessories (Foley (Foley 1977). but this is clearly untenable, for there is absolutely no evidence for electroplating in this region at the time.”[12] Pa Paul ul T. Ke Keyse yserr of the theUn Univ ivers ersitityy of Alb Albert ertaa not noted ed tha thatt Egg Eggee-

 electroplate a  silver statuette statuette in  in two jars used this could hours, hours , usi using ng away  goldcould electroplate cyanid cy anide e solution. a silver Eggebrec Eggebrecht ht specula speculated ted that museums could contain many items mislabelled as gold when they are merely electroplated.[18] The Discovery The  Discovery Channel Channel program  program  MythBusters  built   built replicas of the jars to see if it was indeed possible for them to have been used for electroplating or electrostimulation. On MythBusters ' 29th episode (March episode (March 23, 2005), ten hand Lemon made terracotta jars were fitted to act as batteries. batteries. Lemon juice was juice  was chosen as the electrolyte the  electrolyte to  to activate the electrochemical reaction between the copper and iron. Connected in seri series, es, the batt batterie eriess prod produced uced 4 volts of electricity. electricity. Whe Whenn linked in series the cells had sufficient power to electroplate a small token.[19]

brecht used a more modern electrolyte, thate Archaeologist   Ken Feder commented Feder  commented the show using using only onl y vineg vinegar, ar, orefficient, oth other er elec electro troly lytes tesav avail ailab able le at and the thetim time ing that no archaeological evidence hasonbeen foundnoteiassumed, the battery would be very feeble, and for that and ther for connections between the jars (which were neces-

 

26

 

CHAPTER 6. BAGHDAD BAGHDAD BATTER BATTERY  Y 

sary to produce the required voltage) or for their use for electroplating. [20] In fact, plating of the era in which the batteries are claimed to have been used, have been found  (with mercury  mercury).).[2] to be fire-gilded be fire-gilded (with In 2016, a team of research researchers ers from from Vanderbilt  Vanderbilt University developed a low-cost rechargeable low-cost rechargeable “junkyard  “junkyard battery” using brass, by bycon conve verti rting ng thesurf thesurfac acee of th thesemetesemetscrap steel and brass,

Battery,, Museum of Unnatural Mystery web[4]  The Baghdad Battery site.

als intoes iron into iron oxide  and copper  copperproc oxide nano oxide tectur tectures usi using ngoxide and an anodization process. ess. nano The structured team drew drew archiinspiinspi[21][22] ration rati on from the sim simple ple des design ign of the Bagh Baghdad dad batt battery. ery.

[7] Frood, A.2003 A.  batteries’  BBC News 27   Riddle of 'Baghdad’s batteries’ BBC February,

6.5 6.5 •

•

Se Seee al also so

 Dendera light   Coso artif artifact act   – misi misint nter erpr pret eted ed by some some to be a 500,000-year-old 500,000-year-o ld spark plug

•

the battery   History of the

•

 List of topics characterized as pseudoscience

6.6

Re Refferen erence cess

Baghdad ghdad batteries batterieson on the Bad Archaeol Archaeology ogyNetw Network orkwebs website. ite. [5]   Ba [6]   “Erich von Däniken’s Däniken’s Chariots Chariots of the Gods: Scien Science ce or Charlatanism?",, Robert Sheaff Charlatanism?" Sheaffer. er. First pu publis blished hed in the “NICAP UFO Investigator”, Investigator”, October/November, October/November, 1974.

[8] Stone, Elizabeth Elizabeth (March 23, 2012). “Archaeologists 2012). “Archaeologists Revisit Iraq”..   Science Friday   (Interview). Iraq” (Interview). Interview with Flatow, Flatow, Ira. Retrieved April 6, 2012. My recollection of it is that most most peopledon't peopledon't thi think nk it was was a batter battery. y. ...It ...It resem resembl bled ed oth other er clay vessels... used for rituals, in terms of having multiple mouths mout hs to it. I think it’s not a battery. battery. I think the people people who argue it’s a battery are not scientists, basically. I don't know anybody who thinks it’s a real battery in the field. [9] Prof. Prof. Stone’s Stone’s stat statemen ement,t, listed as a 'red flag' among among  5 red flags why it was not a battery battery (with  (with sources, on Archaeology Archaeology Fantasies website) Paul ul T. Ke Keyse yser, r, “Th “Thee Pur Purpos posee of theParth theParthia iann Gal Galva vanicCells nicCells:: [10]   Pa A First-Century A. D. Electric Battery Used for Analgesia”, Analgesia”, Journal of Near Eastern Studies , vol vol.. 52 52,, no. no. 2, ppp. p. 81 81-98, April 1993. Includes images of the artifact and similar objects.

[1] Arran Frood’s BBC article: article: “The artifact ha hadd been exposed [11] Welfare, S. and Fairley, J.   Arthur C. Clarke’s Clarke’s Myst Mysteries  eries  to the weather and had suffered corrosion, although mild (Collins 1980), pp. 62–64. given the presence of an electrochemical an electrochemical couple. couple. [12] Scott, Scott, David A. (200 (2002). 2).  Copper and Bronze in Art: Corro[2] In Arran Frood’s Frood’s BBC article: article: “There “There does not exist any sion, Colorants, Conservation. Getty Publications. pp. 16– written documentation documentation of the experiments which took place 18. ISBN 18.  ISBN 978-0-89236-638-5 978-0-89236-638-5.. here in 1978,” says Dr Bettina Schmitz, currently a researcher based at the same Roemer and Pelizaeus Mu- [13]   Oxfo Oxford rd University, University, Elizabeth Frood editor (on editor (on eScholarship seum. “The experiments weren't even documented by phowebsite): Eggebrecht’s account tos tos,, which which rea reallllyy is a pity, pity,”” sh shee sa says. ys. “I ha have ve searc searchedthrou hedthrough gh Battery on  on The Iron Skeptic website the archives of this museum and I talked to everyone in- [14]   the Baghdad Battery volved volv ed in 1978 with no results.” Electricity”..  Michigan [15]   “The Baghdad Battery – and Ancient Electricity” State University   students website, citing the now offline [3] Arran Frood’s BBC article: article: “The artifact ha hadd been exposed SkepticW Ske pticWorl orld.co d.com m website and viewpo viewpoint. int. October October 12, to the weather and had suffered corrosion, although mild 2010.   Archived Archived from  from the original on November 9, 2013. given the presence of an electrochemical an electrochemical couple. couple. Retrieved March 9, 2015. malIma Image ge Galle Gallery ry – Anci Ancient ent Myste Mysteries ries/Azt /Aztec ec carv- [16] Keith Fitzpatri [1]   “Paranor “Paranormal Fitzpatrick-Ma ck-Matthe tthews ws (26 December December 2009). “The 2009). “The bat bat-ing of ancient astronaut”. astronaut”. Unexplained Unexplained Mysteries. Archived Mysteries. Archived teries of Babylon: evidence for for ancient electricity?". electricity?".   Bad  fr from om theori the original ginalon on September27, September27, 2011. Retrieve Retrievedd NovemNovemArchaeology. Retrieved 17 December 2016. ber 14, 2009. [17] Lenny Lenny Flank (Feb 10, 2015) 2015)..   “The Baghdad Battery: An [2] Frood, Frood, Arran (February (February 27, 2003). “Riddle 2003).  “Riddle of 'Baghdad’s Update”..  Daily Kos . Update” batteries’"..  BBC News. batteries’" News.  Archived from  Archived from the original on April [18] We Welf lfare, are, S. and Fairley, Fairley, J.  Arthur C. Clarke’s Mysterious  7, 2012. Retrieved April 6, 2012. World  (Collins  (Collins 1980), pp. 62–64. [3] W. König, “Ein “Ein galvanisches Element Element aus der Partherzeit?", Partherzeit?", Forschungen Forschung en und Fortschritte, vol. 14 (1938), pp. 8-9. [19]   Ancient batteries batteries episode on episode on MythBusters  MythBusters.. •

 W. König,  Im Verlorenen Paradies-Neun Jahre Irak , pp. 166-68, Munich and Vienna: 1939.

“Ancient ent Alien Astronauts: Astronauts: Inter Intervie view w with Ken Feder”. Feder”. [20]   “Anci Monster Talk Podcast. Podcast. July 27, 2011. Retrieved June 2013. Check date values in: |access-date= (help (help))

 

6.6. REFERENC REFERENCES  ES 

[21] Muralid Muralidharan haran,, Nitin; Nitin; We Westo stover, ver, Andrew Andrew S.   “From “From the Junkya Jun kyard rd to the Power Power Gri Grid: d: Am Ambi bient ent Processi Processing ng of Scrap Scr ap Met Metals als int intoo Nan Nanost ostruc ructur tured ed Ele Electr ctrode odess for Ultrafast traf ast Recha Recharge rgeable able Batt Batteries eries””.   ACS ACS Energy Let Letters  ters . doi doi::10.1021/acsenergylett.6b00295. 10.1021/acsenergylett.6b00295. [22]   “Maki “Making ng hig high-perf h-perform ormance ance batt batterie eriess fr from om junky junkyard ard scrap scraps” s”..

 

27

 

Chapter 7

Bat Creek inscription

The Bat Creek inscription.

The   Bat Creek inscripti inscription on  (also called the  Bat Creek stone   or   Bat Creek Creek tablet tablet) is an inscribed stone collected as part of a   Native American burial mound   exTennessee,, in 1889 by the cavation in  in   Loudon County, Tennessee Smithsonian Bureau of Ethnology's Ethnology's Mound Survey, diThomas.. The insc inscript ription ionss rected by entomologist by  entomologist Cyrus Thomas were initially initially described as Cherok Cherokee, ee, but in 2004, similarities to an inscription that was circulating in a Freemason book wer weree disc discov overed ered.. Hoax exp expert ert K  Kenneth enneth Feder Feder say  sayss th thee peer reviewed work of Mary L. Kwas and Robert Mainfort has “demolished” any claims of the stone’s authenti authenticity. city.[1] Mainfort and Kwas themselves state “The Bat Creek stone [2]

is a fraud.” Thomas inaccurately[1] identified the characters on the stone as “beyond question letters of the Cherokee the  Cherokee alphabet,” bet ,” a writing system for the Cherokee the Cherokee language language invented  invented [3] by Sequoyah by Sequoyah in  in the early 19th century. The stone became the subject subject of contenti contention on in 1970 when Semiti Semitist st Cyrus  Cyrus H. Gordon proposed Gordon  proposed that the letters of inscription are Paleoare  PaleoHebrew of the the 1s 1stt or 2n 2ndd cent century ury AD rath rather er th than an Cher Cherok okee ee,, and therefore evidence of pre-Columbian of pre-Columbian transatlantic contact..[4] Accord tact According ing to Gordon, five of the eight letters could be read as “for Judea.” Archaeologist Marshall McKusick countered that “Despi “Despite te some difficulti difficulties, es, Cherok Cherokee ee script isaclosermatchtothatonthetabletthanthelate-Canaanite isaclosermatchtothatonthetabletthanthelateCanaanite [5] proposed by Gordon,” but gave no details.

that the fit as Paleo-Hebrew was substantially better than Cherok Che rokee. ee. He also rep reported orted aa radiocarbon date  on asso radiocarbon date on ciated wood fragments consistent with Gordon’s dating of the script. In a 1991 reply, archae archaeologists ologists Robert Mainf Mainfort ort and Mary Kwas, relying on a communication from Semitist Cross,, concluded that the inscription is not Frank Moore Cross genuine paleo-Hebrew but rather a 19th-century forgery, with John W. Emmert, the Smithsonian agent who performed the excavation, the most likely responsible party. In a 1993 article in  Biblical Archaeology Review, Semitist P. Kyle McCarter, Jr.  stated that although the inscription “is not an authentic paleo-Hebrew inscription,” it “clearly imitates one in certain features,” and does contain “an intelligible sequence of five letters -- too t oo much for coincidence.” McCart McC arter er con concl clude uded, d, “Itsee “It seems ms pro probab bable le that that we are de deali aling ng here not with a coincidental similarity but with a fraud.” [6] Mainfort and Kwas published a further article in American Antiquity in 2004, reporting their discovery of an illustration in an 1870 Masonic reference book giving an artist’s impression of how the Biblical phrase “holy to Yahweh” would have appeared in Paleo-He Paleo-Hebrew, brew, which bears striking similari similaritie tiess to the Bat Creek insc inscripti ription. on. The General History correctly translates the inscription “Holiness to the “Holy Yahweh” would be more precise.Lord,” Theythough conc conclude lude thattoEmmert most like likely ly copied the inscription from the Masonic illustration, in order to please Thomas with an artif artifact act that he would mistake ffor or Cherokee.

7.1

Geo Geogra graph phic ic an and d his histo tori rica call context

The Little Tennessee River enters Tennessee from the Appalachi Appalachian an Mountains Mountains to  to the south and flows northward for just over 50 miles (80 km) before emptying into the

In a 1988 McCulloch article in  Tennessee economist   near Lenoir near  Lenoir City . The Th e co comp mple leti on ooff River J. Huston comparedAnthropologist  the letters of ,the inscrip- Tennessee DamRiver  Tellico Dam at  at the mouth of theCity. Little Tennessee intion 1979 tion to both Paleo-Hebrew and Cherokee and concluded created a reservoir that spans the lower 33 miles (53 km) 28

 

 

7.2. ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVA EXCAVATIONS  TIONS 

29

wide.[9] The inscription consists of at least eight characters, seve sevenn of whi which chare arein in a singl singlee ro row, w, and andon onee loc locate atedd belo below w the the main inscription, when held with the straighter edge down. A portion of a ninth letter that has broken off remains at the left edge in this orientation. Two vertical strokes in the upperle per lefft co corne rnerr in this this ori orient entati ation on we were re ad added dedby byan an unk unkno nown wn party while the stone was stored in the  National Museum of Natural History, History, sometime between 1894 and 1970, and were not part of the original inscription. [11]

7.2

Bat Creek, now an inlet of   Tellico Tellico Lake

of the river. river. Bat Cree Creekk emptie emptiess into the south southwes westt bank of the Little Tennessee 12 miles (19 km) upstream from the mouth of the river. While much of the origina originall confluence of Bat Creek and the Little Tennessee was submerged by the lake, the mound in which the Bat Creek Stone was found was located above the reservoir’s operating levels. In the 1880s, the Smithsoni Smithsonian an Institution team led by John W. Emmert conducted several excavations in the lower Little Tennessee valley, uncovering artifacts and burials related to the valley’s 18th-century Overhill 18th-century Overhill Cherokee inhabCherokee inhabitants and prehistoric prehistoric iinhabitants. nhabitants. The Telli Tellico co Archaeological Project, conducted by the University of Tennessee Department of Anthropology in the late 1960s and 1970s in anticipation of the reservoir’s construction, investiga investigated ted over two dozen sites and uncovered evidence of substan (8000–1000 tial habitation in the valley during the Archaic the Archaic (8000–1000 BC), Woodland (1000BC–1000AD), Mississippian (9001600 AD), and Cherokee and  Cherokee (  (c. c. 1600-1838) pe periods. riods.[7] The Soto likely  likely visited a village on expedition of Hernando of Hernando de Soto Bussell Island Island at  at the mouth of the river in 1540 and the expedition of Juan of Juan Pardo Pardo probably  probably visited two villages further [8]

Arc Archaeo haeologi logical cal ex exca cavat vatio ions ns

In 1881, the annual appropriation by Congress for the Smithsonian Instituti Smithsonian Institution on's's Bureau  Bureau of Ethnology[12] specifically designated that some of the funds be “for archaeological investigations relating to mound-builders and prehistoric mounds.”[13] Cyrus Thomas, Thomas, an an entomologist  entomologist   by background, was appointed Director of the Mound Survey. Feder,, “With this According to archaeologist Kenneth archaeologist  Kenneth L. Feder funding, Thomas initiated the most extensive and intensive  quest uestion ion.. The study yet conducted on the Moundbuilder the  Moundbuilder q result was more than seven hundred pages submitted as an annuall report of the Burea annua Bureauu in 1894 (Thomas 1894 1894). ). ... He collected over 40,000 artifacts, which became part of the Smithsonian Smithsonian Institution’s colle collection. ction. ... Thomas’s work was a watershed, both in terms of answering the specific question questi on of who had built the mounds, and in terms of the development of American archaeology.”[14] In particular, Thomas addressed the question of whether there were pre-Colum pre-Columbian bian alphabeticall alphabeticallyy inscribed tablets in the mounds, and emphatically concluded, in part on the basis of the body of evidence his study had collected, that there were not.[15] Thomas also “carefully assessed the claim that some of the mound artifac artifacts ts exhibited a sophistication in metallurgy attained only by Old World cultures. Not relying on rumors, Thomas actually examined many of the artifact artifactss in que questi stion. on. His conc conclusi lusion: on: all such artifacts were made of so-called  native copper ...” ...”[16] Feder concludes, “With the publication of Thomas’s  Report on the Mound Explorations of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Moundbuilder Moundbuil der archaeo archaeology logy had come of aage. ge. Its content was so detailed, its conclusions so reasonable that, though not accepted by all, the myth of a vanished race had been dealt a fatal blow.”[17] Thomas Thom as did not excav excavate ate the moun mounds ds him himself self,, but del delegat egated ed mostt of the mos the fie field ld wo work rk to assis assistan tants, ts, incl includi uding ng Joh Johnn Emm Emmert ert,, who excav excavated ated all three Bat Creek moun mounds ds in 1889. He conc conclud luded ed tha thatt Mou Mound nd 1 was lilittl ttlee mo more re tha thann a shel shelll de depos positit.. Emmert recorded eight burials in Mound 2—one of which

Dam)) in 1567. upstream (near modern Chilhowee modern Chilhowee Dam The Bat Creek site,   Smithsonian trinomial   designation 40LD24, is a multiphase site with evidence of occupation as early as the Archaic period. [9] According to Emmert, the site consisted of one large mound (Mound 1) on the east bank of the creek and two smaller mounds (Mound 2 and Mound 3) on the west bank. Mound 1—whic 1—whichh had a diameter of 108 feet (33 m) and a height of 8 feet (2.4 m)—was located on the first terrace above the riv river, er, and is thus now submerged by the reservoir. Mound 2—which had a diameter of 44 feet (13 m) and height of 10 feet (3.0 m)—and Mound 3—which had a diameter of 28 feet (8.5 m) and height of 5 feet (1.5 m)—were both located higher up, on the second terrace. According to Emmert’s notes, the Bat Creek Stone was found in Mound 3.[10] inc include ludedd met metal al “buc “buckles kles” ” and a met metal al butt button. on. of His Hisex excav cavati ation on Mound 3 revealed nine skeletons, seven which were The stone consists of “ferruginous siltstone”, and measures of laidout idout in a ro row w wi with th thei theirr head headss facin acingg no nort rth, h, an andd two two mo more re 11.4 centimetres centimetres (4.5 in) long and 5.1 centimetre centimetress (2.0 in) la

 

30

 

CHAPTER 7. BA BAT T CREEK INSCRIPTION 

skeletons laid out nearby, one with its head facing north and the other with its head facing south. He reported that the Bat Creek Stone was found under the skull of the southfacing ske skeleton. leton. Along with the stone were two bracel bracelets ets identified by both Emmert and Thomas as “copper”, as well as fragments of “polished wood” (possibly earspools (possibly earspools).).[18] A Coin Coin of the the Fi Firs rstt 1970 Smithsonian analysis found that the bracelets were in Jewish War, with Paleo-Hebrew with  Paleo-Hebrew letters  letters similar to those [19] fact heavily yellow . aIndate 1988, 1988, radiocarbon dating of dating  of theleaded wood yellow brass spools brass. returned of  radiocarbon 32–769 AD [20] period).). (i.e., the middle to late Woodland late Woodland period In 1967, the Tennessee the  Tennessee Valley Authority Authority announced  announced plans to build Tellico Dam at the mouth of the Little Tennessee River,r, and asked the Univ Rive University ersity of Tenne Tennessee ssee Department of Anthr Anthropol opology ogy to cond conduct uct salv salvage age ex excav cavati ations ons in the Little Little Tennessee Tenne ssee Valley. Litig Litigation ation and environmental concerns stalled the dam’s completion until 1979, allowing extensive excavations at multiple sites throughout the valley. Mound 1 of the the Bat BatCre Creek ek Si Site te was was exca excava vated tedin in 197 1975. 5. Inve Investi stigat gators ors concluded that the mound was a “platform” mound typical of the Mississ Mississippian ippianperiod. period. Pre-Miss Pre-Mississipp issippian ian artif artifacts acts dating to the Archaic and Woodland periods were also found. The University of Tennessee excavators didn't investigate Mound 2 or Mound 3, both of which no longer existed existed..[21] Neither the University of Tennessee’s excavation of the Bat Creek Cre ek Si Site te nor nor an anyy oth other er exca excava vatitions ons in the Littl Littlee Tenne Tennesse sseee Valley uncovered any evidence that would indicate PreColumbian contact with Old World civilizations.[22]

7.3

An Anal alys ysis is an and d debat debatee

Cherokee ee sylThe   Cherok labary,, initially identified by Cyrus Thomas (1890, 1894) labary as the source of the letters on the Bat Creek stone.

Litho Lithogra graph ph of th thee Bat firstbeen published (1890) (the Creek originalinscription, illustrationashas invertedbytoThomas the orientation proposed by Gordon for “Paleo-Hebrew”.)

Gordon (1971) claimed are present on the Bat Creek inscription. In his 1894 final report, Thomas published a photograph of the Bat Creek stone, with the straighter edge at the top,[23] along with Emmert’s field report on the find, almost Thomas as himse himself lf add added ed theopinio theopinionn that that thele the lettverbatim.[24] Thom ters on it were “beyond question letters of the  Cherokee alphabet said alphabet  said to have been invented by George Guess (or Sequoyah), Sequoyah), ... about 1821.”[25] He in fact had published a more legible lithograph of the stone, in the same orientation, in his earlier book  The Cherokees in Pre-Columbian Times , in which he used it as evidence for his short-lived theory that the Cherok Cherokee ee had built the mounds now classi[26]

fied as Middle as Middle Woodland. . covering the mound, Thomas On the basis ofWoodland vegetation concluded that “the evidence seems positive that the mound wasatleastahundredyearsold,andthatitwasknownthatit had not been disturbed in sixty years.”[27] This would make the mound too old to ha have ve contained a Cherok Cherokee ee inscripti inscription on in 1889. T Thoma homass admi admitted tted that as Che Cherok rokee, ee, the inscrip inscriptio tionn therefore constituted “a puzzle difficult to solve.”[27] He did not provide either a transliteration or a translation of the inscription as Cherokee in either work. The Bat Creek Stone received scant attention (even in Thomas’ later publications) until the 1960s when ethnologist Joseph Mahan, puzzled by Thomas’ conclusion that the inscription was Cherokee, sent a photograph of the inscription to Cyrus H. Gordon— a  and professor of Mediterranean University and a well-known proponent Studies at Brandeis at Brandeis University of Pre-Columbian Pre-Columbian transatlanti transatlanticc contact theori theories. es. Gordon published a series of articles in the early 1970s arguing that when the stone is turned so that the straighter edge is at the bottom, the letters are actually a version of Paleo-Hebrew of  Paleo-Hebrew text used in the 1st century BC through the 2nd century AD. According to Gordon, the five letters to the left of the comma-shaped comma-s haped word divi divider der read (right to lef left) t) LYHWD, which he interpreted as “for Judea,” or, includ including ing the broken letter at the far left, LYHWD[M], “for the Jews.”[28] Gordon provided only tentati tentative ve Paleo-Hebre Paleo-Hebrew w readings of [29] the other three letters. His findings were published in Newsweek  and   and in newspapers across the nation, sparking a renewed interest in the inscription.[30] In 1979, University of Iowa archaeologist Marshall McKusick argued that “Despite some difficulties, Cherokee script

 

 

7.4. RECENT COMMENT COMMENTARY  ARY 

31

isaclosermatchtothatonthetabletthanthelate-Canaanite isaclosermatchtothatonthetabletthanthelate-Canaanite proposed by Gordon.”[5] According to McKusick, the inscription actually bore the closest similarities to an early version versi on of Sequoy Sequoyah’s ah’s alphabet that was occasionally used before the standard, printed version of the script was develHowever, ver, McKuoped by Samuel by  Samuel Worcester in Worcester  in 1827.[31] Howe sick gave no details and made no attempt to interpret the

Paleo-Hebrew. In a reply in the same issue, P. Kyle McPaleo-Hebrew. Carter, Jr., a professor of Near Eastern Studies at Johns Hopkins University and an expert on the Qumran the  Qumran Copper Scroll,, stated Scroll stated tha thatt alt altho houg ughh the inscr inscrip iptition on “is “is not an authe authennticpael tic paelo-He o-Hebre brew w inscrip inscriptio tion,” n,” it “clearl “clearlyy imi imitate tatess one onein in certain features,” and does contain “an intelligible sequence of five letters letters -- too much for coinci coincidence. dence. It seems proba-

inscription Cherokee. The debateaswas revived in 1988 by J. Huston McCulloch, an economics professor professor at Ohio State Univ University. ersity. In an ar Tennessee Anthropologist  ticle in the , he compared the letters in the inscription to both Paleo-Hebrew and Cherokee, including the pre-Worcester version favored by McKusick, and concluded that despite admitted difficulties, the fit as Paleo-Hebrew Paleo-He brew in Gordon’s orientation is substantially better than as Cherokee, in either orientation. He reported the radiocarbon date of 32 AD – 769 AD on the wooden earspool fragments, and also that although brass similar to that of thebra the brace cele lets ts is a comm common on mo mode dern rn all alloy oy,, it also also was was foun oundd in the Roman empire, in particular during the period 45 BC – 200 AD.[32]

ble but thatwith we are dealingMcCarter here not with a coincidental similarity a fraud.” remarked that if Emmert forged the inscription in an attempt to ingratiate himself with Thomas by presenting him with a Cherokee inscription, his choice of a paleo-Hebrew model “was ironically inept.” [34]

Archaeologists Robert Mainfort and aMary Kwas replied to McCulloch’s article with number of (1991) objections: Relying on an unpublish unpublished ed assessment by Heb Hebrew rew paleography expert Frank expert Frank Moore Cross of Cross of Harvard University, they concluded the inscription is not legitimate PaleoHebrew. Although they conceded that the composition of the brass bracele bracelets ts is “equi “equivocal vocal with respect to age,” they arg argued ued that that the thebra brace cele lets ts are in all likel likelih ihood ood relat relativ ivel elyy mod mod-ern European trade items. They interpr interpreted eted an 1898 statement by Thomas, that “one of the best recent works on ancient America is flawed to some extent” by the depiction of mounds and ancient works “which do not and never did exist” and by the representation of articles which are “modern productions,” to be a veiled repudiati repudiation on by Thomas of his own 1894  Mound Explorations  report,  report, and in particular of its Bat Creek inscription. They repeatedly characterized Gordon and McCulloch as “cult archaeologists,” and Gordon in particular as a “rogue prof professor.” essor.” Mainfort and Kwas concluded that the inscription is a forge orgery, ry, fo forr whi which ch Emm Emmert ert was respons responsibl ible. e. The Theyy prop proposed osed that “Emmert’s motive for producing (or causing to have made) the Bat Creek inscription was that he felt the best way to insure permanent employment with the Mound Survey was to find an outstanding artifact, and how better to impress Cyrus Thomas than to 'find' an object that would prove Thomas’ hypothesis hypothesis that the Cherokee built most of the mounds in eastern Tennessee?"[33] The Tennessee Anthropologist  discussion continued with McCulloch (1993a) and Mainfort and Kwas (1993). Archaeological Review Review, McIn an invited article in Biblical Archaeological Culloch (1993b) reviewed and extended the argument for

7.4

Rec Recen entt comm commen entar tary y

artist’s impression of Biblical phrase QDSh LYHWH in paleo-Hebrew script (Macoy 1868: 134), compared with the inscribed stone. In 2004 Mainfort and Kwas published a further article in American Antiquity, reporting their discovery of an illustration in an 1870 Masonic reference book that bears striking similarities to the Bat Creek inscription.[35] The Masonic son ic ill illust ustrat ratio ionn wa wass an art artis ist’s t’sim impre pressi ssion on of how how the the Bibli Bibli-cal phrase “Holy to Yahweh” (QDSh LYHWH) would have appeared in Paleo-Hebrew. Paleo-Hebrew. Mainf Mainfort ort and Kwas concl conclude, ude, “There can be little doubt that this was the source of the inscription and that the inscription was copied, albeit not particularly well, by the individual who forged the Bat Creek stone.”[36] They repeat their 1991 contention that Emmert produced it in order to please Thomas with a Cherokeelike artifact, but add that since it is unlikely that Emmert could write Cherokee, he must have copied this Masonic illustration instead, and that the accidental resemblances to Cherokee “were enough to fool Thomas.”[37] In 2014, the Smithsonian Departme Department nt of Anthropology issued the following statement concerning the stone: While reco While recogniz gnizing ing that thataa di diver versit sityy of opi opinio nionn continues to circulate around the authenti authenticity city of the Bat Stone, the at curators in the Museum DepartmentCreek of Anthropology the National of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, be-

 

32

 

lieve that the inscriptions on the artifact are forgeries and that the artifact is a fake. This opinion is widely shared by other professional archaeologis gists ts as rep repre resen sented ted in the theart artic icle le by Rob Robert ertMai Mainnfort and Mary Kwas ‘The Bat Creek Stone Revisited: A Fraud Exposed’,  American Antiquity 2004. Along with other kno known wn fraudulent fraudulent artifacts, wehistory retain itofinarchaeological our collectionsfrauds, as part which of the cultural we were re kno known wn to be qu quititee pop popula ularr in thesecon thesecondd half half of the 19th century.[38]

CHAPTER 7. BA BAT T CREEK INSCRIPTION 

[8] Hudson Hudson (2005: (2005: 106-107) [9] Mainfort Mainfort and Kwas (1991: 3). [10] Except for for the identification of the characters as Cherokee, Cherokee, Thomas Thom as (1894: 391-3) is based almost verbatim verbatim on Emmert’s field report. [11] McCulloch McCulloch (1988: (1988: 96). These strok strokes es were not present present in either the lithograph of Thomas (1890) or the photograph of Thomas Thomas(18 (1894: 94:394 394), ), but do ap appea pearr in a 1970 1970 Smith Smithson sonian ian photograph published by Gordon (1971). [12] [12] Th Thee name name wa wass la late terr chan change gedd to th thee Bu Bure reau au ofAmeri ofAmerica cann Et Ethhnology

7.5

Cur Curre rent nt loc locat atio ion n

[13] Smithsonian Institution Archives Archives (1881). [14] Feder Feder (1999: (1999: 144).

The Bat Creek Stone remains the property of the Smithsonian Institution, and is catalogued in the collections of the National onal Muse Museum um of Natu Natural ral Departme Depa rtment nt of Anthr Anthropol opology, ogy,  Nati History.. From August 2002 to November 2013, it was on History loan to the Frank the Frank H. McClung Museum Museum at  at the University of [39] Tennessee, Tenne ssee, Knoxville Knoxville.. It has subsequently been loaned to the Museum of the Cherokee Indian in Cherokee, N.C., which plans to put it on display in the near future. [40]

[19] McCulloch McCulloch (1988: (1988: 104-7).

7.6 7.6

[20] McCulloch McCulloch (1988: 107–10), 107–10), Beta Analytic-2 Analytic-24483/ 4483/ETHETH3677.

Se Seee al also so

[15] Feder(1999 Feder(1999:: 145–8). [16] Feder (1999:150). [17] Feder Feder (1999: (1999: 151). [18] Thomas Thomas (1894: (1894: 391–3).

[21] Schroedl Schroedl (1975: (1975: 103) •

•

 Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact

[22] Chapman Chapman (1985: (1985: 97–103).

  Smithsoni Smithsonian an Bureau of Americ American an Ethnology (SmithEthnology (Smith- [23] Thomas(189 Thomas(1894: 4: 394) sonian Bureau of Ethnology until 1897)

•

 Theory of Phoenician discovery of the Americas

•

 Yehud coinage

[24] Thomas(189 Thomas(1894: 4: 391–3) [25] Thomas (1894:393). [26] Thomas Thomas (1890: (1890: 35-7).

[27] Thomas Thomas (1894: (1894: 714). [28] [28] Gord Gordon on (1971: (1971: 175–87 175–87). ). Chicag Chicagoo lawyer lawyer and and author author Henriette Mertz (1964) Mertz (1964) had already suggested the stone as [1] Feder, Kenneth Kenneth L. (2010-10-11).  Encyclopedia of Dubious  it appeared in Thomas’ report was upside down and that the Archaeology: From Atlantis to the Walam Olum: From Atinscription was Semitic, but believed it to be Phoenician be  Phoenician.. lantis to the Walam Olum. ABC ABC-CL -CLIO. IO. pp. 39–. 39–.   ISBN 9780313379192.. Retrieved 5 March 2013. 9780313379192 [29] See discussion of of these letters letters in McCulloch (1988).

7.7

Re Refferen erence cess

[2] Mainfort, Mainfort, Jr., Robert Robert C.; Kwas, Kwas, Mary L. “The L.  “The Bat Creek [30] Fraud: A Final Statement”. Statement”. Retrieved 12 March 2013. [31] [3] Thomas Thomas (1894: (1894: 393). [32] [4] Gordon (1971, Appendix). Appendix). [33] [5] McKusick McKusick (1979: (1979: 139). [34] [34] [6] McCarter McCarter (1993:55). (1993:55). [7] Chapman Chapman (1985). (1985).

“A Canaanite Canaanite Columbus?" Columbus?" Newsweek  76  76  (17):65, 1970. McKusick McKusick (1994). (1994). McCulloch McCulloch (1988) (1988) Mainfort Mainfort and Kwas (1991: 12). McCarte McCarterr (19 (1993: 93: 55). 55). Seeals See alsoo severa severall letter letterss to theedito theeditorr by Robert Stieglitz, McCarter, Mainfort and Kwas, McKusick, McCulloch and others in the Nov./Dec. 1993 and Jan./Feb. 1994 issues of Biblical Archaeology Review.

 

 

7.9. EXTERNAL EXTERNAL LINKS  LINKS 

[35] Mainfort Mainfort and Kwas Kwas (2004), Macoy Macoy (1868: 134). The same illustration appears on p. 169 of the 1870 edition cited by Mainfort and Kwas, as well as the 1989 reprint edition, but not in the 1867 edition. [36] Mainfort Mainfort and Kwas (2004: 765).

•

•

[37] Mainfort Mainfort and Kwas (2004: 766). [38] thropology E-mail E-mail datedFeb. datedCollections Feb. 7, 2014 fr om Jake Jake Program, Homiak, Homiak, Director, Direc tor, An& from Archives Smithsonian Museum Support Center, Suitland MD, to Barbara Duncan, Education Director, Museum of the Cherokee Indian, Cherokee NC.

•

•

[39] Per Timothy Timothy E. Baumann, Baumann, Curator of Archaeology Archaeology,, McClung Museum. [40] Per Barbara Barbara Duncan, Duncan, Education Education Director, Director, Museum of the Cherokee Indian.

•

•

7.8 7.8 •

•

•

•

•

So Sour urce cess

 Chapman, Jefferson.   Tellico ellico Archaeolog Archaeology: y: 12,000 12,000 Years of Native American History Norris, Tenn.: Tennessee Valley Authority, 1985   Faulk Faulker, er, Char Charles les H.   The Bat Cr Creek eek Stone Stone. Tennessee Anthropological Association, Miscellan Miscellaneous eous Paper No. 15, 1992. Reprints pp. 391–3 of Thomas (1894), McCulloch (1988), and Mainfort and Kwas (1991), with introduction by Faulkner. Frauds,, Myths Myths and Mysteri Mysteries:  es:    Fede Feder, r, Kenn Kenneth eth L.   Frauds Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology, 3rd ed. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Co., 1999. Before Colu Columbus mbus:: Links Links Between Between the  Gordon,  Gord on,Cyr Cyrus us H. Bef Old World and Ancient America. New York: Crown Publishers, 1971.

•

•

•

•

•

•

 A McCu McCulloc lloch, J. Hust Huston onand (199 (1993a). 3a).,”" Tennessee The Batt Cr TheBa Cree eekk Sto Stone: ne: Reply toh,Mainfort Kwas Kwas,” Anthropologist  18  18  (Spring 1993): 1-26.   McCulloc McCulloch, h, J.J. Hust Huston on (199 (1993b). 3b). “Did Jude Judean an Ref Refuge ugees es Escape to Tennessee?"  Biblical Archaeology Review 19 (July/Aug. 1993): 46-53, 82-83.   McKusic McKusick, k, Marsh Marshall. all. “Can “Canaani aanites tes in Ame Americ rica: a: A New Scripture in Stone?"  Biblical Archaeologist , Summer 1979, pp. 137–40.  McKusick, Marshall. “The Cherokee Solution to the Archaeology Review Review,  20 Bat Creek Enigma,”  Biblical Archaeology (Jan./Feb. 1994): 83-84, 86.   The Wine Wine Dark Dark Sea: Sea: Ho Homer mer’s ’s He Hero roic  ic    Mertz, Henri ette. Atlantic . Chi Epic ofHenriette. the North Chica cago: go: Me Mertz rtz,, 196 1964. 4.

  Schroedl, Gerald F.  Archaeological Investigations at  the Harrison Branch and Bat Creek Sites . Univ University ersity of Tennessee, Department of Anthropology, Report of Investigations Investigations No. 10, 1975.  Smithsonian Institution Archives. “Funds Archives.  “Funds for Ethnology and Mound Survey” Survey”,, dated March 3, 1881.  Thomas, Cyrus H.  The Cherokees in Pre-Columbian Times  N.D.C.  N.D.C. Hodges, New York, 1890.  Thomas,Cyr  Thomas, Cyrus us H. “ReportontheMoundExplorations of the theBur Burea eauu of Eth Ethno nolog logy” y”,, in Twel Twelfth fth Annual Report  ment Printi ment Printing ng Office, Wash Washingto ington, n, D.C. pp. 391–3 reprinted in Faulkner (1992).

Tuscaloosa, Ala.: Univ University ersity of Alabama Press, 2005.

•

 McCulloch,  McCulloc h, J. Hust Huston. on. "The Bat Creek Inscription: Cherokee or Hebrew?" Hebrew?"  Tennessee Anthropologist   13 (Fall 1988): 79-123. Reprinted in Fa Faulkner ulkner (1992).

of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution 1890-91, 1894. Govern-

Juan Pardo Pardo Expeditions Expeditions:: Ex Hudson, Charles.   The Juan

 Mainfort, Rober  Mainfort, Robertt C., Jr. and Mary L. Kw Kwas. as.   “The Bat Creek Stone: Judeans in Tennessee?"  Tennessee Anthropologist  16  (Spring 1991): 1-19. Reprinted in Faulkner (1992).

 McCarter, P. Kyle, Kyle, Jr. “Let “Let’s’s be Seriou Seriouss About the Bat Creek Stone,”   Biblical Archaeology Revie Review w   19 (July/Aug. 1993): 54-55, 83.

ASIN B0006CHG68. ASIN B0006CHG68.

 plorations of of the Carolinas Carolinas and Tennessee, Tennessee, 1566-1568. 1566-1568. •

33

•

 Robert Macoy, George Oliver. General History, Cyclopedia and Dictionary of Freemasonry (1870). Pp 181

  Mainf Mainfort, ort, Robert C., Jr. and Mary L. Kwas. Kwas. “The  “The Bat Creek Fraud: A Final Statement,”  Tennessee Anthro- 7.9 7.9 Exte Extern rnal al link linkss  pologist  18  18  (Fall 1993): 87-93.   Catal oguee No. A13 A13490 4902-0 2-0 in the Departm Departmen entt of Catalogu   Macoy, Ro Robert, bert, General History, Cyclopedia and DicAnthropology, National Museum of Natural History, tionary tion ary of Freemas Freemasonry onry, Mas Masoni onicc Pu Publi blish shin ingg Co. Co.,, Ne New w •

York, York, on 3rdp.ed., p. ed. 134. (Same illus illustrati tration on but appears 1691868, of 1870 and(Sam 1989e reprint ed., not in 1867 ed.)

•

Smithsonian Institution.  Museum of the Cherokee Indian

 

Chapter 8

Brandenburg stone The   Brandenburg stone  is an inscribed stone slab found 8.2 in in Brandenburg  Brandenburg,,  Kentucky,  Kentucky,  United States in States  in 1912, on the farm of Cra Craig ig Cre Crece celilius. us. T The he stone stone conta contain inss a strip strip of linear linear markings that resemble letters of a script. Crecelius exhibited the stone several times, but was unable to find anyon anyonee who could identify the markings. Jon Whitfield, who acquired the stone in 1965, claims that Welsh-language lsh-language alpha alphabet. bet. Other writthey are Coelbren are Coelbren,, a We

Clai Claims ms of Wels elsh h ori origin gin

ers have elaborated on these claims, arguing this is evidence of pre-Columbian contact between thethat legendary Welsh prince Madoc prince Madoc and  and Native Americans. The consensus of Welsh scholars is that “Coelbren” is a fake script invented in the nineteenth century by Iolo by  Iolo Morganwg in Morganwg  in his book Barddas .

8.1 8.1

Hi Hist stor ory y One of Morganwg’s “peithynen” frames containing his “bardic” al phabet 

In 1912, farmer Craig Crecelius found the stone artifact in field near the Ohio River in Brandenburg, Kentucky. The oolite sto stone ne me meas asure ures s 29ininch inthickness es (74 cm) cm ) lon long 15. 5 inch inches es (39 cm) wide and varies tches hickness from 1gtoby3 15.5 inches (2.5 [1] Crecelius us displayed to 7.6 cm). For more than 50 years, Creceli the stone at local fairs. At some point, the stone was shattered into three pieces. In 1965, Crecelius abandoned his pursuit of the artifact’s origin and transferred transferred ownershi ownershipp to Jon Whitfield. Eight years later, archaeologists examined the stone and concluded that its markings were actually scratches resulting from from a natural proce process. ss. The ston stonee was stored at the Brandenburg library  until 1995 when it was moved to the Falls of the Ohio Interpretive Center in Clarksville, Indiana. [2] In 1999, the artifact was moved to the Falls the  Falls of the Ohio

Whitfield sought evidence that the markings were Welsh in origin. In 1998, the stone was examin examined ed by authors Baram Blackett and Alan Wilson, who asserted that the inscription was medieval medieval We Welsh. lsh. Black Blackett ett and Wilson have also claimed to have found the grave of King Arthur and the Ark of theCo the Cove venan nant.t.[4] The Theyy trans translated latedthe the insc inscripti riptions ons into English from Coelbren from Coelbren,, the script described by Iolo Morganwg, and which modern scholars believe to have been invented by him.[2][5][6] The stone’s stone’s inscrip inscriptio tionn was transla translated ted to read read:: “To “Toward ward strength (to promote unity), divide the land we are spread over, purely (or justly) between offspring in wisdom.”[2][3] Thiss was Thi wasint interp erpre reted ted to mean mean tha thatt it wa wass a bou bounda ndary ry mar marke ker. r.

State Parkwn, Park Interpretive  Interpretive Center for and then to the Jefferson erson claims Community Communi ty College College writer Pennington has Charlestown, Indiana publ Indiana  public ic lib library. rary.a year, In January 2012 th thee Jeff Charlesto endorsed of the artifact’s writer ancientLee Welsh origin. The artifact was returned to the Meade the Meade county library library..[3] claims have been widely circulated.[1][2][3][7][8] 34

 

 

8.4. REFERENC REFERENCES  ES 

8.3

Au Auth then enti tici city ty

More recently, the artifact has been a subject of several  documentary  America books as well an episode of the H2 the  H2 documentary Unearthed . Author Jason Author  Jason Colavito Colavito has  has argued against the stone’s authenticity, authenticity, asserting that it was forged in the 19th or early 20th century when several books promoting “Coel[9]

bren” were widely circulated in America.

8.4

Re Refferen erence cess

“Archaeologists ogists gather to [1] See, Larry Larry Jr. (March 19, 2008). 2008).   “Archaeol hear story of Brandenburg Stone”. Stone”. Meade County Messenger. Retrieved March 24, 2013. [2]  “Brandenburg Stone”. Stone”. Clark County County (Indiana) (Indiana) Public Public Library. Retrieved March 24, 2013. [3]  “Secretive Stone Gets New Home in Indiana”. Indiana” . Bowl Bowlin ingg Green,, Kentucky. Green Kentucky. Daily Daily News. News. July 23, 23, 1999. Retrieved Retrieved March 24, 2013.  Evening Chron[4] “Historians Battle Battle over Arthurian icle, Newcastle, England, June 12,Intrigue”, 2008, p.30.

[5]  “Coelbren y Beirdd - The Bardic Alphabet”. Alphabet”. National Museum of Wales. [6] Cathryn, Cathryn, A Charnell-Whit Charnell-Whitee (2007). (2007).   Bardi Bardicc Circ Circles: les: National, Regional and Personal Identity in the Bardic Vision of  Iolo Morganwg Morganwg. University of Wales Press. p. 106.   ISBN

978-0708320679.. 978-0708320679 [7] Holland, Jeffre Jeffreyy Scott (2008).  Weird Kentucky: Your Travel  Guide to Kentucky’s Local Legends and Best Kept Secrets . Sterling. p. 23. ISBN 23.  ISBN 978-1402754388. 978-1402754388. [8] Callahan, Jim (2000).   Lest We We Forget: Forget: The Melunge Melungeon on Colony of Newman’s Ridge . Ov Overm ermoun ountai tainn Press Press.. p. 57. 978-1570721670. ISBN 978-1570721670. [9] Colavito, Jason (February (February 8, 2013). “Following 2013).  “Following Up on the Brandenburg Stone”. Stone”. Retrieved March 25, 2013.

35

 

Chapter 9

Calaveras Skull After careful study, he officially announced its discovery at Sciences on  on July a meeting of the California the  California Academy of Sciences 16, 1866, declaring it evidence of the existence of Pliocene of Pliocene age man in North in North America, America, which would make it the oldest known record of humans on the contine continent. nt.[2] Its authenticity was immediately challenged. In 1869 a San a  San Francisco news newspap paper er rep report orted ed that that a mine minerr had hadtol toldd a minis minis-[3] ter that the skull was planted as a practical joke. Thomas Wilson of Harvard ran a fluorine a fluorine analysis on analysis on it in 1879 (the first ever usage of such on human bone), with the results indicating it was of recent origin.[4] It was so widely believed tobeahoaxthat BretHarte Bret Harte famously amouslywrote wrote a sati satiric rical al poem [5] called “To the Pliocene Skull” in 1899. Whitney did not waver in his belief that it was genuine. His successor at Harvard, F. Harvard, F. W. Putnam, Putnam, also belie believed ved it to be real. By 1901 Putnam was determined to disco discover ver the truth and he headed to California. California. While there, he heard a story that in 1865 one of a number of Indian skulls had been dug up from a nearby burial site and planted in the mine specifically for for miners to find. Putnam still declin declined ed to declare the skull a fake, instead conceding, “It may be impossible ever to determine to the satisfaction of the archaeologist the Others, ers, suc suchh as pla place ce wh wher eree the skull skull wa wass actua actuallllyy found.” ound.”[2] Oth

The Calaveras Skull, from William Henry Holmes’ preliminary debunking of it.

 Calaveras Skull  was a human skull The human  skull found  found by miners in in Calaveras California  Calaveras County, California, , which was purported to prove that humans, mastodons humans, mastodons,, and elephants and elephants had  had coexisted in California. It was later revealed to be a hoax a  hoax.. Coincidentally, “calaveras” is the Spanish word for “skulls”.

9.1 9.1

Hi Hist stor ory y

On February 25, 1866, miners claimed to have found a huma mann sk skul ulll in a mi mine ne,, ben benea eath th a la laye yerr of lava lava,, 130 130 feet eet (40 (40 m) below the surface of the earth, which made it into the hands of of Josiah Whitney, then the State Geologist  Josiah Whitney, State Geologist of  of California  California as  as University.. A well as a Professor of Geology at Harvard at  Harvard University year the skull to hismastodons, attention, Whitney publishedbefore the belief thatcame humans, and elephants coexisted;[1] the skull served as proof of his convictions.

 Theosophy, were[3]unwavering in their beadherents of lief in the of Theosophy authenticity of, also the skull. To further complicate the issue, careful comparison of the skull with descriptions of it at the time of its discov discovery ery revealed that the skull Whitney had in his possession was not the one originally found.[2] Anthropologist William Anthropologist  William Henry Holmes of Holmes of the Smithsonian the Smithsonian Institution investigated Institution  investigated around the turn of the century. He  that had been determined that the plant and animal fossils animal  fossils that discovered near the skull were indeed genuine, but the skull was too modern, and concluded that “to suppose that man could have remained unchanged... for a million years, roughly speaking... speaking... is to suppose a miracle.”[3] Likewise, J. M. Boutwell, investigating investigating in 1911, was told by one of the participants [6] in the discovery that the whole thing was inthe Sierra Nevada Nevada apparently  apparently deed a hoax. The miners of the Sierra

36

 

9.3. REFERENC REFERENCES  ES 

 

37

Mind ndss of Me Menn did not greatly like Whitney (“being an Easterner of very [10] [10] Tay Taylor lor,, Ian IanT. T. “From “From Mamma Mammall to Man”. Man”. Inthe Mi (5th ed.). ISBN ed.).  ISBN 0-9733368-0-3 0-9733368-0-3.. Retrieved 2011-02-24. reserved demeanor”) and were “delighted” to have played [2] such a joke on him. Furthermore, John C. Scribner, a lo- [11]  “Arguments we think creationists should NOT use” use”.. Crecalshopke calshop keep eper, er, cl clai aime medd to ha have ve pla plante ntedd it, it, and andthestory thestorywas was ation Ministries Internati International. onal. Archived Archiv ed from from the original  the Radiocarbonn dating revealed by his sister after his death. [7] Radiocarbo on 2008-01-21. in 199 19922 es estab tablis lished hedth thee age ageof of thesk the skull ull at abo about ut 1,000 1,000 years, years, placing it in the late Holocene late Holocene age.  age.[8]

Despit Des pitee eviden evidence ce to the contrary, the Cala Calaver veras as Skull proo ooff th that at co cont ntin inue uess to be ci cite tedd by   creationists   as pr paleontologists  ignore evid eviden ence ce tha thatt doe doess not fit the their ir paleontologists   ignore [9][10] theories, although others have acknowledged acknowledged that the Calaveras Calave ras Skull is a hoax.[11]

9.2 9.2 •

Se Seee al also so

 Piltdown Man

9.3

Re Refferen erence cess

[1] Whitney, Whitney, J. D. (1865). (1865).  Geology - Report of progress and  synopsis of the field-work from 1860 to 1864 . Philadelphia. p. 252. [2]  “The Calaveras Skull”. Skull”.  Museum of Hoaxes Hoaxes.. Archived from original on  on 2011-06-29. Retrieved 2009-07-06. the original [3]  “The Notorious Calaveras Skull”. Skull”.   Archaeology Magazine. Archaeol Arch aeologic ogical al Institute Instituteof of America. America. 2009. Retrieved Retrieved2011201102-23. [4] Ian Haywood Haywood (1987). (1987). “The Missing Missing Link”. Link”.   Faking iit:t: Art  and the Politics of Forgery. Harvester. p. 95.  ISBN 9780-7108-1043-4.. Retrieved 24 February 2011. (as cited in 0-7108-1043-4 Blinderman, Charles; Joyce, David.  “The Piltdown Plot”. Plot”. Clark University University.. Retrieved 2011-02-23.) “Aree There There Hu[5] Conr Conrad, ad, Ernest Ernest C. (Sp (Sprin ringg 1982). 1982).   “Ar man Fossils in the “Wrong Place” for Evolution?". Evolution?" .   Creation/Evolution Journal .  3  (2). Retrieved 2009-07-06. [6] Heinrich, Paul Paul (June 3, 1996). “The 1996).  “The Calaveras Skull Revisited”.. Talk.Origins. Retrieved 2009-07-06. ited” [7] Weber, Christopher Christopher Gregory Gregory (Fall 1981). “Paluxy 1981).  “Paluxy Man — The Creationist Piltdown”. Piltdown”.   Creation/Evolution Journal .   2 (4). Retrieved 2009-07-06. [8] Taylor, Taylor, R. E.; Payen, Payen, Louis A.; Slota, Slota, Peter J., Jr (April (April 1992). “The Age of the Calaveras Skull: Dating the “Piltdown Man” of the New World.”.   American Antiquity.   57 (2): 269–275. doi 269–275.  doi::10.2307/280732 10.2307/280732..  JSTOR 280732 280732.. [9]  “In the Beginning: Compelling Evidence for Creation and the Flood”. Flood”.  Center for Scientific Creation Creation.. Retrieved 200907-06.

 

Chapter 10

Chariots of the Gods (film) German::  Erinnerungen an die ZuChariots of the Gods (  (German kunft ) is a 1970 West German documentary German  documentary film directed film  directed by Harald by Harald Reinl Reinl.. It is based on Erich on  Erich von Däniken Däniken's's book Chariots of the Gods? , a book that theorizes extraterrestri extraterrestri-als impacted early human life. The film was nominated for Award for  for Best  Best Documentary Feature. Feature.[2][3] an Academy an Academy Award

10.1 10. 1

Ot Othe herr versi version onss

The film was edited and dubbed into English in a 1973 American TV documentary,  In Search of Ancient Astronauts , narrated by Rod by  Rod Serling Serling..[4] This version was also shown in many schools in the 1970s, distributed through film prints.  prints.[4] 16 mm film The film was released in the UK in 1971, in a version cut to 55 minutes and as a support to the film  The Railway Children.

10.2 10. 2

Re Refferen erence cess

[1]   Wor “Chariots the Office. Gods, Worldwide Office2012. Information”.. Information” Worldwide ldwideofBox Retrieved 9Box January [2]   “The 43rd Academy Awards (1971) Nominees and Winners”..  oscars.org. Retrieved 11 September 2011. ners” [3]  “NY Times: Chariots of the Gods”. Gods” .   NY Times . Retrieved 11 November 2008. at Internet Movie Database [4]  In Search of Ancient Astronauts   at Internet

10.3 10. 3 •

Ex Exte terna rnall lin links ks

 Chariots of the Gods  at the Internet the Internet Movie Database

38

 

Chapter 11

Coso artifact The   Coso Coso artif artifact act is an objec objectt clai claime medd by its its disco discove vere rers rs to plugg found ound en enca case sedd in a lu lump mp of ha hard rd cl clay ay or rock rock be a spark spark plu on February 13, 1961, by Wallace Lane, Virginia Maxey and Mike Mikesell while they were prospecting were  prospecting for  for geodes  geodes near the town of Olancha, of Olancha, California California,, and long claimed as artifact..[1] an example of an out-of-place an out-of-place artifact If a spark plug is encased in a 500,000-year-old “geode,” this finding would represent a substantial scientific and historical anomaly torical  anomaly,, as spark plugs were invented in the 19th century. Critics have argued, however, that the concretion, not geode, containing the Coso artifact can be explained by known natural processes and credible evidence for it being 500,000 years old is completely lacking.

11.1 11 .1

Disc Disco ove very ry

origin have included: •

 An ancient advanced civilization (such as Atlantis as  Atlantis););

•

  Prehistoric extraterrestrial Prehistoric extraterrestrial visitors to visitors to Earth;

•

 from the future leaving or los Human time-travellers from  Human time-travellers ing the artifact during a visit to the past.

An investigation investigation carried out by by Pierre  Pierre Stromberg Stromberg and  and Paul  Paul Heinrich,, with the help of members of the Spark Heinrich the  Spark Plug Collectors of America, America, suggested that the artifact is a 1920s Championn spark plug. Chad Windh Champio Windham, am, Preside President nt of the Spark Plug Collectors of America, identified the Coso artifact as a 1920s-era Champion spark plug, which was widely used in the Ford the  Ford Model T and T  and  Model A  A   engin engines. es. Oth Other er spark plug collectors concurred with his assessment.[1] Stromberg and Heinrich’s report[1] indicates the spark plug became encased in a concretion a  concretion composed  composed of iron derived from the rusting spark plug. It is typical of iron and steel artifacts artif acts to rapi rapidly dly form iro ironn oxide oxide con concre cretio tions ns arou around nd them as they rust in the ground.[4] The location of the Coso artifact is unknown as of 2008. Of its discoverers, Lane has died, Maxey is alive but avoids public comment, and the whereabouts of Mikesell are not known.

Following its collection, Mikesell destroyed a diamondedged blade cutting through the rock containing the artifact Desertt MagMagand disc discov overed ered the item. item.[1] Inaletterwrittento Deser azine of Outdoor Southwest  a reader stated that a trained geologist had dated the nodule as at least 500,000 years old and contained a manmade object.[2] The identity identity of the alleged trained geologist and means of geologic dating were neve neverr cl clari arifie fied, d, nor nor thefin the findi dings ngs ever ever pu publi blish shed ed in an anyy kno known wn [1] periodical. Furthermore, at the time that Maxey reported the Coso artifact as having been dated as being 500,000 years old, there was no known method, including the use of guidee fossi guid ossils, ls, by whi which ch eithe eitherr the artif artifact actor or con concret cretion ion cou could ld [3] 11.3 See See al also so have been dated as being this old. The nodule surround- 11.3 ing the spark plug may have accreted in a matter of years or decades, as demonstrated by examples of very similar iron  London Hammer or steel artifact-bearing nodules, which are discussed and illustrated by Cronyn.[4] •

11.4 11. 4 11.2

Crit Critici icism sm and analysi analysiss

The origin of the artifact has been the cause of much speculation.[1] Pseudoscientific Pseudoscientific suggestions  suggestions for the artifact’s ar tifact’s 39

Re Refferen erence cess

[1] Stromberg, Stromberg, P., and P. V. Heinrich, Heinrich, 2004, The Coso Artifact  Mystery from the Depths of Time? , Reports of the National Centerr ffor Cente or Scien Science ce Educati Education, on, v. 24, no. no. 2, pp. 26–30 (March/April 2004).

 

40

 

[2] Maxey, Maxey, V., V., 1961, The Coso Geode...  in Letters...From Our Readers. Read ers. Desert Magazine Magazine of Outdoor Outdoor Southwe Southwest. st. v. 25, no. 5, p. 4. (May 1961). [3] Walker, Walker, M. (2005) Quaternary Dating methods  Wiley,  Wiley, New York, New York. 304 pp. ISBN pp.  ISBN 978-0470869277. 978-0470869277. [4] Cronyn, Cronyn, J. M. (1990) (1990) The Elements of Archaeological Conservation Routledge, New York, New York. York. 326 pp. ISBN pp.  ISBN 978-0415012072.. 978-0415012072

11.5 11. 5 •

Ex Exte terna rnall lin links ks

 Andrew O'Hehir (August 31, 2005).   “Archaeology from the dark side”. side”.  Salon.

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 11. COSO ARTIFA ARTIFACT  CT 

 

Chapter 12

Crystal skull demonstrated rated that those examThis article is about the crystal skulls. For other uses, see The results of these studies demonst Crystal skull (disambiguation). ined were manufactured in the mid-19th century or later, (disambiguation). The  crystal skulls  are  human skull hardstone carvings almost certainly in Europe in  Europe during  during a time when interest in ancient anci ent culture culture was abun abundant dant..[1][2] Desp Despite itesome someclai claims ms presented in an assortment of popularizing literature, legends of crystal skulls with mystical powers do not figure in genAmerican mythologies  mythologies uine Mesoamerican or other Native other Native American [3] and spiritual accounts. The skulls are often claimed to  New exhibit exhibit paranormal  paranormal pheAge movement,  movement, pheand nomena by some members of the New the Age have often been portrayed as such in fiction in  fiction.. Crystal skulls have been a popular subject appearing in numerous  sci-fi television series, series, novels, films, and video and video games. games.

12.1 12. 1

Col Collec lecti tion onss

Trade in fake pre-Columbian artifacts developed during the late 19th century to the extent that in 1886, Smithsonian 1886, Smithsonian ar archaeologist William chaeologist  William Henry Holmes Holmes wrote  wrote an article called “The Trad Tradee in Spuri Spurious ous Mex Mexica icann Anti Antiqui quitie ties” s” for Science.[4] Although Alth ough museum museumss had acq acquir uired ed skul skulls ls earli earlier, er, it was Eugène , anwho antiquities dealer whowith opened his shop Boban in Paris Boban, in 1870, is most associated 19th-century museum muse um colle collecti ctions ons of crysta crystall skulls. Most of Boban’ Boban’ss collection, including three crystal skulls, was sold to the ethnographe ethnographerr Alphonse Pinart, Pinart, who donated the collecti collection on  Museum, which later became the Musée the Musée to the Trocadéro the Trocadéro Museum, de l'Homme. l'Homme.

The crystal skull at the British the  British Museum Museum (ID   (ID  Am1898C3.1 ),  Am1898C3.1 ), similar  in dimensions to the more detailed Mitchell-Hedges skull.

12.2 12 .2

Rese Resear arch ch

pre-Columbian,, Many crystal skulls are claimed to be   pre-Columbian usually lly attri attributed buted to the   Aztec   or   Maya civi made of clear or milky white quartz white quartz (also  (also called “rock crys- usua civilizatio lizations ns.. tal”), claimed to be pre-Columbian be pre-Columbian Mesoamerican artifacts Mesoamerican artifacts Mesoamerican art Mesoamerican  art has numerous representations of skulls, by their allegedfor finders; however, of the specimens but none of the skulls in[5]museum collections come made available scientific study none has been authenticated documented excavations. Research carried out onfrom sevas pre-Columbian in origin. eral crystal skulls at the British the British Museum in Museum in 1967, 1996 and 41

 

42

 

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 12. CR CRYST YSTAL AL SKULL SKULL

tailed study by the British Museum and the Smithsonian in Using electron  electron microscopy and microscopy and X-ray  X-ray crysMay 2008.[11] Using tallography,, a team of British and American researchers tallography found that the British Museum skull was worked with a or diamond  diamond,, harsh abrasive substance such as corundum as  corundum   or and shaped using a rotary disc tool made from some suitable metal. The Smithsoni Smithsonian an specimen had been work worked ed with different abrasive, namely the silicon-carbon pounda  carborundum   (Silicon carbide) which is a comsynthetic thet ic sub substan stance ce manu manuffactured actured using using mode modern rn industri industrial al [12] techniques. Since the synthesis of carborundum dates only to the 1890s and its wider availability to the 20th century, the researchers concluded "[t]he suggestion is that it was made in the 1950s or later”.[13]

12.3

Aztec mask with mosaic inlays 

2004 shows that the indented lines marking the teeth (for these skulls had no separate jawbone, unlike the the Mitchell MitchellHedges skull) skull) were carved using jeweler’s using  jeweler’s equipment  equipment (rotary tools) developed in the 19th century, making a supposed pre-Columbian origin problematic.[6] The type of crystal was determined by examination of chlorite chlorite   in inclus clusion ions. s. It is only fo found und in in Madagascar  Madagascar   and Brazil, thus uno unobta btain inab able le or unk unkno nown wn withi withinn pre pre-Brazil, and thus Columbian Columbi an Mesoameric Mesoamerica. a. The study co concluded ncluded tha thatt the skulls were crafted in the 19th century in Germany, quite Idar-Oberstein,, which likely at workshops in the town of  of   Idar-Oberstein was renowned for crafting objects made from imported Brazilian quartz in the late 19th century.[7] It has been establish established ed that the crystal skulls in the Britis Britishh [8] Museum and Paris’s Musée Paris’s Musée de l'Homme were originally sold by the French antiquities dealer Eugène Boban, who was operating in Mexico City between 1860 and 1880.[9] The British Museum crystal skull transited through New York’s Tiffany’s, whilst the Musée de l'Homme’s crystal sk skull ull was wasdon donate atedd by Alphonse Alphonse Pina Pinart rt,, an ethnographer who had bought it from Boban. In 1992, the Smithsonian the  Smithsonian Institution investigated Institution  investigated a crystal skull provided by an anonymous source; the source claimed to have purchased it in Mexico City in 1960, and that it was of Aztec origin. The investigation concluded that this skull also was made recently recently.. Acc Accordi ording ng to the Smit Smithson hsonian, ian,

Oth Other er artif artifact actss of contro controve versi rsial al origin

None of the skulls in museums come from documented excavations. A parallel example is provided by obsidian by  obsidian mir mirrors, ritual objects objects widely depi depicted cted in Aztec art. Although a few surviving obsidian mirrors come from archaeological none ne of the the Azt Aztecec-sty style le obs obsid idia iann mirro mirrors rs are excavations,[14] no so documented. Yet most authorities on Aztec material culture consider the Aztec-styl Aztec-stylee obsidian mirrors as authentic pre-Columbian objects.[15] Archaeologist Archaeologist Michael  Michael E. Smith reports a non peer-reviewed non peer-reviewed find  find of a small crystal skull at an Aztec Aztec site site in theV the Vall alley ey of Me Mexi xico. co.[16] Crys Crystal tal sku skulls lls hav havee been described as “A fascinati fascinating ng examp example le of artif artifacts acts that have made their way into museums with no scientific evidence to prove their rumored pre-Columbian origins.”[17] A simi similar lar case case is the the “Ol “Olme mec-s c-styl tyle” e” face ace mas maskk in jade; jade; hardstone stone carvi carvings ngs of a face ace in a mas maskk form orm.. Cur Curato ators rs andsc and schol hol-ars refer to these as “Olmec-style”, as to date no example has been reco recover vered arc archaeo logicall y con controll edverthe Olmec contex cont ext,t, al althou though ghedthey theinyan appe appear arhaeologi Olme Olmec ccally in style. sty le. trolled Howe However theyy have been recovered from sites of other cultures, including one deliberately deposited in the ceremonial precinct of Tenochtitlan (Mexico Tenochtitlan ( Mexico City), City), which would presumably have been about 2,000 years old when the Aztecs buried it, suggesting these were as valued and collected as Roman antiquities were in Europe.[18]

12.4 12. 4

In Indi divi vidu dual al sk skull ullss

12.4.1

MitchellMitchell-Hedg Hedges es skull skull

[10] Perhaps the most famous and enigmatic skull was allegedly Boban his crystalmade skullsby from in Germany, aligningacquired with conclusions the sources British Museum. discovered in 1924 by Anna Mitchell-Hedges, adopted The   Journal Journal of Archaeolog Archaeological ical Science  published a de- daughter of British adventurer and popular author  F.A.

 

 

12.4. INDIVI INDIVIDU DUAL AL SK SKULLS  ULLS 

Mitchell-Hedges. video documentary Mitchell-Hedges. It is the subject of a video documentary made in 1990,  Crystal Skull of Lubaantun.[19] It was examined and described by Smithsonian researchers as “very nearly a replica of the British Museum skull—almost exactly the same shape, but with more detailed modeling of Mitchell-Hedge ell-Hedgess claime claimedd that the eyes and the teeth.”[20] Mitch she found the skull buried under a collapsed altar inside a [21]

temple in Lubaantun, in Lubaantun , in British in  BritishF.A. Honduras Honduras, , now Belize now Belize. . As far as can be ascertained, Mitchell-Hedges himself made no mention of the alleged discovery in any of his writitings wri ngs on Lubaa Lubaantu ntun. n. Ot Othe hers rs pre presen sentt at th thee time time of the theex ex-cavation recorded neither the skull’s discovery nor Anna’s presence at the dig.[22] According to new evidence predocume umentary ntary,, the sku skullll was sentedina NationalGeographic National Geographicdoc purchased at a Sotheby’s a  Sotheby’s auction  auction by F.A. Mitchell-Hedges in London London on Oct. 15, 1943. Short Shortly ly the thereaf reafter, ter, he discussed the purchase in a letter to his brother.[23] The The sk skul ulll is ma made de from rom a bl bloc ockk of clea clearr quar quartz tz ab abou outt th thee size size of a small human cranium, measuring some 5 inches (13 cm) high, 7 inches inches (18 cm) long and 5 inches wi wide. de. The lower low er jaw is detach detached. ed. In the early 1970s it came under the temporary care of freelance art restorer Frank Dorland, who claimed upon inspecting it that it had been “carved” with total disregard to the natural crystal axis, and without the use of metal tools. Dorland reported be being ing unable to find any tell-tale scratch marks, except for traces of mechanical grinding on the teeth, and he speculated that it was first firstchi chisele seledd into intoroug roughh form, prob probabl ablyy using using diam diamonds onds,, and the finer shapi shaping, ng, ggrinding rinding and polishing was achieved through the use of sand over a period of 150 to 300 years. He sai saidd it coul couldd be up to 12, 12,000 000 years years old old.. Alt Altho houg ughh va vario rious us claims have have been made over the years regarding the skull’s physical properties, such as an allegedly constant temperature of 70 °F (21 °C), Dorland reported that there was no difference in properties between it and other natural quartz crystals.[24] While in Dorland’s care the skull came to the attention of write wri terr Ri Rich chard ard Garv Garvin, in, at the time time worki working ng at an adve adverti rtisi sing ng agencyy where he supervised agenc supervised Hewlett-Packard  Hewlett-Packard's's advertising account. Garvin made arrangements ffor or the skull to be examined at Hewlett-Packard’s crystal laboratories in Santa Clara, California, where it was subjected to several tests. The labs determined only that it was not a composite as Dorland had supposed, but that it was fashioned from a single crystal of quartz.[25] The laboratory test also established that the lower jaw had been fashioned from the same lefthanded growing crystal as the rest of the skull.[26] No investigation tigati on was made by Hewlett-P Hewlett-Packard ackard as to its method of manufacture or dating.[27] As well as the traces of mechanical grinding on the

43

Mitchell-Hedges ll-Hedges refused subseque subsequent nt with metal.[29] Anna Mitche requests to submit the skull for further scientific testing.[30] The earli earlies estt publ publis ishe hedd re refferenc erencee to the skull skull is the Jul Julyy 193 19366 issue of the British anthropological journal  Man, where it is described as being in the possession of Mr. Mr. Sydney  Sydney Burney,, a London art dealer who is said to have owned it since ney 1933.[31] No mention was made of Mitchell-Hedges. There is documentary evidence that Mitchell-Hedges bought it from Burney in 1944.[30] F. A. Mitchell-Hedges mentioned the skull only briefly in the first edition of his autobiography,  Danger My Ally (1954) (19 54),, wi with thout out spe speci ciffying ying wher wheree or by who whom m it was [32] found. He merely claimed that “it is at least 3,600 years old old an andd acco accord rdin ingg to le lege gend nd it wa wass used used bythe Hi High gh Pr Prie iest st of the Maya when he was performing performing esoteric rite rites. s. It is said that when he willed death with the help of the skull, death invariably followed”.[33] All subsequent editions of  Danger  My Ally omitted mention of the skull entirely. [30]

Eugène Boban, Eugène Boban, main Fre French nch deale dealerr in prepre-Colu Columbian mbian artif artifacts duringthe secondhalfof secondhalfof the19th centur centuryy andproba andprobablesourc blesourcee ofmany  famous skulls 

[28]

archaeologist archaeologist Norman teeth notedrep by orted Dorland, Hammond report ed tha thatt th theeMayanist ho holes les (pres (presume umedd to be  Norman inten intende dedd In a 1970 letter Anna also stated that she was “told by the for support pegs) showed signs of being made by drilling few remaining Maya that the skull was used by the high

 

44

 

For thi thiss reaso reason, n, the art artif ifac actt is som someepri pries estt to will will de death ath.” .”[34] For times referred referred to as “The Skull of Doom”. Anna MitchellHedges toured with the skull from 1967 exhibiting it on a pay-per-view basis.[35] Somewhere between 1988 and 1990 she toured with the skull. She continued to grant interviews about the artifact until her death. In her last eight years, Anna Mitchell-Hedges lived in Indiana,, with Bill Homann, whom she married Chesterton, Indiana in 2002. She died on April 11, 2007. Since that time the Mitchel Mitc hell-He l-Hedge dgess Skull has been owned by Homann. He continues to believe in its mystical properties.[36] In November November 2007, Homann took the skull to the office of anthropologist Jane MacLaren Walsh, the Smithsonian's's Walsh, in the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History for History  for examination.[37] Walsh carried out a detailed examination of the skull us light microscope, ing ultraviolet light, a high-po high-powered wered light microscope, and computerized tomographyy. Homann took the skull to the computerized tomograph museum again in 2008 so it could be filmed for a Smithsonian Networks documentary, Legend of the Crystal Skull  and on this occasion Walsh was able to take two sets of silicone silic one molds of surface tool marks for for scanning  scanning electro electronn microscope  (SEM)  (SE M)t the analy analysis. The SEMwork microgra veale ve aledd ev evid iden ence ce tha that th e crysta crysis. stall hadbeen womic rked edrographs with withphs a high hiregh speed, hard metal rotary tool coated with a hard abrasive such as diamond. Wals Walsh’s h’s extensi extensive ve research on artif artifacts acts from Mexico and Central America showed that pre-contact artisans carved stone by abrading the surface with stone or wooden tools and in later pre-Columbian times, copper too tools, ls, in com combi binat natio ionn wi with th a va vari riety etyof of ab abras rasiive san sands ds or pu pullverized stone. These examinations led Walsh to the conclusion that the skull was probably carved in the 1930s, and was most likely based on the British Museum skull which had been exhibited fairly continuously from 1898. [37] In the National the  National Geographic Channel  documentary “The Truth Behind the Crystal Skulls”,  forensic artist   Gloria Nussea performed forensic reconstruction reconstruction over  over replic replica of the skull.a  Accor According dingfacial to Nusse, the resulting fface acea  characteristics. As it was hypothhad female and European and European characteristics. esized that the Crystal Skull was a replica of an actual human skull, the conclusion was that it could not have been created by ancient Americans.[38][39] 12.4.2

British British Museum Museum skull skull

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 12. CR CRYST YSTAL AL SKULL SKULL

Kunz..[40] It was sold New York City in 1887 by George by George F. Kunz at auction, and bought by Tiffany by  Tiffany and Co., Co., who later sold it at cost to the British the  British Museum Museum in  in 1897.[41] This skull is very similar to the Mitchell-Hedges skull, although it is less detailed and does not have a movable lower jaw.[42] The British Museum catalogues the skull’s provenance skull’s  provenance as  as “probablyy European, 19th century AD”[43] and describes it “probabl as “not an auth authenti enticc prepre-Colu Columbi mbian an arte arteffact” act”..[44] Ithasbeen established that this skull was made with modern tools, and that it is not authentic.[45] 12.4.3 12. 4.3

Paris Paris skull skull

Crystal skull at the Musée du quai Branly, Paris 

The largest of the three skulls sold by Eugène Boban to Alphonse Pinart (sometimes (sometimes called the Paris Skull), about 10 cm (4 in) high, has a hole drilled vertically through its the  Musée du center.[46] It is part of a collection held at the Musée Quai Branly, Branly, and was subjected to scientific tests carried out in 2007–08 by France’s national Centre national Centre de recherche et de restauration des musées de France ( France (Centre for Research and Restoration of the Museums in France, or C2RMF). After a series of analyses carried out over three months, C2RMF engineers concluded that it was “certainly not preColumbian, it shows traces of polishing and abrasion by modern tools.”[47] Particle accelerator tests also revealed occluded traces of water that were dated to the 19th century, and the Quai Branly released a statement that the tests “seem to indicate that it was made late in the 19th

Museum first  first appeared in The crystal skull of the British the  British Museum 1881, in the shop of the Paris antiquarian, Eugène antiquarian, Eugène Boban. Boban. Its origin was not stated in his catalogue of the time. He is said to have tried to sell it to Mexico’s national museum as an Aztec artifact, but was unsuccessful. Boban later moved [48] his business to New York City, where the skull was sold to century.” George H. Sisson. Sisson. It was exhibited at the meeting of the In 2009 the C2RMF researchers published results of furAmerican Association for the Advancement of Science Science in  in the therr inve investi stigat gatio ions ns to establ establis ishh whe whenn thePari thePariss skull skullhad hadbee beenn

 

 

12.6. IN POPULAR POPULAR CULT CULTURE  URE 

electron on microsco microscopy py (SEM (SEM)) anal analysi ysiss indi indi-carved.  Scanning electr carved.  cated the use of lapidary of  lapidary machine  machine tools tools in its carving. The results of a new dating technique known as quartz as  quartz hydration dating (QHD) dating  (QHD) demonstrated that the Paris skull had been carved later than a reference quartz specimen artifact, known to have been cut in 1740. The researchers conclude that the SEM and QHD results combined with the skull’s [49] known kno wn pr prov oven enanc ancee in indi dica cate te it was carve carvedd in th thee 18t 18thh or 19t 19thh century.

12.4.4 12. 4.4

Smith Smithson sonian ian Skull Skull

The “Smithsonian “Smithsonian Skull”, Catalogue No. A562841-0 in the collections of the Department of Anthropology, National Anthropology,  National Museu Mus eum m of Na Natura turall Hi Histo story ry,, was ma maililed ed to th thee Smithsonian Institution anonymousl Institution  anonymouslyy in 1992, and was claimed to be an Aztec object by its donor and was purportedly from the colAztec object Porfiri firioo Dia Diazz. It is the lar large gest st of th thee skull skulls, s, weig weighhlec lectio tionn of Por ing 31 pounds (14 kg) and is 15 inches (38 cm) high. It was abrasive. It has been carved using carborundum using carborundum,, a modern abrasive. displayed as a modern moder n fake at the the National  National Museum of Nat-

made) in The Mystery of the Crystal Skulls ,[54] a 2008 program produced for the Sci the Sci Fi Channel Channel in  in May and shown on Canada in June. Intervie Discovery Channel Canada in Interviewees wees includ included ed Richard Hoagland, Hoagland, who attempted to link the skulls and the Childress,, propoMaya to life on Mars, and David and David Hatcher Childress nent of lost Atlantean civilizations and anti-gravity claims. Crystal skulls are also referred to by author   Drunvalo Melchizedek in Melchizedek  in his book Serpent of Light .[55] He writes that he came across indigenous Mayan descendants in possession of crystal skulls at ceremonies at temples in the Yucatán, which he writes contained souls of ancient Mayans who had entered the skulls to await the time when their ancient knowledge would once again be required. The alleged associations and origins of crystal skull mythology in Native American spiritual lore, as advanced by neoshamanic  writers such as Jamie Sams, are similarly Philip lip Jenki Jenkins ns notes, crystal skull discounted.[56] Instead, as Phi my mytho tholog logyy ma mayy be tra trace cedd bac backk to the the“ba “baroq roque ue le lege gend nds” s” iniinitially spread by F.A. Mitchell-Hedges, and then afterwards taken up:

ural History. History.[50]

12.5 12 .5

45

the mythology 1970s, the crystal skulls [had] NewByAge as potent relics of entered ancient Atl Atlanti antis, s, and they they even even acq acquir uired ed a cano canonic nical al number: there were exac exactly tly thirteen skulls. None of this would have anything to do with North American Indian matters, if the skulls had not attracted the attention of some of the most active New Age writers.[57]

Par aran anor orma mall cl clai aims ms an and d spir spiriitual associations

Some believers in the paranormal claim that crystal skulls can produce a variety of miracles. Anna Mitchell-H Mitchell-Hedges edges claimed that the skull she allegedly discovered could cause 12.6 In popula popularr cu cultu lture re visions, cure cancer cure cancer,, that she once used its magical proper- 12.6 ties to kill a man, and that in another instance, she saw in it a premonition of the John the John F. Kennedy assassination. assassination.[51] Main article: article: Crystal  Crystal skulls in popular culture In the 1931 play  The Satin Slipper   by Paul by  Paul Claudel Claudel,, King Philip II of Spain uses “a head from sun,” a single piece of rock crystal,” lit death’s by “a ray of made the setting to see the defeat defeat of his Armada in its attack on England (day 4, scene 4, pp. 243–44).[52] Claims of the healing and supernatural and  supernatural powers  powers of crystal skulls have no support in the scientific community, which has found oundno no evi eviden dence ce of any anyunus unusual ual phe phenom nomena ena assoc associat iated ed withthe with the skul skulls ls nor norany any reas reason on for furthe urtherr inv investi estigati gation, on, othe otherr than the confirmation of their provenance and method of manufacture.[53] Another novel and historically unfounded speculation ties in the legend of the crystal skulls with the completion of the current Maya current Maya calendar b'ak'tun-cycle on December 21, 2012, claiming the re-uniting of the thirteen mystical skulls will fores orestall tall a cata catastro strophe phe alle allegedl gedlyy pred predic icted ted or imp implied lied by phenomenon enon). ). An airairthe theen endi ding ng of this this calen calendar dar (se (seee 2012 phenom ing of this claim appeared (among an assortment of others

•

 Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull 

(2008), the 4th instalment in the Action/Adventure franchise, revolves around a fictional back-story about crystal skulls, specifically mentioning the MitchellHedges skull. •

  Star Stargat gatee SG-1 (sea (season son 3), Epi Episod sodee 21 re revo volv lves es aro around undaa

cry crysta stall skull skullffoun oundd on an ali alien en pla plane net,t, andan associ associate atedd skull that seems to borrow details from the MitchellHedges skull, other than the discoverer. In the show it was reportedly found by Daniel Jackson’s grandfather, Nick Ballard. •

  Amer American ican Dra Dragon gon:: Jake Jake Long, The The fir first st half half of the the secsec-

ond season revolves around finding the 13 Aztec crystal skulls, which hold the power to grant 1 irreversible wish to the person that holds the 13th skull, after the other 12 are placed in the Gargoyles of Pantheon.

 

46

12..7 12

 

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 12. CR CRYST YSTAL AL SKULL SKULL

Note otes

[20] Walsh Walsh (2008). See also the 1936 debate debate on its resemblance resemblance to the British Museum skull, in Digby (1936) and Morant (1936), passim. [1]  “Crystal Skulls -- National Geographic”. Geographic” .   National Geo graphic . Retrieved 1 October 2014. [21] See Garvin (1973, caption to photo photo 25); also Nick Nickell ell (2007, p.67). [2] British Museum (n.d.-b), Jenkins (2004, p.217), Sax et al. (2008), Smith (2005), Walsh (1997; 2008). [22] Nickell (2007, pp.68–69) pp.68–69)

 passim. Behind: The Crystal Skulls”, which which includes [3] latter Aldred(2000, Aldred(2000, ); Jenkins Jenki ns (2004, pp.218–219) pp.218–219). . In this [23] See “The Truth Behind: work,  Philip work, Philip Jenkins Jenkins, , former Distinguished Professor an interview with Dr. Jane Walsh, Smithsonian Institurion, of History and Religious Studies and subsequent endowed “It was sold at auction, at Sotheby’s, to Frederick MitchellProfessor of Humanities at PSU at  PSU,, writes that crystal skulls Hedges, so he didn't get it at Lubaantun, he didn't dig it up.” are among the more obvious of examples where the association with Native spirituality is a “historically recent” and [24] [24] Do Dorla rland, nd, ina in a May 1983 1983 letter letter to Joe Joe Nic Nicke kell, ll, ci cited ted in Nicke Nickellll “artificial” synthesis. synthesis. These are “products of a generation generation of (2007, p.70). creativee spiritual entrepreneurs” that do not "[represent] the creativ [25] See Garvin (1973, pp.75–76), also Hewlett-Pac Hewlett-Packard kard (1971, practice of any historical community”. p.9). The test invol involved ved immersin immersingg the skull in a liquid liquid [4] Holmes Holmes (1886) (1886) (benzyl alcohol) alcohol) with the same diffraction same  diffraction coefficient  coefficient and viewing it under under polarized light  polarized light. . [5] Walsh Walsh (2008) [26] Garvin (1973, pp.75–76); Hewlett-Pack Hewlett-Packard ard (1971, p.9). [6] Craddock (2009, p.415)

[7] British Museums Museums (n.d.-b); Craddock Craddock (2009, p.415).

[27] Hewlett-Packard Hewlett-Packard (1971, p.10).

[8] The specimen at the Musée de l'Homme is half-sized. half-sized.

[28] Garvin (1973, p.84); also cited cited in Nickell Nickell (2007, p.70). letter to Nickell, Nickell, cited in Nickell Nickell [9] See “The mystery mystery of the British British Museum’s crystal skull skull is [29] Hammond, in a May 1983 letter (2007, p.70). See also Hammond’s recounting of his meetsolved. It’s a fake”, fake”, in  The Independent  (Connor  (Connor 2005). See ing with Anna Mitchell-Hedges and the skull in an article als alsoo theMuseum’s theMuseum’s issued issued public publicsta statem tement ent on its its cry crysta stall skull skull written for The Times , in Hammond (2008). (British Museum n.d.-c). [10] See the account given by Smithsonian Smithsonian anthropologist anthropologist Jane [30] Nickell (2007, p.69) Walsh of her joint investigations with British Museum’s ma- [31] See Morant (1936, p.105), and comments in Digby Digby (1936). terials scientist Margaret Sax, which ascertained the crystal See also discussion of the prior ownership in Nickell (2007, skull specimens to be 19th century fakes, in Smith (2005). p.69). See also Walsh (1997). [32] See Mitchell-Hedges Mitchell-Hedges (1954, pp.240–243); also description description [11] Sax et al.  (2008) of same in the chapter “Riddle of the Crystal Skulls”, in Nickell (2007, pp.67–73). [12] Carborundu Carborundum m occurs occurs naturally naturally only in minute amounts in the extremely rare mineral moissanite mineral  moissanite,, first identified in a meteorite in  in 1893. See summary of the discovery and his- [33] p.67). meteorite Mitchell Mitchell-Hedg -Hedges’ es’ quote, quote, as reproduce reproducedd in Nickell Nickell (2007, tory of silicon carbide in Kelly (n.d.) Garvin (1973, p.93) [13] See reportage of the study in Rincon (2008), and the the study [34] Garvin itself in Sax et al.  (2008). [35] Hammond Hammond (2008) (2008)  Teotihuacan;; see Taube (1992). [14] Such as at at Teotihuacan [15] See for for example example Olivier (2003).

[36] Stelzer, Stelzer, C.D. (2008-06-12). (2008-06-12).  “The kingdom of the crystal skull”.. Illinois Times. Retrieved 2009-02-08. skull”

[16] Smith, Michael Michael E. (May (May 19, 2008). “Aztec 2008). “Aztec Crystal Skulls”. Skulls”. [37] Walsh, Jane MacLaren (May 27, 2010).   “The Skull of Doom:Under the Microscope”. Microscope”.   Archaeology Magazine. ArPublishing Archaeology Blog. chaeological chaeologi cal Institute of America. Retrieved Feb February ruary 17, 2013. display”..   San [17]  “Smithsonian puts its fake- crystal skull- on display” Francisco Chronicle  (Ju  (July ly 18). 18). 2008. Retrieved Retrieved 2008-092008-09[38]  The Truth Behind the Crystal Skulls  (Documentary).   Na21. tio tional nal Geograph Geographic ic Ch Chann annel: el: The Truth Beh Behind  ind . 2013. National Geographic Channel. Channel. [18]   Artworld University University of East Anglia collections [19]   “Crystal Skull of Labaantun Labaantun (1990)". (1990)".  The New York Times . [39]   “The Truth Behind The Crystal Crystal Skulls, page 1”. 1”. Retrieved R etrieved 8 Retrieved 2008-07-20. November Novem ber 2013.

 

 

12.8. REFERENCES  REFERENCES 

Attention from from the [40]  “A Great Labor Problem. It Receives Attention Scientist Scie ntists. s. They Theydev devote ote atte attentio ntion, n, too, to a beaut beautif iful ul adze adzeand and a mysterious crystal skull” (PDF). skull” (PDF).  New York Times  (August  (August 13). 1887. Retrieved 2008-07-17. [41] British Museum (n.d.-a, n.d.-b) [42] Digby (1936) [43] British Museum (n.d.-a) (n.d.-a) [44] British Museum (n.d.-c). See also articles articles on the the investigainvestigations which established it to be a fake, in Connor (2005), Jury (2005), Smith (2005), and Walsh (1997, 2008). [45] Rincon (2008), Sax et al.  (2008) “Ch.. XIV XIV:: [46] Kunz (1890, pp.285–286), pp.285–286), see descripti description on in  in   “Ch Mexico & Central America” [47] Quote reported reported by Agence France-Presse France-Presse,, see Rosemberg Rosemberg (2008). [48] (2008). Quote reported report ed by Agence France-Presse France-Presse,, see Rosemberg Rosemberg See also Walsh (2008). [49] Calligaro Calligaro et al.  (2009,  abstract ) [50] Edwards, Owen (May 30, 2008). “The 2008).  “The Smithsonian’s Crystal Skull”. Skull”. Smithsonian Museum. Retrieved 24 April 2012. [51] Vario Various us authors. authors. “The Crystal Crystal Skulls” Skulls”  Skeptic    Skeptic   magazine. Vol. 14, No. 2. 2008. Page 89. [52] Claudel, Claudel, Paul.  The Satin Slipper.   Trans. John O'Connor O'Connor and Paul Paul Claudel. Claudel. London: London: Sheed & Ward, Ward, 1931. 1931. OrigiOriginallyy publishe nall publishedd as Le Sou Soulie lierr de Satin Satin (Paris: Nouvelle Nouvelle Revue Française). [53] 2008). See Nickell (2007, pp.67–73); Smith (2005); Walsh Walsh (1997; [54] John Schriber (Executive (Executive Producer). Kevin Huffman, Huffman, Erin McGarry, Andrew Rothstein and Andrea Skipper (Producers). Jayme Roy Roy (Director of of Photography). Photography).   Lester Holt (Presenter) (May 2008).  The Mystery of the Crystal Skulls  (tel (televis evision ion program) program).. New York York::   Peacock Productions (NBC),, in association with the Sci (NBC) the  Sci Fi Channel Channel.. Retrieved Retrieved 2008-06-06. [55] Serpent of Light - Beyond 2012, ISBN 2012, ISBN 1-57863-401-6 [56] See discussion of the various claims claims put forward forward by Sams, Kenneth Meadows, Harley Swift Deer Reagan and others concerningcrystal conc erningcrystalskull skulls, s, extraterrestrials extraterrestrials,, andNative andNative AmerAmerican lore, in Jenkins (2004, pp.215–218). [57] Quotation from from Jenkins (2004, pp.217–218).

12.8 12. 8

47

Re Refferen erence cess Al Aldr dred ed,, Lisa Lisa (S (Sum umme merr 20 2000 00). ). “Pla “Plast stic ic Sham Shaman anss an andd Astr Astrot otur urff Sun Dance Dances: s: Ne New w Age Age Comm Commerercial cializ izat atio ionn of Na Nati tivve Am Amer eric ican an Spirituality”.   Am Ameri erican can Indi Indian an Quarterly.

Linc Lincol n:  (3): University of Nebraska Press. Press .  oln: 24   (3): 329–3 329–352. 52. doi doi::10.1353/aiq.2000.0001 10.1353/aiq.2000.0001..   ISSN 0095-182X..   JSTO 0095-182X JSTOR R 11 1185 8590 9088. 184746956.. OCLC 184746956 Bri Britis tishh Muse Museum um (n.d.– (n.d.–a). a).   “Rock crystal skull”. skull”.   Explore: Explore: Highlights  Highlights . Museum.. ReTrustees of the British the British Museum trieved 2008-04-22. Check date values in: |date= (help (help)) British Museum (n.d.–b).  “Study of two large crystal skulls in the collections of the British Museum and the Smithsonian Smithso nian Instituti Institution” on”..   Explore:  Articles  . Trustees2008-04-22. of the British the British Museum.. Retrieved seum Check

date values in: |date= (help (help)) Britishh Museum (n.d.–c). Britis (n.d.–c). “The  “The crystal skull”. skull”.   News and press releases:  releases:  Statements . Tr Trus uste tees es ooff th thee  British Museum.. Retr Museum Retrie ieve vedd 20 2008 08-0 -044-14 14.. help)) Check date values values in: |date= ((help Calligaro, Thomas; Yvan Coquinot; Ina Reiche; Jacques Castaing; Joseph Sa Salo lomo mon; n; Ge Gerar rardd Fe Ferra rrand nd;; Yves Yves Le Fur Fur (Mar (Marcch 200 2009) 9).. “Dat “Datiing stud studyy of two two ro rock ck cr crys ysta tall carv carv-ings by surface microtopography and by io ionn beam beam an anal alys yses es of hydr hydrooApplied ied Physics Physics A: Mat Materierigen”.   Appl als Scien Science ce & Proc Processin essingg. Berl rliin: Verlag lag..   94   (4 (4): ): 87 871– 1– Springer Ver 878.   doi 878. doi::10.1007/s00339-008-50189.   ISSN 09470947-8396 8396..   OCLC 311109270.. 311109270 Connor, Steve (2005-01-07).   “The myster my steryy of the Bri Britis tishh Muse Museum’s um’scrys crys-tal skull skull is solved. solved. It’s a fake” fake”..   The Independent . Lo Lond ndon on::   Independent News & Media. Media. Retrieved 2008-0413. Craddoc Crad dock, k, Pau Paull (200 (2009). 9).   Scientific  Invest Investiga igation tion of Copies, Copies, Fakes Fakes and  Forgeries . Oxf Oxford, ord, UK and Bur Burlingling-

to ton, n, MA MA::   Butterworth-Heinemann Butterworth-Heinemann.. ISBN 978-0-7506-4205-7 978-0-7506-4205-7..   OCLC

 

48

 

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 12. CR CRYST YSTAL AL SKULL SKULL

127107601. 127107601. Digby, Dig by, Adri Adrian an (Jul (Julyy 1936). “Com “Com-ments men ts on the Morph Morpholo ologica gicall Comp Compararison of Two Crystal Skulls”.   Man. London:   Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. Ireland. 36: 107–1 107–109. 09.   doi doi::10.2307/2789342 10.2307/2789342..

Press.  ISBN 0-19-516115-7 Press. 0-19-516115-7..  OCLC 54074085.. 54074085 Jury, Loui Louise se (2005 (2005-05-2 -05-24). 4).   “Art market scandal: British Museum expert highlights growing problem of fake antiquities”. antiquities”.   The Independent . London:   Independent News & Me-

0025-1496. 2789342. ISSN 42646610... JSTOR 2789342. OCLC0025-1496 42646610 Garvin, Richard (1973).  The Crystal 

dia.lly, dia . Retrie Retrieved 2008-04-13. Kelly, Ke Jimved(n.d.).   “A brief brief hishistory of SiC”. SiC”. Ind Indust ustri rial al Ma Mater teria ials ls Group,   University College London. London. Retrieved 2008-05-23. Kunz, z, Geo George rge Fre Frede deric rickk   (1890). Kun

Skull: The Story of the Mystery, Myth and Magic Magic of the Mitche Mitchellll-He Hedg dges  es  Cryst Cry stal al Sk Skull ull Disco Discover vered ed in a Lost  Lost  Mayan City During a Search for Atlantis . New York: Doubleday York:  Doubleday..  ISBN

0-385-09456-6.  OCLC 553587 0-385-09456-6. 553587.. Hammond, ond, Norm Norman an   (2008-04-28). Hamm “Secrets of the crystal skulls are lost in the mists of forgery”. forgery” .   The Times . London:   News International. International. Retrieved 2008-08-24.

Gems and precious stones of North Amer Am eric ica: a: A po popu pula larr de desc scri ript ptio ionn of their occu occurren rrence, ce, valu value, e, histo history, ry, archæology, and of the collections in which wh ich they exist, exist, als alsoo a cha chapte pterr on  pearls, and on remarkab remarkable le for foreign eign  gems owned in the United States. Illustr Ill ustrated ated with eight color colored ed plat plates  es  andd num an numer erous ous min minor or eng engra ravin vings  gs .

Hewlet Hewlett-Pack t-Packard ard 1971). (magazin (magazine e editorial staff) (February   “History or hokum? hok um? San Santa ta Clara’s Clara’s crysta crystals ls lab helps tackle the case of the hardheaded Honduran..” ( Honduran..” (PDF PDF online  online facsimile at HParchive).   Measure (staff  magazine). Palo Palo Alt Alto, o, CA: CA: Hewlett HewlettPackard:: 8–10. Retri Packard Retriev eved ed 200 2008-048-0411. Hidalgo, Pablo Pablo (2008-04-07).  (2008-04-07).   “The Lost Chro Chronic nicles les of Yo Young ung Indi Indiana ana Jones”.. Star Jones” StarW War ars.c s.com om.. Arch Archiived ved  the original original on  on 2008-04-11. Refrom the from trieved 2008-05-03. Holm Holmes, es, Will William iam H.  (1886-02-19). “The “The trad tradee in spur spurio ious us Me Mexi xica cann antiquities”.   Science , new series . Cambridge, MA: The Science Company, and Moses King.   ns–7 (159S): 170–172.   doi doi::10.1126/science.ns7.159S.170..   ISS 7.159S.170 ISSN N 00360036-807 80755. OC OCLC LC 21 2137 3776 7646 4644.   PMID 17787662.. 17787662 Hru Hruby, Za Zacchar aryy (Ma Mayy 20 2008 08)). “Critical Notes on “Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull"". Skull"" . Mesoweb Reports & News . Mesoweb. Retrieved 2008-06-01. CatchJenki Jenkins, ns, Phi Philip lip (2004). Dream Catch-

New York: The Scientific Publishing  OCLC 3257032 3257032.. Company. OCLC Company. McCoy, Max (1995).  Indiana Jones  and the Phil Philosoph osopher’s er’s Ston Stonee. New York: Bantam York:  Bantam Books Books..  ISBN 978-0553-56196-8..  OCLC 32417516 553-56196-8 32417516.. McCoy, Max (1996).  Indiana Jones  and the Dinosaur Eggs . Ne New wY York ork:: Books..   ISBN 978-0-553Bantam Books 56193-7..  OCLC 34306261. 56193-7 34306261. McCoy, Max (1997).  Indiana Jones  and the Hollow Earth. New New Y Yor ork: k: Bantam Books Books..   ISBN 978-0-55356195-1..  OCLC 36380785. 56195-1 36380785. McCoy, Max (1999).  Indiana Jones  and the Secret of the Sphinx . New York: Bantam York:  Bantam Books Books..  ISBN 978-0553-56197-5..  OCLC 40775168 553-56197-5 40775168.. Mitchell-Hedges, Mitchell-Hedge s, F.A. F.A. (1954).  (1954).   Dan ger My Ally Ally. Lon Londo don: n: Ele Elekk Book Books. s. 2117472.. OCLC 2117472 Morant, G.M. (July 1936). “A Morphological Comparison of Two Crystal Skulls”.   Man. Lo Lond ndon on::   Royal Anthropo Anth ropologi logical cal Inst Institut itutee of Grea Greatt Britain and Ireland. Ireland.   36: 105 105–10 –107. 7. doi::10.2307/2789341 10.2307/2789341..   ISSN 0025doi 1496..   JSTO 1496 JSTOR R 2789341 2789341..   OCLC

ers: Ho How w Mainstr Mainstream eam America Discovered Native Spirituality. Ox Oxfford ord

42646610. 42646610. Nickell, Joe (2007). Joe  (2007).   Adventures in Paranormal Para normal Investigation Investigation. Lex Lexing ng--

and New York:   Oxford University

 

 

12.9. EXTERNAL EXTERNAL LINKS  LINKS 

ton:   University Press of Kentucky. Kentucky. ISBN 978-0-8131-2467-4 978-0-8131-2467-4..   OCLC 137305722.. 137305722 Olivier, Guilhem (2003).   Mockeries 

(eds.).   Exhibiting Exhibiting Dilemma Dilemmas: s: Issues  Issues  of Representation at the Smithsonian. Washington, DC: Smithsonian DC:  Smithsonian Institution Press. Press.   ISBN 1-56098-690-5. 1-56098-690-5. 34598037.. OCLC 34598037 Wal alsh sh,, Ja Jane ne Ma MacL cLar aren en   (Spring 2005). “What 2005).  “What is Real? A New Look

and Metamorphoses of an Aztec God:  Tez ezcat catlip lipoca oca,, “Lord “Lord of the SmokSmoking Mirror” . Michel Michel B Besso essonn (trans (trans.).) Moqueries et méta(Translation of:   dieu morphoses morph oses d'un aztèque aztèque   (Paris : Insti Institut tut d'e d'ethn thnolo ologi gie, e, Mus Musée ée de l'h l'hom omme, me, ©1997) ©1997) ed.). ed.). Bou Bould lder: er: University Colorado..   ISBN University Press of Colorado 0-87081-745-0..  OCLC 52334747 0-87081-745-0 52334747.. Rincon, Paul (2008-05-22). “Crystal (2008-05-22).  “Crystal skulls skul ls 'are mode modern rn fak akes’" es’"..   Science/Nature .  BBC News online online.. Retrieved 2008-05-22. Rosember Rosem berg, g, Clai Claire re (200 (2008-048-04-18). 18). “Skul “Skulldu lduggery ggery,, Indi Indiana ana Jones? Jones? Museum says crystal skull not Aztec”. Aztec”. AFP . Retrieved 2008-04-22.

Sax, Margaret; Janerew M. Walsh; Ian C. Fre Frees eston tone; e; And Andre w H. Ran Ranki kin; n; Ni Nige gell D. Mee Meeks ks (Oc (Octob tober er 200 2008). 8). “The “The orig origin in of two two pu purp rpor orte tedl dlyy pre-C pre -Colu olumb mbia iann Me Mexi xican can cry crysta stall Journall of Archaeolog Archaeolog-skulls”.   Journa ical ical Scienc Sciencee. London:   Elsevier Science..   35   (10 Science (10): ): 275 2751–2 1–2760 760.. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2008.05.007 doi: 10.1016/j.jas.2008.05.007.. ISSN 1095-9238. 1095-9238.  OCLC 36982975 36982975.. Smith, Donald (2005). “With (2005).  “With a hightech mic microsc roscope, ope, sci scienti entist st exp exposes oses hoax of 'ancient' crystal skulls”. skulls” .   Inside Smithsonian Research. WashingInstitution Of Ofton, DC: Smithsonian DC: Smithsonian Institution   9 fice of Public Affairs.  (Summer). 52905641.. Retri Retriev eved ed 20 200808OCLC 52905641 04-14. A. (1992). “The ico Taube, Karl A. (1992). iconognography of mirrors at Teotihuacan”. In Janet Catherine Berlo (ed.).  Art, Ideology, and the City of Teotihuacan: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 8th and 9th October 1988 . Wa Washi shington ngton

DC:  Dumbarton Oaks Research LiDC: Dumbarton brary and Collection. Collection. pp. 169– 204.   ISBN 0-88402-205-6 0-88402-205-6..   OCLC 25547129.. 25547129 Wal alsh sh,, Ja Jane ne Ma MacL cLar aren en   (1997). “Crystal skulls and other problems: or, “don't look it in the eye"". In Amy Henderson and Adrienne and Adrienne L. Kaeppler

49

at PreColumbian Mesoamerican Collections”   (PDF   online public publication). ation). Anthr AnthroN oNote otes: s: Mu Museu seum m of Natur Natural  al  History Hist ory Publicatio Publicationn for Educator Educators  s .

Washi ashington ngton,, DC:   Smith Smithsoni sonian an Institution   and the   National Museum of Nat Natura urall Hi Histo story ry   Anthropology Outreach Office.  26  (1): 1–7, 17–19. 1548-6680..  OCLC 8029636 8029636.. ISSN 1548-6680 Walsh alsh,, Jane MacL MacLaren aren (May–June  (May–June “Legen gendd of th thee Crystal Crystal 2008).   “Le Skulls”..   Archaeology. New Skulls” New Y Yor ork: k: Archaeol Archaeological ogical Institute of Americ Americaa. 0003-8113.. 61   (3): (3): 36– 36–41. 41.   ISSN 0003-8113 OCLC OCLC14818 1481828 28.. Retrieved Retrieved2008-042008-0416.

12.9 12. 9 •

Ex Exte terna rnall links links

 Real Science  monograph  monograph on  on exami examinations nations of both the

BM & BH skulls •

•

•

•

•

•

  skepdic.com: skepdic.com: crystalskull  Mitchell-Hedges Official website Biography website  Biography of Anna Mitchell-Hedges and account of the discovery of the skull.   TheMagicofCrystalSkulls-Legendofthe13-10:10 Event – Event  – roundtable discussion about crystal skulls in connection with the October 9–10, 2010 Crystal Skull Events in New York City.  The Crystal Skull of Doom   Crit Critica icall look at the Mitchell Mitch ell Hedges Skull and other crystal skulls.   Ancien Ancientt Mexico, Hollywood and the French Connection  “The Crystal Skull: Mystical, or Modern?" A Modern?"  A skeptical look at the mystical claims for the various crystal skulls, and a fact-based look at their true histories.

 

Chapter 13

Dendera light if the djed were a backbone. The arms hold up the snake within the lotus flower. The snakes comi coming ng from the lotus symbolize fertility, linked to the annual Nile annual Nile flood.  flood.[2] 13.1.2 13. 1.2

The “Dendera light”, showing the single representation on the left  wall of the right wing in one of the crypts 

The Dendera light is a supposed ancient Egyptian electrical lighting technology depicted on three stone reliefs (one temple at  at single and a double representation) in the Hathor the  Hathor temple the Dendera the Dendera Temple complex complex located  located in Egypt in Egypt.. The sculpture became notable among fringe historians because of the resemblance of the motifs to some modern electrical lighting systems. Mainstream Egyptologists Egyptologists take the view that it is a typical set of symbolic images from Egyptian mythology.

13.1 13. 1 13.1.1 13. 1.1

In Inte terpr rpret etat atio ion n Mains Mainstr tream eam view view

Fringe Fringe vie view w

In contr contrast astto to themain themainstr streaminte eaminterpr rpreta etatition, on,the there re is a fringe hypothesis according hypothesis  according to which the reliefs depict Ancient Egyptian electrical technology, based on comparison to similar modern devices (such as Geissler as  Geissler tubes, tubes,  Crookes [3][4] tubes,, and arc tubes and  arc lamps lamps).). J. N. Lockyer's Lockyer's passing reference to a colleague’s humorous suggestion that electric lamps would explain the absence of lampblack deposits in the tombs has sometimes been forwarded as an argument supporting this particular interpretati interpretation on (another argument being made is the use of a system of reflectiv reflectivee mirrors).[5] Proponents of this interpretation have also used a text referring to “high poles covered with copper plates” to argue this[6] but Dr. Bolko Stern has written in detail explaining why the copper covered tops of poles (which were lower than the associated pylons) do not relate to electricity or lightning, pointing out that no evidence of anything used to manipulate electricity had been found in Egypt and that this was a magical and not a technical installation. installation.[7]

13.2 13 .2

See See al also so

•

  Anachronism

•

 Egyptian mythology

•

  Pseudoarcheology

  OOPart The The vie view of Egyptologists isthatthereliefisa mythological depiction of a  djed  djed pillar  pillar and a lotus a  lotus   flower, spawning a snake within, representing aspects of Egyptian of  Egyptian mythology..[1][2] The Djed pillar is a symbol of stability which is 13.3 ogy 13.3 Re Refferen erence cess also interpreted as the backbone of the god Osiris. In the carvings the four horizontal lines forming the capital of the [1] Wolfgang Wolfgang Waitkus,  Die Texte in den unteren Krypten des  Hathortem Hathortempels pels von Dend Dendera: era: ihre Aussa Aussagen gen zur Funk Funktion tion und  djed are supplemented by human arms stretching out, as •

50

 

13.4. EXTERNAL EXTERNAL LINKS  LINKS  Bedeutung dieser Räume, Mainz 1997 ISBN 1997  ISBN 3-8053-23220 (tr.,  The texts in the lower crypts of the Hathor temples of  Dendera: their statements for the fun function ction and meaning of  these areas )

". iafrica.com. [2] "Dendera Temple Crypt ". [3] Childress, Childress, D. H. (2000). (2000). Technol Technology ogy of the the gods: the incredible of the 0932813739 ancients. Kempton, Ill: Adventures Unlimitedsciences Press.  ISBN Press. ISBN [4]   Electri Electricity cityin in anci ancient ent time timess. WUFOC and NÄRKONT NÄRKONTAKT. AKT. [5]  Lockyer, J. Norman (1998) Norman  (1998) [1894].  The Dawn of Astronomy. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 180–1. ISBN 180–1.  ISBN 1564591123 1564591123.. [6] Bruno Kolbe, Kolbe, Francis ed Legge, Joseph Skellon, Skellon, tr., " An Introduction to Electricity". Kegan Kegan Paul, Trench, Trench, Trübner, Trübner, 1908. 429 pages. Page 391. (cf., "[...]  high poles covered  with copper plates and with gilded tops were erected 'to break  thestoness com thestone comingfromon ingfromon high'. high'.  J. Dümichen, Baugeschichte Baugeschichte

des Dendera-Tempels, Strassburg, 1877”) [7] Stern, Stern, Bolko Bolko (1998) [1896].   Ägyptische Kulturgeschichte. Reprin Rep rint-V t-Verl erlagag-Le Leipz ipzig ig.. pp. 106–10 106–108. 8.   ISB ISBN N 9789783826219085.. 3826219085

13.4 13. 4 •

•

Ex Exte terna rnall lin links ks

 The Dendera Reliefs Reliefs,, Catchpenny Mysteries. 2004 04..  Frank Dörnenburg, Electric Dörnenburg,  Electric lights in Egypt?. Egypt?. 20 (ed.. An ana (ed analy lysi siss of ho how w theEgypt theEgyptia ians ns didn' didn'tt ha have ve elecelectricity).

 

51

 

Chapter 14

Dorchester Pot The Dorchester Pot was a metal vase-like object that was recovered in two pieces after an explosion used to break up Hill,, in Dorchester in  Dorchester,, Massachuset Massachusetts ts rock at Meeting at Meeting House Hill in 1852. According to text reprinted from the  Boston Transcript , a local paper, in the June 5, 1852  Scientific American,[1] the two pieces were found, loose among debris thrown out by the explosion. explosion. Apparentl Apparently, y, it was inferred from from the locations of the two piece piecess of this pot among the explosion debris that this pot had been blasted from solid

 zinc alloyed  alloyed with body of this obj object ect was said to resemble resemble zinc silver silver in  in color. It reportedly exhibited floral designs on its side side and andaa wre wreath athor or vine vine de desi sign gn aro around undititss lo lowe werr par part,t, whi which ch [1] [1] were both inlaid with silver. The primary source of information about this object, provides neither any picture of nor age estimate for the Dorchester Pot.

14.3 14. 3

Fri Fring ngee th theo eori ries es

puddingstone ( ), which is part of the  Roxbury puddingstone  (conglomerate Conglomerate, Conglomerate ,conglomerate), from about 15 feet below thethe Roxbury surface of Meeting House Hill. The story has been used by creationists and fringe theorists as evidence that conventional models of geology or the length of the human presence on earth are wrong. Mainstrea Mainstream m commentators ide identif ntifyy it as a Victorian era candlestick or pipe holder.

The Dorchester Pot is often discussed as an  Out-of-place artifact by artifact  by various popular books and articles about unsolved mysteries, alternative science, and different types of creationism.. As part of a short description, an image purcreationism porting to be of the Dorchester Pot appears on page 46 of the 1985 Reader’s Digest Association book Mysteries of the Unexplained .[7] They They do no nott pr prov ovid idee an anyy esti estima mate te of the the ag agee of the Dorchester Pot. The source that they credit for their 14.1 Geol Geologi ogical cal con contex textt Steiger's's  Worlds  photograph of the Dorchester Pot is Brad is Brad Steiger [8] Before Our Own. The Roxbury Conglomerate, from which this pot is althe  Falun Gong Gong website  website leged to have come, has been dated as having accumu- The photograph is also used in the Falun lated between 570 and 593 million years ago and during “PureInsight”, which provides without[9]any explanation an the Ediacaran the  Ediacaran Period.  Period.[2][3] It accumulated at the bottom well-known Michael Cremo, a Cremo, age of 100,000 years for this artifact. artif act. that Hindu creationist, claims the Dorchester of a deep rift basin, which was filled with marine water, Pot is evidence for the “presence of artistic metal workwithin submarine fan and slope environments.[3][4][5] Metaers in North America over 600 million years ago.”[10] Some morphism morphis m has signifi significantly cantly altered the Roxbury Conglom- Young Earth creationists regard the Dorchester Pot as haverate to sub-greenschist sub-greenschist facies  facies and created within it a well- ing been manuf manufactured actured by an ancient civi civilizatio lizationn that predeveloped and closely spaced slaty spaced slaty cleavage cleavage that  that is oriented dated the Noachian Flood. approximatel approxi matelyy perpendic perpendicular ular to bedding. Tecton Tectonism ism has alsoflatt also flattene ened, d, stre stretch tched, ed, indente indented, d, and fract ractured ured the peb pebble bless and associated matrix of the Roxbury Conglomerate to the 14.4 4 Ma Main inst stre ream am view viewss point that it often has the appearance of flow structure. [5][6] 14.

14..2 14

The po pott

Mainstream archaeologists argue that the Dorchester Pot is neither Ediacaran in age nor even from an ancient, lost civilization. ilizati on. They iden identif tifyy it as being a recognizable historic

The bell-shaped vessel was described as being about 4.5 artifact. Archaeol aeologis ogists ts Kei Keith th Fitz Fitzpatri patrick-M ck-Matth atthews ews and Jame Jamess inchess (11.5 cm) high, 6.5 inches (16.5 cm) in diameter at Arch inche the base and 2.5 inches (6.4 cm) in diameter at the top. The Doeser, whose website  Bad Archaeology  examines fringe

52

 

14.4. MAINSTREAM MAINSTREAM VIEWS  VIEWS 

 

53

A photograph said to depict the Dorchester Pot.

Scientificc Ameri Scientifi American can article article[1] aboutDorcheste aboutDorchesterr pot. Notethe tongue tongue-in-cheek reference to " Tubal Tubal Cain", Cain", who was said to be the first  blacksmith (Genesis 4:19-24)

archaeology, state that “it is difficult to understand why anyone might take this report seriously” and also identifies the object object as “clearl “clearlyy a candlesti candlestick ck of obvi obviously ously Victorian 19th-century pipe holder from India, Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sanstyle... why would anyone in 1852 believe that it was more  grahalaya than a few years old?"[11] Writing in 1964,[12] the Italian   debunker   Biagio Catalano argues that the “vase” is actually almost identical, as in both shape and decorations, to an Indian pipe-holder of Mumbai.. stored at Chhatrapati at  Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya of Mumbai

 

54

 

14.5 14. 5

Re Refferen erence cess

[1] Anonymo Anonymous, us, 1852,  A Relic of a By-Gone Age.   Scientific American.. v. 7, no. 38, p. American 38, p. 298 298 (June  (June 5, 1852)

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 14. DORCH DORCHESTER ESTER POT 

14.6 14 .6

•

[2] Thompson, M.D., A.M. Grunow, and J. Ramezum, Ramezum, 2007, Late Neop Neoprote roteroz rozoic oic paleogeogra paleogeography phy of the Southe Southeastern astern New England Engla nd Av Avalon alon Zone: Insigh Insights ts from frSociety om U-Pb geochr onology and paleomagnetism.  Geological of geochronolog America Bul-y

letin. 119(5/6):681-696. [3] Rehmer, J., 1981,   Squantum tilloid Member of the Roxbury Conglomerate of Boston, Massachusetts.  in M.J. Hambre breyy and W.B. Harland, Harland, eds, pp. 756-759, 756-759, Earth’s PrePleistocene Glacial Glacial Record. Cambridge University University Press, Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom.  Stratigr atigraphic aphic implic implication ationss of fa facies cies within [4] Socci, A.D., 1990, Str the Boston Basin.  in A.D. Socci, J.W. Skehan, and G.W. Smith, eds, pp. 55-74, Geology of the Composite Avalon Avalon Terrane of Southern New England. Special Paper no. 245. Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado C olorado

[5] Member Carto, S.L., and N. Eyles Eyles (2011) Chapter 43 The Squantum of the Boston Basin, Massachusetts, USA In: E. Arnaud, G.P. Halverson, and G. Shields-Zhou, eds. pp. 475480, The Geological Record of Neoproterozoic Glaciations. Glaciations. Memoirs no. 36. Geological Society, Society, London, England. [6] Mansfield, G. R., 1906, The Origin and Structure of the Roxbury Conglomerate.  Bullet Bulletin in of the theMuse Museum um of Compar Comparati ative ve Zoology at Harvard College. no. XLIX, p. 180 [7] Marsh Marshall all,, W., M. Dv Dvais ais,, V. Mollma Mollman, n, andG. Zapple Zapplerr (1985) (1985) Mysteries Myst eries of the Unex Unexplaine plained. d.   Pleasantville, New York, York, Reader’s Read er’s Digest Digest Associatio Association, n, Inc. 320 pp.   ISBN 978-089577-146-9 [8] Steiger, B. (1979)   Worlds Before Our Own.   New York, New York, York, Berkley Publishing Group. Group. 236 p.  ISBN 9781-933665-19-1 [9] PureInsig PureInsight, ht, 2006.   Zheng Zhengjian jian Book Series: Series: “Rem “Removin ovingg the Veil from Prehistoric Civilizations” -- Chapter 3: Prehistoric  Smelting Technologies and Mining Activities  Translated  Translated from

(): [10] Cremo, Cremo, M.A., and R.L. Thompson Thompson (1998) Forbidden Archeology: The Hidden History of the Human Race. Badger, Califo ifornia, rnia, Bhaktivedanta Book Publishing. 914 p. ISBN p.  ISBN 9780-89213-294-2 [11] Keith Fitzpatrick-Matthews Fitzpatrick-Matthews (19 August 2007).   “Metallic vase from Dorchester, Massachusetts”. Massachusetts”.   Bad Archaeology. Retrieved 16 December 2016. [12] Catalano, Catalano, B. ((1964) 1964) Arte Indiana Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, K. Bharatha Iyer, Italy, fig 81, 142 p.

•

Othe Otherr Dorc Dorche hest ster er Pot Re Reffererences

 Fort, Charles H. (1919) H.  (1919)   The Book of the Damned . New York, New York, Boni and Liveright 228 p. ISBN 1-58509-278-9   Mentioned on page 128 of Chapter IX and  The Book of the Damned by Charles IX and The Fort   St Rain, Tedd, Tedd, 2003.  Mystery Of America: Enigmatic  Mysteries And Anomalous Artifacts Of North America - A Connection To To The Ancient Past . Lost Arts Media.

PDF (17.6 mb) ISBN 1-59016-999-9 PDF (17.6 mb) ISBN

 

Chapter 15

Eiserner Mann

Iron Man surroundings.

Der Eiserne Mann (The Iron Man) is an old iron old iron pillar  pillar par-

 national forest of tially buried in the ground in the German the  German national Kottenforst-Ville Nature Park Park,, about two kilome kilometers ters northeast of the village Dünstekoven. Dünstekoven. It is a roughly rectangular metal met al bar with abou aboutt 1.47 m abo above ve ground and appr approxioximatel mately y 2.7 mofbelow Thebuilt pillarin isthecurrently locate located at a meeting trails ground. which were early 18th cen-d tury through the formerly pathless forest forest area, but it is be- Iron Man closeup. lieved to have stood in another nearby location before that time. 15.1 Sign 15.1 Sign cont conten entt The pillar is a unique oddity in Central in  Central Europe, Europe, and is alleged to be an out-of-place an  out-of-place artifact artifact.. It was first mentioned in a 17th-century document, where it was used as a vil- The pillar is marked with a sign reading, in translation:  boundary marker marker.. The There re are some ol oldd aqued aqueducts ucts in lage boundary lage The Iron Man is a piece of a poured pig the vicinity along with an ancient stone walkway. iron ingot. It is approximately 2.18 meters long A metallur metallurgical gical investi investigation gation in the 1970s showed that the and about 1 meter of its T-shaped end is in the pillar is made of pig of  pig iron iron.. It was pou poured red int intoo an earth earthen en ground. This was appar apparently ently int intended ended as an attrench, tren ch, cons consiste istent nt with withmedi mediev eval al met methods hods of iron ironwor working. king.[1] tachment tachme nt point for transport and processing and has until now, as an anchoring point, prevented After the long exposure to the weather, the iron man shows any attempt at removing removing the ingot by fforce. orce. Its signs of weathering but there is remarkably little trace of porous surface and the uneven cross-section over rust. It is located at 50.70757° N by 6.96105° E at an eleits whole length are caused by the sandbed pourvation of approximately 159 m.

55

 

56

 

ing technique. The technique and the form point to a date of manufacture in the late Middle Ages. Origin and original purpose of the Iron Man have not been explained explained satisf satisfactoril actorily. y. It has always ways bee beenn surrou surround nded ed by num numero erous us tal tales es and leglegends as well as pertinent and also obscure speculation. It was first mentioned in a document in 1625 as part of thealong bordertheline between Alfter and Heimerzheim Roman aqueduct. According to a later source, it still fulfilled this funct function ion in 1717. Its form former er posit position ion can not be located accurately any more. It was not until 1727, 172 7, und under er Princ Princee Ele Elect ctor or Cl Clem emen enss tha thatt the Iron Iron Man was placed in its present position. It served as a marker of the main planning line while expanding the system of paths for hunting between Augustsburg Palace in Brühl and Herzogsfreude Palace in Röttgen. Today it is a popular meeting point among hikers. — He Heim imatat- und Vers ersch chöne önerun rungs gsve vere rein in Busc Buschh hhov oven en ee.. V. Qu Quel elle le:: K. Gr Greewe, we, De Derr Eiserne Mann im Kottenforst, Cologne, 1978

15.2 15. 2

Re Refferen erence cess

[1] Grewe, Klaus.  Der Eiserne Mann im Kottenforst . Rheinlandverlag, Cologne, 1978.

Coordinates: 50°42′ 42′27″ 27″N N 6°5 6°57′3 7′39″E 9″E / 50. 50.707 70750° 50°N N Coordinates :   50° 6.96083°E

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 15. EISE EISERNER RNER MANN 

 

Chapter 16

Eltanin Antenna 16.1 16 .1

Hist Histor ory y

The 1,850 ton dis displac placeme ement nt Eltanin was ori origina ginally lly launche launchedd in 1957, and served with the US Navy as a cargo-carrying ice icebrea breake ker. r. In 1962 she was reclass reclassifi ified ed as an Ocean Oceanoographic Research Ship and became the world’s first dedicated Antarctic research vessel, a role which she filled until 1975. On August 1964, the while engaged in taking sample and29 photographing seabed west of Cape Horn,cores the Eltanin took the photograph reproduced in this article, at positionn 59:07'S 105:03'W, in a depth of 3,904 metres. positio Thefirs The firstt publi publicc me menti ntion on of the unu unusu sual al sub subject ject of the the photo photo-graph was a news item which appeared in the  New Zealand  Herald  on   on 5 December 1964, under the heading “Puzzle Picture From Sea Bed”. In 1968, author Brad author Brad Steiger wrote Steiger wrote an article for Saga magazine, in which he claimed that the Eltanin had in fact photographed “an astonishing piece of machinery... very much like the cross between a TV antenna and a telemetry antenna”. USNS  Eltanin  Eltanin photo (1964)

The   “Eltanin Antenna”  is an object photographed on the sea the sea floor floor by  by the Antarctic the  Antarctic oceanographic  oceanographic research ship USNS Eltanin in 1964, while photographi photographing ng the sea bottom Horn.. west of Cape of Cape Horn Due to its regular antenna regular antenna-like -like structure and upright position on on the seafloor at a depth ooff 3,904 met metres, res, some proponents of fringe and UFO-related theories including Bruce including  Bruce Cathie have Cathie  have suggested that it might be an extraterrestrial artifact.[1] Other authorities have suggested that the object photographed by the  Eltanin  was an unusual carnivorous sponge sponge,,  Chondrocladia concrescens  (formerly   (formerly   Cladorhiza concrescens ))..

16.2

Ide Identi ntifica ficatio tion n as spo sponge nge

In 200 20033 To Tom m DeM DeMary ary,, a re resea searc rche herr in und underw erwate aterr acous acoustitics cs,, conta contact cted ed oce oceano anogra graph pher er A. F. Am Amos, os, who who had had bee beenn abo aboard ard the USNS  Eltanin in the 1960s, and in turn Amos referred DeMary to the 1971 book  The Face of the Deep  by Bruce C. Heezen and Charles D. Hollister. Hollister had already identified the mysterious object as  Cladorhiza concrescens , a carnivorous carnivorous sponge  sponge.. Heezen and Hollister’s book reproduces the photograph taken by the USNS  Eltanin and a redrawn version of a drawing by Alexander by  Alexander Agassiz Agassiz which  which originallyy appeared in his 1888  Three Cruises of the Blake. originall Hollister and Heezen describe Cladorhiza concrescens  as  as a sponge which “somewhat resembles a space-age microwave antenna”,[2] while Agassiz described the sponges as having “a long stem ending in ramifying roots, sunk deeply into

57

 

58

 

CHAPTER CHAPTER 16. ELT ELTANIN ANIN ANTENNA ANTENNA

16.3.1 16. 3.1 •

Furthe Furtherr re readi ading ng

  Gage, Gage, John G.; Tyl Tyler, er, Paul A. (1993).   Deep-sea biology: a natural history of organisms at the deep-sea  floor . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cambridge Univer-

978-0-521-33665-99. sity Press. ISBN Press.  ISBN 978-0-521-33665•

1888 illustration of   Cladorhiza concrescens by Agassiz

the mud. The stem has nodes with four to six club-like club-like appendages. They evidently cover like bushes extensive tracts of the bottom.”[3]

16.3 16. 3

Re Refferen erence cess

Enigma”..  Fortean Times  (May  (May [1]  Brookesmith, Peter. Peter.  “Eltanin Enigma” original on  on 2007-10-19. 2004). Archived from the from the original [2] Heezen, Bruce C.; Hollister, Charles D. (1971).  The Face of the Deep. Oxford University Press. p. 35.  ISBN 0-19501277-1.. 501277-1 Three cru cruise isess ofthe Uni UnitedState tedStates  s  [3] Agassiz, Agassiz,Alex Alexander(1888). ander(1888).   Three Coast and Geodetic Survey Steamer “Blake” . Houghton Mifflin. p. 177.

  Hooper, J.N.A.; van Soest, R.W.M., eds. (2002).  Systema Porifera: Porifera: a guide to the classification classification of Sponges . New York, York, New York York:: Kluw Kluwer er Aca Academ demic/ ic/Plen Plenum um Publishers. ISBN Publishers. 0-306-47260-0.  ISBN 0-306-47260-0.

 

Chapter 17

Esperanza Stone The  Esperanza Stone  was a large (8-feet long) inscribed 17.3 17.3 Leg Legen end d stone found in the valley of the Yaqui the Yaqui,, Mexico. It was discovered and excavated in 1909 by Major by  Major F. R. Burnham There was a legend that the stone had fallen down out of and Charles and  Charles Frederick Holder. Holder. heaven in times past, and that the carving was by human hands.[2]

17.4 17. 4

Me Meani aning ng of th thee sy symb mbol olss

Burnham believed believed that the symbol symbolss were Mayan. Others [3] class them as Petroglyphs as Petroglyphs..

17.5 17. 5

Major jor F. R. Burnham  Burnham   (le (left), ft), Holder (right), Esperanza Stone.   Ma Yaqui Delta, Sonora, Mexico, 1909.

17.1 17 .1

Disc Disco ove very ry

The stone was discovered during an expedition in the Yaqui valley.

17.2 17. 2

De Descr scrip ipti tion on

The The sto stone ne was “a bro brown, wn, ign igneou eouss roc rock, k, its longe longest st axis axis abo about ut eight feet, and on the eastern face, which had an angle of about forty-five degrees, was the deep-cut inscription.”[1] Symbols on the stone include a volute a  volute and  and a swastika a swastika,, also found on other stones in Mexico.

Re Refferen erence cess

[1] Fort, Charles Hoy (1919).   “chapter 11”. 11”.   The Bo Book ok of  the Damne Damned  d . p. 145. 145. citing citing Hold Holder, er, Charl Charles es F. (Sep (Sep 10, 10, 1910). “The Esperanza Esperanza Stone”. Stone”.   Scientific American: 196. ISSN 0036-8733 0036-8733.. (complete article (complete article online; online; retrieved 03 Jan. 2017) [2] Lippard, Lippard, Jim. Jim.   “Review of The New Inquisition”. Inquisition”. Retrieved 25 Jan Januar uaryy 2011. 2011. Many Many yea years rs ago ago a str strang angee sto stone ne resem resembli bling ng a meteorite fell into the valley of the Yaqui, Mexico, and the sensat sensatio ional nal sto story ry went went from rom oneend one end to the the oth other er of the councountry that a stone bearing human inscriptions had descended to earth.. Hundreds visi earth visited ted the place, place, native nativess made madeaa pi pilgrim lgrimage age to it from all over Sonora, and the stone, called the Esperanza, became famous in its way, and many of the inhabitants believe that it is a message from from heaven, and demand that it be translated. [3] Neas, Linda M. Rhinehart Rhinehart (Jan 13, 2011). “About 2011). “About the Native American Indian Pictorial Language”. Language”. Heath Heather er Marie Marie Kosur. Retrieved 25 January 2011.

59

 

Chapter 18

Geofact A  geofact (a portmantea portmanteauu of “geology” and “artifac “artifact”) t”) is a  stone formation  formation that is difficult to distinguish from natural stone natural a man-made artifact man-made artifact.. Geofacts could be fluvially reworked and be misint misinterpreted erpreted as an artif artifact, act, especiall especiallyy when com[1] pared to paleolithic artifacts. Some of the proposed criteria for distinguishing geofacts from artif artifacts acts for pae paeleli lelithi thicc spec specime imens ns rese resembl mbling ing deb debita itage ge have been subjected to evaluation by experimental and actualistic studies. studies. If the artifac artifactt has two or more of the following, then the artifact is more than likely to be a geofact. Distinguishing Distingui shing geof geofacts acts from from lithic debi debitage, tage, through experiments and comparisons:[2] Possible examples include several purported prominent anRam and  and the cient artifacts, such as the Venus the Venus of Berekhat Ram Ven Venus us of Tan-Tan Tan-Tan.. The These se are thoug thought ht by many in the archaeological community to be geofacts. A site which shows an abu abund ndanc ancee of wh what at arelike arelikely lygeo geoffacts acts is theGulfofCambay.. bay Geofacts versus artifacts or as British scientists refer “artefacts” are just one of the battles archaeologists go through while excavati excavating ng a site. In the ar article ticle,, “Artef “Artefact-Geof act-Geofact act Analysis of The Lithic Material from The Susiluola Cave,” by Hans-Peter Schulz (2007) whom explained Geofacts are multi-shaped multi-sh aped rocks that can be found while archaeolo archaeologists gists are trying to find true artifacts during past glacial periods. Glacial periods such as the Eemian interglacial and the Middle Weichselian glaciation located in the northern parts of the world melted and began to move rocks from their original areas while they scraped everything around them. The rock movement created sometimes weapon like spears from smaller rocks and appear as artifacts but instead are just a product of glacial melting. Another element Schulz explained is the mixing of natural and salt water during the glaciations, which changed sediment locations within rocks such as the Susiluola cave located in Finland. Once the ice melted the sediment and ice created some artifici artificial al markings on pebble sized rocks. Some elemen elements ts that could morph rock shapes in caves include sandstone, siltstone and quartzite creating a kinetic process of shaping the rocks.

There are measurements Schulz created to distinguish a geofact ofact such such as bl blow ow an angles gles from a sand sandston stonee or quar quartzi tzite te rock with with a lilimi mitt betwee betweenn 45 and 90 de degre grees, es, and if the ab abras rasio ions ns [3] were rounded these are considered geofacts. Artifacts are interpreted as geofacts so often that they have entire articles articles filled with correcting exca excavatio vations. ns. Archeological geologist Paul V. Henrich (2002) corrects journalist Graham Hancock in article, “Artifacts “Artifacts or Geof Geofacts? acts? Alternative Interpretations of Items from the Gulf of Cambay” of his alleged artifacts found in the Gulf of Cambay, India is geofacts. geofacts. Henric Henrichh illustrates in pic pictures tures that these designed artifacts were a combination of cement, layered coarsee and fine lami coars laminated natedsand sand stac stacke kedd tightl tightlyy toge togethe therr from lamented lake silts with enough porosity appearing rigid to look like a human design. Other corrections Henrich made were Hancock’s “Cambay pendants” large flat rock objects with a hole in between assumed as jewelry but are naturally formed holes created by marine organisms. Henrich claims during excavations the team should have a geologist on site because they are experts in rock format formations ions to help distin[4] guish between an artifact and geofact. Artifacts Artif acts mixed with human remains can certainly contain mixtures of Geofacts. In the article, “The alleged Early Paleolithic artefacts are in reality geofacts: a revision of the site of Konczyce Weilkie 4 in the Moravian Gate, South Poland,” Wiśniewski et. all. (2014), explain when geofacts are mixed with artifacts in a fluvial gravel pit it becomes very difficult to distinguish between the two. Another issue Wisniewski Wisnie wski questioned is if the site was liva livable ble during the Paleolithic period because artifacts are mobile and therefore would not be found in situ however, rocks that are native to the area would usually be a geofact. A helpful hint to decideifanitemisanartifactorgeofactisiftherearemultipl plee rock rockss that that have have simi simila larr ed edge gess an andd shap shapes es an andd this this type type of rockis rockis in its its na natu tura rall envi enviro ronm nmen entt th then en itis mo most st lilikkel elyy a geogeofact. An argument the previous excavators claimed was that some rocks were found over 140 meters from their original environment meaning this theywas could have been artifacts moved by humans. However quickly refuted because evidence den ce in glac glacial ial mora moraine iness and fluvialfluvial-glac glacial ial depo deposi sits ts caus caused ed

60

 

18.2. SE SEE E ALSO  ALSO 

many rocks to move a similar distance from their original environment.[5] Clearly distinguishing geofacts from artifacts is not a simple task however, if excavators stick with the proper requirements and assumptions there will be far less misinterpretations in the future.

18.1 18. 1

Re Refferen erence cess

[1] Demeter, F; Patole; Patole; Edoumba, E; Duringer, Duringer, P; Bacon, AM; Sytha, P; Bano, M; Laychour, V; Cheangleng, M; Sari, V (2010). “Reinterpretation “Reinterpretation of an archaeological archaeological pebble culture from the Middle Mekong River Valley, Cambodia”. Geoarchaeology.  25  (1). [2]   “Comparative methods for distinguishing flakes from geofacts of acts:: a case stud studyy from the Wenas Creek Mammoth Mammoth site”..   Journal of Ar site” Archaeological chaeological Science.   52: 308–32 308–320. 0. doi doi::10.1016/j.jas.2014.09.006. 10.1016/j.jas.2014.09.006. [3] Schulz, P. H. (2007, December December 20). Artefact-Geof Artefact-Geofact act Analysis of The Lithic Material from The Susiluola Cave. www. sarks.fi/fa, 64-75. Retrieved from from http://www.sarks.fi/fa/  http://www.sarks.fi/fa/ PDF/FA24_64.pdf [4] Henrich, V. P. (2002, May 8). Artifacts Artifacts or Geofacts? Geofacts? Alternative Interpretations of Items from the Gulf of Cambay. Intersurf.com, 1-16. Retrieved from from http://www.intersurf.  http://www.intersurf. com/~{}chalcedony/geofact.html [5] Wiśniewski, Wiśniewski, A.; Badura, J.; Salamon, T.; Lewandowski, Lewandowski, J. (2014). “The (2014).  “The alleged early palaeolithic artefacts artefacts are in reality geofacts: geofacts: A revision of the site of kończy kończyce ce wielkie 4 in the moravian gate, south poland”. poland” .   Journal of Archaeological  Science.  52 : 189–203. doi 189–203.  doi::10.1016/j.jas.2014.07.022 10.1016/j.jas.2014.07.022.. •

 Oxford University Archaeological Society glossary

•

 Heinrich, Paul V. (May 8, 2002).  “Artifacts or Geof ofacts? acts? Alternative Alternati ve. Retrieved Interpretatio Interpretations ns of Items from the Gulf of Cambay.”. Cambay.” Retrie ved 2007-06-09.

18.2 18 .2 •

See See al also so

 Klerksdorp spheres

 

61

 

Chapter 19

Oklahoma runestones  have been found in Oklahoma in Oklahoma.. All A number of runestones of runestones have of them are likely of modern origin, with some of them possi pos sibl blyy datin datingg to the the19t 19thh centu century ry "Viking Vikingrevi revival val"orbeing "orbeing produced by 19th-century Scandinavian settlers. The oldest find is the “Heavener Runestone,” first documented in 1923. It is the most credible candi candidate date as being of medieval date, but it is most likely a 19th-century artifact made by a Scandinavian immigrant (possibly a Swede

a Norse presence, nothing similar has been found anywhere near Heavener Heavener or even in the Americ American an Midwest. He suggests that “It is unlikely that the Norse would get significantly more fastidious about leaving any evidence behind of their presence in Oklahoma.”[2] Archaeologist Archaeolo gist Lyle Tompsen in a 2007 Masters Thesis for the University of Leicester (published in ESOP 29 2011:543) examined the runestone and noted:

working work ing ats”the local l train “Hea “Heaven vener er Runestone Runestones” areloca most likel likelyydepot). not runicTwo at allother but exhibit incisions of Native American origin. Three other runestones, found in Poteau, Shawnee and Pawnee, are of modern date.

1. There is no cultural evidence evidence of Viki Vikings ngs in or near the region. 2. No Old Norse approach approach to translation fits this sto stone. ne. 3. The The stone’ stone’ss mos mostt lik likel elyy tra trans nslat latio ionn is 'Gn 'Gnom omee Dal Dal'' (Val(Valley of the Gnomes). 4. Scandi Scandina navi vian an pr prese esenc ncee in the the nearb nearbyy to town wn of Heave Heavene nerr is early and the likeliest source of the carving of the stone.

the Heavener runestone

19.1

Hea Heave vener ner Rune Runeston stonee

The Heavener Runestone is located in Heavener in  Heavener Runestone Park in Park  in Le  Le Flore County, Oklahoma, Oklahoma , near Heavener, near Heavener, Oklahoma.. homa The runes on the stone are . [1] Most of these Futhark , , but the final “L” is characters characte rs belong to the Elder the Elder Futhark reversed reve rsed compared with the last “A”, and the second charFuthark.. The acter is a short-twig “A” from the Younger the  Younger Futhark transcriptionn is then gaomedal , but is generally thought that transcriptio the intention is that the second character should be an elder futhark “N” (also reversed). The inscriptio inscriptionn then reads  gnomedal  (either  (either “gnome valley”, or a personal name “G. Nomedal”). Archaeologist Ken Archaeologist Feder notes that unlike the situation in  Ken Feder notes eastern Canada where evidence has been found that proves

5. Other purported rune rune stones in the re region gion are mode modern rn cre creati ations, ons, or mis misinte interpre rpreted ted Nati Native ve Ame Americ rican an rock art. “Barring any new evidence, the stone is best considered a modern creation.”[3] Henrik Hen rik Willi William ams, s, pro proffessor essor in Nor Nordi dicc lan langua guage gess at University of Uppsala, Uppsala, visited Oklahoma in 2015 as part of a tour sponsored by the American Association for Runic Studies in collaboration with Uppsala University and the American Friends Friends of Uppsala Uni Universi versity. ty. In a speech to the Poteau Chamber of Commerce he said that the Heavener stone “Is probably in the top 20 I’ve seen in the world, just for the sheer size and impressive nature of it.” He said that it was probably 19th century with a 20% probability of it being 10th or 11th century. “All words have endi endings, ngs, back 1,000 and 500 years ago, and that is one thing we find disturbing,” Williams said of the nonconforming ending on the Heavener Runestone. “None of the American inscriptions ever found have any kind of layout or ornamentation. That’s another thing that doesn’t really fit the pattern.” He

62

 

 

19.4. REFERENCES  REFERENCES 

also noted that “There are no Vikings or earlier inscriptions on Iceland or Greenland, so it’s a big jump from Sweden to Heavener.”[4] In 1991,   Carl Albert State College   in near nearby by Pot Poteau eau  in the stone’s honor. changed its mascot to a Viking a Viking in

63

Professor Don G Wyckoff. an archaeologist at the University of Oklahoma, examined the Shawnee stone and noted that it is a soft red Permian sandstone, writing that “the inscription is... remarka remarkably bly ffresh resh and certainl certainlyy not as worn or weathered weathered as the stone’s natura naturall surf surface. ace. The Surve Surveyy staff has viewed other exposures of this Permian sandstone which have carved dates as late as 1957 that are more worn

[7] and weathered...” Shawnee andThe Pawnee runestones are products ofBoth the the modern period. inscripti inscription on Futhark let letreads either mldok   or or midok  in  in standard Elder standard Elder Futhark The Poteau stone was found by schoolboys in 1967 near tering. Poteau in Le Poteau in  Le Flore County, County, Oklahoma.  Oklahoma. Tompsen also examined this stone, and writes that it is 19.4 4 Re Refferen erence cess carved into sandstone and is 15 inches long and shows 19. little little weath weatherin ering. g. The Theyy read    and Thomp Thompsen sen Heavener Runestone”. Runestone”. writes “This stone consists of a mixture of letters and [1]   “The Heavener alphabets from different times.” He transcribes these as [2]  Kenneth L. Feder Feder,,   Encyclopedia of Dubious Archaeology:  GLOIEA(?)(?). From Atlantis To The Walam Olum , page 137 (Greenwood,  ISBN 978-0-313-37919-2 2010). ISBN 2010). Of the eight letters, five are Elder are  Elder Futhark Futhark,, one Younger one  Younger Futhark.. The other two he calls “spurious”. He writes: " [3] Tompsen, Futhark Tompsen, Lyle.   “An Archaeolo Archaeologist gist Looks Looks at the OklaBy excluding the last two letters as spurious, five are on the homa Runestones ESOP 29, 2011: 5-43 | Lyle Tompsen”. Tompsen” . Academia.edu. Academi a.edu. Retrieved 2013-03-27. Heav Heaven ener er stone stone ititse self. lf. The onl onlyy one one lef left is a strai straigh ghtt line. line. To the theau autho thor’s r’s ey eyes, es, the the Potea Poteauu St Ston onee is a copy copy of th thee Hea Heave vene nerr [4] Lovett, Lovett, John John (May 3, 2015).  “Swedish Runologist Studies stone, with the addition of three spurious runic symbol symbolss as Heavener Runestone 'For Truth'". Truth'".  Times Record . Retrieved script-inflation.” [3] 16 January 2016. Swedish Professor Henrik Williams believes that the in- [5] Wallace, Josh (May 4, 2015). “Oklahoma 2015).  “Oklahoma runestone is imscription is modern, with the stone and toolmarks not as pressive but not from Vikings, Swedish scholar says”. says” . Newweathered as would be expected if it were from the Viking sOK. Retrieved 16 January 2016. period.[5]

19.2 19. 2

19.3

Poteau oteau Ston Stonee

Sha Shawne wneee and Pawnee Pawnee Stones Stones

[6] Wilson, Wilson, Steve (1989). (1989).   Oklahoma Treasures and Treasure Tales . University of Oklahoma Press. p. 33.  ISBN 0-80612174-2.. 2174-2

[7] Wyckoff, Wyckoff, Don G, “No Stones Stones Unturned:Differing Views Views of Oklahoma’s Runestones” in  Popular Archaeology, 2:16-31, no 12, 1973, reprinted in Ancient Man: A Handbook of Puz zling Artifacts  Artifacts , compiled by William R. Corliss, The Sourcebook Project, 1978, ISBN 1978, ISBN 0-915554-03-8 •

•

 Lyle Tompsen, An Archaeologist Examines The Oklahoma Rune Stones , Epigraphic Society Occasional Papers (ESOP) 29:2011. 29:2011.   Nielso Nielson, n, Ric Richard, hard,   The Ru Runes neston tones es of Oklah Oklahoma oma, Epigraphic Epigraph ic Society Occasional Public Publications ations (ESOP), 16:1987.

19.5 19 .5 the Shawnee runestone

The Shawnee stone was found in 1969 by three children in Oklahoma,, one mile from the North the  North Canadian Shawnee, Oklahoma River,, which is a tributary of the Arkansas River the Arkansas River River..[6]

•

•

•

See See al also so

 Kensington Runestone  Vérendrye Runestone  Spirit Pond runestones

 

Chapter 20

Helicopter hierogl hieroglyphs yphs 20.2 20. 2

Ex Exte terna rnall links links

•

 Temples of Abydos 360-degree view

•

 Newspaper article with images

Coordinates :   26° Coordinates: 26°11′ 11′05″ 05″N N 31° 31°55′ 55′08″ 08″E E / 26. 26.184 1847°N 7°N 31.9190°E The hieroglyphs in Temple of Seti I.

Helicopter Helicopt er hieroglyphs hieroglyphs refer

to an  Egyptian hieroglyph carving from the Temple the Temple of Seti I at Abydos Abydos.. The “helicopter” image is the result of carved stone being re-used over time. The initial carving was made during the  and translates to “He who repulses the nine reign of Seti of Seti II and [enemies of Egypt]". This carving was later filled in with plaster and re-carved during the reign of Ramesses of Ramesses II with II with the title “He who protects Egypt and overthrows the foreign countries”. Over time, the plaster has eroded away, leaving both inscriptions partially visible and creating a palimpsest a  palimpsest-[1][2] like effect of overlapping hieroglyphs. In In paleocontact  paleocontact hypothesis circles hypothesis circles[3] the hieroglyphics have been interpreted as an  out-of-place artifact   depicting a helicopter helicopter as  as well as other examples of modern technology. This claim is dismissed by Egyptologists by Egyptologists who  who highlight this pareidolia pareidolia is  is partly based on widely distributed retouched distributed  retouched images that removed key details from the actual carvings.

20.1 20. 1

Re Refferen erence cess

Abydos temple “helicopter"". “helicopter"". Archived from the from the orig[1]   “The Abydos inal on inal  on 28 July 2005. [2]   “Helicopter Hieroglyphs Hieroglyphs Explained”. Explained”.  raincool.blogspot.nl . [3] Darling, David.  David.   “paleocontact hypothesis” hypothesis”..  The Encyclopedia of Science. Retrieved 20 January 2013.

64

 

Chapter 21

Hidden character stone Coordinates Coordinates::   25°49′55″N 107°19′23″E / 25.831858°N 107.323023°E Hidden character stone  ( / ) is a stone located in a scenic spot area in Zhangbu village (),  Pingtang County,,   Qiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous PrefecCounty ture,,   Guizhou ture Guizhou,,   People’s Republic of China. China. Th Thee ssto tone ne displays patterns on its surface that have been interpreted  Traditional Chinese as Simplified as  Simplified Chinese characters and characters  and Traditional

ingmadebyhumans.[1] Oth Other er rese research archers ers inc include ludedd Li Fen Fengg[7] lin () and Gu Jing-yi (). Li Ting-dong further commented about the stone’s contribution to science, and that there is nothing like it. Liu Baojun further support additional additional research to be done and was interestedd in the natural fo intereste formation rmation of the characte characters rs on the stone.[8] Each character on the stone is about one square shaku,, which is about 1 square foot. [3] shaku

characters, characters , and have been readlyasas "Communist "“Communi Communistst Party of China China" " (), or alternative alternatively “Communist [1] China perish” (). 21.3 21. 3

21.1

Area

Hidden character stone is a main attraction along with () that is part of the Qiannan Pingtang National Geological park ().[2] The park has an area of about 201.6 square kilometers.[2] The stone is in a narrow gap between two cliffs, wide enough to fit just two people. [1]

21.2 21 .2

Hist Histor ory y

In June 2002, the Duyun the  Duyun international  international photography expositionn () recommended an area in Zhangbu as sitio a photo spot.[3] The stone was discovered during cleanup after the expo. expo. The area has been isolated, untouched bbyy humans for a long time.[1] The person cleaning the area was staff member Wang Guo-fu (), who discovered the characters characte rs written on the stone.[4] From December 5–8, 2003 a Chinese scienti scientific fic inspectio inspectionn group was formed to investigate the stone with about 15 scientists.[1] Some of the notables include Li Ting-dong () from Chinese academy of Sciences, Liu Bao-jun () from Chinese academy of Sciences and Li Feng-lin () from China University of Geosciences.[5] The stone was analyzed to be about 270 million years old from the Permian Permian period.  period.[6] There are no traces of the characters be-

21.3.1

De Descr scrip ipti tion on Five-ch Five-charact aracter er version version

The five-character version suggests the characters on the stone said “Communist Party of China” (). This is the version publicly accepted in the PRC. Also when referring to this version, the stone has been called (), literally “save “save star stone”. This name comes fr from om people whoare who arepas passi siona onate te in suppo supporti rting ng and andadm admir iree the theco comm mmuni unist st discovered ered usuparty.[4][9] The story of how the stone was discov ally follows this version.[3] Zhang Dahua () of Zhangbu village once publicly an [7] explanation of how the name “save star stone” was gave created. 21.3.2

Six-chara Six-character cter vers version ion

The six-c six-char harac acte terr versi version on sugge suggests sts the chara charact cters ers on the stone stone said said “Comm “Communi unist st Party Party of China China per peris ish” h” ().[1] There has been criticism that the sixth and last character “perish” () has been purposely neglected to turn a “Perish communist stone” () into a “save star stone”.[10] This is not a version accepted in the PRC, hence when mainland media reports it, it has to hide the perish character. [5] Often when pictures pictures are shown with the stone having six characters, the description still refers to it by the five-character version.[3] In Chinese text the character “perish” ish” ( ()) is of ofte tenn used used in asso associ ciat atio ionn wi with th the the peri perish sh of a stat statee like "Chu "Chu perish”  perish” (), "We "Weii perish” ().[11]

65

 

66

 

21.3.3

CHAPTER CHAPTER 21. HID HIDDEN DEN CHARACTER CHARACTER STONE  STONE 

Traditi Traditional onal and Simplified Simplified chinese chinese

onal Chinese Thecharactersonthestoneareamixof Traditional ThecharactersonthestoneareamixofTraditi characters and characters  and Simplified  Simplified Chinese characters. characters. The first and third character character (, ) has no diff difference erence.. The second character “country” () and fourth character “produce” () is in the traditional form. The fifth character, “party” () is in [12] The sixth character “perish” () has the simplified no difference. differ ence.form. Some have anal analyzed yzed all the odd characte characters rs [7] as simplified, while the even characters are traditional. •

 On the stone: 

•

  Traditi Traditional onal Chin Chinese: ese: 

•

  Simplifi Simplified ed Chine Chinese: se: 

21.3.4 21. 3.4

:!()".. Dong Dong-[5]  " - :!()" taiwang.com. taiwang.co m. Retrieved 2011-06-27. [6]  “2.7__".  “2.7__". China. China.co com.c m.cn. n. 200 2008-0 8-02213. Retrieved 2011-06-27. [7] ATV China’s mystery mystery files () episode episode on save star stone [8]  http://www.ptjp.gov.cn/gzpt/wh/2010/56/10_5_6_10_28_ 12_65BE2_2.html [9]   """ -" -".. News News.s .soh ohu. u.co com. m. Retrieved 2011-06-27. [10] :.   """"" ()" ()".. Renmin Renminbao bao.co .com. m. Retrieved 2011-06-27. [11] /. [2002] (20 (2002) 02) Chinese Chinese civilizati civilization on in a new light light #3  #3 . Publishing Publishing Company. Company.   ISBN 962-075311-9.. Book end time line. 5311-9

Analy Analysi siss

The origin of the characters remain a subject of dispute. [13] There Therewe were re som somee early early sp spec ecula ulatitions onstha thatt th thee chara charact cters ers were were

 """()__".. News.sina.com.cn. 2005[12]  """()__" 03-10. Retrieved 2011-06-27. [13] Mao, Jianquan (2012). "" (2012).  ""..   .  6 : 25.

put thereofbythe Long the Long the People’s Liberation Army  People’s Army, , buttoaccording to [14]   - March, , they never went Pingtang.[7] the path the March The characters also read left to right, which was not practitice cedd at the the time time.. Theincl Theinclusi usion on of a Sim Simpli plifie fiedd chara charact cter er be- [15]  http://www.ptjp.gov.cn/gzpt/wh/2010/510/10_5_10_11_ 37_2_76G39.html fore the CPC did any simplifications also ruled them out.[7] There were also some skeptics who suspected the village was creating a fraud to build their tourism industry at the time.[7] Others think the Hidde Hiddenn character stone was made in the Cultural the Cultural Revolution. Revolution.[14]

21.4

Cult Cultural ural ref refere erence nce

The hidden character stone has appeared as a topic on a number of shows such as CCTV as  CCTV's's “Approachi “Approaching ng scienc science” e” () and Hong and Hong Kong ATV show ATV show “China’s mystery files” ().[15] Both refer to the five-character version.

21.5 21. 5

Re Refferen erence cess

[1]   “Myste “Mysteriou riouss “Two “Two-Hundr -Hundred ed Milli Million-Y on-Year-O ear-Old” ld” Hidd Hidden en Stone St one Bears Bears the Words: Words: “Ch “Chine inese se Com Commun munist ist Party Party Collapses” Page 28”. 28”. S8int.com. Retrieved 2011-06-27. [2]  "- ". ". Life.chinatimes.com. 2011-0602. Retrieved 2011-06-27. [3]  "()()-".  "()()-". News.soh News.sohu.co u.com. m. 2007-042007-0402. Retrieved 2011-06-27. [4]   “2.7"" “2.7""()" ()".. Ne News. ws.xin xinhua huanet net.co .com. m. 2003-1 2003-12-0 2-08. 8. 06-27.

Retri Retriev eved ed 201 20111-

 

Chapter 22

Ica stones directly incised, others by removing the background, leavdirectly ing the image in relief in relief.. The images vary from simple pictures on one side of a pebble, up to designs of great complexity. Some of the designs are in styles which can be recognized as belonging to the Paracas the Paracas,, Nazca  Nazca,, Tiwanaku  Tiwanaku,, Ica [1] or Inca or Inca cultures.  cultures. Some of the images are of flowers, fish, or living animals of various sorts.[1] Others appear to depict scenes[2][3] which [4] such as diwould beadvanced anachronistic in  pre-Columbian art, in pre-Columbian  art, nosaurs, medical works and maps.

22.2 22. 2

Bac Backg kgro roun und d

An Ica stone allegedly depicting dinosaurs.

The Ica stones are a collection of andesite of andesite stones  stones found in Province,  Peru Ica Province,  Peru that  that bear a variety of diagrams. Some of them supposedly have depictions of dinosaurs of dinosaurs,, and what recognised is alleged to be advanced technology advanced technology.. These are recognised as modern curiosities or hoaxes or hoaxes.. From the 1960s Javier Cabrera Darquea collected and popularized the stones, obtaining many them from athem farmer named Basilio Basili o Uschuya. Uschuy Uschuya, a, of after claiming to be real ancient artifacts, admitted to creating the carvings he had sold and said he produced a patina a  patina by  by baking the stone in cow dung.

22.1 22. 1

De Descr scrip ipti tion on

They vary in si size ze The stones are composed of andesite of  andesite.. They [1] from 3x2.5x1.5 cm to 40 cm. As a result of weatheronsi sist stss of a ing, they have developed a thin patina thin  patina.. It ccon rind in  in which weathering has turned some of weathering rind the feldspar the feldspar into  into clay  clay,, resulting in a softer material, rated 3 to 4 on the Mohs the[1] Mohs scale of mineral hardness hardness,, which can be scratched. They are shallowly engraved shallowly engraved with  with a variety of images, some

Archaeological remains show evidence of Peruvian cultures going back for several thousand years. At some later stages, the whole of modern Peru was united into a single politiEmpire,, folcal and cultural unit, culminating in the Inca the  Inca Empire lowed by the Spanish the Spanish conquest conquest.. At other stages, areas suc suchh as the Ica the Ica Valley, Valley, a habitable region separated from others by desert, developed a distinctive culture of its own.[5] Excavationsand in  Ica in Ica Province  were carriedbyout in thesuch late nineteenth earlyProvince were twentieth centuries scholars  Max Uhle, Tello,  Alfred L. Kroeber Kroeber,,  William as as Max Uhle,  Julio C. Tello, Duncan Strong and Strong  and John  John Howland Rowe Rowe.. Non Nonee of tthe hem m reported the discovery discovery of carved andesite stone stones. s. Nev Neverertheless, carved stones which had been looted by  huaqueros , grave robbers, began to be offered for sale to tourists and amateur collectors.[1] One of these collectors was Santiago Agurto Calvo, an ar of the National the National Unichitect by profession, who was Rector was Rector of versity versi ty of Engineering Engineering in  in Lima  Lima.. He organised searches in ancient cemeteries, and in August 1966 found such a stone in theTo the Toma ma Luz Luz sector sector,, Cal Callan lango go di distr stric ict,t, in Ica Va Valle lleyy. The context corresponded to the Tiwanaku the Tiwanaku culture.  culture. He reported city,, and his discovery to the Regional Museum in  Ica city was accompanied on further expeditions by its curator, the archaeologist archaeolo gist Ale Alejandro jandro Pezzi Pezziaa Assereto.[1] In September 1966 in Uhle Hill cemetery, De la Banda sector,  Ocucaje

67

 

68

 

District, District, they found, for the first time, an engraved stone with certain provenance in a tomb of the Paracas the  Paracas culture culture.. This stone was a fairly flat and irregular in shape, approximatel ima telyy 7 x 6 x 2 cm in size size.. On it was carv carved ed a desi design gn which might be abstract, or could be taken as a flower with eight petals.[1] Agurto published the discovery in a Lima newspaper.[6] Pezzia continued to se Pezzia search. arch. In the  San Evaristo  cemetery in Toma Luz, he found a carved stone of similar size to the previous one, with a realistic image of a fish. The context Horizon (600-1000  (600-1000 A.D.). In dated the tomb to the Middle the Middle Horizon a grave not far away in the same cemetery, he found a stone wi with th thef the fai airl rlyy rea realis listiticc de desi sign gn of a llama, llama, in a cont contex extt ty typi pica call of the Ica culture. In 1968, Pezzia published his findings, including drawings and descriptions.[1]

22.3

Po Popula pulariza rizatio tion n by Cabr Cabrera era

CHAPTER CHAPTE R 22. ICA STONES 

man, humans from another planet, and that “Through the transplantation transplantati on of cogniti cognitive ve codes to highly intelligent prima mates tes,, the the me menn fromouterspac romouterspacee cre create atedd new new me menn on earth. earth.”” [8] The Ica stones achieved greater popular interest when Cabrera abandoned his medical career and opened a museum to feature several thousand of the stones in 1996.[2] In 1973, during an interview with  Erich von Däniken Däniken,, Uschuya stated he had faked the stones that he had sold. [3] In 197 19755 Usc Uschu huya ya and anoth another er farm armer er nam named ed Irm Irmaa Gut Gutie ierre rrezz de Aparcana confirmed that they had forged the stones they gave to Cabrera by copying the images from comic books, text books and magazines.[2] Later, Uschuya recanted the forging story during an interview with a German journalist, sayin sayingg tha thatt he had hadcl clai aime medd the theyy we were re a hoax hoax to av avoi oidd impri imprissonment for selling archaeological selling archaeological artifacts artifacts.. In 1977, during the BBC the BBC documentary  documentary  Pathway to the Gods , Uschuya produced an Ica stone with a dentist’s drill and claimed to have produced a fake patina by baking the stone in cow dung.[3] That same year, another BBC documentary was released with a skept skeptical ical analysis of Cabrera’s stones, and the newfound attention to the phenomenon prompted Peruvian authorities to arrest Uschuya, aseries. Peruvian lawa prohibits sale of archaeological archaeologi cal discov discoveries. Uschuy Uschuya recanted the his claim that he had found them and instead admitted they  hoaxes,, saying “Making these stones is easier than were hoaxes were farming farming the land.” He engraved the stones using images in books and magazines as examples and knives, chisels and a dental drill.[9] He also said that he had not made all the stones. He was not punished, and continued to sell similar stones to tourists as trinke trinkets. ts.[3] The stones continued to be made and carved by other artists as forgeries of the original forgeries.[2]

A collection of Ica stones surrounding a portrait of Javier Cabrera

Meanwhile, in 1966, Peruvian physician Javier Cabrera Darquea was presented with a stone that had a carved picture of a fish, which Cabrera believed to be of an extinct species.[7] Cabrera’s father had begun a collection of similar stone stoness in the 193 1930s, 0s, and andbas based ed on his his inter interes estt in Peruv Peruvia iann prehis prehistory, tory, Ca Cabrer breraa bega begann coll collect ecting ing mor more. e. He initia initially lly purchased more than 300 from two brothers, Carlos and Pablo Soldi, who also collected pre-Incan pre- Incan artifacts,  artifacts, who claimed they had unsuccessfully attempted to interest archaeologists interest  archaeologists in them. Cabrera later ffound ound another source of the stones, a farmer named Basilio Uschuya, Uschuya, who sold him thousands more. Cabrera’s collecti collection on burgeoned, reaching more than 11,000 stones in the 1970s.[3] Cabrera published a book, The Message of the Engraved Stones of Ica  on the subject, discussing his theories of the origins and meaning of the st ston ones es.. In this this he argu argued ed th that at th thee st ston ones es show show“t “tha hatt ma mann is at least 405 million years old” and for what he calls  gliptolithic 

22.4 22 .4

Impa Impact ct

 provenance is  is known, there is Except in the rare cases that Except that provenance no reliable way of dating the stones. [3] Thus, a stone of uncertain origin can never be used to establish a conclusion which would otherwise be considered unlikely. The stones  to claim that humans have been used by some creationists some  creationists to lived in proximity with dinosaurs, which contradicts evidence that the extinction the extinction of dinosaurs dinosaurs predates  predates mankind by in ancient asapproximately 65 million years.[10] Believers in ancient tronauts have tronauts  have also attempted to use the stones as evidence of a lost, advanced civili civilization zation brought to man fro from m other planets[3] and mytho-historians have claimed them as evidence that ancient myths are accurate histories, neither of which is a position supported in the scientific nor academic communities.[2] In his Encyclopedia of Dubious Archaeology: From Atlantis  To The Walam The Walam Olum, archaeologist Ken archaeologist Ken Feder Feder commented  commented “The Ica Stones are not the most sophisticated of the ar-

 

22.7. EXTERNAL EXTERNAL LINKS  LINKS 

chaeological hoaxes discussed in this book, but they certainly rank up there as the most preposterous.”[9]

22.5 22 .5

See See al also so

•

 Out-of-place artifact

•

 Acámbaro figures

•

 Rock art

22.6 22 .6

Foo ootn tnot otes es

[1] Pezzia Assereto, A (1968) Ica y el Perú Precolombino. Tomo I. Arqueología de la provincia de Ica. Empresa Editora Liberia, Ojeda, Ojeda, Venezuela. 295 pp. [2]  Carroll, Robert T. (2003). T.  (2003).  The Skeptic’s Dictionary Dictionary:: a collection of strange beliefs, beliefs, amusing deceptions, and dangerous  delusions . New York: York: Wiley. pp.   169–71. 169–71.   ISBN 0-471-

27242-6.,., also online at skepdic 27242-6 at skepdic [3] Coppens, Coppens, P (October (October 2001). 2001).   “Jura “Jurassic ssic library library - The Ica Stones”..  Fortean Times . Stones” Skeptic’s Dictionary:  Dictionary:  [4] Carroll, Carroll, Robert Robert (2011-01-11) (2011-01-11)..   The Skeptic’s A Collection of Strange Beliefs, Amusing Deceptions, and  Dangerou Dang erouss Delus Delusions  ions . John Wil Wileey & So Sons ns..   ISBN

9781118045633.. Retrieved 8 December 2013. 9781118045633 [5] Lanning, Lanning, Edward Edward P. (1967). (1967).  Peru bef before ore the Incas . PrenticeHall. [6] Santiago Agurto Agurto Calvo. “Las Piedras Magicas de Ocuca Ocucaje”. je”. El Comercio. Lima, 11 December 1966 [7] Cabrera, Javier.  The Message of the Stones . Ica, Peru. Retrieved 10 May 2012. [8] Cabrera, Javier (2000).  The message of the engraved stones  of Ica. [9]  Kenneth L. Feder, Feder,   Encyclopedia of Dubious Archaeology:  From Atlantis To The Walam Olum, pages 143 (Greenwood, 2010). ISBN 2010).  ISBN 978-0-313-37919-2 [10]   “When Did Dinosaurs Dinosaurs Go Extinct? Extinct? Creta Cretaceousceous-Ter Tertiary tiary Boundary Dating Refined”. Refined”. Science Daily. Retrieved April 17, 2012.

22.7 22. 7 •

•

•

Ex Exte terna rnall lin links ks

  Images of the Ica stones stones  Theory post-Cabrera - articles on the Ica Stones, the Global Elite, the Pleiadians, etc. stones at  at the Pseudoarcheology Research Archive  Ica stones

 

69

 

Chapter 23

Iron pillar of Delhi The pillar weighs over 6,000 kg (13,000 lb), and is thought to have originally been erected in what is now Udayagiri now  Udayagiri by one of the   Gupta   monarchs monarchs in appr approxim oximatel atelyy 402 CE, though the precise date and location are a matter of dispute.[3]

23.1

Ph Physi ysical cal des descri cripti ption on

The iron pillar of Delhi 

The   Iron Pillar  located in Delhi in  Delhi,, India, is a 7 m (23 ft) column in the Qutb the Qutb complex complex,, notable for the rust-resistant composition of the metals used in its construction. The pillar has attracted the attention of   archaeologists and materials and  materials scientists because scientists  because of its high resistance to corrosion corrosion,, and has been called a “testimony to the high level of skill achieved by the ancient Indian iron smiths in the extraction and processing of iron.”[1][2] The corrosion resistance results from an even layer of crystalline iron hydrogen phosphate hydrate forming on the high phosphorus high phosphorus content  content iron, which serves to protect it from the effects of the local Delhi climate.[1]

The Iron pillar stands within the courtyard of Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque

The height of the pillar, from the top of its capital to the bottom of its base, is 7.21 m (23 ft 8 in), 1.12 m (3 ft 8 in) of which is below below ground. Its bell pattern capita capitall is 1.07 m (3 ft 6 in) in height, and its bulb-shaped base is 0.71 m (2 ft 4 in) high. The base rests on a grid of iron bars soldered withleadintotheupperlayerofthedressedstonepavement. The pillar’s lower diameter is 420 mm (17 in), and its upper diameter306mm(12in). Itisestimatedtoweighmorethan six tonne six tonness (13,228 lb).[4]

70

 

 

23.2. INSCRIPTI INSCRIPTIONS  ONS 

A fence ence was was erec erecte tedd arou around nd th thee pi pillllar ar in 19 1997 97 in resp respon onse se to damage caused by visitors. There is a popular tradition that it was considered good luck if one could stand with one’s back to the pillar and make one’s hands meet behind it. The practic prac ticee led to si signifi gnificant cant wear and visibl visiblee disc discolou olourati ration on on the lower portion of the pillar.

71

Orthography

The inscription covers an area of 2'9.5” × 10.5”. The ancient writing is preserved well because of the corrosionresistant iron on which it is engraved. However, during the engrav eng raving ingpro proce cess, ss, ir iron on ap appea pears rs to have have cl close osedd up ov over er som somee [6] of strokes, making some of the letters imperfect.

It conta contain inss verse versess co compo mposed sed in   Sanskrit   languag language, e, in [7] shardulvikridita  metre  metre.. It is written w ritten in the eastern variety of the the Gupta  Gupta script script. . The letters vary from 0.3125” to 0.5” 23.2 23. 2 In Inscr scrip ipti tion onss in size, and resemble closely to the letters on the Allahabad the  Allahabad pillar inscription pillar  inscription of Samudragupta of  Samudragupta.. How Howev ever, er, it had di dissThe pillar carries a number of inscriptions and graffiti of tinctive matras (diacritics diacritics),), similar to the ones in the Bildifferent dates, some of which have not been studied sys- sad inscription of Kumaragupta of Kumaragupta II..[8] While the edges of the tematically despite the pillar’s prominent location and easy characters on the Allahabad inscription are more curved, access. the ones on the Delhi inscription have more straight edges. This can be attri attributed buted to the fact that the Allah Allahabad abad inscripinscription was inscribed on softer sandstone, while the Delhi inscription is engraved on the harder material (iron). [9] 23.2.1 Inscripti Inscription on of king Chandra Chandra The text has some unusual deviations from the standard Sanskrit spelling, such as:[8] •

  pranśu instead of  praṃśu: the use of dental of  dental nasal nasal in instead of anusvara

•

  mūrtyā instead of  mūrttyā: : omission of the second  t 

•

  kīrtyā instead of  kīrttyā: omissi omission on of the second t 

•

  śattru instead of śatru (enemy): an extra t 

History of study

Company officer  officer William Elliott In 1831, the East the  East India Company made a facsimile a facsimile of  of the inscription. Based on this facsimile, in 1834, James 1834,  James Prinsep published Prinsep  published a lithograph in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and  Ireland  (JASB).  (JASB). However, this lithograph did not represent

even a single letter of the inscription correctly. Some years later, British engineer T. S. Burt made an ink impression of the inscription. Based on this, in 1838, Prinsep published an improved lithograph lithograph in the same journal, with his reading of the script and translation of the text.[10] Decades later, Bhagwan later, Bhagwan Lal Indra Indraji ji made  made another copy of the inscription on a cloth. Based on this copy, Bhau copy,  Bhau Daji Lad published Lad  published a revised text and translation in 1875, in Detail showing the inscription of King Chandragupta King Chandragupta II 

Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society  (JBBRAS). This reading was the first one to correctly

mention the king’s name as Chandra. In 1888, mention 1888, John  John Faithfull Fleet published Fleet published a critical a critical edition edition of  of the text in  Corpus 

The oldest inscription inscription on the pillar is that of a king named Inscriptionum Indicarum.[10] Chandra (IAST (IAST:: Candra), generally ide identified ntified as the the Gupta  Gupta In 194 1945, 5, Gova Govardh rdhan an Rai Sha Sharma rma dated dated the thein inscr script iptio ionn to the the emperor Chandragupta emperor  Chandragupta II II..[5] firsthalfofthe5thcenturyCE,onpaleographic firsthalfofthe5thcenturyCE,on paleographic grounds.[11]

 

72

 

He observed that its script was similar to the writing on other Gupta-era inscriptions, including the ones discovered at Bilsad (415 CE), Baigram (449 CE), and Kahanum (449 CE).[9] R. Balasubramaniam (2005) noted that the characters of the Delhi inscription closely resembled the dated inscriptions of Chandragupta II, found at Udayagiri at  Udayagiri [12] in in Madhya  Madhya Pradesh Pradesh.. Issuance

The inscription is undated, and contains an eulogy of a king named Chandra, whose dynasty it does not mention. [8] The id iden entitity ty of this this kin king, g, and thu thuss th thee date date of the thepi pilla llar, r, has bee beenn the subject subject of much debate. The various viewpoints viewpoints about the identity of the issuer were assembled and analyzed in a volume edited by M. C. Joshi and publis published hed in 1989.[13] The king is now generally identified with the Gupta King Candragupta II. II.[14] This identification is based on several points:

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 23. IRO IRON N PILLAR OF DELHI 

II abdicated his throne, and settled down as a vanaprastha a  vanaprastha [8] (retiree) in Vishnupada. In a volume published in 2009, Michael Willis has summarised the debates and re-translated the relevant portions of the epi epigraph. graph. He conc concludes: ludes: “Candragupta may have passed away but the legacy of his achievement is so great that he seems to remain on earth by virtue of his fame. fame. Emphasi Emphasiss is placed on Candragupta’s conq conquest uest of enemies and the merit of his deeds, ideas which are also avajitya sucaritair divaṃ jayfound in coin legends:   kṣitim avajitya ati vikramādityaḥ, i.e. ‘Ha ‘Having ving con conque quered red the earth wi with th good cond conduct, uct, Vikr Vikramād amādity ityaa con conque quered red hea heave ven’. n’. The king king’s’s conquestt of heav conques heaven en combined with the descripti description on of him resorting to the other world in bodily form ( gām āśritasyetarāṃ mūrtyā), confirms our understanding of the worthy dead as autonomous theomorphic entities.” [18] Text

•

  point The The sc scrip andthe poe poeti ticc sty style lerth of th the insc inscrip ripti tion, on,whi which ch toript at date in the late fou fourth ore early fift fifth h century [13]  period. CE: the Gupta the Gupta period. •

 The inscription describes the king as a devotee of the god Vishnu god Vishnu,, and records the erection of a  dhvaja (“standard”, or pillar) of Vishnu, on a hill called Vishnupada (“hill of the footprint of Vishnu”). [15] Other Gupta inscriptions inscriptions also describe Chandragupta II as a Bhagavata (devotee Bhagavata  (devotee of Vishnu).[8] The names of the places mentioned in the inscription are also characteristi teri sticc of the Gupta er era. a. For ex exampl ample, e,   Dakshina Jalanidhi  (the Indian   (the  Indian Ocean Ocean)) and  Vanga  (the  (the Bengal  Bengal [15] region).

Bankelal’s 1903 tablets 

 The short name “Chandra” is inscribed on the archer- Following is the Roman script transliteration of the text: [19] typ typee gold gold coins coins of Chand Chandrag ragupt uptaa II, whi while le hisful hisfulll nam namee and titles appear in a separate, circular legend on the Yasy odvarttayah-pratīpamurasā śattrun samecoin.[12] tyāgatan tyāgatan Vańges Vańgeshv hvāha āhava va vart varttino tinosb sbhili hilikhi khitā tā khadgena kīrttir bhuje   A roya royall seal seal of Cha Chand ndrag ragupt upta’s a’s wif wifee   Dhruvadevi cont contai ains ns the the ph phra rase se   Shri Vis Vishn hnupa upadada-sv svami  ami  Tirtv Tirtvāā sap sapta ta mu mukhā khāni ni yena yena sam samare are sindh sindhor or Narayana   (“Nara (“Naraya yana, na, the lord lord of the illus illustri trious ous jjitā Vāhl Vāhlikāy ikāyasyād asyādya ya pyadhi pyadhivāsy vāsyate ate jalanidh jalanidhir ir Vishnupada”). [16] vviryyānilair ddakshinah Khinnasy eva visrijya gām narapater ggāmāśritaAs the inscription is an eulogy an  eulogy and  and states that the king has syaetrām mūr(t)yā karmma-ji karmma-jitāvani tāvanim m gatava gatavatah tah abandoned the earth, there has been some discussi discussion on as to kīrt(t)yā sthitasyakshitau whether it is posthumous, i.e. whether king Chandra was Śāntasyeva mahāvane hutabhujo yasya pratāpo dead when the record was created.   Dasharatha Sharma mahānnadhayā pyutsrijati pranāśista-ripor Yyat(1938) argued that it was non-posthumous.[17] According nasya śesahkshitim to B. Chhabra and G. S. Gai, the inscription states that the king’s mind is “fixed upon Vishnu with dev devotion”, otion”, and Prāptena sva bhuj ārjitan cha suchiran ch aikādthe there reffore ore,, in indi dica cates tes tha thatt th thee kin kingg was alive alive at th thee tim time. e. The Theyy hirājayam kshitau chandrāhvena samagra chanthe theori orize ze tha thatt it may may have have bee beenn rec record orded ed when when Cha Chand ndrag ragupt uptaa dra sadriśīm vaktra-śriyam bibhratā •

•

 

 

23.3. ORIGINAL ORIGINAL LOCATIO LOCATION  N 

Te Tenā nāya yam m pra prani nidhā dhāya ya bh bhūmi ūmipat patinā inā bhā bhāve veva va vis vishno hno (shn (shnau) au) mati matim m prānś prānśurvi urvisnu snupade pade gira girauu bhagavato Vishnuordhidhvajah sthāpitah J. F. Fleet’s 1888 translation is as follows: [20] (Verse (Ve rse sword, 1) He, when, on whose arm fame inscribed by the in battle in the Vanga thewas  Vanga coun countries(Bengal tries( Bengal), ), he kne knead aded ed (an (andd tur turned ned)) bac backk with with (his) breast the enemies who, uniting together, camee agai cam against nst (him (him);-h );-he, e, by who whom, m, hav having ingcross crossed ed Sindhu,, in war warffare the the se seve venn mouth mouthss of the the(ri (rive ver) r) Sindhu the Vahlikas the Vahlikas were  were conquered;-he, by the breezes of whose prowess the southern ocean is even still perfumed;(Verse 2) He, the remnant of the great zeal of whose energy, which utterly destroyed (his) enemies, mie s, lilike ke (the remn remnant ant of the grea greatt glowing glowing hea heat) t) of a burned-out fire in a great forest, even now leaves not the earth; though he, the king, as if wearied, has quit this earth, and has gone to the other world, moving in (bodily) from to the land (of paradise) won by (the merit of his) actions, (but) remaining on (this) earth by (the memory of his) fame;(V (Vers ersee 3) By him, him, the thekin king, g, attai attaine nedd sole sole supr suprem emee sove sovere reig ignty ntyin in the thewo world rld,, acqu acquir ired ed by byhis hisow ownn arm and (enjoyed) for a very long time; (and) who, having the name of Chandra, carried a beauty of countenancee like (the beauty of) the full-m countenanc full-moon,oon,having in faith fixed his mind upon (the god) Vishnu, this lofty standard of the divine Vishnu was set up on the hill (called) Vishn Vishnupada. upada. Thanks to the tablets installed on the building in 1903 by Pandit Banke Rai, the reading provided by him enjoys wide currency. currenc y. Howe However, ver, Bankelal’s reading and interpretati interpretation on have been challenged challenged by more recent scholarship. The inscription has been revisited by Michael Willis in his book Archaeologyy of Hindu Ritual , his special concern being the Archaeolog nature of the king’s spiritual identity identity after death. His reading and translation of verse 2 is as follows: [18] [khi]nnasye [khi]nnas yeva va vis visṛjy ṛjyaa gāṃ narap narapater aterggām ggām āśri āśritatasyetarāṃ mūrtyā karrmajitāvaniṃ gatavataḥ kīrtyā sthitasya kṣitau [*|] śāntasyeva mahāvane hutabhujo yasya pratāpo mahān nādyāpy utsṛjati praṇāśitaripor yyatnasya śeṣaḥ kṣitim [||*]

73

The residue of the king’s effort – a burning splendo dour ur which which utter utterly ly de destr stroy oyed ed his his ene enemi mies es – le leav aves es not the theear earth th even even no now, w, jus justt lilike ke (the (the re resi sidua duall heat heat of) a burned-out conflagration in a great forest. He, as if wearied, has abandoned this world, and resorted in actual form to the other world – a place won by the merit of his deeds – (and although) he has departed, he remains on earth through (the memory of his) fame (kīrti ).). Willis concludes: concludes: “Candragupta may have passed away but the legacy of his achievement is so great that he seems to remain on earth by virtue of his fam fame. e. Emphasis is placed on Candragupta’s conquest of enemies and the merit of his deeds, ideas which are also found in coin legends:   kṣitim avajitya sucaritair divaṃ jayati vikramādityaḥ, i.e. ‘Having conquered the earth with good conduct, Vikramāditya conquered heav heaven’. en’.[21] The king’ king’ss conq conquest uestof of hea heaven vencom combin bined ed with the description of him resorting to the other world in bodily form (gām āśritasyetarāṃ mūrtyā), confirms our understand ders tanding ing of the wort worthy hy dead deadas as auto autonom nomous ous theo theomorp morphic hic entities.”[18] 23.2.2

Samvat Samvat 1109 insc inscript ription ion

One short inscription on the pillar is associated with the Tomara Tomara king  king Anangpal  Anangpal,, although it is hard to decipher. Alexand Alexander er Cunningham Cunningham (1862-63)  (1862-63) read the inscription as [22] follows: Samvat Dihali 1109 Ang Pāl bahi 

 1109 [1052 CE], Ang Translation: “In Samvat Translation: “In  Samvat 1109 [Anang] Pāl peopled Dilli” Based this reading, Cunningham theorized thatwhile Anangpal hadonmoved the pillar to its current location establish tabl ishing ing the city of Delh Delhi.i. How Howev ever, er, his read reading ing has been contested by the later scholars. scholars. Buddha Rashmi Mani [22] (1997) read it as follows: Samvatt Kinllī 1109 Angapala bādi  Samva

Translation: “Anangpal tighten Translation: tightened ed the nail [iron pillar] in Samvat 1109”

23.3 23. 3

Ori Origi ginal nal loc locat atio ion n

While the pillar was certainly used as a trophy in building the Quwwat-ul-Islam the  Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque mosque and  and the Qutb the  Qutb complex complex,, The Sanskrit portion given above can be translated as its original location, whether on the site itself or from elsewhere, is debated.[23][24] follows:[18]

 

74

 

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 23. IRO IRON N PILLAR OF DELHI 

Acco Accordi rding ng to the in insc scrip riptition on of king king Chand Chandra, ra, the pilla pillarr was 23.4 erected at Vishnupadagiri Vishnupadagiri (Vishnu (Vishnupada). pada). J. F. Fleet (1898) identified this place with Mathura with Mathura,, because of its proximity spott of the thein inscr scrip iptition) on) and andthe theci city’ ty’ss repureputo Delhi Delhi(th (thee find find spo pilgrimage ge centre. Howe However, ver, archae archae-ta tati tion on as a Vasihnavite pilgrima ological evidence indicates that during the Gupta period, Mathura was a major centre of Budhism of  Budhism,, although VaishVaishnavism navis m may have existed there. Moreov Moreover, er, Mathura lies in plains, and only contains some small hillocks and mounds: there is no true  giri  (hill)  (hill) in Mathura.[25] Based on paleographic similarity to the dated inscriptions from Udayagiri from  Udayagiri,, the Gupta-era iconography, analysis of metallurgy and other evidence, Meera Dass and R. Balasubramaniam (2004) theorized that the iron pillar was originally erected at Udayagiri.[12][26] According to them, the pillar, with a wheel or discus at the top, was originally located at the Udayagiri Caves.[27] This conclusion was partly based on the fact that the inscription mentions Vishnupadagiri (IAST (IAST:: Viṣṇupadagiri, meaning “hill with footprint of Viṣṇu”). This conclusion was endorsed and elaborated by Michael Willis in his  Archaeology of Hindu Ritual , pub-

Sci Scient entific ific anal analysi ysiss

[28]

The oflyplacing thed lished inr2009. ir iron on pi pilla llar at Uday Udayagi agiri ri iskey that thatpoint thi thiss site siin te favour was wascl close osely associ associate ated with Chandragupta and the worship of Vishnu in the Gupta period. In addition, there are well-establis well-established hed traditions of mining and working iron in central India, documented pariron on pi pilla llarr at Dha Dharr and loc local al pla place ce nam names es like like tic ticularl ularlyy by the ir LohapuraandLohangīPīr(see Vidisha). Vidisha). The The kin kingg of De Delhi lhi,, Iltutmish, Iltutmish, is known to have attacked and sacked Vidisha in Details of the top of iron pillar, Qutub Minar, Delhi. the thirteenth century and this would have given him an opwelding of  of pieces the forge welding portunity to remove the pillar as a trophy to Delhi, just as The pillar was manufactured by the forge wrought iron iron.. In a re repor portt publi publish shed ed in the thejo journ urnal al Current  the Tughluq the Tughluq rulers  rulers brought Asokan pillars to Delhi in the of wrought Science, R. Balasubramaniam of the IIT the  IIT Kanpur Kanpur explains  explains 1300s. how the pillar’s resistance to corrosion is due to a  passive protective film at film at the iron-rust interface. The presence of second-phase second-ph ase particles (slag and unreduced iron oxide oxides) s) in 23.3.1 23. 3.1

Reloca Relocati tion on

It is not certain when the pillar was moved to Delhi from Cunningham attributed  attributed the its original location. Alexander location.  Alexander Cunningham  king Anangpal  Anangpal,, based on the short relocation to the Tomara the Tomara king pillar pill ar insc inscripti ription on ascri ascribed bed to this thisking. king.[22] Pasana Pasanaha ha Chariu, a 1132 CE Jain CE  Jain Apabhramsha Apabhramsha text  text composed by Vibudh by  Vibudh Shridhar,, statesthat Shridhar statesthat “th “thee weig weight ht of his his pilla pillarr ca cause usedd theLord of the Snakes to tremble”. The identification of this pillar with the iron pillar lends support to the theory that the pillar was already in Delhi during Anangpal’s reign.[29] Another theory is that the relocation happened during the Muslim rule in Delhi. Some scholars hav havee assumed that it happened around 1200 CE, when when Qutb Aibak com Qutb al-Din Aibak commenced the construction construction of the Qutb complex as a general  Muhammad of Ghor Ghor..[30] Finbarr Barry Flood (2009) of of Muhammad theorizes that it was Qutb al-Din’s successor Iltutmish (r. 1210-36 CE), who moved the pillar to Delhi.[22]

themicr themicrost ructur ture e of the th e ir iron, on,tha thatt of hi high gh amount amo unts s ofdrying phosph osphorus in phorus  inostruc the metal, and the alternate wetting and existing under atmospheric conditions are the three main factors factors in the three-stage formatio formationn of that protecti protective ve pas[31] sive film. Lepidocrocite and goethite arethe firs firstt am amorp orpho hous us iro ironn oxy oxy-hydroxides that appear upon oxidation of iron. High corrosion sion rate ratess are initia initially lly obse observed rved.. Then Then,, an esse essentia ntiall chemic chemical al reaction intervenes: slag and unreduced iron oxides (second phase particles) in the iron microstructure alter the polarisation characteristics and enrich the metal–scale interface with phosphorus, thus indirectly promoting passivation promoting passivation [32] of the iron (cessation of rusting activity). The secondphase particles act as a cathode, and the metal itself serves as anode, for a mini-galvanic corrosion reaction during environment exposure. Part of the initial iron oxyhydroxides is also transf transformed ormed into magnetit magnetite, e, which somewh somewhat at slows down the process of corrosion. The ongoing reduction of

 

 

23.5. EV EVIDEN IDENCE CE OF CANNONBALL CANNONBALL STRIKE  STRIKE 

lepidocrocite and the diffusion of oxygen and complementary corrosion through the cracks and pores in the rust still contribute to the corrosion mechanism from atmospheric conditions.

The Iron Pillar in Qutub Minar, c. 1905

The next main agent to intervene in protection from oxidation is phosphorus, enhanced at the metal–scale interface by the same chemical interaction previously described between the slags and the metal. The ancien ancientt Indian smiths  limestone did not add lime to their their furnac furnaces. es. The use of of limestone as in modern blast modern  blast furnaces furnaces yields  yields pig  pig iron that iron  that is later steel;; in the process, most phosphorus is carconverted into steel ried away by the slag.[33] The absence of lime in the slag and the use of specific quantities of wood with high phosphorus content (for example, Cassia auriculata) during the smelting induces a higher phosphorus content (> 0.1%, average 0.25%) than in modern iron produced in blast furnaces (usually less than 0.05%). One analysis giv gives es 0.10% in the slags for 0.18% in the iron itself. This high phosphorus content and particular repartition are essential cataly catalysts sts in the formation of a passiveiron protective film ofthat misawite (d-FeOOH), an amorphous oxyhydroxide forms a barrier by adhering next to the interface between metal and rust. Misawit Misawite, e, the initial corrosi corrosion-resi on-resistance stance agent, was thus named because of the pioneering studies of Misawa and co-workers on the effects effects of phosphorus and copper and those of alternating atmospheric condi conditions tions in rust [34] formation. The most critic critical al corrosion-resi corrosion-resistance stance agent is iron hydrogen phosphate hydrate (FePO4 -H3 PO4 4H2 O) under its crystalline form and building up as a thin layer next to the interface interface between me metal tal and rust. Rust initia initially lly contains iron oxide/o oxide/oxyhy xyhydroxide droxidess in their amorphous form forms. s. Due to the initial corrosion of metal, there is more phosphorus at the metal–scale interface than in the bulk of the metal. Alternate environmental wetting and drying cycles provide the moisture for phosphoric-acid formation. Over time, the amorphous phosphate is precipitated into its crys−

75

talline form (the latter being therefore an indicator of old age, as this precipitation is a rather slow happening). The crystalline phosphate eventually forms a continuous layer next to the metal, which results in an excellent corrosion resistance layer.[1] In 1,600 years, the film has grown just one-twentieth of a millimetre thick.[32] In 1969, in his first book,  Chariots of the Gods? , Erich von Däniken cited Däniken  cited the absence of corrosion on the Delhi pillar and the unknown nature of its creation as evidence of extraterrestrial visitation.[35] When informed by an interviewer, in 1974, that the column was not in fact rust-free, and that its method of construction was well understood, von Däniken responded that he no longer considered the pillar or its creation to be a mystery.[36][37] Balasubra Balas ubramani maniam am stat states es that the pill pillar ar is “a liliving ving test testimo imony ny to the skill of metallurgi metallurgists sts of ancie ancient nt India India”. ”. An interview with Balasubramaniam and his work can be seen in the 2005 article by Veazy.[38] Further research published in 2009 showed that corrosion has developed evenly over the surface of the pillar.[39] It was claimed in the 1920s that iron manufactured Mirjati near near Jamshedpur  Jamshedpur is  is similar to the iron of theinDelhi [40] pillar. Further work on Adivasi (tribal) iron by the National Metallurgical Metallurgical Laboratory in the 1960s did not verif verifyy [41] this claim.

23.5

Evi Eviden dence ce of cann cannonb onball all strike strike

A significant indentation on the middle section of the pillar, approximately 400 cm (156 in) from the current courtyard ground level, has been shown to be the result of a cannonball fired at close range.[42] The impact caused horizontal fissuring of the column in the area diametrically opposite to theWhile indentation site, but the column itselfinscri remained tact. no contemp contemporaneous oraneous records, inscriptions, ptions,inor documents describing the event are known to exist, historians gene general rally ly agr agree ee tha thatt Nadi Nadirr Shah is lik likel elyy to hav havee orde ordered red the pillar’s destruction during his invasion his invasion of Delhi in Delhi in 1739 AD, as he would have considered a Hindu temple monument undesirable within an Islamic mosque complex. [43] Alternatively, he may have sought to dislodge the decorative top portion of the pillar in search of hidden precious stones or other items of value.[44] No additional damage attributable to cannon fire has been found on the pillar, suggesting that no further shots were taken. Historian Historianss have spec speculated ulated that ricoc ricocheting heting ffragragments of the cannonball may have damaged the nearby Quwwat-ul-Islam Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque mosque —  — which is known to have suffered damage to its southwestern portion during the same period—andtheassaultonthepillarmighthavebeenabandoned as a result.[45]

 

76

 

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 23. IRO IRON N PILLAR OF DELHI 

23.7 23. 7

Re Refferen erence cess

[1]   On the Corrosion Resistance Resistance of the Delhi Iron Pillar , R. Balasubramaniam, Corrosion Science, Volume 42 (2000) pp. 2103–2129. “Corrosion “Corrosion Science” is a publication publication specialspecialized in corrosion science and engineering.  Characterization of  [2] corrosion Yoshio Yoshio W Waseda; aseda; Shigeru (2006). products on steelSuzuki surfaces  . Springer. p. vii. ISBN vii.  ISBN 978-3-540-35177-1.. 978-3-540-35177-1

[3]   R. Balasubramaniam Balasubramaniam 2005, 2005, p. 1. [4] Joshi, M.C. (2007). “The Mehrauli Iron Iron Pillar”.  Delhi: Ancient History. Berghahn Books. ISBN Books.  ISBN 978-81-87358-29-9. 978-81-87358-29-9. [5] Agrawal, Agrawal,Ash Ashvini vini (1989(1989-01-01) 01-01)..  Ris  Risee andfal andfalll ofthe imp imperi erial  al  Guptas . p. 177. ISBN 177.  ISBN 978-81-208-0592-7. 978-81-208-0592-7. [6]   B. Chhabra & G. S. Gai 2006, 2006, pp. 179-180. 2006, p. 181. [7]   B. Chhabra & G. S. Gai 2006, 2006, p. 180. [8]   B. Chhabra & G. S. Gai 2006, [9]   R. Balasubramaniam Balasubramaniam 2005, 2005, p. 11. 2006, p. 179. [10]   B. Chhabra & G. S. Gai 2006, [11] G. R. Sharma. Sharma. “Chandra of the Mehrauli Mehrauli Pillar Inscription”. Inscription”. Indian Historical Quarterly.  XXI : 202–212. [12]   R. Balasubramaniam Balasubramaniam 2005, 2005, p. 13. [13] M. C. Joshi, ed.   King Candr Candraa and the Mehra Mehrauli uli Pillar  (Meerut, 1989). [14]   Delhi Iron Pillar: New Insights . R. Balasubramani Balasubramaniam, am, Aryan Bookss Internati Book International, onal,Delhi Delhi,, and Indian Indian Insti Institute tute of Ad Advanc vanced ed Study,, Shimla, 2002, Hardbound, ISBN Study Hardbound, ISBN 81-7305-223-9. 81-7305-223-9. [15]   R. Balasubramaniam Balasubramaniam 2005, 2005, p. 8. Balasubramaniam 2005, 2005, p. 16. [16]   R. Balasubramaniam Upper half of pillar, demonstrating horizontal fissuring thought to be caused by cannonball strike

[17] Dasharatha Sharma.  “The Non-Posthumous Character of the Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription”. Inscription”.  Indian Culture.   5 (2): 206–208.

23.6 23 .6

 (Cam[18] Michael D. Willis, The Archaeology of Hindu Ritual  (Cambridge, 2009): chapter 3.

See See al also so

•

 History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent

Balasubramaniam 2005, 2005, p. 7. [19]   R. Balasubramaniam

•

 Wootz steel

[20]   R. Balasubramaniam Balasubramaniam 2005, 2005, pp. 7-8.

•

  Parkerizing

[21] James James Allan, Allan, Catalogue of the Coins of the Gupta Dynasties , pp. 34–5.

•

  Serpent Column Column

•

 Qutb complex

[22]  Cynthia Talbot 2015 2015,, p. 79. [23] M.C. Joshi, S. K. Gupta and Shankar Goyal, eds.,   King Chandra and the Mehrauli Pillar  (Meerut,  (Meerut, 1989).

 

 

23.7. REFERENCES  REFERENCES 

77

breakeak[24] Javid, Ali; Javeed, Tabassum (2007).  World Heritage Mon- [42] Prasad KK, Ray HS. The Making of (and attempts at br ing) the Iron Pillar of Delhi.  Steel World , No. 1 (2001) pp. uments and Related Edifices in India Vol 1.  Pg.107 . Algora 51-56. Retrieved February 3, 2015. Publishing. ISBN Publishing.  ISBN 978-0-87586-482-2 978-0-87586-482-2.. Retrieved 29 October 2012. [43] Hearne GR.  The Seven Cities of Delhi . Nabu Press (2010), [25]   R. Balasubramaniam Balasubramaniam 2005, 2005, pp. 13-14. p. 62. ISBN 62.  ISBN 114954399X. 114954399X. Retrieved February 3, 2015. [26] Identity of Chandra and Vishnupadagiri Vishnupadagiri of the Delhi Iron [44] Balasubramaniam Balasubramaniam R. Decorative Bell Capital of the Delhi Pillar Inscription: Numismatic, Archaeological Archaeo andMuseum, Literary Evidence, R Balasubramaniam, Bulletin logical of Metals 32 (2000) 42–64. [27] On the Astronomical Astronomical Significance Significance of the Delhi Iron Pillar, R Balasubramaniam and Meera I Dass, Current Dass,  Current Science, Science, volume 86 (2004) pp. 1134–1142.

  Jour Journal nal of Oper Operations ations Management  Manag ement , 50( Iron Pillar. 50(3) 3) (1998), pp. 40-47. Retrieved February 3, 2015.

[45] Balasubramaniam Balasubramaniam R, Prabhakar VN, Shankar Shankar M. On Technical Analysis of Cannon Shot Crater on Delhi Iron Pillar. Indian Journal of History of Science, 44.1 (2009), pp. 2946.. Retrieved February 3, 2015. 46

[28]   Mic Michae haell D. Wil Willis lis,,   The Ar Arch chae aeol olog ogyy of Hi Hind nduu Ri Rittual    (C (Cam ambr brid idge ge,, 2009 2009). ). Pa Part rtly ly av avai aila labl blee on onliline ne,, 23. 23.7.1 7.1 see   http://www.cambridge.org/gb/knowledge/isbn/ item2427416/?site_locale=en_GB •

[29]  Cynthia Talbot 2015, 2015, p. 80. [30]  Cynthia Talbot 2015 2015,, pp. 77-78. Resistance of the Delhi Iron Pillar , R. Bal[31]   On the Corrosion Resistance asubramaniam, Corrosion Science, Volume 42 (2000) pp. 2103–2129.

[32]  On the growth kinetics of the protective passive film of the Delhi Iron Pillar , R. Balasubramaniam, Department of Materials and Metallurgical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur 208 016, India. Current Science, vol. 82, no. 11, 10 June 2002. [33]   On the Origin of High Phosphorus Content in Ancient Indian Iron, Vikas Kumar and R. Balasubramaniam, International Journal of Metals, Materials and Processes, vol. 14, pp. 1– 14. 2002 [34]  The mechanism of atmospheric rusting and the effect of Cu and P on the rust formation of low alloy steels , T. Misawa, T. Kyuno, Kyuno, W. Suetaka, Suetaka, S. Shimodair Shimodaira, a, Corrosio Corrosionn Science Science 11

•

•

•

•

•

 R. Balasubramaniam (2005).  Story of the Delhi Iron Pillar . Foundati Foundation on Books. Books.   ISBN 978-81-7596-278-1 978-81-7596-278-1..  King Chandra and the Mehrauli Pillar , M.C. Joshi,

 The Rustless Wonder – A Study of the Iron Pillar at  Delhi , T.R. Anantharaman Anantharaman,, Vigyan Prasar Prasar New  New Delhi,  Delhi Iron Pillar: New Insights . R. Balasubramaniam,

Aryan Books Study, International, and  Indian Institute of Advanced Study , Shimla,Delhi, 2002,and Indian Hardbound, Hardbound, ISBN  ISBN 81-7305-223-9.. 81-7305-223-9 •

 The Delhi Iron Pillar: Its Art, Metallurgy and Inscriptions , M.C. Joshi, S.K. Gupta and Shankar Goyal,

Eds., Kusumanjali Publications, Meerut, 1996.

[38]  1600 Years Young, Materials Performance, July, 2005. •

 The World Heritage Complex of the Qutub,  R. Bala-

subramaniam, Aryan Books International, New Delhi, 2005, Hardbound, ISBN Hardbound, ISBN 81-7305-293-X. 81-7305-293-X. •

[40] Andrew McWilliam McWilliam 1920, cited in Chakrabarti 1992 Delhi  hi  [41]   Some Observations on Corrosion-Resistance of Ancient Del Iron Pillar and Present-time by Primitive Methods  , A.K. Lahiri, T. Adivasi BanerjeeIron andMade B.R. Nijhawan. NML Tech. Tech. J., 5 (1963) (1963) 46-5. 46-5. Cited in in  On the corrosion resistance of the Delhi iron pillar , R. Balasubramani Balasubramaniam. am.

LastPast, Hindu Emperor:  Emperor:    The   Prithviraj Cynthia Talbot (2015). Cauhan and the Indian 1200–2000 . Cambridge University Press. ISBN Press. ISBN 9781107118560. 9781107118560.

1996.

[37]  Story 1980 1980,, pp. 88–89 [39] Kamachi Kamachi Mudali, Mudali, U.; Baldev Baldev Raj Raj (February (February 2009). “Insitu corrosion investigations on Delhi iron pillar”.   Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals .   62   (1): 25–33. doi:10.1007/s12666-009-0004-2. doi: 10.1007/s12666-009-0004-2.

 B. Chhabra; Chhabra; G. S. Gai (2006). “Me “Mehrau hraulili Iron Pil Pil-lar Inscription of Chandra”. In Upinder Singh.  Delhi:  Ancient History. Ber Bergh ghahn ahn B Book ooks. s.   ISBN 978-8187358-29-9.. 87358-29-9

S.K. Gupta and Shankar Goyal, Eds., Kusumanjali Publications, Public ations, Meerut, 1989.

(1971) 35–48. [35] Däniken, Erich von:  Chariots of the Gods? , p. 94. [36]   Playboy magazine, page 64, Volume 21 Number 8, 1974

Biblio Bibliogra graph phy y

•

 “Delhi Iron Pillar” (in two parts), R. Balasubramaniam,  IIM Metal News  Volume   Volume 7, No. 2, April 2004,  IIM Metal News  Volume pp. 11–17 and  Volume 7, No. 3, June 2004, pp. 5–13.   New Insights on the 1600-Year Old Corrosion Resistant  Delhii Iron Delh IronPilla Pillar  r , R. Balas Balasubra ubramani maniam, am, Indian Journal  of History of Science 36 (2001) 1–49.

 

78 •

 

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 23. IRO IRON N PILLAR OF DELHI 

Chakrabarti,,  The Early use of Iron in India,  Dilip K. Chakrabarti Press, New Delhi, 1992,   ISBN Oxford University Press, 0195629922.. 0195629922

23.8 23. 8 •

•

•

•

•

•

Ex Exte terna rnall lin links ks

 Detailed list of Publications on Delhi Iron Pillar by Balasubramaniam, Balasubram aniam, IIT Kanpur  Corrosion resistance of Delhi iron pillar   Nondestructive evaluation of the Delhi iron pillar Current Science, Indian Academy Academy of Sci Sciences, ences, V Vol. ol. 88, No. 12, 25 June 2005 (PDF) Iron Pillar   The Delhi Iron   IIT team solves the pillar mystery, 21 Mar 2005, Times of India (About Nondestructive evaluation of the Delhi iron pillar)  (General article on Delhi Iron Pillar in “One India One People”, May 2006, By Prof R Balasubramanium, IIT Kanpur and S M Khened, Nehru Science Centre, Mumbai)

Coordinates :   28 Coordinates: 28°3 °31′ 1′28 28.7 .76″ 6″N N 28.5246556°N 77.1850694°E

77°1 77 °11′ 1′6. 6.25 25″E ″E

/

 

Chapter 24

Kensington Runestone The Kensi Kensington ngton Runestone Runestone isa202pounds(92kg)slabof greywacke covered in runes greywacke covered in runes on  on its face and side. A Swedish A Swedish immigrant,, Olof Ohman, claimed to have discovered it immigrant in 1898 in the largely rural township of Solem of  Solem,,  Douglas County,,  Minnesota County  Minnesota,, and named it after the nearest settle Kensington.. ment, Kensington ment, The inscription purports to be a record left behind by Scandinavian explorers in the 14th century (internally dated to the year 1362). There has been a drawn-out debate on the stone’s authenticity, authenticity, but the scholarly consensus has classi since it was first examined in fied it as a 19th-century hoax 19th-century hoax since 1910, with some critics directly charging the purported discoverer Ohman with fabricating the inscription,[2] although there remains a local community convinced of the stone’s authenticity.[3]

24.1 24. 1

Pr Pro ove venan nance ce

Swedish immigrant[4] Olof Ohman asserted that he found the stone late in 1898 while clearing land he had recently [5][6]

The ston stonee acq acqui uired red of trees trees and stu stumps mps be beffore pl plow owing ing.. wassaidtobenearthecrestofasmallknollrisingabovethe wetlands, lying face down and tangled in the root system of a stunted poplar tree, estimated to be from less than 10 to about40yearsold.[7] Theartifactisabout30×16×6inches (76 × 41 × 15 cm) in size and weigh weighss 202 pounds (92 kg). Ohman’s ten-year-old son, Edward Ohman, noticed some markings,[8] and the farmer later said he thought they had .” found an “Indian almanac “Indian almanac.” During the period when Ohman discovered the stone, Ericson to  to Vinland  Vinland (North  (North America) the journey of Leif of  Leif Ericson was being widely discussed and there was renewed interest in the  the   Vikings throughout Vikings  throughout Scandinavia, stirred by the National the  National Romantic Romanticism ism   m movem ovement. ent. Five Five years earlie earlierr Norway had the  World’s Columbian ExpoNorway had participated in the World’s sition by sition  by sending the  Viking, a replica of the  Gokstad ship to Chicago to  Chicago.. There was also ffricti riction on between between Sweden  Sweden and  and Norway (which Norway  (which ultimately led to  to   Norway’s independence

1911 bill of sale which transferred ownership of the stone from Olof Ohman to the Minnesota Historical Society for $10.

from Swed Sweden en in 1905) 1905).. Som Somee Norwegi Norwegians ans clai claimed med the stone was a Swedish hoax and there were similar Swedish accusations because the stone references a joint expedition of Norwegians and Swedes at a time when they were ruled Unio ionn of Kal Kalmar mar.. It is thou though ghtt to bythesameking,aftertheUn bythesameking,afterthe

79

 

80

 

be more than coinci coincidental dental that the stone was found among Scandinavian Scandina vian newcome newcomers rs in Minnesota, still struggling for acceptance and quite proud of their Nordic heritage.[9] A copy of the inscription made its way to the University the  University of Minnesota. Minnesota.  Olaus J. Breda (1853–1916), Breda  (1853–1916), professor of Scandina Scan dinavia viann Langua Languages ges and Lite Literatur raturee in the Scan Scandina dinavia viann Department, declared the stone to be a forgery and published lished a disc discredi rediting ting arti article cle whi which ch appe appeared ared in Symra during 1910.[10] Breda also forwarded copies of the inscription to fellow linguists and historians in Scandinavia, such as Oluf as  Oluf Rygh,,  Sophus Bugge Rygh Bugge,,  Gustav Storm, Storm,  Magnus Olsen Olsen and  and Adolf Noreen Noreen.. They “unanimously pronounced the Kensington inscription a fraud and forgery of recent date”. [11] The stone was then sent to  Northwestern University University   in Illinois. Scholars either dismissed it as a prank Evanston, Illinois. or felt unable to identify a sustainable historical context Holand,, and the stone was returned to Ohman.  Hjalmar Holand a Norwegian-American Norwegian-American historian and author, claim claimss in his autobiography, “My First Eighty Years,” that the stone was the Minnesota Hisgiven to him by Ohman.[12] However, the Minnesota torical Society has Society has a bill of sale showing Ohman sold them the stone for for $10 in 1911. Holand rene renewed wed publi publicc interest with an article[13] enthusiastically summarizing studWinchellll ies that were made by geologist Newton geologist  Newton Horace Winche (Minneso (Min nesota ta His Histori torical cal Soci Society) ety) and lingu linguist ist Geo Georg rgee T. Fl Flom om (Philological Philological Society Societyofthe ofthe Universi University ty of Illinois Illinois),whoboth ),whoboth published opinions in 1910.[14] According to Winchell, the tree under which the stone was allegedly found found had been destroyed bef before ore 1910. Seve Several ral nearby poplars that witnesses estimated as being about the same size were cut down and, by counting their rings, it was determined determined they wer weree around 30–40 years old. One member of the team who had excavated at the find site in 1899, county schools superintendent Cleve Van Dyke, later recalled the trees being only ten or twelve years old. [15] The surrounding hadrestricted not beenfor settled 1858, and settlement wascounty severely a timeuntil by the Dakota the  Dakota War of 1862 (although 1862 (although it was reported that the best land in the township adjacent to Solem to  Solem,, Holmes City City,, was already taken by 1867, by a mixture of Swedish, Norwegian and “Yankee” settlers.[16] ) Winchell estimated that the inscription was roughly 500 years old, by comparing its weathering with the weathering on the backside, which he assumed was glacial and 8000 years old. Winchell also mentions in the same report that Prof. W. O. Hotchkiss, state geologist of Wisconsin, estimated that the runes were “at least 50 to 100 years.” Meanwhile, Flom found a strong apparent divergence between the runes used in the Kensington inscription and those in use during century. Similarl Similarly, language of the inscription inscripti on the was14th modern compared to y,thetheNordic languages [14] of the 14th century.

CHAPTER 24. KENSINGTO KENSINGTON N RUNESTONE  RUNESTONE 

The Kensington Runestone is on display at the Runestone Museum in Alexandria, in Alexandria, Minnesota. Minnesota.[17]

24.2

Te Text xt and transla translatio tion n

The text consists 9 lines on the[18] face of the stone, and 3 lines on the edge, of read as follows: Front: 8 : göter : ok : 22 : norrme norrmenn : po : ...o : opdagelse opdagelseffärd : fr froo : vinland : of : vest : vi : hade : läger : ved : 2 : skjär : en : dags : rise : norr : fro : deno : sten : vi : var : ok : fiske : en : dagh : äptir : vi : kom : hem : fan : 10 : man : röde : af : blod : og : ded : AVM : frälse : äf : illü. Side: här : (10) : mans : ve : havet : at : se : äptir : vore : skip : 14 : dagh : rise : from : deno : öh : ahr : 1362 : The sequences  rr , ll  and  and  gh  represent actual digraphs. digraphs. The AVM  is   is writ written ten in Latin capi capitals. tals. The numb numbers ers giv given en in Arabic numerals in the above transcription are given in the pentimal the pentimal system. system. At lea least st sev seven en of the runes runes,, includincluding those transcribed  a, d, v, j, ä, ö  above,  above, are not in any  for standard known from the medieval period (see below (see  below for details).[19] The language of the inscription is close to modern Swedish, the transliterated text being quite easily comprehensible prehen sible to any speak speaker er of a modern Scandina Scandinavian vian language. gua ge. T The he lan langua guage ge being beingcl close oserr to theSw the Swedi edish sh of the19th than of the 14th century is one of the main reasons for for the [20] scholarly consensus dismissing it as a hoax. The text translates to: “Eight  Geats and “Eight Geats  and twenty-two Norwegians on an exploration journey from Vinland to the west. We had camp by two skerries one day’s journey north from from this stone. We were [out] to fish one day. After we cam camee home [we] ffound ound ten men red of blood and dead. AVM AVM ((Ave Ave Virgo Maria Maria)) save [us] from evil.” "[We] have ten men by the sea to look after our ships, fourteen days’ travel from this island. [In the] year 1362.”

 

 

24.3. LINGUIST LINGUISTIC IC ANALYSIS  ANALYSIS 

24.3

Ling Linguis uisti ticc anal analysi ysiss

Holand took the stone to Europe and, while newspap newspapers ers in Minnesota carried articles hotly debating its authenticity, the stone was quickly dismissed by Swedish linguists. For the next 40 years, Holand struggled to sway public and scholarly opinionHeabout the writing articleswhen and several seve ral books. achie achieved vedRunestone, brie brieff success in 1949, Institution,, the stone was put on display at the Smithsonian the Smithsonian Institution and scholars such as William as  William Thalbitze Thalbitzerr  and S. N. Hagen published papers supporting its authenticity. [21] At nearly the same time, Scandinavian linguists Sven Jansson, Erik Jansson,  Erik Moltke,, Harry Anderson and K. M. Nielsen, along with a Moltke popular book by Erik Wahlgren again questioned the Runestone’s authenticity.[20] Along with Wahl Wahlgren, gren, historian historian Theodore  Theodore C. Blegen flatly Blegen flatly [11] artifact as a prank, posasserted Ohman had carved the artifact sibly with help from others in the Kensington area. Further resolution seemed to come with the 1976 published traninterview w of Frank Walter Gran conducted script [22] of an intervie by Dr.ed Paul Carson, Jr.[23][24] on August 13,an1967 thatfat had rec record orded to audi au dioo tape. tape. In it, it, Gr Gran saidhis saidhis athe herr been John John confessed conf essed in 1927 that Ohman made the inscription. John Gran’s story howe however ver was based on second-hand anecdotes he had heard about Ohman, and although it was presented declaration on,, Gran lived for several more years, as a  dying declarati saying nothing more about the stone. The possibility of the runestone being an authentic 14thcentury artefact was again raised in 1982 by Robert by  Robert Hall, Hall, an emeritus Professor of Italian Language and Literature at Cornell University, published hed a book (and a follow up University, who publis in 1994) questioning questioning the method methodology ology of its criti critics. cs. Hall asserted that the odd philological problems in the Runestone could be the result of normal dialectal variances in Old Swedish of the period. He further contende contendedd that critics had failed to consider the physical evidence, which he found leaning heavily in favour of authenticity. In The Vikings and America (1986), Wahlgren again stated that the text bore linguistic abnormalities and spellings that he thought suggested the Runestone was a forgery.[25] 24.3.1

Lexical Lexical eviden evidence ce

On Onee of the thema main in lingui linguisti sticc arg argume uments nts for th thee rejec rejectition on of th thee textasgenuineOldSwedishistheterm opthagelse opthagelsefar farth th (updagelsefard ) “journey of discovery”. This lexeme is unattested in either Scandinavian, Low Franconian or Low German before the 16th century.[26] The term exists in modern Scandinavian Scandina vian (Norwegi (Norwegian an  oppdagingsferd   or   oppdagelses ferd   fer d , Swedish  upptäcktsfärd ) It is a loan from Low German *updagen, Dut Dutch ch opdagen,whichareinturnfromHigh

81

German aufdecken, ultimately loan-translated from French découvrir  in the 16th century. The Norwe Norwegian gian hist histori orian an Gustav Storm often used the modern Norwegian lexeme in late 19th-century articles on Viking exploration, creating a plausible incentive for the manufacturer of the inscription to use this word. 24.3.2

Grammatica Grammaticall evi eviden dence ce

Another characteristic characteristic pointed out by skepti skeptics cs is the text’s Earlyy Old Swedish Swedish (14th centu century) ry) still relack of cases of  cases.. Earl tained the four cases of Old of  Old Norse Norse,, but Late Old Swedish (15th century) reduced its case structure to two cases, so that the absence of inflection in a Swedish text of the 14thcentury would be an irregularity. Similarl Similarly, y, the inscripti inscription on text does not use the plural verb forms that were common in the 14th century and have only recently disappeared: for example, (plural forms in parenthesis) “wi war” (wörum), “hathe” (höfuðum), "[wi] fiske” (fiskaðum), “kom” (komum), “fann” (funnum) and “wi hathe” (hafdum). Proponents to sporadic examp examples les ofof these thethe se simpl sistone’s mpler er fauthenticity orm ormss in som someepointed 14t 14th-c h-cent entury ury text textss and to the great changes of the morphological system of the Scandinavian Scandina vian languages that began during the latter part of that century.[27] 24.3.3

Paleogra Paleographi phicc eviden evidence ce

pentadic"" nume numerals. rals. Such num numererThe insc inscript ription ion cont contains ains "pentadic als are known in Scandinavia, but nearly always from relatively recent times, not from verified medieval runic monume ments nts,, on whi which ch num number berss we were re usu usuall allyy spel spelled led out as wo words rds.. S. N. Hagen stated “The Kensington alphabet is a synthesis of older unsimpli unsimplified fied laterffor dotted number of Latin letters ... runes, The runes or a, n, runes, s and tand are athe old Danish unsimplified unsimplified forms which should have been out of use for a long time [by the 14th century]...I suggest that [a posited 14th century] creator must at some time or other in his life have been familiar with an inscription (or inscriptions) composed at a time when these unsimplified forms were still in use” and that he “was not a professional runic scribe before he left his homeland”. [28] A possible origin for the irregular shape of the runes was discovered in 2004, in the 1883 notes of a then-16-yearold journeyman tailor with an interest in folk music, Edward Larsso Larsson. n.[29] Lar Larsso sson’s n’s aun auntt had had migra migrated ted wi with th her her hus hus-band and son from Sweden to Crooked Lake, just outside Alexandria, in 1870.[30] Larsson’s sheet lists two different Futharks. Futharks. The first Futha Futhark rk consi consists sts of 22 rune runes, s, the last two of which are bind-runes, representing the lettercombinations EL and MW. His second Futhark consists of

 

82

 

CHAPTER 24. KENSINGTO KENSINGTON N RUNESTONE  RUNESTONE 

24.4

Purpo Purported rted his histori torical cal con contex textt

 for Magn Magnus us Erikss Eriksson on , King of Norway and SweSigillum Sigi llum ad causas causas for  den

Edward Larsson’s notes (1885)

Edward Larsson’s runic alphabets from 1885

27 runes, where the last 3 are specially adapted to represent the letters å, ä, and ö of the modern Swedish alphabet. The runes in this second set correspo correspond nd closely to the nonstandard runes in the Kensington inscripti inscription. on.[29] The abbreviation for Ave Maria consists of the Latin letters AVM . Wahlgren (1958) noted that the carver had incised a notch on the upper right hand corner of the letter V.[20] The Massey Twins in their 2004 paper argued that this notch is consistent consis tent with a scribal abbreviation abbreviation for  for a final  -e  used in the 14th century.[31]

There is some limited historical evidence for possible 14thcentury Scandinavian expeditions to North America. In a  John Dee, Dee, dated 1577, Merletter by Gerardus by Gerardus Mercator to Mercator to John cator refers refers to a Jacob Cnoye Cnoyen, n, who had learned that eight men returned to Norway from an expedition to the Arctic islan islands ds in 136 1364. 4. On Onee of theme the men, n, a pri pries est,t, pr prov ovid ided ed theKin the Kingg of Norw Norway ay with withaa grea greatt dea deall of geographi geographical cal inf informa ormatio tion. n.[32] Carl Christian Rafn in Rafn  in the early 19th century mentions a priest named Ivar named  Ivar Bardarsson, Bardarsson, who had previously been based bas ed in Greenland and andtur turns ns up in Nor Norwe wegi gian an record recordss from 1364 onward. Furthermore, in 1354, King Magnus King  Magnus Eriksson Eriksson of  of Sweden and Norway had issued a letter appointing a law officer  Paul Knutsson Knutsson as  as leader of an expedition to the named Paul named colony of Greenland of  Greenland,, to investigate reports that the population was turning away from Christian culture.[33] Another of the documents reprinted by the 19th century scholars was a scholarl scholarlyy attempt by Icelandi Icelandicc Bishop Gisli Oddsson, in 1637, to compile a history of the Arctic colonies. He dated the Greenlanders’ fall away from Christianity to 1342, and claimed that they had turned instead to America. Supporters of a 14th-century origi originn for the Kensington runestone argue that Knutson may therefore have travelled beyond Greenland to North America, in search of renegade Greenlanders, most of his expedition being killed in Minnesota and leaving just the eight voyagers to return to Norway.[34] However, there is no evidence that the Knutson expedition

 

 

24.6. REFERENCES  REFERENCES 

83

Runestone,, a runestone found in Oklahoma ever set sail (the government of Norway went through con Heavener Runestone sid siderab erable le turm turmoil oil in 1355) 1355)and and the informa informatio tionn from Cno Cnoyen yen  Narragansett Runestone Runestone,, an assumed hoax in Rhode as relayed by Mercator states specifically that the eight men Island who came to Norway in 1364 were not survivors of a recent expedition, expedi tion, but descend descended ed from the colonists who had setrunestones,, are widely dismissed as a hoax  Spirit Pond runestones tled the distant lands several generations earlier.[32] Also, in Maine those early 19th century books, which aroused a great deal of interest among Scandinavian among  Scandinavian Americans, Americans, would have penny,, a Norse coin that was found in Maine  Maine penny been available available to a late 19th-century hoaxe hoaxer.r. Hjalmar Holand adduced the “blond” Indians among the 24.6 Re Refferen erence cess Mandan on  on the Upper Missouri River as possible descen- 24.6 Mandan dants of the Swedish and Norwegian explorers.[35] This was [1] Ric Richa hard rd Niel Nielse senn and and He Henr nrik ik Will Willia iams ms (May (May 20 2010 10). ). dismissed as “tangential” to the Runestone issue by Alice [1] “Inscription Translation” Translatio n” (PDF).  (PDF). Retrieved 2011-06-11. Beck Kehoe (2004), in her book “The Kensington Runestone, Approaching a Research Question Holistically.”[36] [2] Gustavson, Helmer. Helmer. “The non-enigmatic runes of the KensKens•

•

•

•

ington stone”.  Viking Heritage Magazine. Gotland University.   2004 (3). "[...] every Scandinavian runologist and expert in Scandinavian historical linguistics has declared the Kensington stone stone a hoax [...]"; Wallace, B (1971). “Some poi pointsof ntsof contr controv overs ersy”. y”. In Ash Ashee G; et al. The Que Quest st for Ame Amerrica. New York: York: Praeger. pp. 154–174. 154–174. ISBN  ISBN 0-2690-269-02787027874.; Wahlgren, Erik (1986).  The Vikings and America (Ancient Peoples and Places). Thames & Hudson. ISBN Hudson.  ISBN 0-50002109-0.;.; Mich 02109-0 Michlov lovic ic MG (1990). “Folk “Folk Archaeol Archaeology ogy in Anthropological Perspective”.  Current Anthropology.   31 (11): 103–107. doi 103–107.  doi::10.1086/203813.; 10.1086/203813.; Hughey M, Michlovic MG (1989).. “Making (1989) “Making history: history: The Vikings Vikings in the American American heartland”.   Politics, Culture and Society.   2  (3): 338–360. doi::10.1007/BF01384829 10.1007/BF01384829.. doi The situation of Kensington

A possible route of such an expedition connecting the Bay with Kensington would lead up either Hudson Bay with either Nelson  Nelson River or River  or Hayes  Hayes River, River,[37] through through Lake  Lake Winnipeg Winnipeg,, then up the Red the  Red River of the North North..[38] ) The northern waterway begins at Traverse at  Traverse Gap, Gap, on the other side of which is the River,, flowing to join the great source of the Minnesota the  Minnesota River Mississippi River River at  at Saint  Saint Paul/Minneapolis Paul/Minneapolis..[39] This route was examined by Flom (1910), who found that explorers and traders had come from Hudson Bay to Minnesota by this route decades before the area was officially settled. [40]

24.5 24 .5 •

•

•

•

See See al also so

“forskning.no rskning.no Kan du stole på Wikipedia?" (in Wikipedia?" (in Norwegian). [3]   “fo Retri Retriev eved ed 200 2008-1 8-12-1 2-19. 9. “Det “Det finnes finnes en lit liten en klikk med amerik ame rikane anere re somsver somsvergertil gertil at steine steinenn er ekte. ekte. De er sto stort rt sett sett skandinaviskættede skandinavi skættede realister uten peiling på språk, og de har store skarer med tilhengere.” Translation: Translation: “There is a small clique of Americans who swear to the stone’s authenticity. They are mainly natural scientists of Scandinavian descent with no knowledge of linguistics, and they have large numbers of adherents.” [4]  http://kahsoc.org/ohman.htm farmer  http://kahsoc.org/ohman.htm farmer [5]   “Extract from 1886 plat map of Solem township”. township”. Archived from from the original on October 26, 200 2009. 9. Retrieved 2007-1031.

  Beardm Beardmore ore Relics Relics,, Vi Viki king ng Age Age reli relics cs,, suppo supposed sedly ly foun oundd in Can Canada ada,, associ associate atedd with with th thee Kens Kensing ington tonrun runee-

[6] Stephen Minicucci, Internal Minicucci,  Internal Improvements and the Union, 1790–1860,, Studi 1790–1860 Studies es in American American Political Political Develo Developmen pmentt (2004),, 18: p.160-185, (2004) p.160-185, (2004), Cambridge Cambridge Univers University ity  doi::10.1017/S0898588X04000094 10.1017/S0898588X04000094.. “Federal approPress, doi Press, priationsfor priations forinternal internal improv improvements ements amo amount unted ed to $119.8mil$119.8million lion betwee betweenn 179 17900 and1860. Thebulk of thi thiss am amoun ount,t, $77 $77.2 .2 million, was distributed to the states through indirect methods ods,, such such as lan landd gra grants ntsor or dis distri tribut butio ions ns of lan landd sal salee reve revenue nues, s, which would today be labeled “off-budget.""

stone Runestone,, allegedly found west of the  Vérendrye Runestone Great Lakes in the 1730s

[7]  “Done in Runes” Runes”..   Minneapolis Journal . appendix to “The Kensington Rune Stone” by T. Blegen, 1968. 22 February 1899. Retrieved 2007-11-28.

 AVM Runestone Runestone,, a hoax planted near the site of the Kensington runestone  Elbow Lake Runestone Runestone,, a hoax planted in Minnesota

 

84

 

CHAPTER 24. KENSINGTO KENSINGTON N RUNESTONE  RUNESTONE 

Runes”..   TIME . 8 October 1951. Retrieved [8] Hall Jr., Robert A.:   The Kensington Rune-Stone Authentic  [21]  “Olof Ohman’s Runes” 2009-02-08. and Important , page 3. Jupiter Press, 1994. tapes”.  Minnesota [9] Michael Michael G. Michlovi Michlovic, c, “Folk “Folk Archaeol Archaeology ogy in AnthropoAnthropo- [22] Fridley, R (1976). “The case of the Gran tapes”.  45 History .  (4): 152–156. logical Perspective” Perspective”   Current Anthropology   31.1 (February 1990:103–107) p. 105ff. [23]   American heritage heritage August 1977 Symra.. 1910, pp. [24] “The Case of the Gran Tapes”,   Minnesota History  pages [10] Olaus J. Breda. Breda. Rundt Kensington-stenen, ((Symra 65–80) 152–156 (Winter 1976) [11] Blegen, Blegen, T (1960). (1960).  The Kensington Rune Stone : New Light  [25] Wahlgren, Wahlgren, Erik (1986).  The Vikings and America (Ancient  on an Old R Riddle iddle. Minnesota Minnesota Historica Historicall Society Society Press. Press.  ISBN Peoples and Places). Tha Thame mess & Hudson Hudson..   ISBN 0-5000-87351-044-5.. 0-87351-044-5 02109-0.. 02109-0 “TheKens Kensingto ingtonn Runest Runestone: one: Fact Williams, Henrik (2012). (2012).   “The [12] Holand, Hjalmar Hjalmar (1957). My First Eighty Years . New York: [26] Williams,   The Swedish-American Historical Quarterly and Fiction” Fiction”. . . Twayne Publishers, Inc. p. 188. 63 (1): 3–22. [13] Holand, Holand, “First “First authorit authoritati ative ve inv investi estigati gation on of old oldest est document document Bengtson. n. “The  “The Kensington Rune Stone: A Study in America”, Journal of American History  3 (1910:165–84); [27] John D. Bengtso Guide” (PDF). Guide”  (PDF). jdbengt.net. Retrieved November November 23, 2013. Michlovic noted Holand’s contrast of the Scandinavians as undaunted, brave, daring, faithful and intrepid contrasted [28] Article Article The Kensington Runic Inscription by S.N. Hagen, in: with the Indians as savages, wild heathens, pillagers, vengeSpeculum: A Journal of Medieval Studies , Vol. XXV, No.3, fu ful,l, like like wildbeast wild beasts: s: an interpret interpretatio ationn that“plac that “placed ed it squarely squarely July 1950. withinn the fr withi frame amewor workk of Indian-whi Indian-white te relation relationss in Minnesota Minnesota [29] Tryggve Sköld (2003). “Edward (2003).  “Edward Larssons alfabet och Kensat the time of its discovery.” discovery.” (Michlovic 1990:106). ingtonstenens” (PDF). ingtonstenens”  (PDF).  DAUM-katta  (in Swedish).   Umeå: Umeå: [14] Winchell NH, Flom G (1910).   “The Kensingto Kensingtonn Rune Dialekt-, ortnamns- och folkminnesarkivet folkminnesarkivet i Umeå (Winter Stone: Sto ne: Pre Prelimin liminary ary Report” Report”   (PDF).   Collecti Collections ons of the 1401-548X.. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 2003): 7–11. ISSN 7–11.  ISSN 1401-548X Minnesota Historical Society.  15 . Retrieved 2007-11-28. [30] “Kensingtonsteinens “Kensingtonsteinens gåte”. gåte”.  Schrödingers katt .  Episode subtitles (click “Teksting”) “Teksting”) (in  (in Norwegian). 2012-12-20. NRK. [15] Milo M. Quaife, “The myth of of the Kensington runestone: runestone: The Norse discovery of Minnesota 1362” in  The New Eng[31] Keith Keith and Kevin Massey, “Authenti “Authenticc Medie Medieval val Element Elementss land Quarterly December 1934 in the Kensington Stone” in Epigraphic Society Occasional Publications Publicatio ns Vol. 24 2004, pp 176–182 [16 [16]] Lo Lobec beck, k, Engebr Engebret et P. (1867) (1867)..   “Holm “Holmes es City narrative narrative on Trysil (Norway) emigrants website (via Archive.org)". Archive.org)" . [32] [32] Tay Taylor lor,, E.G.R. E.G.R. (1956) (1956).. “A Letter Letter Dated Dated 1577 from from Archived from the from  the original original   oonn June 29, 2003. Retrieved Retrieved Mercator to John Dee”.   Imago Mundi .   13: 56 56–6 –68. 8. 2013-08-09. doi::10.1080/03085695608592127 10.1080/03085695608592127.. doi [17]  “Kensington Runestone Museum, Alexandria Minnesota”. Minnesota” . [33]   Full text in Diplomatarium Norvegicum English translation translation Retrieved 2008-12-19. [34]   Holand, Hjalmar Hjalmar (1959).  (1959). “An  “An English scientist in America [18] Sven B. F. Jansson, Jansson, "'Runstene "'Runstenen' n' fran Kensington Kensington i Min130 years before Columbus”. Columbus”.  Transactions of the Wisconsin nesota” in Nordisk Tidskrift för Vetenskap Vetenskap 25 (1949) 377– Academy.  48 : 205–219ff. 405. W. Krogmann, Krogmann, “Der 'Runenstein' 'Runenstein' von von Kensington, Kensington, Hjalmar almar Holand, Holand, “The Kensington Kensington Rune Stone: Stone: A Study Minnesota', Jahrbuch für Amerikastudien, 1958 3: 59–111. [35] Hj in Pre-Columbian American History.” Ephraim WI, selfInge Skovgaard-Petersen, review of: Theodore C. Blegen: published (1932). The Kensingto Kensingtonn Rune Stone. New Light Light on an Old Riddle. St. Paul, Minnesota Historical Society, 1968.  Historisk  [36] Alice Beck Kehoe, The Kensington Runestone: Approaching Tidsskrift , Bind 12. række, 5 (1971). a Research Question Holistically, Long Grove IL, Waveland 1-57766-371-3.. Chapter 6. Press (2004) ISBN (2004) ISBN 1-57766-371-3 [19] Aslak Aslak Liestöl, Liestöl, “The Bergen Bergen Runes and the Kensington Kensington Inscription scrip tion Minnesot Minnesotaa History History 40 (1966), (1966), p. 59 “To ScanScan- [37]  The Grass River River at  at Great Canadian Rivers dinavian scholars this will not be starrtling news, for they Brehaut ut & P. Eng The Eng The Red River Cart and Trails are agreed that the Kensington Kensington inscriptino is modern. [...] [38] Harry B. Breha in  Transactions  of   of the Manitoba Historical Society, series 3 The myth of the Kensington stone lives on, I am sorry to no. 28 (1971–2) say, sa y, partl partlyy becaus becausee schola scholarsh rship ip has fail ailed ed in making making its its views views known in a fo form rm suitable to convince the public.” [39] Pohl, Frederick J. “Atlantic Crossings before before Columbus” New York, York, W.W. Norton & Co. (1961) p212 [20] Wa Wahlgr hlgren, en, Erik (1958).  The Kensington Stone, A Mystery Solved . University University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN Press.  ISBN 1-125-20295- [40] Flom, George George T. “The Kensington Kensington Rune-Stone” Springfield Springfield IL, Illinois State Historical Historical Soc. (1910) p37 5.

 

24.8. EXTERNAL EXTERNAL LINKS  LINKS 

24.7 24 .7 •

•

Lite Litera ratu ture re

runic stones, stones, from from  Thalbitzer, William C. (1951). Two runic Greenland and Minnesota. Washington: Smithsonian Washington:  Smithsonian Institution..  OCLC 2585531 Institution 2585531..

 Hall, Robert A., Jr.   (1982).   The Kensington Runestonee is Genuine: ston Genuine: Linguist Linguistic, ic, practical practical,, methodol methodologiogical considerations . Colu Columb mbia, ia, SC: Hornbe Hornbeam am Press Press..

ISBN 0-917496-21-3. 0-917496-21-3. •

•

•

•

Kensin nsington gton Runeston Runestone:  e:  Kehoe, Alic   Kehoe, Alicee Bec Beckk (2005).  The Ke Approachingg a Research Approachin Research Question Holistically Holistically. Wave1-57766-371-3.. land Press. ISBN Press.  ISBN 1-57766-371-3

 “Kensingtonstenens gåta – The riddle of the Kensington runestone” (PDF). runestone” (PDF).  Historiska nyheter  (in   (in Swedish and English). Stockholm: Statens Stockholm:  Statens historiska museum (Specialn (Spec ialnumme ummerr om Ken Kensing singtons tonsten tenen): en): 16 page pages. s.  ISSN 0280-4115 0280-4115.. Retrieved Retrieved 2008-12-19. 2003. ISSN 2003.  Anderson, Rasmus B (1920).  “Another View of the Kensington Rune Stone”. Stone”.  Wisconsin Magazine of History.  3 : 1–9. Retrieved 2011-03-31. Kensington Rune  Flom, George T (1910).   “The Kensington Stone: A modern inscription inscription from Douglas Douglas County, Minnesota”..  Publications of the Illinois State HistoriMinnesota” cal Library. Illinois State Historical Society.   15: 3– 44. Retriev Retrieved ed 2011-03-31.

24.8 24. 8 •

•

•

Ex Exte terna rnall lin links ks

 Kensington Runestone Park in Park in Solem Township, Douglas County, Minnesota Runeston stonee Muse Museum um whi which ch hou house sess the sto stone ne in Ale Alexa xann  Rune dria, Minnesota   36 3600 Vi Vieew of Ru Rune ne St Ston onee Zoom Zoom into into an andd vie view th thee ston stonee just like you were at the museum.

Coordinates::   45°48.788′N 95°40.305′W / 45.813133°N Coordinates 95.671750°W

 

85

 

Chapter 25

Kingoodie artifact 25..1 25

No Nottes

[1]  Brewster, Sir David David (1845).  (1845).  “Queries and Statements concerning a Nail found imbedded in a Block of Sandstone obtained from Kingoodie (Mylnfield) Quarry, North Britain” Britain”.. Report of the Fourteenth Meeting of the British Association  for the Advancement of Science. London: John London:  John Murray: Murray: 51.

Retrieved 2008-02-03. [2] Keith Keith Fitzpatri Fitzpatrick-Ma ck-Matthe tthews ws and James James Doeser Doeser (2007-08(2007-0819).  “Nail in sandstone from Kingoodie (UK)". (UK)" .   Bad Archaeology. Retrieved 17 December 2016.

The Kingoodie Quarry, where the Kingoodie artifact was found.

The Kingoodie artifact (also known as  Kingoodie hammer) is an object with the characteristics of a corroded iron nail found of  Devonian sandstone sandstone in  in 1844 in the nail found in a block of Devonian Quarry in Kingoodie Kingoodie Quarry in  Kingoodie,, Scotland  Scotland.. Brewster reported  reported to the British the British Association Association that  that the David Brewster nail was found when a rough block of stone was being prepared for dressing for dressing.. The nail was discovered when the overlying clay was cleared from the stone, with half an inch (12.7 mm) of the nail projecting into the clay and the remainder of the nail lying along the surface of the stone to within an inch of the head which went down into the stone. It is not known from what part of the quarry the stone came from, and it was handled at least four or five times between being found in the quarry and moved to where it was dressed.[1] There are, howe however, ver, few refer references ences to this objec object,t, and the mysteries surrounding its discovery were typical for the nineteenthh century. Most such mysteries were resolv nineteent resolved ed by [2] the twentieth century.

86

 

Chapter 26

Klerksdorp sphere Klerksdorp Klerksdo rp spher spheres es  are

sma smallll objec objects, ts, often often sph spheri erical cal to disc-shaped, that have been collected by miners and rockhounds   from 3-billion-year-old pyrophyllite 3-billion-year-old  pyrophyllite deposits  deposits mined by Wonderstone Ltd., near Ottosdal near  Ottosdal,, South Africa. They have been cited by some alternative researchers and reporters in books,[1][2] popular articles,[3][4] and many web inexplicable out-of-place artifacts that artifacts that could pages,[5][6] as inexplicable out-of-place only have been manufactured by intelligent beings. Geol-

hematite (Fe  (Fe2 O3 ) or wollastonite or wollastonite (CaSiO  (CaSiO3 ) mixed with mihematite nor amounts of hemati hematite te and and goethite  goethite (FeOOH).  (FeOOH). Observa[7] tions by Cairncross and Nel and others[11] indicated that many of the Klerksdorp spheres found in unaltered pyro (FeS2 ). The co color lor of the sspeci peci-phyllite consist of pyrite of  pyrite (FeS [9][10] ranged from dark reddish mens studied by Heinrich brown, red, to dusky red. The color of those ob objects jects composed of pyrite is not known. All of the specimens of these [9][10]

ogists who have studied these objec objects ts have concl concluded udedresult that objects, whichwell weredefined cut open by Heinrich, exhibited the objects are not manufactured, but are rather the an extremely radial structure terminating on [7][8][9][10] of natural processes. either the center or centers of a Klerksdorp sphere. Some of these objects exhibit well-defined and parallel latitudinal grooves or ridges. Even specimens consisting of intergrown flattened spheres exhibit such grooves.[9][10] 26.1 26. 1 De Descr scrip ipti tion on

26.2

Geol Geologi ogical cal explan explanati ation on of the their ir origin

Various prof Various professiona essionall geologists[7][8][9][10] agree that the Klerksdo Kler ksdorp rp sph spheres eres ori origina ginated ted as   concretions, concretions, whi which

A Klerksdorp sphere. It is 3 to 4 centimeters in maximum diameter  and 2.5 centimeters in thickness.

The Klerksdorp spheres typically range in diameter from 0. 0.55 to 10 cm. cm. As ill illus ustra trate tedd by He Hein inri rich ch,,[9][10] they vary widely in shape from either approximate or flattened spheres to well-defined discs and often are interdiffraction ractionanalyses analyses of specspecgrown. Petrographi Petrographicc and X-ray diff imens of these objects found that they consist either of

[9][10]after , or hboth, theythat formed sediments, sediments, ash mulated mula tedin3.0volcanic bill billion ion yea years rs ago.  ash, Hei Heinric nrich arg argues ues thaaccut the the wollastonite wollastonite nodules  nodules formed by the metamorphism the  metamorphism of  of carbonate concretions in the presence of silica of silica-rich -rich fluids generated during the metamorphism of the volcanic deposits containing them into pyrophyllite. It was also argued that the hematite nodules represent pyrite concretions oxidized by by weathering  weathering of  of near surface surface pyroph pyrophyllite yllite depos deposits. its. Below the near-surf near-surface ace zone of weathering, which has dev develeloped in the pyrophylli pyrophyllite, te, pyrite concreti concretions ons are unaffec unaffected ted by weathering and, thus, have not been altered to hematite. The radial internal structure of these objects is a pseudomorph after the original crystalline structure of the original carbonate or pyrite concretion.[9][10] Both Cair Cairncro ncross ss[7] and Heinric Heinrichh[9][10] arg argue ue that that thegroov thegrooves es exhibited by these concretions are natural in origin. As proposed by Cairncross,[7] the grooves represen representt fine-graine fine-grainedd laminations within which the concretions grew. The growth

87

 

88

 

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 26. KLERKS KLERKSDORP DORP SPHERE  SPHERE 

26..3 26

Cr Criiticism of “out of pla lacce” claims

The various claims[1][2][4][6] that these objects are either “perfectly round” or perfect spheres is now known to be [8][9][10]

Side view of typical calcareous concretions, which exhibit equatorial grooves, found in Schoharie County, New York. The cube, for  scale, is one centimeter cubed.

of the thecon concr creti etion onss wit within hin th thee pla plane ne of thefin the finerer-gra grain ined ed lam lam-inations was inhibited because of the lesser permeability and porosity of finer-grain finer-grained ed sediments relative to the surrounding sediments. sediments. Faint iinternal nternal lamina, whic whichh corresponds to process exterioringroove, can be seen in cut specimens. A similar coarser-grained sediments created the lati latitudi tudinal nal ridges ridges and groo grooves vesexh exhibi ibited ted by innu innumer merable ableiron iron oxide concretions found within the Navajo Sandstone of southern Utah southern  Utah called  called “Moqui  “Moqui marbles”. marbles”. Latitudinal Latitudinal grooves are also found on carbonate concretions found in Schoharie County, New York. The latitudinal ridges and grooves of the Moqui marbles are more pronounced and irregular than seen in the Klerksdorp (Ottosdal) concretions because they  that was more permeable than the fineformed in sand in  sand that grained volcanic material material in which the Klerksdorp (Ottosdal) concretions grew.[9][10] Very similar concretions have been found within strata, as old as 2.7 to 2.8 billion years, comprising part of the Hamersley Group ofspheres Australia. The Australian and the Klerksdorp are among the oldestconcretions known examples of concretions created by microbial activity during the diagenesis of sediments[12]

These incorrect directly Heinrich. specimens specim ensasvary widel widelyobserved y in shape,byfro from m noticeably flattened spheress to distinct disks. As illustrated by Heinri sphere Heinrich, ch,[9][10] some of the Klerksdorp spheres are intergrown with each other, like a mass of soap bubbles. The observati observations ons and figure refute claims that these objects are either always spheri sph erical cal or isola isolated ted in thei theirr occurre occurrence. nce. As noted by even groo grooved ved sph sphere eress are not perf perfect ect sph sphere eress Heinrich,[9][10] even and some consist of intergrown spheres. Similarly, the claims that these objects consist of metal, i.e. "...a nickel-steel alloy which does not occur naturally...” according to Jochmans[4] are definitely false as discovered by Cairncross[7] and Heinrich.[9][10] The fact that many of the web pages that make this claim also incorrectly identify the pyrophyllite quarries, from which these objects came,auas the “Wonderstone Silver Mine” is evidence that these thors have not verified the validity of, in this case, misinformation information taken from other sources since these quarries are neither known as silver mines nor has silver ever been mined in them in the decades in which they have been in operation. [11][13] Heinrich[14] notes that one of Michael of Michael Cremo’s sources Cremo’s sources regarding the allegedly anomalous spheres was the  Weekly World News , a satirical tabloid, which he described as an “unreliable source of data for discussing the origins of the South African spheres described as used by Forbidden Archeology”. Archeolo gy”. As noted by Cairncross,[7] it appears that the source of the  Weekly World News  article   article is an earlier article by Barritt.[3] This article[3] appeared in a 1982 issue of Scope magazine about these objects.  Scope was a South African tabloid-style magazine that, like the  Weekly World  News , cannot be regarded as being a credibl crediblee source. Additionally, Roelf Marx, as quoted in Cairncross[7] and Pope and Cairncross,[15] form former er curator of the Klerksdorp Museu Mus eum, m, rep report ortss tha thatt he was wasmi misqu squote otedd regard regardin ingg these these objects. jects. Mar Marxx wa wass qu quote otedd in pop popula ularr art artic icle less as sayi saying ng that that the the ob objec jects ts rotat rotated ed by them themsel selves ves in vibrati vibration-f on-free ree dis displa playy case casess in the Klerksdorp Klerksdorp Muse Museum. um. Inst Instead, ead, Roelf Marx state statedd that they rotated because of the numerous earth tremors generated by underground blasting in local gold mining. Similarly, inquiries of scientists, who studied these objects, have found that the claims that NASA found these objects to be either perfectly balanced, unnatural, or puzzling are unsubstantiated. [10] Published descriptions[2][5][6] of these spheres being harder areme meani aningl ngless essin in terms terms of Moh Mohss sca scale le of mi mine neral ral than steel are

 

26.5. REFERENCES  REFERENCES 

 

89

hardness. hardness. Steel can vary from 4 to 8 on the Mohs scale, de- [14] Heinrich, P.V. 1996.  The Mysterious Origins of Man: The South Af African rican Grooved Sphere Controversy: Talk Talk.Ori .Origins gins pending on the type of alloy, heat treatment, and whether it Archive. is case-hardened or not. An examination of several Klerksdorp spheres found none to be harder than 5.0 on the Mohs [15] Pope Pope C. and B. Cairncross Cairncross 1988.   “Cosmic Cannonballs   aa common glass has a Mohs hardscale.[10] For comparison, common geologic explanation: ARIP View. no. 1., pp. 5-6. (ARIP = ness of 5.5. Associati Assoc iation on for the Rational RationalInv Investi estigati gation on of the Paranorm Paranormal) al)

26.4 26 .4 •

See See al also so

 Geofact

26.5 26. 5

Re Refferen erence cess

[1] Cremo, Cremo, M., and R.L. Thompson, Thompson, 1993,  Forbidden Archeology: The Hidden History of the Human Race : Torchlight Publishing. ISBN Publishing.  ISBN 0-89213-294-9 [2] Cremo, M., and R.L. Thompson, Thompson, 1999, The Hidden History of the Human Race: Torchlight Torchlight Publishing. ISBN Publishing. ISBN 0-89213325-2 [3] Barritt, D., 1982,  The Riddle of the cosmic cannon-balls : Scope Magazine. (June 11, 1982) [4] Jochmans, Jochmans, J. R., 1995, Top ten out-of-place artifacts : Atlantis Rising. no. 5, pp. 34-35, 52, and 54. (Fall 1995) [5] Barton, J., nd, The Grooved Spheres : Mysteries of the World web site [6] “Psybertronist”, “Psybertronist”, nd,  A balanced and concentric ringed mystery spheroid as purportedly anomalous “out-of-place arti facts”   facts ” 

[7] Cairncross, B., 1988, " C Cosmic osmic cannonballs” a rational explanation: The South South African African Lapida Lapidary ry Magazine. Magazine. v. 30, no. 1, pp. 4-6. (Full text via ResearchGate via  ResearchGate.).) [8] Heinrich, P.V., 1997,  Mystery spheres : National Center for Scienc Sciencee Educ Educati ation on Repor Reports. ts. v. 17, no.1, no.1, p. p. 34. (Ja (Jannuary/February 1997) [9] Heinrich, Heinrich, P.V., P.V., 2007,  South African concretions of controversy: South African Lapidary Magazine. vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 7-11. [10] Heinrich, P.V., 2008,  The Mysterious “Spheres” of Ottosdal, South Africa.  National Center for Science Education Reports, v. 28, no. 1, pp. 28-33. [11 [11]] Nel, Nel, LT LT.,., H. Jacobs Jacobs,, J.T J.T.. Allen Allen andG.R. Bozzol Bozzolii 1937. 1937. Wonderstone. Geological Survey Survey of South Africa Bulletin no. 8. [12] Lindsay, Lindsay, J. F., F., 2007, Was There a Late Archean Biospheric  Explosion?  Astrobiology.  Astrobiology. vol. 8, pp. 823-839. [13] Lanham, A., 2004, archive.org: archive.org: New  New horizons for Wonderstone,, Mining Weekly, December 3, 2004. stone

 

Chapter 27

Lake Winnipesaukee mystery stone 27.2 27 .2

Sym Symbols bols

The stone is about 4 inches (100 mm) long and 2.5 inches (64 mm) thick, dark and egg-shaped, bearing a variety of carved symbols.[1] Carvings on one side of the stone show an ear of corn of  corn and  and several several other figur figures. es. The other si side de is more abstract, featuring inverted arrows, a moon shape, some dots and a spiral.[2] A hole goes through the stone from top to bottom, seemingly bored from both ends with different size bits (1 ⁄ 8 inch (3.2 mm) at the top and  3 ⁄ 8 inch (9.5 mm) at the bottom).[2]

Lake Winnipesaukee mystery stone at the New the New Hampshire Historical Society

27.3

Anal Analysi ysiss and interp interpret retati ation on

A conte contemp mpora orary ry sou source rcesu sugge ggeste stedd that that the thesto stone ne “co “comm mmemem[3] orates a treaty between two tribes”. Another writer later suggested it is a thunderstone a  thunderstone,, and that thunderstones “always present the appearance of having been machined or The mystery stone from  from Lake  Lake Winnipesaukee is Winnipesaukee is an alleged out-of-place artifact (OOPArt). artifact (OOPArt). The stone’s age, purpose, hand-worked: frequently they come from deep in the earth, embedded in lumps of clay, or even surrounded by solid and origin are unknown.[1] rock or coral”.[4] In 1994, a borescope a borescope analysis  analysis of the stone’s holes was performe ormed. d. State State arc archaeo haeologi logist st Ric Richard hard Boisv Boisvert ert later suggested that the holes had the appearance of having been 27.1 27 .1 Hist Histor ory y drilled by power tools from the 19th the 19th or  or 20th  20th century century:: In 1872, the stone was reportedly ffound ound in in Meredith,  Meredith, New Hampshire,,  United States, Hampshire States,  North America America,, while workers we were re di diggi gging ng a hole hole for a fence ence pos post.t. Sen Seneca ecaLad Ladd, d, a Mer Merededith business businessman man who hire hiredd the worke workers, rs, was give givenn credit for the discovery.[1] In 1892, upon Ladd’s death, the stone passed to one of his daughters. [1] In 1927, the daughter donated the stone to the New the New Hampshire Historical Society. Society.[1] The stone is currently on exhibit at the  Museum of New Hampshire History. History.[1]

“I've seen a number of holes bored in stone with technology that you would associate with prehistoric   North North Ame Americ rica. a. The There’s re’s a cert certain ain amount of unevenness unevenness ... and this hole was eexxtremel trem elyy regular thro through ughout. out. What we di didd not see was variations that would be consistent with something that was several hundred years old.”[5] Scratches in the lower bore suggest it was placed on a metal shaft and removed several times.[5] Analysiss has concluded the stone is a type of Analysi of quartzite  quartzite,, derived from sandstone, or mylonite or mylonite..

90

 

27.7. EXTERNAL EXTERNAL LINKS  LINKS 

27.4 27 .4

See See al also so

•

 Out-of-place artifact

•

  Thunderstone

27.5 27. 5

Re Refferen erence cess

[1]  “The Mystery Stone”. Stone”. New Hampshire Historical Historical Society. Society. Archived from the from the original on original on 2010-09-14. Retrieved 201010-01. [2] Citro, Citro, Joseph A. (2005). (2005).  Joe Citro’s weird New England :  your tra your travel vel gui guide de to Ne New w Eng Englan land’s d’s loc local al le legen gends ds and bes bestt kep kept t  secrets .  Sterling Publishing Publishing.. p. 33. ISBN 33.  ISBN 1402733305 1402733305..

[3] Author Author unknown unknown (1872). (1872). The American AmericanNatur Naturalist alist,, NovemNovember 1872. [4] Author unknown unknown (1931). Letter to the New Hampshire Hampshire Historical Society, 1931. [5] Stone': Klatell, New James JamesHampshire M. (July 23, 2006). “New 2006).  “New England’s 'Mystery Displays Unexplained Artifa Artifact ct 134 Years Later”. Later”. Associated Press. Retrieved 2010-10-01.

27.6 27. 6

Bi Bibli bliogr ograp aph hy

27.7 27. 7

Ex Exte terna rnall lin links ks

Coordinates :   43°1 Coordinates: 43°12′25″N 2′25″N 71°32′08″W 71°32′08″W / 43.20 43.20694°N 694°N 71.53556°W

 

91

 

Chapter 28

Llygadwy Coordinates Coordinates::   51°5 51°53′03″N 3′03″N 3°14′02″W 3°14′02″W / 51.88 51.884121° 4121°N N 3.234015°W   Llygadwy  is a locality near the village of Bwlch in Bwlch  in the county of Powys of  Powys in  in southeast Wales southeast  Wales.. The  is 'eye' but it can signify usual meaning of  llygad   in Welsh in  Welsh is a spring e.g. Llygad e.g.  Llygad Llwchwr Llwchwr.. The name therefore signifies the source of a stream known traditionally as 'Yw' though which is nowadays known as Ewyn Brook[1] and which flowss thro flow through ugh a wide, tho though ugh sho short, rt, vale kno known wn tradi traditio tionall nallyy  Ystradyw as . Theform modern spelling to be a corrup Llygadyw tion of an earlier .[2] appears The spring arises where  known as a calcrete a  calcrete out outa band of non-marine limestone non-marine  limestone known cropss with crop within in coun countrys tryside ide othe otherwise rwisedomi dominate natedd by sandstone rocks of the Old the Old Red Sandstone Sandstone..

28.1   Time Team excavation One (or more) people appear at some time to have  salted  the surroundings of a spring with archaeological relics for reasons that can only be a matter of speculation. In 2001, the popular UK popular UK archaeological  archaeological television programme Time Team  examined the site quite extensively. After some de-

a sword made either in Britain or the Continent sometime during dur ingthe the2ndor 2ndor 1stce 1st centu nturi ries es BCE BCE.. A. P. Fitzp Fitzpatr atric ickk wro wrote te that it “was found to be securely stratified over a piece of barbed wire that was still attached to the fence post.” The barbed wire itself had been manufactured during the late 1990s, certainly after around 1980.[4] The purpose of the salting remains obscure, but it may have been inspired by the construction of outbuildings "in "in the style of" of" ancient religious centres by a mid-19th century owner of the site. Again, the programme sho shows ws how this builder made errors in his construction which show that the building could not have been intended to be used for its apparent purpose. Whether this was a deliberate attempt to deceive, decei ve, or a sort of homage by a person of antiquari antiquarian an interests is obscure, and unlikely to be answered. However, the scale of the construction would have been difficult to conceal, so an innocent exp explanation lanation is most plausible plausible.. The property owner, although he had invited the Time Team to investigate his property, declined to be interviewed or appear on the show, sending his son-in-law in his place. Many of the artefacts used for this were genuine, which means that they were removed from their original contex contextt

bate of a number of artefacts, fake natureandofthe thediscovery site was was soon demonstrated demonstrated. . Most the notably: 19th-c 19t h-cent entury ury morta mortarr was wasuse usedd to bu builildd an all allege egedd “N “Norm orman” an” tower, supposedly Neolithic stones had been set in place in modern times, an aerial photo from 1972 showed the spring did not exist at all at that time, multiple genuine artefacts had been altered in modern times (a broken coin repaired with modern glue, a statuette inscribed on top of existing patina, numerous coins showing signs of modern cleaning methods), and modern barbed wire was found underneath a buried La buried La Tene Tene sword.  sword.   [3] The site contains a manufactured spring to which artefacts of a range of ages - Bronze -  Bronze Age Age to  to Georgian  Georgian  - have been added to give it the semblance of being an important rit-

(at as far afieldinf asormation. Switzerland), thus losing most of theirsites archae archaeological ological informatio n. Further, since the artefacts facts had not been recorded into the archaeol archaeological ogical record previously, their presence on this site attests to significant plundering of unknown sites to feed a market for illicit archaeological artefacts.

ual centre.points Howe However ver one artefac artefact particular showed showed two important of data: that thet inperson or person) doing the “salting” did not understand stratigraphy understand  stratigraphy,, and that the salting took place after after the mid-1980s. This artef artefact act was

vey Old Series mapping 1830-33 Llygadwy”..   Time Team.   Channel 44.. 21 [3]  “A Celtic Spring Llygadwy” January 2001. Retrieved 9 April 2011.

28.2 28. 2

Re Refferen erence cess

[1] Ordnan Ordnance ce Surve Surveyy 1:25,0 1:25,000 00 scale scale Exp Explo lorermap rermap OL13 OL13 Brecon Beacons National Park: eastern area

[2] Cassin Cassinii Histor Historica icall map map facsimi acsimile le sh sheet eet 161 of Ordnan Ordnance ce SurSur-

92

 

28.3. EXTERNAL EXTERNAL LINKS  LINKS 

[4] Fitzpatrick, A. P. (2007). “A (2007).  “A Real Relic From a Sham Site: An Iron Age Sword 'Found' At Llygadwy, Powys, Wales”. Wales”. STUDIA CELTICA.  XLI : 20–30.

28.3 28. 3

Ex Exte terna rnall lin links ks

•

 Site map: Google map:  Google Maps

•

 Programme website: Channel website:  Channel 4 TV

 

93

 

Chapter 29

London Hammer  around the object, limestone may have formed a concretion a concretion around via a common process (like that of a petrifying a  petrifying well well)) which often creates similar encrustations around fossils and other J.R.. Co Cole le state states: s: “Th “Thee sto stone ne is re real, al, andit loo looks ks imimnuclei.[7] J.R pressive pressi ve to someone unfami unfamiliar liar with geologic geological al processes.  rock? How could a modern artifact be stuck in Ordovician in  Ordovician rock? The answer is that the concretion itself is not Ordovician. Minerals in solution can harden around an intrusive object dropped in a crack or simply left on the ground if the source rock (in this case, reportedly Ordov Ordovician) ician) is chemically soluble.”[8][9] London Hammer in 1986 

The  London Hammer  (also known as the “London Artifact”) is a name given to a hammer made of iron and wood that was found in London, in London, Texas in Texas in 1936. Part of the hammer is embedded in a limy rock concretion, leading to it being regarded by some as an anomalous an  anomalous artifact artifact,, asking how an obviously man-made tool could come to be encased in a 400 million year old rock.[1][2] Creatio Crea tionist nistCarl Carl Bau Baugh gh ref referred erred to thehamm thehammer er in th thee 198 1980s, 0s, even using it as the basis of speculation of how the atmoflood earth  earth could have encourage encouragedd sphericc quality of a prespheri pre-flood [1][3] the growth of giants. The hammer is now an exhibit in Baugh’s Creati Creation on Evi Eviden dence ce Muse Museum um,, which which sell sellss repl replica icass of [4] it to visitors. The metal hammerhead is approximately 6 inches (15 centimeters) long and has a diameter of 1 in (25 mm), leading some to suggest that this hammer was not used for large projects, but rather for fine work or soft metal. [5] The metal of the hammerhead has been confirmed to consist of 96.6% iron, 2.6% chlorine, and 0.74% sulfur. sulfur. The hammerh hammerhead ead has not rusted since its discovery discovery in the mi mid-1930s. d-1930s. The Hammer was bought by Carl Baugh in 1983, who claimed the artifact was a "...monumental 'pre-Flood' discovery.”[6] Other observers have noted that the hammer is stylistically consistent with typical American tools manufactured in the region in the late 1800s. One possible explanation for the artifact is that the highly soluble minerals in the ancient

29.1 29 .1

Hist Histor ory y

Per subsequent accounts, the hammer was found by a local coupl couple, e, Max Hah Hahnn and his his wif wife, e, while while out wa walki lking ng alo along ng the the [10] course of the Red Creek near the town of London. They spotted a curious piece of loose rock with a bit of wood apparentlyy embedded in it and took it home with them. A apparentl decade later, their son Max broke open the rock to find the concealed conceal ed hammer head wi within. thin. It began to attract wider attention after Baugh obtained it in the 1980s.

29.2 29. 2

Re Refferen erence cess

Hammer”..   5 (15).  National Center for Science [1]  “If I had a Hammer” Education.. Winter Education Winter 198 1985. 5. pp. 46–47. 46–47. Retrie Retrieved ved 200 2007702-19. One of his principal pieces of evidence for for human contempo cont emporane raneity ity with supposedl supposedlyy ancient ancient geol geologi ogical cal strat strataa is an iron hammer with a wooden handle found near London, Texas by others in the 1930s in an “Ordovician” stone concretion “in the scenario” (but not in the Glen Rose region). “Human “Hu manist ists,”Baug s,”Baughh sai said, d, claim claim it is an “18 “18th th centur centuryy miner’ miner’ss hamme ham mer.”Notin r.”Notingg the theap appea pearan rance ce of thehandle, thehandle, Ba Baug ughh sai saidd a similar-looking piece of wood from Michigan had just been radiocarbon dated 11,500 years old. (He gave no reference anddidnotblinkatthedateearlierthanhisviewofcreation.) Apparently this was meant to suggest that the hammer was earlier than the 19th (not 18th) century date other observers

94

 

29.2. REFERENCES  REFERENCES 

have suggested and to imply that the hammer itself had been subjected to radiocarbon dating, although it had not been (Baugh, 1983b).

 

95

[7] Kuban, Kuban, Glen Glen J. “The J. “The London Hammer: An Alleged Out-ofPlace Artif Artifact” act”..   The Paluxy Dinosaur . Retri Retrieve evedd 9 April April 2015.

Creation/Evolutio on/Evolution, n, [2] Kuban, Glen J. (14 July July 2006). “The 2006).  “The London Hammer: An [8] Cole, J. R. 1985. “If I had a Hammer” Creati Issue XV, pp.46–47. Alleged Out-of-Place Artifact”. Artifact”.   Gle Glenn Kuban’s Web Sites  Sites . Retrieved 7 July 2015. An iron and wooden hammer, somesomeMihai, Andrei (March (March 19, 2009).  “The 10 most amazing times called the “London Artifact” or “London Hammer,” [9] Mihai, Scienc  c . Retri unexplained artif artifacts” acts”..  ZME Scien Retrieve evedd Feb22, Feb 22, 2015. found by local hikers in a creek bed near London, Texas in 1936, has been promoted by Carl Baugh and other strict cre- [10] Texas Tracks Tracks and Artifacts: Artifacts: Do Texas Fossils Fossils Indicate Coationists as an out-of place artifact. They maintain that the existence of Men and Dinosaurs? Dinosaurs? by Robert F. And Jerry hamme ham mer, r, which which waspartiall waspartiallyy em embed bedded ded in a sm small all,, limy limy rock rock D. Roth Helfinstine (Jan 1, 1994) concretion, originated in a Cretaceous rock formation (or an Ordovician Ordovic ian or Silurian one, depending on the account), thus contradicting the standard geologic timetable. However, However, the hammer was not documented in situ, and has not been reliably associated with any specific host formation. formation. Other relative tively ly recent recent implem implement entss ha have ve been been found ound enc encase asedd in by sim sim-ilar nodules, and can form within centuries or even decades under proper conditions (Stromberg, (Stromberg, 2004). The hammer in questi que stion on waspr was proba obabl blyy droppe droppedd or dis discar carded ded by a local local miner miner or craftsman within the last few few hundred years, after which dissolved limy sediment hardened into a nodule around it. Although a brief rebuttal to Baugh’s hammer claims was made by Cole (1985), Baugh and a few other creationists continue to promote it. This review provides provides further analysis of the hammer and creationist claims claims about it. Dinosaurs [3]   Giant Humans and Dinosaurs [4] Keith Fitzpatrick-Matthe Fitzpatrick-Matthews ws (9 May 2007).   “The London Artifact (Texas)". (Texas)".  Bad Archaeology. Retrieved 17 December 2016. [5]  “The London Artifact”. Artifact” .   www.creationevidence.org. Retrieved 25 February 2015. [6] Hiddlesto Hiddleston, n, Jim (20 July 2011).  “The London Hammer” Hammer”.. Historic Mysteries . Retrieved 25 February February 2015. First of all, there are conflicting reports as to where the object object was actually located in theof surrounding rocks.toAnd there is no photographic evidence the object object prior being disturbed. One report states that the hammer was embedded in a rock formation dating from the Cretaceaus Period (65-135 million years ago). But other accounts accounts state that Mr. Hahn found found the hammer bearing nodule “near” these surrounding rocks. Skeptics argue that minerals could have cemented the hammer around the Cretaceous rock after it was dropped or left behind. This could easily lead novice novice geologists to believ believee that the hammer and the rock formation formation are from from the same tim timee perio period. d. The only only true true method method of determ determini ining ng the theag agee of theham the hammeris meris throu through gh Carbon Carbon14 14 dating dating of the thewo woode odenn hanhandle, but Baugh has yet to authorize authorize this procedure. T The he handle appears to be partially fossilized, so this certainly adds to the argument that this a very ancient tool. But fossilization can occur prematurely prematurely through various natural methods. To skeptics, skepti hammer appears be atotool abandoned or cs, lostthe some 200 years ago,to but it’s that [sic]was supporters, this is a clear indication that man has been on this Earth much longer than previously thought.

 

Chapter 30

Los Lunas Decalogue Stone Coordinates Coordinates::   34°47′07″N 106°59′47″W / 34.785217°N patinati patination on and was hardly visible. He was taken to the site 106.996512°W by a guide who had seen it as a boy, back in the 1880s.” [5] However, Hibben’s testimony is tainted by charges that in at least two separate incid incidents, ents, he fabrica fabricated ted some or all of  pre-Clovis migration  migration his archaeological archaeological data to support his his pre-Clovis [6][7][8] theory. The reported 1880s date of discovery is important to those who believe believe that the stone is prepre-Columb Columbian. ian. Howe However, ver, the Paleo-Hebrew script, which is closely related to the Phoenician script,, was well known by at least 1870, thus Phoenician script not precluding the possibility possibility of a modern hoax.[9]

Los Lunas Decalogue Stone in situ  in 1997 

The Los Lunas Decalogue Stone is a large boulder on the Mexico,, side of Hidden Mountain, near Los near  Los Lunas, New Mexico about 35 miles (56 km) south of Albuquerque of Albuquerque,, that bears a very very reg regula ularr in inscr script iptio ionn car carve vedd into into a flat pan panel el..[1] The ston stonee  Los Lunas Mystery Stone

is also known as the mandment mandme nt Rock . The

 Com-

inscription is interpreted or to be an abridged version of the Decalogue or Ten or Ten Commandments in a form of Paleo-Hebrew of  Paleo-Hebrew..[2] A letter group resembling the tetragrammaton the tetragrammaton YHWH,  YHWH, or “Yahweh,” makes three ap- Los Lunas Decalogue Stone after 2006 vandalization of first line pearances. The stone is controversial in that some claim the therefore proof of of early  early Because of the stone’s weight of over 80 tons, it was neve inscription is Pre-Columbian is Pre-Columbian,, and therefore neverr [3] Semitic contact with the Americas. Americas. movedd to a museum or laboratory for study and safek move safekeepeeping. Many visitors have cleaned the stone inscriptions over the years, likely destroying any possibility for scientific analysiss of the inscripti analysi inscriptions’ ons’ patina  patina.. Nevertheless, compar30.1 30 .1 Hist Histor ory y ing it to a modern inscription nearby, geologist George E. Fell,, estimated that the of  Barry Fell The first recorded mention of the stone is in 1933, when the Morehouse, a colleague of Barry late professor Frank professor Frank Hibben Hibben (1910-2002),  (1910-2002), an archaeologist an archaeologist inscription could be between 500 and 2000 years old and explaining its freshness and lack of patina as being due to [4] from theinterview,  UniversityHibben of Newwas Mexico Mexico, , saw it.the According a 1996the University “convinced inscription to is frequent scrubbing to make it more visible.[10] ancient and thus authentic. He report[ed] that he first saw In April 2006, the first line of the unprotected inscription

the text in 1933. At the time it was covered with lichen and was obliterated by vandals. 96

 

 

30.3. SIMILAR SIMILAR LANDMARKS  LANDMARKS 

97

Visitors to the site are required to purchase a $25 Recre- One arg argume ument nt aga again inst st the the stone’ stone’ss antiq antiqui uity ty is its its apational Access Permit from the New Mexico State Land parent use of modern Hebrew (or otherwise atypical) Office. punctuation, [12] though amateur epigrapher amateur  epigrapher Barry Fell arFell  argued that the punctuation is consistent with antiquity. [13] Other researchers researchers dismiss the inscription based on the numerous stylistic and grammatical errors that appear in the 30.2 30. 2 Con Contro trove vers rsy y inscription. [12] According to archaeologist Kenneth archaeologist Kenneth Feder, Feder, “the stone is almostt certa mos certainl inlyy a fake.” ake.” He points pointsout outtha thatt “th “thee fla flatt face ace of the the stone shows a very sharp, crisp inscription...” His main concern however is the lack of any archaeological context. He argues that to get to the location of the stone would have required whoever inscribed it to have “stopped along the way, encamped, eaten food, broken things, disposed of trash, performe perf ormedd ritu rituals, als, and so on. And those thoseacti actions ons sho should uld hav havee left a trail of physical archaeological evidence across the greater American Southwest, discovery of which would undeniably prove the existence of foreigners in New Mexico in antiquity with a demonstrably ancient Hebrew material culture...” and states that “There are no pre-Columb pre-Columbian ian ancient Hebrew settlements, no sites containing the everyday detritus of a band of ancient Hebre Hebrews, ws, nothing that even a cursory knowledge of how the archaeological record forms wouldd demand the woul there re would be. From an archae archaeolo ologic gical al standpoint, that’s plainly impossible.”[14]

30.3 30. 3

Sim Simil ilar ar landm landmark arkss

The Los Lunas Decalogue Stone is often grouped with the Runestone,  Dighton Rock, Kensington Runestone, Rock, and the Newport the  Newport Tower as Tower  as examples of American landmarks with disputed provenances. prove nances. Other disp disputed uted American He Hebrew brew inscri inscripptions include the Smithsonian the  Smithsonian Institution Institution's's Bat  Bat Creek Inscription and the the Newark  Newark Ohio Decalogue Decalogue Stone, Keyston Keystone, e, and Johnson-Bradner Stone. Stone.

30.4 30 .4 Modern Samaritan Modern  Samaritan mezuzah  mezuzah over doorway.   Kiryat Luza Luza , , Mount   Mount  Gerizim. Gerizim.

Archaeolinguist  Cyrus Gordon Gordon has  has proposed that the Los Lunas Decalogue is a Samaritan a Samaritan mezuzah mezuzah..[11] The familiar Jewish mezuzah mezuzah is a tiny scroll placed in a small container mounted by the entrance to a house. The ancien ancientt Samaritan mezuzah, on the other hand, was commonly a large stone slab placed by the gateway to a property or synagogue, and bearing an abridged version version of the Decalogue. On histori-

See See al also so

•

 Bat Creek Inscription

•

 Diffusionism

•

 Newark Holy Stones

•

  Pseudoarchaeology

cal andasepigraphic grounds, regardsThe Samaritan the Samaritan the Byzantine  Byzantine 30 period the most likely for Gordon the inscription. The 30..5 alphabet is alphabet  is a direct descendant of the Paleo-Hebrew alpha-

No Nottes

bet.

[1] NM State State Land Office Mystery Stone webpage

 

98

 

[2] Deal (1999) provides a careful careful transcription and word-byword translation. translation. A similar online translation is provided by Neuhoff and Fox (1999). [3] This claim claim is made, made, e.g., by Fell Fell (1980, p. 167), Gordon Gordon (1995), Deal (1999) and Tabor (1997). [4] Feder Feder (2011, p. 160) states states that the existence existence of the stone stone was reported in print in 1933, but gives no reference.

CHAPTER CHAPTER 30. LOS LUN LUNAS AS DECALOGUE DECALOGUE STONE  STONE 

•

•

•

[5] Tabor Tabor (1997). Tabor Tabor is a Professo Professorr in the Departmen Departmentt of Religious Studies, University University of North Carolina - Charlotte. [6] Preston Preston (1995). (1995). [7] Bliss (1940).

•

•

[8] Dalton Dalton (2003). (2003). [9] We Webster bster (1870, pp. 1766-67) 1766-67) provi provides des a fairl airlyy complete, complete, though thou gh antiquated antiquated,, tableof table of the Phoenicia Phoenician, n, Old Hebrew, Hebrew, and Samaritan alphabets.

•

[10] Morehouse, George George E.; “The Los Lunas Lunas Inscriptions, a Geo-

 Fell, Barry, “Ancient Punctuation and the Los Lunas Text,” Text,” Epigraphic Society, Occasional Publications , 13:35, 1985.  Gordon, Cyrus, “Diffusion of Near East Culture in Antiquity and in Byzantine Times,”   Orient   30-31 (1995), 69-81.  Neuhoff, Juergen, and Stan Fox, “Translation Fox,  “Translation of the Los Lunas Inscription”   webspa webspage ge date datedd 1999, accessed Jan. 28, 2013.  New Mexico State Land Office,  Mystery Stone, webpage, accessed Jan. 26, 2013.   Preston Preston,, Dou Douglas, glas, “Th “Thee Myst Mystery ery of Sandi Sandiaa Cav Cave,” e,” New Yorker ,  71 (16, June 12, 1995):66-83.  Tabor, James D, “An D,  “An Ancient Hebrew Inscription in New Mexico: Fact or Fraud?"  United Israel Bulletin, 59   (S (Summe ummerr 1997): 1-3. We Webb vers version ion cra crawled wled bbyy Wayback Machine Dec. Machine Dec. 2, 1998.

•

American 1870. Dictionary of the English  Webster, Language,Noah, G&C  Merriam,

logical Study,” Epigraphic Society, Occasional Publications, 13:44, 1985. [11] Gordon Gordon (1995). (1995). [12] Keith Fitzpatrick-Matth Fitzpatrick-Matthews ews (6 September 2011). “The 2011).  “The Los Lunas Inscription”. Inscription”.  Bad Archaeology. Retrieved 15 January January 2014.

30.7 30. 7 •

[13] Fell (1985). [14] Feder (2011, pp. pp. 159-62).

30.6 30. 6 •

•

•

•

Re Refferen erence cess

  Bl Bliss, iss, We Wesle sleyy L., “A Chro Chronolo nologic gical al Pro Proble blem m Pres Presente entedd by Sandia Cave, New Mexico.”  American Antiquity, 1940a 5(3):200-201.   Da Daltlton on,, Re Rex, x, Da Daltlton on,, R (27 (27 Nove Novemb mber er 20 2003 03). ). “University buildings named on shaky ground”. ground”.   Nadoi::10.1038/426374a. 10.1038/426374a.   ISSN ture.   426 (6965): 374.   doi 0028-0836..  PMID 14647348.. 0028-0836 14647348..  Deal, David Allen,  Discovery of Ancient America, 3d ed., Kherem La Yah Press, Irvine CA, 1999 (1st edition 1984).  Feder, Kenneth L. (2011).  Encyclopedia of Dubious  Archaeol Arc haeology: ogy: From From Atl Atlantis antisto to the Walam Olum. ABCCLIO/Greenwood. pp. 161–162.  ISBN 978-0-31337918-5 37918-5.. ..

•

Ex Exte terna rnall links links

 Batya Ungar-Sargon,   “Th “Thee Mystery Mystery Stone: Stone: Does a rock in New Mexico show the Ten Commandments in ancientt Hebrew? Harvard professor ancien professor says yes,” Tablet  (an online daily magazine of Jewish news and culture), Feb. 27, 2013.   Fitzpatr Fitzpatric ick-Ma k-Matthe tthews, ws, Kei Keith, th, and Doese Doeser, r, Jame James, s, Inscription” n” Bad Archaeology (a web“The Los Lunas Inscriptio site examining dubious archaeological claims), 2013.

•

 Fell, Barry, Saga America, Times Books, 1980.

 

Chapter 31

Misraħ Għar il-Kbir Also called cart ruts, they are up to 60 centimetres (24 in) deep and have an average distance between them of 110 to 140 cm (43 to 55 in). Some cr cross oss whil whilee others fform orm junctions. This creates the illusion of a great railway station switching yard.

Cart Ruts at Misrah Ghar il-Kbir 

Misrah Ghar il-Kb Misrah il-Kbir ir   (informally known as   Clapham Junction) is a prehistoric site in Siġġiewi in  Siġġiewi Malta near Malta  near the

Dingli Cliffs. Cliffs. It is best known for its “cart ruts” - a complex network netw ork of track trackss gouged in the rock. The age and purpose of the tracks are still a mystery of Maltese Maltese history. In A cart ruts junction at Ghar il-Kbir  general, most archeologists most archeologists presume  presume that the site developed  to There are numerous theories about how these tracks were about 2000 BC after new settlers came over from Sicily from  Sicily to start the Bronze the Bronze Age in Age in Malta. created. The most discussed are the following: It is reported that the “Clapham Junction” nickname was  Goods were transported here on sledges which gouged given by an Englishman, who later reported that it rethe tracks into the rock. minded him of the busy railway station station Clapham J unctionn  Clapham Junctio   The tracks are real cart ruts for for transporting goods. in in London  London.. •

•

•

31.1 31. 1

Ori Origi gin n of th thee track trackss

The tracks (known and signposted in Malta as Cart Ruts)  Malta and  and on Gozo on  Gozo.. can be found in a number of sites on  Malta Busewdien  in St Paul’s Bay,   Naxxar Naxxar,,   San Gwann   and Bidnija are Bidnija  are good examples of cart tracks found on the Is-

 It is an irrigation system.

There are also other attempts to explain the tracks:•

  The Maltese archeologist  Anthony Bonanno  Bonanno   thinks  Phoenicians,, which that the ruts are devices of the  Phoenicians would mean that the tracks were made more recently, in the 7th century BC.

land of  Sannat. Malta. Gozo’s best Cart Ruts are on Ċenċ Recent research suggests that these may have been caused . The Misraћ Gћar il-Kbir sitethein Siġġiewi inTa’  Siġġiewi plateau, Sannat plateau, near the Dingli the Dingli Cliffs in Cliffs in the south of the island is probabl probablyy by wooden-wheeled wooden-wheeled carts eroding soft limestone. An anal-

the most impressive – they form here a real traffic jam .

ysis was made of the stresses that would hav havee been caused 99

 

100

 

by a cart which would fit the ruts. Professor Mottershead of Portsmouth University said “The underlying rock in Malta is weak and when it’s wet it loses about 80 per cent of its strength. stre ngth. The cart cartss would hav havee first made trac tracks ks in the soil but when that eroded, the cartwheels ran directly on the bedrock, making it easier for other carts to follow the same tracks. An Italian publishing house (Edizio (Edizioni ni Saecula www.edizionisaecula.it) with its book “Halade mystai. www.edizionisaecula.it) mystai. Iniziando al mare - Cart ruts una nuova interpretazione” gives new suggestions about this archaeological evidences.  [1][2]

31.2 31. 2

Re Refferen erence cess

mystery solved by geographers” Archive.org geographers” Archive.org [1]   “Ancient mystery [2] Mottershead, Derek; Alastair Pearson & Martin Schaef Schaefer er “The cart ruts of Malta: an applied geomorph geomorpholo ology gy approach”  Antiquity Vol 82:318, 2008 pp 1065-1079 (pdf)

31.3 31. 3 •

•

Ex Exte terna rnall lin links ks

 Media related to Misraħ to  Misraħ Għar il-Kbir il-Kbir at  at Wikimedia Commons  http://www.gozo.gov.mt/pages.aspx?page=747

Coordinates :   35° Coordinates: 35°51′ 51′07″ 07″N N 14° 14°23′ 23′48″ 48″E E / 35. 35.851 8519°N 9°N 14.3967°E

CHAPTER CHAPTER 31. MIS MISRAĦ RAĦ GĦAR IL-KBIR IL-KBIR

 

Chapter 32

Newark Holy Stones The New Newark ark Hol Holy y Sto Stones nes refertoasetof refertoasetofartifacts artifacts allegedly discovered by David Wyrick in 1860 within a cluster of  Newark, Ohio Ohio.. The set ancientt Indian burial mounds near ancien near Newark, consists of the Keystone, a stone bowl, and the Decalogue with its sandstone box. They can be viewed at the Johnsonthe  JohnsonHumrickhouse Museum  Museum   in Coshocton, Ohio.[1] The site where the objects were found is known as The as  The Newark Earthworks,, one of the biggest collections from an ancient Earthworks American culture 100 known the isted from Indian approximately BCasto the Hopewell AD Hopewell that 500. [2]  that exThe events surrounding the discovery and authenticity of the artifacts artifacts are controversi controversial. al. A wide consensus belie believes ves that the artifacts are either the subject of a hoax or originate nate from romaa tim timee pe perio riodd tha thatt has no relat relatio ionn to the theHop Hopew ewel ell.l. Others believe that the artifacts’ inscription contains dialect  descent and could have existed durthat is in fact of Judean of Judean descent ing that time.

32.1 32 .1

Disc Disco ove very ry

The first of these artifacts, popularly known as the  Keystone due to its shape, was excavate excavatedd in June 1860. Unlik Unlikee other ancient artifacts found previously in this region, the Keystone was inscribed with Hebrew with Hebrew..[3] It contains one phrase on each side: •

 Holy of Holies

•

  King of the Earth

•

  The Law ooff God

•

 The Word of God

The The sec secondfind ondfind cam camee later later in No Nove vemb mber er 186 18600 when when Wy Wyri rick ck  box which and his excavation team came across a sandstone a sandstone box [4]

contained small, black limestone black of rock wasa identified by limestone rock geologists rock Davewithin Hawkins(the and type Ken [5] Bork of Denison of Denison University ). This rock was carved with

The Decalogue

post-Exilicc square Hebrew letters on all sides translated to post-Exili 101

 

102

 

be a condensed version of the Ten the  Ten Commandments Commandments..[6] The name  Decalogue Stone, comes from the translation of the Hebrew le lette tters rs that that outlin outlinee thereli thereligio gious us and andmo moral ral cod codes es dede 20:2-17 and Deuteronomy and Deuteronomy 5:6-21,  5:6-21, which scribed in Exodus in Exodus 20:2-17 refer to the Decalogue or Ten or  Ten Commandments Commandments.. Th Thee ininscription begins on the front at the top of an arch above the figure of a bearded man who is wearing a turban, robe, and appears to be holding a tablet. It runs down the left side, side, continues around all sides, and makes its way back to the front front up the right side to where it began. This pattern indicates that the inscription was meant to be read repetitively. Right above the figure of the man is a separate inscription ".[6] Also found nearby during which translates to "Moses "Moses". the thesam samee ex exca cava vatition on was was a small smallsto stone ne bo bowl wl abo about ut thesi the size ze of a tea cup, which is also on display with the other artifacts. [4]

CHAPTER CHAPTER 32. NE NEWARK WARK HOLY HOLY STONES 

the Ohio Historical Society who has extensively studied the Hopewell culture, suggests that the artifacts might have been scientifically forged to help advance the theory on monogenism. 1860, slavery was  was a subject of poignant monogenism.[9] In 1860, slavery interest and heated debate that was reaching a critical point in American society. Anthropology and other forms of science were often used in defen defense se or oppositi opposition. on.[10] Discussions sions prom promotin otingg mon monogen ogenism ism,, for exampl example, e, were wereof often ten used to oppose slavery and segregation.[10] Further speculation is added by the prevalence of hoaxes and inconsistent testimony in similar areas of study regardGiant,, the Los the Los Lunas Decalogue Stone Stone and  and ing the Cardiff the Cardiff Giant the Beringer the Beringer stones stones..

32.3 32 .3

Hoax Hoax th theo eori ries es

32.3.1 32. 3.1

David David Wyric Wyrick k

 theories is that Wyrick faked the Among some of the hoax the hoax theories artifacts artif acts and planted them at the exca excavation vation si sites. tes. Prior to his discovery, discovery, Wyri Wyrick ck sup supporte portedd the belie belieff that the Israel  were the ancestors of ancient mound Lost Tribes of Israel were ancient mound builders in builders  in Ohio. Wyrick spent a great deal of time searching ingaa num numbe berr of exca excava vatition on site sitess at va vari rious ous mo mound undss attem attemptpting to find sup supporti porting ng evid evidenc encee of this beli belief. ef. Som Somee arThe Keystone gue that Wyrick could have become more desperate as time went by providing the motivation to commit such an act. In 1861, Wyrick published a pamphlet that described his 32.2 32. 2 Sk Skep epti tici cism sm account of the artifact discoveries. The publishing included woodcuts woodcuts of  of the inscriptions inscriptions ffound ound on the stones. When comparing Wyric Wyrick’s k’s woodcuts of the Decalogue to the acThe Newark Holy Stones are viewed with considerable skepticism. The idea that there is a connection between the tual inscription found on the stone, Wyrick made at least Hebrew letters. Mistak Mistakes es include  settlers that 38 errors involving 256 Hebrew ancient Hopewell mound builders and Jewish and  Jewish settlers illegible e and omitted letters. Wyric Wyrick’s k’s depicti depiction on of Moses were in the Americas before Columbus is considered to be illegibl on the woodcuts had inconsistencies as well. Wyrick shows a form of pseudoarchaeology of pseudoarchaeology.. Moses wearing a beret instead of a turban. He also shows The first stone to be found found was written in modern Hebrew. Moses in a 19th-century dress instead of the flowering robe In July1860 July1860 AbrahamGeige Abraham Geigerr wroteinthe New NewYo York rk Tim Times es shown on the stone. tha thatt “th “thee bun bungli gling ng wo work rk of an uns unski kille lledd sto stone ne mas mason on and th thee Somee be beliliev evee that that the the per person sonor or group group respon responsi sibl blee for the the instr strang angen eness essof of som somee lette letters rs as well well as the theman manyy mista mistake kess and Som scriptio ionn had hadto to have have an exte extens nsiv ivee kno knowl wledg edgee of the the He Hebr brew ew transposi trans positio tions ns was hisf his faul ault.t. The Thelet letters tersare are not anti antique que.. This script [7] language. Give Givenn that Wyrick made a large number of misis not a relic of hoary antiquity antiquity”. ”. ta takkes on the the wo wood odcu cuts ts seem seem to indi indica cate te that that he ma mayy no nott have have Just over three months later, the second stone was found. been the stone’s author. Beverley H. Moseley, Jr., former This was not only considerably more elaborate, it was writ- art director of the Ohio Historical Society, compared the tenin ten in arc archai haicc He Hebr brew ew.. Ken Ken Fede Federr compa compares resthi thiss with with som somee- carving of Moses on the stone to Wyrick’s woodcut copy. one today announcing that they had discovered a hitherto He concluded that both images couldn't have been made by unknown play by Shakespeare which was then exposed as the same person.[11] After Wyrick’s death, Colonel death, Colonel Charles a modern forgery, then shortly thereafter announcing the [12] Whittlesey published Whittlesey abible paper ing Wyri 1872ck’s in swhich he recalls discovery of a more plausible new play.[8] discov disc overin eringg published a Heb Hebrew rewbib le amon among Wyrick’ perso personal nal items. items. Another possibility is that the Newark Holy Stones were Whi Whittl ttlese eseyy co conc nclud ludes es at thetime thetimetha thatt thestone thestoness we were re a hoa hoax, x,

fo forged rged to support a politic political al viewpoi viewpoint. nt. Brad Lepper, of and assumed that the bible was Wyrick s source of inspira-

 

 

32.5. SE SEE E ALSO  ALSO 

103

tion for the inscription. inscription. Howe However ver this theory was later dis- 32.5 32.5 See See al also so credited after it was determined that the letters used on the Decalogue did not represent a style that would have been   Los Lunas Decalogue Stone Stone consistent with the theory.[11][13] The The He Hebre brew w ve versi rsion on use usedd in the theinscriptions inscriptions is ano anothe therr point point of contention. contention. The versi version on used was post-Exilic, but to be 32. 32.6 6 Re Refferen erence cess •

from from abelieve Lost Tribe, should hav have e beenthat in pre-Exilic form. rm. Some this isit another example shows thefo artifacts were either a hoax or did not date back to the time of the mound builders. builders. Wyric Wyrickk also made a claim in a letter he wrote to Joseph Henry in 1863—one year before his death—that he might have been a victim of a hoax.

[2]  “Hopewell Culture” Culture”.. Ohio Histo History ry Central. Central. Retrieve Retrievedd 23 August 2010.

32.3.2 32. 3.2

[3] J. Huston McCulloch. “View McCulloch. “View of the Keystone”. Keystone” .  Archaeological Outliers: Adventur Adventures es in Underground Archaeology. Ohio State University. University. Retrieved 23 August 2010.

Rev. Rev. John John W. McCarty McCarty’s ’s and and ston stoneecutter Elijah Sutton

Rev. John W. McCarty and Elijah Sutton were both residents of Newark when the Decalogue Stone (and the Keyno stone) was found. Sutton wasthan a  stonecutter with a stonecutter other direct link toElijah the event other his part  with in carv headstone when  when he died. died. How Howev ever, er, it is asing Wyric Wyrick’s k’s headstone serted that because the Decalogue Stone is made from similar materials and is of the same width (thickness) as his headstones, he must have cut the stone. As for Rev. John W. McCarty, he played a more direct role in the artifact’s discovery. It was with the help of McCarty that the stone was translated. Upon recei receiving ving the stone McCarty was able to translate it within within hours. It is also lik likel elyy that many Christ Christian ian Tribes myth  myth during clergy supported the idea of the Lost the  Lost Tribes the 1800s, for it not only validated the Biblical tale of the Lost Tribes but also implied their religious right to continue colonize America and their Christianization of the Native Americans.

32.4

Rela Related ted disc discov overi eries es

[1]  “Newark Holy Stones” Stones”.. Johnson-Humrickh Johnson-Humrickhouse ouse Museum. Retrieved 11 July 2016.

Decalogue Stones” Stones”. Th Thee UnMu UnMu-[4]  “The UnMuseum: The Decalogue seum. Retrieved 23 August 2010. [5] Marder, William (2005).  Indians in the Americas: The Untold Story. San Diego, CA: The Book Tree. p. 48.   ISBN 1-58509-104-9.. 1-58509-104-9 [6] J. Huston Huston McCulloch. McCulloch.  “The Newark “Holy Stones"". Stones"".   Archaeological Outliers: Adventures Adventures in Underground Archaeology. Ohio State Univ University. ersity. Retrieved 23 August 2010.

[7] Lepper, Lepper, Bradley T.; Kenneth Kenneth L. Feder; Terry A. Barnhart; Deborah Deborah A. Bolnick Bolnick (Nov (Novembe ember–Dec r–Decembe emberr 2011). “Civilizations Lost and Found: Fabricati “Civilizations Fabricating ng History - Part Two: Fals Falsee Messages in Stone”. Stone”.   Skeptical Inquirer .   35/6. Retrieved 11 July 2012. Encyclopedia of Dubio Dubious us Arch Archaeolaeol[8]   Ke Kenneth nneth L. Feder Feder,,   Encyclopedia ogy ogy:: Fr From om Atlantis Atlantis To The Wal Walam am Olum, pages pages 192193(Greenwood, 2010). ISBN 2010).  ISBN 978-0-313-37919-2

[9] Holl Hollon, on, Amy Amy (20 Augus Augustt 2010). 2010).   “Gl “Glenn enn Beck Beck mention boosts Newark Earthworks”. Earthworks”. NewarkAdvocate. NewarkAdvocate.com. com. Archived from the from the original on original  on August 23, 2010. Retrieved 30 August 2010. [10]   “Anthropolo “Anthropology, gy, History of”. of”.  Jacksonian America and Poly genism; Types of Mankind, 1854, The Bureau of Ethnology. Retrieved 30 August 2010.

There were other stones found at the Newark site, like the  “Thee New Newark ark Hebr Hebrew ew Sto Stones: nes: [11] McCullo McCulloch, ch, J. Huston(1989) Huston(1989)..  “Th Keystone. otherr stones we were re also fo found und at New Newark ark [11] Keystone. Two othe  Midwest  Midwe st Epigra Epigraphic phic Jour JourWy Wyric rick’s k’s Letterto Let terto Joseph Jos eph Henry” Hen ry”. . shortly after Wyrick’s death (they have since been lost). nal .  6 : 5–10. However, they were quickly dismissed as fakes when the local dentist, John H. Nicol, claimed that he had carved and Whittlesey, y, Charles (1872). (1872). “Archaeo “Archaeologi logical cal Frau Frauds: ds: Inintroduced the stones to the site. Finally, a fifth stone was [12] Whittlese scriptionsAttrib script ionsAttributed uted to the MoundBuilders. MoundBuilders. Three Three RemarkRemarkfoundatthesamesiteasthe Decalogue stone stone two twoye years ars lat later er able Forgeries.”.  Western Reserve Historical Society Historical & Archaeological Tract #9. by David DavidaM. Johnson Johnson, , a banke banker, and named Dr. Nath Nathani aniel el Roe  JohnsonBradner, physici physician. an. This fifth r,stone, the the JohnsonBradner Stone, Stone, was also inscribed with post-Exilic with  post-Exilic Hebrew.  Hebrew. [13]  Ohio History: Ohio Historical Society. Columbus, OH: Fred

The Johnson-Bradner Stone has since been lost.

J. Heer. 1908. pp. 217–218.

 

104

 

32.7 32. 7 •

•

•

Fur Furth ther er re readi ading ng

 Alrutz, Robert W. (1980).  The Newark Holy Stones:  The History of an Archaeological Tragedy. Den Deniso isonn University.  “Curator lectures about   Myers, Jan (27 Marc Marchh 2011). 2011). “Curator Newark Holy Stones”. Stones”.  Coshocton Tribune.   Gannett Gannett.. Archived from the from the original original on  on 21 January 2013. 2013. Retrieved 11 July 2016.  Williams, Stephen (1 May 1991).  Fantastic Archaeology: The Wild Side of North American American Prehistory. Univ. Pennsylvania ania Press Press.. pp pp.. 16 167– 7–75 75..   ISBN Univ. of Pennsylv 0812213122.. 0812213122

CHAPTER CHAPTER 32. NE NEWARK WARK HOLY HOLY STONES 

 

Chapter 33

Olmec alternative origin speculations critical and regard the promotion of such unfounded theories as a form of ethnocentric   racism   at the expense of indigenous Americans.[2] The The   consensus   view maintained across publications in peer-reviewed academic journals that are concern concerned ed with Mesoamerican and other preColumbian research is that the Olmec and their achievements arose from influences and traditions that were wholly indi indige genou nouss to the the reg regio ion, n, or at le least ast the New Worl orld, d, and there there[3]is They, no re reli liabl abletheir e ma mater teria iall evid eviden ence cecultures to sugge suggest otherwise. and neighbouring withst whom they had contact, developed their own characters which were founded entirely on a remarkably interlinked and ancient cultural and agricultural heritage that was locally shared, but arose quite independently of any extrahemispheric influences.[4]

33.2 33. 2 Tenochtitlán  Colossal Head 6, a 3-meter-high Olmec  San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán Colossal sculpture sculp ture with lips and nose said to rese resemble mble African African facial features. eatures.

Olmec alternative origin speculations  are

that have been suggested for the formation of Olmec ofexplanations  Olmec civi civilization which contradict generally accepted scholarly consensus. These origin theories typically involve contact with World societies. Although these speculations have beOld World societies. come somewhat well-known within popular within popular culture culture,, particularly the idea of an African connection to the Olmec, they are not consi considered dered credible by the majority majority of researchers of of Mesoamerica  Mesoamerica..

33.1 33. 1

Af Afri rican can origin originss

Some writers claim that the Olmecs were related to peoples of Africa-based primarily on their interpretation of facial features features of Olmec statues. They additi additionally onally contend that epigraphical, genetic, and osteological evidence supports their claims. The idea was first suggested by José Melgar, who discovered the first colossal first  colossal head at head  at Hueyapan (now Tres Zapotes) published hed two paZapotes) in 1862 and subsequently publis pers that attributed this head to a “Negro race.”[5] The view Wiener and  and was espoused in the early 20th century by Leo by Leo Wiener [6] others. Some modern proponents such as Ivan as  Ivan van Sertima and tima  and Clyde Ahmad Winters have identified the Olmecs  people of West Africa.[6] with the Mandé the Mandé people

Epigraphic hic evi eviden dence ce Ma Main instr stream eam scie scient ntifi ificc cons consenen- 33.2.1 Epigrap sus Some researchers claim that the Mesoamerican the Mesoamerican writing sys-

tems related toSamuel AfricanRafinesque scripts. In  proposed the early 19th   Constantine thatcenthe tury,  are The grea greatt ma majori jority ty of sch scholars olars who whospec speciali ialize ze in Mesoa Mesoamer mer-- tems are the  Libycoican history, archaeology and linguistics remain uncon- Mayan inscriptions were probably related to the Libyco-

vinced by alternative origin speculations.[1] Many are more Berber Berber writing  writing of Africa.[7] Leo Wiener[8] and others claim 105

 

106

 

CHAPTER 33. OLMEC ALTERNATIVE ALTERNATIVE ORIGIN SPECULATIONS  SPECULATIONS 

that various Olmec and Epi-Olmec and  Epi-Olmec symbols  symbols are similar to figure of 0.101, for the presence of Dongolans at Tlatilco. those found in the Vai the Vai script (a script (a relatively modern script in Wiercinski summarizes his research by offering the followLiberia which may have Cherokee influence [9] ), in particu- ing “ethnogenetical hypotheses":[16] Statuette,, Te Teoo Mas Maskk, Cascajal la lar, r, the the sy symb mbol olss on the the Tuxtla Statuette Block,, and the celts in Offering Block in  Offering 4 at La Venta Venta..   The indigenous indigenous rootstock of Tlatilco and Cerro de las These assertions have found no support among MesoamerMesas consists of “Ainoid, Arctic, and Pacific racial ican researchers. researc hers. While main mainstream stream scholars olars researchers have mad madee elements”. significant progress translating the Mayasch script, have yet to translate Olmec glyphs.  “A next migratory wave” brought in additional Pacific as well as “Laponoid” elements. •

•

33.2.2

Genetic Genetic eviden evidence ce •

Genetic and imm Genetic immunol unologi ogical cal studi studies es over over the past two decades have failed to yield evidence of precolumbian African Afri can contributions to the indigenous population populationss of the [10][11][12] Americas. 33.2.3

Osteologi Osteological cal eviden evidence ce

•

  “Some Chinese influence influence of Shang Period could penetrate Mesoamerica”   “A strange transatlantic, more or less sporadic migraand Bushmenoid tion” brought Armenoid brought Armenoid,, Equatorial, and Bushmenoid elements.

Wiercinski’s Wierci nski’s research methods and conclus conclusions ions are not ac-

Andrze And rzejj origin. Wi Wier erci cins nski kiHe cl clai aims ms tha thatt som some of th theewith cranial Olm Olmec ecss were were of [13] supports thiseclaim with  cranial evi eviAfrican dence from two Mesoamerican sites: Tlatilco sites:  Tlatilco and  and Cerro  Cerro de las Mesas. Mesas. Tlat Tlatilc ilcoo is a site in the the Valley  Valley of Mexico Mexico.. Alheartland,, Olmec influences apthough outside the Olmec the Olmec heartland pear in the architectural record. The crania were fr from om the Pre-Classicc period, contemporary with the Olm Pre-Classi Olmec. ec. Cerro de las Me Mesa sa is wit within hinthe theOlm Olmec ec heart heartlan land, d, alt altho houg ughh acco accordrding to Wiercinski, “the series . . . is dated on the Classic period.”[14] The Classic period is generally defined to start around AD 250, or 600 years after the end of the Olmec culture. To de dete term rmin inee the the raci racial al heri herita tage ge of th thee skel skelet eton ons, s, Wiercin Wie rcinski ski used clas classic sic diagnos diagnostic tic trai traits, ts, det determi ermined ned

cepted by the of vasthismajority scholars, in part because relianceofonMesoamerican the Polish ComparativeMorphological methodology which limits the placement of skull types within a very narrow spectrum that is often within Caucasian, Caucasian, Negroid, and Mongoloid Mongoloid.. Nativ Nativee Americans are thus made to fit within these groups which often yields false and contradictory assumptions as a result of sample bias. An interdisciplinary analysis of Native American skulls has shown that there is no real evidence, apart from superficial misjudgments and erroneous conclusions, that Native Americanss have any link to an Afri American African can presence in America before the European encounter.[17]

by   craniometric and cranioscopic  gical mealthods metho ds,, ool as well we ll tal as the Pol Polish ish Comp Comparati arativeve-Morp Morpholo hologic Sch School skele skeletal refere reference nce coll collecti ection. on. The These se measu measurem rements ents wer weree then compared against three crania sets from Poland, Mongolia and Uganda to represent three racial categories which allowed Wiercinski to sort each skull into one or more racial categories. Based on his comparisons, Wiercinski found that 14% of the skeletons from Tlatilco and 4.5% of the skeletons from Cerro de las Mesas had elements of “Black” racial composition. In the last section of his paper, Wiercinski compared the physi phy siognom ognomyy of the sk skele eletons tons to corr corresp espondi onding ng exa example mpless of Olmec sculptures and bas-relie bas-reliefs fs on the the stelas  stelas.. For exam-

33.3 33. 3

Chi Chine nese se origin originss

Some researchers have argued that the Olmec civilization came into existence with the help of  of   Chinese Chinese refugees,  refugees, [19] particularly at the end of the Shang the  Shang dynasty dynasty.. In 1975, Institution on argued  argued that Betty Meggers of the Smithsonian the  Smithsonian Instituti the Olmec civilization originated due to Shang Chinese influences around 1200 BC.[20] In a 1996 book, Mike Xu, with the aid of Chen Hanping, claimed that the very same La Venta celts Venta celts discussed above actually above actually bore Chinese [21][22] characters. These claims are unsupported by mainstream Mesoameri Mesoamerican can research researchers. ers.[23] The evidence relied on by Mike Xu, includi including ng the coinci coincidence dence of markings on

ple, Wiercins ki statestype. that[15] theThe colossal Olmecfrequencies heads repreOlmec pottery with onboth Chinese oracleand bone empirical of the sent Wiercinski the “Dongolan” significance of those jade in cultures thewritings, shared the Dongolan type at Tlatilco calculated by Wiercinski was knowledge of the position of true North, was discussed in

0.231, more than twice as high as Wiercinski’s theoreti theoretical cal an article by Claire Liu in 1997  [24]

 

 

33.5. NORDIC NORDIC ORIGI ORIGINS  NS 

107

tralAmer tral America, ica, Chiapas Chiapas and Yuc Yucatan atan.[27] LDS foun founder der Joseph

Smith Jr.  placed the arrival of the Jaredites in “the lake country of America” (region of Lake of  Lake Ontario), Ontario), allowing for the theev event entual ual migra migratition on of Boo Bookk of Mor Mormo monn peo peopl ples es to Me Mexxico and Central America.[28] Some LDS scholars identify the Olmec civilization with the Jaredites, citing similarities that the period in which the Olmecs flourishedand andnoting later declined corresponds roughly with the Jaredite civilization timeline, although most disagree with this idea.

33.5 33. 5

Nor Nordi dicc ori origin ginss

A jade Olmec mask. Gordon Ekholm, who was an eminent archaeologist and curator at the American the  American Museum of Natural History , suggested that the Olmec art style might have originated in  Bronze Age China. Age  China.[18]

33.4 33. 4

Jar Jaredi edite te ori origin ginss

See also: Archaeology also:  Archaeology and the Book of Mormon In the Book the  Book of Mormon Mormon,, a text regarded as scripture as  scripture by  by churches and members of the Latter the  Latter Day Saint movement, movement,  are described as a people who left the Old the Jaredites the  Jaredites are World in ancient times and founded a civilization in the Americas. America s. Mainstream Am American erican His History tory and Literature sp speci eciali alists stspla place ce the the lite literarysetti rarysetting ng for th thee Boo Bookk of Mor Mormo monn among the “Mound-builders “Mound-builders”” of North America. The work is therefore classified in the American “Mound-builder” genre of the 19th century.[25] LDS scholars and authors seek to demonstrate that events described in the Book of Mormon Morm on hav havee a literal literal fo founda undatio tion. n. A popular popular Book  Book of Mormon geography model places model  places the scene of the Jaredite arrival and subsequent development, in lands around the Isthmus the Isthmus of Tehuantepec Tehuantepec in  in Mesoamerica.[26] The tradition leading this Central model, however, does not clearlytooriginate withAmerican the Book of Mormon (first published in 1830) but with enthusiastic interest in John in  John

Det Detail ail ofthe carved carved por portra trait it nickna nicknamed med “Un “UncleSam” cleSam” by re resea searc rcher hers  s 

According to Michael to Michael Coe, Coe, explorer and cultural diffusionist Thor ist Thor Heyerdahl Heyerdahl claimed  claimed that at least some of the Olmec leadership had Nordic ancestry, a view at least partly inspired by the bearded figure, often referred to as “Uncle Sam”,[29] carved into La Venta Stela 3, whose apparent nose  has been cited as possible evidence for anaquiline nose has cient visitors to the Americas from the Old World: “The presence of Uncle Sam inspired Thor Hey Heyerda the Norw Norwegi egian an explore lorer and author auth or of Konerdahl, Tiki,hl,  among others to exp claim arNordic ancestry for at least some of the Olmec leadership...

Lloyd Stephens’ Stephens’ 1841 bestseller, Incidents of travel in Cen-

[However], it is extremely misleading to use the

 

108

 

CHAPTER 33. OLMEC ALTERNATIVE ALTERNATIVE ORIGIN SPECULATIONS  SPECULATIONS 

testimony of artistic representations to prove ethnic theories. The Olmec were American Indians, not Negroes (as Melgar had thought) or Nordic supermen.”[30]

[13] Rensberger, B. (September, 1988). “Black kings of anc ancient ient America” Amer ica”,, Science Science Dig Digest, est, 74-77and 74-77 and 122. See alsoWier also Wiercincinski, A. (1972a) “An anthropological study on the origin of 'Olmecs’", Swiatowit, Swiatowit, 33, p. 143-174. [14] Wiercinski (1972b).

33.6 33 .6

See See al also so

•

 Settlement of the Americas

•

 Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories

•

 Ancient Egyptian race controversy

33.7 33 .7

Foo ootn tnot otes es

[1] See Grove (1976) or or Ortiz de Montellano Montellano (1997). [2]

[3]

[4] [5] [6]

[15] Wiercinski (1972b), p.160 [16] Wiercinski, p. 158 or p. 171. [17]  http://www.icb.ufmg.br/lbem/pdf/ gonzalez2008ajpa-americapeopling.pdf [18] Pool, p. 92, who cites Gordon Gordon Ekholm (1964) “Transpacific “Transpacific Contacts” in  Prehistoric Man in the New World  JD  JD Jennings and E. Norbeck, eds., Chicago: University of Chicago, pp. 489—510. [19] This theory theory is mentioned mentioned in the history book The book The Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community (1963) Community  (1963) by William H. McNeill

  Robbing Native Native American Cultures: Van Sertima’s Meggers. Afrocentricity and the Olmecs an Olmecs an article from Current  [20] Meggers. Anthropology. [21] Xu, Mike.   “TRANSPACIFIC CONTACTS?". CONTACTS?". Arch Archive ivedd from the from original  the original on  on August 2, 2001. Retrieved 15 DecemTaube, p. 17. “There Taube, “There simp simply ly is no no materi material al evid evidenc encee ber 2015. of any Pre-Hispanic contact between the Old World and Mesoamerica before the arrival of the Spanish in the six[22] Xu, Mike Mike (1996). (1996).  The Origin. University of Central Oklateenth century.” 978-0964869424.. homa Press. p. 52. ISBN 52.  ISBN 978-0964869424 Diehl (2004); Coe (1968). [23] See for example Grove Grove (1976). Stirling, p. 2, who cites Melgar Melgar (1869) and Melgar Melgar (1871). [24] . Ortíz de Montellano, Montellano, Bernard & Gabriel Gabriel Haslip Viera & [25] Roger Roger G. Kennedy, Kennedy,  HIDDEN CITIES – THE DISCOVERY  Warren Barbour 1997  

•

[7] C. S. Rafinesque, Rafinesque, “First “First letter letter to Mr. Champolli Champollion on on the Graphic systems of Otolum or Palenque in Central Amer-

AND LOSS OF ANCIENT NORTH AMERICAN CIVILIZATION , 1994, pp. 228-23 228-231; 1; Robert Robert Silve Silverbe rberg, rg, “and the mound-bui moun d-builders ldersvanis vanished hed from the earth”, earth”,American Heritage Magazine

 The Ancient Maya Writing, Housica”,S.inet , June 1969, Volume 20, Issue 4 ton, al.,Decipherment Norman, OK:ofUniversity of Oklahoma Press [26] Southerton (2004, p.157) (2001), (pp. 45-47); and C. S. Rafinesque, “Second letter to Mr. Champollion--Elements of the Glyphs”, ibid., pp. 48[27] Coon, W. Vincent, Choice Above All Other Lands – Book of  53. Mormon Covenant Lands According to the Best Sources , Ch. 4, “Unsigned Articles and a Popular Book”, pp. 64-104 Wiener,,  Africa and the Discovery of America, Volume [8]  Leo Wiener 3, Philadelphia, PA: PA: Innes & Sons (1922) p. 271. [28] Joseph Smith (editor), (editor), “Traits of the Mosaic History Found Found Among the Aztaeca Nations”,  Times and Seasons  , June 15, [9] Tuchsche Tuchscherer, rer, Konrad Konrad (2002). (2002).  Cherok  Cherokee ee and We West st Africa: frica: Ex1842, 184 2, Vol. Vo l. 3, No. 16, pp 818-82 818 -820; 0; signed sign ed with wit h Joseph Jose ph amining the Origins of the Vai Script . History in Africa, 29. Smith’s “ED”. Joseph Smith comments on a chapter chapter from from pp. 427–486. JSTOR 427–486.  JSTOR 3172173 3172173.. Josiah Priest’s  American Antiquities and Discoveries in the West . Coon notes that Joseph Smith uses precisely the same [10]  http://www.plosgenetics.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/ description as Priest, Humboldt and others in describing the journal.pgen.1000500 Great Lakes region as “the lake country”. See, “Lake”, The “Lake”, The [11] Brown, David.  David.  “Among Many Peoples, Little Genomic VaBook of Mormon & “Mound-Builder” America riety”..  The Washington Post . Retrieved May 20, 2010. riety” [29] see Coe (1968, (1968, p.59) p.59) [12]  https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/

lan/en/atlas.html

[30] Coe. p. 55

 

33.8. REFERENCES  REFERENCES 

33.8 33. 8

Re Refferen erence cess Aguirre Beltrán, Gonzalo (1972).   La  población negra de México: Estudio etnohistórico  (in Spanish) (2nd edi-

tion, with corrections and expansions ed.). México D.F.:  Fondo D.F.: Fondo Económica Económica. .  OCLC 781507. 781507de. Cultura Alchina-France, J. (1985).   Los ori genes de America, Madrid: Editorial Alhambra. Ignacio   (196 (1968). 8). “V “Vie iews ws of Bernal, Ignacio Olmec Olm ec Cu Cultu lture” re”.. In El Eliza izabet bethh P. Benson.   Dumbarton Oaks ConferConference on the Olmec, October 28th and  29th, 1967   (PDF PDF).). Washington DC:

Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. Collection. pp. 135–142. OCLC 135–142.  OCLC 52523439.. 52523439 Coe,, Mi Mich chae aell D.   (1968).   AmerCoe ica’s First First Civiliz Civilization ation. Ric Richa hard rd B. Woodbury (consu (consultant). ltant). New Y York: ork: American Heritage, associati ation on Heritage, in associ with the Smithsonian the Smithsonian Institution Institution;; distributed by Van Nostrand (Princeton,  OCLC 451758. NJ). OCLC NJ). 451758. Coe, Mich chae aell D.  (Summer 1973). Coe, Mi “Mormo “Mo rmons ns and Arc Archae haeolo ology: gy: An Outside View”.   Dial Dialogue: ogue: A JourJournal of Mormon Thought . St Stanf anford ord,, CA: Dialogue Foundation.   8   (2): 40–48.   ISSN 0012-2157. 0012-2157.   OCLC 197923057.. 197923057 Michae haell D. D. (1994).  (1994).   Mexico:  Coe, Mic  from the Olmecs to the Aztecs (4t (4thh ediedition, revised enlarged ed.). London and Newand York: York: Thames  Thames & Hudson..   ISBN 0-500-27722-2 son 0-500-27722-2..   OCLC 29708907.. 29708907 Covarrubias, Miguel Miguel (1986)  (1986) [1946]. Mexi xicco So Sout uth: h: The Ist sthm hmus us of  Tehuantepec    (Rep (Reprint rint,, Ori Origina ginally lly

published New York: Knopf ©1946  KPI (Kegan Paul Ined.). Lond London: on: KPI ternational),, distributed by Routledge ternational) by Routledge & Ke Kega gann Pau aull, by arra arrang ngem emen entt with   Alfre Alfredd A. Kn Knop opff.   ISBN 0-7103-0184-7..  OCLC 14069879 0-7103-0184-7 14069879.. Cuevas, Marco P. Hernadez (2004). African Mexicans discourse on Modern Mexico.and Universi Unithe versity ty Press,

Oxford.

 

109 America’s First Civilization. Anci Ancient ent

peoples peop les and plac places es seri series. es. Lond London: on: Thames & Hudson Hudson..   ISBN 0-50002119-8..  OCLC 56746987. 02119-8 56746987. Green, L.D., (2000), "Mitochondrial "Mitochondrial DNA DN A affi affini niti ties es of th thee pe peop ople le of   American North-Central Mexico Mexic o", , 66:98 Journal of Human Genetics  66:9899-

998. C. (September  (September 1976). Grove, David C. “Olme “Olmecc Ori Origin ginss and Tra Trans nspac pacifi ificc Diff Di ffusi usion on:: Repl Replyy to Me Megg gger ers” s”.. Ameri erican can An Anthr thropo opolog logist  ist  , New Am Series    (JSTOR   reproduction).

Ar Arliling ngto ton, n, VA:   Ameri America cann An An-thropo thr opolo logic gical al Ass Associ ociati ation on   and affiliated societies.   78 (3): 634–637. doi::10.1525/aa.1976.78.3.02a00120 10.1525/aa.1976.78.3.02a00120.. doi 674425..  OCLC 1479294. 1479294. JSTOR 674425 Guthe Gut heri rie, e, J. (19 (1996) 96)..   The Olmec  Olmec  World: Ritual and Rulership. Princeton University: University of Princeton Press. MacLachlan, C.M. & Rodriguez O, J.E., The Forging of the Cosmic Race:  A Rei Reinter nterpret pretation ationof ofColo Colonial nial Me Mexico xico, University of California Press (1980) Marquez, C. (1956).  Estudios arqueologicas y ethnograficas . Mexico. Me Megge ggers, rs, Be Betty tty J.   (March (March 1975) 1975).. “The Tra rans nspa paccific Ori rigi ginn of Meso Me soam amer eric ican an Ci Civi vililiza zati tion on:: A Pr Prel elim imin inar aryy Revi Revieew of the the Ev Eviidence and Its Theoretical Implications”.   American Anthropol Anthropologist  ogist  , New Se Seri ries  es    (JSTOR   reproduction tion). ). Ar Arlilingt ngton on,, V VA: A:   American Anthropo Anth ropologi logical cal Assoc Associat iation ion   and affiliated societies.   77   ((1) 1):: 1– 1–27 27.. doi doi::10.1525/aa.1975.77.1.02a00020 10.1525/aa.1975.77.1.02a00020.. 674066..  OCLC 1479294. 1479294. JSTOR 674066 Melgar, Jose (1869) “Antigüedades me mexi xica canas nas,, not notab able le escult escultura ura antigua tigua”, ”, in   Bolet Boletín ín de la Socied Sociedad  ad  Mexicanaa de Geografía Mexican Geografía y Estadística, épo pocca 22,, vo vol.l. 1, pppp. 29292-29 2977, Mexico. Melgar, Mel gar, Jose (1871 (1871)) “Est “Estudi udioo sobr sobree la antigüedad y el origen de la Cabeza Colosal de del tipocantón etiópico en Hueyapan deque los existe Tuxtlas” in Boletín de la Sociedad Mexicana de

Diehl, Richard (2004). Richard  (2004).   The Olmecs: 

Geografía y Estadística, época 2, vol.

 

110

 

CHAPTER 33. OLMEC ALTERNATIVE ALTERNATIVE ORIGIN SPECULATIONS  SPECULATIONS 

3, pp. 104-109; Mexic Mexico. o. Orti Ortizz de Mo Mont nteellllan ano, o, Bern Bernar ard; d; Gabriel Gabri el Hasl Haslip-V ip-Vie iera; ra; Wa Warren rren Barbourr (Spr bou (Spring ing 19 1997) 97).. “T “The heyy We Were re NOT  NO T  Here before before Columbus: Afroce centr ntric ic Hyp Hyperd erdiff iffusi usioni onism sm in the

production). producti on). PrePre-Col Columb umbian ian Art at Dumbarto Dum bartonn Oak Oaks, s, no. 2. Wa Washi shingngton, DC: Dumbarton DC:  Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection; Collection; Trustees of Harvard University.  ISBN 0-88402275-7..  OCLC 56096117 275-7 56096117..

  eEthnohistory 1990s”. Dss, ur,ham NC:   Duk Duke Univer Uni versit sityy. Pre Press is-, sued by the   Ame Americ rican an Soci Society ety for Ethnohisto Ethnohistory ry..   44   (2 (2): ): 19 199– 9– 234.   doi doi::10.2307/483368 10.2307/483368..   JSTOR 483368..  OCLC 42388116. 483368 42388116. Pool, ool, Chris risto toppher A. (20 (2007) 07).

Un Unde derhi rhill, ll, P.A., Jin Jin,,Cav L.,alli-Sf Zem Zemans ans,, R., Oef Oefner, ner,P.A J. .,and CavalliSforza, orza, L.L.( .L.(19 1996 96,, Ja Janu nuar aryy). "A pre re-Columbian Columb ian Y chromoso chromosome-spec me-specific ific transiti trans ition on and its imp implic licati ations ons for human hum an ev evoluti olutionary onary hist history ory", ",   Pro-

Ol Olme mecc Ar Arch chae aeol olog ogyy an andd Ea Earl rlyy Mesoamerica . Ca Cam mbri bridge dge World orld

Archaeology. Archaeol ogy. Cam Cambri bridge dge and Ne New w York:   Cambridge University Press. Press. 978-0-521-78882-3..   OCLC ISBN 978-0-521-78882-3 68965709.. 68965709 Rensberger, B. ( September, 1988). “Black kings of ancient America”, Science Digest , 74-77 and 122. Sal Salas, as, Ant Antoni onio; o; Rich Richard ards, s, Mar Martitin; n; Lareu Lar eu,, Mar Maríaía-Vi Vict ctori oria; a; Sco Scozza zzari, ri, Rosaria; Rosari a; Copp Coppa, a, Alf Alfredo redo;; Tor Torroni roni,, Antonio; Anton io; Maca Macaulay ulay,, Vinc Vincent; ent; Carracedo, Ángel (2004) “The (2004)  “The African Diaspora: Dias pora: Mito Mitocho chondri ndrial al DNA and the Atlantic Slave Trade”, Trade”, American Journal of Human Genetics; March 2004; 74(3): p. 454–465. Sore Sorenson nson,, John L.  (1992).   When Lehi’s Party Arrived in the Land, Did  They Find Others There? . Provo, Provo, UT:

Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship Ret Retri riev eved ed|accessAp April ril 2007. Scholarship. Check date. values in: date= (help (help)) Southerton, Simon G. G. (2004).  (2004).  Losing a Lost Lost Tribe: Native Americans, DNA, DNA, and the Mormon Church. Sal Saltt La Lake ke

Books..  ISBN 1City, UT: Signature UT: Signature Books 56085-181-3..  OCLC 55534917 56085-181-3 55534917.. Stirling, Matthew W. W.   (196 (1968). 8). Eliz Eliz-abeth abe th P. Benso Benson, n, ed.   Dumbarton Oaks Conference on the Olmec, October 28th and 29th, 1967   (PDF ( PDF on on-

line reproduction). reproduction). Was Washington hington DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection Collection. 52523439. 52523439 . . pp. 1–8.   OCLC Olmec ec Art at  Taube, Karl Karl (2004).  (2004).   Olm

ceedings of the National Academy of  Sciences USA, 93, p. 196-200.  They ey came Van Sert Sertima, ima, Iva Ivann (197 (1976). 6). Th before Columbus . New Y York. ork.

Wiercinski, A. (1971), “Affinidades raciales de algunas poblaiones antiquas de Mexico”,  Anales de Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, 7a epoca, tomo II, pp. 123-143. Wierci Wie rcinsk nski,A. i,A. (1 (1972). 972). “Inte “Interr- and Intrapopulational Racial Differentiation of Tlatilco, Cerro de Las Mesas, Teothuacan, Monte Alban and Yucatan Maya”, XXXlX Congreso Intern. de Ame Americanistas, ricanistas, Li Lima ma 1970, Vol. 1, p. 231-252. Wierc Wiercin insk ski,A i,A.. (19 (1972b 72b). ). “An anthropological study on the origin of 'Olmecs’",   Swiatowit , 33:197 33:1972, 2, pp. 143-174. Wiercinski, A. & Jairazbhoy, R.A. (1975) “Comment”, The New Diffusionist, sioni st, 5 (18),5 Wilford, Wilf ord, John Noble;   Mother Culture, or Only a Sister?, Sister?, The New York  Times,  March 15, 2005. Wolverton, Susan Stansfield (2004). Having Having visions: The Book of Mormon Translated and Exposed in Plain En glish. New New Y York: ork:   Algora Algora..  ISBN 0-

87586-308-6.  OCLC 54806382 87586-308-6. 54806382.. Xu, H. Mike (1996)   Origin of the Olmec Civilization Civilization, Univers University ity of Central Oklahoma Press.

Dumbarton Dumba rton Oak Oaks  s   (PDF   online online re-

 

Chapter 34

Pangboche Hand 34..1 34

Story

 Tom Slick Slick first  first heard acOil businessman and adve adventurer nturer Tom counts of the possible existence of a “Yeti hand” held as a ritual artifact artifact in the monastery at Pangboche during one of his first “Abominable “Abominable Snowman” treks in 1957. The Slick expeditions expedi tions were the first to bring photographs of the hand back to the West. Duringg late Durin laterr Tom Sli Slick-s ck-spons ponsored ored exp expedi editio tions ns in and around the Himalayas the Himalayas,, his associates gathered more information on the “Pangboche hand,” and an effort to further examine exami ne it was planned. In 1959 Peter Byrne Byrne,, a member of Slick’s expedition that year, reportedly stole pieces of the artifact artifact after the monks who owned it refused to allow its removal for study.[1] Byrne claimed to have replaced the stolen bone fragments with human bones, rewrapping the hand to disguise his theft.[1] Byrne smuggled the bones from Nepal into India, after which actor James actor  James Stewart allegedly Stewart  allegedly smuggled the hand out of the country in his luggage.[1] Cryptozoologist Cryptozoologist Loren  Loren Coleman rediscovered Coleman  rediscovered this story while writing Tom Slick’s biograph biography in the 1980s. Coleman confirm confirmed details of the incidentsywith written materials in the Slickedarchives, interviews with Byrne, and correspondence with Stewart. Byrne later confirmed the Pangboche hand story via a letter from from Stewart that Byrne published in a general book on Nepalese wildlife.[2] Photo of the Pangboche Hand, taken in 1958 by Peter Byrne During the highly publicized 1960 World Book expedition, which had many goals including gathering intelligence on Hillary and  and Marlin  Marlin Chinese rocket launchings, Sir launchings, Sir Edmund Hillary Perkins took Perkins  took a sidetrip in Nepal to investigate the hand. Hilla Hillary ry was wasuna unawar waree of thepos the possi sibi bilility ty that that he wa wass loo looki king ng at a combination of the original material and the human bones placed there by Byrne. Hillary determined the artifact artifact was Pangboche Hand   is an artifact from a   Buddhist The   Pangboche monastery in monastery  in Pangboche  Pangboche,,  Nepal  Nepal.. Supporters ccontend ontend that a hoax. the  purported hand is from a  Yeti, a Yeti a  scientifically  scientifica unrecognized ani- According Accord ing towalked monksinto at Pangboche monastery, manyheyears mal mal purported to live in ,the Himalayanllymountains. A finger . There, saw ago, a monk a cave to meditate to  meditate. bone from the hand was tested and the DNA shown to be a  Yeti.  Yeti. Many years later, he came back, and the yeti was

human.[1]

dead. He collected the hand and scalp and  scalp and  and took it back to 111

 

112

 

CHAPTER CHAPTER 34. PANG PANGBOCHE BOCHE HAND 

the monastery where it remained until it was discovered in [5]  Yeti finger mystery solved by Edinburgh scientists scientists.. BBC News. the modern age. London Univ University ersity primatol primatologist ogist William  William Charles Osman Hill conducted Hill  conducted a physical examination of the pieces that 34.4 Ex Exte terna rnall links links  hominid,, 34.4 Byrne supplied. supplied. His first findings were that it was was hominid and later in 1960 he decided that the Pangboche fragments were a closer match with a Neanderthal a  Neanderthal.. In 1991, in conjunction with Coleman’s research, it was discovered that the Slick expedition consultant, an American anthropologist by the name of George Agogino, had retained samples of the alleged Yeti hand. The NBC program Unsolved Mysteries  obtained  obtained samples and determined they were similar to human tissue, but were not human, and could only verify they were “near human.” After the broadcast of the program, the entire hand was stolen from the Pangboche monastery, and reportedly disappeared into a private priv ate collection via the illegal underground in the sale of antiquities. antiqui ties. George Agogino, bef before ore his death on September 11, 2000, transferred his important files on the Pangboche Yeti hand to Loren Coleman.[3] In 201 20100 Weta Work orksh shops ops pro produ duced ced a repli replica ca skull skull and han handd based on ph based photo otoss of the the missi missing ng han handd and skull skull.. Mike Mike All Allsop sop handed over the replica skull and hand to monks at Pangboche in May 2011.[4]

34.2 34 .2

DNA DNA Testi esting ng

On 27 December 2011 it was announced that a finger belonging to the hand contained human DNA, following tests Ogden en com commen mented ted carried out in Edinburgh.[1] Dr. Rob Ogd that “We have got a very, very strong match to a number of existing reference sequences on human DNA databases... Human was what we were expecting and human is what we got.”[1][5]

34.3 34. 3

Re Refferen erence cess

[1] Hill, Matthew Matthew (27 December December 2011). “Tracing 2011). “Tracing the origins of a 'ye 'yeti’ ti’ss fing finger' er'"".  BBC Ne News ws Onl Online ine.. Retrieved Retrieved 27 December December 2011. [2] see Coleman’s books   Tom Slick and the Search for Yeti  (Boston/L (Bost on/Londo ondon: n: Faber Faber and Faber, Faber, 1989) and  Tom Slick:  True Life Encounters in Cryptozoology (Fresno, CA: Linden Press, 2002). Agogino [3]   George Allen Agogino [4] Jolly, Joanna Joanna (28 April April 2011). "'Yeti 2011).  "'Yeti hand' replica to be returned to Nepal monastery”. monastery”.  BBC News Online. Online . Retrieved

•

 DNA testing reveals yeti finger is a fraud

27 December 2011.

 

Chapter 35

Oklahoma runestones A number of runestones of runestones have  have been found in Oklahoma in Oklahoma.. All of them are likely of modern origin, with some of them Vikingrevi revival val"orbeing "orbeing possi pos sibl blyy datin datingg to the the19t 19thh centu century ry "Viking produced by 19th-century Scandinavian settlers. The oldest find is the “Heavener Runestone,” first documented in 1923. It is the most credible candi candidate date as being of medieval date, but it is most likely a 19th-century artifact made by a Scandinavian immigrant (possibly a Swede working work ing at the loca locall train depot). Two other “Hea “Heaven vener er Runestones” Runestone s” are most likel likelyy not runic at all but exhibit incisions of Native American origin. Three other runestones, found in Poteau, Shawnee and Pawnee, are of modern date.

a Norse presence, nothing similar has been found anywhere near Heavener Heavener or even in the Americ American an Midwest. He suggests that “It is unlikely that the Norse would get significantly more fastidious about leaving any evidence behind of their presence in Oklahoma.”[2] Archaeologist Archaeolo gist Lyle Tompsen in a 2007 Masters Thesis for the University of Leicester (published in ESOP 29 2011:543) examined the runestone and noted: 1. There is no cultural evidence evidence of Viki Vikings ngs in or near the region. 2. No Old Norse approach approach to translation fits this sto stone. ne. 3. The The stone’ stone’ss mos mostt lik likel elyy tra trans nslat latio ionn is 'Gn 'Gnom omee Dal Dal'' (Val(Valley of the Gnomes). 4. Scandi Scandina navi vian an pr prese esenc ncee in the the nearb nearbyy to town wn of Heave Heavene nerr is early and the likeliest source of the carving of the stone.

the Heavener runestone

35.1

Hea Heave vener ner Rune Runeston stonee

5. Other purported rune rune stones in the re region gion are mode modern rn cre creati ations, ons, or mis misinte interpre rpreted ted Nati Native ve Ame Americ rican an rock art. “Barring any new evidence, the stone is best considered a modern creation.”[3] Henrik Hen rik Willi William ams, s, pro proffessor essor in Nor Nordi dicc lan langua guage gess at Uppsala, visited Oklahoma in 2015 as part University of Uppsala, of a tour sponsored by the American Association for Runic Studies in collaboration with Uppsala University and the American Friends Friends of Uppsala Uni Universi versity. ty. In a speech to the Poteau Chamber of Commerce he said that the Heavener stone “Is probably in the top 20 I’ve seen in the world, just for the sheer size and impressive nature of it.” He said that it was probably 19th century with a 20% probability of it being 10th or 11th century. “All words have endi endings, ngs, back 1,000 and 500 years ago, and that is one thing we find

The Heavener Runestone is located in Heavener in  Heavener Runestone Park in Le Park in  Le Flore County, Oklahoma, Oklahoma , near Heavener, near Heavener, Oklahoma.. homa The runes on the stone are . [1] Most of these Futhark , , but the final “L” is characters characte rs belong to the Elder the Elder Futhark reversed reve rsed compared with the last “A”, and the second character is a short-twig “A” from the Younger the  Younger Futhark Futhark.. The transcriptionn is then gaomedal , but is generally thought that transcriptio the intention is that the second character should be an elder futhark “N” (also reversed). The inscriptio inscriptionn then reads  gnomedal  (either  (either “gnome valley”, or a personal name “G. Nomedal”). disturbing,” said “None of the nonconforming on the HeavenerWilliams Runestone. of the Americanending inscrip Ken Feder notes Archaeologist Ken Archaeologist Feder notes that unlike the situation in tions ever found have any kind of layout or ornamentation.

eastern Canada where evidence has been found that proves That’s another thing that doesn’t really fit the pattern.” He 113

 

114

 

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 35. OKLAHOM OKLAHOMA A RUNESTO RUNESTONES  NES 

also noted that “There are no Vikings or earlier inscriptions on Iceland or Greenland, so it’s a big jump from Sweden to Heavener.”[4] In 1991,   Carl Albert State College   in near nearby by Pot Poteau eau  in the stone’s honor. changed its mascot to a Viking a Viking in

Professor Don G Wyckoff. an archaeologist at the University of Oklahoma, examined the Shawnee stone and noted that it is a soft red Permian sandstone, writing that “the inscription is... remarka remarkably bly ffresh resh and certainl certainlyy not as worn or weathered weathered as the stone’s natura naturall surf surface. ace. The Surve Surveyy staff has viewed other exposures of this Permian sandstone which have carved dates as late as 1957 that are more worn and weathered...”[7] Both the Shawnee and Pawnee rune35.2 35. 2 Poteau oteau Ston Stonee stones are products of the modern period. The inscripti inscription on reads either mldok   or or midok  in  in standard Elder standard Elder Futhark Futhark let letThe Poteau stone was found by schoolboys in 1967 near tering. Poteau in Le Poteau in  Le Flore County, County, Oklahoma.  Oklahoma. Tompsen also examined this stone, and writes that it is 35.4 4 Re Refferen erence cess carved into sandstone and is 15 inches long and shows 35. little little weath weatherin ering. g. The Theyy read    and Thomp Thompsen sen Heavener Runestone”. Runestone”. writes “This stone consists of a mixture of letters and [1]   “The Heavener alphabets from different times.” He transcribes these as [2]  Kenneth L. Feder Feder,,   Encyclopedia of Dubious Archaeology:  GLOIEA(?)(?). From Atlantis To The Walam Olum , page 137 (Greenwood, 2010). ISBN 2010).  ISBN 978-0-313-37919-2 Futhark,, one Younger one  Younger Of the eight letters, five are Elder are  Elder Futhark Futhark.. The other two he calls “spurious”. He writes: " [3] Tompsen, Futhark Tompsen, Lyle.   “An Archaeolo Archaeologist gist Looks Looks at the OklaBy excluding theititse last asespurious, are on the Heav Heaven ener er stone stone self. lf.two Theletters onl onlyy one on lef left is a strai strfive aigh ght t line. line. To the theau autho thor’s r’s ey eyes, es, the the Potea Poteauu St Ston onee is a copy copy of th thee Hea Heave vene nerr stone, with the addition of three spurious runic symbol symbolss as script-inflation.” [3] Swedish Professor Henrik Williams believes that the inscription is modern, with the stone and toolmarks not as weathered as would be expected if it were from the Viking period.[5]

35.3

Sha Shawne wneee and Pawnee Pawnee Stones Stones

homa Runestones ESOP 29, 2011: 5-43 | Lyle Tompsen”. Tompsen” . Academia.edu. Academi a.edu. Retrieved 2013-03-27. [4] Lovett, Lovett, John John (May 3, 2015).  “Swedish Runologist Studies Heavener Runestone 'For Truth'". Truth'".  Times Record . Retrieved 16 January 2016. [5] Wallace, Josh (May 4, 2015). “Oklahoma 2015).  “Oklahoma runestone is impressive but not from Vikings, Swedish scholar says”. says” . NewsOK. Retrieved 16 January 2016. [6] Wilson, Wilson, Steve (1989). (1989).   Oklahoma Treasures and Treasure Tales . University of Oklahoma Press. p. 33.  ISBN 0-80612174-2.. 2174-2 [7] Wyckoff, Wyckoff, Don G, “No Stones Stones Unturned:Differing Views Views of Oklahoma’s Runestones” in  Popular Archaeology, 2:16-31, no 12, 1973, reprinted in Ancient Man: A Handbook of Puz zling Artifacts  Artifacts , compiled by William R. Corliss, The Sourcebook Project, 1978, ISBN 1978, ISBN 0-915554-03-8 •

•

 Lyle Tompsen, An Archaeologist Examines The Oklahoma Rune Stones , Epigraphic Society Occasional Papers (ESOP) 29:2011. 29:2011.   Nielso Nielson, n, Ric Richard, hard,   The Ru Runes neston tones es of Oklah Oklahoma oma, Epigraphic Epigraph ic Society Occasional Public Publications ations (ESOP), 16:1987.

35.5 35 .5 the Shawnee runestone

The Shawnee stone was found in 1969 by three children in Shawnee, Oklahoma Oklahoma,, one mile from the North the  North Canadian

See See al also so

•

 Kensington Runestone

•

 Vérendrye Runestone

River, the Arkansas River River..[6] River, which is a tributary of the Arkansas

 

Chapter 36

Quimbaya artifacts The Quimbaya artifacts are several dozen golden objects, found in Colombia in Colombia,, made by the Quimbaya the Quimbaya civilization civilization cul culture, dated around 1000 CE, a few of whic whichh (the so-called Quimbaya airplanes) are supposed by ancient by ancient astronauts theorists to represent modern airplanes, and therefore to be artifacts. The whole of the figurines, measurout-of-place artifacts. ing 2 to 3 inches (5 to 7.5 cm) each, are described in mainstream archaeology as depic depicting ting birds, lizards, amphibians andinsects andinsec ts comm common on in tha thatt reg regio ionn and andpe perio riod, d, som somee of the them m highly stylized, as in the Gold the Gold Museum, Bogotá Bogotá.. In 1994, Germans Peter Belting and Conrad Lubbers created simplified radio-controlled scale models of these objects and showed that their models, which lack some convoluted features present in the real figurines, could fly. [1]

36.1 36 .1 •

See See al also so

 Saqqara Bird

36.2 36. 2

Re Refferen erence cess

[1] Thomas, Robert Steven (2011).   Intelligent Intervention. USA: Dog Ear Publishing. pp. 74–77.  ISBN 978-1-45750778-6.. 0778-6

•

 Spirit Pond runestones

115

 

Chapter 37

San Pedro Mountains Mummy Tribune.[2]

37.1 37 .1

See See al also so

•

  Shoshone

•

  Nimerigar

37.2 37. 2

Re Refferen erence cess

Photos and X-ray of the mummy

[1] Loendorf, Loendorf, Lawrence Lawrence L.; Nancy Nancy Medaris Medaris Stone (2006).

In October 1932, while digging for gold in the San PeMountain Moun tain Spirit: The Sheep Eater Indians of Yello Yellowstone wstone. dro mountains, Carbon mountains,  Carbon County, Wyoming Wyoming,, two prospec978-0874808681.. University Unive rsity of Utah Press. p. 189. ISBN 189.  ISBN 978-0874808681 tor tors, s, Cec Cecilil Ma Mayneand yneand Fra Frank nk Car Carr, r, blaste blastedd the their irwa wayy thr throu ough gh Brendan (February 3, 2005).  “Man offers $10,000 some thick rock that a large vein of gold continued into. [2] Burke, Brendan forr Pedr fo Pedroo Mount Mountain ain Mumm Mummy” y”..   Casp Casper er Star-Tribune Star-Tribune. When the dust settled, they saw they had opened up a small trib.com. Retrieved 25 January 2011. room, approximately 4 ft tall, 4 ft wide, and about 15 ft deep.. This is wh deep where ere the theyy sai saidd tha thatt they they first saw th thee mummy   Reader’s Reader’s diges digestt [chie [chieff contributing writer, Richar Richardd of a tiny a tiny person. person. Marshall] Mars hall];; Mont Montee Davi Davis; s; Valeri Valeriee Moolm Moolman; an; Geor Georgg This first mummy was examined using X-rays which deZappler (1982).  Mysteries of the unexplained  (Repr.  (Repr. with amendments ed.). Pleasantville, N.Y.: Reader’s termined that it was the body of an anencephalic an  anencephalic infant “whose cranial deformity gave it the appearance of a miniaDigest Association. p. 40. ISBN 40.  ISBN 0895771462. 0895771462. Photo ture adult.” A second mummy examined by University of of mummy Wyoming anthropologist George Gill and the Denver Children’s Hospital Hospital in the 1990s was also shown to be an anencephalic infant. DNA testing showed it to be Native Amer37.3 Ex 37.3 Exte terna rnall links links ican and radiocarbon dating dated it to about 1700.[1] According to a July 7, 1979, article in the   Casper Star“Mummifi mified ed Pyg Pygmy my Foun Found” d”..   The Waco Waco NewsNews  “Mum Tribune the first mummy started debates over whether it Tribune. 15 Dec 1934. p. 7. Retrieved 17 December was a hoax, a baby, or one of the legendary ""little little people people". ". 2016 – via Newspapers.com. Wyoming ng,, at a loca locall The mummy ended up in Meeteetse, in  Meeteetse, Wyomi   Peter Peterson, son, Chri Christi stine ne (Oc (Octobe toberr 31, 2010 2010). ).   “Did a drug store where it was shown as an attraction for several mummy prove the legend?". legend?".  Casper Star-Tribune. Goodman,, aa Casper,  Casper, years before it was bought by Ivan by Ivan T. Goodman Wyoming bu busi sine ness ssman man.. The Themum mummy my was was the thenn pas passed sed on to •

•

•

Leonard isWadler, a New York business businessman man and its present [2] Seeking to prove evol evolution ution wrong, location unknown.

an offer of a $10,000 reward was made for the person who finds the missing mummy according to the Casper Star116

 

Chapter 38

Saqqara Bird 38.1

Con Conven ventio tional nal ideas ideas

Some think the Saqqara Bird may be a ceremonial object because the falcon the  falcon,, the bird after which the Saqqara Bird is modeled, is the form most commonly used to represent several of the most important gods of Egyptian of  Egyptian mythology mythology,,  and the sun deity Ra deity  Ra most notably the falcon deity Horus deity  Horus and

The Saqqara artif artifact. act.

Horakhty Horakhty. . Others have posited it may have been  toy  toy for  for an elite child, or that it could have functioned as a weather aa weather vane.. Some have also specu vane speculated lated it may have been used as technology ogy was common and a sort of boomerang of boomerang,, as such technol well known in ancient Egypt in the form of a throwing a  throwing stick [2] used for hunting waterfowl hunting waterfowl.. But the most likely hypothesis is that this bird was positi positioned oned on the masthead of saFestival..[3] Reliefs showing cred boats used during the Opet the Opet Festival those boats are found in the Temple the Temple of Khonsu Khonsu at  at Karnak  Karnak and date to the late New Kingdom.[4]

38.2

The Saqqara artif artifact. act.

The   Saqqara Saqqara Bird Bird   is a   bird bird-sh -shaped aped artif artifact act mad madee of sycamore sycamore wood,  wood, discovered during the 1898 excavation 1898  excavation of  of Saqqara,, Egypt Egypt.. It ha hass beendate beendatedd to the Pa-di-Imen Pa-di-Imen tomb in Saqqara approximately 200 approximately  200 BCE, BCE, and is now housed in the Museum the Museum

Con Contro trove versi rsial al ideas ideas

Some have suggested that the Saqqara Bird may represent evidence that knowledge of the principles of aviation of  aviation exi existed sted man manyy cen centuri turies es bef before ore suc suchh are gene generall rallyy believed liev ed to have first been discovered. Egyptian phys physician, ician, archaeologist , parapsychologist archaeologist,  parapsychologist and  and dowser  dowser Khalil  Khalil Messiha Egyptians developed  developed the has speculated that the ancient the  ancient Egyptians [5] first aircraft first  aircraft.. He wrote that it “represents a diminutive of an original monoplane still present in Saqqara.”[5] He also claimed that the Saqqara Bird could function as a  glider if it had a horizontal tailplane horizontal  tailplane,, which he “suppose[d] was [5] lost,” and noted that the Egyptians often placed miniaturized representations of their technology in their tombs.[6] Messiha contended that the Saqqara Bird differs significantly from other statues and models of birds housed in the

of Egyptian Antiquitie s  in  in Cairo  Cairo. . The Saq Saqqara qara Bird has a Cairo museumstabilizer which museum. . Accord According ing to isMessih Messiha, thegenerally Saqqara horBir Birdd  which unlikea, the wingspan ofAntiquities 180 mm (7.1 in) and weighs 39.12Bi grd(1.380 has a vertical a  vertical stabilizer [1]

oz). Its function is not understood because of a lack of izontal shape of a real bird s tail.  Richard P. Hallion Hallion de  de period documentation. scribed this fin as “shaped as if the bird had twisted its tail 117

 

118

 

feathers.”  [7] It is also legless and has wings set at an angle Messiha sees as similar to that of modern aircraft, which he considered an attempt to create aerodynamic create aerodynamic lift lift..[5] In spite of these claims, howev however, er, no ancie ancient nt Egyptian aircraft have ever been found, nor has any other evidence suggesting their existence come to light. As a result, the theory

CHAPTER CHAPTER 38. SAQQ SAQQARA ARA BIRD  BIRD 

38.2.2

Positi Position on of tailplane tailplane

Messiha claims “The lower part of the tail is broken [i.e. flat] which I think may be an evidenc evidencee that the tail was attached there.”  [13]

that the Saqqara Bird is a Egyptologists. model of a flying machine not 38 38.3 .3 See See al also so accepted by mainstream Hallion notesisthat [7] it is “far too heavy and unstable itself to fly.”   Pseudoarchaeology •

38.2.1

At Attempt temptss to to pro prove ve the claim claim

Messiha built a model of the Saqqara Bird to test for its aerodyn aero dynami amicc efficie efficienc ncy. y. His model was six time timess large largerr thanthedimensionsoftheoriginalinanattempttomaintain its proportional aerodynamic efficiency,[8] and was given a horizontal to actofasthe a stabilizer, which Messiha lieved liev ed is a tailplane missing part original model. Messiha beinsisted that he was able to make his model fly.[9] In an attempt to discover whether claims of aerodynamic properties of the Saqqara Bird were correct, Martin Gregorie, a builder and designer of  free flight gliders gliders,, built a replica of the Saqqara Bird made of balsa of  balsa wood wood.. After testing this replica, Gregorie concluded: “the Saqqara Bird never never flew. It is totally unstable without a tailplane ... Even after a tailplane was fitted the glide performance was disappointing.”[10] He added: “the Saqqara Bird was probably made as a child’s toy or a weather vane.” [10] According to Messiha’s son, Dawoud Khalil Messiha, an architectt who continued the work of his fa architec father, ther, Gregorie’s suggestion that the Saqqara Bird could be a weather vane is impossible due to the lack of markings or holes on the model that would serve serve as a means of hanging it. Dawoud Khalil Messiha noted that the only hole that exists on the bo bott ttom om of the the Saqq Saqqar araa Bird Bird is a re rece cent nt one one an andd was was ma made de by museum officials to fix the model on a stick with reference to a model description in Cairo museum records.[11] Aerodynamics expert Simon Sanderson tested a replica model in a wind tunnel without a tailplane and found that it produced “four times the glider’s own weight in lift.” In Liverpool University, Sanderson then subjected it with the data from wind tunnel and added a stabilizing tailplane to a flight simulator meant to replicate “the same trials as a modern fighter jet.” In virtual air streams and conditions in Egypt, Saqqara Bird actually flewcarved quitethis well.mysteri“Over 2,000 yearstheafter the ancient Egyptians

•

  Experimental archaeology

•

 Out-of-place artifact

•

 Egyptology

•

 Ptolemaic Egypt

•

 Quimbaya aeroplane

38.4 38. 4

Re Refferen erence cess

[1] Messiha, Messiha, Dr. Hishmat Hishmat (1973). (1973). "[Saqqara "[Saqqara Bird]". Bird]".   Egypt  Travel Magazine. Cair Cairo: o: Ministry Ministry of Tourism Tourism,, Dept. Dept. of 1567664.. Publicity (153). ISSN (153).  ISSN 0013-2381. 0013-2381.  OCLC 1567664 [2] Larry Orcutt (2001). “Model (2001).  “Model Airplane?". Airplane?".  Catchpenny Mysteries of Ancient Egypt . Retrieved 2010-04-18. [3]   Khonsu Temple Temple relief with three sacred boats [4]   The Temple Temple of Khonsu, Khonsu, Volum Volumee 1: Scene Sceness of King Herihor  Herihor  in the Court , The Epigraphic Survey. Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 1979. ISBN 1979.  ISBN 0-918986-20-6. 0-918986-20-6. Reproduction of the reliefss are visible at page 107 and following relief following pages " pages ".. [5] Messiha, Messiha, Khal Khalil; il; et al. (1991). “Aeron “Aeronauti autics: cs: Africa Africann Experimental Aeronautics: A 2000-Year Old Model Glider”. Blackss in Science: Ancie Ancient nt and ModIn Ivan van Sertima.   Black ern. Journal of African Civilizations. vol. 5, no. 1-2. New Brunswick: Transaction Books. pp. 92–99. ISBN 92–99.  ISBN 0-87855941-8.. Retrieved 2010-04-21. 941-8 [6] Shaw, Ian; Paul Paul T. Nicholson Nicholson (1995).  British Museum Dictionary of Ancient Egypt . Lond London: on: British British museum museum press. press. ISBN 0-7141-0982-7 0-7141-0982-7.. P. (2003).  (2003).   Tak Taking ing Flight: Flight: Inve Inventing nting the [7]   Hallion, Richard P. Aerial Age, from Antiquity Through the First World War . New York: York: Oxford Oxford Univ Universi ersity ty Press. Press. p. 11.   ISBN 9780195160352.. 0195160352 [8] Kermode, Kermode, A.C. (1989).   Flying Without Formulae  (Third ed.) ed.).. Lo Lond ndon on:: Sir Sir Isaak Isaak Pitma Pitmann & Sons Sons LT LTD. D.   ISBN 0582026989.. 0582026989 [9] Fiebag, Peter; Peter; Algund Eenboom; Peter Peter Belting (2004).   Die

ous bird, modern technology has proved beyond doubt that it could have flown.” [12]

Flugzeuge der Pharaonen  (in German). German). Munchen: Munchen:   Jochen

Kopp Verlag. Verlag. pp. 22–24, 54. ISBN 54.  ISBN 3-930219-80-8. 3-930219-80-8.

 

38.4. REFERENCES  REFERENCES 

[10] Martin Gregorie Gregorie (2002). “Flying (2002).  “Flying the Saqqara Bird”. Bird”.   Catch penny Mysteries of Ancient Egypt . Retrieved 2010-04-21. [11]  Journ  Journal al d' entréenumbe entréenumberr 634 6347  7 , Catalogue Catalogueof of Artifacts Artifacts,, Cairo Cairo Egyptian Museum. [12] Doug Aamoth (June 9, 2010).   “Cryp “Cryptids: tids: The Saqqa Saqqara ra Bird”.. Time. Retrieved 2013-06-12. Bird” [13 [13]] Khalil Khalil Messih Messiha; a; Guirg Guirguis uis Messih Messiha; a; Gamal Gamal Mokhta Mokhtarr & Michael Frenchman (1991).  “African Experimental Aeronautics: A 2,000-Year-Old Model Glider”. Glider”.  Blacks in Science: Ancient and Modern. Retrieved 2013-06-12.

 

119

 

Chapter 39

The Starving of Saqqara The Starving of Saqqara is the name given to a statue of suspected Pre-dynastic Egyptian suspected Pre-dynastic Egyptian origins.  origins. The statue, of two nude beings (possible a male and female) with large skulls and thin bodies, seated, also has writing on the back of one of the figures[1] that has yet to be identified. Traces of dark pigment suggest that it was once painted. Vincent and Olga Diniacopoulos, who amassed a large col-

[4] Curran, Peggy (March 17, 2011). “Experts 2011). “Experts can't crack Concordia sculpture riddle”. riddle”.  The Gazette. Retrieved 18 March 2011. [5] Boswell, Randy Randy (16 Mar 2011).  “Canadian university puts ancient, mysterious sculpture on display”. display”.   The Vancouver  Sun. Sott.net. Retrieved 18 March 2011. of Saqqara'". Saqqara'".  Past Horizons . [6]   “The mystery of 'The Starving of

March 16, 2011. Retrieved 25 March 2011. lection the work to Canada ther 1950s. of Theantiquities, sculpture brought was exh exhibited ibited in the 1950s atinthei their family-owned Galerie Ars Classica on Sherbrooke on Sherbrooke Street Street in  in Montreal.. The name Saqqara name Saqqara refers  refers to the burial ground of Montreal 39.2 Ex Exte terna rnall links links Memphis, Egypt. Egypt. How the name came to be attached to the 39.2 artifact is not known.[2] Happens  ns . SCULPTURE”..   As It Happe   “MYSTERIOUS SCULPTURE” The statue has been at Concordia University since 1999. CBC.ca. CBC.ca. March 17, 2011. Retrie Retrieved ved 18 March 2011. the British MuExperts from the University the University of Cambridge, Cambridge, the British seum,, the Brooklyn seum the  Brooklyn Museum Museum,, the Israel the  Israel Museum Museum and  and the Royal Ontario Museum have Museum  have all been consulted, without success.[3] The The sc scri ript pt has has be been en dete determ rmin ined ed to not not be   Aramaic Aramaic,, [4] Demotic,  Egyptian, Hebrew  Hebrew,, or Syriac or Syriac.. Demotic, Egyptian, One expert, Clarence Epstein, suggests that it represents a pair of conquered captives.[5] The sculpture was displayed to the public from March 16 to 18, 2011. It was viewable at the atrium of Concordia’s Engineering, Computer Science Science and Visual Arts Integrated [6] Complex. •

39.1 39. 1

Re Refferen erence cess

[1] Concordia University University (March (March 14, 2007).  “The Starving of Saqqara sculpture”. sculpture”. flickr. Retrieved 4 October 2012. [2] Concordia University. University. “CSI  “CSI Montreal: Concordia Sculpture Sculpture Investigation”..   Diniacopoulos Antiquities Collection. ReInvestigation” trieved 18 March 2011.

[3]   “Sculpture mystery baffles Concordia Concordia researchers” researchers”..  CBC.ca. Mar 17, 2011. Retrieved 18 March 2011.

120

 

Chapter 40

Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca head The   Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca head   is a  terracotta   head, probably originally part of a larger figurine, discovered in 1933 among pre-Columbian among pre-Columbian or  or just post-Columbian grave post-Columbian  grave goods in goods  in the Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca the Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca zone  zone in the Toluca the Toluca Valley,, appr ley approxim oximatel atelyy 65 kilo kilomet meters ers north northwes westt of Mex Mexico icoCit Cityy. Because the head appears to be similar in style to artifacts to  artifacts of   Roman   origin, origin, som somee beli believ evee that it is eviden evidence ce of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact between contact  between Rome and the Americas, a view strongly promoted by archaeologist Romeo H. Hristov.[1] However, several other explanations for its presence have also been put forward.

40..1 40

epoch.” epoch (Andreae (Andre ae cited in Domenici Domenici of 2000: 29). On the.” other hand, an examination the field  notes of the archaeologist in charge of the excavation as well as the site itself have not revealed, in either case, signs of possible disturbances of the context (Hristov and Genovés 1999).[4]

Find

The object was discovered by archaeologist José García Payón during an excavation in 1933. It was a grave offering ing,, foun oundd und under er three three int intac actt floors floors of a py pyram ramid idal al struct structure ure.. Along with the head were found a number of objects made of gold, copper, turquoise, rock crystal, jet, bone, shell and pottery.[2] The burial was dated to between 1476 and 1510 AD. Pa Payó yónn di didd not pu publi blish sh inf inform ormati ation on abo about ut the thehe head ad itsel itselff until 1960.[3]

40.2

in Rome, Italy. According According to Andreae "[the head] is without any doubt Roman, and the lab analysis has confirmed confirmed that it is ancient. ancient. The stylis stylistic  tic  examination tells us more precisely that it is a Roman work from around the II century A.D., and  the hairstyle and the shape of the beard present  the typical traits of the Severian emperors period  [193-235 A.D.], exactly in the ‘fashion’ of the

A   thermoluminescence   test performed in 1995 by P. Schaaf and G.A. Wagner in the FS Archäometrie unit in Heidelberg, Germany, established its age range to someHeidelberg, where between the 9th century BC and the middle of the 13th century AD, confirming its pre-colonial provenance. However, Schaaf and Wagner have objected to the way the dates were described by Hristov and Genoves.[5][6]

Bernard of examined the German Institute ofofArchaeology in Rome,Andreae Italy, who photographs the artif artifact, act, stated that he believed that it was Roman and proposed the 2nd century AD as its date of origin, based on the hairstyle Evi Eviden dence ce ffor or Roma Roman nm manuf anufacac- and the beard.

ture 40.3 Hypo Hypoth thes eses es An assessment of the case was made in 2001 by Romeo H. 40.3 rsityy of New NewMexi Mexico co and Santi Santiago ago Geno Genovés vés Hristov Hris tovof of Unive Universit T. of National of National Autonomous University of Mexico. Mexico. Researchers who have analyzed the artifact have come up with several possible explanations for the object’s presence at the site: This result clears up the doubts of Colonial  manufacture of the artifact, and makes the hy pothesis of of Roman origin – among other other possibilities – applicable. The identification identification of the head as  Ro Romanwork manwork from from theII–IIIcentu theII–IIIcentury ry A.D. A.D. hasbeen

•

  A hoax: according to an inf informal ormal declarati declaration on by Paul Schmidt, at UNAM,archaeologist, the head was planted inanthearchaeologist site by a participating

Hugo Moedano, in an attempt to play a practical joke on José García Payón, supervisor supervisor of the dig. Schmid Schmidtt

 further con confirmed by Bernard Bernard Andreae, a director  director  emeritus of the German Institute of Archaeology

121

 

122

•

•

 

CHAPTER CHAPTER 40. TECA TECAXIC-CALIXT XIC-CALIXTLAHUA LAHUACA CA HEAD 

moreover stated earlier that García Payón was not present during the entirety of the excavation.[3] García Payón’s son insists that his father stated that he was on the si site te at the the tim timee of disco discove very. ry. Acc Accor ordin dingg to Hri Hristo stov, v, these allegations are hearsay, and because the individuals directly involved have since died, a confirmation

[3] Smith, Smith, Michael Michael E. "The "The 'Roman Figurine' Supposedly Excavated at Calixtlahuaca C alixtlahuaca", ", Accessed: 2012-02-13.

or refutati refutation on of the alle allegati gations ons has beco become me imp impossi ossible. ble.   An import from an early European visitor who came to Central Mexico. The date range for the burial includes the early period of European exploration of the Americas, though it predates the first sustained conCortés.. According to tact with Mexico under Hernán under Hernán Cortés Hristov, it is possible but highly unlikely that the head was introduced during the Mediev Medieval al or early Colonial [2] period. Hristov notes that other historians have con visit to the region sidered the possibility of a Norse a  Norse visit and that the figure’s unusual head-dress bears a possi headgear. ble resemblance to Norse or Viking or Viking headgear.

[6] Schaaf, Peter; Wagner, Wagner, Günther A (2001), “Comments “Comments on “Mesoamerican Evidence of Pre-Columbian Transoceanic Contacts” by Hristov and Genovés”,  Ancient Mesoamerica, 12: 79–81, doi 79–81, doi::10.1017/s0956536101121024. 10.1017/s0956536101121024.

[4]  “Calixtlahuaca’s Head” Head”..  unm.edu. [5] Schaaf, Peter; Wagner, Wagner, Günther A (8 April 2000), “letter”, “letter”, New Scientist  (2233):   (2233): 64–65.

[7] Heine-Geldern, Robert von. von. “Ein Römischer Fund aus dem Vorkolumbischen Mexico.” Anzeiger der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-histo Philosophisch-historische rische Klasse. No. 98, 1961, pp. 117-119.; Romeo Histov, 'The Little “Roman” Head of Calixtlahuaja Mexico: Some Reflections’, Neara Journal  Vol.  Vol. 28, #3 &4, 1994. [8] James James Meek, “Clue to Romans’ Romans’ head start on Columbus”, Columbus”, The Guardian, Thursday 10 February 2000.

  It was traded or carried to Asia, and was imported to America via aortranspacific Asia 40.6 by a Chinese Indian ship.route Thisfrom thesissoutheast was proposed 40.6 Bi Bibli bliogr ograp aph hy by Robert Heine-Geldern in 1961, and has achieved   Hristov, Romeo Romeo H. (1994), (1994), “The  “The little “Roman” head some support.[7] of Calixtlahuaca, Mexico: Some reflections”, reflections”, NEARA Journal ,  28 (3–4): 68–69  Hristov argues that a Roman, Phoenician Roman,  Phoenician,, or Berber or  Berber ship, or the drifting of such a shipwreck to the Ameri  Hristov Hristov,, Rome Romeoo H.; Geno Genové véss T., Santi Santiago ago (1999), can shores is the best explanation. Hristov claims that “Mes “M esoa oam m er eri i c a e vide vi denc nce e of pr pree-Co Colu lum mbian bian the possibility of such an event has been made more transoceanic contacts”,   Ancient Mesoamerica Mesoamerica,   10 likely by the discovery of evidences of travels from (2): 207–213, doi 207–213, doi::10.1017/S0956536199102013 Romans, Phoenicians and Berbers in the 6th or 5th  and Lanzarote  Lanzarote in  in the Canaries the Canaries,, century BC to Tenerife to Tenerife and   Hristov Hristov,, Rome Romeoo H.; Geno Genové véss T., Santi Santiago ago (2001), and of a Roman settlement (from the 1st century BC “ReplytoPeterSchaafandGünterA.Wagner’s“Comto the 4th century AD) on Lanzarote on Lanzarote island. island.[2] David ments on 'Mesoamerican evidence of pre-Columbian Grove, an archaeologist at the University of Illinois transoceanic contacts’"",   Ancient Mesoamerica Mesoamerica,   12: •

•

•

•

pointed outdoes thatnot being washed ashore from a Roman shipwreck imply any “contact”, let alone Ro[8] man “discovery” of the New World.

40.4 40 .4 •

See See al also so

 Out-of-place artifact

40.5 40. 5

•

Re Refferen erence cess

[1]  “Romeo Hristov”. Hristov”.  unm.edu. [2] Hristov, Romeo H.; H.; Santiago Genovés Genovés T. “THE T.  “THE ROMAN HEAD FROM TECAXI TECAXIC-CALI C-CALIXTLAH XTLAHUA UACA, CA, MEX-

83–86, doi::10.1017/S0956536101121012 83–86, doi  Smith, Michael E. "The "The 'Roman Figurine' Supposedly Excavated at Calixtlahuaca", Calixtlahuaca", Accessed: 2012-02-13. (Archived by WebCite® at http://www.webcitation. at  http://www.webcitation. org/65PlUfqJr)) org/65PlUfqJr

40.7 40. 7

Ex Exte terna rnall links links

•

Head by  by Romeo H. Hristov  Calixtlahuaca’s Head

•

 The Calixtlahuaca Head Head by  by J. Huston McCulloch

ICO: A REVIEW OF THE EVIDENCE (1)". (1)" . Retrieved 3 June 2012.

 

Chapter 41

Tucson artifacts The Tucson artifacts, sometimes called the  Tucson Lead Crosses,   Tucson Crosses,   Silverbell Silverbell Road artifacts artifacts,  objects that or  Silverbell artif artifacts acts, were thirty-one lead thirty-one  lead objects Charle Cha rless E. Man Manie ierr and andhi hiss fami amily lyffoun oundd in 192 19244 nea nearr Picture Rocks, Arizona which Arizona which were initially sometimes thought to be created by early Mediterranean civilizations that had crossed the Atlantic in the first century, but were later determined to be a hoax.[1][2] The find comprised thirty-one lead thirty-one  lead objects  objects consisting of crosses, swords, and religi religious/cerem ous/ceremonial onial paraphernalia, mostt of whi mos which ch conta contain ined ed Hebrew or Latin engraved inscriptions, pictures of temples, leaders’ portraits, angels, and a dinosaur dino saur (in (inscri scribed bed on the lead blade of a sword) sword).. One contained the phrase “Calalus, the unknown land” which was used by believers as the name of the settlement. The objects also have Roman numerals ranging from 790 to 900 inscribed on them which were sometimes interpreted to represent the date of their creation because the numerals were followed by the letters AD. The site contains no other artifacts, artif acts, no pottery pottery sherds  sherds,, no broken glass, no human or animal remains, and no sign of hearths or housing.[3][1]

41.1 41 .1

Hist Histor ory y

On September 13, 1924 Charles Manier and his father stoppe stoppedd to ex exami amine ne som somee old oldlilime me kilns kilnswhi while le drivi driving ng nor norththRoad.. Manier saw an object west of Tucson on Silverbell on  Silverbell Road protruding about 2 inches (5.1 cm) from the soil. He dug it out, revealing that the object was a 20 inches (51 cm)long lead cross which weighed 64 pounds (29 kg). Between 1924 and 1930 additional objects were extracted from the caliche, a layer of soil in which the soil particles have been caliche, cemented together by lime.[4][5] Caliche often takes a long period of time to form, but it can be made and placed around an article in a short period of time, according to aogist report by James Quinlan, a retired Tucson [1][6] whowritten had worked for the U.S. Geologica Geological l Survey.geol-

lime kiln where the objects were found at the margin of objec jects ts wer weree beli believ eved, ed, by their their disc discovovprior trenche trenches. s.[1] The ob ere ererr and andmai mainn supp support orters ers,, to be of a Rom Roman an Jud Judeoeo-Chr Chris istitian an colony existing in what is now known as Arizona between 790–900 AD. No other find has been formally establi established shed as placing any Roman colony in the area, nor anywhere else in North America.[3] In Nov Novemb ember er 1924, Mani Manier er brou brought ght his frie riend nd Thom Thomas as Bent to the site and Bent was quickly convinced of the authenticity of the discovery. discovery. Upon finding the land was not owned, he immediately set up residence on the land in order to homestead  the property. homestead the property. Bent ffelt elt there was mon money ey to be made in further excavating the site. [3] 41.1.1

Latin Latin inscripti inscriptions ons

Provehimur pelago Calalus Provehimur Calalus terra incognita. Populum lat latee reg regem em Tolt Toltezu ezuss Silvanus. Silvanus. Traducti Traducti sunt Theodorus Theodorus suas  urbe Rh Rhoda oda et plus plus sep septig tigent entia ia cap capti. ti. nul nul-copias cop ias subuci subuciee [sic] urbe lus auro urbe eximentur.

We were driven by the sea Calalus unknown land. Sylvan Toltezus people people ruling far and wide. Theodore the theyy were led his troops [under?] Rhoda and more than se seven ven hundred were were captur captured. ed. No one [to/b [to/by/in y/in/wit /with/f h/from? rom?]] gold [by/in/with/from?] the city they will be removed.” —A literal translation of part of the Latin, illustrating the grammatical and inflectional failings of the inscription.[7] The first object removed from the caliche by Manier was a crudely cast metal cross that weighed 62 pounds (28 kg); after cleaning it was revealed to be two separate crosses riveted together. After his find, Manier took the cross to Professor Frank H. Fowler, Head of the Department of ClassiArizona,, at Tucson, who cal Languages at the University the University of Arizona determin dete rmined ed the language on the artif artifacts acts was Latin Latin.. He also translated one line as reading, "Calalus, the unknown land ", ", from which the name of the supposed Latin colon colonyy was garnered.[1]

Quinlan also concluded that it would be easy to bury arti- The Latin inscriptions on the alleged artifacts supposedly cles in the soft, silt material and associated caliche in the record the conflicts of the leaders of Calalus against a bar123

 

124

 

CHAPTER CHAPTER 41. TUCSO TUCSON N ARTIFA ARTIFACTS  CTS 

barian enemy known as the "Toltezus ", ", which some have interpreted as a supposed reference to the Mesoamerican the  Mesoamerican [1] Toltec civilization. Ho Howe weve ver, r, the theLat Latin in on th thee art artif ifac acts ts ap original Latin, or inscrippears to either be badly inflected badly inflected original tions brazenly plagiarized from Classical authors such as Virgil,, Cicero  Cicero,, Livy  Livy,, Cornelius Nepos Nepos,, and Horace and Horace,, among Virgil

American Association for the Advancement of Science and showing them at museums and universities universities on the east  Andrew E. Douglass, coast.t. Astro coas Astronom nomer er Andrew Douglass, known for his  also considered the items to be work in dendrochronology in dendrochronology also authentic.[3] In 1975, Wake 1975, Wake Forest University professor University professor Cyclone Covey

several others. This[1]has led is many experts condemn What perhaps mosttosuspicious, the artifacts as frauds. however, is that most of the inscriptions are identical to what appeared in widely available Latin grammar books, like Harkness’s Latin Grammar  and  and Allen and Greenough’s  Latin Grammar , as well as dictionaries like  The Standard  Dictionary of Facts .[1]

re-examined the controversy in his book titled  Calalus: A Roman Jewish Colony in America from the Time of Charle-

[7]

41.2

Vie Views ws on authen authentic ticity ity

magne Through Alfred the Great . Cove Coveyy was in direct con-

tact with Thomas Bent by 1970, and planned to carry out excavations at the site in 1972, but was not allowed, due to legal complications preventing Wake Forest University from leading a dig at the site.[3] Covey’s book proposes that the objects are from a Jewish settlement, founded by peopl plee wh whoo cam camee from romRom Romee and settle settledd out outsi side de of pr prese esent nt day day Tucson around 800 AD.[5]

Manier took the first item to the Arizona the Arizona State Museum to Museum to be studied by archaeologist archaeologist Karl Ruppert. Ruppert was im41.2.2 2.2 Skept Skeptic icss pressed with the item, and went with Manier to the site the 41. next day heptions found a 7uding pounds with somwhere some e inscri inscriptio ns incl includin g an(3.2 800kg) ADcaliche date. plaque A to[3] tal of thirty-one objects were found. Other contemporary scholars including George C. Valliant, a Harvard University archaeologist who visited the University of Arizona in 1928 and Dr. Bashford Dean, curator of arms and armor of the Metropolitan tan Museum of Art Art in  in New York City thought the Metropoli [1] articles were fakes, Neil Merton Judd, curator of the NaInstitution happened  happened to tional Museum at the Smithsonian the  Smithsonian Institution be in Tucson at the time of the discovery of the objects and, after examining them, also thought they were fakes, proposing that they may have been created by “some mentally incompetent individual with a flair for old Latin and the wars of antiquity”.[1][8]

Professor Frank Fowler originally translated the Latin inscriptionss on the first items and fo scription found und that the inscription inscriptionss were from well known classical authors such as  Cicero  Cicero,, Virgil  and Horace Virgil and  Horace.. He researc researched hed local Lati Latinn texts av availailable in Tucson at the time and found the inscriptions on the lead items to be identical to the texts available. Haury,, Dean Cumm Cumming’s ing’s stud student ent and excav excavator ator,,   Emil Haury closely examined scratches on the surface of the objects as they were removed from the ground and concluded that they were planted, based partly on a cavity in the ground which was longer longer than a lead bar remov removed ed from itit.. After Cummings became president of the university, his views chang changed ed in an unc uncle lear ar man manne ner, r, pos possi sibl blyy dueto Ha Haury ury’s ’s skepskeptici ticism sm,, or the incr increas easin ingg sen sentim timent ent tha thatt the item itemss we were re not nothhing more than a hoax and as university president had to 41.2.1 41. 2.1 Suppor Supporter terss take a different different stand on the matter. George M. B. Hawley staunchly staunchl y opposed Bent’s views about the ob objects. jects. HawIn the 1960s, Bent wrote a 350 page manuscript titled “Th “Thee accused Ostrander and Sarle as perpetrators of the Tucson Artifacts” Artifacts” about the ob objects jects which is unpublis unpublished, hed, ley even [3][4] but kept by the Arizona State Museum. [3] Both Manier and hoax. Bent were supporters of the objects as a genuine archaeological find.[3] Lara Coleman Ostrander, a Tucson immigrant and high 41.2.3 Possib Possible le cre creator ator school history teacher studied the historical background of the research, and translated the alleged history of Calalus A local local news news art artic icle le id ident entifi ified ed Timo Timotéo téo Od Odoh ohui ui as thepos the possisifrom the writings on the items. Geologist Clifton J. Sarle ble creator of the items. Odohui was a young Mexican boy worked with Ostrander to present the Tucson Artifacts to who lived near the site and was a sculptor. The article menthe press and the academic profession. tions his possible connection to the site and his ability to lead objects. Bent thatsculpture a craftsman in the area Tucson University director led of the Ari- craft had recalled the boy, hiswrote love for of soft metals zona State Museumadministrator Dean Byron and Cummings archae-

ologists at the university to the location where the items and his collection of books on foreign languages, and told we were re ffou ound nd.. He bro broug ught ht ten of the ob obje ject ctss to the the excavators this.[5][9]

 

41.5. REFERENCES  REFERENCES 

41.3 41. 3

In popula popularr cu cultu lture re

 

125

[9] Stevens, Kristina (1990) “A Co Cold ld Trail,” Zocalo Magazine, Tucson.

Archaeologist and Lovecraft scholar Marc A. Beherec [10] Beherec, Marc A. 2008. “H. P. Lovecraft Lovecraft and the ArchaeArchaehas written that   H. P. Lovecraft   alludes to Calalus in ology of 'Roman' Arizona.”  Lovecraft Annual  2:   2: 192-202. “The Mound,” ghost-written for  Zealia Bishop Bishop.. He arCross” (video).  (video).  America Unearthed . the Hisgues that the items influenced some of Lovecraft’s other [11]  “The Desert Cross” tory Channel. Retrieved December 16, 2016.

writings.[3][9][10] Jason (February 23, 2013).  “Review of America The Tucson artif artifacts acts were featured featured on on The  The History Chan- [12] Colavito, Jason Unearthed S01E10 “The Desert Cross"". Cross"" . Retrieved Dece Decemmnel show nel  show  America Unearthed  in  in the episode entitled “The ber 16, 2016. [11] Desert Cross,” on February 22, 2013. This episode was criticised for its methodology, its ignorance (or deliberate omission) of the complete text on the crosses, and its conclusions.[12]

41.4 41 .4

See See al also so

•

  Antillia

•

 Ironwood Forest National Monument

41.5 41. 5

Re Refferen erence cess

[1] Burgess, Burgess, Don. Don. (Spring (Spring 2009) 2009)   “R “Roman omanss in Tucson? Tucson? The Story of an Archaeolo Archaeological gical Hoax.”  Journal of the Southwest  51. 1. Retrieved February 23, 2013. – via HighBeam via  HighBeam Research (subscription search  (subscription required) [2] Feder, Feder, Kenneth L. (2010). (2010).   Encyclopedia of Dubious Archaeology: chaeol ogy: From Atlantis Atlantis to the Walam Olum. Santa Barbara, bara, Calif Califor ornia nia:: Green Greenwo wood. od. pp. 257–25 257–258. 8.   ISBN 9780313379192.. Retrieved 2011-11-01. 9780313379192 [3] Williams, Williams, Stephen Stephen (1991)   Fantastic Fantastic Archaeology: A Walk  on the Wild Side of North American Prehistory , University University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.

[4] Thompson, Thompson, Raymond Raymond H. (2004). “Glimpses “Glimpses of the Young Young Emil Haury”.  Journal of the Southwest .  46  (1). [5] Erickson, Jim (September 1, 1996). “Silverbell 1996).  “Silverbell Road artifacts puzzle new generation”. generation”. Arizona Daily Star. Star. Retrieved February 23, 2013. [6] Burgess notes that Marshall Marshall Payn asked Quinlan to pr prepare epare his report for his article: Payn, Marshall. (1996) “The Tucson Artifacts: Case Closed.” New England Antiquities Research Association Association Journal 30(3-4): 79-80. [7] Thomas, Thomas, Paul (Spring (Spring 2015). 2015). “Plagiari “Plagiarism”. sm”.   The Tucson Artifacts: Artifacts: A Philologica Philologicall Examination Examination (honors thesis). Kansas.. University of Kansas

[8] Gilstrap, Gilstrap,Pet Peter. er. (3/21/1996) (3/21/1996)'AReputationinRuins’ 'AReputationinRuins’Phoenix  New Times . Retrieved February 23, 2013.

 

Chapter 42

Wolfsegg Iron within the seam.

42.1 42 .1

Hist Histor ory y

Early descriptions of the object appeared in contemporary  Nature  L'Astronomie editions the scientific journalsas the objectofidentified by scientists being and a fossil meteorite., It was reported tha thatt the ob object ject was disc discovere overedd when a workman at the Braun iron foundry in Schondorf in  Schondorf,, Austria, was breaking up a block of lignite that had been mined at Wolfsegg. In 1886, min mining ing engi enginee neerr Ado Adolf lf Gurlt repo reported rted on th thee object to the Natural History Society of Bonn, noting that the object was coated with a thin layer of rust, was made of iron, and had a specifi specificc gravity of 7.75.[2][3] A plaster cast was made of the object shortly before the end of the 19th century, as the original had suffered from being handled, and had had samples cut from it by researchers.

The Wolfsegg Iron

42.2 42 .2

The Wolfsegg Iron, also known as  The Salzburg Cube, is asmallcuboidmassofironthatwasfoundburiedin Tertiary lignite in lignite  in  Wolfsegg am Hausruck, Hausruck,  Austria  Austria,, in 1885.[1] It we weiighs ghs 78 7855 gr gram amss and and me meas asur ures67 es67 mm× 67 mm× 47 mm mm.. Four of its sides are roughly flat, while the two remaining sid sides es (opp (opposi osite te eac eachh othe other) r) are con conve vex. x. A fairl airlyy dee deepp groo groove ve is incised all the way around the object, about mid-way up its height.[2][3] The Wolfsegg Iron became notable when it was claimed to bean out-of-place out-of-place artif artifact act:: a work worked ed iron iron cube cube foun oundd bur burie iedd in a 20-million-year-old coal seam. It was originally identi-

The object was analysed in 1966–1967 by the Vienna Naturhis Natu rhistori torisch sches es Muse Museum um using using ele electr ctron on beam mic microroanalysis, which found no traces of nickel of  nickel,,   chromium chromium   or cobalt cobalt in  in the iron, suggesting that it was not of meteoric origin, while the lack of sulf sulfur ur indicated that it is not a pyrite  pyrite..  content, Dr. Gero Kurat of Because of its low magnesium low  magnesium content, the museum and Dr. Rudolf Grill of the Federal the Federal Geological Office in Office in Vienna thought that it might be cast iron, Grill sugge suggesti sting ng tha thatt simi similar lar rou rough gh lum lumps ps had bee beenn use usedd as bal ballas lastt in early mining machinery. The cast is currently kept in the Oberösterreichischen Lan-

Anal Analys ysis is

[2] fied scientists being ofItmeteoric origin, desmuseen en in from Linz, 1950 Austria, wherewhile the original objec object t was also exhibited to 1958, the original cuboid laterby ruled out byasanalysis. seems most likelya suggestion that it is a desmuse

piece of cast iron used as ballast in mining machine machinery, ry, de- is held by the Heimathaus Museum of Vöcklabruck of  Vöcklabruck,, Ausposited posi ted duri during ng min mining ing eff efforts orts bef before ore it was found found app apparen arently tly tria. 126

 

42.4. NOTES  NOTES 

42.3

OutOut-of-p of-place lace artif artifact act

out-of-placee arTheWolfseggIronisclaimedbysomeasan out-of-plac tifact (OO (OOPPArt Art), ), andit is often oftensta stated tedas as a fact act in par parano anorma rmall liter literatu ature re tha thatt it di disap sappea peared redwi witho thout ut tra trace ce in 191 1910, 0, from romth thee [4][5] Salzburg Museum. In fact, as mentioned above, it is at the Heimathaus in Vöcklabruck, Austria, which is where the aboveMuseum photo was taken. It has also erroneously been described as “a perfectly machined steel cube”. [6]

42..4 42

Note otes

[1] Grady, Monica Monica M.; A. L. Graham (2000).  Catalogue of Meteorites: with special ref reference erence to those represented in the collection of the Natural History Museum, London. Cambridge

University Press. p. 529. ISBN 529.  ISBN 0-521-66303-2. 0-521-66303-2. (889): 36. 11 Nove Novemb mber er 1886. 1886. [2]   “Notes”. “Notes”.   Nature.   35   (889): doi:10.1038/035034a0. doi: 10.1038/035034a0. [3]  “Uranolithe fossile” [Uranolithic fossil]. fossil].   L'Astronomie  (in French).  10  (7): 114. 1888. [4] Noorberg Noorbergen, en, Rene (2001).   Secrets Secrets of the Lost Races: New Discoveries of Advanced Technology in Ancient Civilizations . TEACH Services, Inc. p. 43. ISBN 43.  ISBN 1-57258-198-0. 1-57258-198-0. [5] Short, Robert (2003).  Out of the Stars . Buy Books. p. 69. 0-7414-1504-6. ISBN 0-7414-1504-6. [6]  Sagan, Carl; Carl; Jerome Agel (2000).  Carl Sagan’s Cosmic Connection. Cambridge University Press. p. 206. ISBN 206.  ISBN 0-52178303-8.. 78303-8

 

127

 

Chapter 43

AVM Runestone The   AVM Runeston Runestonee, also known as the   Berg-AVM Runestone, is a hoax created in 1985 by students carving runes into a boulder near Kensington, Minnesota, not far from where the Kensington the Kensington Runestone Runestone was  was found in 1898. In 2001, a carving expert and her geologist father found the AVM Runestone, told the press that it was proof of early Viking or Norse settlement in Minnesota, [1] and began an investigat inve stigation ion to prove its authentic authenticity. ity. The creators came forward theirexplorers. story that it was purely a hoax and not an artifact ofwith Viking

43.1

Disc Discov overy ery and in inve vesti stigat gation ion

In the spring of 2001, stone carving expert Janey Westin, of Minneapolis, and her father, father, Robert G. Johnson, an adjunct professor in the geology department of the University the University of Minnesota, Minnesota, were making a systematic survey of stones in the vicinity of the Kensington Runestone Park, for the Research Team set up to further understanding of the Kensington Runestone. Inves Investigatin tigatingg a small island in a lake on the farm of Arlen and Ruby Sabolik, about 400 metres (1/4 mile) from the 1898 find site, on May 13, Westin found the carved letters “AVM” “AVM” on a liche lichen-cov n-covered, ered, pinkis pinkish-brown h-brown [2] granite gneiss boulder (about 110 cm or 43 inches long, weighing perhaps a tonne[3] ) which they had inspected previously in different light conditions. They took photographs and reported their find. Two weeks later, they returned to the site with Minneapolis geologist Scott Wolter and removed lichen to reveal more inscribed characters: the date 1363 in the same pentadic numerals as seen on the Kensington Runestone and a second line of three runes, possibly “ASU”, “XSU” or “XSV”. Although the symbo symbols ls of the top line were similar to those on the stone found in 1898, those in the second line were not.  established In June, the Runestone Museum in Alexandria in  Alexandria established

condu conduct cted ed a pr preli elimi minar naryy di digg of nin ninee test-h test-hole oless at and andaro around und the site, on July 25, finding no evidence of Norse presence. They found a few Native American artifacts, including two quartz flakes, probably waste from arrowhead production. The discovery was announced in the Minneapolis  Star Tribune on August 11, 2001, [4] with Westin pre-empting accusations by making it very clear that she had not carved the stone. The team suggested that the stone might have been made as a grave marker for some of the Norse explorers. [3] After a public display and press conference at Kensington,  St. Paul laboratory the stone was taken to Wolte Wolter’s r’s St. Paul laboratory for detailed photography photography and analysi analysiss of the weathering of stone and carving. carving. The stat statee archaeo archaeologi logist, st, Mark Dudzik, was skeptical, maintaining the position that it was “just not logical” to believe that Scandinavian explorers — who, he argued, spe specia cialize lizedd in exp exploi loiting tingreso resource urcess alon alongg coas coastlin tlines es — had penetrated to Minnesota in the 1360s. Russell Fridle Fridley, y, a former director of the Minnesota Historic Historical al Society, expressed a similar view with the observation that “It’s a great testimony to Scandinavian humor on the frontier.” Immediately Immedia tely after the announcem announcement, ent, local Norse enthusiast Bob Berg came forward to report that he had found the stone while undertaking a similar survey in late 1994 [5] and reported on it in April 1995 to the Viking research group of which he was a member. Their firm conclusion had been that it was a hoax, not worth further effort.

43.2

Conf Confess essio ion n and explana explanatio tion n

On September 5, 2001, Kari Ellen Gade, then chair of the Department of Germanic Studies at  Indiana University,, and Jana K. Schulman, associate professor in English sity at at Southeastern  Southeastern Louisiana University, University, wrote a letter to the Minnesota Historical Historical Society. They explai explained ned that in June 1985, while students at the University of Minnesota, they

atact Special Commit Committee tee inve investigat stigate discovery ery and conthree (who with chosea tohammer remainand anonymous) hada tacted ed archae archaeologi ologists. sts.to On June 9,e the thediscov site was care carefu fully lly and carved thefriends AVM stone chisel [2] as

mapped and documented; on July 11, the stone was re- test of willingness to belie believe ve in myste mystery ry ar artif tifacts acts (and “f “for or [6] moved. move d. Three archaeologis archaeologists ts from Minnesota institut institutions ions fun”). The Theyy al also so re reve veale aledd tha thatt the the odd oddrun runes es on thesec the secon ondd 128

 

43.4. SOURCES  SOURCES 

ALU"" (a pag pagan an ma magi gical cal invo invoca ca-line line we were re supp suppos osed ed to read read "ALU tion) in an older style of runes, but the chisel had slipped. [2] Breaking the news on November 5 on behalf of the Special Committee, Scott Wolter — who had found “specific points that bothered me” during his scientific investigation — accepted the confession, saying “I give them credit for coming forward and admitting it.” Westin was less forgiving: She had paid for transportati transportation on of the stone to its initial safe storage and had devoted time and energy that could have gone “into my work, where it belonged.” Gade stated that the confession was made specifically because “We saw that people were being asked to make financial contributions to have the rock tested ... we didn't feel it would be right to carry this further.” She also said “I'm sorry that people spent their their time and money on the stone, but it was clearly a fake.”[6] Local researcher researcher Barry Hanson, in a book he was then wr writiting about the original Kensington Runestone, explained the mainn con mai concern cernss that had eme emerged rged bef before ore the conf confess ession ion.. The scientific testing had quickly shown that the carved surfaces  pyrite, which ought long ago tolyhave oxihad iron dized di zedtootomuch ferrousiron pyrite ferrous sulfate sulf ate if,the carvi carving ng was gen genui uine nely anc ancie ient. nt. Also, the site, though an island in 2001, ought to have been underwaterr in 1363.[7] underwate

43.3 43 .3 •

See See al also so

 Elbow Lake Runestone Runestone,, another hoax planted in Minnesota

43.4 43 .4

Sour Source cess

[1] Tom Pos Post.t. “MPR:  “MPR: Proof or Hoax?" Hoax?".. Minnesota Public Radio. Retrieved 28 March 2013.  The “AVM” Stone from Minnesota (Kens[2] Henrik Williams Williams The ington II) Archived Archived June  June 4, 2011, at the Wayback the  Wayback Machine. Machine. in Nytt om runer  17  17 (2002, publ. 2004) [3] “Second runestone runestone examined” in  The American Edge  (Fall 2001) Archived May Archived  May 29, 2006, at the Wayback the  Wayback Machine., Machine., American Petrographic Services [4] Peg Meier, Meier, “Second “Second mystery mystery stone stone unearthed unearthed in KensingKensington”, in the Minneapolis  Star Tribune (Aug 11, 2001) Hoax?"" Minnesota Public Radio (Aug [5] Tim Post, "Proof "Proof or Hoax? 14, 2001) [6] Eric A. Powell Powell,, "Runestone " Runestone Fakery Fakery,” ,”  Archaeology, vol. 55

 

129

[7] Quotations from from Barry Hanson writings in Jim Richardson and Allen Richardson,  Gonzo Science: Skeptics of the Kensington Runestone: The “Berg-AVM Runestone” Fiasco

no. 1 (Jan/Feb 2002) Archaeological Institute of America. Illustrated.

 

Chapter 44

Bourne stone The Bourne Stone is an archaeological curiosity located in

scendant communities . Altamira Press. p. 70. ISBN 70.  ISBN 978-0-

7591-1054-0.. 7591-1054-0 the town of Bourne of Bourne,, Massachusett Massachusettss. The stone itself is a 300-pound chunk of granite of  granite,, upon Coordinates::  41°44′36.0″N 70°35′48.7″W / 41.743333°N 41.743333°N which two lines of carvings were made. According to the Coordinates [1] 70.596861°W probablyy Archaeological Archaeolo gical Institute of Americ America, a, the stone probabl started as a doorstep of a Native American meetinghouse around 1680, then passed through several owners, landing at the Aptucxet Trading Post in Bourne about 1930. The stone has been displaye displayedd at the historical center since 2003.[2] Barry Fell claimed Fell claimed in his 1977 book  America B.C.: Ancient  Settlers in the New World  that  that the markings are in an Iberian an  Iberian script and script  and language which he translates to “A proclamati proclamation on [3] of annexation. annexation. By this Hanno takes possessi possession”. on”. In 2004, Larry J. Zimmerman explained his own theory about the Bourne Stone in  Collaboration In Archaeological Practice: Engaging Engaging Descendant Communities. Communities.  He invite invitedd [4] Norse runic expert Michael Barnes to examine the stone. Barnes stated that the markings were definitely not runic. Zimmerman and Patricia Emerson, Minnesota archaeologist, suggested that the markings looked like Native like  Native Amer[5] ican petroglyphs. petroglyphs.

44.1 44. 1

Re Refferen erence cess

[1]   “AIA Event Listings - The Bourne Bourne Stone - Bourne Historical Historical Society”..  www.archaeological.org. Retrieved 2015-12-16. Society” [2]  “Bourne Stone continues to baffle the experts”. experts” .   capecodtimes.com. Retrieved 2015-12-16. [3] Goudswar Goudsward, d, David David (2006-07-05) (2006-07-05)..  Ancient  Ancient Sto Stone ne Sit Sites es ofNew England and the Debate Over Early European Exploration . McFarland. ISBN McFarland.  ISBN 9780786424627 9780786424627.. [4] Yankee Yankee,, Wicked Wicked (2012-10-31) (2012-10-31)..   “Wic “Wicked ked Yank Yankee: ee: The   Wicked Yankee

Bourne Stone - Bourne, Ma”. Ma”. 2015-12-16.

. Retrieved Retrieved

[5]  Larry J. Zimmerman (2007). Zimmerman  (2007). Chp Colwell-Chanthaphonh, ed.   Collaboration in archaeological practice: engaging de-

130

 

Chapter 45

Grave Creek Stone nised the potential significance of the artifact. [2]

The Grave Creek Stone and a plaster cast of the stone in the Smithsonian Museum of National History’s collection.

The Gra Grave ve Cree Creek k Sto Stone ne is a sm small all san sands dston tonee disk disk inscr inscribe ibedd on one side with some twenty-five characters, discovered in 1838at GraveCreekMound in Moundsville, Moundsville, Wes Westt Virgini Virginiaa. If genu genuine ine,, it coul couldd pro provid videe evi eviden dence ce of a prim primiti itive ve alph alphabet abet,, but the discovery that the characters can be found in a 1752 book suggests that it is probably a fraud. The only known image of the actual stone is a photograph of items in the E.H. Davis collection (circa 1878) before the majority of the theco colle llect ctio ionn was was sold sold to th thee Bla Black ckmo more re Mus Museum eum(n (now ow par partt of the British the British Museum). Museum).

45.1 45 .1

Disc Disco ove very ry

In 1838, an arch archaeol aeologi ogical cal ex excav cavati ation on of Grav Gravee Cree Creekk Mound, led by Jesse and Abelard Tomlinson, uncovered the ruins of two large vaults, one situated directly below the other. The vaults conta contained ined seve several ral human skel skeletons etons and a considerable considerable amount of jewelry and other ar artif tifacts. acts. According to Henry to Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, Schoolcraft, a renowned geologist who visited the site in 1843, the Grave Creek Stone was discovered in the upper vault, along with seventeen hundred beads, five hundred sea shells, five copper bracelets, and one hundred and fifty plates of mica of  mica.. It was “a small flat stone, of an ovate shape, containing an inscription in unknown characters”.[1] Schoolcraft was the first to subject

Grave Creek Mound 

Thefirst publi publish shed ed acc accoun ountt of thefind, alo along ng wi with th a woo woodc dcut ut  Cincinnati  of the inscription, occupied the front page of the Chronicle  of February 2, 1839, in an article written by Dr. Thomas Townsend.[3] Another drawing of the stone, “differing essentially in its characters”, was published in  The American Pioneer  in  in May 1843, accompanied by Abelard Tomlinson’s eyewitness account of the stone’s discovery. [1] He says that the stone was discovered on June 9, 1838, aboutt two feet fr abou from om the ske skeleto letonn in the uppe upperr vault. It had “no engraving on it, except for on one side”.[3] In a later statement, Tomlinson asserts that “I removed it with my own hands hands ... fr from om its anci ancient ent bed”.[2] A letter dated April 10, 1839, written by Dr.  James Clemens Clemens,, who spent two weeks at the Grave Creek site collecting data in the summer of 1838, appears to corroborate Tomlinson’s version of events. events. Clemen Clemenss writes that “Abelard Tomlin Tomlinson, son, Thomas Biggs, myself, and others were present when the stonee was disc ston discov overed ered with the cop copper per brac bracele elets ts and the she shellll [3] necklace”. Peter Catlett, one o ne of the workers involved in the excavation, offers offe rs a conflic conflicting ting account: “I was the man who found the stone ... The engraved stone was found on the inside of a stonee arch ston arch”. ”. His test testimo imony ny was sup supporte portedd by Colo Colonel nelWharWhar-

the stone to a critical examination, five years after its dis- ton, who claims to have spotted the stone amongst the loose covery; he found it “lying unprotected among broken im- dirt and debris being wheeled out of the mound that day.

plements of stone, pieces of antique pottery, and other like Stephen Williams, author of  Fantastic Archaeology, conarticles”, article s”, suggesting that those who found found it had not recog- siders Catlett’s story to be the most credible, explaining that 131

 

132

 

“Tom “Tomlin linson son’s ’s de descr script iptio ionn of th thee way way the shaf shaftt and drif drift were were du dugg does does no nott ac acco cord rd wi with th an anyy of th thee stat statem emen ents ts ma made de by an anyy [4] of the observers of the excavations”. The same view was expressed by M.C. Reid, in his 1878 report, published in The American Antiquarian. Reid also pointed out numerous factual errors in Tomlinson’s statement, concluding that

CHAPTER CHAPTER 45. GRA GRAVE VE CREEK CREEK STONE  STONE 

Just like the inscription on the Grave Creek Stone, these symbols were found to resemble characters found in alphabet betss of the old wo world rld.. R Rei eidd was “co “compe mpelle lledd to con concl clude ude that that there is nothing in the form of the characte characters rs of the Grave Creek Stone which require us to decide that they are old, that they are alphabetical, or if alphabetical that they are [2]

[2] is mistaken and that derived from any known alphabet”. “it is very Mr. Tomli Tomlinson nson he did not certain find thethat inscribed stone”.

45.2 45 .2

Arti Artiffac actt

45.4 45. 4

Rec Recen entt resea researc rch h

At a meeting of the We West st Virginia Archaeologic Archaeological al Society in October 2008, the anthropologist David Oestreicher suggested that the inscription had been forged by James W. Clemens, a local physician who had financed the excavation through throu gh loan loans. s. Oes Oestrei treich cher er clai claimed medto to hav havee found oundthe the sourc sourcee of the inscription; an 18th-century book on unknown letters on Spanish coins and monuments. “Everythi “Everything ng on the stone”, including “impossible sequences of characters with the samemis same mistak takes”, es”,was was cop copied ieddire directl ctlyy from this thisbook book..[6][7]

The sandstone disk is about 1⅞ inche inchess (4.8 cm) wide, and 1½ inches (3.6 cm) high. One side of the stone is inscribed with 23 alphabetical / pseudo-alphabetical characters arranged in three lines with a final non-alphabetical symbol on the lower portion. There are no inscriptions on the reverse side. side. The stone had passed throu through gh various collec collec-tions, but its current location is unknown. While it was in E. E.H. H. Da Davi vis’ s’ss coll collec ecti tion on in th thee la late te 18 1800 00s, s, hemad hemadee a cast cast of it which he deposited to the Smithsonian’s National Smithsonian’s  National Museum of Natural History. History. The Smithsonian now has four casts of the stone. The National Anthropological Association also 45. 45.5 5 has a wax impression of the stone made by Davis. [5]

45.3 45. 3

In Inscr scrip ipti tion on

The 23 alph alphabet abetica icall / pseu pseudo-a do-alph lphabet abetic ical al sym symbols bols inscribed on the Grave Creek Stone have been the objec objectt of much controversy. controversy. Henry Rowe School Schoolcraft craft was the first to study this aspect aspect of the stone. He strove to de determine termine whether or not the symbols were alphabetical by consulting experts on the subject. His correspondence with “noted antiq antiquar uaria ians” ns” led led him him to the conc conclus lusio ionn tha thatt inscr inscript iptio ionn con con-Greek;; tains “four characters corresponding to the Ancient the  Ancient Greek Runic; six anci ancient ent Gallic; Gallic; seven seven old Erse; Erse; four Etruscan; Etruscan; five Runic; ten Phoenician ten  Phoenician;; fourteen old fourteen  old British; British; sixteen  sixteen   Celtiberic, Celtiberic, with some resemblance to the Hebrew the  Hebrew". ". However, he was “inclined to regard the whole inscription as Celtiberic”. [2] M.C. Reid performed an experiment in the late 1870s in which he asked four people: a teacher and law student, a schoolgirl, a pharmacist, and a college professor, to create for him “twenty or more arbitrary characters not resembling any figures or alphabetical characters known to them”. Since the Grave Cree Creekk Stone was inscribed using only straight lines (which is quite common, since straight lines are much easier to inscribe than those with curve), Reid instructed the four participants to only use “straight lines or combinations combinations of straight lines lines”. ”. To furthe furtherr simulate the actual inscribi inscribing ng of the stone, the indi individuals viduals were

Re Refferen erence cess

[1] Schoolcraft, Schoolcraft, Henry R. (1845). “Observations (1845). “Observations respecting the Grave Creek Mound”. Mound”.  Transactions of the American Ethnological Society  1 . pp. 368-420. “Inscribed ribed Stone Stone of Grav Gravee Creek [2] Reid, M.C. (1879).   “Insc Mound”..  The American Antiquarian  1(3). pp. 139-149. Mound” [3] Kelley, David David H. (1994). “Epigraphy and Other Fantasies”. Fantasies”. The Review of Archaeology 15(2). [4] Williams, Stephen (1991).  Fantastic Archaeology: The Wild  Side of North American Prehistory. [5] McCulloch, McCulloch, J. Huston.   “Grave Creek Stone”. Stone”. Th Thee Ohi Ohioo State University. [6] Lepper, Lepper, Bradley T. (November (November 11, 2008).   “Great find in West Virginia nothing more than a fraud”. fraud”.   The Columbus  Dispatch. [7] Steelhammer, Rick (October 13, 2008).   “Grave Creek Stone hoax linked to Wheeling doctor”. doctor”.  Charleston Gazette. (subscription required)

not allowed to improve upon their first attempt (since one cannot erase all or part of a symbol once it is inscribed).

 

Chapter 46

Narragansettt Runesto Narraganset Runestone ne The  Narragansett Runestone, also known as the  Quidnessett Rock, is a 2.5 tonne slab of of metasandstone  metasandstone located  located in Rhod Rhodee Islan Islandd, United States States.. It is inscr inscribe ibedd with with two two rows rows of symbols, which some have indicated resemble ancient Runic characters.[1] The The stone stone wasstole wasstolenn in 201 2012. 2. On Apr Aprilil 26, 201 2013, 3, th thee Rho Rhode de Island IslandAt Attor torne neyy Gen Genera erall ann announ ounced cedtha thatt theroc the rockk was wasrec recov ov--

Rock in summer 1964. He said that he had forgotten about the incident until the stone was removed and recovered in 2013.[5][6] His account has been disputed by other local people, who state that they saw the stone befor beforee 1964, and have challenged other elements of his statements.[7][8]

ered rock after was an individual forward withofinformation. The moved tocame the  University Rhode Island School of Oceanography for testing, but this proved to be impossible.[3] In January 2014, plans were announced to move the runein  East Greenstone to Goddard to  Goddard Memorial State Park   in East [4] wich.. In October 2015, the runestone was placed for wich long-term public viewing in Wickford, a village of North Kingstown Rhode Island.

46..2 46

[2]

46.1 46. 1

Pr Pro ove venan nance ce

 Rhode The Narragansett wasand firstHeritage reported to the the Rhode Island Historical runestone Preservation Commission (HPHC) in the 1980s.[1] The The New  New England Antiquities Research Association (NEARA) Association (NEARA) ran several studie studiess and published a number of papers in the 1980s and 1990s about the rock. According to NEARA, the stone was discovered by a  quahogger  quahogger in  in December 1984 while digging in the mud flats of Narragansett Bay.[4] The HPHC was unable to find any information about the stonee in any previo ston previous us in inven ventori tories es of Narra Narraganse gansetttt Bay Bay.. The Theyy found that as early as 1939, the runestone was located upland and upland  and may have been buried. [1] Recently, the inscriptions on the stone were visible only for a short period of time between the shifting tides, due to dramatic erosion of [1] the shoreline Pojac and the fact that line the stone positioned 20atfeet fromPoint the extreme low tide mark.was

Med ediia

Thestoneisreferencedinepisode11ofseason1 Thestoneisreferencedinepisode11of season1 of America Unearthed .[4]

46.3 46. 3

201 2012 2 Disa Disappe ppeara aranc ncee

The state Coastal Resources Management Council reported that the runestone had been removed from the tidal waters off Pojac Pojac Poi Point nt betwee betweenn July and Aug August ust 2012. In May 2013, the state Attorney General’s Environmental Unit and DEM’s Criminal Investigation Unit announced that they had recovered the stone. Town historian and independent columnist G. Timothy Cranston said that a Pojac Point resident had removed the stone, as he was tired of having tourists scouring the neighborhood and shoreline looking for the stone. He said that the resident – who was not named – was ordered by state officials offici als to retrie retrieve ve the stone after having sunk it in deeper waters off the coast.[6] After the stone was recovered, in October 2015 it was placed for long-term public viewing in Wickford, a village of the Town of North Kingstown, Rhode Island.

46.4 46 .4 •

See See al also so

 Kensington Runestone

In 2014, Everett Brown of Providence reported that he and his brother Warren had carved the runes on Quidnessett

•

 AVM Runestone

•

 Heavener Runestone

133

 

134

46.5 46. 5

 

Re Refferen erence cess

[1]   “RI Attorney Attorney General and RI Department of Environmental Management Joint Investigation Leads to the Return of the Narragansett Rune Stone”. Stone”.  State of Rhode Island Island.. April 26, 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2014. [2]   “Mysterious Narragansett runestone is recovered”. recovered”.   The Boston Globe. April 26, 2013. Retrieved 8 February 2014. [3] Branchaud, Benj Benjamin amin (March 5, 2014).  2014).  “Narragansett Rune  Southern thern Rhode Islan Island  d  Stone Sto ne inscr inscripti iptions ons rema remain in a mys mystery” tery”..  Sou Newspapers . Retrieved 6 April 2014. [4] Church, Chris (January 31, 2014). “Mysterious 2014).  “Mysterious rune stone moving to Goddard Park”. Park”. Independe Independent nt RI. Retriev Retrieved ed 9 February 2014. Wings”. [5]   “Rune stone records Viking visit … in 1964 | Stone Wings”. Stonewings.wordpress.c Stonewings. wordpress.com. om. 2014-06-19. Retrieved 201506-04. [6] Church, Church, Chris (2014-06-28). (2014-06-28). “Man  “Man claims he carved rune stonee markings in '64 – Inde ston Independe pendent nt Newspapers: Newspapers: Nort Northh East”.. Independentri.com. Retrieved 2015-06-04. East”  “With Child Childhood hoodStor Stories, ies, [7] Schieldr Schieldrop, op, Mark (July (July 20, 2014). 2014). “With Locals Dispute Claim Narragansett Rune Stone was Carved in 1960s”. 1960s”. Cranston Patch. Retrieved 11 July 2014. [8] Church, Church, Chris (2014-07-10) (2014-07-10)..  “Ru “Rune ne sto stone ne ori origin gin cla claim im ch chalallenged – Independent Newspapers: North East”. East” . Independentri.com. Retrieved 2015-06-04.

Coordinates Coordinates::  41°34′12.1″N 71°27′8.2″W / 41.570028°N 71.452278°W

CHAPTER CHAPTER 46. NARRA NARRAGANS GANSETT ETT RUNESTO RUNESTONE  NE 

 

Chapter 47

Oklahoma runestones  have been found in Oklahoma in Oklahoma.. All A number of runestones of runestones have of them are likely of modern origin, with some of them possi pos sibl blyy datin datingg to the the19t 19thh centu century ry "Viking Vikingrevi revival val"orbeing "orbeing produced by 19th-century Scandinavian settlers. The oldest find is the “Heavener Runestone,” first documented in 1923. It is the most credible candi candidate date as being of medieval date, but it is most likely a 19th-century artifact made by a Scandinavian immigrant (possibly a Swede working work ing at the loca locall train depot). Two other “Hea “Heaven vener er Runestones” Runestone s” are most likel likelyy not runic at all but exhibit incisions of Native American origin. Three other runestones, found in Poteau, Shawnee and Pawnee, are of modern date.

a Norse presence, nothing similar has been found anywhere near Heavener Heavener or even in the Americ American an Midwest. He suggests that “It is unlikely that the Norse would get significantly more fastidious about leaving any evidence behind of their presence in Oklahoma.”[2] Archaeologist Archaeolo gist Lyle Tompsen in a 2007 Masters Thesis for the University of Leicester (published in ESOP 29 2011:543) examined the runestone and noted: 1. There is no cultural evidence evidence of Viki Vikings ngs in or near the region. 2. No Old Norse approach approach to translation fits this sto stone. ne. 3. The The stone’ stone’ss mos mostt lik likel elyy tra trans nslat latio ionn is 'Gn 'Gnom omee Dal Dal'' (Val(Valley of the Gnomes). 4. Scandi Scandina navi vian an pr prese esenc ncee in the the nearb nearbyy to town wn of Heave Heavene nerr is early and the likeliest source of the carving of the stone.

the Heavener runestone

47.1

Hea Heave vener ner Rune Runeston stonee

The Heavener Runestone is located in Heavener in  Heavener Runestone Park in Le Park in  Le Flore County, Oklahoma, Oklahoma , near Heavener, near Heavener, Oklahoma.. homa The runes on the stone are . [1] Most of these Futhark , , but the final “L” is characters characte rs belong to the Elder the Elder Futhark reversed reve rsed compared with the last “A”, and the second character is a short-twig “A” from the Younger the  Younger Futhark Futhark.. The transcriptionn is then gaomedal , but is generally thought that transcriptio the intention is that the second character should be an elder futhark “N” (also reversed). The inscriptio inscriptionn then reads  gnomedal   (either “gnome valley”, or a personal name “G.  (either Nomedal”).

5. Other purported rune rune stones in the re region gion are mode modern rn cre creati ations, ons, or mis misinte interpre rpreted ted Nati Native ve Ame Americ rican an rock art. “Barring any new evidence, the stone is best considered a modern creation.”[3] Henrik Hen rik Willi William ams, s, pro proffessor essor in Nor Nordi dicc lan langua guage gess at University of Uppsala, Uppsala, visited Oklahoma in 2015 as part of a tour sponsored by the American Association for Runic Studies in collaboration with Uppsala University and the American Friends Friends of Uppsala Uni Universi versity. ty. In a speech to the Poteau Chamber of Commerce he said that the Heavener stone “Is probably in the top 20 I’ve seen in the world, just for the sheer size and impressive nature of it.” He said that it was probably 19th century with a 20% probability of it being 10th or 11th century. “All words have endi endings, ngs, back 1,000 and 500 years ago, and that is one thing we find disturbing,” Williams said of the nonconforming ending on

the Heavener Runestone. None of the American inscrip Archaeologist  Ken Feder Archaeologist Ken Feder notes  notes that unlike the situation in tions ever found have any kind of layout or ornamentation. eastern Canada where evidence has been found that proves That’s another thing that doesn’t really fit the pattern.” He 135

 

136

 

also noted that “There are no Vikings or earlier inscriptions on Iceland or Greenland, so it’s a big jump from Sweden to Heavener.”[4] In 1991,   Carl Albert State College   in near nearby by Pot Poteau eau  in the stone’s honor. changed its mascot to a Viking a Viking in

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 47. OKLAHOM OKLAHOMA A RUNESTO RUNESTONES  NES 

Professor Don G Wyckoff. an archaeologist at the University of Oklahoma, examined the Shawnee stone and noted that it is a soft red Permian sandstone, writing that “the inscription is... remarka remarkably bly ffresh resh and certainl certainlyy not as worn or weathered weathered as the stone’s natura naturall surf surface. ace. The Surve Surveyy staff has viewed other exposures of this Permian sandstone

which have carved[7]dates lateShawnee as 1957 that more runeworn Bothasthe and are Pawnee and weathered...” stones are products of the modern period. The inscripti inscription on Futhark let letreads either mldok   or or midok  in  in standard Elder standard Elder Futhark The Poteau stone was found by schoolboys in 1967 near tering. Poteau in Le Poteau in  Le Flore County, County, Oklahoma.  Oklahoma. Tompsen also examined this stone, and writes that it is 47.4 4 Re Refferen erence cess carved into sandstone and is 15 inches long and shows 47. little little weath weatherin ering. g. The Theyy read    and Thomp Thompsen sen Heavener Runestone”. Runestone”. writes “This stone consists of a mixture of letters and [1]   “The Heavener alphabets from different times.” He transcribes these as [2]  Kenneth L. Feder Feder,,   Encyclopedia of Dubious Archaeology:  GLOIEA(?)(?). From Atlantis To The Walam Olum , page 137 (Greenwood,  ISBN 978-0-313-37919-2 2010). ISBN 2010). Of the eight letters, five are Elder are  Elder Futhark Futhark,, one Younger one  Younger Futhark.. The other two he calls “spurious”. He writes: " [3] Tompsen, Futhark Tompsen, Lyle.   “An Archaeolo Archaeologist gist Looks Looks at the Okla-

47.2 47. 2

Poteau oteau Ston Stonee

By excluding theititse last asespurious, are on the Heav Heaven ener er stone stone self. lf.two Theletters onl onlyy one on lef left is a strai strfive aigh ght t line. line. To the theau autho thor’s r’s ey eyes, es, the the Potea Poteauu St Ston onee is a copy copy of th thee Hea Heave vene nerr stone, with the addition of three spurious runic symbol symbolss as script-inflation.” [3] Swedish Professor Henrik Williams believes that the inscription is modern, with the stone and toolmarks not as weathered as would be expected if it were from the Viking period.[5]

47.3

Sha Shawne wneee and Pawnee Pawnee Stones Stones

homa Runestones ESOP 29, 2011: 5-43 | Lyle Tompsen”. Tompsen” . Academia.edu. Academi a.edu. Retrieved 2013-03-27. [4] Lovett, Lovett, John John (May 3, 2015).  “Swedish Runologist Studies Heavener Runestone 'For Truth'". Truth'".  Times Record . Retrieved 16 January 2016. [5] Wallace, Josh (May 4, 2015). “Oklahoma 2015).  “Oklahoma runestone is impressive but not from Vikings, Swedish scholar says”. says” . NewsOK. Retrieved 16 January 2016. [6] Wilson, Wilson, Steve (1989). (1989).   Oklahoma Treasures and Treasure Tales . University of Oklahoma Press. p. 33.  ISBN 0-80612174-2.. 2174-2 [7] Wyckoff, Wyckoff, Don G, “No Stones Stones Unturned:Differing Views Views of Oklahoma’s Runestones” in  Popular Archaeology, 2:16-31, no 12, 1973, reprinted in Ancient Man: A Handbook of Puz zling Artifacts  Artifacts , compiled by William R. Corliss, The Sourcebook Project, 1978, ISBN 1978, ISBN 0-915554-03-8 •

•

 Lyle Tompsen, An Archaeologist Examines The Oklahoma Rune Stones , Epigraphic Society Occasional Papers (ESOP) 29:2011. 29:2011.   Nielso Nielson, n, Ric Richard, hard,   The Ru Runes neston tones es of Oklah Oklahoma oma, Epigraphic Epigraph ic Society Occasional Public Publications ations (ESOP), 16:1987.

47.5 47 .5 the Shawnee runestone

See See al also so

•

 Kensington Runestone

•

 Vérendrye Runestone

The Shawnee stone was found in 1969 by three children in Oklahoma, one mile from the North Shawnee, Oklahoma, the  North Canadian River,, which is a tributary of the Arkansas River the Arkansas River River..[6]

•

 Spirit Pond runestones

 

Chapter 48

Spirit Pond runestones 48.1

Inscription on the  map stone

Edward Lars Edward Larsson’s  son’s not notes es fr from om 188 18855 showtheuseof"  showtheuseof"  pentadic " run runic  ic  numerals to replace the Arabic the  Arabic numerals .

Int Interpr erpreta etatio tion n and authen authentic ticity ity

Unlike the prehistoric monumental   runestones runestones raised  raised in Scandinavia,, the Maine stones are small handheld objects Scandinavia similar to the authentic Kingittorsuaq authentic  Kingittorsuaq Runestone Runestone found  found in Greenland in  in 1824. Greenland Of the three stones, one contains a total of 15 lines of 'text' on two two si side des. s. The map stone  contains a map with some inscriptions. Paul H. Chapman proposes that the map depicts the landscape visible from the 1,075 feet (328 m) high White Mountain, the highest point in the vicini vicinity ty of Spirit of Newfoundland..[4] Pond,[3] or the northern tip of Newfoundland The inscriptions contain several instances of the use of numerals  in arabic pentadic numerals in  arabic placement.  placement. The first to study the stones scientifically was Harvard was  Harvard University professor University  professor Einar Haugen. ound the inHaugen. In 1974, after transcribing, he ffound divi dividua duall run runes es use usedd to be incon inconsi siste stent nt wi with th 11t 11thh centu century ry Old Norse,, and that the text contains only “a few Norse words Norse in a sea of gibberish”.[5] He also noted peculiarities relating the inscriptions directly to the Kensington the  Kensington Runestone inscription. inscripti on. Thus, he concluded that the inscriptions were most likely created after 1932.[2] Amateur researchers have been more sympathetic to a me NEARA,, a dieval origin of the stones. Suzanne stones.  Suzanne Carlson of Carlson of NEARA group of enthusiasts who believe there was a widespread Viking presence in North America, suggests a mid 14th century date for the inscriptions, although it is unclear how Carlson arrived at this date.[6] Similarly, amateur runeenthusiast Richard Nielsen claims a precise date of 1401. [7]

The Spir Spirit it Pon Pond d runeston runestones es are thre threee ston stones es with withalle allegedl gedlyy runic inscriptions inscriptions,, found at Spirit Pond in   Phippsburg Phippsburg,, Maine  in 1971 by a Walter J. Elliott, Jr., a carpenter 48 48.2 .2 born in Bath in  Bath,, Maine. The stones, curren currently tly housed at the Maine State Museum, are widely dismissed as a hoax or [1][2] Museum,

See See al also so

a fraud. If authentic, they would be more eviden evidence ce of pre-Colum pre-Columbian bian trans-oceani trans-oceanicc contact contact and  and Norse  Norse colonization of the Americas. Americas.

•

 Maine penny, penny, a Norwegian coin supposedly found in a prehistoric Maine archaeological site

137

 

138

 

48.3 48. 3

Re Refferen erence cess

[1] Snow, Snow, Dean R. (October/N (October/Nov ovembe emberr 1981).   “Martians &  American Heritage Magazine Vikings, Maldoc & Runes”. Runes”. 32(6). Archived from the from the original original on  on September 29, 2007. [2]  Haugen, Einar (1974). Einar  (1974). “The Rune Stones Stones of Spirit Pond, Pond,  8 Maine”.  The Journal of Typographical Research (1). [3] Chapman, Chapman, Paul Paul H. (July/Sept (July/Septembe emberr 2005). “Whe 2005). “Where re in No North rth America did the Vikings settle?"  The Ensign Message  7 (3). [4] Chapman, Chapman, Paul Paul H. (1992). “An In-Depth In-Depth Examinati Examination on of the Spirit Pond Runestones”.  Epigraphic Society Occasional  Papers  21  21 . pp. 114-138. [5]  Einar Haugen (1974 Haugen  (1974). ). “The Rune Stones Stones of Spirit Pond, Pond, Maine”.  Visible Language. [6]  Carlson, Suzanne. Suzanne.  “The Spirit Pond Stones and the Mysterious 'Facts’ of their Fabrication” Fabrication”.. New England Antiquities Research Association. [7] Nielsen, Richard Richard (1993). “An Old Norse Translation Translation of the Epigraphic Society Society Spirit Spiri t Pond Pond Papers  RunicInscr Runic Inscripti iptions onsof of Maine”. Maine”.   Epigraphic Occasional  22  22 (1). pp. 158-218.

48.4 48. 4 •

  Wahl Wahlgren, gren, Erik (1982). American Runes: From Kensington to Spirit Pond . University of Illinois Press.

48.5 48. 5 •

Fur Furth ther er re readi ading ng

Ex Exte terna rnall lin links ks

 Transcription of Spirit Pond Number 3 (Figure 109) 109) Facsimile of “inscription stone”

Coordinates :   43°4 Coordinates: 43°44′54″N 4′54″N 69°48′31″W 69°48′31″W / 43.74 43.74833°N 833°N 69.80861°W

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 48. SPIR SPIRIT IT POND RUNESTO RUNESTONES  NES 

 

Chapter 49

Vérendrye Runestone The Vérendr Vérendrye ye Runestone Runestone was was all allege egedl dlyy foun oundd on an early early expedition into the territory west of the Great the  Great Lakes Lakes by  by the Fre Frenc nchh Can Canadi adian an ex explo plore rerr Pi Pierr erree Gau Gaulti ltier er de Vare arenne nness et de La Vérendrye, Vérendrye, in the 1730s. It is not mentioned in the officia ciall records records of La Vére Vérendry ndrye’s e’s exp expedi editio tions, ns,[1] butin1749he discussed disc ussed it with vis visiti iting ng Swed Swedish ish scienti scientist st Pe Pehr hr Kalm Kalm,, from whose writings virtually all information about the stone is taken.[2]

 (the Rouen  Rouen Cathedral Cathedral?), ?), later to be buried church in Rouen in Rouen (the under a pile of rubble when the building which housed it was destroyed during World during  World War II II.. The Minnesota The  Minnesota Historical Society has Society  has offered a $1000 reward for the stone’s rediscovery.

49.3 49. 3 49.1 49 .1

Disc Disco ove very ry

According Accordi ng to Kalm, Kalm,Vére Vérendry ndrye’s e’s exp expedi editio tionn found oundthe the tabl tablet et on the top of an upright stone (referred to by some as  cairn). ). Kalm Kalm’s’s diary rep reported orted iitt to be abou aboutt a Fren French ch a  cairn foot long, or nearly 13 inches (33 cm) long, and a hand’s breadth wide (an early English translation gave this as between four four and five inches). On it were said to be inscriptions tio ns in unkno unknown wn charac characters. ters. The locat location ion wher wheree it was found is disputed. Holand thought it was found on an expeditionn in 1738 to a Mandan area “along the banks of the peditio Missouri” in a location which may have been near presentday Minot, day  Minot, North Dakota Dakota.. Father Antoine Champagne suggested that Kalm’s account, which had the expedition travel eling ingon on horse horsebac back, k, coul couldd not notha have vebee beenn in 173 17388 as theMandan had no horses that early. Give Givenn that the distance fr from om Montre Mon treal al was was sai saidd to be 900 Fre Frenc nchh mile miles, s, Ch Champ ampagn agnee su sugggested a location not far from Pierre, South Dakota. When asked, natives of the area claimed that the tablet and standing stone had always been there together.

49.2 49. 2

Th Thee ston stone’s e’s fate ate

La Vérendrye told Kalm that the tablet was sent back to Quebec, where Jesuit priests  priests concluded that it was written Quebec, where Jesuit Tatarian"" writing. They repo reportedly rtedly then sent iitt to the in "Tatarian

Spe Specu culat lated ed ori origi gins ns

Holand,, have specuSome people, in particular Hjalmar particular  Hjalmar Holand Runes and  and lated that the inscription was in fact in Norse in  Norse Runes is potentially related to the Kensington the Kensington Runestone Runestone,, the inscription on which claims it was left in 1362 by an expedition “west from Vinland.” Holand argued that resources deHungarian rian scri script pt pict picting ing“T “Tata atari rian” an” wri writiting ng (s (suc uchh as the Old Hunga and its ancestor the Orkhon the  Orkhon script) script) available to the Jesuit priests in Quebec would have shown examples containing a large percentage of characters which are identical to Norse characters. characte rs. The scripts are of separate origins, but presumab ably ly thesi the simi milar lar use (e (engra ngravi ving ng in stone) stone)led led to simi similar lar strucstructure of many characte characters. rs. Theodore C.ually Blegen Blegen wrote  wrote that “some stones runelik runelike markings mark ings actuall act y carry trac traces es lef left t by sma small ll prehis prewith histori toric c crea crea-etures” which might mislead anyone who was not a professional runologist.[3]

49.4 49. 4

Re Refferen erence cess

[1] La Vérendrye, Vérendrye, Pierre, Pierre,  Journals and letters of La Vérendrye and his sons , retrieved 2007-11-06 [2] Kalm, Kalm, Pehr Pehr (17 (1748) 48),, Tra Travels vels into Nort Northh Ameri America ca (vol. 2, page pages  s  279-81), retrieved 2007-11-05 [3] Blegen, T (1960). The Kensington Kensington Rune Stone Stone : New Light on an Old Riddl Riddle. e. Minnesota Minnesota Historica Historicall Society Society Press. Press. ISBN  ISBN 0-87351-044-5.. pp. 175-176 0-87351-044-5 175-176

French Secretary of State, the Comte French Secretary the Comte de Maurepas Maurepas.. There are no descriptions of the stone after that time, but it has been claimed that it was shipped with other artifacts other  artifacts to  to a 139

 

Chapter 50

Nazca Lines Coordinates Coordinates::   14°43 14°43′00″S ′00″S 75°08′00″W 75°08′00″W / 14.71 14.71667°S 667°S 75.13333°W The   Nazca Nazca Lines Lines   /ˈnæzkɑː/   are a seri series es of an anci cien entt geoglyphs inthe Nazca Nazca Dese Desert rt,, in sou south thern ern Peru Peru.. They They wer weree designated as a UNESCO a  UNESCO World Heritage Site in Site  in 1994. The high, arid plateau stretches more than 80 km (50 mi) de  and Palpa  Palpa on  on the  Pampas   de between the towns of Nazca of  Nazca and Jumana, about 400 km south of  Lima  Lima.. Alt Altho houg ughh som somee local geoglyp geoglyphs hs resemb resemble le Paracas  Paracas motifs motifs,, scholars believe the Nazca Lines were created by the  Nazca culture culture   between 500 BCE and 500 CE[1] The figures vary in complexity. plexi ty. Hundreds are sim simple ple lines and and geometric  geometric shapes; shapes; more than 70 are zoomorphic are  zoomorphic designs  designs of animals, such as birds, fish, llamas, jaguars, and monkey monkeys, s, or human figures. Other designs includ includee  phytomorphic  phytomorphic shapes,  shapes, such as trees as  trees and flowers and  flowers.. The designs are shallow lines made in the ground by removing the reddish pebbles and uncovering the whitish/grayish ground beneath. The largest figures are up to 1,200 ft (370 m) long.[2] Scholars differ in interpreting the purpose of the designs but, in general, they ascribe religious significance to them. Because Beca use of its isol isolati ation on and the dry, wind windless less,, stab stable le climate of the plateau, plateau, the lines have mostly been naturally preserved. serv ed. E Extre xtremel melyy rare cha changes nges in wea weathe therr may temp temporari orarily ly alter the general designs. As of 2012, the lines are said to have been deteriorating because of an influx of squatters of  squatters [3] inhabiting the lands. Contrary to the popular belief that the lines and figures can be seen only with the aid of flight, they are visible from the  foothills..[4] surrounding foothills surrounding

50.1 50 .1

Hist Histor ory y

military and civili military civilian an pil pilots. ots. In 1927 the Peruvi Peruvian an arch archaeol aeoloogist gist To Torib ribio io Me Mejía jía Xe Xessp sspee spo spotte ttedd the them m whi while le he was hikin hikingg through the foothills. He discussed them at a conference in Lima in Lima in 1939.[6][7] Paul Kosok, Kosok, a   historian from historian  from Long  Long Island University University,, is credited as the first scholar to seriously study the Nazca Lines. In the country in 1940–41 to study anci ancient ent irrigation systems, he flew over the lines and realized one was in the shape of a bird. Another chance helped him see how lines converged at the winter solstice in the Southern Hemisphere. He began to study how the lines might have been created, crea ted, as well as to try to dete determin rminee their purpo purpose. se. He Reiche,, a German a German mathematician mathematician and  and was joined by Maria by Maria Reiche archaeologist, archaeologist , to help figure out the purpose of the Nazca Lines. They proposed one of the earli earliest est reasons ffor or the existence of the figures: to be markers on the horizon to show where the sun and other celestial other  celestial bodies bodies   ros rose. e. Archaeologists, chaeologi sts, historians, and mathematici mathematicians ans have all tried to determine the purpose of the lines. Determining how they were made has been easier than figuring why they were made. made. Sch Scholars olars hav havee theorize theorizedd the Nazca people could have used simple tools and surveying and  surveying equipment to equipment  to construct the lines. lines. Archaeolo Archaeological gical surve surveys ys have found wooden stakes in the ground at the end of some lines, which support support this theory. One such stake was carbon-dated and was the basis for establishing the age of carbon-dated and the design complex. complex. Promine Prominent nt skeptic  skeptic Joe Nickell Nickell has  has reproduced the figures using tools and technology available to the Nazca people.   Scientific American  called his work “remarkable in its exactness” when compared to the actual lines.[8] With careful planning and simple technologies, a small team of people could recreate even the largest figures within days, without any aerial assistance.[7] On the ground, most of the lines are formed by a shallow trench low  trench with  with a depth between 10 and 15 cm (4 and 6 in). Such trench trenches es were made by rem removing oving the reddi reddishsh-

The first mention of the Nazca Lines in print was by by Pedro  Pedro brown  iron oxide oxide-coated -coated pebbles that cover the surf surface ace of brown iron

Cieza de León in León  in his book of 1553, where he mistook the Nazca Desert. When this gravel is removed, the light  clay earth  earth which is exposed in the bottom of the colored clay them for trail for  trail markers. markers.[5] Although partially visible from colored the nearby hills, the first to distinguish them were Peruvian trench produces lines which contrast sharply in color and 140

 

50.2. PU PURPOS RPOSE  E 

 

141

tone with the surrounding land surf surface. ace. This sublay sublayer er contains high amounts of lime of lime which,  which, with the morning mist, hardens hard ens to form a prot protecti ective ve lay layer er that shield shieldss the line liness from winds, thereby preventing erosion preventing erosion.. The Nazca “drew” several hundred simple but huge curvilinear animal and human figures figures by this techni technique. que. In total, the earthwork the  earthwork pro  project ject is huge and complex: the area encompassing the lines is nearly 450 km2 (170 sq mi), and th thee la larg rges estt figur figures es can can sp span an near nearly ly 1, 1,20 2000 ft (370 (370 m). m).[2] Some of the measurements for the figures conclude that the humming mingbi bird rd is 93 m (3 (310 10 ft) long long,, th thee cond condor or is 13 1344 m (440 (440 ft), t), th thee mo monk nkey ey is 93 m (3 (310 10 ft) by 58 m (190 (190 ft), t), an andd th thee spid spider er is 47 m (150 ft). The extremely dry, windless, and constant climate of the Nazca region has preserved the lines well. This desert is one of the driest on Earth and maintains a temperature around 25 °C all year round. round. The lack of wind has helped keep the lines uncovered and visible. The discovery of two new small figures was announced in  team from Yamagata from Yamagata University University.. early 2011 by a Japanese a Japanese team One of these resembles a human head and is dated to the

ied the ancient Nazca culture to try to determine the purpose of the lines and figures. figures. One hypo hypothes thesis is is that the Nazca people created them to be seen by their gods in the sky. sky. Koso Kosokk and and Reiche  Reiche advanced  advanced a purpose related to astronomy and  and cosmology  cosmology:: the lines were intended to act as astronomy a kind of observatory of observatory,, to point to the places on the distant

early Nazca or earlier, and uni theversit other, dated, date d,period is an of animal animal. . culture In March 2012 2012,, the univer sityy unannounced a new research center would be opened at the site in September 2012 to study the area for for the next 15 years. The team has been doing field work there since 2006 when it found about 100 new geoglyphs new  geoglyphs..[9][10]

Chicago Chicago,,ons hadofconcl concluded uded the .animal figures  The “repNew resentations resentati heave heavenly nly that shapes” shapes”. Accor According ding towere York Times , “she contends they are not shapes of constellations, but of what might be called  counter constellations , the irregular irregularlyly-sha shaped ped dark patc patches hes with within in the twink twinkling ling ex[12] Way.” .” Aveni criticized her work for panse of the Milky the Milky Way failing to account for all the details. In 1985, the archaeologist the  archaeologist Johan Reinhard Reinhard published  published ar ethnographic,, and historical and historical data  data demons demonstrattratchaeological, ethnographic chaeological, ing that worship of mountains and other water sources predominated in Nazca religion and economy from ancient to recent times. He theorized that the lines and figures were part of religious practices involving the worship of deities of  deities associated with the availability of water, which directly re-

50.2 50 .2

Purp Purpos osee

horizon where the sun prehistoric indigenous and other celestial bodies rose or set in the solstices. Many prehistoric  indigenous cultures  cultures in the Americas and elsewhere constructed earthworks that combined such astronomical sighting with their religious cos Cahokia in  in mology, as did the later Mississippian later Mississippian culture at culture at Cahokia present-day United States. Another example is Stonehenge is  Stonehenge in England in England.. Ger Gerald ald Ha Hawki wkins ns   and   Anthony Anthony Av Aveni eni,, experts in archaeoastronomy,, co conc nclu lude dedd in 19 1990 90 that that the the eviviarchaeoastronomy dence was insufficient to support such an astronomical explanation.[11] Reiche asserted that some or all of the figures represented constellations.. By 1998, Phy Phyllis llis B. Pi Pitlug tluga, a, a proté protégé gé of constellations Reiche and senior astronomer at the Adler the  Adler Planetarium Planetarium in  in

lated to the success and productivity of  crops  crops.. He interinterpretedthelinesassacredpathsleadingtoplaceswherethese deities deiti es could be worshiped. The figures were symbols representing animals and objects meant to invoke the gods’ aid in supplying water. The precise meanings of many of the individual geoglyphs remained unknown as of 2013. Henri Stierli Stierlinn, a  Swiss art historian historian specializing  specializing in Egypt in  Egypt and the Middle the Middle East, East, published a book in 1983 linking the Nazca Naz ca Lin Lines es to the the pr produ oduct ctio ionn of anc ancie ient nt textiles that arch archee of the Paracas the Paracas culologists have found wrapping mummies wrapping mummies of ture..[13] He contended that the people may have used the ture  to fabricate the lines and trapezes as giant, primitive looms primitive  looms to extremely long strings and wide pieces of textiles typical of the area. Acco According rding to his theory, the figurati figurative ve patterns (smaller and less common) were meant only for ritualistic for  ritualistic purposes. purpo ses. This theo theory ry is not wid widel elyy accept accepted, ed, althoug althoughh

Nazca Lines seen from from SPOT  SPOT Satellite

Archaeologists,, ethnologists Archaeologists ethnologists,and ,and anthropologistshav anthropologists havee stud stud--

scholars have noted similarities in patterns between the textiles and the Nazca Lines, which they take as sharing in a

 

142

 

common culture.

50.3

Alte Alternat rnatiive exp explana lanatio tions ns

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 50. NAZC NAZCA A LINES 

to measure, nor did she pay much attention to the archaeological data Clarkson and Silverman had unearthed. Her case did little justice to other information about the coastal cultures, save applying, with subtle contortions, Urton’s representations of constellations from the highlands. As [15] ask: was she  Jacquetta Hawkes might  might historian historian Jacquetta Hawkes getting the pampa she desired?

Jim Woodmann[16] theorized that the Nazca lines could not have been made without some form of manned flight to see the figures properly. Based on his study of available technology, he suggests a hot-air a  hot-air balloon balloon was  was the only possible means means of flig flight. ht. To test this hypo hypothe thesis, sis, Wood Woodmann mann made a hot-air balloon using materials and techniques he understood to have been available available to the Nazca people. The balloon flew, after a fashion. Most scholars have re rejected jected [7] Woodmann’s thesis as ad hoc , because of the lack of any evidence of such balloons.[17]

50.4

En Enviro vironme nmenta ntall concern concernss

Peop People le try trying ing to pr prese eserv rvee the Naz Nazca ca Lines Lines are con con-cerned about threats of pollution of  pollution   and and erosion  erosion caused  caused by deforestation in  in the region. deforestation

Satellite Satel lite pictur picturee of an area containin containingg lines: North North is to the right right.. (Coordinates:  14°43′S   14°43′S 75°08′W / 14.717°S 75.133°W )

Other theories were that the geometric lines could indicate the flow of water, irrigation schemes, or be a part of rituals to “summon” water. The spiders, birds and plants may be fertility symbols symbols.. It has also been theori theorized zed that the line liness could act as an astronomical an astronomical calendar. calendar.[14] Phyllis Pitluga, senior astronomer at the Adler the  Adler Planetarium and a protégé of Reiche, performed computer-ai computer-aided ded studies of star alignments. She asserted the giant spider figure  diagram of the constellation the constellation Orion. Orion. She is an anamorphic an anamorphic diagram further suggested that three of the straight lines leading to the figure were used to track the changing declinations changing  declinations of  of the three stars of Orion’s of  Orion’s Belt Belt.. In a critique of her analysis, Dr. Anthony F. Aveni noted she did not account for the oth other er 12 line liness of the fig figure ure.. He comm commen ented ted gen genera erallllyy on her her conclusions, saying:

The Lines themselves are superficial, they are only 10 to 30 cm deep and could be washed away... awa y... Nazc Nazcaa has only ev ever er recei received ved a small amount of rain. But now there are great change changess to the weather weather all ov over er the wor world. ld. The Lin Lines es cannot resist heavy rain without being damaged. – Vikt Viktor oria ia Niki Nikitz tzki ki of the the   Maria Maria Rei Reiche che [18]

Centre After flooding and mudslides in the area in mid-February 2007, Mario Olaeche Olaecheaa Aqui Aquije, je, archaeol archaeological ogical resid resident ent fr from om  National Institute of Culture, Peru’s National Peru’s Culture, and a team of specialists surveyed the area. He said, "[T]he mudslides and heavy rains did not appear to have caused any significant damage to th thee Naz Nazca ca Lin Lines” es”,, butth but thee nearb nearbyy Sou Southe thern rn Pan-American Highway did Highway  did suffer damage, and “the damage done to the roads should serve as a reminder to just how fragile these figures are.”[19] In 201 2013, 3, mac machi hine nery ry use usedd in a lim limes eston tonee qu quarry arrywas wasrep report orted ed to have destroyed a small section of a line, and caused damage to another.[20] In December 2014, Greenpeace 2014, Greenpeace activists  activists irreparably dam-

I really had trouble finding good evid evidence ence to back up what she contended. Pitluga never laid out the criteria for selecting the lines she chose

aged the Nazca Lines while setting up a banner within the lines of one of the famed geoglyphs. The activists damaged an area around the hummingbird by grinding rocks into the

 

 

50.5. IM IMAG AGES  ES 

143

sandy soil. Access to the area around the lilines nes is strictl strictlyy [21][22] prohibited prohibi ted and special shoes must be worn to avoid damagingthe UN Wo World rld Heri Heritage tagesite. site. Greenpeace Greenpeace claime claimedd the activists were “absolutely careful to protect the Nazca lines,”[23] but this is contradicted by video and photographs showing showi ng the acti activists vists wearing conve conventional ntional shoes (i.e. not

[24][25] special protective shoes) while walking on people, the site.[26] but Greenpeace has apologized to the Peru Peruvian vian

Loise Jamie Castillo, Peru’s Vice Minister of Cultural Heritage, called the apology “a joke” joke”,, because Greenpeace refused to identify the vandals or accept responsibility.[27] Culture Minister Diana Alvarez-Calderon said that evidence gathered during an investigat investigation ion by the government would be used as part of a legal suit against Greenpeace. “The damage done is irreparable and the apologies offere offeredd by the environmental group aren't enough,” she said at a news conference.[21] This also directed attention to other damage to geoglyphs outside of the World Heritage area caused in 2012 and 2013 by the Dakar the Dakar Rally Rally..[28]

50.5 50 .5

 

•

•

 

The Man

Ima Image gess  

•

 

•

The Whale

The Spider

The Humming-

bird  

•

•

 

The Condor •

 

The Dog

The Pelican

 

•

The Heron

 

•

The Tree

 

144

 

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 50. NAZC NAZCA A LINES 

50.7 50 .7

 

•

 

•

50.6 50 .6 •

•

•

•

•

•

The Monkey

 The Nazca lines were a plot element in Nancy Drew’s The Clue in the Crossword Cipher .

  Band of Holes Holes

•

 Blythe Intaglios

•

 Celestial mechanics

•

 Iperú

•

 List of archaeoastronomical sites by country

•

 Maria Reiche

•

 Marilyn Bridges

•

 Simone Waisbard

•

 Tourism in Peru

•

 UFO religions

•

  Uffington White White Horse

50..8 50

No Nottes

[1] Unesco World World Heritage Heritage (2009).  “Lines and Geoglyphs of Nasca and Pampas de Jumana”. Jumana”.

  The Nazca lines are also a major major plot element in Anthony Horowitz’s novel Evil Star (novel).

“Nascaa Lines – The Sacred Landscape” Landscape”.. [2] Golomb, Golomb, Jason. Jason.   “Nasc National Geographic . Nati National onal Geogra Geographic. phic. Retrieved Retrieved 23 August 2016.

  The Nazca lines are fe featured atured in the the Super  Super NES NES video  video  Illusion of Gaia. game Illusion game Gaia.

[3] Ta Taj, j, Mitra (August 15, 2012). “Pigs 2012).  “Pigs and squatters threaten Peru’s Nazca lines”. lines”.  Reuters . Retrieved August 15, 2012.

 The Nazca lines are also depicted multiple times in Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull. Skull.

[4] Katherine Katherine Reece, Grounding the Nasca Balloon, In the Hall  of Ma'at : “It is incorrect to say that the lines cannot be seen from the ground. They are visible from atop the surround-

 The Nazca lines are featured in the Master the  Master System video game  Nazc  Nazca a '88: The Gold Golden en Road to Paradise, erroneously adapted in the Western as Aztec as  Aztec Adventure

ing foothills.archaeologist The credit for the discovery of thewho lines goes to Peruvian Toribio Mejia Xesspe spotted them when hiking through the foothills in 1927.”

 TheNazcaLinesmarkedthehidingplaceofanancient weapon known as the Dark Heart in the   Challenge of the GoBots  animated   animated series, and the prison of the Decepticon Pretender Dauros in Dauros in Transformers: SuperGod Masterforce. Masterforce.

•

•

The Hands

In ficti fiction on

See See al also so

 The zoomorphic designs of the Nazca lines are represented in   Yu-Gi-Oh! 5D’s  as   as monster cards, used by the primary antagonists of the first story arc.

[5] In the Antwerp edition edition of 1554, see: Pedro Cieza de León, La Chronica del Peru  (The chronicle of Peru), (Antwerp, (Belgium): Martin Nucio, 1554), page 1554),  page 141. 141. On page 141, Cieza discussed the Nazca region of Peru and then mentioned that:  " … y por algunas partes delos arenales se veen señales, señal es, paraque atinen el camin caminoo que han de lleua lleuar.”  r.”   ( … and in some parts of the desert are seen signals, so that they [i.e., the Indians] find the path that has to be taken.) In 1586, Luis Monzón reported having seen ancient ruins in Peru,, including Peru including the remains remains of “roads": “roads": Luis LuisMonzó Monzónn (1586) “Descr “De scripc ipcio ionn de la tierradel tierradel repart repartimi imient entoo de losruc los rucana anass antamarcas de la corona real, jurisdicion de la ciudad de Guamanga. man ga. año de 1586.” 1586.” in: Marcos Marcos Jiméne Jiménezz de la Espada Espada,, ed., ed., Relaciones geográficas geográficas de Indias: Peru, volume 1 (Madrid,

•

 The Nazca lines are featured in The in  The Mysterious Cities of Gold cartoon Gold cartoon in episode 19, linked to a fictional ancient civilization’s flying machine.

Spain: Manuel Spain: Manuel G. Hernan Hernandez, dez, 1881), 1881), pp. pp. 197–216. 197–216. On page 210, 210, Munzón mentioned seeing ancient ruins, including  " … y hay señales de calles.”  (… and there are signs of

 

 

50.9. REFERENCES  REFERENCES 

145

streets.) stree ts.) Munzónask Munzón asked ed elderly elderlyIndia Indians ns about about the ruins. ruins. They They [21] Kozak, Robert (2014-12-14).  “Peru Says Greenpeace Permanently Damaged Nazca Lines”. Lines”.  The Wall Street Journal . told him that before the Incas, a people whom " … llamaron Retrieved 2015-02-03. viracochas , , …"  (…  (… they called  viracochas  …)  …) inhabited the area, and “A éstos les hacian caminos, que hoy dia son vistos, William (12 December December 2014). “Peru 2014). “Peru is Indignant tan anchos como una calle … "  (To  (To those [places] they made [22] Neuman, William After Greenpeace Makes Its Mark on Ancient Site”. Site” . The paths, that are seen today, as wide as a street … .) New York Times. Retrieved 13 December 2014. [6] Mejía Xesspe, Xesspe, Toribio (1939) “Acueductos “Acueductos y caminos anBriceno, Franklin (December (December 9, 2014).   “Peru Riled by tiguos de la hoya del Río Grande de Nazca” (Aqueducts and [23] Briceno, Greenpeace Stunt at Nazca Lines”. Lines” . Retrieved Decem December ber 11, ancien ancientt ro roadsof adsof theRio Grand Grand valle valleyy in Nazca) Nazca),, Ac Actasy tasy TraTra2014. bajos Cientificos Cientificos del 27 Congreso Internacional de Americanistas   (Proceedings (Proceedings and scientific works of the 27th internaGreenpeace Nazca Lines Protest”. Protest”. Retrieved De[24]   “Video of Greenpeace tional congress of American anthropologists), anthropologists),  1: 559–69. cember 13, 2014. [7] Katherine Katherine Reece, Reece, “Grounding  “Grounding the Nasca Balloon” Balloon”,,  Into the [25]   Vi Vice ce Ne News: ws: “Dron “Dronee Fo Foota otage ge Sho Shows ws Ext Extent ent of Dam Damage ageFro From m Hall of Ma'at  website   website Greenpeace Stunt at Nazca Lines” By Kayla Ruble DecemRuble December 17, 2014 [8]  Nickell, Joe (2005).   Unsolved History: Investigating Mysteries of the Past , The University Press of Kentucky ISBN Kentucky  ISBN acesor sorry ry for Naz Nazca ca lin lines es stu stunt nt in Pe Peru” ru”.. December [26]  “Greenpe  “Greenpeace 978-0-8131-9137-9,, pp. 13–16 978-0-8131-9137-9 11, 2014. Retrieved September September 9, 2016. [9]  “Team finds more Peru geoglyphs”. geoglyphs”.   Japan Times . Jan 20, “Greenpeace eace Won't Name Activists Linked to Damage” Damage”.. 16 original on  on 2012-07-15. Retrieved [27]   “Greenp 2011. Archived from the from the original December 2014. 9 April 2012. [28] [2 8] Du Dube be,, Ryan Ryan;; Ko Koza zak, k, Ro Robe bert rt (D (Dec ecem embe berr 28 28,, 20 2014 14). ). [10]  “University to open center at Nazca Lines”. Lines” .   Japan Times . “Peruvians s Spar Over Protecting Ancient Sites” Sites”. .  Wall Street  “Peruvian March 22, 2012. Archived Archived from from the original original on  on 2012-03Journal . Retrieve Retrievedd July 16, 2015. (subscript (subscription ion required required 26. Retrieved 9 April 2012. (help)). [11] Cameron, Cameron, Ian (1990). (1990).  Kingdom of the Sun God: A History of the Andes and Their People . New York: Facts on File. p. 0-8160-2581-9.. 46. ISBN 46.  ISBN 0-8160-2581-9

50.9 50. 9

[12]  ROBERT McG. THOMAS Jr, “Maria Reiche, 95, Keeper of an Ancient Peruvian Puzzle, Dies”, Dies” , The New York Times, 15 June 1998

•

[13] Stierlin (1983) [14] Brown, Cynthia Stokes(2007). Stokes (2007).  Big History. New York: York: The New Press. p. 167. ISBN 167.  ISBN 978-1-59558-196-9. 978-1-59558-196-9. [15] Av Aveni, eni, Anthony Anthony F.  Betwee  Betweenn the Lines: The Mystery Mystery of the Giant Ground Drawings of Ancient Nasca, Peru  . Austin Austin,, Texas: University of Texas Texas Press. 1 July 2006 ISBN 2006  ISBN 0-29270496-8 p.205 70496-8  p.205

•

•

•

•

[18]   Shafik Meghji, “Flooding and tourism threaten Peru’s mysterious Nazca Lines”, Lines”,  The Independent , July 17, 2004. Accessed April 02, 2007.  Liv-

[19] ing Living in Peru. P,eru. “Peru:  “Peru:20, Nazca Lines escapeApril mudslides” mudslides”, , in Peru February 2007. Accessed 02, 2007.

  Aveni, Aveni, Anthony F. (ed.) (1990).  The Lines of Nazca. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. ISBN Society.  ISBN 0-87169-183-3  Haughton, Brian. (2007).   Hidden History: Lost Civilizations, ilizations , Secret Knowledge, Knowledg e, and Ancient Mysteries .  ISBN 1-56414-897-1 Career Press. ISBN Press.

[16]   “The Theory of Jim Woodman Woodman - Science in the Sand”. Sand”. Retrieved 17 May 2016. [17] Haughton (2007)

Re Refferen erence cess

•

  Johnson, Johnson, Emma Emma.. 2007. 2007. The  The 'Mys 'Mysteri terious’ ous’Nazc Nazcaa Line Liness. PARA Web Bibliography B-01.   Kosok, Paul Paul (1965).  Life, Land and Water in Ancient  Peru, Brooklyn: Long Island University Press.  Lambers, Karsten (2006).   The Geoglyphs of Palpa, Peru: Per u: Docu Document mentatio ation, n, Anal Analysis, ysis, and Interpretati Interpretation on. Lindensoft Lindenso ft Ver Verlag, lag, Aich Aichwald/German wald/Germany. y.   ISB ISBN N 33929290-32-4   Nicke Nickell, ll, Joe. 1983.   Skeptical Inquirer  The Nazca Lines Revisited: Creation of a Full-Sized Duplicate. Duplicate .

•

[20] Manuel Manuel Vigo (2013-03-14). (2013-03-14).   “Peru: Heavy machinery destroys Nazca lines”. lines”. Peru this Week. Week. Retrieved R etrieved 2013-07-30.

  Reinhard, Johan (1996) (1996) (6th ed.) The Nazca Lines: A New Perspective on their Origin and Meaning . Lima: Los Pinos. ISBN Pinos.  ISBN 84-89291-17-9

 

146 •

•

 

  Sauerbi Sauerbier, er, Martin.  GIS-based Management and Analysis ysis of the Geogl Geoglyph yphss in the Palpa Palpa Re Regio gionn. ETH (200 (2009). 9). doi:10.3929/ethz-a-005940066 doi: 10.3929/ethz-a-005940066..   Stierl Stierlin, in, Henri (1983).  La Clé du Mystère . Paris: Albin Michel. ISBN Michel. ISBN 2-226-01864-6

50.10 50. 10

Ex Exte terna rnall lin links ks

•

 Nazca Designs and Lines at Discover Peru

•

 Tragedies flying over the Nazca lines

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 50. NAZC NAZCA A LINES 

 

Chapter 51

Piri Reis map World by World  by approximately 1510, and in its claim to have used Christoph Christopher er Columb Columbus us'' maps, maps, othe otherwise rwise lost lost,, as a sour source. ce. It used ten Arab sources, fo four ur Indian maps sourced from the Portuguese, Portugue se, and one of Columbus’. More recentl recently, y, it has  claims for the pre-modern been the focus of pseudohistoric of pseudohistoric claims exploration of the Antarctic the Antarctic coast.  coast.

51.1 51. 1

Surviving fragment of the Piri Reis map showing the Central and  South American American coast coast.. The appende appendedd notes say “the map of the western lands drawn by Columbus” [1]

The Piri Reis map is a world a world map compiled map compiled in 1513 from military intelligence by the Ottoman the  Ottoman admiral  admiral and cartographer Piri pher  Piri Reis ( Reis  (pronounced [piɾi ɾeis]). ɾeis]). Approximately one third of the map survives; it shows the western coasts of Europe and  and North  North Africa and Africa  and the coast of Brazil of  Brazil with  with reaEurope sonable accuracy. accuracy. Vari Various ous Atlantic is islands, lands, including the Azores and  and Canary  Canary Islands Islands,, are depicted, as is the mythical Azores

De Descr scrip ipti tion on

The map is the extant western third of a world map drawn  skin parchment, with dimensions reported as 90 on gazelle on gazelle skin cm × 63 cm,[2][3] 86 cm × 60 cm,[4] 90 cm × 65 cm,[5][6][7] 85 cm × 60 cm,[8][9] 87 cm × 63 cm,[10] and 86 cm × 62 cm.[11] These discrepancies are largely due to the damaged corner. The surviv surviving ing portion primari primarily ly detail detailss the west and the eastern coast of South of  South Amerern coast of Africa of Africa and ica.. The map was signed ica signed by by Piri  Piri Reis Reis,, an Ottoman-Turkish an Ottoman-Turkish admiral,,   geographer admiral geographer   and and   cartographer, cartographer, and dated to the  in the Islamic the  Islamic year year 919  919 AH, equivamonth of Muharram of Muharram in [12][13] It was presented to Ottoman Sultan lent to 1513 AD. Selim II in  in 1517.[4][14] In the map’s legend map’s  legend,, Piri inscribed  mappae that the map was based on about twenty charts and and mappae [15][16][17] mundi.. mundi According to Piri, these maps included eight Ptolemaic eight  Ptolemaic maps maps,, an Arabic an  Arabic map  map of India of India,, four newly drawn Portuguese drawn  Portuguese maps  maps from Sindh, Pakistan and a map by Columbus of  of the western the western lands. lands. From InscripChristopher Columbus tion 6 on the map: From eight From eightJaf Jafery eryas as of that that kind kind and andone oneAraArabic map of Hind [India], and from four newly drawnn Portugu draw Portuguese ese maps mapswhi which ch sho show w the coun countrie triess of Sind [now in modern day Pakistan day Pakistan],], Hind and Çin Çin [Ch [China ina]] geo geome metri trical cally lydra drawn, wn, and andals alsoo froma map drawn by Qulūnbū [Columbus] in the western region, I have extracted extracted it. By reducing all thesemapstoonescalethisfinalformwasarrived

island of Antillia of Antillia and  and possibly Japan possibly Japan.. The historical importance of the map lies in its demonstration of the extent of global exploration of the   New

at, so that this map of these lands is regarded by seamen as accurate and as reliable as the accuracy and reliability of the Seven the  Seven Seas[18] on the

147

 

148

 

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 51. PIR PIRII REIS MAP 

aforesaid maps.”[19]

display to the public.  of the Turkish 10 milThe map was depicted on the reverse the reverse of There is some scholarl scholarlyy debate over whether the 20 charts lion [34] lion lira  lira banknote  banknote of 1999-2005 and of the new 10 lira and mappae mundi in Piri’s inscription inscriptionss includes the eight banknote of 2005-2009.[35] Ptolemaic maps, the four Portuguese maps, the Arabic map and the Columbus map.[20] From one perspective, the number of charts mappae usedmean by Piri equals whileand in the other,mundi it could a total of 20,[16][21][22] [23][24][25][26] 34. Some have claimed that the source maps Alexandria dria,,[27] based were found in the ancient Library ancient  Library of Alexan on Piri’s allusions to Alexander to  Alexander the Great, Great, the founder of Alexandria, Alexandria, Ptolem Ptolemyy I, wh whoo ru rule ledd Alex Alexan andr dria ia in th thee 4t 4thh cencentury BC, and Claudius and Claudius Ptolemy, Ptolemy, the Greek geographer and cartographer who lived in Alexandria during the 2nd century AD.[20] Gregory McIntosh states “Arab writers often confused Claudius Ptolemy, the geographer of the second century C.E., with Ptolemy I, one of Alexander’s generals... Piri Reis has undoubtedly made the same error, resulting in his believing the charts and maps were from the time of Ptolemy I instead of Claudius Ptolemy.” [28]

51.2 51 .2

Hist Histor ory y

51.3 51 .3

Anal Analys ysis is

four  compass The map is a portolan a portolan chart, chart, as shown by the four compass roses (two roses  (two large and two small) from which lines of bearing radiate.[36] Some analyses assert that the map is an azimuthal equidistant projection projection centered  centered on Cairo, but a 1998 analysis by Steven Dutch of the University the  University of Wisconsin Green Bay shows Bay  shows a better fit with a point near the intersection of the present-day  prime meridian   and the equator equator..[36] There are exten extensiv sivee notes in Ottoman in Ottoman Turkish around the edges of the map, as well as some interior detail which is mostly inaccurate and fanciful.[36] The Iberian peninsula and the coast of Africa are rendered accurately; as for the Americas, the northern portion of the South American coast is also fairly accurate and positioned correctly with respect to Africa.[36] Much of the Caribbean is also mapped fairly accurately and appears to reflectt Columbus’s map reflec mapss of the area. The area repre representsenting North America bears almost no resemb resemblance lance to its real coastline (which is unsurprising, since by this time, it was still almost totally unexplored) except for one projection which might be Newfoundland; an island labelled “Antilia” may actually be Nova Scotia, since it has a note attached which refers to the legendary voyages of Saint Brendan.[36] There is some suggestion that this area may represent the Asian Asi an coast. Isla Island nd groups in the east Atlan Atlantic tic are accurately placed, but are depicted out of scale.[36] Although Alth oughther theree are freq requent uent cla claims imsffor the extrem extremee acc accurac uracyy of this chart, McIntosh, in comparing the Piri Reis map to -style maps of the era, found that several other portolan other portolan-style

The map was discovered serendipitously on 9 October 1929, through the philological work of the German theolo Gustav Adolf Deissmann (1866–1937). gian Gustav gian Deissmann  (1866–1937). He had been Education to  to catcommissioned by the Turkish Ministry Turkish Ministry of Education alogue the Topkapı the  Topkapı Palace Palace library’s  library’s non-Islamic items.[29] At Deissmann’s request to search the palace for old maps and charts, the director Halil Edhem (1861–1938) managed to find some disregarded bundles of material, which he handed handed ove overr to Deissm Deissmann. ann. Real Realizi izing ng that the map might be a unique find, Deissmann show showed ed it to the orien Paul Kahle, talist Paul talist Kahle, who identified it as a map drawn by Piri Reis.[30] The disc discov overy ery cau caused sed an inte internati rnational onal sens sensati ation, on, aass it represented the only then known copy of a world map of Christopher Christoph er Columb Columbus us (1451–1506),[31] and was the only 16th-century map that showed South America in its proper The Piri Reis map is not the most acculongitudinal position  position in relation to Africa. Geographers had longitudinal rate map of the sixteenth century, as has been spent several centuries unsuccessfully searching for a “lost claimed, there being many, many world maps map of Colum Columbus” bus” that w was as supposedl supposedlyy drawn whi while le he was produced in the remaining eighty-seven years in the West the West Indies. Indies.[13] of that century that far surpass it in accuracy.  Ribeiro maps  maps of the 1520s and 1530s, the The Ribeiro The After reading about the map’s discovery in  The Illustrated  Ortelius map the  Wright--Molyneux Ortelius map of 1570, and the Wright London News ,  United States Secretary of State Henry L. map of 1599 (‘the best map of the sixteenth cenStimson contacted Stimson  contacted the United the United States Ambassador to Turkey tury’) are only a few better-known examples.[37] Charles H. Sherrill and Sherrill  and requested that an investigation be launched to find the Columbus source map, which he believed may have been in Turkey.[32] In turn, the Turkish 51.3.1 51.3.1 The The Ant Antarc arcti ticc coa coast st governm gov ernment ent com compli plied ed with Stimson Stimson’s’s requ request est,, but[33] the theyy wer weree

unsuccessful in locating any of the source maps. There are two major discrepancies from known coastlines: The Piri Reis map is currently located in the Library of the the North American coast mentioned above, and the southTopkapı Palace in Istanbul in  Istanbul,,  Turkey  Turkey,, but is not usually on ern portion of the South American coast. On the Piri Reis

 

 

51.4. SE SEE E ALSO  ALSO 

map, the latter is shown bending off sharply to the east starting around present-day Rio present-day  Rio de Janeiro Janeiro.. A more popular interpretation of this territory has been to identify this Land coast  coast of Antarctica. section with the Queen the  Queen Maud Land This claim is generally traced to Arlington H. Mallery, a civil engineer and amateur archaeologist who was a sup-

149

unclear whether the mapmaker saw South America itself as part of the unknown southern lands (as shown in the Atlas the Atlas [40] Miller),), or wh Miller wheth ether er (as Dut Dutch ch tho thoug ught) ht) he dre drew w what what was then known of the coast with substantial distortion, but in any case, serious scholarship holds that there is no reason to believe that the map is the product of genuine knowledge [36]

 pre-Columbian contact hypotheses.  hypotheses. porter ofhis trans-oceanic contact Thoughof pre-Columbian assertions were not well received by scholars, of the Antarctic coast. they were revived in Charles in  Charles Hapgood Hapgood's's 1966 book  Maps  of the Ancient Sea Kings .[36] This book proposed a theory 51.4 51 .4 See See al also so of global explora exploration tion by a pre-classi pre-classical cal undiscovered civilization based on his analysis of this and other ancient and  Geography in medieval Islam late-medieval late-medi eval maps. More notoriousl notoriously, y, these claims were Erichh von vonDäni Dänike kenn's Chari Chariotsof otsof the Go Gods  ds (which repeated repe atedin in Eric  Ancient world maps attributed the knowledge of the coast to  to   extraterrestrials extraterrestrials))  Gavin Menzies Menzies's's 1421: The Year China Discovered the and Gavin and  World map World  (which  (which attributed it to supposed Chinese voyages), both of which were roundly denounced by both scholars  Waldseemüller map and debunkers of fringe works, but which attracted huge popular followings.[36]  Johannes Schöner globes, globes, made in 1515 and 1520. Also shows a Southern Continent at the South Pole. A more sober analysis of theseofclaims was published by Gregory McIntosh, a historian cartography, who examinedthemapindepthinhisbook Th Thee Pi Piri ri Reis eis Map of 1513 1513 (Athens and London: University of Georgia Press, 2000). 51 51..5 No Nottes He was able to find sources for much of the map in Columbus’s writ writings ings.. Ce Certai rtainn pecu peculiar liariti ities es (suc (suchh as the appe appearanc arancee [1] To The End of the the Earth, Jeremy Jeremy Harwood, Struik Publishof the Virgin Islands in two locations) he attributed to the ers, 2007, ISBN 2007, ISBN 978-1-77007-608-2, 978-1-77007-608-2, p.69 use of multiple maps as sources; others (such as the errors in North American geography) he traced to the continued [2]  Nebenzahl 1990 1990,, p. 63. confusion of the area with East Asia. As far as the accuracy Svat (1995),  (1995), “Piri Re'is”, in Bosworth, C. E.; van of depiction depiction of the supposed Antarctic coast is concern concerned, ed, [3]  Soucek, Svat Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P.; et al.,  Encyclopaedia of Islam, the there re are aretwo twoco cons nspi picuo cuous us errors errors.. First First,, it is show shownn hun hundre dreds ds BrillPubl Publishe ishers rs,, p. 308, ISBN 308, ISBN 90-0490-04-0983409834vol. 8, Leiden::  Brill 8, Leiden of ki kilom lometr etres es nor north th of its its pro proper perloc locati ation; on; secon second, d, theDrake the Drake 8 . Passage is Passage  is completely missing, with the Antarctic the Antarctic Peninsula presumably presuma bly conflated with the Argentine coast. The iden- [4]  Kahle 1933 1933,, p. 621. •

•

•

•

•

tification of difficult this areatoofreconcile the mapwith withthe thenotes frigidonAntarctic coast is also the map [5]  Mollat du Jourdin, La Roncière & le R. Dethan 1984 1984,, p. [36] which describe the region as having a warm climate. 218. It should be kept in mind that maps of the period generally [6]   Portinaro & Knirsch 1987, 1987, p. 47. depicted a large continent named Terra Australis Incognita of highly variable variable shape and extent extent.. This land was posited [7]  Tekeli 1985 1985,, p. 676. by Ptolemy by Ptolemy as  as a counterbalance to the extensi extensive ve continenTh.,, tal areas in the northern hemisphere; due to a lack of ex- [8] Babinger, Franz (1936), “Piri Re'is”, in Houtsma, M. Th. Encyclopaedia of Islam , vol. 3, 3, Leiden  Leiden: :  Brill Publishers Publishers, , pp. plorationn and various misunders ploratio misunderstandings, tandings, its existe existence nce was 1070–1071. not fully abandoned until circumnavigation of the area during the second the second voyage of James Cook in Cook  in the 1770s showed [9]  Deissmann 1933 1933,, p. 111. that if it existed, it was much smaller than imagined previously. viousl y. The first confirmed landing on Antarctica was not [10]  Van de Waal 1969 1969,, p. 82. until 1820, and the coastline of Queen Maud Land did not [38][39]

[11]   Smithsonian Institution Institution 1966, 1966, p. 104.

see significant before expeditions In 1513, Cape 1513,  CapeNorwegian Horn had Horn had not yet been began in 1891. exploration 1984,, pp. 1–2. voyagee of cir- [12]  Stiebing 1984 discovered, and indeed Ferdinand Magellan's Magellan's voyag cumnavigation was not to set sail for sail  for another six years years.. It is [13]  Hapgood 1966 1966,, p. 1.

 

150

 

CHAPTE CHAPTER R 51. PIR PIRII REIS MAP 

Turkey.. Ban Bankno knote te M Muu[14] From the pref preface ace of Piri’s Kitab-ı Bahriye (1521), as trans- [34]  Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey seum: 7. Emission Emission Group Group - Ten Million Million Turkish Turkish Lira - I. -  I. lated in Kahle 1933: “This poor poor man [Piri Reis] had preSeries.. – Retrieved on 20 April 2009. Series viously constructed a map which, in comparison with maps hitherto hith erto known, known, display displayed ed many many more more [and] diff differen erentt details, details, Turkey.. Ban Bankno knote te M Muu[and] in which he had included even the newly published [35]  Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey seum: seum: 8. Em Emiss issio ionn Group Group - Ten Ten NewTurkish NewTurkish Lira Lira - I. Seri Series es.. maps of the Indian and Chinese Oceans which at that time Announcement on the Withdrawal of E8 New Turkish Lira were totally unknown in the country of Rūm [the Ottoman Empire]; and he had presented it in Cairo to the Turkish Banknotes fro from m Circulatio Circulationn, 8 May 2007. – Retrieved Retrieved on 20 April 2009. Sultan Selim I, who graciously accepted it.” [15]  Hapgood 1966, 1966, p. 2.

 “ThePiriReisMap”.. Retrieved Retrieved2013-08-16. 2013-08-16. [36] Dutch, Dutch, Steven. Steven. “ThePiriReisMap”

[16]  Kahle 1933, 1933, p. 624.

[37]  McIntosh 2000 2000,, p. 59.

Program External Panel of the National the National Sci[17] Inscription 6 on the the map reads: “In this age, no one has seen [38] U.S. Antarctic Program ence Foundation. Foundation.   “Antarctica—Past and Present” (PDF). Present”  (PDF). a map like this. The hand of this poor man [Piri Reis] has Retrieved 6 February 2006. drawn drawn it andcompl andcomplete etedd it from rom about about twenty twentycha charts rtsandmapandmappaemundi. These are charts drawn in the days of Iskender Guthridge. “Nathaniel Brown Palmer, 1799-1877” 1799-1877”.. dhu-l Karnian [Alexander [Alexander the Great], Great], which the inhabited [39] Guy G. Guthridge. “Nathaniel NASA, U.S. Government. Government. Retrieved 6 February 2006. quarter of the world. The Arabs name these charts Jaferya.” 2000,, p. 15. Translation from McIntosh from McIntosh 2000 [40]   http://xoomer.virgilio.it/dicuoghi/Piri_Reis/PiriReis_eng. htm   Diego Diego Cuoghi, Thoroug Thoroughh arti article cle on Piri Reis and [18] In this case, the the Seven Seas are the Chinese the Chinese Sea Sea,, the Indian the Indian Oronteus maps refuting the Antarctica claims. Sea, Sea , the the Persian  Persian Gulf Gulf, , the the Caspian  Caspian Sea, Sea , the Western Sea Ocean),), the Red the Red Sea and Sea and the East African African Sea (sea (Atlantic Ocean surrounding the East the East African African island  island of Zanzibar of Zanzibar),), as identified by Piri in  Kitab-ı Bahriye (1521).  (1521). Kahle 1933, p. 624. 51.  Kahle 1933, 51.6 6 Re Refferen erence cess [19] Translation Translation ffrom rom McIntosh 2000, pp. 15, 17.  McIntosh 2000, •

2000,, p. 18 [20]  McIntosh 2000 [21]  Afetinan & Yolaç 1954, 1954, pp. 24, 31. 1956,, p. 106. [22]  Kahle 1956

•

[23]  Tekeli 1985, 1985, p. 677. [24]  Afetinan 1987, 1987, p. 27. [25]  Yerci 1989, 1989, p. 154. [26] Atil, Esin (1987), The Age of Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent , New York: Harry York:  Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Inc., p. 81.

•

•

  Deissmann, Adolf (1933),   Forschungen und Funde im Serai: Mit einem Verzeichnis Verzeichnis der nichtislamischen Handscr Han dscrif iften ten im Topkap Topkapuu Sera Seraii in Istanbul  Istanbul , Berlin:

Walter de Gruyter. •

[29] A. Gerber,   Deissmann the Philologist , Berlin, 2010, 198201.

43, 3, 1992, 48-59

Charles H. (1966), H. (1966), Maps of the Ancient Sea   Hapgood, Charles Books,  ISBN 0-8019-50899Age . , New York: Chilton Books, ISBN

[28]  McIntosh 2000, 2000, p. 17

[31 [31]] P. Lu Lunde nde,, ‘Piri ‘Piri Reis Reis andthe Columb Columbus us Map’, Map’, AramcoWor AramcoWorld, ld,

 Afetinan, A. (1987),  Life and Works of Piri Reis: The Oldest Map of America  (2nd ed.), ed.), Anka Ankara: ra: Turk Turkish ish Historical Society, OCLC Society, OCLC 19674051. 19674051. Kings: King s: Evidenc Evidencee of Advance Advancedd Civ Civiliz ilization ation in the Ice

[27 [27]] Flem-At Flem-Ath, h, Rand; Rand; Wilson Wilson,, Colin Colin (2000) (2000),,   The Atlantis  Atlantis  Blueprint , Little, Brown and Company Company,, p. 18.

[30] G. A. Deissmann, Forschungen und Funde im Serai , Berlin, 1933, 111-122.

  Afetinan, Afetinan, A.; Yolaç, Leman (trans.) (1954), The Oldest Map of America, America, Dra Drawn wn by Piri R Reis  eis , Ankara:  Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basimevi, Basimevi, pp. 6–15.

•

Rand;  Wilson, Colin (2000),  Flem-Ath, Rand; Colin  (2000),  The Atlantis  Britain::  Little, Brown and Company, Company, Blueprint , Great Britain p. 18, ISBN 18, ISBN 0-316-85313-5 0-316-85313-5..   Kahle, Paul E.  (October 1933), “A Lost Map of Columbus”, Geogr  Geographic aphic Review Review, Americ American an Geographical Society,   23  (4): 621–638, doi 621–638,  doi::10.2307/209247, 10.2307/209247, JSTOR 209247. 209247.

[32]  Hapgood 1966, 1966, p. 211.

•

[33]  Hapgood 1966, 1966, pp. 1–2.

E. (Apri  (Aprill 1956), “Piri Re'is Re'is:: The Turk Kahle, Paul E. ish Sailor and Cartographer”, Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society,  4: 101–111.

 

 

51.7. EXTERNAL EXTERNAL LINKS  LINKS 

•

•

•

•

•

•

 McIntosh, Gregory C. (2000),  The Piri Reis Map of  1513,  Athens,  Athens, Georgia:  Georgia:  University of Georgia Press Press,, ISBN 0-8203-2157-5. 0-8203-2157-5.  Mollat du Jourdin, Michel; La Roncière, Monique; le R. Dethan, Dethan, L. (tra (trans.) ns.) (198 (1984), 4),  Sea Charts of the Earlyy Explorer Earl Explorers, s, Thirteent Thirteenthh to Seventeen Seventeenth th Century Century, New York: Thames York:  Thames & Hudson, Hudson,  ISBN 0-500-013373.  Nebenzahl, Kenneth (1990),  Atlas of Columbus and  the Great Discoveries , Chicago: Rand Chicago:  Rand McNally McNally,, ISBN 0-528-83407-X.. 0-528-83407-X Carr  Portinar Portinaro, o, Pierl Pierluigi; uigi; Knirsc Knirsch, h, Franco (1987), The Ca tography of North America, 1500–1800, New York: Facts on File File,, ISBN 0-8160-1586-4 0-8160-1586-4.. Treas easur ures es of    Smithsonian Institution on   (1966),   Art Tr Smithsonian Instituti Turkey, Washington, D.C.:  Smithsonian Institution, Institution, 1027066. OCLC 1027066.

 Stiebing, William H., Jr. (1984),  Ancient Astronauts, Cosmic Collisions and Other Popular Theories about  Man’s Past , Amherst,  Amherst, New York: York:  Prometheus Books Books,,

ISBN 0-87975-285-8. 0-87975-285-8. •

•

•

 Tekeli, Sevim (1985), Sevim (1985), “The Map of America by Piri Reis”, Erdem, 1 (3): 673–683.   Van de W Waal, aal, E. H. (1969), “Manuscript Maps in the Topkapǐ Saray Library, Istanbul”,  Imago Mundi ,   23 (1): 81–95, doi 81–95, doi::10.1080/03085696908592335 10.1080/03085696908592335..  Yerci, M. (1989), “The Accuracy of the First World Map Drawn by Piri Reis”, The Cartographic Journal , 26 (2): 154–155.

51.7 51. 7 •

•

•

•

•

Ex Exte terna rnall lin links ks

 Turkey in Ma Reiss margin margin notes, notes, tran translat slation ion  Turkey Maps  ps :  The Piri Rei  from The Oldest Map of America  (Afet Inan, Ankara, 1954).

commentary  on the Piri Reis map,  Charles Hapgood commentary on photocopied from Maps of the Ancient Sea Kings  Wisconsin:: deb debunkin unkingg  Steven Dutch, University of Wisconsin Piri Reis  pseudo-scholarship   pseudo-scholarship  Sacred Text Archive:  pseudo-scholarship about an Ice Age civilization, civilization, translation of the map commentary.

Theory” by Paul Lunde:  “Piri Reis and the Columbian Theory” by

•

151

  Fingerpri nts of the Gods  (2001)   (2001) ascii text.   Citat:  Fingerprints

"...William Miller wrote:...The examinations that I have made of it show all sorts of errors that certainly falsify any claim of unusual accuracy for this map...” •

Mysterious Origins  The Mysterious Origins of Man: The Oronteus Oronteus Finaeusand Map of 1532, by Paul Heinrich: Heinrich: the Oronteus map Creationism

•

 The Mysteries of the Piri Reis Map : by Diego Cuoghi.

On the Piri Reis, Oron Oronteu teus, s, and Philip Philippe pe Buac Buache he maps;; com maps comparis parison on to othe otherr 16th16th-cent century ury maps of America and Asia, debunking the Antarctica claims. •

•

Maps:: includ includes es a large (1  Ottoman-Turkish Historical Maps MB) but low-resolution image of the Piri Reis map (not as clear as Wikipedi Wikipedia’s a’s image)   The Piri Reis Map by Steven Steven Dutch, Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Wisconsin - Green Bay

Magazine   (Jan Feb ascii text from   Aramco World Magazine 1980). Citat:  "...Th   "...Ther eree ma may, y, in fact, act, be an even even simp simpler ler explana exp lanatio tionn of the pres presenc encee of “Anta “Antarct rctica ica”” on the Piri Reis map...”

 

Chapter 52

Stone spheres of Costa Rica  Template:Infobox ancient site site with  with Warning: Page using using Template:Infobox unknown unkno wn param parameter eter“pre “precolu columb mbian” ian”(thi (thiss mes message sage is sho shown wn only in preview). The   stone spher spheres es   (or   stone stone balls)   of Cos Costa ta Ri Rica ca are an assortment of over three hundred  petrospheres  petrospheres in  in Costa Rica Rica,, located on the Diquís Delta and on  Isla del Caño.. Locally, the Caño theyy are known as Las Bolas (literally The Balls). The sph sphere eress are comm commonl onlyy attribu attributed ted to the extinct Diquís tinct  Diquís culture culture and  and are sometimes referred to as the Diquís Spheres. They are the best-known stone scul sculptures ptures  area. They are tho thought ught to hav havee of the Isthmo-Colombian the  Isthmo-Colombian area. been placed in lines along the approach to the houses of chiefs, but their exact significance remains uncertain. The  Palmar Sur Archeological Excavations  are a series of excavations of a site located in the southern portion of Costa Rica Rica,, known as the Diquís Delta. The exc excavati avations ons have centered on a site known as “Farm 6”, dating back to the Aguas Buenas Period (300–800 CE (300–800  CE)) and Chiriquí Period (800–1550 CE). In June 2014, the Prec Precolum olumbia biann Chi Chief efdom dom Sett Settlem lements entswith with Stone Spheres of the Diquis was added to the UNESCO list [1]

of of World  World Heritage Sites Sites..

52.1 52. 1

De Descr scrip ipti tion on

The spheres range in size from a few centimetres to over 2 me metre tress (6. (6.66 ft) in di diame amete ter, r, and weig weighh up to 15 ton tons. s.[2] Most are sculpted from from gabbro  gabbro,,[2] the coarse-grained equivale equivalent nt of of basalt  basalt.. The There re are a doze dozenn or so made fr from om she shell-ri ll-rich ch limestone limestone,, and another dozen made from a sandstone a sandstone.. They appear to have been made by hammering natural boulders with other rocks, then polishing with sand. The degree of

“Imagen Cósmica”, a work on ancient mysticism, Costa Rican Art  Museum, San José, Costa Rica, sculpture of Jorge Jiménez Deredia

finishing and precision of working varies considerably. The gabbro came from sites in the hills, several kilometres away from romwhe where re the fin finis ishe hedd sp sphe heres res are foun ound, d, tho thoug ughh som somee unfinished spheres remain in the hills.

Museum, San José, Costa Rica, sculpture of Jorge Jiménez Deredia

152

 

 

52.4. PRE-COLUMB PRE-COLUMBIAN IAN HISTOR HISTORY  Y 

153

View of the Farm 6 Archaeological site Pre-Columbian Pre-Columb ian stone spher sphere, e, locat located ed at the Univ Universit ersityy of Cost Costaa Rica as a symbol of tradition and ancient wisdom.

52.2 52 .2

Geog Geogra raph phiic sett settin ing g an and d loca loca-tion

cation for spheres that have been returned to the National Museum.

52.4

PrePre-Colu Columb mbian ian his history tory

The archaeological site of Palmar Sur is located in the southern portion of Costa Rica, known as the Diquís Delta, and in the southernmost part of the Puntarenas Province. The Diquís Delta is defined as the alluvial plain with the geographical boundaries of the Fila Grisera to the north and east, the Pacific Ocean Ocean to the west, and the Osa Mountains comprising compris ing the southern boundary. This area is defined by two seasons: wet and dry. The dry season runs from December through March with the wet season comprising the remaining months. The The Site Site is loca locate tedd in Pal Palmar mar Sur Sur,, southern Cost Costaa Ric Ricaa. The si site te is loc locate atedd on ap appr proxi oxima mate tely ly 10 hec hectar tares es of pro proper perty ty that that was previously by the United theRiver.  United Fruit Company Company in  in the alluvial plain ofowned the Térraba Palmar Sur airport park 

The stones are believed to have been first created around the year 600, with most dating to after 1000 but before the conquest.. The only method available for dating the Spanish conquest The archaeological site of Farm 6 has been dated to the carved stones is stratigraphy is stratigraphy,, but most stones are no longer Aguas Buenas Period (300–800 CE) and Chiriquí Period in their original original location locations. s. The culture of the people who (800–1550 CE). It was a multifunctional site accommo- made them disappeared after the Spanish conquest.[3] dating a settlement and a cemetery, and remains of monumental architecture and sculpture are also present on the site. site. The mon monumen umental tal archi architect tecture ure cons consists ists of two Post-c st-cont ontact act history history mounds which were constructed with retaining walls made 52.5 Po of rounded river cobbles and filled with earth. The site con-

52.3 52. 3

Site Site de descr scrip ipti tion on

tains multiple locations where large stone spheres are found in situ. Additionally, since many of the stone spheres in the region were removed from their original locations and serve as landscape decoration, the site has become a storage lo-

The spheres were discovered in the 1930s as the United Fruit Company was clearing the jungle for for banana  banana planta[3] tions.. Workmen pushed them aside with bulldozers and tions heavy equipment, equipment, damaging some sphe spheres. res. Addi Additionall tionally, y,

 

154

 

CHAPTER CHAPTER 52. STON STONE E SPHERES SPHERES OF COSTA COSTA RICA

gold workmen  workmen began to drill cluding mangrove forests located in the Terraba and Sierpe inspired by stories by  stories of hidden gold holes into the spheres and blow them open with sticks of Rivers. dynamite dynamite.. Seve Several ral of the sphere spheress were destro destroyed yed bef before ore authorit auth oritie iess inte interve rvened. ned. Some of the dynam dynamite itedd sph sphere eress have been reassembled and are currently on display at the National Museum of Costa Rica in  San José José.. Rica  in San The first scientific investigation of the spheres was undertaken shortly after their discovery by Doris Stone, a daughter of a Uni United ted Fruit ex execut ecutiv ive. e. The These se were publi publishe shedd in 1943 in  American Antiquity, attracting the attention of the  Peabody Museum  Museum   at Samuel Kirkland Lothrop[4] of the Peabody Harvard University. University.[5] In 1948, he and his wife attempted to excavate an unrelated archaeological site in the northern region of Costa Rica.[6] The government had just disbanded its prof profession essional al ar army, my, and the resulting civil unrest threatened the security of Lothrop’s team. In San José he met Doris Stone, who directed the group toward the Diquís Delta region in the southwest (“Valle de Diquís” refers to Modern Landscape of Palmar Sur, Costa Rica Térraba,, including the valley of the lower Río lower  Río Grande de Térraba the Osa the Osa Canton towns Canton towns of Puerto of Puerto Cortés Cortés,, Palmar Norte Norte,, and The rich alluvial soils of this region facilitated historical [7]

) and andpr ovid ided ed them themfindin with withgs va valua luabl blee publi dig dig site sished tess andperSierpecontacts. sonal contac ts.prov Lothrop’s findings were published in  Archaeology of the Diquís Delta, Costa Rica 1963. In 2010, University of Kansas researcher John Hoopes visited the site of the Stone Spheres to evaluate their eligibility Site..[8] for protection as a Unesco a Unesco World Heritage Site

52.6

agriculturede this agricultur sincesouthern the 1930s. United d Fruit Compan Company dominate dominated regionThe withUnite banana plantation plantations s asy early as the 1920s in Parrita and Quepos. The UFCO entere teredd Palm Palmar ar Sur Sur in the the 19 1930 30ss unde underr the the na name me of Comp Compan anía ía Bananera de Costa Rica in an effort to avoid antimonopoly legislature. [9] Today the landscape is still carved into agricultural fields which are owned by co-ops and consist of plantain, banana, and palm plantation plantations. s.

His Histori torical cal backgr backgroun ound d 52.7

Earl Early y rese researc archers hers in the regi region on

Scientific Scienti fic rese researc archh in the allu alluvia viall plai plain, n, parti particula cularly rly on United Fruit Company properties, began in the 1940s with  Doris Stone and  and the work of Doris of Zemurray Stone Lothrop’s work focused on excavation at aSamuel handfulLothrop. of sites, one being Farm 4. His work aimed to document all archaeological sites containing “in situ” stone spheres, to record the number of spheres and their dimensions, and to make detailed maps illustrating both their arrangement and alignments. After the work of Lothrop and Stone, research in the area took a hiatus for nearly nearly fifty yyears. ears. In the 1990s, 1990s, Claude  Claude Baudez and Baudez  and a team of researche researchers rs set out to establish a ceramic chronology of the region by observing the change in ceramic styles over time.[10] This was accomplished by exRemnants of UFCO occupation in Palmar Sur  amining the drainage ditches that were cut into the landBe Beffore ore the thearr arriv ival al of theCo the Compa mpanía nía Ban Banane anera ra de Cos Costa ta Rica, Rica, scape by the UFCO. Research carried out by Ifigenia by Ifigenia Quina branch of the United Fruit Compan Company, y, and banana planta- tanilla tanilla,, under the directi direction on of the MNCR from 1991-1996

tions in the 1930s, vegetation in this area offered a great deal of biodiversity in both plant and animal resources. Resources available to Precolumbian inhabitants in this alluvial plain consisted of riverine and ocean resources, in-

was performed in the region under the pro project ject titled Man and Env Environ ironmen mentt in Sie Sierpe-T rpe-Terrab erraba” a” focus ocusing ing on sett settlem lement ent patterns, occupational occupational sequences, and resources utilized in the region.[11]

 

 

52.10. MYTHS  MYTHS 

Francisco Corrales and Adrian Badilla, archaeologis archaeologists ts with the Museo Nacional de Costa Rica, have performed continuous research in the region since since 2002. Their researc researchh began in 2002 and focused on four archaeological sites in theregion theregi on conta contain ining ingsto stone ne sphe sphere ress and andof of whi which ch comp compris risee a “circuit”. These sites include Grijalba, Batambal, El Silencio, and “Farm 6”. The of thetoproject assess the cultural signific significance ancepurpose of the sites, protectwas thetocultural he heri ritag tage, e, in add addititio ionn to begin beginnin ningg res resear earch ch and andstu studi dies es at th thee [12] Corral rrales es and Bad Badill illaa pr produ oduced cedaa boo bookle klett entit entitled led El  sites. Co Paisaje Cultural del Delta del Diquís  which  which provides a quick overview overvi ew on the history of the Diquís Delta, the history of bananaa plan banan plantati tations ons and the UFCO UFCO,, the natu natural ral env environ ironmen ment,t, archaeological sites in the region, and the importance of the  World Heritage Site.[13] ReDiquís region as an UNESCO an UNESCO World search has continued in the region by Corrales and Badilla focusing on the archaeology and the Precolumbian political structure in the Diquís Diquís Delta. Research emp emphasis hasis was on chiefdoms and their associated archaeological indicators. Their objectives were to study the archaeological sites containing stone spheres in the Diquís Subregion to gain an understanding of community configuration, activity areas, sequences of occupation, and the recording of monumental architecture. [14]

52.8 52. 8

Cur Curren rentt re resea searc rch h

52.1 52 .10 0

155

Myth Mythss

Numerous myths surround the stones, such as they came  Atlantis,, or that they were made as such by nature. from Atlantis from Some local legends state that the native inhabitants had access to a potion able to soften the rock.   Limestone Limestone,, for example, can be dissolved by acidic solutions obtained from pla plants. nts. Rese Researc archh led by by Joseph Davidovits  of the  Joseph Davidovits of Geopolymer Institute Institute in  in France has been offered in support [15] of this hypothesis. However, most of the spheres were created from gabbro from gabbro,, an acid-resistant igneous rock.[16] In the cosmogony of the Bribri, which is shared by the Cabecares and other American ancestral groups, the stone spheress are “Tara’s cannon balls”. Tara or Tlatchq sphere Tlatchque, ue, the god of thunder, used a giant blowpipe to shoot the balls at the Serkes, gods of winds and hurricanes, in order to drive them out of these lands. It has been claimed that the spheres are perfect, or very nearperf near perfect ectin in roun roundnes dness, s, alth although oughsome somesph spheres eresare are kno known wn to vary over 5 centimetres (2.0 in) in diameter. Also, the stone stoness have have bee beenn dam damage agedd and andero erode dedd ov over er the theye years ars,, andso and so it is impossible to know exactly exactly their original shape. A review of the way that the stones were measured by Lothrop reveals that claims of precision are due to misinterpretations of the methods used in their measure measurement. ment. Although Lothrop published tables of ball diameters with figures to three decimal places, these figures were actually averages of measurements measurements taken with tapes that were nowhe nowhere re near that precise.[17]

Research is currently ongoing at the “Farm 6” site under the direction of archaeologists at the Museo Nacional de Costa Rica. The first field season in which archaeological excavations were undertaken was in 2005. Objectives dur- 52.1 52.11 1 See See al also so ing this field season included defining the area in which two mounds were located, sphere alignments, and various exca Olmec colossal heads vations associated with focusing mound 2.onInarchaeological 2007, as second field season was undertaken excava  Barrigone Barrigoness of Guatemala tions of Mound 1. During this field season, a stone sphere   Petrosphere was discovered “in situ” in association with the mound.  Stone ball •

•

•

•

52.9 52 .9

Tou ouri rism sm

•

 Kugel ball

•

 List of megalithic sites

Archaeo-tourism is a concept that is still relatively new in   Moeraki Boulders Boulders  Guayabo Costa Rica. To date, the nationa nationall monument of of Guayabo de Turrialba is primaril primarilyy the only archaeologi archaeological cal site open fo forr tourism. Touris Tourism m on a smaller scale is occurring at the 52.12 52.12 Re Refferen erence cess site of Farm 6 but is open to visitors upon paying a nominal fee to tour the museum display and then tour the grounds, •

viewing some of the discovery sites. It is no longer necesviewing sary to have an appointment. Future plans of the MNCR are to open the site to tourism on a larger scale and to include other sites nearby in the region.

Sixx ne Si new w si sites tesins inscri cribed bedon on Wor orld ld Her Herita itage ge Lis Listt . UNESCO. [1]   Retrieved 23 June 2014. Rica”.. BBC News. 29 March [2]  “The stone spheres of Costa Rica” 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-31.

 

156

 

CHAPTER CHAPTER 52. STON STONE E SPHERES SPHERES OF COSTA COSTA RICA

Baudez, Claude; Borgnino, Natalie; Laligant, Sophie; Val Valerie erie Lauthelin (1993).   Investigaciones Investigaciones arqueológiarqueológicas en el Delta del Diquís . Me Mexi xico, co,  CEMCA.. ISBN 0-00-000000D.F.: CEMCA D.F.: 0.  OCLC 000000 000000..

 “University of Kansas [3] Brendan Brendan M. Lynch (22 Mar 2010). 2010). “University researcher investigates mysterious stone spheres in Costa Rica”.. Retrieved 2010-03-24. Rica” [4]  National Academy of Sciences (1877). Sciences  (1877).  “Samuel Kirkland Lothrup”..   Biogr Lothrup” Biographica aphicall memoirs, Volume 48 .   National Academies Press. Press. p. 253. Retrieved 2010-03-31.  “Costa ta Rican RicanDiq Diquis uis Sphe Spheres: res: Spher Spheree his[5] TimMcGuinness. TimMcGuinness. “Cos tory”.. mysteryspheres.com. tory” mysteryspheres.com. Retrieved 2010-03-31.

Corrales, Francisco; Badilla, Adrian (2005).  El Paisaje Cultural del Delta del Diquís . Sa Sann Jo José sé.:.:   Museo Nacional de Costa RicaRica-UNESCO. UNESCO.

[6] Eleanor Eleanor Lothrop Lothrop (Septembe (Septemberr 1955).   “Prehistoric Stone Balls—a Mystery”. Mystery”.   Picks from the Past .   Natural History. History. Retrieved 2010-03-31.

Corrales, Francisco; Badilla, Adrian (2005).   Investigaciones Arqueologi-

[7]  Gazetteer of Costa Rican Plant-Collecting Locales: Diquís (or Dikís) from Dikís) from the website of the Missouri the  Missouri Botanical Garden

cas en Sitios con Esferas de Piedra, Delta del Diquís . San José José.:.:   Museo

Nacional de Costa RicaRica-UNESCO. UNESCO. Propuesta de proyecto Departamento de Anthropología e Histori Historia,. a,.

[8]  “The stone spheres of Costa Rica”. Rica” . BBC News. 2010-0329. Retrieved 2010-09-12. [9] Villalobo Villaloboss 2005 [10] Baudez, Baudez, et al.  1993

Lothro Lot hrop, p, S. K (19 (1963) 63)..  Archaeol  Archaeology ogy of 

[11] Quintanilla Quintanilla 1992

the Diquís Delta, Rica. Ca Cammbridge:  Papers ofCosta the Peabody Mu-

[12] Corrales and Badilla Badilla 2002

seum of Archaeology and Ethnology 51..  ISBN 0-00-000000-0 51 0-00-000000-0..

[13] Corrales and Badilla Badilla 2005

Stone, Doris (1943). “P “Prelimin reliminary ary investigation of the flood plain of the Río Grande de Térraba, Costa Rica”. 74–88. 8. American Antiquity.   9   (1): 74–8 doi doi::10.2307/275453 10.2307/275453..

[14] Corrales and and Badilla 2005, 2007  “Making Cements with Plant Extracts” [15] Joseph Davido Davidovits. vits. “Making (PDF). Retrieved 2010-08-13. “Thee sto stone ne sph sphere eress of Cos Costa ta [16 [16]] Haupt, Haupt, Ryan Ryan (3 Febru February2015). ary2015).  “Th Rica”..  Skeptoid Podc Rica” Podcast  ast . Skeptoi Skeptoidd Media. Media. Retrieve Retrievedd 17 January 2017. [17] John W. Hoopes. Hoopes. “Errors Misinformation”. Archived  “Errors and Misinformation”. from the original on March 23, 2013. Retrieved 2007-0619. (mirror:  (mirror:   “Common Misconceptions” Misconceptions”)) analysis  Egitto, A. (2007).   A GIS analysis  of the archaeological relationships in the Diquis Diquis Delta Delta of Southe Southeast astern ern Co Costa sta Rica.  Cleveland State University University..

Qu Quin inta tani nillllaa Jimé Jiméne nez, z, I. (199 (1992) 2).. “Prospección arqueológica del Delta Si Sierp erpe-T e-Térr érraba aba,, sures sureste te de Cos Costa ta Rica: Proyecto Hombre y Ambiente en el Delta Sierpe-Térraba (Informe 1)". Museo 1)".  Museo Nacional de Costa Rica. Rica . Submittedd to MS. Submitte Quintanilla Jiménez, I. (2004).   Las 

52.13 52. 13 •

•

•

Ex Exte terna rnall lin links ks

  Ston Sphere eres, s, Di Diqu quis is De Delta lta,, Cos Costa ta Ri Rica ca   from Stonee Sph Landmarks Foundation  Costa Rican Stone Spheres a Spheres a website by archaeologist Tim McGuinness, Ph.D. Thee Sto Stone ne Sph Spher eres es of Cos Costa ta Ri Rica ca a re revi view ewby by theSk the Skepep  Th toid Podcast

esferas de piedra del Pacífico Sur de Costa Rica: descifrando descifrando el “enigma”  desde la arqueolog arqueología ía.   Universidad

Autónoma de Barcelona. Barcelona.

 

52.14. TEXT TEXT AND IMAGE IMAGE SOURCES, CONT CONTRIB RIBUTORS, UTORS, AND LICENSES 

52.14

Text Text and image image sou sources, rces, contri contributors, butors, and licenses licenses

52 52.1 .14. 4.1 1

Text Text

•

•

•

•

•

 

157

Danny, Shii, Fonzy, Fonzy, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out-of-place_artifact?oldid=765220062  Contributors:    Danny, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, Alfio, A lfio, DavidWBrooks, Amcaja, Bogdangiusca, Dysprosia, Sabbut, Robbot, Auric, Kadzuwo~enwiki, Mboverload, Dumbo1, Noe, Robert Brockway, Naive cynic, Florian Blaschke, Jetfire85, Roodog2k, Pavel Vozenilek, Ben Standeven, C1k3, Tjic, Ununnilium, Kappa, 9SGjOSfyHJaQVsEmy9NS, Sukiari, Riddhill, Wytukaze, Moanzhu, Titanium Dragon, ~shuri, Czolgolz, Firsfron, Woohookitty, ThorstenS, Marudubshinki, Matilda, Don Braffitt, Gryffindor, Ligulem, Cmouse, FlaBot, Kri, Chobot, RussBot, Michael Slone, Theredstarswl, Epolk, Mike Schiraldi, Hydrargyrum, Calicore, GunnarRene, Długosz, Wolfling, 2over0, Abune, Pentasyllabic, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Menah the Great, Verne Equinox, Declare, Eskimbot, ProveIt, Hmains, Kmarinas86, SoGonzo, Hibernian, Blueshirts, Emurphy42, ZacharyD, PiMaster3, Pwjb, Paul H., BullRangifer, Marcus Brute, Bn, Cjwalters, JoshuaZ, Jollyroger, Geoffrey Pruitt, Caijun, EdC~enwiki, John1014, DabMachine, Kavaiyan, AndarielHalo, TurabianNights, Amakuru, Tubezone, Mavarin, ProfessorPaul, Dpino, Cricketgirl, Doug Weller, Ledzeppelin321295, PedroCarvalho~enwiki, Thomasroche, Jofishtrick, Jofishtrick, Davkal, Mr pand, RobotG, JHFTC, QuiteUnusual, QuiteUnusual, NCartmell, LuckyLouie, Ingolfson, Ingolfson, Rothorpe, Avicennasis, ClovisPt, SunSw0rd, Nodekeeper, Dlempa, Agricolae, WhyTanFox, Jtp123, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, J.delanoy, J.delanoy, GQsm, GQsm, Cephlapod, 83d40m, BrettAllen, Geekdiva, Donmike10, Inwin Inwind, d, Squids and Chips, Carfax6, The The Duke of Waltham, Fences and windows, Jeanmarc4554, Bentley4, Catneven, Gillyweed, Flyer22 Reborn, Alexbrn, Historicus800, C Canglesea, anglesea, FaithlessthewonderFaithlessthewonderboy, Dave T Hobbit, Newzild, EoGuy, Boing! said Zebedee, SamuelTheGhost, Alexbot, Panyd, Sun Creator, Iohannes Animosus, Ankithreya, AnotherLuke, AnotherLuk e, DumZiBoT, Against the current, Lkovac, Lkovac, Skarebo, SilvonenBot, Aunt Entropy, Kbdankbot, Michaelholly, Addbot, Simonm223, Verbal, Lightbot, OlEnglish, 1j1z2, Luckas-bot, Ptbotgourou, We66er, Nallimbot, Rejillo, Againme, Armchair info guy, AnomieBOT, Ckruschke, Citation bot, Casperbear, Dcsozman, Xqbot, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, Timothyleary, I dream of horses, Xfansd, Tim1357, Fama Clamosa, Dinamik-bot, BCtl, Jamsshadows, Ollyoxenfree, Terra Novus, ClueBot NG, Liveintheforests, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, CitationCleanerBot, William Aiden, Harizotoh9, MrBill3, GreenUniverse, BattyBot, Khazar2, Wunkt2, Me, Myself, and I are Here, Rico Viviers, LahmacunKebab, LahmacunKe bab, BradleyFree, Tullamore92, Kjerish, Lut529096, Maltice, Jerodlycett, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 140   Acámbaro figures   Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ac%C3%A1mbaro_figures?oldid=757950272  Contributors:  Auric, Robert Brock-

  Out-of-place artifac artifactt   Source:   

way, way, DNewhall, DNewhall, Rich Pigman, Farmbro Farmbrough, ugh, Iamun Iamunkno known, wn, TheParan TheParanoidO oidOne, ne, InShan InShaneee, eee, Tita Titanium nium Dragon, BRW, SmackBot, Firsf Firsfron, ron, LowKey, LowK ey, Grego GregorB, rB, Dasare1503, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, Salmanazar, Tuckerresearch, Piecraft, KnightRider~enwiki, Arenlor, OrphanBot, Paul H., JFKCom, Nishkid64, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Carnby, Geoffrey Pruitt, Skapur, Tubezone, JeffJ, Myasuda, Bellerophon5685, Doug Weller, Jutski, A.J.Chesswas, RobotG, Aille, Arturo 7, Simon Burchell, ClovisPt, BloodontheTracks, STBotD, DOHC Holiday, SamuelTheGhost, Johnuniq, SoxBot III, DumZiBoT, Aunt Entropy, MystBot, Addbot, Zorrobot, Samuel Pepys, Luckas-bot, KamikazeBot, Againme, Armchair info guy, AnomieBOT, DrilBot, Smuckola, Ripchip Bot, DASHBot, EmausBot, Dewritech, Outriggr, Brattarb, Donner60, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Pawn n usa, DoctorKubla, Dhutch86, Cranberry Products, Thurmanukyalur, InternetArchiveBot, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 48  Dan Koehl, Doug Weller, Biruitorul, ThomasThomas  Aiud object Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aiud_object?oldid=754539417 Contributors:  Dan roche, Katharineamy and Anonymous: Anonymous: 3   Ancient Discoveries  Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Discoveries?oldid=744006919   Contributor Contributors:  s:  Auric, Luigi30, Drbreznjev, Tabletop, Wavelength, Wavelength, TexasAndroid, TexasAndroid, RussBot, SmackBot, Jagged 85, 85 , Gaff, Chr Chris is the speller, Sct72, AussieLegen AussieLegend, d, Andyross, Intranetusa, Cydebot,, VaG debot VaGuy197 uy1973, 3, Aust Austinm4m inm4m1, 1, TAn TAnthon thony, y, Ljscot Ljscott,t, 83d40m, Kinghenrik Kinghenrik,, Monkeymo Monkeymox, x, Twin Twinsday sday,, AussieLeg AussieLegend2, end2, MGA73, DrilBot DrilBot,, Jsch Jschnur, nur, Grapesoda22, O.Koslowski, Hvakshahtrah, Mogism, RyanChamberlyn, AlexTheWhovian, AlexTheWhovian, InternetArchiveBot and Anonymous Anonymous:: 23  Antikythera mechanism Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism?oldid=764756804 Contributor  AxelBoldt, Zundark, Contributors:  s:  AxelBoldt, Taral, Rmhermen, Maury Markowitz, Heron, Isis~enwiki, Olivier, Leandrod, RTC, Michael Hardy, Kku, MartinHarper, Wapcaplet, Paul Benjamin Austin, Delirium, Skysmith, Paul A, CesarB, Александър, Julesd, Glenn, Bogdangiusca, Andres, Cimon Avaro, Lb2, Mxn, Vroman, Feedmecereal, Tom Peters, Emperorbma, VictorLumos3, Engel, Reddi, Jm34harvey, Sbwoodside, N-true, Wik, Tjunier, Joshk, Goethean, Tpbradbury, Itai, Taxman, Val42, Omegatron, Bevo, Wetman, Chrisjj, AlainV, Astronautics~enwiki, ChrisO~enwiki, Owain, Korath, Altenmann, Merovingian, Sverdrup, Der Eberswalder, Rursus, KellyCoinGuy, JackofOz, Xanzzibar, Mattflaschen, GreatWhiteNortherner, Nagelfar, Ancheta Wis, Giftlite, Knobunc, Laudaka, Fastfission, Obli, Bfinn, Peruvianllam Peruvianllama, a, Alterego, D Ds13, s13, Everyking, Jonabbey, Michael Devore, Henry Flower, Joe Kress, Dumbo1, Falcon Kirtaran, Chameleon, Andyc Andycjp, jp, Alexf, J. 'mach' wust, Gdr, Sonjaaa, HorsePunchKid, Cevlakohn, Kaldari, Mzajac, JimWae, OwenBlacker, Bumm13, Tomruen, Kegill, Aecarol, Pmanderson, Cglassey, Robin klein, Sonett72, Deglr6328, DMG413, Reflex Reaction, Lacrimosus, Spiffy sperry, CannedLizard, Rich Farmbrough, Stuart hc, Florian Blaschke, Antaeus Feldspar, Arthur Holland, Dbachmann, Bender235, Cuppysfriend, Scumbag, Spitzak, RJHall, Sharkford, El C, Kwamik Kwamikagami, agami, Shanes, Diomidis Spinellis, RoyBoy, Nickj, Neilrieck, Markussep, Wareh, One-dimensional Tangent, Shenme, Viriditas, Cohesion, Russ3Z, DaveGorman, Timl, Giraffedata, Darwinek, Grahbudd, DCEdwards1966, Espoo, Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Retran, PatrickFisher, Linmhall, Ninio, Axl, Harburg, Alex '05, Jaardon, Hu, Hadžija, Polyphilo, Snowolf, Benna, SidP, Tony Sidaway, Spellcheck, Nightstallion, Japanese Searobin, Brookie, Zntrip, Lkinkade, Velho, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Mindmatrix, Zenkat, Daniel Case, Brunnock, Pol098, Dodiad, Chochopk, Cscott, Flamingspinach, GregorB, Waldir, Dysepsion, Don Braffitt, Br affitt, BD2412, Wachholder0, Wachholder0, Metaspheres, Erikvanthienen, Jcmo, Mana Excalibur, Drbogdan, Rjwilmsi, Nightscream, Koavf, Syndicate, Rillian, Jsone, Runarb, Toby Douglass, Fred Bradstadt, Maurog, FlaBot, G Clark, Usurper~enwiki, Pinkville, Brettbergeron,, SteveBak Brettbergeron SteveBaker, er, Mechasheherezada, Samkass, Alec.brady, Karch, Benlisquare, Bgwhite, Zentropa, Vmenkov, YurikBot, Wavelength, Spacepotato, Deeptrivia, Arado, Jtkiefer, Stephenb, Grubber, GraemeSMiller, G raemeSMiller, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, Lusanaherandraton, Wiki alf, Iani, Joshdboz, Joel7687, Długosz, Rupert Clayton, Megapixie, Schlafly, Howcheng, Chakazul, Ragesoss, Jpbowen, Ospalh, Bota47, Scope creep, Tomisti, Admiral Rupert, CubicStar, TheMadBaron, Thnidu, Closedmouth, Spawn Man, SMcCandlish, Youssef51, Chris Brennan, Smurrayinchester, David Biddulph, Allens, Kungfuadam, Jaysbro, Jaysbro, Slipdisk101, Finell, Burton Radons, A bit iffy, SmackBot, Nihonjoe, Nihonjoe, Tom Lougheed,

InverseHypercube, McGeddon, Jagged 85, Eaglizard, Eskimbot, Kintetsubuffalo, Alsandro, Master Deusoma, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Smeggysmeg, Anastasios~enwiki, Robertquail, Chris the speller, Juneappal, Ghost.scream, Fuzzform, MalafayaBot, Hibernian, Stevage, Colonies Chris, CJGB, Bsodmike, Tamfang, Tamfang, Pasachoff, Cplakidas, Oscar Bravo, Chlewbot, Eric Olson, Rrburke, Greenshed, Seduisant, Rarelibra, Wen D House, Kingdon, Jedgold, Bigturtle, Jdlambert, OrangeAid, RafaelG, Clean Copy, DMacks, Just plain Bill, ILike2BeAnonymous, Giancarlo Rossi, PeterJeremy, Kukini, Bezapt, Ohconfucius, Ohconfucius, Bossk-Office, Esrever, Mjg3456789, Fanx, Bucksburg, JorisvS, Mgiganteus1, Reuvenk,

 

158

 

CHAPTER CHAPTER 52. STON STONE E SPHERES SPHERES OF COSTA COSTA RICA

DIEGO RICARDO PEREIRA, F15 sanitizing eagle, Fuzzbox, Fernando S. Aldado~enwiki, The Man in Question, A. Parrot, Ruby miette, Major Bonkers, AxG, Jon186, PRRfan, Cratylus3, Neddyseagoon, Tasoskessaris, KJS77, Hu12, DouglasCalvert, Keisetsu, Ithakiboy, JMK, Maestlin, Paul venter, Fsotrain09, DavidOaks, Mcwatson, RobinDaniel, Tawkerbot2, Chris55, Kurtan~enwiki, Dia^, Jere7my, Eric, Rawling, Kris Schnee, 345Kai, ShelfSkewed, Ballista, WeggeBot, JettaMann, Myasuda, Phatom87, CMG, CumbiaDude, Cydebot, Lupine Proletariat, Gremagor, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Max Ackerm Ackerman, an, Reywas92, Steven91, Gogo Dodo, Travelbird, Katherine Tredwell, Doug Weller, Mikewax, Arcayne, SteveMcCluskey, SteveMcCluskey, NMChico24, Omicronpersei8, Mark de Solla Price, Tewa Tewapack, pack,  ‫ סרפ‬, Malleus Fatuorum, Thijs! Thijs!bot, bot, Kessaris, Kablammo, Pampas Cat, Davefoc, Plausible deniability, Headbomb, Ruber chiken, Dtgriscom, Nadigmadhavi, Second Quantization, RickinBaltimore, SanjayPrabhakaran, Nick Number, Escarbot, MoogleDan, Dieubussy, JimScott, Kkornack, Conradshields, M.t.wright, Arvy-vier, Lkitrossky, Mdotley, Lordmetroid, Rossj81, Tillman, Wisl, SkoreKeep, Pixelface, Kadros~enwiki, VictorAnyakin, Lklundin, Klow, Gökhan, DagosNavy, Xhienne, Deflective, Harryzilber, Pipedreamergrey, V. Szabolcs, Sophie means wisdom, Aristoteles, Panarjedde, Panarjedde, Wimstead, Denimadept, Cynwolfe, Geniac, Xoneca, Pseudothyrum, Magioladitis, WolfmanSF, VoABot II, EdwardLockhart, Nyttend, KConWiki, Vanished user ty12kl89jq10, Torchiest, Torchiest, 28421u22 28421u2232nfenf 32nfenfcenc, cenc, Thesavageiris Thesavageirish, h, SunSw0rd, JaGa, GermanX, Onebadwebmonkey, Onebadwebmonkey, Sasper, Robheart, GoldenMeadows, Jim.henderson, NuclearUmpf, ColorOfSuffering, Yonaa, R'n'B, Nev1, Edgeweyes, JKoulouris, Numbo3, Maurice Carbonaro, Athaenara, Algrif, Komowkwa, It Is Me Here, Igno2, Tikainon~enwiki, E. James Brennan, Rominandreu, Nwbeeson, 83d40m, Ontarioboy, Flatterworld, GS3, Geekdiva, DorganBot, Donmike10, GreenWyvern, Mihas-bot, Plighto, Landy1282, Christosxx2, Hakudoshi2006, Inwind, Izno, Idioma-bot, Reelrt, Martin Allen, VolkovBot, Mudwater, Derekbd, Macedonian, Chicagorob1, Martha Forsyth, Philip Trueman, Af648, TXiKiBoT, Ormewood, Lorne ipsum, OverSS, Technopat, Paulburnett, Robotconscience, Seraphim, TedColes, JhsBot, GlobeGores, Brian Eisley, Praveen pillay, ^demonBot2, Akerbeltz, Nedrutland, Gillyweed, Falcon8765, Thanatos666, AlleborgoBot, Darxus, MathPerson, PericlesofAthens, TheXenocide, DrJunge, Kbrose, Soon Ju Lee, SieBot, EQ5afN2M, Nihil novi, Rob.bastholm, Cwkmail, June w, Crash Underride, Flyer22 Reborn, Ipodamos, Scorpion451, R0uge, Brice one, Cyfal, Astrologist, Escape Orbit, Granite07, Athenean, ClueBot, Victor Chmara, Pjholloway23, Arkalochori, Der Golem, Gavron, Dorkinglad, Pink ninjax, Mild Bill Hiccup, Piledhigheranddeeper, Singinglemon~enwiki, Loginigol, Lessogg, Puchiko, Kitsunega Kitsunegami, mi, AssegaiAli, Throttler, Crywalt, PixelBot, Conical Johnson, Estirabot, Holgerhj, Arjayay Arjayay,, Weygaert, Lestrad, Manco Capac, JasonAQuest, La Pianista, Chaosdruid, Catalographer, Somekindofusername, DumZiBoT, Daveemtb, Heironymous Rowe, AlanM1, XLinkBot, Fastily, Wikiuser100, Mitch Ames, Skarebo, SilvonenBot, Manfi, SkyLined, Nick Campion 2, Good Olfactory, Kbdankbot, Addbot, DOI bot, Willboston, Sillyfolkboy, Favonian, ChenzwBot, Lilindi9, Zodiacal, Lightbot, Smeagol 17, Jarble, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Donfbreed, JAKoulouris, Awhig, Ebygum, Mdockrey, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Jim1138, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Flipping Mackerel, Xqbot, Sketchmoose, Kyng, IShadowed, Teknopup, Vemon Rox, ArthurBot, FrescoBot, LilHelpa, StephenWade, Lucien LucienBOT, BOT, DaveCapricorn42, of Maryland,Omnipaedista, Citation bot 1,Alexscara, Kytaline, A412, Tom.Reding,Alexandersot, Ezrdr, IVAN3MAN, Jikybebna, Trappist the monk, Belchman, Andrew Goodson, JAG81, 564dude, RjwilmsiBot, Calcym Calcyman, an, Ripchip Bot, Balph Eubank, In ictu oculi, DASHBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, Helium4, Dewritech, Syncategoremata, GoingBatty, Dimdomis, Finn Bjørklid, Ornithikos, GreenWyvern1, Shearonink, Calienfj, Calienfj, ZéroBot, Dnm, A2soup, Anir1uph, Dondervogel 2, H3llBot, Demiurge1000, Andattaca2010, Sbmeirow, Euzen, Prikytera, Odysseus1479, Bomazi, Co2gas, ChuispastonBot, MrCleanOut, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Yiannis g, Fivasim, SilentResident, SilentResident, CommonEraCrusader, BristlemeTimber, O.Koslowski, Magicmq, ERIDU-DREAMING, Wiki8man, Kenekaplan, Helpful Pixie Bot, Aubreyraider24, Bibcode Bot, Lead holder, BG19bot, Guy vandegrift, Nikopolis1912, OpenMind, Dodshe, Aerach, Airfield20, Queen of Awesome, WP Editor 2011, Harizotoh9, Samwalton9, BattyBot, Jina445, Mrt3366, Americanplus, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, Jionpedia, Saedon, Peña eton44, Irondome, GloryuntoGlory, Mrmagikpants, FredSinClair, Cerabot~enwiki, MattSucci, Frosty, Mebenmelon, Antrum92, Flying Kiwi68, Rupert loup, Thalij, Epicgenius, SomeFreakOnTheInternet, SomeFreakOnTheInternet, Camyoung54, Giaccomungo, 1angryscot, Icepick method, Songwright4ever, Fatehsmann, Goodyntox, AddWittyNameHere, AddWittyNameHere, AtticTapestry, AtticTapestry, Herodotus419, SchlongDomination, SchlongDomination, Louieoddie, Anameisbutaname, Anameisbutaname, Monkbot, Tigercompanion25, Tigercompanion25, Xmoussas, Sunmist, Drabkikker, Piledhighandeep, 14ABoumankhar, Nafiris, DiscantX, DucoGranger, Heal41hp, KasparBot, Nemoanon, Mysticdan, Satirino242, GreenC bot, Kadros, Ad6bya, Redhat101, Vivian Tarmakakis, Giopastore, ASavasciyi, ASavasciyi, Bender the Bot, Troy Oakes, James D Warburton and Anonymous: Anonymous: 692 69 2 •

BryanDerksen, ryanDerksen, TheAnom The Anome, e, PanairPanair  Baghdad Batte Battery ry Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad_Battery?oldid=764960371 Contributors:   B jdde~enwiki, David spector, Heron, PhilipMW, DopefishJustin, Nixdorf, Sannse, DavidWBrooks, William M. Connolley, Adam Bishop, Reddi, Robertb-dc, Furrykef, Grendelkhan, Itai, Omegatron, Thue, Jerzy, Jason Potter, Rogper~enwiki, Ke4roh, Securiger, Mirv, Der Eberswalder, Auric, Hippietrail, Jsonitsac, David Edgar, Cyberia23, Cyrius, Spanky Sp anky The Dolphin, Timpo, Marcika, Pashute, MingMecca, RatOmeter, Dumbo1, Bobblewik, OldakQuill, Vruba, Andycjp, Neale Monks, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Vsmith, Dbachmann, Martpol, Goplat, El C, Mdo~enwiki, KronicDeth, Haxwell, The Noodle Incident, Gershwinrb, R. S. Shaw, Jguk 2, Kjkolb, Hob Gadling, Obradovic Goran, Hooperbloob, Calebe, Mark Lewis, Mark Dingemanse, AmbassadorShras, Titanium Dragon, DreamGuy, Jpotherington, Wtshymanski, Drat, TenOfAllTrades, Ghirlandajo, Dan East, Kenyon, Japanese Searobin, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Woohookitty, BillC, Chochopk, MiG, Marudubshinki, Miroku Sanna, Graham87, Don Braffitt, Bjason, Nanite, Allynfolksjr, Syced, FayssalF, Ian Pitchford, Elmer Clark, Gurch, Preslethe, Ih8evilstuff, Algebraist, Wavelength, Groogle, Zingus, Dialectric, Ragesoss, Kortoso, 2over0, Robotico, Arthur Rubin, JLaTondre, Segv11, SmackBot, McGeddon, Bjelleklang, VarunRajendran, Bomac, Jagged 85, Declare, Srnec, Cattus, Thumperward, Epastore, William Allen Simpson, Burns flipper, Wen D House, Drphilharmonic, DMacks, WhosAsking, Salamurai, JoshuaZ, James.S, IceHunter, Angelpeream, Mahyar78, CuriousEric, Cydebot, Gproud, Doug Weller, Ghostexorcist, EvocativeIntrigue, Hypnosadist, Malleus Fatuorum, N5iln, Folantin, TangentCube, Northumbrian, RobotG, Majorly, Prolog, Ingolfson, Xhienne, Harryzilber, Arturo 7, Sophie means wisdom, Garda40, Yill577, Siddharth Siddh arth Mehro Mehrotra, tra, SimonBurchel SimonBurchell,l, Nytt Nyttend, end, Clov ClovisPt,J0hnone, isPt,J0hnone, JoergenB,Tubadude JoergenB,Tubadude1280, 1280, MartinBot, MartinBot, Amedico, Amedico, Zaal117, Zaal117, CommonsDe CommonsDelink linker, er, Jmm6f488, Smite-Meister, Gzkn, Ironie, Inwind, Isenmouthe, TXiKiBoT, Someguy1221, Ekwonderland, Retiono Virginian, McM.bot, InternetHero, Gillyweed, Spinningspark, Laval, Pericleso PericlesofAthens, fAthens, Thewumpus, Yintan, Crash Underride, Flyer22 Reborn, Originalheimda Originalheimdahl, hl, Cyfal, Twinsday, Ricardo Frantz, ClueBot, PipepBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, LonelyBeacon, Skihatboat Skihatboatbike, bike, Excirial, Alexbot, Zomno, Graham1973, XLinkBot, Ost316, Myself1100, Addbot, C6541, Mpau0516, AkhtaBot, Favonian, Tide rolls, AussieLegend2, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot, LibrarianJessica, Againme, AnomieBOT, Ld. Ata, RayvnEQ, Xqbot, PsuedoName, Rofrol~enwiki, Shirik, Griffinofwales, Riventree, JMS Old Al, Klacika, Trappist the monk, Mishae, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, DieselBeetle, Heracles31, Armaiti, Rarevogel, ZxxZxxZ,

Tommy2010, Érico, Akerans, Madi221997, NSEasternShoreChemist, Wingman4l7, Sripoonpak, Sbmeirow, Prikytera, J52Jarhead, NG, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Icmer In Nyc, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Marcocapelle, Masouddanesh, Sambo152, BattyBot,ClueBot ChrisGualtieri, 9iowachick9, Hmainsbot1, ‫טיסן‬, Hobbes147, SpookyGhostMan, Skepticthinker, DangerousJXD, Isambard Kingdom, SQMeaner, Aardwolf A380, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot, Nitin-Nitin and Anonymous: 221 •

 Paul Barlow,   Bat Creek inscription  Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bat_Creek_inscription?oldid=746572695  Contributors:  Paul

Freechild,

 

52.14. TEXT TEXT AND IMAGE IMAGE SOURCES, CONT CONTRIB RIBUTORS, UTORS, AND LICENSES 

•

•

•

•

•

 

159

Auric, Varlaam, Ukexpat, Longhair, Giraffedata, Sesmith, SDC, Kbdank71, Rjwilmsi, Eldamorie, Preslethe, Kazuba, RussBot, Deucalionite, Jade Knight, SmackBot, PiCo, Mangoe, C.Fred, Eaglizard, Hmains, Chris the speller, JonHarder, Backspace, Stwalkerster, Safalra, Cydebot, Jackyd101, Anthonyhcole, Tkynerd, Hippypink, Doug Weller, Ebyabe, Missvain, Second Quantization, Dmitri Lytov, Nick Number, Simon Burchell, Xact, The Anomebot2, Theroadislong, ClovisPt, Agricolae, Uyvsdi, BrineStans, Mzmadmike, Baxterguy, Sapphic, HuMcCulloch, StAnselm, Til Eulenspiegel, Jeffrey Vernon Merkey, Gbbinning, Tesi1700, ClueBot, Mild Bill Hiccup, Werqzz, SamuelTheGhost, Excirial, TheRedPenOfDoom, Catalographer, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Imeriki al-Shimoni, Holt, Favonian, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, LilHelpa, FrescoBot, Zimiamvia, Senra, Dominus Vobisdu, Mandelcoo Mandelcook, k, Helpful Pixie Bot, LEJacobson, MrBill3, Batcreeksto Batcreekstone, ne, Hmainsbot1, Mogism, ComfyKem, ComfyK em, Jacob’s Remnant, NMNH1, Stealthy1s, InternetArchiveBot, InternetArchiveBot, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 2299   Brandenburg stone   Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandenburg_stone?oldid=757282571   Contributor Contributors:  s:  Paul Barlow, Stevietheman, Mangoe, Doug Weller, Deor, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, MrX, John of Reading, Unscintillating, Aerach and Bender the Bot   Calaveras Skull  Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calaveras_Skull?oldid=759111109  Contributors:  Bueller  Bueller 007, Babbage, Keith Edkins, Longhair, Stemonitis, Graham87, Rjwilm Rjwilmsi, si, Howcheng, Resolute, SmackBot, Headbomb, Activist, Dancingspring, Superjag, WolfmanSF, Glendoremus, Nono64, Peter Chastain, Truthanado, Minturn, Hexmaster, Royalmate1, Johnuniq, Aunt Entropy, Good Olfac Olfactory, tory, Addbot, Otterathome, Luckas-bot, Armchair info guy, AnomieBOT, Dankarl, Trappist the monk, Look2See1, H3llBot, Grapple X, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, GreenUniverse, Monkeyplus, Monkeyplus, Monkbot, Factory, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 10   Chari Chariots ots of the Gods (film)   Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chariots_of_the_Gods_(film)?oldid=763974015   Contributor Contributors:  s:   Kuralyov, Bender235, Rugxulo, DoctorWho42, Bensin, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Dl2000, Cydebot, Danrok, Lugnuts, Doug Weller, Weller, JAnDbot, Jmm6f488, Donmike10, DavidRayner, Zombie433, PhilSchabus, MystBot, Addbot, LaaknorBot, JGKlein, OlEnglish, AnomieBOT, The Evil IP address, Jonkerz, Dinamik-bot, John of Reading, SporkBot, Cogband, MrBill3, Ldavid1985, Kahtar, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 9  Bryan Derksen, DavidWBrooks, Nnh, Li  Coso artifact  Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coso_artifact?oldid=752881483   Contributor Contributors:  s:  Bryan onheart~enwiki, Goethean, Robert Brockway, M1ss1ontomars2k4, Ahkond, Alansohn, Ross Burgess, Tainter, SDC, GünniX, FrankTobia, Neitherday, Markhoney, Hydrargyrum, NawlinWiki, Brandon, BOT-Superzerocool, AirLiner, Salmanazar, Nikkimaria, True Pagan Warrior, SmackBot, BiT, Hmains, Bluebot, Emurphy42, Scwlong, Paul H., Marcus Brute, Delphii, Tsowell, Claidheamhmor, Bwalko, Redeagle688, TurabianNights, Pjbflynn, Bellerophon5685, Doug Weller, RobotG, NCartmell, Arturo 7, Tedickey, ClovisPt, SunSw0rd, STBot, CommonsDelinker, Morefun, Mitchel1682, Brenont, Kromsson, John Nevard, Lucien leGrey, Doprendek, Johnuniq, Addbot, C6541, Lightbot, Yobot, Armchair info guy, Materialscientist, Cecole, JIK1975, EmausBot, Look2See1, SchreiberBike, ZéroBot, HammerFilmFan, Wingman4l7, MisterDub, HandsomeFella, Psychicattorney, Psychicattorney, Helpfu Helpfull Pixie Bot, BattyBot, Fishycow, The Quixotic Potato and Anonymous: 46   Crystal skull  Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_skull?oldid=764112424   Contributor Contributors:  s:  XJaM, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, DopefishJustin, Ixfd64, Skysmith, Ronz, Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, Cherkash, Jwrosenzweig, Markhurd, Jerzy, Pilaf~enwiki, Rossumcapek, ChrisO~enwiki, Macarenaman, Sam Spade, Der Eberswalder, Rholton, Blainster, Gtrmp, Misterkillboy, Lestatdelc, Varlaam, Varlaam, Gadfium, Geni, Popefauvexxiii, Kaldari, Sharavanabhava, SAMAS, Sam Hocevar, Eiserlohpp, Urhixidur, Ukexpat, Adashiel, Silly Dan, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Kdammers, Vsmith, Bender235, ZeroOne, El C, Kwamikagami, Dbush, Bobo192, Wisdom89, Pharos, Alansohn, Gary, Coma28, Sherurcij, VentrueCapital, CyberSkull, Ferrierd, Fritzpoll, Titanium Dragon, SeanDuggan, Pauli133, Ghirlandajo, Mattbrundage, Dennis Bratland, Alvis, Woohookitty, Woohookitty, TDude695, WadeSimMiser, WadeSimMiser, Alfakim, GregorB, Pictureupl Pictureuploader, oader, Demon!, Hyperzonk, Xiong Chiamiov, Mandarax, Ashmoo, Jclemens, Sjö, Rjwilmsi, Nightscream, Mike Peel, Nneonneo, Wwjdd, Jehochman, W00d, Patrick1982, Ian Pitchford, Alphachimp, Ninel, LEX LETHAL, CJLL Wright, Mordicai, WriterHound, Mercury McKinnon, Sceptre, MightyAtom, RussBot, Sarranduin, GusF, Hydrargyrum, Sjb90, Dysmorodrepanis~enwiki, Kdkeller, Awiseman, Irishguy, Gadget850, Darthkt, AEriksson, Secant1, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Closedmouth, SMcCandlish, Reyk, JQF, Dspradau, Elp gr, Eeee, NeilN, The Wookieepedian, Stepped, SmackBot, ILBobby, PiCo, Elonka, Unschool, Haza-w, Norm Tered, KnowledgeOfSelf, Korossyl, PJM, Kurjak78, Wittylama, HalfShadow, Toxin1000, Commander Keane bot, Chris the speller, Bignole, MalafayaBot, SchfiftyThree, SchfiftyThree, Baa, Incoherent fool, fool, Darth Panda, Firetrap9254, Emurphy42, WikiPedant, Zhuravskij, Zhuravskij, AussieLegend, Hatchetfish, Chlewbot, Burns flipper, GRuban, LeContexte, Rarelibra, Pepsidrinka, Cybercobra, Omgoleus, Savidan, Mesmith9, Angellcruz, Caudex Rax, SpiderJon, Salamurai, Lambiam, Nishkid64, Rayonne, Patranous, JoshuaZ, Hrmanu, GVP 041744,Kansas Ckatz, darling, GeoffreyMaestlin, Pruitt, Chrisch, A. Parrot, Meco, Fangfufu, Interlingua, Midnightblueowl, Jrt989, NormWebmaster, mit, Ra1d3n,Cjmcguinness, BranStark, Iridescent, Kjmatthews, Tawkerbot2, Tawkerbot2, AarrowOM, JForget, CmdrObot, Hirokazu, Page Up, Lord Hermes, Halbared, Hi There, Vannguy, Captainktainer, Mattbuck, Tallen, Ryan, Reywas92, Gogo Dodo, Dsine, Myscrnnm, Doug Weller, EndlessVince, Dylant07, Pustelnik, Satori Son, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Oliver202, Headbomb, Marek69, A3RO, Yettie0711, Alientraveller, RobotG, Mousebelt, Shirt58, Trezjr, ShadowKinght, ClassicSC, JAnDbot, Husond, Cyclonius, Arturo 7, TAnthony, TracySusan, Simon Burchell,Stevepr Burc hell,Steveprutz, utz, PacificBo PacificBoy, y, Eric EricKa Ka MingZhang,VoABot Ming Zhang,VoABot II, CadsuaneMelaidhri CadsuaneMelaidhrin, n, Soulb Soulbot, ot, ***Ria ***Ria777, 777, Froid, Froid, Clov ClovisPt isPt,, Main Maineha ehaven,Derven,DerHexer, Edward321, Garik 11, SlowMovingTarget, Ajgrovery, MartinBot, GaryLucas, Lordalius, Bus stop, Thirdright, Jaredroussel, J.delanoy, JTConroy88, Richiekim, Thepaan, KrytenKoro, Laplandian, Alienburrito, Hellvig, Katalaveno, Johnbod, Plasticup, Alexb102072, Belovedfreak, Cmichael, Pjmpjm, Warlordwolf, DorganBot, Ja 62, Jmauser, Bricology, Idioma-bot, FredNash, Tristanulysses, Murderbike, QuackGuru, Oshwah, Jomasecu, HenriLobineau, NPrice, GcSwRhIc, Chaospiral, Surrealmonk, KC Panchal, Bentley4, Maxim, Weet Weetjesman, jesman, Petero9, Staka, Pmcguirk5000, Brianga, Amercenier, Nagy, Deconstructhis, SieBot, Noh Boddy, Mangostar, Cole--jancsar, Cmsimike, Cmsimike, Hgould01, Oda Mari, Lanzarotemaps, Jack1956, Faradayplank, Fratrep, Kumioko (renamed), StaticGull, ClueBot, Djrango, Ideal gas equation, The Thing That Should Not Be, B e, 88x88, Superintelligenttalkingmouse, Superintelligenttalkingmouse, FieldMarine, Md1111, Spandrawn, Mjrauhal, DanielDeibler, PR GMR, Richerman, TimBilly1224, T1o0m, Nighthornet, Otolemur crassicaudatus, DiotimaofMantinea, Arunsingh16, Jackson7777, Jusdafax, Strangerunbidden, Lartoven, The Founders Intent, Jxd012, Promethean, Pdqttc, Mlaffs, Swordude369, Nyb.Thering, ScottosaurusRAWR, Thingg, Aggyfinn, Dr jinks, Shamanchill, Alien97, Queerbubbles, Queerbubbles, XLinkBot, Kas0809, Avoid Avoided, ed, HMFS, Aunt Entropy, Myjdcdnetwork, Myjdcdnetwork, Good Olfactory, Olfactory, Kbdankbot, CalumH93, Addbot, Digitaldoodler, Breed004, WmGB, 2k6168, C6541, Some jerk on the Internet, DOI bot, Jojhutton, Ashton.Sanders, 325jdc, Cst17, Dreamtimeprods, Wampoo, EscapedGorilla, Donkeybloodymary, Mayan-man, Pixie206, Firstlittlebird, User456246478845, Wolfeye90, Wolf eye90, Slargle, Jaivee, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Trike12898, Luckas-bot, Fraggle81, TaBOT-zerem, Ram.bhat, ArchonMagnus, Mmxx, TestE-

ditBot, Gatwiki, Backslash Forwardslash, Forwardslash, AnomieBOT, KDS4444, Groach1995, LeobenConoy, ThaddeusB, Jim1138, Fahadsadah, Kingpin13, Jerichodrummer, Jimbob213, Materialscientist, Citation bot, OllieFury, RegardedDog, Fugat, Xqbot, Capricorn42, Nothingisayisreal, Maddie!, TootsMojo, TootsMojo, Coffeetalkh, Mayfieldk4, GorgeCustersSabre, Shadowjams, PhilAuckland, Erik9 Erik9,, Griffinofwales, Knee427, 1117Avenue, 17Avenue, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Jonesey95, Maxurbahn, MertyWiki, RonaldKunenborg, Mercy11, Trappist the monk, DriveMySol, Newt Winkler, Lotje, TokioKoos, Mechafern, Stevodakidd936, Stevodakidd936, RjwilmsiBot, RjwilmsiBot, Thrind, Salvio giuliano, John of Reading, RainyShadow, RA0808,

 

160

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

 

CHAPTER CHAPTER 52. STON STONE E SPHERES SPHERES OF COSTA COSTA RICA

Crystalskullexplorers, Wikipelli, ZéroBot, John Cline, Fæ, H3llBot, Wayne Slam, NixaNixa, Ravenhawk44, Mayur, Donner60, Svaran3b21, Lampsalot, The Masked Booby, ClueBot NG, This lousy T-shirt, Cntras, Pepsimaxxxx, ScottSteiner, Marechal Ney, Widr, Baw546, Pluma, Helpfull Pixie Bot, KeXLim, Allecher, MrBill3, IloveyourPClongtime, BattyBot, HOTTUBGUY, Ultra Venia, Jakec, BenStein69, Babitaarora, Helpfu Sidneytrites1, Monkbot, Periodyssey, IkeyMorland, The big cock of the day, Sonicwave32, Mattbrown838, Jerodlycett, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 639   Dendera light  Source:    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendera_light?oldid=743614098  Contributors:    Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, Reddi, Omegatron, Mirv, Foobar, CALR, Dbachmann, 9SGjOSfyHJaQVsEmy9NS, Joshlmay, Titanium Dragon, Suruena, Apokrif, Twthmoses, Cuchullain, Rjwilms Rjwilmsi, i, Gryffindor, Quadraxis, Aeusoes1, Jcurious, Emijrp, That Guy, FromRobotG, That Show!, SmackBot, nas86, Fuzzform, Onorem, Krsont,Limulus, Tktktk, Cydebot, Doug Weller,Długosz, SteveMcCluske SteveMcCluskey, y, Amity150, Itsmejudith, Itsme judith, Fayena Fayenatic tic london,KmariArturo 7, Deposuit, RedMC, Jmm6f488, 83d40m, TXiKiBoT, Satseshat, Steven J. Anderson, McM.bot, Deconstructhis, 3rdAlcove, WurmWoode, Relata refero, PixelBot, Muro Bot, Rickremember, WikHead, Addbot, AkhtaBot, Vatrena ptica, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Riad.Bot~enwiki, Materialscientist,t, Citation bot, D rialscientis DSisyphBot, SisyphBot, SassoBot, Wolfymoza, Wolfymoza, HarrisonNapper, GORDON FRANCK, RedBot, Minimac, EmausBot, Faceless Enemy, ZéroBot, Terraflorin, ClueBot NG, O.Koslowski, Helpful Pixie Bot, Jeraphine Gryphon, MrBill3, BattyBot, Iry-Hor, Master Armand, TrnsltLife, TrnsltLif e, FishDestroyer, Trollinitus123, The Quixotic Potato, Jason14mc, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 29  Dorchester Pot  Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorchester_Pot?oldid=755212161 Contributors:   Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, DavidWBrooks, Auric, Gwalla, Chris j wood, Kappa, Pearle, Titanium Dragon, Mandarax, Sin-man, Rjwilmsi, Durin, Cmouse, Aaronwinborn, Kortoso, KnightRider~enwiki, McGeddon, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Thisisbossi, Paul H., Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Bucksburg, Bwalko, Pimlottc, Ken Gallager, Cydebot, Doug Weller, RobotG, Fluffbrain, Arturo 7, Albany NY, ClovisPt, Joybucket, Corvus cornix, AlleborgoBot, MopTop, Addbot, C6541, SiegfreidZ, Lightbot, Fraggle81, RibotBOT, Eugene-elgato, Dinamik-bot, BCtl, AvicAWB, Helpful Pixie Bot, Aerach, MrBill3, InternetArchiveBot InternetArchiv eBot and Anonymous: 15   Shii, DavidWBrooks, Glenn, Indef Indefatigaatiga  Eiserner Eiserner Mann Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eiserner_Mann?oldid=712547711 Contributors:  Shii, ble, Dimadick, Nagelfar, Pavel Vozenilek, Cmdrjameson, Cmdrjameson, Stemonitis, Mrs Trellis, Asdert, A sdert, Marudubshinki, Sin-man, Srleffler, Irishguy, Rockero, Salmanazar, Reyk, SmackBot, Betacommand, Olsdude, Cjwalters, JHunterJ, RhoOphuichi, RobotG, Ingolfson, Arturo 7, The Anomebot2, ClovisPt, Gwern, Pdarley, Enderworthing, Hugo999, VolkovBot, Steven J. Anderson, Gamsbart, Dawynn, Lightbot, Bermicourt, Againme, AnomieBOT, GermanJoe, Lómelinde, Khazar2 and Anonymous: 15   Eltanin Antenna   Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eltanin_Antenna?oldid=756295749  Contributors:  Bobby D. Bryant, SebastianHelm, DavidWBrooks, Bogdangiusca, Eugene van der Pijll, Phil Boswell, DanielCD, Stemonitis, Stemonitis, Uncle G, Rjwilmsi, Rjwilmsi, Gdrbot, Mikeblas, IceCreamAntisocial, Salmanazar, SmackBot, Elonka, Scwlong, Nima Baghaei, Storm05, Valenciano, Paul H., Bejnar, Tim Ross, Fenix down, Bwalko, Hu12, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Doug Weller, Trusilver, Diodisegno, Bentley4, Kromsson, Fadesga, Lucien leGrey, Addbot, Lightbot, Yobot, Alekksandr, Againme, Seashellz222, CXCV, Animalparty, ZéroBot, Wingman4l7, Helpful Pixie Bot, Plantdrew, Monkbot, InternetArchiv InternetArchiveBot eBot and Anonymous: 18   Esperanza Stone   Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esperanza_Stone?oldid=758151723  Contributors:  William Avery, Shii, Auric, Sreejithk2000, Hugo999, AnomieBOT, Betocracks, SporkBot, $1LENCE D00600D, BattyBot and Bernhard Beier   Geofact  Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geofact?oldid=759121959   Contributor Rjwilmsi, Contributors:  s:   The Anome, Paul Barlow, Vsmith, Eleland, Rjwilmsi, Chyel, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Madman2001, Takaji, AndrewHow AndrewHowse, se, Ntsimp, Alaibot, Think outside the box, Fabrictramp, Funandtrvl, Oh Snap, Swamptortoise, EoGuy, Becky Sayles, AnomieBOT, Xqbot, Otutusaus, John of Reading, GreenTree998, Saectar, Liann2009, Ajmayin, Ajmayin, ZomberCrom, Demifuentes91, Demifuentes91, Equinox, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot and Anonymous: 6 The Anome, e, Gabbe,Glenn, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklahoma_runestones?oldid=758415330 Contributors:  TheAnom   Heavener Heavener Runestone Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklahoma_runestones?oldid=758415330 DNewhall, Dbachmann, Firespeaker, Rjwilmsi, Rjwilmsi, Nihiltres, CJLL Wright, PaulGarner, SmackBot, Hmains, Chris the speller, Bluebot, SB Johnny, OrphanBot, TurabianNights, Cydebot, Doug Weller, Storkk, Narssarssuaq, PhilKnight, Than217, ClovisPt, Berig, RobZep, Pleather, Trusilver, David Trochos, Heironymous Heironymous Rowe, Yobot, OpenFuture, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Mandruss, Rubbish computer and Anonymous: 9   Helicopter hieroglyphs Source:  

  JackofOz, BD2412, Closedmouth, Doktor Waterhouse,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopter_hieroglyphs?oldid=748493858 McGeddon, Doug Weller, Mmortal03, The Anomebot2, Krahka, Riyadi, Contributors:  Rhododendrites, PCHS-NJROTC, Ost316, Againme, Khruner, Stringence, Brandmeister, Mrellisdee, TranquilHope, TranquilHope, GreenC bot b ot and Anonymous: 10  Auric, Benjwong, The   Hidden ccharacter haracter stone Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_character_stone?oldid=745125023 Contributor Contributors:  s:  Auric, Rambling Man, Markhoney, TenPoundHammer, Cydebot, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Doug Weller, CommonsDelinker, KylieTastic, ImageRemovalBot, Sevilledade, Addbot, Lightbot, Yobot, Timmyshin, Ripchip Bot, Shivankmehra, Champion, ChuispastonBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Fraulein451 and Anonymous: Anonymous: 7   Ica stones  Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ica_stones?oldid=755240828   Contributor  Paul Barlow, Skysmith, CesarB, DavidWBrooks, Contributors:  s:  Paul Glenn, Pingveno, SchmuckyTheCat, Auric, Orangemike, Geni, DNewhall, ErikNY, Salimfadhley, Discospins Discospinster, ter, Vsmith, Warpozio, Bobo192, Giraffedata, Mnemo, Firsfron, LowKey, GregorB, Joe Roe, Kbdank71, Zbxgscqf, Alan J Shea, Kri, Theshibboleth, CJLL Wright, JustSomeKid, Apokryltaros, SFC9394, Salmanazar, Tuckerresearch, Tuckerresearch, Zubisoft, SmackBot, Fuzzform, DKalkin, Huon, Valenciano, Paul H., Gildir, Kendrick7, Kuru, Perfectblue97, IronGargoyle, IronGargoyle, JHunterJ, Hu12, StuHarris, TurabianNights, TurabianNights, Tawkerbot2, OS2Warp, CmdrObot, Dsine, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, SpK, Kathovo, Second Quantization, RobotG, Oliver Tölkes, Smartse, Kent Witham, MER-C, Skomorokh, James919, ClovisPt, Torchiest, WLU, Urco, Thirdright, J.delanoy, Enderworthing, Ian.thomson, Jeepday, GDW13, Joshua Issac, Idioma-bot, Uyvsdi, Satani, Fourthark, Sapphic, Bob Killigan, Schnurrbart, Flamarial, Ravensfire, Toddst1, Aramgar, Filam3nt, Troffler, Binksternet, SamuelTheGhost, Ilpt2000, Excirial, TheRedPenOfDoom, Maniago, Rrrr5, Sickopath, XLinkBot, Kolyma, Aunt Entropy, Good Olfactory, Addbot, MXVN, Ka Faraq Gatri, Rubendg, Lansdowne5, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, LilHelpa, Alumnum, SassoBot, ΙΧΘΥΣ, Haploidavey, LucienBOT, A little insignificant, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, Île flottante, ItsZippy, Mean as custard, Skamecrazy123, EmausBot,

Wikipelli, PunktUndPunktUndKommaStrich, PunktUndPunktUndKommaStrich, ZéroBot, Brattarb, DJ Pro Project97, ject97, BabbaQ, Tzmbe1, ClueBot NG, ScottSteiner, ScottSteiner, Helpful Pixie Bot, Digdig86, MrBill3, Treweeke Mall, DoctorKubla, Jack Douglas123, Khazar2, Saedon, B4r0nnn, Johnson LongMan, Ducknish, X Nilloc X, TheTannerScreen,, ThisStepCaptcha, JWoods searcher, TheBlackWa TheTannerScreen TheBlackWatcher, tcher, Hillbillyholiday, Fellmann, Akksh, Perf Perfect ect Red Cube, Perfect Purple Pyramid, Ugog Nizdast, Justthefactsabout, JustaNote123, Eve the deer21, Perfect Orange Sphere, Monkbot, EricBreaux, NoLiesTruthOnlyPlease, ArtemisLogic, ScrapIronIV, SinisterGraphician, Jerodlycett, Jerodlycett, Bender the Bot, Abradamus and A Anonymou nonymous: s: 145

 

52.14. TEXT TEXT AND IMAGE IMAGE SOURCES, CONT CONTRIB RIBUTORS, UTORS, AND LICENSES 

•

•

•

•

•

 

161

 Heron,   Iron pillar of De Delhi lhi  Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_pillar_of_Delhi?oldid=763583530  Contributors:  Heron,

Stevertigo, Stevertigo, Paul Barlow, DopefishJustin, TakuyaMurata, Skysmith, DavidWBrooks, Glenn, Error, Bogdangiusca, Disdero, Timwi, Nataraja~enwiki, Doradus, Itai, Moriori, RedWolf, Goethean, Bkell, Mervyn, Alan Liefting, Rudolf 1922, Catchanil, Darrien, Utcursch, Ukexpat, Jimaginator, Virendra, Dbachmann, Flapdragon, S.K., Alren, Pt, Mjk2357, Russ3Z, Man vyi, Eleland, Keenan Pepper, Tancred, EmmetCaulfield, ~shuri, Ghirlandajo, Kouban, Ceyockey, Thryduulf, Anish7, Kralizec!, Vberger~enwiki, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Gryffindor, BjKa, SkiDragon, Srleffler, Knife Knut, Bgwhite, Ravi Chaudhary, Deeptrivia, Hydrargyrum, Rohitbd, Bjf, Długosz, Muwaffaq, Lockesdonkey, Tachs, Deepak~enwiki, Salmanazar, Petri Krohn, Sturmovik, Kungfuadam, NeilN, Groyolo, SmackBot, Mangoe, McGeddon, Jagged 85, Ohnoitsjamie, Oli Filth, Hibernian, Aktron, BlackTerror, Ohconfucius, Nishkid64, John, Carnby, Shyamsunder, Neddyseagoon, Quaeler, Wizard191, Rayfield, Basicdesign, Abdaal, Kkm5848, Rwflammang, Doctormatt, Cydebot, Hebrides, Viscious81, Doug Weller, Thijs!bot, Bethpage89, Khened, Escarbot, Peatcher~enwiki, Peatche r~enwiki, RobotG, Fatidiot1234, Julia Rossi, LuckyLouie, Credema, Ingolfson, JAnDbot, Ekabhishek, Xn4, The Anomebot2, Ashishbhatnagar72, Atulsnischal, Atulsnischal, Balaiitk, DadaNeem, Inwind, Idioma-bot, Signalhead, Volko VolkovBot, vBot, Amikake3, M96hardh, M96 hardh, Sesamevoila, Vishwas008, Rumiton, Andy Dingley, Sibenordy, Afisch80, Lohost, Lohost, Navin gupt, Wilson44691, Wilson44691, Ctxppc, Boblitjr, Boblitjr, RegentsPark, RegentsPark, The Thing That Should Not Be, Tr4v3l3r, Drmies, Der D er Golem, Rakeshsumit, Ssriram mt, Itzguru, Jotterbot, Nvvchar, Wikidas, DumZiBoT, Vinambrudu, Rickremember, Wikiuser100, Pgallert, Sandyiitr, Sandyiitr, Osarius, Addbot, Mr0t1633, Rdermyer, Franky1985, Enigmaace12, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, DoctorJoeE, Theseeker4, Citation bot, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, Haploidavey, Riventree, Lilaac, Zippymarmalade, Jauhienij, Untilwhen1, Vaazan, Chronulator, RjwilmsiBot, RjwilmsiBot, Samdacruel, EmausBot, Hirsutism, The Blade of the Northern Lights, ZéroBot, Mkrestin, H3llBot, ChuispastonBot, Shashank artemis fowl, 28bot, ClueBot NG, CopperSquare, Meninblu, Mmarre, Helpful Pixie Bot, Titodutta, KLBot2, BG19bot, Oxydendrum, Mhakcm, Yowanvista, Ravi bhangaonkar, CitationCleanerBot, Tangerinehistry, William Aiden, BattyBot, Wikipedian247, Bharu12, Cpt.a.haddock, Irul 901, Shirazibustan, Kude90, Evano1van, Hidden macy, 22merlin, Monkbot, Endriksohn, Bodhisattwa, Rubbish computer, BodduLokesh, BodduLokes h, Marathas iitgn, MusikBot, Ira Leviton, IM3847, Filpro, Madan Inamdar, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 8866   Kensington Runestone  Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kensington_Runestone?oldid=765176640   Contributor Contributors:  s:   DavidLevinson, Edward, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, Modster, Liftarn, Gabbe, Karada, Skysmith, Glenn, Jengod, Mulad, Random832, Sertrel, Maximus Rex, SEWilco, AnonMoos, Wetman, Pollinator, Rogper~enwiki, Moncrief, Mirv, Auric, Bkell, Hadal, JackofOz, GreatWhiteNortherner, Wiglaf, Tom harrison, Orangemike, Theon~enwiki, Bradeos Graphon, Wyss, Varlaam, Bobblewik, Neilc, YusufMJH, Noe, Mzajac, DragonflySixtyseven, Mike Storm, Kuralyov, Sam Hocevar, CyclopsScott, Ulflarsen, Ham II, Mzalar, Dbachmann, El C, Bobo192, Longhair, Enric Naval, Mixcoatl, Firespeaker, Firespeaker, Jonathunder, Orangemarlin, Coma28, Mceder, Richard Fannin, Water Bottle, Fawcett5, Fawcett5, Kdau, Drbreznjev, Drbreznjev, Woohookitty, ApLundell, Miss Madeline, Cbdorsett, KevinOKeeffe, KevinOKeeffe, Terryn3, Melesse, Gspong, Rj Rjwilmsi, wilmsi, Jivecat, DanielCollins, Daniel Collins, Cassowary, M0nster0, CJLL Wright, Bgwhite, RussBot, Cunado19, ML, Bug42, NawlinWiki, SEWilcoBot, Awiseman, RGS31, Zwobot, Maunus, Sbachman725, Tuckerresearch, Ageekgal, ColinMcMillen, H@r@ld, Petri Krohn, 2fort5r, ArielGold, Curpsbot-unicodify, Ásgeir IV.~enwiki, SmackBot, McGeddon, BluePlatypus, Aardvark92, Jfurr1981, Stifle, Zyxw, Wakuran, Hmains, Hraefen, Hraefen, Chris the speller, Roede, Barend, Rlevse, Fuhghettabouti Fuhghettaboutit,t, Bigturtle, Ericl, Ziggle, AThing, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, NormalGoddess, John, Bucksburg, JoshuaZ, Texteditor, Michael J Swassing, SmokeyJoe, DagErlingSmørgrav, Norm mit, TurabianNights, TurabianNights, DavidOaks, Vanisaac, Jon kare, Mcswell, Lokal Profil, Joshua BishopRoby, Cydebot, Caliga10, DougWeller,John Fox Foxe, e, Wa Walgam lgamanus anus,, Thi Thijs!bo js!bot,t, Crosleyfi Crosleyfield, eld, RobotG, RobotG, Manu Manushan shand, d, Narssarss Narssarssuaq, uaq, Arturo7, Batt Battlek lekow, ow, Magi Magioladi oladitis, tis, Appra Appraiser, iser, Than217, ClovisPt, Deharpporte, Berig, Vicpeters, Farmboyjad, Naniwako, Garret Beaumain, DadaNeem, Jonathan66, Gwen Gale, G ale, Geekdiva, Slr38, WLRoss, Funandtrvl, Vincent Lextrait, Someguy1221, Steven J. Anderson, Keithamassey, Room429, Kevinamassey, Jalo, Greswik, Jmatthews1102, Jmatthews 1102, Imogenne, Rlendog, JabbaTheBot, Wilson44691, Goustien, Lightmouse, Inger E~enwiki, Cfwaidmann, Cfwaidmann, Emptymountains, ImageRemovalBot, ageRemova lBot, Faithlessthewon Faithlessthewonderboy, derboy, ClueBot, Deanlaw, CasualObserver'48, Mrs.EasterBunny, Drmies, Gangdagr, David Trochos, Auntof6, Awicke Awi ckert, rt, TheRedPen TheRedPenOfDoo OfDoom, m, Halc HalcyonDayz, yonDayz, Heironym Heironymous ous Row Rowe, e, KoroNeil, Ken Kensing singtond tondevot evotee, ee, Good Olf Olfacto actory, ry, Hexa HexaChord Chord,, Addbo Addbot,t, Light Light-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT,ThaddeusB, AnomieBOT, ThaddeusB, OpenFuture, Citationbot, Citation bot, M2m2m2, LilHelpa, MauritsBot, Paleowiki, Paleowiki, Garkeith, Addbc, Mario777Zelda, Kylelovesyou, Kylelo vesyou, Hauganm, Hauganm, Bgagaga, Moby-Dick3000, Asbrody, JMilty, NeonPuffin, OgreBot, C Citation itation bot 1, Chenopodiaceous, Pinethicket, Pinethicket, Gingermint, Trappist the monk, 888n8, Davidjbroman, Davidjbroman, Brianann MacAmhlaidh, Jharrington401, RjwilmsiBot, Ghostofn Ghostofnemo, emo, Mandy e, Vandevious, Wimerill, Globerunner1973, Afaram, Satchellmr, H3llBot, Donner60, Blahblah45890, ClueBot NG, A520, 1337 Tibet, Snotbot, Quick and Dirty User Account, Helpful Pixie Bot, Tdimhcs, BG19bot, LancyMeadows, MrBill3, J.A.Biddulph, Dharma59, BattyBot, Cyberbot II, Metalello, DoctorKubla, Khazar2, Stillbusy, Alex Bignell, Nouniquenames, Dickie birdie, Kennethaw88, Beaux569, Monkbot, Joe12121212, Dwana76, Jerodlycett, Mizzou1993, Ntyler180725, Talpiottomb, Talpiottomb, Gunn Sinclair, Bender the Bot, WitchyOne333 and Anonymous: 184 1 84 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingoodie_artifact?oldid=755238863  Contributors:    HarryHenryGebel, Auric, Dumbo1, Devil Master, Kappa, Uncle G, LowKey, BillC, Alphachimp, Aaronwinborn, Salmanazar, Petri Krohn, SmackBot, Proof Reader, Anachronist, Bluebot, Drjackzon~enwiki, Cokerwr, Glover, Kuru, Perfectblue97, Doug Weller, RobotG, Arturo 7, Sophie means wisdom, Dekimasu, ClovisPt, Jmm6f488, Enderworthing, Barneca, Fadesga, Michaelholly, Michaelholly, Addbot, C654 C6541, 1, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Againme, Tom.Reding, EmausBot, Yiosie2356, MrBill3, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 9   Klerksdorp sphere  Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klerksdorp_sphere?oldid=755240382  Contributors:   The Anome, Llywrch, Cyde, DavidWBrooks, Glenn, Rl, Auric, Xanzzibar, LLarson, Robert Brockway, Ukexpat, Cacycle, Pavel Vozenilek, Axl, Dave.Dunf Dave.Dunford, ord, Ghirlandajo, Sin-man, Quiddity, Denito, Jimp, Rsrikanth05, Thiseye, Zagalejo, Crisco 1492, TechBear, SmackBot, Saravask, Chris the speller, Professor Chaos, Paul H., Tktktk, Twas Now, ErWenn, Captainktainer, Cydebot, Doug Weller, Noclevername, RobotG, ClovisPt, I guess, Aviatora, Alsee, Trusilver, Enderworthing, Nothingofwater, ClueBot, Telekenesis, BOTarate, Gaura79, Addbot, OlEnglish, Luckas-bot, Fraggle81, We66er, Againme, LilHelpa, Loge Reborn, FrescoBot, Askyles, FoxBot, Fama Clamosa, EmausBot, ZéroBot, Gob Lofa, SupremoJunior, Vservo13 and Anonymous: 40   Lake Winnipesauk Winnipesaukee ee mystery stone Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Winnipesaukee_mystery_stone?oldid=757491752   Contrib The Anome, DavidWBrooks, SatyrTN, Auric, Bkell, Chowbok, BRW, Sin-man, Kellywatchthestars, RussBot, MaxCosta, Ser Amantio utors:  The di Nicolao, TurabianNights, Ken Gallager, Doug Weller, Ju66l3r, RobotG, Arturo 7, Dunraven, Nyttend, ClovisPt, Enderworthing, C6541, Ne116er, Againme, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, Faolin42, Helpful Pixie Bot, MrBill3, InternetArchiveBot, InternetArchiveBot, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 4   Kingoodie artifac artifactt   Source:   

•

•

  Llygadwy  Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llygadwy?oldid=756043585   Contributor Contributors:  s:  Auric,

A Karley, Complainer, Cm205, Hogyn Lleol, Skinsmoke, Iridescent, Doug Weller, Alaibot, Shirt58, DuncanHill, J.P.Lon, Jmm6f488,Varlaam, Biscuittin, YSSY YSSYguy, guy, Geopersona, JackStonePGD, Addedentry, Scil100, BG19bot, Hmainsbot1 and Anonymous: 4   London Hammer   Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Hammer?oldid=763689600   Contributor Contributors:  s:   Auric, Safety Cap, McGeddon, NatGertler, DjScrawl, Nwbeeson, Hy Brasil, Andy Dingley, Shorn again, Coinmanj, SchreiberBike, Dawynn, AnomieBOT, Archon 2488,

 

162

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

 

CHAPTER CHAPTER 52. STON STONE E SPHERES SPHERES OF COSTA COSTA RICA

Ckruschke, ‫بدارين‬, GoingBatty, Brattarb, Mareacaspica, BG19bot, BattyBot, Indigoatlas, Acetotyce, Johnsagent, DangerousJXD, Jobrot, SteamGamer94 and Anonymous: Anonymous: 13   Los Lunas Decalogue Ston Stonee  Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Lunas_Decalogue_Stone?oldid=755242338   Contributor Contributors:  s:   Stevertigo, Palnatoke, Palnatok e, Stan Shebs, Glenn, Wetman, Sam Spade, Auric, Humus sapiens, Varlaam, Elembis, Kuralyov, Kate, Rich Farmbrough, LDBear, Florian Blaschke, Carptrash, Jonathunder, Nsaa, RJFJR, BD2412, BD241 2, Rjwilmsi, MosheA, Sandstein, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Hmains, Backspace, Geoffrey Geoffrey Pruitt, TurabianNights, TurabianNights, Doug Weller, Brainardo, Trefa Trefalcon, lcon, John Smythe, Jllm06, ClovisPt, STBot, Sm89 Sm8900, 00, VolkovBot, Mzmadmike, Plazak, HuMcCulloch, WereSpielChequers, WereSpielChequers, Cadwallader, Andstobax, XLinkBot, Addbot, Yclorfene, Yclorfene, Lightbot, AnomieBOT, Citation bot,CitationClea HowardJWilk, Spection, MrX,s, Iamdorian, Shearonink, GreenC ZéroBot,bot, Trick newbie, YahushaReigns, Widr, ‫שילוני‬, DenghiùComm, Bender the Bot and Anonymou Anonymous: s: 24Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, CPrezbo, itationCleanerBot, nerBot, 2bofhelp, Ajudkins, Ajudkin   Misraħ Għar il-Kbir  Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misra%C4%A7_G%C4%A7ar_il-Kbir?oldid=711119385   Contributor Contributors:  s:   Genie, Lysy, D-Notice, Pavel Vozenilek, -jkb-, Anthony A nthony Appleyard, Thryduulf, Vegaswikian, Eubot, Tranceliner, CmdrObot, Doug Weller, Sjlain, The Anomebot2, JohnSaringer, Pietru, Ori, No such user, XLinkBot, Addbot, Sudika, Yobot, Sandris.Ā, Tremlin, RicHard-59, D'ohBot, Badastronomy, DrilBot, Diddycool, Zorro new, ZéroBot, Brattarb, Xwe Xwejnusgozo jnusgozo and Anonymous: 12   Newark Holy Stones  Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newark_Holy_Stones?oldid=738451484  Contributors:   Skysmith, Glenn, Rich Farmbrough, Mwanner, Longhair, Pearle, Firsfron, Woohookitty, Morning star, Gimboid13, BD2412, Koavf, Cholmes75, Reyk, SmackBot, Hmains, Hmai ns, Cush, Hebel, Hebel, Cogito-er Cogito-ergo-s go-sum, um, Seduisant Seduisant,, Doug DougWe Weller, ller, MarshBot, MarshBot, SaladDays, Nytt Nyttend, end, Clovi ClovisPt, sPt, Comm CommonsD onsDelink elinker, er, Nothi Nothingof ngofwat water, er, Mama5050, Keepfrozen, HuMcCulloch, Deconstructhis, StAnselm, Senor Cuete, Mr. Stradivarius, Andstobax, Niceguyedc, Good Olfactory, C6541, Lightbot, Kwacka, Againme, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, Bob Burkhardt, Haploidavey, GoneIn60, H3llBot, Mcmatter, Og of Bashan, Quick and Dirty User Account, MrBill3, Cyberbot II, DoctorKubla, Monkbot, Jerodlycet Jerodlycett,t, Naterpotatertot, Whathappensnext, Whathappensnext, GreenC bot and Anonymous: 12   Olmec alternative origin spec speculations ulations Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmec_alternative_origin_speculations?oldid=750982523  ConYnhockey, Godheval, Czolgolz, Woohooki Woohookitty, tty, Sesmith, WBardwin, Josh Parris, tributors:   Paul Barlow, Rich Farmbrough, Dbachmann, Mareino, Ynhockey, Ketiltrout, MacRusgail, Elmer Clark, CJLL Wright, Rmky87, Rockero, Maunus, Alarob, ArielGold, SmackBot, Herostratus, Kintetsubuffalo, Wittylama, Durova, Luenlin, Thumperward, Trekphiler, Madman2001, Salsassin, Curly Turkey, Tim Ross, JzG, Ergative rlt, JorisvS, Norm mit, Tmangray,Olmec98, Jwalte04,Gldavies, Doug Weller, Epbr123, Headbomb, Leolaursen, Simon Burchell, Magioladitis, Appraiser, ClovisPt, FishUtah, Cams0ft, Nono64, Vipinhari,ARTEST4ECHO, Taharqa, Itzcoatl, Brenont, Noveltyghost, Noveltyghos t, Andrewjlockley, Jdaloner, Gaia2767spm, Victor Chmara, Ibasurik, Jagun, Drmies, SamuelTheGhost, Wkboonec, DumZiBoT, ShizRose, Jojhutton, Montgomery '39, Rich jj, Kovesh, WaltFrost,t, Symmerhill, Againme, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, Ocelotl10293, Moxy, Citation bot 1, Jonesey95, Tom.Reding, Onondaga, Trappist WaltFros the monk, Cyanophycean314, Tbhotch, RjwilmsiBot, Wiking, EmausBot, Bollyjeff, Zoda8, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, DuoMind, BattyBot, Cyberbot II, FoCuSandLeArN, Inayity, Mcguiregreen, Joffre (“J.D.”) Meyer, Monkbot, Greatest student, Yuriko96, Ramonstephens720, Chrissymad and Anonymous: Anonymous: 50   Pangboche Hand  Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangboche_Hand?oldid=763294492  Contributors:   Bogdangiusca, Nv8200pa, Joy, Meursault2004, Icairns, Parmadil, Phil s, Tastyummy, Ceyockey, Ceyockey, Hochnebel, Gaius Cornelius, Irishguy, R.D.H. (Ghost In The Machine), Bdve, SmackBot, Elonka, McGeddon, Autarch, Seduisant, Badbilltucker, Silver Edge, Scottandrewhutchins, Scottandrewhutchins, Dr. Blofe Blofeld, ld, Vanish2, ClovisPt, LordAnubisBOT, Kevinkor2, Martarius, Agogino, TheRedPenOfDoom, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Maky, Addbot, Jaydec, Againme, Metricmike, Lung salad, Mattharringtonnz, Khazar2, Melonke Melonkelon, lon, Skepticatheis Skepticatheistt and Anonymous: 18   The Anome, Gabbe, Glenn,   Poteau Runestone  Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklahoma_runestones?oldid=758415330  Contributors:  The DNewhall, Dbachmann, Firespeaker, Rjwilmsi, Rjwilmsi, Nihiltres, CJLL Wright, PaulGarner, SmackBot, Hmains, Chris the speller, Bluebot, SB Johnny, OrphanBot, TurabianNights, Cydebot, Doug Weller, Storkk, Narssarssuaq, PhilKnight, Than217, ClovisPt, Berig, RobZep, Pleather, Trusilver, David Trochos, Heironymous Heironymous Rowe, Yobot, OpenFuture, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Mandruss, Rubbish computer and Anonymous: 9   Quimbaya artifacts  Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quimbaya_artifacts?oldid=754089166   Contributor Ljfeliu, Hmains, Wizardman, Contributors:  s:   Ljfeliu, Doug Weller, CommonsDelinker, Uyvsdi, Petebutt, WanderingFool, Addbot, Againme, Götz, Sathandi, Pinethicket, Evanh2008, Yiosie2356, Quick and Dirty User Account, Mogism, Espii4, Bender Bender the Bot and Anonymo A nonymous: us: 9   San Pedr Pedro o Mountain Mountainss Mumm Mummy y   Source:    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Pedro_Mountains_Mummy?oldid=755251482  Contributors:  Glenn, Fvw, Chl, Bearcat, Auric, Everyking, Sam Hocevar, Michael L. Kaufman, Discospinster, LindsayH, Grutness, Pauli133, Gene Nygaard, Ghirlandajo, Woohookitty, Tabletop, Irishguy, Reyk, Bluebot, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Cydebot, Doug Weller, Ebyabe, ThirdDragon, John Adolfi, Husond, RIH-V, Amt1018, Jmm6f488, Puddytang, Uyvsdi, Thmazing, Explicit, BrendanBurke, BrianD1996, SoxBot, DumZiBoT, Dthomsen8, Addbot, Legobot, Againme, AnomieBOT, Wikipe-tan, Full-date unlinking bot, KuduIO, GermanJoe, Bri3jor, Helpful Pixie Bot, Khazar2, Reatlas, Iamboat, Ugog Nizdast, Monkbot and Anonymous: 18 18   Saqqara Bird  Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saqqara_Bird?oldid=747229045   Contributor Contributors:  s:   Leandrod, Infrogmation, Glenn, Reddi, Varlaam, Fjarlq, Rich Farmbrough, CanisRufus, Darwinek, Titanium Dragon, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Ghirlandajo, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Twthmoses, Emerson7, Kolbasz, Peter Delmonte, Sandstein, Luk, Crystallina, SmackBot, Mdd4696, Chlewbot, Greenshed, Bolivian Unicyclist, Unicy clist, Fuhghettaboutit, Scientizzle, Dr.K., ECLIPSE~enwiki, Iridescent, Doug Weller, JayW, Elikser, RobotG, Fayenatic Fayenatic london, ClovisPt, Nayus Dante, R'n'B, Jmm6f488, Enderworthing, Nigholith, Johnbod, BrettAllen, Itsfullofstars, Northfox, Traveler100, Zhukora, Xaldin of winds, Diego Cuoghi, Ancos, SamuelTheGhost, Xxdjsethxx, Xxdjsethxx, Dawoudk, Addbot, C6541, C654 1, LaaknorBot, Soupforone, SPat, Yobot, ClockwerkMao, RegenerateThis, AnomieBOT, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Khruner, Amaury, LucienBOT, Gingermint, Trappist the monk, TheLongTone, Stringence, Updatehelper, RjwilmsiBot, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Black Yoshi, RHM22, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, ZéroBot, ClueBot NG, Muon, Wrathkind, Widr, Quick and Dirty User Account, Helpful Pixie Bot, Wiki13, MrBill3, Khriz1298, ChrisGualtieri, Monkbot, Reader Account, DragonLadeeknows, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 26

•

•

 The Starving of Saqqara  Source:  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Starving_of_Saqqara?oldid=760972836   Auric, Lusanaherandraton, Equilibrial, PKT, Magioladitis, Magioladitis , BabelStone, Drpickem, Alekksandr, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: Contributors:  1  Paul Barlow,   Tecaxic-C Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca alixtlahuaca head Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca_head?oldid=763281400 Contributor Contributors:  s:  Paul Paul A, Glenn, Selket, Florian Blaschke, Wtmitchell, Rjwilmsi, Makaristos, Makaristos, CJLL Wright, RussBot, Hellbus, Ptcamn, Gadget850, Skepticsteve, Salmanazar, Petri Krohn, SmackBot, Miuki, Hmains, Clint H. Hoyt, Madman2001, Blake-, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Twalls, Doug Weller,

 

52.14. TEXT TEXT AND IMAGE IMAGE SOURCES, CONT CONTRIB RIBUTORS, UTORS, AND LICENSES 

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

 

163

Simon Burchell, ClovisPt, SunSw0rd, WLU, VirtualDelight, Jmm6f488, Johnbod, Miskwito, SheepNotGoats, Tesi1700, ImageRemovalBot, WurmWoode, WurmWood e, Hadrianheugh, Al Alivema ivemajor, jor, SamuelTheGhost, Ost316, Addbot, C6541, Againme, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Groovenstein, Fortdj33, Fortdj33, Citation bot 1, Geogene, RjwilmsiBot, OneDalm0, Quick and Dirty User Account, MerlIwBot, Nodulation, BG19bot, AwamerT, MrBill3, Melbournesoldier,r, Monkbot, Jmcgnh and Anonymo Melbournesoldie A nonymous: us: 12   Tucson artifacts artifacts   Source:    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tucson_artifacts?oldid=755728716  Contributors:    Paul Paul Barlow, Hoopes, Auric, Auric, Scottperry, Gfannick, Mangoe, Hmains, Racklever, CRGreathouse, Cydebot, Doug Weller, JustAGal, Shirt58, Trilobitealive, Student7, Gen. Quon, Til Eulenspiegel, EoGuy, TheRedPenOfDoom, 7&6=thirteen, OlEnglish, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, Dunc0029, Pinethicket, Geogene, MrX, Msorenz, RjwilmsiBot, WeBender We hope, Donner60, D00600D, Vunil, Drsurf88, Quick and Dirty User Account, Safehaven86, Safehaven86, KumiokoCleanStart, KumiokoClea nStart, Brutusbucke Brutusbuckeye42, ye42, the Bot and$1LENCE Anonymous: 22   Wolfsegg Iron   Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfsegg_Iron?oldid=755233834   Contributor Contributors:  s:  Paul Barlow, Emperor, Glenn, Auric, Bobblewik, Mjk2357, Conny, Gene Nygaard, Byron Farrow, GregorB, Srleffler, Wavelength, Hydrargyrum, Gaius Cornelius, Salmanazar, Cattus, Ollj, Perfectblue97, Shattered, Editor Bob, CmdrObot, EdJohnston, RobotG, LuckyLouie, Steven J. Anderson, WereSpielChequers, Alexbrn, Adamfinmo, Addbot, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Bermicourt, Againme, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, LilHelpa, Thehelpfulbot, GoingBatty, Mikhail Ryazanov, Very trivial, Helpful Pixie Bot, Electriccatfi Electriccatfish2, sh2, Monkbot, Maraofdelight, Maraofdelight, BU Rob13 and Anonymous: 12  The Anome, Deb, Stone, Geni, Hai  AVM Runestone Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AVM_Runestone?oldid=749556532 Contributor Contributors:  s:  The ley C. Shannon, Soap, JoshuaZ, Doug Weller, Naniwako, Naniwako, Deanlaw, David Trochos, TheRedPenOfDoom, Scalhotrod, Good Olfactory, Addbot, C6541, Brianann MacAmhlaidh, ZéroBot, BattyBot, Mogism, InternetArchi InternetArchiveBot, veBot, GreenC bot and Anonymous: 4   Bourne stone   Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourne_stone?oldid=736964036   Contributor Contributors:  s:   Billposer, Jackiespeel, Firespeaker, Sesmith, Bluebot, D-Rock, Cydebot, Caliga10, Doug Weller, Ebyabe, ClovisPt, Svyatoslav, Jojalozzo, Jojalozzo, Ktr101, Yobot, OpenFuture, Citation bot, FrescoBot, Lewishb, John of Reading, Faolin42, Helpful Pixie Bot and Anonymous: 3  Xinoph, Chowbok, Rich Farm  Grave Grave Cree Creek k Stone Stone Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grave_Creek_Stone?oldid=757072514 Contributors:  Xinoph, brough, CanisRufus, Thuresson, Longhair, Dbchip, Firespeaker, Guthrie, Wtfunkymonkey, Paxsimius, Common Man, Bluezy, SmackBot, Colonies Chris, OrphanBot, Sarfa, Cydebot, Doug Weller, Barticus88, Dekimasu, ***Ria777, Wormcast, ClovisPt, Nono64, Remike~enwiki, Fj Fjbfo bfour, ur, Karmo Karmos, s, Mcad Mcadwell,Good well,Good Olfacto Olfactory, ry, Fresc FrescoBot, oBot, EmausBot EmausBot,, Hoa binh, MrBill3, MrBill3, Docto DoctorKubl rKubla, a, Khazar2, Khazar2, Bende Benderr the Bot and Anonymou Anonymous: s: 3

  Narragansett Runestone  Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narragansett_Runestone?oldid=758034708  Contributors:  Orlady,   Orlady,

9SGjOSfyHJaQVsEmy9NS, Derek R Bullamore, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Doug Welle Weller,r, RFM57, Parkwells, Rhododendrites, Rhododendrites, TheRedPenOfDoom, Roxy the dog, Bilsonius, AnomieBOT, KSpott, Faolin42, BattyBot, Dickie birdie, CyberXRef, Johnsoniensis, Just musing, Jerodlycett, Dilidor and Anonymous: 4   Oklahoma runestones  Source:    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklahoma_runestones?oldid=758415330  Contributors:    The Anome, Gabbe, Glenn, DNewhall, Dbachmann, Firespeaker, Rjwilmsi, Rjwilmsi, Nihiltres, CJLL Wright, PaulGarner, SmackBot, Hmains, Chris the speller, Bluebot, SB Johnny, OrphanBot, TurabianNights, Cydebot, Doug Weller, Storkk, Narssarssuaq, PhilKnight, Than217, ClovisPt, Berig, RobZep, Pleather, Trusilver, David Trochos, Heironymous Heironymous Rowe, Yobot, OpenFuture, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Mandruss, Rubbish computer and Anonymous: 9   Spirit Pond runestone runestoness  Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_Pond_runestones?oldid=716251850   Contributor Contributors:  s:  Gabbe, 9SGjOSfyHJaQVsEmy9NS, Firespeaker, Firespeaker, KevinOKeeffe, GregorB, CJLL Wright, Gaius Cornelius, Petri Krohn, Elonka, Hmains, Backspace, Peter Horn, Namiba, Cydebot, Doug Weller, WANAX, Sufurq, ClovisPt, Mausy5043, LokiClock, Rlendog, Goustien, Faithlessthewonderboy, Catalographer, Algkalv, Addbot, Lightbot, Magicpiano, AnomieBOT, OpenFuture, Asbrody, MondalorBot, Gareth Griffith-Jones, DoctorKubla, Hmainsbot1, Johnsagent and Anonymous: Anonymous: 5   Glenn, Indefati Vérendrye Runestone  Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9rendrye_Runestone?oldid=746490016 Contributors:  Glenn, gable, Auric, Bo Lindbergh, Firespeaker, Gene Nygaard, MatthewUND, Rjwilmsi, It’s-is-not-a-genitive, CJLL Wright, PaulGarner, Deville, Petri Krohn, Xaosflux, Hmains, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Cydebot, Caliga10, Doug Weller, Martin lindhe, ClovisPt, Berig, Chopin-Ate-Liszt!, Garret Beaumain, Beofluff, David Trochos, Addbot, Lightbot, OpenFuture, MondalorBot, AvicBot and Anonymous: Anonymous: 5  AxelBoldt, Magnus Manske, Andre Engels,   Nazca Lines  Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazca_Lines?oldid=764572102  Contributors:  AxelBoldt, Roadrunner, Ubiquity, Infrogmation, Ixfd64, Lquilter, Cyde, Skysmith, Ahoerstemeier, Snoyes, Darkwind, Glenn, Ladogs, Timc, Hyacinth, Itai, Hajor, Robbot, Ke4roh, Psychonaut, Wikibot, Giftlite, JamesMLane, Angmering, Adamk, Everyking, Vadmium, Keith Edkins, Alexf, Eregli bob, OwenBlacker, SAMAS, Kevin B12, GeoGreg, JHCC, Avihu, Hwliang, Sonett72, Trevor MacInnis, MToolen, D6, Discospinster, Vsmith, Prowsej, ESkog, Djrisk, BjarteSorensen, El C, Kwamikagami, Nigelj, Smalljim, Diceman, Nsaa, Perceval, Alansohn, AnnaP, Jaardon, Snowolf, Zenyu, Tycho, TahitiB~enwiki, Dragunova, Pedicini, GabrielF, Agutie, Ghirlandajo, Vanished user j123kmqwfk56jd, Ceyockey, Newnoise~enwiki, Ian Moody, Simetrical, Woohookitty, LOL, Gerd Breitenbach, ^demon, MONGO, Bbatsell, Turnstep, Dynamax, Stevey7788, Mandarax, Sjö, Rjwilmsi, TheRingess, Tintazul, Bensin, Tomtheman5, FlaBot, SchuminWeb, Crazycomputers, Leadgold, Pevernagie, Preslethe, Tedder, Meyer, Victor12, Travis Wells, DVdm, YurikBot, Yamara, Bill52270, Rsrikanth05, JohanL, Grafen, Thiseye, Saoshyant, Haoie, Scs, DeadEyeArrow, Maunus, Bantosh, Morcheeba, JoanneB, Scoutersig, Spliffy, Mmcannis, Cm205, Amalthea, SmackBot, McGeddon, David.Mestel, Jab843, Iph, Kintetsubuffalo, Kintetsubuffalo, Crais459, Lonelymiesarchie, Lonelymiesarchie, Gilliam, Ohnoits Ohnoitsjamie, jamie, Hmains, Bluebot, Gutworth, Ctbolt, Konstable, Fuad Ramses, Mikker, Salmar, Dethme0w, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Unatco, Alunsalt, TheGerm, Frap, DéRahier, OrphanBot, Burns flipper, Rassilon, Johan Reinhard, GuildNavigator84, Aldaron, Drphilharmonic, The PIPE, Yom, Drunken Pirate, Ohconfucius, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Valfontis, Titus III, John, AmiDaniel, Gausie, Chiwara, Sonikwlf, Evenios, Rescher, Mgiganteus1, IronGargoyl IronGargoyle, e, Shattered, Mr. Vernon, A. Parrot, Clsc, Optimale, OldDaedal OldDaedalus, us, Mr Stephen, Ajunk024, EdC~enwiki, Loxton, Xion Xionbox, box, Danfish77, Iridescent, JMK, Colonel Warden, Hurricanefloyd, Ewulp, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, Joey80, Urutapu, CmdrObot, Cyrus XIII, Dgw, FlyingToaster, Moreschi, No1lakersfan, No1lakersfan, Sebastian789, Themightyquill, Dpino, Cydebot, C ydebot, ValerioC, Wikipediarules2221, UberMan5000, Doug Weller, Chris-

tian75, Walter Humala, DumbBOT, SteveMcCluskey, SteveMcCluskey, Vanished User jdksfajlasd, jdksfajlasd, Rymich13, Thijs!bot, Thijs!bot, JAF1970, JAF1970 , Epbr123, Jaxsonjo, Jaxsonjo, Anupam, Marek69, Regraves12, John254, Tapir Terrific, NERIUM, Larspcus2, Hires an editor, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, ChargersFan, Shirt58, Littlebtc, LuckyLouie, JAnDbot, TheOtherSiguy, Timdew, Kilrothi, Secret Squïrrel, Jllm06, Lucas(CA), Froid, ClovisPt, Jeffery A. Davis, B9 hummingbird hovering, MartinBot, Anaxial, R'n'B, Alexcalamaro, J.delanoy, J.delanoy, Jmm6f488, Numbo3, Maurice Carbonaro, All Is One, Eliz81, Extransit, RoyBatty42, TomCat4680, Gzkn, Johnbod, Balthazarduju Balthazarduju,, NewEnglandYankee, SJP, Potatoswatte Potatoswatter,r, STBotD, Lebob, Azmodes, Gizzah,

 

164

 

CHAPTER CHAPTER 52. STON STONE E SPHERES SPHERES OF COSTA COSTA RICA

RJASE1, Idioma-bot, Coffee3, CWii, ABF, Classical geographer, Omegastar, Philip Trueman, Hy Brasil, Oshwah, Zidonuke, Kneaderman, Brianfit, Arnon Chaffin, Qxz, Someguy1221, JhsBot, BotKung, Themat21III, Uannis~enwiki, Blurpeace, Fudge 45, Rvn123, Alcmaeonid, Wavehunter, AlleborgoBot, PGWG, Nick Denkens, Cosprings, SieBot, Ladymadrian, Caltas, Cwkmail, Felipet1326, Andersmusician, GlassCobra, Flyer22 Reborn, Dangerousnerd, Oxymoron83, Faradayplank, Pierrelepage, Superdorito~enwiki, Buttscrape, Denisarona, Babakathy, Stillwaterising, Stillwate rising, Elnon, Sfan00 IMG, Elassint, ClueBot, Daffydavid, GorillaWarfare, GorillaWarfare, Fyyer, The Thing That SShould hould Not Be, Ericlord, TotesBoats, Franamax, Der Golem, Verenti, Mild Bill Hiccup, Sw258, Boing! said Zebedee, Rang0r lord, Markreidyhp, Blanchardb, Parkwells, Azmurath, Leadwind, Bbb2007, Excirial, Jusdafax, EBY3221, MacedonianBoy, Obiskatobis, SounderBruce, Bjdehut, Catalographer, Thingg, Versus22, WutFR, Burner0718, Eraser Killer Alpha,SI31, XLinkBot, Ost316, WillOakland, Doc9871, WikiDao, HexaChord, CalumH93, Addbot, Poco a poco, Simonm223, Hellboy2hell, X0xkirstenx0x3, Xxmorningstarxx, Clayton Briggs, Osarius, Bertrc, CanadianLinuxUser, Fluffernutter, Ronkonkaman, NjardarBot, Sillyfolkboy, LAAFan, Chzz, Ginosbot, Bungalowbill430, EdwinJs, Tide rolls, OlEnglish, Snigel2012, Mps, Angrysockhop, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Yobot, Ajh16, Carlea Carleas, s, Tea n Coffee, SwisterTwister, SwisterTwister, AnomieBOT AnomieBOT,, ThaddeusB, Jim1138, Fahadsadah, ZachZacherystaylor, Rama1981, RandomAct, Materialscientist, Somkhishvili, LeJC, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Zad68, Novoneiro, Capricorn42, Gigemag76, GrouchoBot, Shirik, RibotBOT, Surelyhuman, Conty~enwiki, Ginger74, Cekli829, Alexfenway, Edgars2007, Gråbergs Gråa Sång, VS6507, FrankMJohns FrankM Johnson, on, Bakkus Bakkus,, Mark Markeilz,Hamburge eilz,HamburgerRadio rRadio,, Citation Citation bot 1, Jerbnnon,FairlyO Jerbnnon,FairlyOddSta ddStar, r, Pine Pinethic thicket ket,, Jewlrzey Jewlrzeye, e, LittleWin LittleWink, k, Tom Tom.Redin .Reding, g, Saforcer, Saforc er, Smuckola, Yahia.barie, Σ, Jemr69, IJBall, JoonaZZ, TobeBot, NickVertical, Fawkey, Fawkey, Fama Clamosa, Luiscabrejo, Luiscabrejo, Paulmpierre, Defenderr of torch, Ivanvector, fende Ivanvector, E. Dürselen, Minimac, 4deluxe, Hornlitz, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Bluedillygal, Caitlynsmit Caitlynsmith, h, DRAGON BOOSTER, Beyond My Ken, Skamecrazy123, BrendanFrye, Cricobr, Orphan Wiki, WikitanvirBot, Look2See1, Heracles31, Tommy2010, RegentProxy, Dcirovic, Msudhakardce, Mz7, John Cline, Fæ, Needarb, Governmentofperu, 12345678900987654321l, Alpha Quadrant, Bbudisin, Perseus, Son of Zeus, Thefishman1987, Donner60, Aldnonymous, Sergio handal, Sergio Handal, ChuispastonBot, Maedar, ClueBot NG, MelbourneStar, Bigdgal, Motormaddness, SilverSurfer89, Widr, Gavin.perch, Wikiandes, Padung, Theopolisme, MerlIwBot, Oddbodz, Helpful Pixie Bot, Gob Lofa, GoCubsGoCubs10, BG19bot, Dirtbikethomas, Ajinkya Pasalkar, Overanalyzer, MusikAnimal, Mark Arsten, Treva26, Silvrous, NazcaCodeBreaker, Blackberry Sorbet, Snow Blizzard, OnderOtcu, Insidiae, Rhinomantis88, 220 of Borg, Wannabemodel, Wannabemodel, Earp1957, Vvven, BattyBot, Globe Trekker, GoShow, Duffman7391, Edwaali18, SpudMcCoy, GeoLines, Rgtiger92, Cuculcan2012, Hayhayrox1, Zeeyanwiki, Peter Reynosa, Leon petrosyan, Elenatroyana, Elenatroyana, Foonarres, Telf Telfordbuck, ordbuck, Arcane21, Missionedit, Missionedit, Acetotyce, SchmalLubnan SchmalLubnan3321, 3321, NYBrook098, SayedUmaarKazmi, SayedUmaa rKazmi, Zenibus, NottNott, Johny6667, SJ Defen Defender, der, Automaticsteam, A6tf3t, Filedelinkerbot, Tmwarren, WikiWisePowder, WikiWisePowder, BethNaught, Abe Dogg, Alvaro-jordi, MollyMcHugh, Amortias, AmeliaSmithx, Ncard24, Gaurang sharma, B3njo578, SillySally22, Nastynacy22, 2slick4u, Cyfarwy Cyfarwydd, dd, IntriguingStar, Supdiop, NormanSchwarze, JorgeGNM, CAPTAIN R RAJU, AJU, SssGrapefruitSculpin, shukla, Sahil sanjay shukla..., Karmaclub, CLCStudent, IF!nk,KasparBot, Cephus0, Ashleywhitneyorozco, Algea.05,FaZe GaloRibs, de Barcelos, GreenC bot, Cartoons Universe, Esteban in Hemet, Bender the Bot, Voltron23 and Anonymous: 847 •

•

 Csernica, Raven in   Piri Reis map Source:   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piri_Reis_map?oldid=764244909   Contributor Contributors:  s:  Csernica,

Orbit, Hajor, Hajor, Twang, Olpus, Mervyn, Cyrius, C yrius, Graeme Bartlett, Peruvianllam Peruvianllama, a, Henry Flower, Varlaam, Nim278, Macrakis, Infradig, Ukexpat, MakeRocketGoNow, Vsmith, Dbachmann, Saf kan, Kwamikagami, CeeGee, Enric Naval, Soufron, Grutness, Mceder, Andrew Gray, SlimVirgin, Dave.Dunford, Bobrayner, Sandius, Odeveli, Al E., Male1979, Mandarax, Don Braffitt, BD2412, Electionworld, Avia, Kalogeropoulos, Ev, Avocado, Itinerant1, Gurch, EamonnPKeane, YurikBot, Hairy Dude, Varenius, Wiki alf, Karl Andrews, Maunus, Smaines, Petri Krohn, Entheta, SmackBot, PiCo, Mangoe, Kim FOR sure, Jagged 85, AtilimGunesBaydin, Gcmarino, Srnec, Luenlin, Chris the speller, Bluebot, SoGonzo, Tarikash, Petlif, Rrburke, Krsont, Paul H., Badgerpatrol, Kendrick7, Nishkid64, Richard19, BoH, Anakata, A nakata, Cydebot, Doug Weller, RobotG, Simonkinahan, AstroLynx, LuckyLouie, Tuor~enwiki, Gregorymcintosh, DuncanHill, Arturo 7, Magioladitis, Balloonguy, ClovisPt, EagleFan, Antiguobey, Eric Deeson, Strikehold, WLU, Baristarim, WiiVolve, R'n'B, Jmm6f488, Enderworthing, Balthazarduju, Rocket71048576, Birczanin, VolkovBot, Macedonian, EnterStanman, MCTales, Mustafa11~enwiki, SieBot, Happysailor, Faithlessthewonderboy, Newzild, Kafka Liz, David Trochos, SamuelTheGhost, SchreiberBike, Al-Andalusi, Jim15936, Jlray, DumZiBoT, PaulBoxley, PaulBoxley, Aunt Entropy, Ordtoy, Addbot, LarryJeff, Wikkidd, Fhmann~enwiki, LuK3, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Bunnyhop11, Yiferic, Umbertoumm, Againme, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Ckruschke, Citation bot, Maxis ftw, RibotBOT, Zumalabe, Brutaldeluxe, Asfarer, FrescoBot, Emilius V, Citation bot 1, SuperJew, Pinethicket, Jonesey95, Madmonkey1, Kiteagle, Mottobazza, MarleyEngvall, John of Reading, Dewritech, Seadiver777, Donner60, Concord113, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Darkness Shines, Egeymi, Hmainsbot1, Mogism, LahmacunKebab, 50seven, Bmh81, Iluvumerijaan, Iluvumerijaan, Alfie Gandon and Anonymous: 120   Stone spheres of Costa Rica   Source:    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_spheres_of_Costa_Rica?oldid=763913375  Contributors:   AxelBoldt, Dan Koehl, Hoopes, Twang, DavidCary, Kaldari, DragonflySixtyseven, O'Dea, Dreiss2, Walden, Smalljim, Ghirlandajo, Dan East, Woohookitty, Woohoo kitty, Mindmatrix, Fxer, Sparkit, Fernando Reis, Quiddity, MikeJ9919, Rmpfu89, Rune.welsh, Srleffler, Valentinian, Valentinian, Bgwhite, WA WAvegvegetarian, Bovineone, SEWilcoBot, Matthewobrien, Bhumiya, SMcCandlish, Groyolo, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Mdd4696, Baa, Vergean,, Garykiser, Rustypup49, WaldoJ, Vergean WaldoJ, Pwjb, Paul H., Rigadoun, Gobonobo, Avs5221, Quibik, Rquesada, Seaphoto, Tillman, Awien, Simon Burchell, Mgmirkin, Karl432, ClovisPt, J.delanoy, Jmm6f488, Johnbod, Carolfrog, Ipigott, Jevansen, Dogsgomoo, Vincent Lextrait, TXiKiBoT, Someguy1221, Andy Dingley, Gillyweed, Macdonald-ross, Bfpage, Bfpage, Drtimmcguinness, Harry-, Mx. Granger, Icarusgeek, Soaringbear, Alexbot, Erebus Morgaine, Theredgiant, Addbot, Revansatoda, CanadianLinuxUser, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Magog the Ogre, AnomieBOT, Zacherystaylor, erystayl or, Xqbot, Mijcof Mijcofr,r, Trappist the monk, Red R ed Denim, Ax Axxis10, xis10, EmausBot, Immunize, Look2See1, ZéroBot, 111bennyboy111, H3llBot, Spacechar Space charly, ly, ClueBot ClueBot NG, Friet Frietjes, jes, Rama Ramaksou ksoud2000, d2000, Elspamo4, Elspamo4, MusikAnim MusikAnimal, al, Theh Thehuman umandigni dignity, ty, MrBill3, MrBill3, Batt BattyBot,Cyberbot yBot,Cyberbot II, 069952497a 069952497a,, TheOriginalMac, Monkbot, Arstempo, Filedelinkerbot, Filedelinkerbot, Bernard maurin, SA 13 Bro, Jerodlycett, Jerodlycett, Wingding341, BU Rob13, JJMC89 bot, Bender the Bot, Megiroember and Anonymous: 63

52 52.1 .14. 4.2 2 •

Image Imagess

  Public File:10_Commandment_Rock.jpg   License:    Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/10_Commandment_Rock.jpg domain Contributors:  Transferred   Transferred from en.wikipedia to from en.wikipedia  to Commons.  Original artist:  Brainardo at  Brainardo at English  English Wikipedia •

  File:1911-04-19RunestoneSale.jpg   Source:  

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/1911-04-19RunestoneSale.jpg  License:  Public domain Contributors:   http://collections.mnhs.org/cms/display.php?irn=10670545 Original artist:  Minnesota  Minnesota Historical Society and Olof Ohman

 

52.14. TEXT TEXT AND IMAGE IMAGE SOURCES, CONT CONTRIB RIBUTORS, UTORS, AND LICENSES 

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

 

165

  File:20041229-Olmec_Head_(Museo_Nacional_de_Antropología).jpg   Source:   

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/ machine20041229-Olmec_Head_%28Museo_Nacional_de_Antropolog%C3%ADa%29.jpg   License:    CC-BY-SA-3.0   Contributors:    No machinereadable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims).   Original artist:  No machine-readable author provided.   Luidger assumed (based on copyright claims).   File:Acambaro080407025.JPG  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Acambaro080407025.JPG  License:   GFDL  Own work  Original artist:  Fchavez2000  Fchavez2000 Contributors:  Own   File:Ambox_important.svg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg  License:  Public domain   Dsmurat (talk talk ·  contribs  contribs)) Contributors:  Own  Own work, based off of Image:Ambox of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist:  Dsmurat (   File:Antikythera-proposed-1.svg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Antikythera-proposed-1.svg  License:   CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:   Own work  Original artist:   Lead Lead holder Contributors:  Own   File:Antikythera-proposed-3.svg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Antikythera-proposed-3.svg  License:   CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:   Own work  Original artist:   Lead Lead holder Contributors:  Own   File:Antikythera-proposed-4.svg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Antikythera-proposed-4.svg  License:   CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:   Own work  Original artist:   Lead Lead holder Contributors:  Own   File:AntikytheraMechanismSchematic-Freeth12.png   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/ AntikytheraMechanismSchematic-Freeth12.png  License:  CC  CC BY-SA 3.0  Contributors:  Own  Own work  Original artist:   SkoreKeep SkoreKeep   File:Antikythera_mechanism.svg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Antikythera_mechanism.svg   License:  Public domain Contributors:  File:Meccanismo_di_Antikytera.jpg   File:Meccanismo_di_Antikytera.jpg Original artist:  Lead  Lead Holder   File:Antikythera_model_front_panel_Mogi_Vicentini_2007.JPG   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/ Antikythera_model_front_panel_Mogi_Vicentini_2007.JPG  License:  CC  CC BY 2.5 Contributor  Own work Original artist:  Mogi  Mogi Vicentini Contributors:  s:  Own   File:Archaeological_site_icon_(red).svg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_ %28red%29.svg  License:  CC  CC BY 2.0  Contributors:  Own  Own work  Original artist:   Edgars2007 Edgars2007   File:Ashoka_Pillar_Delhi.JPG Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Iron_Pillar%2C_Delhi.jpg License:  CC  CC BYSA 3.0 Contributors:  Own  Own work  Original artist:  Sujit   Sujit kumar  CCBY 3. 3.00   File:Bat-creek-tennessee1.jpg Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Bat-creek-tennessee1.jpg License:  CCBY  Own work  Original artist:   Brian Brian Stansberry Contributors:  Own   File:Bat_Creek_Exam_5-28-10.JPG   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Bat_Creek_Exam_5-28-10.JPG   Li CC BY-SA 3.0  Contributors:   Own work Original artist:   Hookedx Hookedx (Scott Wolter) cense:  CC Contributors:  Own   File:Bat_Creek_Inscription_1890_Lithograph_Figure_7_Inverted.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/ Bat_Creek_Inscription_1890_Lithograph_Figure_7_Inverted.jpg  License:  Public domain  Contributors:   http://www.econ.ohio-state.edu/jhm/ arch/batcrk.html Original artist:  Cyrus  Cyrus H. Thomas   File:British_Museum_Aztec_or_Mixtec_mask.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/British_Museum_  CC BY-SA 3.0  Contributor Simon Burchell Aztec_or_Mixtec_mask.jpg  License:  CC Burchell (Own  (Own work) Original artist:  ?  ? Contributors:  s:   Simon   File:Calaveras_Skull.jpg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Calaveras_Skull.jpg  License:  Public domain  Con Originally published in  Review of the Evidence Relating to Auriferous Gravel Man in California  in the Smithsonian Report for 1899, tributors:  Originally pages 419–472, Plates I-XVI. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. Downloaded from http://www.archaeology.org/online/ from  http://www.archaeology.org/online/ features/hoaxes/calaveras.html Original artist:   William William Henry Holmes   File:Cherokee_Syllabary.svg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Cherokee_Syllabary.svg  License:   Public

domain   Contributors:  from  en.wikipedia to  to Commons. Commons. Tran Transf sfer er was stated to be made by by User:Mike.lifeguard  User:Mike.lifeguard..   Original artist:  Contributors:   Transferred from en.wikipedia Sakurambo at  English Wikipedia Sakurambo at English   File:Cladorhiza_concrescens_Agassiz_illustration.png   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Cladorhiza_ cruises of the United States States Coast and Geodetic Geodetic Survey concrescens_Agassiz_illustration.png  License:   Public domain  Contributors:   Three cruises steamer “Blake” in the Gulf of Mexico, in the Caribbean Sea, and along the Atlantic coast of the United States, from 1877 to 1880 Figure 1880  Figure 541  Alexander Agassiz (1835—1910) Original artist:  Alexander   File:Commons-logo.svg   Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg  License:   PD  Contributors:   ?   Original  artist:   ??   File:Computer_graphic_for_back_of_Antikythera_mechanism.jpg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4b/Computer_ publication on: The Antiky Antikythera thera Mec Mechanis hanism m graphic_for_back_of_Antikythera_mechanism.jpg   License:    Fair use  Contributors:    Original publicati Research Project Immediate The Antikythera Mechanism Research Projec Projectt

  Tony Freeth Original artist:  Tony •

  File:Computer_graphic_for_front_of_Antikythera_mechanism.jpg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b8/Computer_

  License:    Fair use  Contributors:    Original graphic_for_front_of_Antikythera_mechanism.jpg Research Project

publication:

The Antiky Antikythera thera Mec Mechanis hanism m

Immediate The Antikythera Mechanism Research Projec Projectt

  Tony Freeth Original artist:  Tony

 

166 •

 

CHAPTER CHAPTER 52. STON STONE E SPHERES SPHERES OF COSTA COSTA RICA

  File:Creation_of_Light_Detail_2.png  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Creation_of_Light_Detail_2.png  Li-

 Public domain  Contributors:   ?  Original artist:   Vanished Vanished user user at  at en.wikipedia cense:  Public Contributors:  ? •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

  File:Crystal_skull_british_museum_random9834672.jpg   Source:   

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Crystal_skull_  CC BY 3.0  Contributors:  Rafał   Rafał Chałgasiewicz (Own Chałgasiewicz (Own work) Original artist:  ? british_museum_random9834672.jpg  License:  CC  ?   File:Crystal_skull_in_Musée_du_quai_Branly,_Paris.jpg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Crystal_skull_  Public doma domain in Contributor  Self-photographed Original artist:   Klaus-Dieter Klaus-Dieter Keller in_Mus%C3%A9e_du_quai_Branly%2C_Paris.jpg  License:  Public Contributors:  s:  Self-photographed

  Original File:David_face.png Contributors:  s:  ?  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/David_face.png  License:  Public  Public domain  Contributor  ? artist:   ??   File:Decalogue_Holy_Stones.png  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Decalogue_Holy_Stones.png  License:   At-

tribution Contributors:  http://www.econ.ohio-state.edu/jhm/arch/decalog.html Original artist:  J.  J. Huston McCulloch Contributors:   http://www.econ.ohio-state.edu/jhm/arch/decalog.html   File:Dendera_light_002.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Dendera_light_002.jpg  License:    CC BY 2.5  to Commons.  Original artist:  The  The original uploader was Twthmoses was Twthmoses at  at English  English Wikipedia   Transferred from en.wikipedia from en.wikipedia to Contributors:  Transferred   File:Der_Eiserne_Mann.jpg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Der_Eiserne_Mann.jpg License:  Public  Public domain  User created Original artist:  Chris  Chris Walters Contributors:  User   File:Der_Eiserne_Mann_Closeup.jpg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Der_Eiserne_Mann_Closeup.jpg  Li Public domain  Contributors:   User created Original artist:  Chris  Chris Walters cense:  Public Contributors:  User   File:Details_of_the_top_of_iron_pillar,_Qutub_Minar,_Delhi.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/  CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributor India-0349 Original artist:   Dennis Dennis Details_of_the_top_of_iron_pillar%2C_Qutub_Minar%2C_Delhi.jpg  License:  CC Contributors:  s:   India-0349 Jarvis from Jarvis  from Halifax, Canada https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/EBoban.jpg License:  Public  Public domain Contributor  ?   Original    File:EBoban.jpg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/EBoban.jpg Contributors:  s:  ? artist:   ??   File:Edit-clear.svg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg  License:  Public domain  Contributors:   The  Tango! Desktop Project .  Original artist: 

•

•

•

•

•

•

The people from the Tango! project. project. And according to the meta-data in the file, specifically: “Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although minimally).”   File:Edward_Larsson_1885_I.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Edward_Larsson_1885_I.jpg   License:  Public domain Contributors:  First  First published in DAUM-katta in  DAUM-katta in  in 2003.  Original artist:  Edward  Edward Larsson  Public domain  Conhttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Eltanin_Antenna.jpg License:  Public   File:Eltanin_Antenna.jpg Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Eltanin_Antenna.jpg  ? tributors:   ??  Original artist:  ?   File:Escultura_con_esferas_de_J_Jimenez_Deredia.JPG  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Escultura_con_ esferas_de_J_Jimenez_Deredia.JPG License:  Public  Public domain  Contributor  Own work Original artist:  Axxis10   Axxis10 Contributors:  s:  Own   File:Esfera_Precolombina_en_Univ_de_Costa_Rica.JPG   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Esfera_ Precolombina_en_Univ_de_Costa_Rica.JPG  License:  Public  Public domain  Contributors:  Own  Own work Original artist:   Axxis10 Axxis10   File:Esperanza_stone_1909.JPG  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Esperanza_stone_1909.JPG  License:  Pub  Public domain Contributors:  Recreations  Recreations of a Sportsman on the Pacific Coast, By Charles Frederick Holder, p. 135 Original artist:  Charles  Charles Frederick Holder   File:Farm_6_archaeological_site,_Costa_Rica.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Farm_6_ archaeological_site%2C_Costa_Rica.jpg  License:   CC BY 3.0  Contributors:   I (Anne Egitto) Egitto) created created this work entir entirely ely by myself.   Original artist: 

 A. Egitto  ? tributors:   ??  Original artist:  ?

 Public domain  Con•   File:Flag_of_Arizona.svg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Flag_of_Arizona.svg License:  Public •

 Public domain Contributor https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg License:  Public Contributors:  s:    File:Flag_of_Peru.svg Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg Peru  Original artist:  David  David Benbennick

•

 Cc-by-sa-3.0   File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License:  Cc-by-sa-3.0  ? Contributors:   ??  Original artist:  ?

•

•

•

•

  https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/ Gearing_Relationships_of_the_Antikythera_Mechanism.svg License:  CC  CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:  Own  Own work Original artist:   Scott Scott Shambaugh   File:Germanyfilm.svg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Germanyfilm.svg  License:  LGPL   Contributor Contributors:  s:   Own modification of work from Commons  Original artist:   Ysangkok Ysangkok   File:Grave_Creek_Mound.jpg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Grave_Creek_Mound.jpg  License:  CC BYSA 2.5 Contributors:  Own  Own work (self-made photograph)  Original artist:  Tim  Tim Kiser (w:User:Malepheasant (w:User:Malepheasant))   File:Grave_Creek_Stone_and_wax_cast.png   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Grave_Creek_Stone_and_ wax_cast.png  License:  Public domain  Contributors:   http://www.econ.ohio-state.edu/jhm/arch/grvcrk.html  Original artist:  Smithsonian Institution

  File:Gearing_Relationships_of_the_Antikythera_Mechanism.svg   Source: 

•

•

  File:Half_Shekel.jpg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Half_Shekel.jpg License:  CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:  s:    CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributor

 CNG CNG coins Original artist:  CNG

  https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Hampson_effigypot_HRoe_  CC BY-SA 3.0  Contributors:  Transferred   Transferred from en.wikipedia from en.wikipedia to 2006.jpg  License:  CC  to Commons by Dmitri by  Dmitri Lytov Lytov using  using  CommonsHel CommonsHelper per..   Original   Heironymous Rowe at  English Wikipedia  Herb Roe, www.chromesun.com The original uploader was was Heironymous Rowe at English artist:  Herb

  File:Hampson_effigypot_HRoe_2006.jpg   Source: 

 

52.14. TEXT TEXT AND IMAGE IMAGE SOURCES, CONT CONTRIB RIBUTORS, UTORS, AND LICENSES 

 

167

•

 Public do  File:Heavener-runestenen.jpg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Heavener-runestenen.jpg License:  Public

•

main   Contributors:  from  da.wikipedia to  to Commons. - en:Image:Heavener -  en:Image:Heavener runestone.jpg  Original artist:  en:User:Technogypsy  en:User:Technogypsy at  at Contributors:   Transferred from da.wikipedia en.wikipedia   File:Hieroglif_z_Abydos.jpg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Hieroglif_z_Abydos.jpg  License:   Public domain  Contributors:   Own work Original artist:  Olek95  Olek95 Contributors:  Own   File:Ica_stones1.JPG Source:  https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Ica_stones1.JPG   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Ica_stones1.JPG License:  CC  CC BY-SA 3.0  Contributor Contributors:  s: 

•

 Original artist:  •

Own work

 Brattarb

  File:Ica_stones3.JPG Source:  https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Ica_stones3.JPG   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Ica_stones3.JPG License:  CC  CC BY-SA 3.0  Contributor Contributors:  s: 

Own work Original artist:  Brattarb  Brattarb •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

  File:Inscription_on_Iron_Pillar,_Delhi.jpg   Source:   

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Inscription_on_Iron_Pillar%  Public domain  Contributors:  Original  Original photograph  Original artist:  Photo  Photo taken by en:User:~{}shuri by en:User:~{}shuri 2C_Delhi.jpg  License:  Public   File:Iron_Pillar_of_Delhi,_upper_half,_cropped.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Iron_Pillar_of_  CC BY-SA 4.0  Contributors:  Own  Own work Original artist:  DoctorJoeE  DoctorJoeE Delhi%2C_upper_half%2C_cropped.jpg  License:  CC   File:Ironie_pile_Bagdad.jpg   Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Ironie_pile_Bagdad.jpg  License:   CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors:  Own  Own work  Original artist:  Ironie  Ironie   File:Kensington-runestone_flom-1910.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Kensington-runestone_ flom-1910.jpg  License:  Public domain  Contributors:  Foldout illustration to book “The Kensington Rune-Stone : an address”  Original artist:  Book author: George T. Flom   File:Kensington_MN_routes.jpg   Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Kensington_MN_routes.jpg  License:   CCBY-SA-3.0 Contributors:  Contributors:  _Canada_topo.jpg: uploaded to en.wikipedia by Captain_Blood   _Canada_topo.jpg Original artist:   _Canada_topo.jpg:   File:Keystone_Holy_Stones.gif Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Keystone_Holy_Stones.gif https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Keystone_Holy_Stones.gif License:  Attribu  Attribu-

 J. Huston McCulloch tion  Contributors:  http://www.econ.ohio-state.edu/jhm/arch/decalog.html   http://www.econ.ohio-state.edu/jhm/arch/decalog.html Original artist:  J.   File:Kingoodie_Quarry_-_geograph.org.uk_-_170750.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Kingoodie_  CC BY-SA 2.0  Contributors:  From geograph.org.uk  From geograph.org.uk Original artist:  Karen  Karen Vernon Quarry_-_geograph.org.uk_-_170750.jpg  License:  CC   File:Kung_Magnus_Erikssons_domsigill.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Kung_Magnus_Erikssons_  Public domain Contributor  Ilmari Salomies:  Suomen kirkon historia I Suomen kirkko keskiaikana.  Helsinki 1944.   Origdomsigill.jpg  License:  Public Contributors:  s:  Ilmari  Unknown   File:La_Venta_Stela_3_detail.png   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/La_Venta_Stela_3_detail.png   License:  CC-BY-SA-3.0   Contributors:  claims). ms).   Original artist:   No Contributors:  No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright clai machine-readable machine-reada ble author provided. provided. Madman2001  Madman2001 assumed  assumed (based on copyright claims) claims)..   https:   File:Lake_Winnipesaukee_mystery_stone_at_the_New_Hampshire_Historical_Society,_Concord_NH.jpg   Source:  //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Lake_Winnipesaukee_mystery_stone_at_the_New_Hampshire_Historical_Society%  CC BY-SA 3.0  Contributors:  Own  Own work  Original artist:  John  John Phelan 2C_Concord_NH.jpg  License:  CC   File:Lignes_de_Nazca_oiseau.jpg   Source:   

  License:  CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:  Own  Own work Originalhttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Lignes_de_Nazca_oiseau.jpg  Marcito artist:  Marcito   File:London_Hammer.jpg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/10/London_Hammer.jpg   License:   Fair use  Contributors:  Original publicati publication on: Above photos

 Glen J. Kuban Immediate source:  http://paleo.cc/paluxy/hammer.htm  Original artist:  Glen •

•

•

•

  File:Los_Lunas_Decalogue_Stone_Vandalized,_Aug._13,_2006.jpg  Source:  https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Los_   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Los_

 CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:  I I took this photograph myself. OrigLunas_Decalogue_Stone_Vandalized%2C_Aug._13%2C_2006.jpg  License:  CC  HuMcCulloch inal artist:  HuMcCulloch   File:Líneas_de_Nazca,_Nazca,_Perú,_2015-07-29,_DD_39.JPG Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/L%C3% ADneas_de_Nazca%2C_Nazca%2C_Per%C3%BA%2C_2015-07-29%2C_DD_39.JPG  License:   CC BY-SA 4.0  Contributors:   Own work Diego Delso Original artist:   Diego   File:Líneas_de_Nazca,_Nazca,_Perú,_2015-07-29,_DD_46.JPG Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/L%C3% https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/L%C3% ADneas_de_Nazca%2C_Nazca%2C_Per%C3%BA%2C_2015-07-29%2C_DD_46.JPG  License:   CC BY-SA 4.0  Contributors:   Own work Diego Delso Original artist:   Diego   File:Líneas_de_Nazca,_Nazca,_Perú,_2015-07-29,_DD_49.JPG  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/L%C3%

ADneas_de_Nazca%2C_Nazca%2C_Per%C3%BA%2C_2015-07-29%2C_DD_49.JPG Diego Delso Original artist:   Diego •

 License:   CC BY-SA 4.0  Contributors:   Own work

  File:Líneas_de_Nazca,_Nazca,_Perú,_2015-07-29,_DD_50.JPG Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/L%C3%

ADneas_de_Nazca%2C_Nazca%2C_Per%C3%BA%2C_2015-07-29%2C_DD_50.JPG  License:   CC BY-SA 4.0  Contributors:   Own work

Diego Delso Original artist:   Diego

 

168 •

 

CHAPTER CHAPTER 52. STON STONE E SPHERES SPHERES OF COSTA COSTA RICA

  File:Líneas_de_Nazca,_Nazca,_Perú,_2015-07-29,_DD_52.JPG Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/L%C3%

ADneas_de_Nazca%2C_Nazca%2C_Per%C3%BA%2C_2015-07-29%2C_DD_52.JPG  License:   CC BY-SA 4.0  Contributors:   Own work Diego Delso Original artist:   Diego •

  File:Líneas_de_Nazca,_Nazca,_Perú,_2015-07-29,_DD_54.JPG Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/L%C3% https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/L%C3%

ADneas_de_Nazca%2C_Nazca%2C_Per%C3%BA%2C_2015-07-29%2C_DD_54.JPG  License:   CC BY-SA 4.0  Contributors:   Own work Diego Delso Original artist:   Diego •

  File:Líneas_de_Nazca,_Nazca,_Perú,_2015-07-29,_DD_55.JPG Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/L%C3% https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/L%C3%

ADneas_de_Nazca%2C_Nazca%2C_Per%C3%BA%2C_2015-07-29%2C_DD_55.JPG  License:   CC BY-SA 4.0  Contributors:   Own work

Diego Delso Original artist:   Diego •

  File:Líneas_de_Nazca,_Nazca,_Perú,_2015-07-29,_DD_58.JPG Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/L%C3% https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/L%C3%

ADneas_de_Nazca%2C_Nazca%2C_Per%C3%BA%2C_2015-07-29%2C_DD_58.JPG  License:   CC BY-SA 4.0  Contributors:   Own work

Diego Delso Original artist:   Diego •

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/L%C3%   File:Líneas_de_Nazca,_Nazca,_Perú,_2015-07-29,_DD_61.JPG Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/L%C3% ADneas_de_Nazca%2C_Nazca%2C_Per%C3%BA%2C_2015-07-29%2C_DD_61.JPG  License:   CC BY-SA 4.0  Contributors:   Own work Diego Delso Original artist:   Diego   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Macoy_ Masonic_Hebrew_with_text_1868_p134.jpg  License:  Public domain  Contributors:  Original publication: Macoy, Robert, General History, Cyclopedia and Dictionary Dictionary of Freemasonry, Masonic Publishing Co., New York, 3rd ed., 1868, p. 134. Robert Macoy Immediate source: Original source, in library of Worthington OH Masonic Lodge. Original artist:   Robert

•

  File:Macoy_Masonic_Hebrew_with_text_1868_p134.jpg   Source: 

•

  File:Misrah_Ghar_il-Kbir_4.jpg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Misrah_Ghar_il-Kbir_4.jpg  License:   CC

•

BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:   Own work  Original artist:  Lysy   Lysy Contributors:  Own   File:Misrah_Ghar_il-Kbir_5.jpg   Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Misrah_Ghar_il-Kbir_5.jpg  License:   CC Contributors:  Own BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:   Own work  Original artist:  Lysy   Lysy

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

• •

•

•

  https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/NAMA_Machine_d% 27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg  License:   CC BY 2.5  Contributors:   No machin machine-rea e-readable dable sour source ce provided. provided. Own work assum assumed ed (based on  Marsyas assumed  assumed (based on copyright claims). copyright claims).  Original artist:  No  No machine-readab machine-readable le author provided. provided. Marsyas   File:NAMA_Machine_d'Anticythère_4.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/NAMA_Machine_d% machine-rea e-readable dable sour source ce provided. provided. Own work assum assumed ed (based on 27Anticyth%C3%A8re_4.jpg  License:   CC BY 2.5  Contributors:   No machin copyright claims).  Original artist:  No  No machine-readab machine-readable le author provided. provided. Marsyas  Marsyas assumed  assumed (based on copyright claims).   File:NEO_nazca_lines_big.jpg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/NEO_nazca_lines_big.jpg  License:   Public domain  Contributors:   ? Contributors:   ??  Original artist:  ?   File:Nat_arc_mus_ath_09.jpg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/National_Archaeological_Museum_Athens_   GFDL Contributors:  Skyscrapercity.com com Original artist:  Lucretius  Lucretius 09.jpg  License:  GFDL Contributors:   Skyscrapercity. CC   File:Nazca-lineas-manos-c01.jpg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Nazca-lineas-manos-c01.jpg  License:   CC BY-SA 2.5 es  Contributors:   ?  Original artist:  ?  ? Contributors:  ?   File:Nazca_Lines_SPOT_1311.jpg   Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Nazca_Lines_SPOT_1311.jpg  License:   Cnes - Spot Image CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:   http://gallery.spotimage.com/product_info.php?products_id=1311 http://gallery.spotimage.com/product_info.php?products_id=1311 Original artist:  Cnes https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Nazca_monkey.jpg License:  Public  Public domain  Contrib  File:Nazca_monkey.jpg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Nazca_monkey.jpg utors:   ??  Original artist:  ?  ?   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Olmec_mask_at_Met.jpg License:  CCBY  CCBY 2. 2.55   File:Olmec_mask_at_Met.jpg Source:  https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Olmec_mask_at_Met.jpg   No machine-readable source provided. provided. Own work assumed (based on copyri copyright ght claims).   Original artist:  No machine-readable Contributors:  No author provided. Madman2001 provided.  Madman2001 assumed  assumed (based on copyright claims) claims)..   File:Ottosdal1.jpg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Ottosdal1.jpg  License:  Public domain  Contributors:   Own work Original artist:  Robert  Robert Huggett   File:Outline_map_of_Central_America.svg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Outline_map_of_Central_  CC BY-SA 2.0  Contributor  This vector image was image was created with Inkscape America.svg License:  CC with  Inkscape..  Original artist:  Contributors:  s:  This vector  Виктор В   File:Palmar_Sur,_Costa_Rica_(2007).jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Palmar_Sur%2C_Costa_Rica_  CC BY 3.0 Contributor  Own work Original artist:  Anne  Anne Egitto at Egitto at en.wikipedia %282007%29.jpg  License:  CC  en.wikipedia Contributors:  s:  Own   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/ea/PangbocheHand.jpg License:  Fair  Fair use Contributors:    File:PangbocheHand.jpg  Source:  https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/ea/PangbocheHand.jpg  ? http://www.unexplained-mysteries.com/gallery/displayimage.php?album=9&pos=61  Original artist:  ?   File:Peithynen_-_displaying_Bardic_Alphabet_(coelbren_y_beirdd).jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/50/  Fair use Contributor Peithynen_-_displaying_Bardic_Alphabet_%28coelbren_y_beirdd%29.jpg  License:  Fair Contributors:  s:    File:NAMA_Machine_d'Anticythère_1.jpg   Source: 

http://www.museumwales.ac.uk/en/888/ Original artist:  ?  ?

•

  https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/   Source:  Pentadic-Runic-Numerals-Edward_Larsson_1885.jpg   License:    Public domain  Contributors:    This file has been  extracted   from another file: Edward file: Edward Larsson 1885 I.jpg  Edward Larsson Original artist:  Edward

  File:Pentadic-Runic-Numerals-Edward_Larsson_1885.jpg

 

52.14. TEXT TEXT AND IMAGE IMAGE SOURCES, CONT CONTRIB RIBUTORS, UTORS, AND LICENSES 

 

169

•

  File:Photo_1-plane_front_view1.jpg   Source:   

•

  File:Photo_2-plane_side_view1.jpg Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Photo_2-plane_side_view1.jpg License: 

•

•

•

•

•

•

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Photo_1-plane_front_view1.jpg   Lipicture re was taken by Dawoud Khalil Messiha Messiha who is sending sending this picture by himself himself.. The pictu picture re cense:  Public domain   Contributors:  Contributors:   the pictu was not taken from any URL or other sources as it is the work of Dawoud Khalil Messiha.  Original artist:  Dawoud  Dawoud Khalil Messiha

CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:  Own  Own work Original artist:  Dawoudk  Dawoudk   File:Piri_reis_world_map_01.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Piri_reis_world_map_01.jpg   License:  Public domain Contributors:   Bilkent Bilkent University (lo res) Piri Reis res),, erisi.com (hi res) Original artist:   Piri Reis (circa  (circa 1467 - circa 1554)   File:Poggiapipe_indiano.jpg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Poggiapipe_indiano.jpg  License:   Public domain  Contributors:   K. Bharatha Iyer, “Arte indiana” (Arnoldo Mondadori Mondadori Editore, 1964)  Original artist:  K.  K. Bharatha Iyer Contributors:  K.   File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License:  Public  Public domain Contributor  ?  OrigContributors:  s:  ? inal artist:   ??   File:Pre-Columbian_Stone_Balls_at_Palmar_Sur,_Costa_Rica.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/ Pre-Columbian_Stone_Balls_at_Palmar_Sur%2C_Costa_Rica.jpg  License:   CC BY-SA 3.0   Contributor Contributors:  s:   This photo was taken by myself. Original artist:   Matthewobrien   File:QtubIronPillar.JPG  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/QtubIronPillar.JPG  License:  Public domain   Con [1]]  Original photograph Original artist:  Photograph  Photograph taken by Mark A. Wilson (Department of G Geology, eology, The College of Wooste Wooster). r). [1 tributors:  Original   File:Question_book-new.svg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg  License:  Cc-by-sa-3.0   Contributors: 

•

•

•

•

Created from scratch scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question on Image:Question book.png created book.png created by User:Equazcion by User:Equazcion  Original artist:  Tkgd2007   File:QutbIronInscription.jpg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/QutbIronInscription.jpg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/QutbIronInscription.jpg  License:  CC-BY-SA  CC-BY-SA3.0 Contributors:  Transferred   Transferred from en.wikipedia from en.wikipedia to  to Commons.  Original artist:  Deeptrivia at  Deeptrivia at English  English Wikipedia   File:Rubik’{}s_cube_v3.svg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Rubik%27s_cube_v3.svg  License:  CC-BY-SA  CC-BY-SA-

 User:Meph666 modified  modified by User:Niabot by User:Niabot 3.0 Contributors:  Image:Rubik’{}s  Image:Rubik’{}s cube v2.svg  Original artist:  User:Booyabazooka,  User:Booyabazooka, User:Meph666  Public domain  Contribu  File:Runes.Larsson.gif  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Runes.Larsson.gif  License:  Public  Originally uploaded on en.wikipedia (Transferred (Transferred by by Jalo  Jalo)) Original artist:  Originally  Originally uploaded by McGeddon by  McGeddon tors:  Originally   File:Runestone_shawnee_HRoe_2005.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/29/Runestone_shawnee_HRoe_2005.jpg   CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:  License:  CC-BY-SA-3.0 I created this work entirely by myse myself. lf. Original artist: 

Heironymous Rowe ( Rowe (talk talk)) •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

  File:Samaritan_doorpost.jpg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Samaritan_doorpost.jpg  License:  CC

BY-SA 2.5 Contributors:  Own  Own work  Original artist:  Shuki  Shuki   File:SchoharieC2.jpg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/SchoharieC2.jpg  License:  CC BY 3.0   Contributor Contributors:  s:  Own work Original artist:  Paul   Paul Heinrich   File:SciAm1851_optimized.jpg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/SciAm1851_optimized.jpg  License:  Public domain  Contributors:   Scientific American  Original artist:  Scientific  Scientific American Contributors:  Scientific   File:Spirit_Pond_map_stone.jpg   Source:      Public Public domain   Co Cove verr

  Liofhttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Spirit_Pond_map_stone.jpg book book   The Spi availab lable le here: here:   http://home-and-garden. Spirit rit Po Pond nd Runes Runeston tones  es , file avai webshots.com/photo/2597789000042975503VNQjVT   Origina Originall artis artist:  t:    Unknown   File:Stone_sphere.jpg   Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Stone_sphere.jpg  License:   CC-BY-SA-3.0  Contribu to Commons by matanya by  matanya..  Original artist:  WAvegetarian at  WAvegetarian at English  English Wikipedia   Transferred from en.wikipedia from en.wikipedia to tors:  Transferred   File:System-search.svg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/System-search.svg License:  Public  Public domain  Contribu The  Tango! Desktop Project  Original artist:   The The pe people ople from the Tango! project project tors:  The Tango!   File:Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg   Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Text_document_with_  Public domain Contributor  Created by bdesham by bdesham with red_question_mark.svg License:  Public  with Inkscape; based upon Text-x-generic.svg upon  Text-x-generic.svg from  from the Tango Contributors:  s:  Created project.  Original artist:  Benjamin  Benjamin D. Esham (bdesham ( bdesham))   File:The_Iron_Pillar,_Kutab_Minar,_Delhi.jpg   Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/The_Iron_Pillar%2C_ Kutab_Minar%2C_Delhi.jpg  License:  Public domain  Contributors:   http://digital.lib.uh.edu/u?/p15195coll29,110  Original artist:  India Illustrated cense: 

  Contributors: 

•

  File:The_San_Pedro_Mountain_Mummy.jpg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/The_San_Pedro_Mountain_  Public domain  Contributor Mummy.jpg License:  Public Contributors:  s:   Original publication: 1936 Immediate source:   http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ARvWQv9MHSM/TynRXorPVaI/AAAAAAAAA_c/A9DFi0NKvaY/s1600/untitledfg.bmp

  Unknown Original artist:  Unknown (Life time: 1936)

 

170 •

 

CHAPTER CHAPTER 52. STON STONE E SPHERES SPHERES OF COSTA COSTA RICA

 CCBY 3. 3.00 Contribhttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/UFCO_remnants.jpg License:  CCBY   File:UFCO_remnants.jpg Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/UFCO_remnants.jpg  A. Egitto utors:   II (Anne Egitto) created this work entirely by myself.  Original artist:  A.

•

  File:Unbalanced_scales.svg   Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg  License:  Public

domain

 ? Contributors:   ??  Original artist:  ? •

 Public domain Con  File:Vaso_Dorchester.jpg Source:  https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Vaso_Dorchester.jpg   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Vaso_Dorchester.jpg License:  Public bidimensionale nale non costituisce atto creativo.  Original artist:   Me Me tributors:   La scansione di opera bidimensio

•

•

•

•

•

  File:Venus_von_Willendorf_01.jpg Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Venus_von_Willendorf_01.jpg License: 

CC BY 2.5 Contributors:  Own  Own work Original artist:  User:MatthiasKabel  User:MatthiasKabel   File:Video-x-generic.svg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e7/Video-x-generic.svg  License:  Public  Public domain   Contributor Contributors:  s:  ?  Original artist:   ??   File:Wiki_letter_w.svg  Source:    https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg   License:    Cc-by-sa-3.0  Contributors:    ? Original artist:   ??  CC BY-SA 3.0 Con  File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License:  CC   Nicholas Moreau  Rei-artur Original artist:  Nicholas tributors:  Rei-artur  Public domain  Contribu  File:Wolfsegg_iron.jpg  Source:   https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wolfsegg_iron.jpg  License:  Public  to Commons.  Original artist:  Editor  Editor Bob at Bob at English  English Wikipedia   Transferred from en.wikipedia from en.wikipedia to tors:  Transferred

52.14. 52. 14.3 3 •

Conten Contentt licen license se

  Creative Commons Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0