Organizational Behavior

N.P.R. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY N.P.R. Nagar, Natham - 624 401, Tamil Nadu, India.

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S.Gnanavel,B.Sc.,M.B.A., M.Phill., Asst.Professor / HOD I / C. MBA Department, NPRCET, Natham.

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ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

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UNIT I FOCUS AND PURPOSE 5 Definition, need and importance of organizational behaviour – Nature and scope – Frame work- Organizational behaviour models. UNIT II INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR 12 Personality – types – Factors influencing personality – Theories – Learning – Types of learners– The learning process – Learning theories – Organizational behaviour modification. Misbehaviour –Types – Management Intervention. Emotions - Emotional Labour – Emotional Intelligence – Theories.Attitudes – Characteristics – Components – Formation – Measurement- Values. Perceptions –Importance – Factors influencing perception – Interpersonal perception-Impression Management.Motivation – importance – Types – Effects on work behavior. UNIT III GROUP BEHAVIOUR 10 Organization structure – Formation – Groups in organizations – Influence – Group dynamics –Emergence of informal leaders and working norms – Group decision making techniques – Teambuilding - Interpersonal relations – Communication – Control. UNIT IV LEADERSHIP AND POWER 8 Meaning – Importance – Leadership styles – Theories – Leaders Vs Managers – Sources of power – Power centers – Power and Politics. UNIT V DYNAMICS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR 10 Organizational culture and climate – Factors affecting organizational climate – Importance. Job satisfaction – Determinants – Measurements – Influence on behavior. Organizational change – Importance – Stability Vs Change – Proactive Vs Reaction change – the change process – Resistance to change – Managing change.Stress – Work Stressors – Prevention and Management of stress – Balancing work and Life.Organizational development – Characteristics – objectives –. Organizational effectiveness. TOTAL: 45 PERIODS TEXT BOOKS 1. Stephen P. Robins, Organisational Behavior, PHI Learning / Pearson Education,11th edition, 2008. REFERENCES 1. Fred Luthans, Organisational Behavior, McGraw Hill, 11th Edition, 2001. 2. Schermerhorn, Hunt and Osborn, Organisational behavior, John Wiley, 9th Edition, 2008. 3. Udai Pareek, Understanding Organisational Behaviour, 2nd Edition, Oxford Higher Education, 2004. 4. Mc Shane & Von Glinov, Organisational Behaviour, 4th Edition, Tata Mc Graw Hill, 2007. 5. Ivancevich, Konopaske & Maheson, Oranisational Behaviour & Management, 7th edition, Tata McGraw Hill, 2008..

UNIT I FOCUS AND PURPOSE 5 Definition, need and importance of organizational behaviour – Nature and scope – Frame work- Organizational behaviour models.

Introduction In order to be effective organizations need to develop their interpersonal or people skills According to Robbins( 2003), Organizational behavior (OB) is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within an organization, then applies that knowledge to make organizations work more effectively. Specifically, OB focuses on how to improve productivity, reduce absenteeism and turnover, and increase employee citizenship and job satisfaction. An organization is more than a formal arrangement of functions, more than an organization chart, more than a vision statement, more than a set of accounts. An organization consists of people and so it is also a social system. The field of organizational behavior (OB) draws primarily from the behavioral science disciplines of psychology, social psychology, and cultural anthropology. The areas on which OB focuses are individuals who will often be working within groups, which themselves work within organizations, as well as all the interrelationships between them. Some of the specific themes embraced by OB are personality theory, attitudes and values, motivation and learning, interpersonal behavior, group dynamics, leadership and teamwork, organizational structure and design, decisionmaking, power, conflict, and negotiation. Some OB thinkers go further and suggest that the behavior within the organization has to be viewed partly in the wider context of the outside world‘s effect on the organization and its human resources, missions, objectives, and strategies. Definition: Organizational behavior (OB) is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within an organization, then applies that knowledge to make organizations work more effectively (Robbins, 2003) According to Fred Luthans Organizational behavior is directly concerned with the understanding, Prediction, and control of human behavior in Organizations. Contributing Disciplines To The OB Field Organizational behavior is an applied behavioral science that is built upon contributions from a number of behavioral disciplines. The main areas are psychology, sociology, social psychology, anthropology, and political science. Psychology : Psychology is the science that attempts to measure, explain, and at times change the behavior of humans and other animals. Early industrial/organizational psychologists were concerned with problems of fatigue, boredom, and other factors relevant to working

conditions that could disrupt/ impede efficient work performance. More recently, their contributions have been expanded to include learning, perception, personality, emotions, training, leadership effectiveness, needs and motivational forces, job satisfaction, decision making processes, performance appraisals, attitude measurement, employee selection techniques, work design, and job stress. Sociology Sociologists study the social system in which individuals fill their roles; that is, sociology studies people in relation to their fellow human beings. Their significant contribution to OB is through their study of group behavior in organizations, particularly formal and complex organizations. Social Psychology Social psychology blends the concepts of psychology and sociology. It focuses on the influence of people on one another. The major challenge deals with the issue of how to implement it and how to reduce barriers to its acceptance. Anthropology Anthropology is the study of societies to learn about human beings and their activities. Anthropologists work on cultures and environments; for example, they have aided in understanding differences in fundamental values, attitudes, and behavior among people in different countries and within different organizations. Political Science Political science studies the behavior of individuals and groups within a political environment. It focuses on areas, such as, conflict, intra-organizational politics and power.

Importance Of Organizational Behavior In any organization one can assume that the main goal of that business is to succeed; what exactly does being a winning organization mean and what does it take to get there? In the past companies placed a great amount of emphasis on the numbers and how to achieve those numbers. The people who actually helped achieve those numbers were graded on their technical skills, productivity, and budgets. Employees were moneymaking machines and how they achieved those numbers was not a concern of their managers as long as the numbers were being met. Organizational behavior studies have become more important today than in previous years because corporations must learn to adapt to the rapidly changing business cultures that have stemmed from a competitive and fast-paced market. Organizational behavior was a topic that was not discussed until an employee's behavior changed, productivity changed, or sales decreased. In today's business world, managers are paying more attention to how employees react to situations rather than if they respond. They are beginning to view organizational behavior as an intricate piece of training and development of the workforce. Soft skills were never a part of management training and it was rare that managers were commended for having those

skills. In the business world today, I feel organizational behavior is an essential tool for managing effective teams. If you can zone in on an employees' personality, creativity, and adaptability, motivating that employee the way they need to be motivated is never a gray area and a guaranteed success. With this knowledge managers can achieve a successful career. Since a manager needs to get his job done by the others, to have an organizational behavior skills become a valuable talent. As the environment of business is always changing, the role of the managers has become more sensitive. In order to know how to handle a new workforce, and deal with the complication of the new environment, the supervisors need to develop their information about attitude and behavior of individuals, and groups in organization. Now we know not only the hard skills is important for get the job done, soft skills are helps managers to do their job more effectively and efficiently.

The discipline of organizational behavior is concerned with identifying and managing the attitudes and actions of individuals and groups, looking particularly at how people can be motivated to join and remain in the organization, how to get people to practice effective teamwork, how people can accomplish their jobs more efficiently, and how employees can be encouraged to be more flexible and innovative. Attention is brought to these attitudes and actions in order to help managers identify problems, determine how to correct them, and change behavior so that individual performance and ultimately organization effectiveness increase.

As a field of study, organizational behavior is built on a succession of approaches or ways of thinking about people. Since the early 1900s those who studied behavior in organizations have attempted to prescribe ways to effectively manage employees in order to achieve the organization's goals. The early approaches, referred to as the classical view, promoted increased management coordination of tasks, strict specialization and standardization of work tasks, a strict chain of command, and centralized decision making at the manager level. During the 1920s and 1930s the next new school of thought began to emerge, which was referred to as the human relations movement. By and large this movement began with the famous Hawthorne studies at the Western Electric plant that demonstrated how psychological and social processes could affect productivity and work behavior. This new way of thinking looked at organizational behavior by advocating a more people-oriented style of management that was more participative and oriented toward employee needs. Contemporary organizational thought has shifted to a more integrative systems approach, which includes the consideration of external influences; the relationship of the organization with managers and employees; and organizational processes, which are the activities through which work gets accomplished. In other words, the best solution for the situation depends on many factors. The organization is depicted as a number of interrelated, interdependent, and interacting subsystems that are continually changing. Those who managed by the classical approach emphasized the critical role of control and coordination in helping organizations to achieve goals. Those who managed by the human relations approach considered the risks of high levels of control and coordination, focusing instead on the need for flexibility. So where do today's managers fit in? A contemporary approach to management recognizes that there is no one best way to manage; management approaches need to be tailored to fit the situation. The manager's role is to effectively predict, explain, and manage behavior that occurs in organizations. Particularly, managers are interested in determining why people are more or less motivated or satisfied. Managers must have a capacity to observe and understand the behavior patterns of individuals, groups, and organizations; to predict what responses will be drawn out by managerial actions; and ultimately to use this understanding and eventual predictions to effectively manage employees. Behavior can be examined on three levels—the individual, the group, and the organization as a whole. Managers seek to learn more about what causes people—individually or collectively—to behave as they do in organizational settings. What motivates people? What makes some employees leaders and others not? How do people communicate and make decisions? How do organizations respond to changes in their external environments? Although it may be said that the responsibility for studying organizational behavior rests with researchers, assessing and increasing organizational effectiveness is a primary responsibility of managers. They need to collect data about the environment in which people work and describe events, behaviors, and attitudes in order to develop plans for changing and improving behavior and attitudes. Managers can begin to understand organizational behavior by accurately describing events, behaviors, and attitudes. How can this be accomplished?

Data can be gathered by observing situations, surveying and interviewing employees, and looking at written documents. These methods help to objectively describe events, behaviors, and attitudes—a first step in determining their causes and then acting on them. By direct observation, for example, managers can attend meetings and then describe what is happening, such as who talks most often, what topics are discussed, or how frequently those attending the meeting ask for the managers' viewpoint on the topic. In addition, survey questionnaires could be sent to employees; these might provide concrete data about the situation, proving more useful than relying solely on personal perception of events. Sending the same questionnaire to employees each year could provide some insight into changes in behavior and attitude over time. Employees could also be interviewed in order to examine attitudes in greater depth. Some valuable information about attitudes and opinions may also be gathered by talking informally with employees. Finally, data could be gathered from organizational documents, including annual reports, department evaluations, memoranda, and other nonconfidential personnel files. An analysis of these documents might provide some insight into the attitudes of employees, the quality of management, group interactions, or other possible reasons behind the problems or situation. Nature of Organizational Behavior: Different leading authorities in the field of ‗the Organizational Behaviour' have defined the nature and scope of this subject in different terms. There is no unanimity of opinion in the matter. However, students of an introductory course in the subject need not be bogged down by this multiplicity of views. Following discussion is enough to understand the basic nature and scope of this discipline. The Organizational Behaviour personified has a nature, just as any human being has a peculiar nature or the psychological tendency. It is a science, art and philosophy by nature. So, it follows that the subject of the Organizational Behaviour is a science, art and philosophy, too. It is a science because it follows the scientific methods of the observation, the collection of the data, the hypothesis, the theory and the model building ever open to the scientific scrutiny in terms of the relationship among variables under the study and the validity of such a relationship. It is an art, since it involves quite a subjective approach, too in terms of the skilful organization of the field studies, the collection of the data and the interpretation of the results by human beings who generally are more subjective than objective in their approach. It's a philosophy, too, in terms of ever trying to philosophize the questions of human beings and the organization's relationship in the behavioural terms. It tries to frame postulations as to what, why, how, and where a particular kind of human behaviour takes place in an organization in a particular corner of the globe or the universe along with the other relevant aspects like its impact or effects?

Finally, it of course inter alia is interdisciplinary, flexible, dynamic, friendly and farreaching, too. Scope of Organizational Behavior: The scope, ambit, sphere or area of the subject of the Organizational Behaviour is quite vast both in the temporal and the spatial terms, besides the applicability. The Universal Integrated Cubical Temporal - Spatial - Applicability Scope model illustrates it aptly. The given cube can easily be sliced into 90 pieces (3 Temporal faces x 6 Spatial faces x 5 Applicability faces ). Each slice represents one face each of the Temporal - Spatial Applicability Scope. Thus, we may elaborate the scope of the subject in 90 different ways. For example, let us cut the slice with 3 following faces: the Future, the Philosophical and the Asthenospheric. This slice means that the Organizational Behaviour can be studied from the point of view of the philosophical questions related to the use of the Asthenospheric resources at any given point of time in the Future. A complete and detailed exposition of all the above mentioned 90 integrated slices is beyond the scope of this paper/article. So, we may attempt the following brief description of the various facets of the scope of this challenging dynamic subject. Theoretical Frameworks of Organizational Behavior Initially psychology was developed using the mental thinking expressed by persons interested in developing the subject of psychology. But John B. Watson differed from that approach and he pioneered the approach in which visible behavior and visible environmental stimulus became the subject of study. B.F. Skinner developed this behavioristic framework further by bringing in the contingent environmental consequences. Behavior is not the outcome of stimulus alone, but it is an outcome determined by the stimulus as well as the contingent environmental consequences of a behavior. This means, there are alternative behaviors for the same stimulus and which behavior is exhibited by a person depends on expected environmental consequences. Cognitive perspective on psychology have developed by arguing that human beings are capable of thinking and concepts related to thinking must be brought into the subject of psychology whose objective is to explain behavior. Even though, one cannot see or observe thinking, still developing concepts related to thinking and using the concepts to explain behavior is required in psychology. Even though one cannot see or observe gravitation, the concept of gravitation is a useful concept in physics. Similarly, concepts related to thinking or cognition are to be developed and used in psychology was the argument of propopents of congitive approach to psychology. The perspectives in psychology have influenced the development of organizational behavior.

Cognitive Framework Cognitive approach emphasizes the positive and freewill aspects of human behavior and uses concepts such as expectancy, demand, and intention. Cognition can be simply defined as the act of knowing an item of information. In cognitive framework, cognitions precede behavior and constitute input into the person‘s thinking, perception, problem solving, and information processing. The work of Edward Tolman can be used to represent the cognitive theoretical approach. According to Tolman, learning consists of the expectancy that a particular event will lead to a particular consequence. This cognitive concept of expectancy implies that organism is thinking about, or is conscious or aware of the goal and result of a behavior exhibited by it. It means that a person desires a goal and also knows the behavior that will lead to achievement of the goals. In the subject of organizational behavior, cognitive approach dominates the units of analysis such as perception, personality and attitudes, motivation, behavioral decision making and goal setting.

Behavioristic Framework Pioneer behaviorists Ivan Pavlov and Jon B. Watson stressed the importance of studying observable behaviors instead of the elusive mind. They advocated that behavior could be best understood in terms of stimulus and response (S-R). They examined the impact of stimulus and felt that learning occurred when the S-R connection was made. Modern behaviorism, that marks its beginning with B.F. Skinner, advocates that behavior in response to a stimulus is contingent on environmental consequences. Thus, it is important to note that behaviortistic approach is based on observable behavior and environmental variables (which are also observable). Social Cognitive Framework Social learning theory takes the position that behavior can best be explained in terms of a continuous reciprocal interaction among cognitive, behavioral, and environmental determinants. The person and the environmental situation do not function as independent units but, in conjunction with behavior itself, reciprocally interact to determine behavior. It means that cognitive variables and environmental variables are relevant, but the experiences generated by previous behavior also partly determine what a person becomes and can do, which, in turn, affects subsequently behavior. A persons cognition or understanding changes according to the experience of consequences of past behavior. Bandura developed social learning theory into the more comprehensive social cognitive theory (SCT). Stajkovic and Luthans have translated this SCT into the theoretical framework for organizational behavior. Social cognitive theory recognizes the importance of behaviorism‘s contingent environmental consequences, but also includes cognitive processes of self regulation. The social part acknowledges the social origins of much of human thought and action (what individual learns from society), whereas the

cognitive portion recognizes the influential contribution of thought processes to human motivation, attitudes, and action. In social cognitive theoretical framework, organizational participants are at the same time both products and producers of their personality, respective environments, and behaviors. The participants as a group of produce the environment, every individual is a product of the enironment and through his behavior changes the environment for others as well as for himself, every individual is a product of his personality, but also influences his personality as consequence of results of his behavior. Bandura identified five basic human capabilities as a part of SCT. 1. Symbolizing: People process visual experiences into cognitive models. They help in future action. 2.

Forethought: Employees plan their actions.

3. Observational: Employees learn by observing the performance of the referent group (peers, supervisors and high performers) and the consequences of their actions. 4. Self-regulatory: Employees self regulate their actions by setting internal standards (aspired level of performance). 5. Self-reflective: Employees reflect back on their actions (how did I do?) and perceptually determine how they believe then can successfully accomplish the task in the future given the context (probability of success between 0 to 100% is estimated) The systems framework The systems framework is also fundamental to organizational theory as organizations are complex dynamic goal-oriented processes. One of the early thinkers in the field was Alexander Bogdanov, who developed his Tautology, a theory widely considered a precursor of Bertalanffy's General Systems Theory, aiming to model and design human organizations. Kurt Lewin was particularly influential in developing the systems perspective within organizational theory and coined the term "systems of ideology", from his frustration with behavioral psychologies that became an obstacle to sustainable work in psychology (see Ash 1992: 198-207). The complexity theory perspective on organizations is another systems view of organizations. The systems approach to organizations relies heavily upon achieving negative entropy through openness and feedback. A systemic view on organizations is Tran disciplinary and integrative. In other words, it transcends the perspectives of individual disciplines, integrating them on the basis of a common "code", or more exactly, on the basis of the formal apparatus provided by systems theory. The systems approach gives primacy to the interrelationships, not to the elements of the system. It is from these dynamic interrelationships that new properties of the system emerge. In recent years, systems thinking has been developed to provide techniques for studying systems in holistic ways to supplement traditional reductionistic methods. In this more recent tradition, systems theory in organizational studies is considered by some as a humanistic extension of the natural sciences.

Organizational behavior models: Keith davis recognizes four different models of organizational behaviour . These models show the evolution of the thinking and behaviour on the part of management. These models are autocratic, Custodial, Supportive and collegial. The Autocratic Model The autocratic model depends on the power. These who are in command must have the power to demand ‗you do this‘ Employees who do not follow orders will be penalised Under autocratic conditions the employee‘s orientation is obedience to a boss It is very useful way to accomplish the work and not a complete failure It was an acceptable approach to guide managerial behaviours when we have no well known alternatives

This model focuses better employee satisfaction and security This model organizations satisfy the security and welfare needs of employees. This model leads to employee dependence on an organization rather than a boss. As a result of economic rewards and benefits, employees are happy A successful custodial approach orientation is towards resources. The question of motivating, guiding and developing the employees did not arise The supportive model This model is based on the assumptions of theory Y This model depends on leadership instead of power or money This theory assumes that the employees have the skill and contribute to the organizational efforts. This model assumes that the employees will take responsibility to develop a drive to contribute at improve themselves Therefore management‘s direction is to ‗support‘ the employee‘s job performance rather than to support employees benefit payments as in the custodial approach The Collegial model This model emphasizes team concept The manager role is changed from that of a leader to that of a partner The manager and the employees are the partner to develop teamwork concept and attain the objectives of the organization. The psychological result of the collegial approach for the employee is self discipline We cannot say that particular model is the best model. The selection of model by a manager is determined by number of factors such as the existing philosophy, vision, environmental conditions and goals of the organization.

UNIT II INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR Personality – types – Factors influencing personality – Theories – Learning – Types of learners– The learning process – Learning theories – Organizational behaviour modification. Misbehaviour –Types – Management Intervention. Emotions - Emotional Labour – Emotional Intelligence – Theories.Attitudes – Characteristics – Components – Formation – Measurement- Values. Perceptions –Importance – Factors influencing perception – Interpersonal perception-Impression Management.Motivation – importance – Types – Effects on work behavior.

Personality Introduction The term ‗personality‘ has been derived from the Latin term ‗persona‘ which means to ‘speak through‘. The Latin word denotes the masks worn by actors in ancient Greece and Rome. Therefore, a very common meaning of the term personality is the role which the person (actor) displays in the public domain at large. Personality is a dynamic concept describing the growth and development of a person‘s whole psychological system-it looks at some aggregate whole that is greater than the sum of the parts. Allport (1937) defined personality as ―the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment‖. Personality Determinants The factors affecting personality development are illustrated below: Heredity – The relationship of heredity with personality is a well-accepted fact. Traits like physique, eye color, hair color, height, temperament, energy level, intelligence, reflexes, etc. are generally referred to describe the influence of heredity in developing personality. The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual‘s personality is the molecular structure of the genes, located in the chromosomes. Robbins (2003) has argued that the three different streams of research lend some credibility to the argument that heredity plays an important part in determining an individual‘s personality. The first looks at the genetic underpinnings of human behavior and temperament among young children. The second addresses the study of twins who were separated at birth and the third examines the consistency in job satisfaction over time and across situations. 1. Environment – Environment comprises of culture, family, social and situational factors. The environmental factors influence personality of an individual since they provide the basis of certain experiences which determine the individual‘s view about life, both positive and negative. 2. Culture – Culture establishes norms, attitudes and values that are passed on from generation to generation and create consistencies over time. Every culture expects and trains its members to behave in the ways that are acceptable to the group. People from different cultural groups have different attitudes towards

independence, aggression, competition, cooperation, artistic talent, etc. However, on the basis of culture, an individual‘s personality cannot be always assessed, since individuals within the same culture (but from different family and subcultural background) have been seen to differ in their behavior. 3. Family - One of the most important determinants of the personality of a person is the immediate family. Families influence the behavior of a person especially in the early stages of life. The nature of such influence will depend upon the socioeconomic level of the family, family size, race, religion, parent‘s educational level and geographic location. 1. Situation – Situational factors also play a crucial role in determining the personality of a person. Every individual goes through different type of experiences and events in his/her life. Some of the events and experiences, which an individual goes through in his/her life, can serve as important determinants of his/her personality. A trauma suffered by a person in the childhood can sometime change the structure of his/her own personality. Theories of Personality. Traits are underlying tendencies to behave in a consistent and distinctive style and they describe the frequency or intensity of a person‘s feelings, thoughts, or behaviors. Possession of a trait is, therefore, a matter of degree. Some of the most important research works on personality traits are mentioned below: Cattell’s 16 Personality Factor Model Early research on personality traits resulted in isolating large numbers of traits, which made it impossible to predict behavior. Cattell‘s (1973) is one of the most important personality trait theory, where the number of traits have been reduced. Cattell referred to these 16 factors as primary factors.

Primary Factors and Descriptors in Cattell‘s 16 Personality Factor Model (Adapted From Conn & Rieke, 1994).

Primary Factor

Descriptors of High Range

Reserve, impersonal, distant, cool, reserved, impersonal, detached, formal, aloof (Sizothymia)

Warmth

Warm, outgoing, attentive to others, kindly, easy going, participating, likes people (Affectothymia)

Concrete thinking, lower

Reasoning

Abstract-thinking, more

Descriptors of Low Range

general mental capacity, less intelligent, unable to handle abstract problems (Lower Scholastic Mental Capacity)

intelligent, bright, higher general mental capacity, fast learner (Higher Scholastic Mental Capacity)

Reactive emotionally, changeable, affected by Emotional feelings, emotionally less Stability stable, easily upset (Lower Ego Strength)

Emotionally stable, adaptive, mature, faces reality calm (Higher Ego Strength)

Deferential, cooperative, avoids conflict, submissive, humble, obedient, easily led, docile, Dominance accommodating (Submissiveness)

Dominant, forceful, assertive, aggressive, competitive, stubborn, bossy (Dominance)

Serious, restrained, prudent, taciturn, introspective, silent (Desurgency)

Liveliness

Lively, animated, spontaneous, enthusiastic, happy go lucky, cheerful, expressive, impulsive (Surgency)

Expedient, nonconforming, disregards rules, self indulgent (Low Super Ego Strength)

Rule-conscious, dutiful, Ruleconscientious, conforming, Consciousness moralistic, staid, rule bound (High Super Ego Strength)

Shy, threat-sensitive, timid, Social hesitant, intimidated (Threctia) Boldness

Socially bold, venturesome, thick skinned, uninhibited (Parmia)

Utilitarian, objective, unsentimental, tough minded, Sensitivity self-reliant, no-nonsense, rough (Harria)

Sensitive, aesthetic, sentimental, tender minded, intuitive, refined (Premsia)

Trusting, unsuspecting, accepting, unconditional, easy (Alaxia)

Vigilance

Vigilant, suspicious, skeptical, distrustful, oppositional (Protension)

Grounded, practical, prosaic, solution orientated, steady, conventional (Praxernia)

Abstract, imaginative, absent Abstractedness minded, impractical, absorbed in ideas (Autia)

Forthright, genuine, artless, open, guileless, naive, unpretentious, involved (Artlessness)

Privateness

Private, discreet, nondisclosing, shrewd, polished, worldly, astute, diplomatic (Shrewdness)

Self-Assured, unworried, complacent, secure, free of guilt, confident, self satisfied (Untroubled)

Apprehension

Apprehensive, self doubting, worried, guilt prone, insecure, worrying, self blaming (Guilt Proneness)

Traditional, attached to familiar, conservative,

Openness to Change

Open to change, experimental, liberal, analytical, critical, free

respecting traditional ideas (Conservatism) Group-oriented, affiliative, a joiner and follower dependent (Group Adherence)

thinking, flexibility (Radicalism) Self-Reliance

Self-reliant, solitary, resourceful, individualistic, self sufficient (Self-Sufficiency)

Tolerated disorder, unexacting, flexible, undisciplined, lax, self-conflict, impulsive, Perfectionism careless of social rues, uncontrolled (Low Integration)

Perfectionistic, organized, compulsive, self-disciplined, socially precise, exacting will power, control, self – sentimental (High Self-Concept Control)

Relaxed, placid, tranquil, torpid, patient, composed low drive (Low Ergic Tension)

Tense, high energy, impatient, driven, frustrated, over wrought, time driven. (High Ergic Tension)

Tension

Type A and Type B personality Type A personality is a set of characteristics that includes, being impatient, excessively time-conscious, insecure about one‘s status, highly competitive, hostile and aggressive, and incapable of relaxation (Friedman & Rosenman 1974). They are always moving, walking, and eating rapidly, are impatient with the rate at which most events take place, are doing do two or more things at once and cannot cope with leisure time. They are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how many or how much of everything they acquire. Type ‗A‘s operate under moderate to high levels of stress. They expose themselves to continuous time pressure, are fast workers, give preference to quantity over quality, work long hours, and are also rarely creative.

Type B personality is rarely hurried by the desire to obtain an increasing number of things or participate in events demanding an ever-decreasing amount of time (Friedman & Rosenman, 1974). Type Bs never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying impatience and feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or accomplishments unless otherwise demanded by the situation. They can relax without guilt.

Type Realistic: Prefers physical activities that require skill,

Personality Characteristics Shy, genuine, persistent, stable,

Congruent Occupation Mechanic, drill press operator,

strength, and coordination Investigative: Prefers activities that involve thinking, organizing, and understanding Social: Prefers activities that involve helping and developing others Conventional: Prefers ruleregulated, orderly, and unambiguous activities Enterprising: Prefers verbal activities in which there are opportunities to influence others and attain power Artistic: Prefers ambiguous and unsystematic activities that allow creative expression

conforming, practical

assembly-line worker, farmer

Analytical, original, curious, independent

Biologist, economist, mathematician, news reporter

Sociable, friendly, cooperative, understanding

Social workers, teacher, counselor, clinical psychologist

Conforming, efficient, practical, unimaginative, inflexible

Accountant, corporate manager, bank teller, file clerk

Self-confident, ambitious, energetic, domineering

Lawyer, real estate agent, public relations specialist, small business manager

Imaginative, disorderly, idealistic, emotional, impractical

Painter, musician, writer, interior decorator

Learning Introduction Learning refers to a process that enhances the knowledge, skill and attitude (KSA) of individuals, to increase his/her willingness to adopt those newly acquired KSA and to implement them at the workplace. Such learning should be sustainable and comparatively stable for people and for the institutions that serves people. Learning definitely includes academic studies and occupational training through high school and beyond. But it also encompasses the physical, cognitive, emotional and social development of children in the earliest years of their lives. Learning can be defined as ―any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience‖ (Robbins, 2003). Following are the characteristics of learning: First, learning involves change. Second, the change must be relatively permanent. Third, learning is concerned with behavior. Finally, some form of experience is necessary for learning Theories of Learning There are three theories of learning namely – classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning 1. Classical conditioning: Classical Conditioning is a form of associative learning process proposed by Pavlov (1927). This process involves presentations of a neutral stimulus along with a stimulus of some significance. The neutral stimulus does not lead to an overt behavioral response from the organism. This is called as Conditioned Stimulus (CS). Significant stimulus evokes an innate, often reflexive, response. This is called Unconditioned Stimulus (US) and Unconditioned Response (UR), respectively. If the CS and the US are repeatedly paired, eventually the two stimuli become associated and the organism begins to produce a behavioral response to it. It is the Conditioned Response (CR).Classical conditioning was first experimented by Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov, to teach dogs to salivate in response to the ringing of a bell. During his research on the physiology of digestion in dogs, Pavlov used a bell before giving food to his dog. Rather than simply salivating in the presence of meat (a response to food – unconditioned response), after a few repetitions, the dog started to salivate in response to the bell. Thus, a neutral stimulus (bell) became a conditioned stimulus (CS) as a result of consistent pairing with the unconditioned stimulus (US – meat). Pavlov referred to this learned relationship as a Conditioned Response.

2. Operant Conditioning: The operant conditioning theory is proposed by B.F. Skinner (1953, 1954). This is based on the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual‘s response to stimuli. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond. Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner‘s S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response. Principles of operant conditioning are as follows: 1. Behavior is learned. 2. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur. 3. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced (‖shaping‖) 4. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli (‖stimulus generalization‖) producing secondary conditioning. 5. Rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the desired response. For example, if a subordinate is praised by his boss for looking good in a certain attire, the subordinate is likely to wear that attire and present himself in front of boss, especially when he needs to please the boss. 3. Social Learning The social learning theory was proposed by Bandura. It recognizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. According to Bandura (1977), most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action. Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.

Social learning has four processes: Attentional processes – People learn from a model only when they recognize and pay attention to its critical features. Retention processes – A model‘s influence will depend on how well the individual remembers the model‘s action after the it is no longer readily available. Motor reproduction processes – After a person has seen a new behavior by observing the model, the watching must be converted to doing. Reinforcement processes- Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior if positive incentives or rewards are provided.

Principles of social learning are as follows: 1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Coding modeled behavior into words, labels or images results in better retention than simply observing. 2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior, if it results in outcomes they value. 3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior, if the model is similar to the observer and has admired status and the behavior has functional value Shaping behavior When a systematic attempt is made to change individuals‘ behaviour by directing their learning in graduated steps, it is called shaping behavior. There are four methods of Shaping Behavior. They are as follows: Positive reinforcement – This is the process of getting something pleasant as a consequence of a desired behavior, to strengthen the same behavior. For example, one get a commission, if he/she achieves sales target Negative reinforcement – This is the process of having a reward taken away as a consequence of a undesired behavior. For example, scholarship is withdrawn from the student who has not done well on the examination Punishment is causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an undesirable behavior. This is the process of getting a punishment as a consequence of a behavior. Example: having your pay docked for lateness Extinction—eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behavior. So, if a person puts in extra effort, but gets no recognition for it, he will stop doing it Both positive and negative reinforcement result in learning. They strengthen a response and increase the probability of repetition. Both punishment and extinction weaken behavior and tend to decrease its subsequent frequency Schedules of reinforcement The two major types of reinforcement schedules are: 1) continuous and 2) intermittent. 1. A Continuous reinforcement schedule reinforces the desired behavior each and every time it is demonstrated. It is the traditional reinforcement schedule and is called a continuous reinforcement schedule. Each time the correct behavior is performed it gets reinforced. 2. An Intermittent reinforcement schedule are fixed and variable categories. In an intermittent schedule, not every instance of the desirable behavior is reinforced, but reinforcement is given often enough to make the behavior worth repeating. The

intermittent, or varied, form of reinforcement tends to promote more resistance to extinction than does the continuous form. Understanding the Behavior modification and its organizational application. The typical OB Modification program follows a five-step problem-solving model: Identifying critical behaviors Developing baseline data Identifying behavior consequences Developing and implementing an intervention strategy Evaluating performance improvement Critical behaviors make a significant impact on the employee‘s job performance; Developing baseline data determines the number of times the identified behavior is occurring under present conditions. Identifying behavioral consequences tells the manager the antecedent cues that emit the behavior and the consequences that are currently maintaining it. Developing and implementing an intervention strategy will entail changing some elements of the performance-reward linkage-structure, processes, technology, groups, or the task—with the goal of making high-level performance more rewarding. Evaluating performance improvement is important to demonstrate that a change took place as a result of the intervention strategy. OB Modification has been used by a number of organizations to improve employee productivity and to reduce errors, absenteeism, tardiness, accident rates, and improve friendliness toward customers. Specific organizational application Using lotteries to reduce absenteeism For example, Continental Airlines has created a lottery that rewards its 40,000 employees for attendance. Twice a year, Continental holds a raffle and gives away eight new sport utility vehicles. Only employees who have not missed a day of work during the previous six months are eligible. This lottery system thus, follows a variable-ratio schedule where management credits the lottery with significantly reducing the company‘s absence rate (Robbins, 2003). Well pay vs. sick pay Organizations with paid sick leave programs experience almost twice the absenteeism of organizations without such programs. One of the Midwest organizations in USA implemented a well-pay program. It paid a bonus to employees who had no absence for any given four-week period and then paid for sick leave only after the first eight hours of absence. The well-pay program produced increased savings to the organization, reduced absenteeism, increased productivity, and improved employee satisfaction. Forbes magazine used the same approach to cut its health care costs. It rewarded employees who stayed healthy and did not file medical claims by paying them the difference between

$500 and their medical claims, then doubling the amount. By doing this, Forbes cut its major medical and dental claims by over 30 percent (Robbins, 2003). Employee discipline a. Every manager will, at some time, have to deal with problem behaviors in his/her organization. b. Managers will respond with disciplinary actions such as oral reprimands, written warnings, and temporary suspensions. However, the use of discipline carries costs. It may provide only a short-term solution and result in serious side effects. c. Disciplining employees for undesirable behaviors gives them a message to what not to do. However, it does not tell them what alternative behaviors are preferred. d. Discipline does have a place in organizations. e. In practice, it tends to be widely used because of its ability to produce fast results in the short run. f. Developing training programs g. Most organizations have some kind of systematic training program. h. In one recent year, U.S. corporations with 100 or more employees spent in excess of $58 billion on formal training for 47.3 million workers (Robbins, 2003).

Social-learning theory suggests that training should a. Offer a model to grab the trainee‘s attention. b. Provide motivational properties c. Help the trainee to file away what he or she has learned for later use and provide opportunities to practice new behaviors. d. Offer positive rewards for accomplishments. e. If the training has taken place off the job, allow the trainee some opportunity to transfer what he/she learned to the job. . Self-management 1. Organizational applications of learning concepts can also be used to allow individuals to manage their own behavior. 2. Self-management requires an individual to deliberately manipulate stimuli, internal processes, and responses to achieve personal behavioral outcomes.

The basic processes involve observing one‘s own behavior, comparing the behavior with a standard, and rewarding oneself if the behavior meets the standard.

Emotions Introduction In general, the term ‗emotion‘ is used to designate ―a state of consciousness having to do with the arousal of feelings (Webster‘s New World Dictionary).‖ It is ―distinguished from other mental states, from cognition, volition, and awareness of physical sensation.‖ Feeling refers to ―any of the subjective reactions, pleasant or unpleasant‖ that one may experience in a situation. Theories of Emotion: There are many theories of emotion: I. James-Lange Theory (1890) [cited in Taylor, 1999]: Subjective emotional responses are the result of physiological changes within human bodies. The brain perceives an event and, in turn, sends messages down its neural circuitry to other areas of the brain. This action ultimately produces motor, autonomic and endocrine responses. These responses elicit an emotional response, which in turn, is perceived by the brain. Therefore, it is a cyclical process. This theory argues that physiological behaviors precede the emotion. II. Cannon-Bard theory (1927) [cited in Taylor, 1999]: Emotion-provoking events induce the subjective emotional experiences and physiological arousal simultaneously. Through experiences, individuals begin to acquire certain expectations for every given situation. These expectations provide a filter and every situation is processed through this filter. During this process, brain produces the emotion and corresponding physiological behaviors at the same time. III. Schachter-Singer theory (1962): Both feedback from peripheral responses and a cognitive appraisal of what caused those responses produce emotions. How one interprets the peripheral response will determine the emotion he / she feels. Individuals label the emotional response depending on what we think is causing the response. For example, when someone interprets a stimulus as dangerous, it leads to physiological arousal. Then, this physiological arousal is interpreted to a particular emotion. It can be fear, surprise, excitement, and astonishment depending on how the arousal is labeled. IV. Lazarus’ appraisal theory (1980): An individual makes an initial and sometimes unconscious cognitive appraisal of the situation to decide, if there is a threat; coping action is taken if necessary; and the individual takes a closer look and identifies the emotions he or she is feeling. V. Weiner’s attribution theory (1986, 1992): Certain attributions produce specific emotions. Once the initial evaluation has been made, the individual looks at what caused the event. These attributions of causality can modify the emotion felt. It is the interaction of the perceived internal and external causes, controllability and outcome that will determine the emotional responses. What are the basic emotions? Ortony and Turner

(1990) collated a wide range of research as to what basic emotions are and the basis of including them as basic emotions and proposed a comprehensive description of basic emotions and corresponding reasons for inclusion Parrot’s classification of emotions

Source: Parrott, W. (2001), Emotions in Social Psychology, Psychology Press, Philadelphia Felt vs. Displayed Emotions (Hochschild, 1979, 1983)

Felt emotions are an individual‘s actual emotions. Displayed emotions are those that are organizationally required and considered appropriate in a given job. They are learned. Felt and displayed emotions may be different. This is particularly true in organizations, where role demands and situations often require people to exhibit emotional behaviors that mask their true feelings. Culture and emotion There are two Views of Culture and Emotion: Universality - Emotions are part of human nature and in all cultures universally the same set of basic emotions. Based on his cross-cultural research, Ekman (1999) has found six emotions which are universally recognized and applicable. They are: Anger Fear Sadness Happiness Disgust Surprise.

Cultural specificity – Human beings are like a tabula rasa (clean tablet) on which society writes its script. In other words, culture and traditions, normative patterns and value-orientations are responsible for not only our personality development, but also appropriate social and emotional development. This makes us functional entities in society. Each culture has a unique set of emotions and emotional responses; the emotions shown in a particular culture reflects the norms, values, practices, and language of that culture . Alexithymia – emotional disorder Some people have difficulty in expressing their emotions and understanding the emotions of others. Psychologists call this alexithymia. People who suffer from alexithymia rarely cry and are often seen by others as bland and cold. Their own feelings make them uncomfortable, and they are not able to discriminate among their different emotions. People, suffering from alexithymia, may be effective performers in jobs where little or no emotional labor. Alexithymic symptoms may be seen in people who experience: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Post-traumatic stress disorder Certain brain injuries Eating disorders (i.e., bulimia, anorexia, or binge-eating disorder) Substance use dependence Depression Other mental health conditions

Relationship of gender with emotion A number of research findings supports the view that women are more emotional than men (e.g., Broverman, Vogel, Broverman, Clarkson, & Rosenkrantz, 1972; Widiger & Settle, 1987). Women are assumed to experience more frequent and intense emotions, whereas men are assumed to be emotionally inexpressive and to have less intense emotional experiences. However, researchers have argued that the stereotype of men as unemotional is more accurate for adult targets than for child targets because males learn to control their emotions as they get older (Fabes and Martin, 1991). Likewise, women and men may experience happiness in a similar way, but women have been taught that they can strongly express the emotion of happiness, whereas men have been taught to control it. The impact of socialization practices accumulate over time, and, thus, these stereotypes are likely to apply more strongly to adult populations (Geer and Shields, 1996). Emotional Intelligence The importance of both emotion and intelligence in making decisions and achieving success in life was well-accepted in ancient India. A concept of “Sthitha-prajna” (emotional stability), similar to the concept of emotional intelligence, can be traced in the second chapter of ‗Srimad Bhagavad-Gita‟ . Bhagavad Gita is a specific conversation between Lord Krishna and Arjuna (third Pandava prince) in a specific situation of Kurukshetra battlefield. Pandavas were fighting against the Kauravas, the cousin brothers to restore their kingdom from Kauravas in Kurukshetra. Before the battle started, Arjuna, with deep sorrow and pity, found his close relatives, friends and respected ‗gurus‗ in enemy‘s side. To win the battle he was supposed to kill those beloved ones. He got confused about his rightful duty. Due to this hriday-durbalata (heart-non-strength), he refused to join the battle. In this context, Lord Krishna who played the role as the driver of Arjuna‟s chariot, enlightened him about the eternal truth of life. According to Lord Krishna, as mentioned in Bhagavad Gita, Arjuna suffered from indecisiveness resulting from confusion and a false sense of insecurity. Lord Krishna advised Arjuna to become „Sthitha-prajna‟ (the steady minded person). He also told that an individual achieved his/her goal only when the mind became steady, poised and balanced. Evidently, the concept of ―Sthitha-prajna‖ (the steadyminded person) talked about a unique interdependence between emotion and intelligence for effective decision-making which was most essential in excelling in every sphere of life. Gita, as a whole, advises all to balance between intelligence and emotion. Similar views on the role of emotional intelligence as a learning process for achieving a balanced personality in different stages of life on an inter-generational basis has been depicted in the Vedas. In particular, Dr. Radhakrishnan, in his book , ‗The Hindu View of Life‘ (1927) opined that the attitude of the Vedas is one of trust tempered by criticism. ‗Trust, because, whatever the older generation hold, may be true, and criticism because, however, plausible the testimonies of the old views may be, it cannot deny the present of its right to enquire and sift the evidence‘. This view aptly points out the need for emotional intelligence in everyday life to become more emotionally balanced and functional individuals in society.

‗Emotional intelligence is an aggregate of individuals‘ cognition of own and others‘ emotions, feeling, interpretation and action as per environmental demand to manipulate the consequence which in turn result in superior performance and better human relationship‘ (Bhattacharya, 2003). Emotional intelligence is a measure of the degree to which a person makes use of his/ her reasoning in the process of emotional responses (both positive and negative) in a given situation. So having high emotional intelligence doesn‘t mean that the person never panics or loses his/ her temper. It does mean that he / she brings own feelings under control and channels them into productive behaviors. The ability to bring out-of-control emotions back into line results in what earlier generations called emotional maturity. The most popular and accepted mixed model of emotional intelligence is the one proposed by Goleman (1995). He viewed emotional intelligence as a total of personal and social competences. Personal competence determines how we manage ourselves, whereas social competence determines how we handle our interpersonal relationships. Personal competence: It comprises of three dimensions of emotional intelligence, such as, self-awareness, self-regulation and motivation. Self-awareness is the ability of an individual to observe him/herself and to recognize ‗a feeling as it happens‘ (Goleman, 1995). The hallmarks of this ability are self-confidence, self- assessment and openness to positive criticism. Self-regulation is the ability to control emotions and to redirect those emotions that can have negative impact. Trustworthiness, integrity, tolerance of ambiguity and attitude to accept change are some characteristics of this ability. Motivation is the ability to channelize emotion to achieve a goal through self-control and by moderating impulses as per the requirement of the situation. The people who have this ability are optimistic and committed towards organizational as well as individual goals. Social competence: It comprises of two dimensions namely, empathy and social skills. Empathy is the ability to feel and get concerned for others, take their perspective and to treat people according to their emotional reactions. People with this ability are experts in generating and motivating others. Social skills are the ability to build rapport and to manage relationships with people. People having this skill are very effective in persuasiveness and team management. ‗Social skill‘ is the culmination of all other components of emotional intelligence assuming that people can effectively manage social and work relationships only when they can understand and control their own emotion and can emphasize with the feelings of others.

Attitudes Introduction Attitude is a bent of mind or predisposition to certain actions. It is a process by which the individual learn as a result of experience to orient themselves towards objectives and goals. Attitude is a detailed direction of human behaviour. A person can have thousands of attitudes but organizational behaviour focused on very limited number of jobs related to attitudes. These include job-satisfaction, job involvement, and organizational commitment. A person with a high level of job satisfaction holds positive attitude towards job, while a person who dissatisfied with his job holds negative attitude towards the job. Definitions of attitude ― Attitude is a mental and neural state of readiness organized through experience, extering a dynamic influence upon the individual response to all situations and objects with which it is related‖ -Allport ― Attitude are evaluative statements either favorable or unfavorable concerning objects, people or events. They reflect how one feels about something‖- Robbins Characteristics of attitudes Attitudes are evaluated statements either favourable or unfavourable concerning objects , people or events Attitudes are learned predispositions toward aspects of our environment Attitudes is a bent of mind or predisposition to certain actions Attitude is a detailed direction of human behaviour Attitude are the feeling and believe that largely determine how employees will perceive their environment. Attitude is important because it is the mechanism through which most people express their feelings Attitude is expression of inner feelings towards an object or subject Attitudes are generally hidden in the mind and heart of people which may be expressed or inferred in some situations Attitudes are acquired through learning over a period of time. Attitudes are subject to change . a person having a negative attitude toward his may due in course of time start developing a positive attitude towards its. All individuals hold attitudes irrespective of their age, gender, social status, etc Physical environment and culture are responsible for the formation of common attitudes Attitude formation: Attitude are a result of beliefs. If the employees believe that their current job will provide them with the experience and training necessary to be promoted.

1. Past experience: People come to believe or not believe things on the basis of what they have experienced in the past. If everyone who has held job A has been promoted within six months 2. Generalization These come from similar events or situation. If no one has hold closely related job B has ever been promoted, this may lead job A holders to believe that they will not be promoted either. 3. Association people are highly influenced by the major groups or associations to which they belong. Our religion , educational background, race, gender, age and income class, are strongly influence our attitudes. 4. Family Family experts influence on the initial core at attitudes held by an individual. Individuals develop certain attitudes from the family members, parents, brothers, sisters, etc. some investigation has found a high degree of relationship between parents and children in attitudes than they found between children and their peers. 5. Peer groups As people of adulthood they increasingly rely on their peer groups for approval attitude. How others judge an individual largely determines his self image and approval seeking behaviour . we often seek out others who share attitudes similar to our own or else we change our attitudes to conform the attitudes of those in the group whose approval is important to us. 6. Society Social class and religious affiliation also play a vital role in forming attitudes of an individual. The culture, language and the structure of society, all provides an individual with the boundaries of his initial attitudes. At the very early age an individual is taught that certain attitudes are acceptable and certain others are non acceptable in the society. Components of attitude: Affective component Cognitive component Intentional component The affective component of an attitude reflects ‗ feelings and emotions ‗ that an individual has towards a situation

The cognitive component of an attitude derived from knowledge that an individual has about a situation. The intentional component of an attitude reflects how an individual expects to behave towards or in situation. Types of attitudes: Organizational behaviour has been concerned with three attitudes job satisfaction, job involvement and organizational commitment. Job satisfaction: The term job satisfaction refers to an individual‘s general attitude toward his job. When people speak of employee attitudes more often than not they mean job satisfaction. Infact the two are frequently used interchangeably. Job involvement: It measures the degree to which a person identifies psychologically with his job and considers his perceived performance level important to his self worth. Employees with a high level of job involvement strongly identify with and really care about the kind of work they do on their job. High level of job involvement have been found to be related to fewer absence and low resignation rates Organizational commitment: It is defined as a state in which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintains membership in the organization. Studies show that as individuals level of organizational commitment is a better indicator of turnover than for more frequently used job satisfaction predictor. Functions of attitudes Attitudes help people adopt to their work environment. Katz has noted that attitudes serve four important functions in this process. The adjustment function: When employees are well treated by the boss, they are likely to develop a positive attitude towards supervision and the organization when employees are been berated and given minimum salary, they are likely to develop a negative attitude towards supervision and the organization. These attitudes help employees to their environment and are a basis for future behaviour. The ego defensive function Attitudes help to defend their self image. Sometimes an individual may develop certain attitudes to satisfy his ego . for example, there is feeling among most senior employees that the new recruits may not work efficiently. The reason for holding such as attitude is in view it fear that the new recruits are better qualified and have been exposure to the modern work methods. The value expressive function:

Attitudes provide people with a basis for expressing their values. For example, a manager who believes strongly in the work ethic will tend to voice attitude towards specific individuals or work practices as a means of reflecting this value . Attitude serve is a basis for expressing one‘s central values. The knowledge function: Attitude help supply standards and frames of references that allow people to organize and explain the world around them. Regardless if how accurate a person‗s view of reality is attitude towards people events and objects help the individual make sense out it what is going on. Measurement of attitude: For the measurement of attitudes, different types of scales are used. Thurstone‘s scale Likert‘s scale Bogardus‘s social distance scale Gultman‘s scale Thurstone‘s scale It collected a large number of statements relations to the area in which attitudes were to be measured. The statements may be relating for any objects . for example religion, education, war, peace, etc. The statements both favorable and unfavorable are place in to eleven files. I representing the most favourable one and ‗11‘ representing the unfavourable. The respondents will be asked to check those statements with which they agreed. For example, if the average happens to be low, this would indicate high degree of favourableness in attitudes in the particular area of field and if the average happens to be high this indicates low degree in favourableness in attitudes in the area. Likert’s scale It has five boxes exhibiting from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Under each statements of attitude the respondent will be given a chanced to check the five boxes and finally all the ratings will be summed up. This scale is a kind of a summed-rating measure as several statements are collected in an person‘s attitude towards his job. The summed rating scale provides a means of measuring the intensity of one‘s attitude toward a particular object. Bogardus’s social distance scale It is the simplest scale developed by bogardus. The scale is composed of a large number of statements regarding national, or racial or ethinic groups. Bogardus used a seven point scale from the most favourable acceptance picture. That acceptance to close kingship by marriage, to termination or exclusion from the country as the other by extreme end of scale. Gultman’s scale

It is a cumulative scaling technique to measure the attitudes developed by gultman in 1750. suppose an individual gets a higher scale than other person on a particular set of items. We can easily determine his position for every single item. For example let us consider three items referring to weight that is to be tested. My weight is more than 45 kgs My weight is more than 50 kgs We know that he has already said ‗yes‘ to numbers 2 and 1 also. Similarly in the case of one‘s attitude towards work an employee might be presented with six statements displaying successfully higher degree of dissatisfaction. It is assumed that the employee will reach some point beyond which he can no longer agree. The main threshold is considered to be the degree of satisfaction.

Values Introduction Values represent basic convictions that ―a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence‖ (Rokeach, 1973). When the values are ranked in terms of their intensity, i.e., when the value are prioritized in terms of their intensity, it is called value system. Types of values include, ethical/moral values, doctrinal/ideological (political, religious) values, social values, and aesthetic values. Values have both content and intensity attributes. The content attribute signifies that a mode of conduct or end-state of existence is important. The intensity attribute specifies how important it is. Ranking an individual‘s values in terms of their intensity equals that person‘s value system. Values build the foundation for the understanding of attitudes and motivation of an individual, since, value has a great impact on perceptions. Values shape relationships, behaviors, and choices. The more positive our values, more positive are people‘s actions. A significant portion of the values an individual holds is established in the early years— from parents, teachers, friends, and others. Types of Values Rokeach, in his Value Survey (Rokeach Value Survey- RVS), proposed two sets of values. They are :Terminal values and Instrumental values. Each set contains 18 individual value items. Terminal values refer to desirable end-states of existence, the goals that a person would like to achieve during his/her lifetime. Instrumental values refer to preferable modes of behavior, or means of achieving the terminal values. This survey proposed that people in the same occupations or categories tend to hold similar values. The terminal values and instrumental values proposed by RVS are listed below: Terminal values 1. Equality (brotherhood and equal opportunity for all) 2. A comfortable life (a prosperous life) 3. An Exciting Life (a stimulating, active life) 4. Family Security (taking care of loved ones) 5. Freedom (independence and free choice) 6. Health (physical and mental well-being) 7. Inner Harmony (freedom from inner conflict) 8. Mature Love (sexual and spiritual intimacy) 9. National Security (protection from attack) 10. Pleasure (an enjoyable, leisurely life) 11. Salvation (saved; eternal life)

12. Self-Respect (self-esteem) 13. A Sense of Accomplishment (a lasting contribution) 14. Social Recognition (respect and admiration) 15. True Friendship (close companionship) 16. Wisdom (a mature understanding of life) 17. A World at Peace (a world free of war and conflict) 18. A World of Beauty (beauty of nature and the arts) Instrumental values 1. Ambitious (hardworking and aspiring) 2. Broad-minded (open-minded) 3. Capable (competent; effective) 4. Clean (neat and tidy) 5. Courageous (standing up for your beliefs) 6. Forgiving (willing to pardon others) 7. Helpful (working for the welfare of others) 8. Honest (sincere and truthful) 9. Imaginative (daring and creative) 10. Independent (self-reliant; self-sufficient) 11. Intellectual (intelligent and reflective) 12. Logical (consistent; rational) 13. Loving (affectionate and tender) 14. Loyal (faithful to friends or the group) 15. Obedient (dutiful; respectful) 16. Polite (courteous and well-mannered) 17. Responsible (dependable and reliable) 18. Self-controlled (restrained; self-disciplined) Contemporary Work Cohort Robbins (2003) has proposed Contemporary Work Cohort, in which the unique value of different cohorts is that the U.S. workforce has been segmented by the era they entered the workforce. Individuals‘ values differ, but tend to reflect the societal values of the period in which they grew up. The cohorts and the respective values have been listed below: 1. Veterans—Workers who entered the workforce from the early 1940s through the early 1960s. They exhibited the following value orientations: They were influenced by the Great Depression and World War II 1. Believed in hard work 2. Tended to be loyal to their employer 3. Terminal values: Comfortable life and family security 2. Boomers—Employees who entered the workforce during the 1960s through the mid1980s belonged to this category. Their value orientations were:

1. Influenced heavily by John F. Kennedy, the civil rights and feminist movements, the Beatles, the Vietnam War, and baby-boom competition 2. Distrusted authority, but gave a high emphasis on achievement and material success 3. Organizations who employed them were vehicles for their careers 4. Terminal values: sense of accomplishment and social recognition 3. Xers—began to enter the workforce from the mid-1980s. They cherished the following values: Shaped by globalization, two-career parents, MTV, AIDS, and computers 1. 2. 3. 4.

Value flexibility, life options, and achievement of job satisfaction Family and relationships were important and enjoyed team-oriented work Money was important, but would trade off for increased leisure time Less willing to make personal sacrifices for employers than previous generations Terminal values: true friendship, happiness, and pleasure

4. Nexters—most recent entrants into the workforce. Grew up in prosperous times, have high expectation, believe in themselves, and confident in their ability to succeed 1. 2. 3. 4.

Never-ending search for ideal job; see nothing wrong with job-hopping Seek financial success Enjoy team work, but are highly self-reliant Terminal values: freedom and comfortable life

National Culture And Values Following are the most important research with regard to establishing relationship between national culture and values. Hofstede’s research Hofstede (1980,1991), in order to find the common dimensions of culture across the countries, gathered data from surveys with 116,000 respondents working from IBM from more than 70 countries around the world. The underlying concept of the four dimensions is described below (Hofsede 1991):

Power distance: This dimension measures the ‘social equality‘ i.e.; to what extent a society accepts unequal distribution of power in families, institutions and organizations. Inequality of power in organizations is generally manifested in hierarchical superior-subordinate relationships.

Uncertainty avoidance: This is a representation of a society‘s tolerance for uncertain situations. It measures to what extent a society manages those situations by providing specific and conventional rules, regulations and norms; by rejecting aberrant ideas or behavior; by accepting the possibility of absolute truths and the accomplishments of expertise. Countries, which score high in uncertainty avoidance, discourage risk-taking behavior and innovation. Individualism vs. collectivism: Individualism gauges to what extent individuals in a country consider themselves as distinct entities rather than as members of cohesive groups. Collectivism, on the other hand, emphasizes on ‘social ties or bonds‘ between individuals. Individualistic society considers self-interest as more important than the group goal. Masculinity vs. femininity: This dimension refers to what extent dominant values in a society emphasizes masculine social values like a work ethic expressed in terms of money, achievement and recognition as opposed to feminine social role which show more concern for people and quality of life. Hofstede and Bond (1988) have identified a fifth dimension (based on Confucian dynamism), called‗ long-termorientation‘, which measures employees‘ devotion to the work ethic and their respect for tradition. It was found that Asian countries like Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan are extremely strong in work ethic and commitment to traditional Confucian values. Hofstede (1991) further proposed that each person carries around several layers of cultural programming. It starts when a child learns basic values: what is right and wrong, good and bad, logical and illogical, beautiful and ugly. Culture is about your fundamental assumptions of what it is to be a person and how you should interact with other persons in your group and with outsiders. The first level of culture is the deepest, the most difficult to change and will vary according to the culture in which we grow up. Other layers of culture are learned or programmed in the course of education, through professional or craft training and in organization life. Some of the aspects of culture learned later have to do with conventions and ethics in your profession. These layers are more of ways of doing things, or practices as opposed to fundamental assumptions about how things are. GLOBE research GLOBE project integrates the above –mentioned cultural attributes and variables with managerial behavior in organizations. Following are some of the questions asked in this project to prove that leadership and organizational processes were directly influenced by cultural variables: Are leader behaviors, attributes and organizational practices universally accepted and effective across cultures? Are they influenced by societal and organizational cultures? What is the effect of violating cultural norms that are relevant to leadership and organizational practices? Can the universal and culture-specific aspects of leadership behaviour and organizational practice be explained with the help of a theory accounting for systematic differences across cultures?

From the above, GLOBE project identified nine cultural dimensions (House, Javidan, Hanges and Dorfman, 2002: 3-10) Uncertainty- avoidance: GLOBE project defined this dimension as the extent to which a society or an organization tries to avoid uncertainty by depending heavily on prevalent norms, rituals and bureaucratic practices. Power distance: it is the degree to which power is unequally shared in a society or an organization. Collectivism-I i.e. societal collectivism: it is the degree to which society and organization encourages, and recognizes collective performance. Collectivism-II- In-group collectivism: it is the degree to which individuals take pride, loyalty and cohesiveness in their organizations and families. Gender egalitarianism: GLOBE has defined this as an extent to which a society or an organization minimizes gender differences and discrimination. Assertiveness: it is the degree to which individuals, both in organizational and social context are, assertive and confrontational. Future orientation: it is the degree to which individuals are encouraged in longterm future – orientated behaviors such as planning, investing, etc. Performance orientation: this dimension encourages and rewards group members for performance improvement. Humane orientation: it is the degree to which organizations or society encourage or reward for being fair, altruistic, friendly, generous and caring. Work behavior across cultures In every culture, there are different sets of attitudes and values which affect behavior. Similarly, every individual has a set of attitudes and beliefs – filters through which he/she views management situations within organizational context. Managerial beliefs, attitudes and values can affect organizations positively or negatively. Managers portray trust and respect in their employees in different ways in different cultures. This is a function of their own cultural backgrounds. For example, managers from specific cultures tend to focus only on the behavior that takes place at work, in contrast to managers from diffused cultures who focus on wider range of behavior including employees‘ private and professional lives. Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998:86) have conducted a survey to find out whether the employees believe their companies should provide housing to the employees. It was found out that most managers from diffused cultures believed that company should provide such facility (former Yugoslavia 89%, Hungary 83%, China 82%, Russia 78%), whereas less than 20% managers from specific cultures such as UK, Australia, Denmark, France, etc., agreed on the same. Laurent (1983: 75-96), as a result of his survey with managers from nine Western European countries, U.S., three Asian countries found distinctly different patterns for managers in common work situations. Task and relationship: in response to the statement which states that the main reason for a hierarchical structure was to communicate the authority- relationship, most U.S. managers disagreed whereas, most Asian , Latin American managers strongly agreed. It was quite evident that U.S managers, having an extremely task- oriented culture, believed

more in flatter organizational structure to become more effective. On the other hand, the second set of managers were from more relationship- oriented cultures where the concept of authority is more important. Similarly, in response to the statement which says that in order to have efficient work relationship it is often necessary to bypass the hierarchical line, differences were found across cultures. Managers from Sweden (task- oriented culture) projected least problem with bypassing since getting the job done is more important than expressing allegiance to their bosses. In contrast, Italian managers, coming from a relationship-oriented culture, considered bypassing the authority/boss as an act of in-subordination. The above- mentioned example is inevitably a caution signal to the universal management approach, irrespective of culture. Managers as experts or problem-solvers: in the same study, Laurent asked managers from various cultures whether it was important for them to have at hand, precise answers to most questions their subordinates might raise about their work. French managers believed that they should give precise answers to the questions in order to maintain their credibility and retain the subordinates‘ sense of security. On the contrary, U.S. managers believed that a managers‘ role should be to act as a mentor who would facilitate the employees to solve the problem. They also believe that providing direct answers to a problem actually discourages subordinates‘ initiative and creativity and ultimately hampers performance.

Perception Introduction Individuals behave in a given manner based not on the way their external environment actually, is but, rather, on what they see or believe it to be. A supervisor may try to help his subordinates to achieve their target by advising and suggesting solutions. An employee may believe the supervisor is controlling and interfering. As a result of that, the employee may continuously try to avoid the boss. The same boss may be perceived as a ‗father figure‘ to another employee for his helping attitude. As a result of that, the specific employee may acknowledge the supervisor and seeks his guidance. These two employee‘s perception about the supervisor that becomes the basis for their different behavior. Perception can be defined as s a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. Since people‘s behavior is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself. Individuals differ in their perceptions with regard to people and inanimate objects. An individual makes inferences about the actions of people not the same way as they do for inanimate objects. Non-living objects are subject to the laws of nature. People have beliefs, motives, or intentions. Therefore, an individual‘s perception and judgment of another person‘s actions are influenced by these assumptions.

Factors Influencing Perception Three factors shape perception of an individual: 1. Perceiver 2. Target 3. Situation Perceiver – Refers to the most prevalent personal characteristics affecting perception of the perceiver, which are attitudes, motives, interests, past experiences, and expectations. Target -. Characteristics of the target can also affect what is being perceived. This includes, attractiveness, gregariousness, and an individual‘s tendency to group similar things together. Situation – The context in which objects or events are seen by individuals also influence their attention. This includes time, heat, light, or other situational factors. Attribution Theory An important element in perception is attribution process. Attribution theory (Kelley, 1972) suggests that when we observe an individual‘s behavior, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused. Internally caused behaviors are those that are believed to be under the personal control of the individual. Externally caused behavior is seen as resulting from outside causes; that is, the person is seen as having been forced into the behavior by the situation. There are three determining factors in this regard: Distinctiveness Consensus Consistency Distinctiveness refers to whether an individual displays different behaviors in different situations. What we attempt to know is whether the observed behavior is unusual. If it is, the observer is likely to give the behavior an external attribution. If this action is not unusual, it will probably be judged as internal. Consensus occurs, if, everyone who is faced with a similar situation responds in the same way. If consensus is high, one would be expected to give an external attribution to the employee‘s tardiness, whereas, in case of other employees taking the same route and making it work on time, the causation for the same will be attributed to internal causation. Consistency refers to the pattern that is reflected regularly in a person‘s actions. Does the person respond the same way over time? The more consistent the behavior, the more the observer is inclined to attribute it to internal causes.

Fundamental Attribution Error (Ross, 1977) Research evidence shows that individuals have a tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal or personal factors. There is also a tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors, such as, ability or effort while putting the blame for failure on external factors, such as, luck. This is called the ―self-serving bias‖ and suggests that feedback provided to employees will be distorted by recipients. The question is whether or not these errors or biases that distort attribution are universal across different cultures? While exact answers may not exist, there is some preliminary evidence that indicates cultural differences (Robbins, 2003): Korean managers found that, contrary to the self-serving bias, they tended to accept responsibility for group failure. Attribution theory was developed largely based on experiments with Americans and Western Europeans. The Korean study suggests caution in making attribution theory predictions in non-Western societies, especially in countries with strong collectivist traditions. More studies are required to provide conclusive evidences in this regard. Shortcuts In Judging Others Individuals have a tendency to use a number of shortcuts when they judge others. An understanding of these shortcuts can be helpful toward recognizing when they can result in significant distortions. Selective Perception Any characteristic that makes a person, object, or event stand out will increase the probability that it will be perceived. It is impossible for an individual to internalize and assimilate everything that is seen .Only certain stimuli can be taken in selectively. Selectivity works as a shortcut in judging other people by allowing us to ―speed-read‖ others, but, not without the risk of drawing an inaccurate picture. The tendency to see what we want to see can make us draw unwarranted conclusions from an ambiguous situation. Halo Effect The halo effect (Murphy & Anhalt, 1992) occurs when we draw a general impression on the basis of a single characteristic. For example, while appraising the lecturer, students may give prominence to a single trait, such as, enthusiasm and allow their entire evaluation to be tainted by how they judge the instructor on that one trait which stood out prominently in their estimation of that person. Research suggests that it is likely to be most extreme when the traits to be perceived are ambiguous in behavioral terms, when the traits have moral overtones, and when the perceiver is judging traits with which he or she has had limited experience.

Contrast Effects Individuals do not evaluate a person in isolation. Their reaction to one person is influenced by other persons they have encountered recently. For example, an interview situation in which one sees a pool of job applicants can distort perception. Distortions in any given candidate‘s evaluation can occur as a result of his or her place in the interview schedule. Projection This tendency to attribute one‘s own characteristics to other people—which is called projection—can distort perceptions made about others. When managers engage in projection, they compromise their ability to respond to individual differences. They tend to see people as more homogeneous than they really are. Stereotyping Stereotyping—judging someone on the basis of our perception of the group to which he or she belongs. Generalization is not without advantages (Hilton & Hippel, 1996). It is a means of simplifying a complex world, and it permits us to maintain consistency. The problem, of course, is when we inaccurately stereotype. In organizations, we frequently hear comments that represent stereotypes based on gender, age, race, ethnicity, and even weight. From a perceptual standpoint, if people expect to see these stereotypes, that is what they will perceive, whether or not they are accurate.

Motivation Introduction Many people incorrectly view motivation as a personal trait—that is, some have it and others do not. Motivation is the result of the interaction of the individual and the situation. Motivation is ―the processes that account for an individual‘s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal‖ (Robbins, 2003). Intensity is concerned with how hard a person tries. This is the element most of us focus on when we talk about motivation. Direction is the orientation that benefits the organization. And Persistence is a measure of how long a person can maintain his/her effort. Motivated individuals stay with a task long enough to achieve their goal. Early Theories Of Motivation

In the 1950s three specific theories were formulated and are the best known: Hierarchy of Needs theory, Theories X and Y, and the Two-Factor theory. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

According to this theory, proposed by Maslow (1943), human beings have wants and desires which influence their behaviour; only unsatisfied needs can influence behavior, satisfied needs cannot. The needs are arranged in order of importance, from the basic to the complex. The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level

need is at least minimally satisfied. The further they progress up the hierarchy, the more individuality, humanness and psychological health a person will show. The five needs are: Physiological: Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs Safety: Includes security and protection from physical and emotional harm Social: Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship Esteem: Includes internal esteem factors, such as, self-respect, autonomy, and achievement; and external esteem factors, such as, status, recognition, and attention Self-actualization: The drive to become what one is capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving one‘s potential, and self-fulfillment. Maslow separated the five needs into higher and lower orders. Physiological and safety needs are described as lower-order. Social, esteem, and self-actualization are classified as higher-order needs. Higher-order needs are satisfied internally, whereas, Lower-order needs are predominantly satisfied, externally. Theory X and Theory Y

Douglas McGregor argued that a manager‘s view of the nature of human beings is based on a certain grouping of assumptions and he or she tends to mould his or her behavior toward employees according to these assumptions. Theory X In this theory management assumes employees are inherently lazy and will avoid work, if they can. Workers need to be closely supervised and a comprehensive system of controls and a hierarchical structure is needed to supervise the workers closely. It is also assumed that workers generally place security above all other factors and will display little ambition. Theory Y In this theory management assumes employees may be ambitious, self-motivated, anxious to accept greater responsibility, and exercise self-control, self-direction, autonomy and empowerment. It is believed that employees enjoy their mental and physical work duties. It is also believed that, if given the chance employees have the desire to be creative and forward thinking in the workplace. There is a chance for greater productivity by giving employees the freedom to perform to the best of their abilities without being bogged down by rules. From the above, it is clear that Theory X assumes that lower-order needs dominate individuals. Theory Y assumes that higher-order needs dominate individuals.

Herzberg’s Two Factor theory Herzberg (1959) constructed a two-dimensional paradigm of factors affecting people‘s attitudes about work. These two factors are motivators and hygiene factors and this theory is also called motivation-hygiene theory. Motivators are intrinsic factors, such as, advancement, recognition, responsibility, and achievement. Presence of these factors ensure job satisfaction. Extrinsic factors, such as, company policy, supervision, interpersonal relations, working conditions, and salary are hygiene factors. The absence of hygiene factors can create job dissatisfaction, but their presence does not motivate or create satisfaction. In summary, motivators describe a person‘s relationship with what she or he does, many related to the tasks being performed. Hygiene factors on the other hand, have to do with a person‘s relationship to the context or environment in which she or he performs the job. The satisfiers relate to what a person does while the dissatisfiers relate to the situation in which the person does what he or she does. Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying. Job satisfaction factors are separate and distinct from job dissatisfaction factors. When hygiene factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied; neither will they be satisfied. To motivate people, emphasize factors intrinsically rewarding that are associated with the work itself or to outcomes directly derived from it. Contemporary Theories Of Motivation The following theories are considered contemporary , since they represent the current state of the art in explaining employee motivation ERG Theory Alderfer (1972) classifies needs into three categories into hierarchical order. They are: The existence category Provides our basic material existence requirements. They include Maslow‘s physiological and safety needs. Relatedness category The desire we have for maintaining important interpersonal relationships. 1. These social and status desires require interaction with others. 2. They align with Maslow‘s social need and the external component. Growth category An intrinsic desire for personal development.

These include the intrinsic component from Maslow‘s esteem category, and the characteristics included under self-actualization. This theory is very similar to Maslow‘s theory. Existence need corresponds with Maslow‘s physiological and safety needs, Relatedness need corresponds with Maslow‘s social needs and Growth need corresponds with Maslow‘s esteem and self-actualization needs. Alderfer‘s ERG theory differs from Maslow‘s in the following arguments: More than one need may be operative at the same time. 1. If, the gratification of a higher-level need is stifled, the desire to satisfy a lowerlevel need increases. 2. ERG theory does not assume that there exists a rigid hierarchy. A person can be working on growth even though existence or relatedness needs are unsatisfied, or all three need categories could be operating at the same time. ERG theory also contains a frustration-regression dimension. Maslow argued that an individual would stay at a certain need level until that need was satisfied. ERG argues that multiple needs can be operating as motivators at the same time. ERG theory notes that when a higher-order need level is frustrated, the individual‘s desire to increase a lower-level need takes place (Robbins, 2003). McClelland’s Theory of Needs McClelland‘s (1961) theory focuses on three needs: achievement, power, and affiliation. They are defined as follow: Need for achievement (nAch) – The need to excel and to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed. Need for power (nPow): The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved, otherwise. Need for affiliation (nAff): The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. People with high need for achievement have a compelling drive to succeed. They have a desire to do something better or more efficiently than it has been done before. This drive is the achievement need. High achievers differentiate themselves from others by their desire to do things better. They seek situations in which they can attain personal responsibility for finding solutions to problems. Individuals high in need for power enjoy being ―in charge‖ of any situation. They strive for influence over others and prefer to be placed into competitive and status-oriented situations. They are also more concerned with prestige and gaining influence over others than with effective performance.

Individuals with high need for affiliation motive strive for friendship, prefer cooperative situations rather than competitive ones, and desire relationships that involve a high degree of mutual understanding. Based on this theory, the following assumptions can be made (Robbins, 2003): Individuals with a high need to achieve prefer job situations with personal responsibility, feedback, and an intermediate degree of risk. When these characteristics are prevalent, high achievers will be strongly motivated. A high need to achieve does not necessarily lead to being a good manager, especially in large organizations. People with a high achievement need are interested in how well they do personally and not in influencing others to do well. The needs for affiliation and power tend to be closely related to managerial success. The best managers are high in their need for power and low in their need for affiliation. Cognitive Evaluation Theory This theory proposes (Deci & Ryan, 1985) that when extrinsic rewards are used by organizations as payoffs for superior performance, the intrinsic rewards, which are derived from individuals doing what they like, are reduced. The popular explanation is that the individual experiences a loss of control over his or her own behavior so that the previous intrinsic motivation diminishes. Furthermore, the elimination of extrinsic rewards can produce a shift—from an external to an internal explanation—in an individual‘s perception of causation of why he or she works on a task (Robbins, 2003). Therefore, pay or other extrinsic rewards should be made contingent on an individual‘s performance. This theory may have limited applicability to work organizations, because most lowlevel jobs are not inherently satisfying enough to foster high intrinsic interest, and many managerial and professional positions offer intrinsic rewards Goal-Setting Theory Locke and Latham (1990) proposed that challenging goals produce a higher level of output than do the generalized goals. More difficult the goal, the higher the level of performance will be. People will do better when they get feedback on how well they are progressing toward their goals. A goal serves as a motivator, because, it causes people to compare their present capacity to perform with that required to succeed at the goal. There are four contingencies in goal-setting theory: Goal commitment: Goal-setting theory presupposes that an individual is committed to the goal.

1. Adequate self-efficacy: Self-efficacy refers to an individual‘s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed in a task. 2. Task characteristics: Individual goal setting does not work equally well on all tasks. Goals seem to have a more substantial effect on performance when tasks are simple, well-learned, and independent. 3. National culture: Goal-setting theory is culture bound and it is well adapted to North American cultures. Reinforcement Theory

Reinforcement theory (Komaki et. al., 1991) argues that reinforcement conditions human behavior. According to this theory, behavior is a function of its consequences. Behavior is environmentally caused. It can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences. Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated. Equity Theory According to this theory (Adams, 1965), employees make comparisons of their job inputs and outcomes relative to those of others. If, an individual perceives the input-outcome ratio to be equal to that of the relevant others with whom he/she compares his/herself, a state of equity is said to exist. He/she perceives the situation as fair. If the ratio appears to be unequal, the individual experience inequity. There are four referent comparisons that an employee can use: Self-inside: An employee‘s experiences in a different position inside his or her current organization Self-outside: An employee‘s experiences in a situation or position outside his or her current organization Other-inside: Another individual or group of individuals inside the employee‘s organization Other-outside: Another individual or group of individuals outside the employee‘s organization There are certain issues which are crucial regarding Equity theory. They are as follows: 1. Employees with short tenure in their current organizations tend to have little information about others. 2. Employees with long tenure rely more heavily on co-workers for comparison. 3. Upper-level employees will make more other-outside comparisons. When employees perceive an inequity, they can be predicted to make one of six choices: Change their inputs. Change their outcomes. Distort perceptions of self.

Distort perceptions of others. Choose a different referent. Leave the field. Organizational justice People‘s perceptions of fairness in organizations, consisting of perceptions of how decisions are made regarding the distribution of outcomes and the perceived fairness of those outcomes themselves. 1. Distributive Justice: The perceived fairness of the way rewards are distributed among people. 2. Procedural Justice : Perceptions of the fairness of the procedures used to determine outcomes. 3. Interactional Justice: The perceived fairness of the interpersonal treatment used to determine organizational outcomes. Motivational tips Certain tips, which may be important in this regard, are as follows: Avoid underpayment. 4. Avoid overpayment. 5. Give people a voice in decisions affecting them. 6. Explain outcomes thoroughly using a socially sensitive manner. Expectancy Theory Expectancy theory is one of the most widely accepted explanations of motivation. Victor Vroom‘s (1964) expectancy theory has its critics but most of the research is supportive. Motivation is based on people‘s beliefs, goals and linkage between effort and performance, performance and reward, and reward and individual goal satisfaction. Expectancy theory argues that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. Determinants of motivation according to this theory are as follows: Expectancy: The belief that one‘s efforts will positively influence one‘s performance. Instrumentality: An individual‘s beliefs regarding the likelihood of being rewarded in accord with his or her own level of performance. Valence: The value a person places on the rewards he or she expects to receive from an organization. Other Determinants: Skills and abilities, role perceptions, opportunities to perform, etc.

Three key relationships in Expectancy theory are: Effort-performance relationship: the probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance Performance-reward relationship: the degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome Rewards-personal goals relationship: the degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual‘s personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual. Performance formula A popular way of thinking about employee performance is as a function of the interaction of ability and motivation; that is, Performance = f (Ability x Motivation x Opportunity). If either of motivation or ability is inadequate, performance will be negatively affected. Furthermore, when an employee performs, he/she needs opportunity to be allowed to perform and prove his/her worth. Motivating Employees In Organizations A number of motivation theories have been discussed above. Based on these theories, the following suggestions summarize the essence about motivating employees in organizations. Recognize individual differences – Employees have different needs. Therefore, managers need to understand what is important to each employee. This will allow to individualize goals, level of involvement, and rewards to align with individual needs. Use goals and feedback – Employees should have tangible and specific goals. Feedback should also be provided regularly to inform the employees about their performance in pursuit of those goals. Include employees in decision-making – Employees should be included in making decisions that affect them, for example, choosing their own benefits packages and solving productivity and quality problems. Link rewards to performance – Rewards should be contingent on performance and employees must perceive a clear linkage. Maintain equity – Rewards should be perceived by employees as equating with the inputs they bring to the job, i.e; experience, skills, abilities, effort, and other obvious inputs should explain differences in performance and, hence, pay, job assignments, and other obvious rewards.

Different motivational tools. Some of the most important motivational tools have been discussed below. Management by Objective (MBO) Management by objectives emphasizes participatively set goals that are tangible, verifiable, and measurable. Four ingredients common to MBO programs are: goal specificity, participative decision-making, an explicit time period, and performance feedback (Robbins, 2003). Goal specificity: The objectives in MBO should be concise statements of expected accomplishments. Participative decision making: 1. The manager and employee jointly choose the goals and agree on how they will be measured. An explicit time period: Each objective has a specific time period in which it is to be completed. Performance feedback Continuous feedback on progress toward goals is provided so that workers can monitor and correct their own actions. MBO and Goal-Setting Theory is closely linked. Goal-setting theory proposes that tangible goals result in a higher level of individual performance than do easy goals. Feedback on one‘s performance leads to higher performance. MBO also directly advocates specific goals and feedback, implies that goals must be perceived as feasible and is most effective when the goals are difficult enough to require stretching. Employee Recognition Programs Employee recognition programs consist of personal attention, expressing interest, approval, and appreciation for a job well done. They can take numerous forms. Employee Recognition Programs has close link with Reinforcement Theory. Both the concept advocate that rewarding a behavior with recognition would lead to its repetition. Recognition can take many forms, such as, personally congratulating an employee, sending a handwritten note or an e-mail message or declaring the employee as a valuable contributor to the organizational objective.

Employee Involvement Employee involvement includes, participative management, workplace democracy, empowerment, and employee ownership. Employees‘ involvement in the decision making would positively affect them and by increasing their autonomy and control over their work lives, employees will become more motivated, more committed to the organization, more productive, and more satisfied with their jobs. Some forms of employee involvement have been discussed here: participative management, representative participation, quality circles, and employee stock ownership plans. Participative management: The logic behind participative management is: a. Managers often do not know everything their employees do. b. Better decisions c. Increased commitment to decisions d. Intrinsically rewarding employees makes their jobs more interesting and meaningful The two most common forms of participative management are: a. Works councils – They are groups of nominated or elected employees who must be consulted when management makes decisions. . b. Board representatives – they are employees who sit on a company‘s board of directors and represent the interests of the firm‘s employees. Quality circles (QC): QC consists of a work group of eight to ten employees and supervisors who have a shared area of responsibility. Key components of QC are (Robbins, 2003): They meet regularly on company time to discuss their quality problems, investigate causes of the problems, recommend solutions, and take corrective actions They take over the responsibility for solving quality problems and they generate and evaluate their own feedback. Management typically retains control over the final implementation decision. A review of the evidence indicates that they are likely to positively affect productivity, however, they tend to show little or no effect on employee satisfaction.

The failure of many quality circle programs to produce measurable benefits has also led to a large number of them being discontinued. Employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs): In the typical ESOP, an employee stock ownership trust is created. Companies contribute either stock or cash to buy stock for the trust and allocate the stock to employees. Employees usually cannot take physical possession of their shares or sell them as long as they are still employed at the company. Special Issues In Motivation Some of the special issues in motivation are discussed below. Motivating Professionals The professional employees likely to seek more intrinsic satisfaction from their work than blue-collar employees. They generally have strong and long-term commitment to their field of expertise are perhaps more loyal to their profession than to their employer. They need to regularly update their knowledge, and their commitment to their profession. Therefore, extrinsic factors such as money and promotions would be low on their priority list. Rather, job challenge tends to be ranked high. They like to tackle problems and find solutions. Managerial Implications: Provide them with ongoing challenging projects. Give them autonomy to follow their interests and allow them to structure their work. Reward them with educational opportunities. Also reward them with recognition. Motivating temporary Workers Temporary workers may be motivated if: They are provided with permanent job opportunity The opportunity for training is provided to them Motivating Low-Skilled Service Workers

One of the most challenging managerial tasks in to motivate low-skilled workers who are involved in repetitive physical work, where higher education and skills are not required. For this category of people, flexible work schedules and higher pay package may be proved effective motivational factors.

UNIT III GROUP BEHAVIOUR Organization structure – Formation – Groups in organizations – Influence – Group dynamics –Emergence of informal leaders and working norms – Group decision making techniques – Team building - Interpersonal relations – Communication – Control.

Group Behavior Introduction A group may be defined as a collection of two or more people who work with one another regularly to achieve common goals. In a group, members are mutually dependent on one another to achieve common goals, and they interact with one another regularly to pursue those goals. Effective groups help organizations accomplish important tasks. In particular, they offer the potential for synergy—the creation of a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts. When synergy occurs, groups accomplish more than the total of their members‘ individual capabilities. Classification Of Groups Groups can be of two types: Formal Informal Formal groups Formal groups come into existence for serving a specific organizational purpose. Individuals‘ behaviors in this type of group are aimed at achieving organizational goals. The organization creates such a group to perform a specific task, which typically involves the use of resources to create a product such as a report, decision, service, or commodity (Likert, 1961). Though all members contribute to achieve group goals a leader does exist in this type of group to oversee and direct group members. Formal groups may be permanent or temporary in nature. They may be full fledged departments divisions or specific work teams created for particular projects of fairly long duration. . Permanent work groups are officially created to perform a specific function on a regular basis. They continue to exist until a decision is made to change or reconfigure the organization for some reason.

Temporary work groups are task groups are specifically created to solve a problem or perform a defined task. They may be dismantled after the assigned task has been accomplished. Examples are the temporary committees and task forces that exist in an

organization. Indeed, in today‘s organizations the use of cross-functional teams or task forces for special problem-solving efforts has goner up significantly. Informal group An informal group is neither formally structured nor organizationally determined. Group of employees snacking together can be an example of such groups. Informal groups may be sub-categorized as : Command, task, interest, or friendship groups. 1. Command groups are dictated by the formal organization. The organization hierarchy determines a command group. It comprises of direct reports to a given manager. 2. Task groups—represent those working together to complete a job task. A task group‘s boundaries are not limited to its immediate hierarchical superior. It can cross command relationships where the same member may be reporting to two or more authorities at the same time. All command groups are also task groups, but the reverse may not be true. 3. An interest group consists of people who affiliate to attain a specific objective with which each is concerned. Models Of Group Development The most important models of group development have been cited below. a. The Five-Stage Model 1. Forming: In this stage the members are entering the group. The main concern is to facilitate the entry of the group members. The individuals entering are concerned with issues such as what the group can offer them, their needed contribution the similarity in terms of their personal needs, goals and group goals, the acceptable normative and behavioral standards expected for group membership and recognition for doing the work as a group member. 2. Storming: This is a turbulent phase where individuals try to basically form coalitions and cliques to achieve a desired status within the group. Members also go through the process of identifying to their expected role requirements in relation to group requirements. In the process, membership expectations tend to get clarified, and attention shifts toward hurdles coming in the way of attaining group goals. Individuals begin to understand and appreciate each other‘s interpersonal styles, and efforts are made to find ways to accomplish group goals while also satisfying individual needs.

3. Norming: From the norming stage of group development, the group really begins to come together as a coordinated unit. At this point, close relationships develop and the group shows cohesiveness. Group members will strive to maintain positive balance at this stage. 4. Performing: The group now becomes capable of dealing with complex tasks and handling internal disagreements in novel ways. The structure is stable, and members are motivated by group goals and are generally satisfied. The structure is fully functional and accepted at this stage. Group energy makes a transition from member‘s focus on getting to know and understand each other to performing. For permanent work groups, performing is the last stage in their development. 5. Adjourning: A well-integrated group is able to disband, if required, when its work is accomplished, though in itself it may be a painful process for group members, emotionally. The adjourning stage of group development is especially important for the many temporary groups that are rampant in today‘s workplaces. Members of these groups must be able to convene quickly, do their jobs on a tight schedule, and then adjourn—often to reconvene later, whenever required. Groups do not always proceed clearly from one stage to the next. Sometimes several stages go on simultaneously, as when groups are storming and performing. Groups may at times regress to earlier stages. Another problem is that it ignores organizational context. For instance, a study of a cockpit crew in an airliner found that, within ten minutes, three strangers assigned to fly together for the first time had become a highperforming group. The rigid organizational context provides the rules, task definitions, information, and resources required for the group to perform, effectively. b. Punctuated equilibrium model Temporary groups with deadlines do not seem to follow the model explained above. Their pattern is called the punctuated-equilibrium model. Phase I—The first meeting sets the group‘s direction. This stage is the first inertia phase. A structure of behavioral patterns and assumptions emerges. Transition – Then a transition takes place when the group has used up almost half its allotted time. The group‘s direction becomes fixed and is unlikely to be reexamined throughout the first half of the group‘s life. The group tends to stand still or become locked into a fixed course of action. The group is incapable of acting on new insights in Phase 1. The midpoint seems to set an alarm clock going increasing members‘ awareness that their time is limited and that they need to move on fast. A transition triggers off major changes. This ends Phase 1 and is characterized by a concentrated burst of changes, replacement old patterns, and adoption of new perspectives. The transition sets a revised direction for Phase 2.

Phase 2 – It is a new equilibrium and is also a period of inertia. In this phase, the group executes plans created during the transition period. The group‘s last meeting is characterized by a flurry of activities. The punctuated-equilibrium model characterizes groups as demonstrating long periods of inertia interspersed with brief and rapid changes triggered mainly by their members‘ awareness of time and targets . External Conditions Imposed on the Group All work groups are part of larger systems and organizations and therefore cannot exist or work in isolation. It is therefore influenced by mainly external factors which include organizational strategy, authority structures, rules and regulations, access to resources, physical work conditions and organizational culture and performance systems and reward structures. Robbins (2004) outlines the role of these factors as follows: The strategy will influence the power of various work groups which will determine the resources that the organization‘s top management is willing to allocate to it for performing its tasks. Organizations have authority structures that define who reports to whom, who makes decisions, and what decisions individuals or groups are empowered to make. Organizations create rules, procedures, policies, job descriptions, and other forms of formal regulations to standardize employee behavior. The more formal regulations that the organization imposes on all its employees, the more the behavior of work group members will be consistent and predictable. The presence or absence of resources such as money, time, raw materials, and equipment—which are allocated to the group by the organization—have a large bearing on the group‘s behavior. The performance evaluation and reward system. Group members‘ behavior will be influenced by how the organization evaluates performance and what behaviors are rewarded. Every organization has an unwritten culture that defines standards of acceptable and unacceptable behavior for employees. Members of work groups have to accept the standards implied in the organization‘s dominant culture if they are to remain in good standing. The physical work setting creates both barriers and opportunities for work group interaction. Group Member Resources A. Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities The knowledge, skills, and abilities of its individual members plays an important role in determining the group‘s success and their ability to achieve set targets effectively and in synergistic manner. A review of the evidence has shown that interpersonal skills play an important role for high work group performance. They comprise of conflict management and resolution skills, collaborative problem solving abilities, and effective communication skills.

B.Personality Characteristics: A substantial larger body of research evidence is available with regard to the relationship between personality traits and group attitudes and behavior. The general conclusions are as follows ( Robbins 2004): Attributes that have a positive connotation in our culture tend to be positively related to group productivity, morale, and cohesiveness. These include: sociability, initiative, openness, and flexibility. Negatively evaluated characteristics such as authoritarianism, dominance, and unconventionality tend to be negatively related to the dependent variables. 3. No single personality characteristic is a good predictor of group behavior. Group Structure Work groups in order to function as a coordinated unit need to have a proper structure where there must be certain elements like formal leadership, role clarity among group members. In the absence of these factors groups not only become conflict ridden , but also suffer from confusion, and function on a sub optimal level. Each element is explained briefly below: 1. Formal Leadership Almost every work group must have a formal leader, which is typically identified by a title. The leader can play an important part in the group‘s success. 2. Roles All group members are actors, where each is playing a role. While some of these roles may be compatible others create conflicts. Different groups impose different role requirements on individuals. 3. Role perception For playing one‘s role effectively in a group, one‘s view of how one is supposed to act in a given situation must be clear leading to clear role perception. By watching and imitating senior members of a group the new comers learn how to take on their roles effectively and also learn how to play them well. 4. Role expectations Tuning oneself and behaving in a socially desirable manner is a part of fulfilling role expectations in a given situation in the context of achieving group goals and organizational goals.

1. Role conflict When a group member is faced with the challenge of playing multiple roles, role conflict may occur due to inability of the individual to balance all the roles effectively, thereby reducing role effectiveness, hampering the group and organizational goal attainment process. Norms All groups have norms—‖acceptable standards of behavior that are shared by the group‘s members.‖ Norms serve as a guideline for members detailing what they ought and ought not to do under certain circumstances. Though a work group‘s norms are unique, yet there are still some common classes of norms. They are: Performance norms which comprise the following (Robbins 2003): a. Explicit cues on how hard they should work, how to get the job done, their level of output, appropriate levels of tardiness, etc. b. These norms are extremely powerful in affecting an individual employee‘s performance. Appearance norms include things like appropriate dress, loyalty to the work group or organization, when to look busy, and when it is acceptable to goof off. Social arrangement norms come from informal work groups and primarily regulate social interactions within the group. Allocation of resources norms can originate in the group or in the organization. Conformity Strong research evidence suggests that groups can place strong pressures on individual members to change their attitudes and behaviors to conform to the group‘s standard. All groups do not have a equal sway over the members and those that have more influence are referred to as reference groups. The reference group is characterized as one where the person is aware of the others; the person defines himself or herself as a member, or would like to be a member; and the person feels that the group members are significant to him/her. Status 1. Status is a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others. Inequality is the basis for any created social order where some are more powerful, enjoy greater benefits and also command access to resources differentially. This is also related to the risk taking ability of certain groups / individuals and by virtue of this calculated risk taking ability they amass greater wealth and have superior position (status) in the hierarchy. The same is also true of groups where there is a hierarchy and all members do not enjoy the same status.

Status and norms: Research shows the following with regard to relationship between status and norms(Robbins): High-status members of groups often are given more freedom to deviate from norms than other group members. High-status people also are better able to resist conformity pressures. The previous findings explain why many star athletes, famous actors, topperforming salespeople, and outstanding academics seem oblivious to appearance or social norms. Status equity: When inequity is perceived, it creates disequilibrium that results in corrective behavior. The trappings of formal positions are also important elements in maintaining equity. Employees expect what an individual has and receives to be congruent with his/her status. For example: pay, office space, etc. Groups generally agree within themselves on status criteria. Individuals can find themselves in a conflict situation when they move between groups whose status criteria are different or when they join groups whose members have heterogeneous backgrounds. Status and culture: Cultural differences affect status. For example, the French are highly status conscious. Countries differ on the criteria that create status: -Status for Latin Americans and Asians tends to be derived from family position and formal roles held in organizations. -In the United States and Australia, it tends to be bestowed more on accomplishments. It is necessary to understand who and what holds status when interacting with people from a different culture other than our own. Techniques Of Decision Making In Groups Schein (1988) observes that groups may make decisions through any of the following six methods: Decision in lack of response- In this type of decision making, ideas are forwarded without any discussion taking place. When the group finally accepts an idea, all others have been bypassed and discarded by simple lack of response rather than by critical evaluation.

Decision by authority rule- The leader makes a decision for the group, with or without discussion. Decision by minority rule- Two or three people are able to dominate the group into making a decision to which they agree. Decision by majority rule - Here, viewpoint of the majority is considered as the group‘s decision. Decision by consensus – One alternative is accepted by most members and the other members agreeing to support it. Decision by unanimity- All group members agree totally on the course of action to be taken. This is a ―logically perfect‖ group decision method that is extremely difficult to attain in actual practice. Group productivity: the advantages and disadvantages of group decision making The potential advantages of group decision making include (Maier, 1967): 1. Information—more knowledge and expertise is applied to solve the problem. 2. Alternatives—a greater number of alternatives are examined, avoiding tunnel vision. 3. Understanding and acceptance—the final decision is better understood and accepted by all group members. 4. Commitment—there is more commitment among all group members to make the final decision work. The potential disadvantages of group decision making include: 1 Social pressure to conform—individuals may feel compelled to go along with the apparent wishes of the group. 2. Minority domination—the group‘s decision may be forced by one individual or a small coalition. 3. Time demands—with more people involved in the dialogue and discussion, group decisions usually take longer to make than individual decisions. Work Teams A team is a small group of people with complementary skills, who work actively together to achieve a common purpose for which they hold themselves collectively accountable (Katzenbach & Smith, 1993). Team building is a collaborative way to gather and analyze data to improve teamwork (Schermerhorn et al 2002). Team has following advantages (Robbins, 2003):

Teams typically outperform individuals. Teams use employee talents better. Teams are more flexible and responsive to changes in the environment. Teams facilitate employee involvement. Teams are an effective way to democratize an organization and increase motivation. Types of Teams The various types of teams have been described below: Problem solving teams – small groups from same department who meet regularly to discuss ways of improving quality and efficiency. Self-managed teams – small groups who take responsibilities of their own targets. Cross-functional team – Employees from different work areas but from same hierarchical level, come together to accomplish a task. Virtual team – team members, who are physically dispersed, use computer technology to connect with each other,

UNIT IV LEADERSHIP AND POWER Meaning – Importance – Leadership styles – Theories – Leaders Vs Managers – Sources of power – Power centers – Power and Politics.

Power and Politics Introduction

Power is the ability to make things happen in the way an individual wants, either by self or by the subordinates. The essence of power is control over the behavior of others (French & Raven, 1962). Managers derive power from both organizational and individual sources. These sources are called position power and personal power, respectively. Power also refers to a capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B, so that B acts in accordance with A‘s wishes. The greater B‘s dependence on A, the greater is A‘s power in the relationship. Therefore, power is a function of dependency (Robbins, 2003). Contrasting Leadership and Power In an organizational context leadership and power are related to each others. Power is used by leaders as a means to attain group goals. In other words, power is a means of facilitating their achievement of goals and objectives that they have set for themselves in view of organizational requirements. What are differences between leadership and power? The first is in the area of goal compatibility which is as follows: Power does not require goal compatibility, merely dependence whereas leadership, requires some congruence between the goals of the leader and the followers. The second factor is related to the direction of influence: Whereas leadership focuses on the downward influence on one‘s followers, power does not minimize the importance of lateral and upward influence patterns. Evidence of the same is gained from insights into research on power that has tended to encompass a broader area and focus on tactics for gaining compliance. Different Bases of Power Bases Of Power Power can be categorized into two types: Formal and informal A. Formal Power: It is based on the position of an individual in an organization. Formal power is derived from either one‘s ability to coerce or reward others or is derived from the formal authority vested in the individual due to his/ her strategic position in the organizational hierarchy. For example, a manager may threaten to withhold a pay raise, or to transfer, demote, or even recommend the firing of a subordinate who does not act as desired. Such coercive power is the extent to which a manager can deny desired rewards or administer

punishments to control other people. The availability of coercive power also varies across organizations. The presence of unions and organizational policies on employee treatment can weaken this power base significantly. Formal power may be categorized into four types which are as follows: 1. Coercive Power: The coercive power base is being dependent on fear. It is based on the application, or the threat of application, of physical sanctions such as the infliction of pain, the generation of frustration through restriction of movement, or the controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs. In an organization one can exercise power over another if they have the power to dismiss, suspend, demote another assuming that the job is valuable to the person on whom power is being unleashed. 2. Reward Power: The opposite of coercive power is reward power. Reward power is the extent to which a manager can use extrinsic and intrinsic rewards to control other people. Examples of such rewards include money, promotions, compliments, or enriched jobs. Although all managers have some access to rewards, success in accessing and utilizing rewards to achieve influence varies according to the skills of the manager. 3. Legitimate Power: The third base of ―position‖ power is legitimate power, or formal authority .It stems from the extent to which a manager can use subordinates‘ internalized values or beliefs that the ―boss‖ has a ―right of command‖ to control their behavior. For example, the boss may have the formal authority to approve or deny such employee requests as job transfers, equipment purchases, personal time off, or overtime work. Legitimate power represents a special kind of power a manager has because subordinates believe it is legitimate for a person occupying the managerial position to have the right to command. The lack of this is legitimacy will result in authority not being accepted by subordinates. Thus this type of power has the following elements: It represents the power a person receives as a result of his/her position in the formal hierarchy. Positions of authority include coercive and reward powers. Legitimate power, however, is not limited to the power to coerce and reward. It encompasses the acceptance of the authority of a position by members of an organization. 4. Information Power: This type of power is derived from access to and control over information. When people have needed information, others become dependant on them. (For example, managers have access to data that subordinates do not have). Normally the higher the level, the more information would be accessed by managers.

B. Personal Power Personal power resides in the individual and is independent of that individual‘s position. . Three bases of personal power are expertise, rational persuasion, and reference. Expert power is the ability to control another person‘s behavior by virtue of possessing knowledge, experience, or judgment that the other person lacks, but needs. A subordinate obeys a supervisor possessing expert power because the boss ordinarily knows more about what is to be done or how it is to be done than does the subordinate. Expert power is relative, not absolute. However the table may turn in case the subordinate has superior knowledge or skills than his/ her boss. In this age of technology driven environments, the second proposition holds true in many occasions where the boss is dependent heavily on the juniors for technologically oriented support. Rational persuasion is the ability to control another‘s behavior, since, through the individual‘s efforts, the person accepts the desirability of an offered goal and a viable way of achieving it. Rational persuasion involves both explaining the desirability of expected outcomes and showing how specific actions will achieve these outcomes. Referent power is the ability to control another‘s behavior because the person wants to identify with the power source. In this case, a subordinate obeys the boss because he or she wants to behave, perceive, or believe as the boss does. This obedience may occur, for example, because the subordinate likes the boss personally and therefore tries to do things the way the boss wants them done. In a sense, the subordinate attempts to avoid doing anything that would interfere with the pleasing boss–subordinate relationship. Followership is not based on what the subordinate will get for specific actions or specific levels of performance, but on what the individual represents—a path toward lucrative future prospects. Charismatic Power is an extension of referent power stemming from an individual‘s personality and interpersonal style. Others follow because they can articulate attractive visions, take personal risks, demonstrate follower sensitivity, etc. Dependency: The Key to Power The General Dependency Equation is as follows: The greater B‘s dependency on A, the greater the power A has over B. When an individual possess anything that others require but that which alone the individual controls, he / she can make others dependent and, therefore, gain power over them. Dependency, then, is inversely proportional to the alternative sources of supply. This is one of the reasons why most organizations develop multiple suppliers rather using just one. It also explains why individuals in general aspire to financial independence. Three factors are responsible for dependency. They are as follows:

Importance To create dependency, the thing(s) you control must be perceived as being important. Organizations actively seek to avoid uncertainty and hence, those individuals or groups who can absorb an organization‘s uncertainty will be perceived as controlling an important resource. Scarcity A resource needs to be perceived as scarce to create dependency. For example, lowranking members in an organization who have important knowledge unavailable to highranking members gain power over the high-ranking members. The scarcity-dependency relationship is also important in the power of occupational categories. Individuals in occupations in which the supply of personnel is low relative to demand can negotiate compensation and benefit packages, which are far more attractive than can those in occupations where there is an abundance of candidates. Thus scarcity in supply of certain types of skilled people can give them power to bargain over compensations and other benefits. Non-substitutability The more that a resource has no viable substitutes, the more power that control over that resource provides. Power Tactics Using position and personal power well to achieve the desired influence over other people is a challenge for most managers. There are many useful ways of exercising relational influence. The most common strategies involve the following (Kipinis et. Al, 1984): Reason—Use of facts and data to make a logical or rational presentation of ideas Friendliness—Use of flattery, creation of goodwill, acting humble, and being friendly Coalition—Getting the support of other people in the organization to back up the request Bargaining—Use of negotiation through the exchange of benefits or favors Assertiveness—Use of a direct and forceful approach such as demanding compliance Higher authority—Gaining the support of higher levels in the organization to back up requests Sanctions—Use of organizationally derived rewards and punishments Employees rely on the seven tactics variably. Depending on the situational factors, individuals tend to use the above strategies accordingly to the suitability and the likelihood of the success to be achieved by employing the same. The manager‘s relative power impacts the selection of tactics in two ways.

First, managers who control resources that are valued by others, or who are perceived to be in positions of dominance, use a greater variety of tactics than do those with less power. Second, managers with power use assertiveness with greater frequency than do those with less power. Resistance leads to managers using more directive strategies. The manager‘s objectives for wanting to influence causes them to vary their power tactics. The objectives may be as follows: When seeking benefits from a superior, they use friendliness. When they are in need to make superiors accept new ideas, they usually rely on reason. Managers use reason to sell ideas to employees and friendliness to obtain favors. Research evidence also supports the following with regard to use of tactics and the choice used by managers with regard to power: The manager‘s expectation of the target person‘s willingness to comply is an important factor. When past experience indicates a high probability of success, managers use simple requests to gain compliance. Where success is less predictable, managers are more likely to use assertiveness and sanctions to achieve their objectives. The organization‘s culture also plays an important role in deciding the use of power tactics. The organizational culture in which a manager works, will have a significant bearing on defining which tactics are considered appropriate. The organization itself will influence which subset of power tactics is viewed as acceptable for use by managers. People in different countries tend to prefer different power tactics. For example in US people prefer use of reason in contrast to China where coalition as a tactic is preferred. Differences are consistent with values among countries—reason is consistent with American‘s preference for direct confrontation and coalition is consistent with the Chinese preference for using indirect approaches. Empowerment Empowerment is the process by which managers help others to acquire and use the power required to make decisions affecting both themselves and their work. Moreover, today, managers in progressive organizations are expected to be competent at empowering the people with whom they work. Rather than concentrating power only at higher levels as found in the traditional ―pyramid‖ of organizations, this concept views power to be shared by all working in flatter and more collegial structures. The concept of empowerment is part of the decentralized structures which are found in today‘s corporations. Corporate staff is being cut back; layers of management are being eliminated; the number of employees is being reduced as the volume of work increases. The trend clearly is towards creating leaner and more responsive organizations which are flexible and capable of taking faster decisions with minimum bottlenecks created out of power struggles, typical of bureaucratic tall structures. The need clearly is towards having fewer managers who must share more power as they go about their daily tasks. Hence,

empowerment is a key foundation of the increasingly popular self-managing work teams and other creative worker involvement groups. For the empowerment process to set in and become institutionalized, power in the organization will be changed. The following are important in this context: Changing Position Power: When an organization attempts to move power down the hierarchy, it must also alter the existing pattern of position power. Changing this pattern raises some important issues Can ―empowered‖ individuals give rewards and sanctions based on task accomplishment? Has their new right to act been legitimized with formal authority? Expanding the Zone of Indifference: When embarking on an empowerment program, management needs to recognize the current zone of indifference and systematically move to expand it. All too often, management assumes that its directive for empowerment will be followed; management may fail to show precisely how empowerment will benefit the individuals involved, however. Thus in empowerment the basic issues which should be addressed are: Training people in lower ranks how to function in the new empowered position. Using or unleashing power correctly is also an issue and most importantly the authority, responsibility and the accountability process should be clearly outlined so as not to upset organizational power equations. Just apportioning power at lower levels without giving the knowledge of how to use it can actually create havoc in the organizations. Power In Groups: Coalitions Individuals who lose power or are out of power seek to increase their power individually. If they fail to do so, then the alternative is to form a coalition—an informal group bound together by the active pursuit of a single issue. The natural way to gain influence is to become a power holder but this may be difficult, risky, costly, or impossible. In such an event, efforts are directed towards forming a coalition of two or more ―outs‖ who, by coming together, can combine their resources to increase rewards for themselves. Successful coalitions have been found to contain fluid membership and are able to form swiftly, achieve their target issue, and quickly disappear disintegrate. There are a couple of predictions about coalition formation. They are as follows: First, coalitions in organizations often seek to maximize their size. Decisionmaking in organizations does not end just with selection from among a set of alternatives, but require to be implemented. The implementation of an commitment to the decision is as important as the decision. It is essential for coalitions within organizations to seek a broad constituency and there may be expansion in coalition to help in consensus building

Another prediction relates to the degree of interdependence within the organization. More coalitions are likely be created where there is a great deal of task and resource interdependence. In contrast, there will be less interdependence among subunits and less coalition formation activity where subunits are largely self-contained or resources are in plenty. Finally, coalition formation will be influenced by the actual tasks that workers perform. In general, the more routine the task of a group, the greater the likelihood that coalitions will form. Politics: Power In Action Politics is defined as those activities that are not required as part of one‘s formal role in the organization, but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization. Organizational politics is the management of influence to obtain ends not sanctioned by the organization or to obtain sanctioned ends through non-sanctioned means and the art of creative compromise among competing interests. The above definition clearly points out the following: a. Political behavior fall outside the ambit of one‘s specified job requirements. b. It includes efforts to influence the goals, criteria, or processes employed for decision-making. c. It includes a variety of political behaviors such as, withholding vital information from decision makers, whistle-blowing, spreading rumors, leaking confidential information, etc. In this context, it is necessary to make a distinction between legitimate and illegitimate power dimensions within organizational contexts. The ―Legitimate-Illegitimate‖ Dimension may be explained in terms of the following (Farrell & Peterson, 1988): Legitimate political behavior refers to normal everyday politics—complaining to your supervisor, bypassing the chain of command, forming coalitions, etc. Illegitimate political behaviors that violate the implied rules of the game, such as sabotage, whistle blowing, and symbolic protests, etc. The vast majority of all organizational political actions are legitimate. The extreme illegitimate forms of political behavior pose a very real risk of loss of organizational membership or extreme sanction. There are two quite different schools of thought found existing in the analysis of literature on organizational politics. The first tradition builds on Machiavelli‘s philosophy and defines politics in terms of self-interest and the use of non-sanctioned means. In this tradition, organizational politics

may be formally defined as the management of influence to obtain ends not sanctioned by the organization or to obtain sanctioned ends through non-sanctioned influence means. Managers are often considered political when they seek their own goals or use means that are not currently authorized by the organization or that push legal limits. Where there is uncertainty or ambiguity, it is often extremely difficult to tell whether a manager is being political in this self-serving sense (Pfeffer, 1981). The second tradition treats politics as a necessary function resulting from differences in the self-interests of individuals. Here, organizational politics is viewed as the art of creative compromise among competing interests. In a heterogeneous society, individuals will disagree as to whose self-interests are most valuable and whose concerns should, therefore, be bounded by collective interests. Politics come into play as individuals need to develop compromises, avoid confrontation, and co-exist together. The same holds true in organizations, where individuals join, work, and stay together because of their selfinterests being served. It is equally important to remember that the goals of the organization and the acceptable means are established by organizationally powerful individuals in negotiation with others. Thus, organizational politics is also the use of power to develop socially acceptable ends and means that balance individual and collective interests. Factors Contributing to Political Behavior 1. Individual factors: Researchers have identified certain personality traits, needs, and other factors that are likely to be related to political behavior. They are as follows: a. Employees who are high self-monitors, possess an internal locus of control, and have a high need for power are more likely to engage in political behavior. b. The high self-monitor is more sensitive to social cues and in all probability be more likely to be skilled in political behavior than the low self-monitor. c. Individuals with an internal locus of control are more prone to take a proactive stance and attempt to manipulate situations in their favor. d. The Machiavellian personality is comfortable using politics as a means to further his/her self-interest and does not see it as an unethical action.. A person‘s investment in the organization, perceived alternatives, and expectations of success will influence the tendency to pursue illegitimate means of political action. The following alternatives are possible in this context: a. The more that a person has invested and the more a person has to lose, the less likely he/she is to use illegitimate means. b. The more alternative job opportunities an individual has, a prominent reputation, or influential contacts outside the organization, the more likely he/she will risk illegitimate political actions.

c. A low expectation of success in using illegitimate means reduces the probability of its use. Organizational factors: Political activity has got to do more with the organization‘s characteristics than of individual difference variables. When an organization‘s resources are declining, and the existing pattern of resources is changing, as also when there is opportunity for promotions, politics is more likely to come into play and surface. Certain important findings in this regard are: Cultures characterized by low trust, role ambiguity, unclear performance evaluation systems, zero-sum reward allocation practices, democratic decisionmaking, high pressures for performance, and self-serving senior managers will create fertile grounds for politicking. When organizations downsize to improve efficiency, people may engage in political actions to safeguard their existing status-quo. Promotion decisions have consistently been found to be one of the most political in organizations. The less trust there is within the organization, the higher the level of political behavior and the more likely it will be illegitimate. Role ambiguity means that the prescribed behaviors of the employee are not clear. The greater the role ambiguity, the more one may engage in political activity since there is little chance of it being visible.. Making organizations less autocratic by asking managers to behave more democratically is not necessarily embraced by all individual managers. Internally if the managers believe in autocracy they would use the required committees, conferences, and group meetings in a superficial way as arenas for maneuvering and manipulating. Top management may set the climate for politicking by engaging in certain behaviors, thereby giving a signal to people below in the order that is alright to engage in such behavior. When employees see top management successfully engaging in political behavior, a climate is created that supports politicking. To counter the effects of politicking and protect oneself in organizational contexts, individuals may use three strategies : (1) Avoid action and risk taking (2) Redirect accountability and responsibility (3) Defend their turf. Avoidance: Avoidance is quite common in controversial areas where the employee must risk being wrong or where actions may yield a sanction. The most common reaction is to ―work to the rules.‖ That is, employees are protected when they adhere strictly to all the rules, policies, and procedures or do not allow deviations or exceptions.

Redirecting Responsibility: Politically sensitive individuals will always protect themselves from accepting blame for the negative consequences of their actions. Again, a variety of well-worn techniques may be used for redirecting responsibility. ―Passing the buck‖ is a common method employees and managers use. The trick here is to define the task in such a way that it becomes someone else‘s formal responsibility. Defending Turf : Defending turf is a time-honored tradition in most large organizations. This results form the coalitional nature of organizations. That is, the organization may be seen as a collection of competing interests held by various departments and groups. As each group tries to increase its influence, it starts to encroach on the activities of other groups. There are certain other interesting findings regarding people‘s responses to organizational politics Research evidence indicates strong points out that perception of organizational politics are negatively related to job satisfaction. The perception of politics results in anxiety or stress. And when it gets too much to handle, employees leave the organizations. It may thus be a de-motivating force and performance may suffer as a result. The effect of politics is moderated by the knowledge the individual has of the decision making system and his/her political skills. In this regard the following observations have been made: High political skills individuals often have improved performance. Low political skills individuals often respond with defensive behaviors—reactive and protective behaviors to avoid action, change, or blame. Reaction to organizational politics is also influenced by culture. In countries that are more unstable politically, workers will tolerate higher levels of politicking than more politically stable counties

UNIT V DYNAMICS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR 10 Organizational culture and climate – Factors affecting organizational climate – Importance. Job satisfaction – Determinants – Measurements – Influence on behavior. Organizational change – Importance – Stability Vs Change – Proactive Vs Reaction change – the change process – Resistance to change – Managing change. Stress – Work Stressors – Prevention and Management of stress – Balancing work and Life. Organizational development – Characteristics – objectives –. Organizational effectiveness

Organizational Culture

Organizational Culture Organizational culture is a set of shared values, the unwritten rules which are often taken for granted, that guide the employees towards acceptable and rewarding behavior. The organizational culture exists at two distinct levels, visible and hidden. The visible aspect of the organization is reflected in artifacts, symbols and visible behavior of employees. The hidden aspect is related to underlying values and assumptions that employees make regarding the acceptable and unacceptable behaviors. Artifacts: These are visible components of culture, they are easy to formulate, have some physical shape, yet its perception varies from one individual to another.

Rituals and ceremonies: New hire trainings, new hire welcome lunches, annual corporate conferences, awards, offsite meetings and trainings are few examples of most common rituals and ceremonies. Symbols & Slogans: These are high level abstraction of the culture; they effectively summarize organization‘s intrinsic behavior. Symbols are rituals, awards or incentives that symbolize preferred behavior; ―employee of the month‖ is one such example of a symbol. Slogans are linguistic phrases that are intended for the same reason, ―customer first‖ is an example of corporate slogan. Stories: These are narratives based on true events, but often exaggerated as it told from old to new employees. The stories of the organization‘s founders or other dominant leaders are the most common ones, the challenges they had faced and how they dealt with those hurdles etc. In some form, these are stories of the organization‘s heroes, employees relate the current system due to events that had happened in the past and stories are the medium that carries the legacies. Values: These are conscious and affective desires of the organization, the kind of behavior it wants to promote and reward. Usually every organization sells its cultural values through some artifacts like written symbols or slogans and publishes them in various mediums. However, the true values can only be tested within the organization, through the employees, based on their collective opinion about the experience of the values. Ethics: It is the code of moral principals and values that distinguishes the right behavior from wrong. Ethical values are different from rule of law which is dictated by the legal system of the country and have to be followed anyway. However, the laws themselves are based on some moral principles and thus there is some natural overlap between ethics and the laws. The geographic location of the organization and the culture of the place also influence the ethics, this is particularly important for multinational

organization.

Irrespective how an organization depicts its ethical values, they can be tested by the two criteria.

Commitment: Whether the organization views its employees as resources required for business activities or it intends to invest in long

term

relationship

with

its

employees;

reflects

the

organization‘s commitment to its employees. Commitment can be in various forms, maternity leave, life-work balance, unpaid leaves, it‘s strategies for downsizing or globalization; are some examples. Career: The ethical values are also echoed in organization‘s interest and investment in the career development of its employees. Whether it values specialization and narrow career paths that runs the risk of being outdated along with technology or it values broad skill development and offers training in new technologies at its own cost. Empowerment: The social culture and the structure of the organization influences the underlying values related to the amount of employee empowerment. Control/Decision: Management by nature is about control, the difference is how it enforces it. Well defined guidance, job description and authority of taking decisions are formal methods of control, while team or collective decision making is a social or cultural method of control. The functional or divisional structure encourages formal control while process or network structures promote a culture of employee empowerment. Responsibility: The authority of decision making is closely related to issue of responsibilities. The culture of responsibility is measured by observing whether the individuals are expected to take responsibility of their decisions or there is a collective responsibility in case of team decisions. Assumptions: Both the artifacts and the values give rise to assumptions the employees make about the organization's culture. Finally, it‘s the assumptions that govern how an employee determines the right behavior and feels about his job and career, how the culture actually operates within the organizational system.

Failures: The implication of failure is the most influential assumption that every employee derives from all the artifacts, stories, myths and values. The fear of failure and how it would be perceived determines the actual empowerment felt by the employee; the stated values vs. practiced factuality.

Foundation of the Organizational Culture

Organizations are mini social systems that are less complex than their counterparts at city or national level. The foundation of the organizational culture is also rooted in three distinct social entities, anthropology, sociology and psychology. Anthropological: It uses the physical artifacts like symbols, stories and values to study the cultural viewpoint of the employees who practice it, and how it adds meaning to their jobs. Sociological: It is a study of the different group behaviors in the organization, their causes and their consequences on its culture. The method of the study comprises of identifying certain key attributes and then quantifying them using questionnaires, surveys and interviews.

Psychological: It is study of factors that influence the individual‘s behavior. The key difference from sociology is that it is behavioral analysis at individual level rather than application of psychology on a social system. How a person behaves individually can be quite different from how he behaves in a group. As an example, humans by nature use statistical knowledge in making decisions, however they apply it rather poorly. The last positive or negative outcome influences our decision more than statistical average; such observations can be used effectively in growing a desired culture. Factors Influencing Organizational Culture: The culture is influenced by the other entire contextual dimensions; purpose, environment, technology & size. Thus it is futile to expect or create a culture that is not aligned to these factors.. A lot of studies on organizational culture have been wrongly focused only on analyzing the organization behavior and its contributions to organization‘s effectiveness. However, the culture is not a separate, self sufficient entity in itself, but rather one part of a whole. Types of Organizational Cultures In case of organizational design, while the contextual dimensions define the structure; the culture should aim at providing adequate reinforcement to the structure. The organizational culture can be accessed by evaluating the contextual factors and the structural dimensions. In some way, one can argue that the study of organization‘s structural design itself is indicative of type of culture it has, after all the culture is a consequence of how the organization is controlled and what influences its operations. It should also be noted that in large organizations, different functional units might have or require different type of cultures. There are four most common and identifiable types of organizational cultures: Entrepreneurial: The organization has purpose of differentiation, it strives for innovation and competition, it requires research & development and its size is rather small, its control structure is horizontal. The culture encourages risk taking,

values new ideas, is quick to detect and react to external changes and rewards

ingenuity. Market: The organization has clear financial & sales goals and is focused on customer satisfaction. The external environment is not rapidly changing, is stable but demands efficiency, the control structural can be either horizontal & hierarchical. The organizational culture is competitive and demanding, success is measured by market share and penetration. Clan: It is aimed at efficiency and has internal focus, it encourages employee participation, and it values and often prides itself by taking exceptional care of its employees, just like a clan. It values employee empowerment by having a horizontal structure and creates a strong sense of identity in its employees.The clan leadership has strong concern for people, they value loyalty and traditions. Bureaucratic: It operates in a stable environment and has a hierarchal control structure; the organization has a lot of processes, rules and policies that guide the day to day operations.The leadership is focused on efficiency, predictability and low cost. Need for Organizational Culture Common Identity: The culture gives a sense of collective identity to all the employees in the organization, it creates values and beliefs that go beyond the personal aspirations of the employees.

Guidance: The culture creates good working relationships and promotes ethical communication between employees. It also helps employees in making decisions in the situations where there are no formal rules or policies, situations that haven‘t been experienced yet. Justification of actions: The culture evolves from prior precedences, when employee behavior and decisions are guided by the culture, their actions are better understood by the management. Changing Organizational Culture A lot of research has focused on changing the organizational culture, however I feel that this is rather a misnomer since culture can only be aligned to the structure. The essence and purpose of culture is to reinforce the structure, thus culture can be modified only when structure is modified or created, or in some cases does not conform to the structure.

Necessitates for cultural change There are four common scenarios that would require cultural change, these are briefly discussed below. New organization: When a new organization is founded, focus on the culture is the last thing on the founders priorities, their main challenge is business success of the venture. The culture evolves naturally, devoid of any conscious effort and can be linked to the founder‘s leadership. This hindsight can prove to be an expensive mistake if the organization succeeds or grows. Not always a new organization implies a new venture, sometimes large corporations are split into smaller separate business units or corporations and under new leadership or structure, might desire a different culture. Re-Organization: An existing organization is restructured due to various factors like new leadership, new business vision, competitive landscape, growth or downsizing; such structural changes also demands change in organizational culture. Mergers & Acquisitions: Cultural clash is a common phenomenon when two very different organizations are merged due to business reason. Lot of mergers

fail miserably not because the analytical analysis and it‘s financial benefit was incorrect, but rather due to incompatible cultures that propel employees to disassociate themselves with the organization. Hence it is important to assess the cultures and analyze whether they can be comfortably changed according to the new organization. Ineffectiveness : A change is required if the existing culture is ineffective in meeting the management ‗s proposed values and expected behavior. Lower productivity, lack of enthusiasm or motivation, nonchalant employees, overwhelming management control are some indications of the culture‘s ineptness. Cultural Assessment Assessment of the existing culture is the important first step in changing the culture, it requires a facilitator who understands the concept of culture. The facilitator can be someone from the organization or an external consultant but certainly cannot be an influential leader or one of the founding member. An external consultant has the advantage of providing unbiased opinion on the observations but might lack the knowledge related to organization‘s technology or operations. Interviews not questionnaires: Every organization‘s culture is unique, like a DNA, therefore it‘s not practical to formulate a common set of questions that could help in assessing the culture. Surveys and questionnaires are effective tools for measuring the employee satisfaction and overall organization‘s performance. However, culture is a consequence of a shared belief among a group of employees and thus individual responses will result in an invalid observation. A group interviews by a knowledgeable facilitator is the best means to assess and plan a cultural change. Summarize the Artifacts: Observe and note the following artifacts in the organization Does the organization has any required dress code? What are the working hours? Does it allow flexible working hours and location? How is the workplace designed, does it have shared offices, conference rooms etc?

How much authority does employees have at each level? Is the organization hierarchical or flat? Are decisions made only by the superiors? What kind of position does the management take when decisions prove wrong? How much of executive decisions and strategies are communicated? How much of detail is presented and what kind of forum is used? How are meetings organized and conducted? How effective and open are the conversations in the meetings? What kind of language is generally used in day-to-day conversations? This

includes

all

mediums

like

presentations,

email,

verbal

communication, jargons and acronyms. How do employees address each other in meetings and especially during disagreements? What kind of stories are told and how they are perceived by the employees? Stories can be either motivating or demoralizing. What kind of rewards, employee socialization, rituals and ceremonies are routinely observed in the organization. What kind of work & life balance is considered to be acceptable in the organization? In a cultural context, it is beyond the benefits and policies that are prescribed by the human resource. Test the Values: Organizational leaders set the desired values that they expect to be observed. However the practiced values can be very different than the advocated ones, such contradictions have an adverse effect on the culture. Consider a horizontal organization where teamwork and collaboration are the espoused values, however the organization lacks appropriate performance management, very soon employees realize that there is little benefit of collaboration. As another example, innovation is one of the values, but the employees that fail to deliver are dealt unfavorably. Probe the Assumptions: During the group interviews and testing the promoted values, the facilitator must find out the assumptions employees have about the cultural values. Do they view the artifacts and values as just corporate rituals, i.e the employees feel detached to them? Do they feel that they are applicable to

perhaps the higher levels? A culture of innovation might be perceived to be applicable for scientists in the organization, the bottom employees just have to follow directions. Or perhaps they totally misunderstand the values, e.g telecommuting is understood as rarely to work from office. Cultural change strategy Design new cultural artifacts: The facilitator needs to identify the existing artifacts that are ineffective and recommend new artifacts including their appropriate promotion strategy. Promote cultural values: The values have to move out of written statements into practical applications in the field, there are two methods of achieving as described below. Leaders & Managers need to believe and then champion the cause of cultural promotion, they must have authority to take necessary decisions required. This is only possible when the cultural values are in some way measured and are included as one of the performance goals of the managers. Socialization of the employees, new or old alike, well planned social events help in defining and promoting cultural values. The emphasis here is on subtly directed socializing; which group or individuals needs to be introduced to whom, senior vs. junior employees, does the event have champions who have been given some directions? Usually the socialization are ineffective due to lack of any objectives, a group of people are brought in a common site but they end up meeting with their daily coworkers. Reinforcement: The purpose of cultural change has to be strengthened within the organization with various motivational tools, the culture should be treated just like other management objectives. Employees who take an extra step to observe the values need to be rewarded, they must be viewed as role models for others to follow. One the other hand, the employees who do not believe in those values have to be eliminated from the system to reduce their negative influence.

Challenges in changing cultures Difficulty of cultural assessment: The main hurdle is that it is not easy to measure the culture or it‘s effect; often it gets influenced by prejudices and assessment is more subjective than objective. Culture has its roots in applied psychology and behavioral science and not in objective and provable methods of scientific enquiry. Hence it depends upon the ability of the leaders who are designated to champion the cause. The founders of an organisation generally tend to have a large impact on establishing the early culture. The organisation's culture results from the interaction between the founder(s) biases and assumptions and what the original members of the organisation learn from their own experiences. SUSTAINING ORGAIZATIONAL CULTURE: How is an organisation's culture maintained? through the process of selecting for employment or promotion those individuals who are best able to sustain or promote the prevailing culture through actions of top management that constantly reaffirm and reflect the culture through the action of the socialisation process that disseminates the culture among all the members of the organisation Our textbook covered the 'Manifestations of culture'. Culture is transmitted to employees in a number of ways; for example, through stories, rituals, material symbols and language. The process of developing and sustaining organizational culture is illustrated by the following figure from Robbins et al (1998).

Figure

7.1

(Adapted from Robbins 1989, page 479). Culture, then, is learned. It is both a product of action and a conditioning element of future action, an input and an output. The internal environment consists of the social and technical systems of the organisation. Thus, in part, culture is the product of these sociotechnical systems. They consist of the decision-making, planning and control procedures of the organisation, its technology, and the procedures for recruitment, selection and training; and are influenced by the common beliefs, attitudes and values of the members of the organisation. The strategies, structures, procedures and behaviours adopted by management create a work environment. However, if managers have been members of the organisation for some time they are themselves a product of the culture. Consider this Think about how culture is sustained in your organisation. As culture is both an input and an output, it is likely to be self-perpetuating and highly resistant to change. Figure 7.2 demonstrates how culture is both an input and output.

Types of culture Your textbook outlines the characteristics of entrepreneurial versus administrative cultures. Robbins et al. (1998) attempted to describe some typical types of cultures: academy This is a place for steady climbers to become proficient in their jobs. New entrants are usually young tertiary qualified people who are carefully trained and steered through their career in a particular field. BHP is a classic academy so is Coca-Cola. club This is a place where 'fitting in', loyalty, commitment and seniority are important. Managers are trained as generalists, unlike the academy. Government departments and the military fit into the club culture. baseball team

This is a place for the entrepreneurially orientated, the risk takers and innovators. Talented personnel of all ages and experiences are recruited and rewarded based on productivity. 'Star' performers are offered huge financial incentives and freedom and there is a considerable amount of 'head hunting' and job-hopping. Consulting firms and law firms are typically listed under this type of culture. fortress This organisation may have once been any of the above but is now fighting for survival. Almost any large organisation could find itself in this culture. Large retailers, hotel chains, and oil and natural gas exploration firms are indicative of fortress cultures. Culture operates on more than one level or an organisation is likely to have a number of subcultures . There are likely to be several cultures, reflected in different work groups or departments. Understanding this is extremely important for decision-making, as it may be necessary to consider different reactions from different work groups or teams. Robbins et al. (1998) pointed out that most large organisations have a dominant culture and numerous sets of subcultures. The following subsections on dominant culture, subculture and core values, refers to the work of Robbins et al. (1998). Dominant culture The dominant culture expresses the core values that are shared by a majority of the organisation's members. This is essentially a macro perspective, which gives an organisation a distinct personality. Subculture Subcultures are mini-cultures within an organisation, typically defined by department designations and geographical separation. Subcultures develop to reflect opportunities and problems in particular departments. For example, the personnel or service department may have a subculture, which is shared by the members of that department. Work groups also tend to develop their own subcultures. You can probably relate to this quite easily if you think about it in the context of your organisation. Assume, for example, that you work for the AYS Stevedoring company. AYS operates from a number of locations and each of these areas takes on their own unique culture. For

example, in Australia , the subculture would be different between Melbourne and Brisbane, reflecting the unique environment. The fact that organisations have more than one culture is not surprising given that there are likely to be departmental differences in functions and goals. Departmental differences can result in conflict if the cultures of different departments clash. Core values The core values are the primary or dominant values that are accepted throughout the organisation . The subculture will include the core values and will have additional values unique to the particular subculture. Changing culture If culture is the 'personality' or the 'totality' of the organisation's characteristics, then it follows that the organisation has a 'cultural value system' that can be manipulated. If values, beliefs and attitudes are learned, then they can be managed. Therefore, it is possible that a planned organisational change program can 'spell out' a desirable organisational culture, or that a culture may be actively maintained. Some of the confusion over methods of changing culture stems from a failure to define the concept of culture clearly and a failure to understand how cultures develop. Certain subcultures may be strongly entrenched and highly resistant to change processes. Managers need to consider the likely reactions of identifiable subcultures when undertaking change programs. Clearly, the concepts of culture and organisational change are closely interrelated. Newsbreak Cultural change Changing an organisation's culture is extremely difficult, but cultures can be changed. For example, Lee Iacocca came to Chrysler Corp. in 1978, when the organisation appeared to be only weeks away from bankruptcy. It took him about five years, but he took Chrysler's conservative, inward-looking and engineering-orientated culture and changed it into an action-orientated, market response culture.

Evidence suggests that cultural change is most likely to take place when most or all of the following conditions exist: a dramatic crisis turnover in leadership younger and smaller organisation weak culture If conditions support cultural change you should consider the following suggestions: Top management as role models who set the tone. Create new stories, symbols and rituals to replace those currently in vogue. Select, promote and support employees who espouse the new values that are sought. Redesign socialisation processes to align with the new values. Change the reward system to endorse acceptance of a new set of values. Replace unwritten norms with formal rules and regulations. Shake up current subcultures with job rotation. Work to get peer group consensus through use of employee participation and creation of a climate with a high level of trust. Cultural change is a lengthy process measured in years rather than months. Conclusion The future holds promise for companies that understand and nurture their cultures. Cultures are not only able to create an environment, but they also adapt to diverse and changing circumstances. As organisations begin to experience a revolution in structures, the study of culture and the implications for change will become more important. Understanding of work group subcultures within an organisation's culture will influence strategies for changing organisational culture and overcoming resistance to change programs.

Changing an organisation's culture may be extremely difficult, as the processes that support a particular organisation or a departmental method of working are both interrelated and varied. Organisational culture is self-perpetuating and highly resistant to change. Changes may cause confusion, conflict and resistance. Managers need to understand the nature and role of culture and how it may be altered. When the role of culture is more clearly defined, managers can better understand its importance in managing organisational change and its impact on day-to-day decisionmaking. Strong and week Organisational culture Man spends major part of his life in the organizations within which he works. When people join an organisation, they bring with them the unique values and behaviours that they have been taught. Any organisation with firmly established organisational culture would be taught the values, beliefs and expected behaviours of that organisation. Just as society moulds human behaviour, an organisation also moulds human behaviour that is in tune with the prevalent set of norms and behaviour. In this process, certain basic attitudes and beliefs about the people and their work situations are slowly but firmly accepted in the organisation, which becomes its 'Organisational Culture.' Robbins, S. P., (1998) defined 'a strong culture is one that is internally consistent, is widely shared, and makes it clear what it expects and how it wishes people to behave.' Kaufman, (2002) stated that 'a positive organizational culture reinforces the core beliefs and behaviors that a leader desires while weakening the values and actions the leader rejects. Peters and Waterman (1982) indicates that 'a negative culture becomes toxic, poisoning the life of the organization and hindering any future potential for growth. Obviously, there is an inevitable bridge joining organizational culture and the level of success it enjoys. Strong culture is said to exist where staff respond to stimulus because of their alignment to organizational values. Conversely, there is Weak Culture where there is little alignment with organizational values and control must be exercised through extensive procedures and bureaucracy.' Kilmann, Saxton, and Serpa, (1986) defined strong cultures as 'those where organization members place pressure on other members to adhere to norms.' Byrne, (2002) indicates that 'a strong organizational culture will exert more influence on employees than a weak one. If the culture is strong and supports high

ethical standards, it should have a very powerful and positive influence on employee behaviour.' Although all organizations have cultures, some appear to have stronger, more deeply rooted cultures than others. Initially, a strong culture was conceptualized as a coherent set of beliefs, values, assumptions, and practices embraced by most members of the organization. The emphasis was on (1) the degree of consistency of beliefs, values, assumptions, and practice across organizational members; and (2) the pervasiveness (number) of consistent beliefs, values, assumptions, and practices. Many early proponents of organizational culture tended to assume that a strong, pervasive culture was beneficial to all organizations because it fostered motivation, commitment, identity, solidarity, and sameness, which, in turn, facilitated internal integration and coordination. Still others noted potential dysfunctions of a strong culture, to the point of suggesting that a strong culture may not always be desirable. For example, a strong culture and the internalized controls associated with it could result in individuals placing unconstrained demands on themselves, as well as acting as a barrier to adaptation and change. A strong culture could also be a means of manipulation and co-optation (Perrow 1979). It could further contribute to a displacement of goals or sub goal formation, meaning that behavioral norms and ways of doing things become so important that they begin to overshadow the original purpose of the organization (Merton 1957; March and Simon 1958). Culture was initially seen as a means of enhancing internal integration and coordination, but the open system view of organizations recognized that culture is also important in mediating adaptation to the environment (see Chapter 3: Overview of the Management and the Organizational Effectiveness Literatures). The traditional view of a strong culture could be contrary to the ability of organizations to adapt and change. Seeing culture as important for facilitating organizational innovation, the acceptance of new ideas and perspectives, and needed organizational change may require a different, or more nuanced, view of organizational culture. Schein (1992) notes that, indeed, a strong organizational culture has generally been viewed as a conservative force. However, in contrast to the view that a strong organizational culture may be dysfunctional for contemporary business organizations that need to be change-oriented, he argues that just because a strong organizational culture is fairly stable does not mean that the organization will be resistant to change. It is possible for the content of a strong culture to be change-oriented, even if

strong organizational cultures in the past typically were not. He suggests that the culture of modern organizations should be strong but limited, differentiating fundamental assumptions that are pivotal (vital to organizational survival and success) from everything else that is merely relevant (desirable but not mandatory). Today's organizations, characterized by rapidly changing environments and internal workforce diversity, need a strong organizational culture but one that is less pervasive in terms of prescribing particular norms and behavioral patterns than may have existed in the past. This view was supported by Collins and Porras (1994) in their famous study (Built to Last) of companies that had strong and lasting performance. Implications at Individual Level: The study relate following implications at individual and organisational level, where the management of the organisation should give prior concern. The implications are detailed as follows. Aggressive Behavior of members A value system promotes integration of expectations of management philosophy, preferred behavioral patterns, customs and rituals of the organization through compulsion and coercion hence develops dissatisfaction and stress among members. It is general human tendency to resist any integration process that go against their will and cooperation. Members have the very nature to cope up with such value system through aggressive behavior beyond certain level of suppressive behavior. It may develop into Burn Out Stress Syndrome (BOSS) in later years. This situation develops far-reaching consequence at Individual and Organizational level. It leads to individual unrest industrial unrest and organisational dysfunction. Irrationality of thoughts Each employee has the very probability to expose themselves to weak demands set by the work culture of the organization. The level of satisfaction and stress related to the environmental exposure depends on how one perceives the new demand and tries to cope up with it. If the value system and the practices do not support employees to take up the new challenges, these employees experience anxiety and tension. A decision to take up challenging situations with tension and anxiety further results in mistakes and errors. In a power-centered culture, there is more chance for irrational way of coping than rational

one as there is more coercive approach to make the members adjust with the culture. This often develops more conflicting situations. Idleness of members If the work culture is not challenging, innovative and improvement oriented, members have the very tendency to continue the routine practices as it does not develop any situation, which is taxing to their skill and abilities. It is general human tendency to sit idle and enjoy all the benefits and privileges offered by the organization. This coping behavior is due to their preference towards an idle value system. The idle work culture does not call for any improvement of the labour force and of the organization. If this way of preference becomes more rigid in future, it has the very scope to develop into militant behavior of employees, where the organization cannot introduce any organizational change for improvement. Rigidity in behavior The process of socialization helps members to internalize the norms, values, customs and practices that are widely preferred by the organization. Its purpose is to avoid occurrence and reoccurrence of deviations in future. If the value system of the organization is rigid and highly taxing to members, members have the very tendency to develop dissatisfaction and stress. It extends greater opportunity among members to justify their stress and become more rigid in their behavior. Excessive use of coercion and negative measures will develop more rigidity in their attitude than mould their behavior suitable to the organization. Suspicious mentality The members in the organization are very clear about their expectations towards both maintenance needs as well as motivational needs. If the value system is unable to rectify their genuine doubts pertaining to realization of existence, relatedness and growth needs, members have the very tendency to develop suspicious attitude towards supervisors and top management. In a coercive – authoritative value system, there is less probability for transparent way of interaction and inter relationship. Members here have the very tendency to develop suspicious mentality towards management's decision-makings that affect their personal goals. The outcome is same, individual-industrial conflict. Antagonistic attitude

The industrial process is a collective work process where there is equal sharing of responsibilities. A will of readiness to share the organizational responsibilities come from a value system, which calls for mutual trust, mutual respect, mutual acceptance and mutual understanding. In organisation where, the communication between the management and employees is closed, there is no scope for a cordial and cohesive environment, distrust, suspicious attitude, rigidity, low level cooperation, lack of confidence etc. are the byproduct of such situation. Each group has the very tendency to use their own coping mechanisms like aggression, agitation, strikes, etc. Such militant attitude will develop more complex situations in the future. It leads to more physical and psychological hazards to human beings and developmental hazards to organizations. Emotional immaturity A value system, which helps members to internalize the norms and behaviors through a supportive approach, ensures a high level of adjustment within the organization. The process of socialization expects organization's standard level of approach in the integration of the expected behavioral pattern. The process of learning will be complete only when it is able to generate mutual interest and support. The use of coercion and compulsion in this process is unilateral and will not produce any positive result. Instead of developing emotional maturity to understand and behave appropriately, socialization in a power-distance culture makes members to behave more antagonistically and immaturely. It will affect the maintenance of a harmonious industrial culture. Low Morale A work culture which is unable to ensure a cordial and cohesive environment, trust and belief of the members cannot ensure enthusiasm and willingness of the employees to work together and pull the group to meet the organizational goals. The high morale is the by-product of a feeling of satisfaction and better adjustment. The weak culture increases frustration, antagonism, indiscipline and results in excessive complaints and grievances. All such situation leads to industrial unrest and sickness. Disloyal The management approach and personal philosophy have high influence over the behavior of the members. The treatment members experience from management determines their level of job satisfaction and job stress. Loyalty is a state of mind; it is a

composite of feelings, attitude and sentiment that contribute to affiliative behavior of members in return to the organization's care and support, satisfaction offered and towards realization of their personal goals. In an organization where the value system supports excessive control, punitive steps like the management domination, low preference towards human sentiments and relations, there is no probability for employees' involvement, commitment and loyalty. Where there is no feeling of loyalty among members, there is no organizational development at all. Lack of interest Several factors affect member's interest to work for the organization. Among which a value system which promotes team work, innovation, freedom, autonomy, risk taking, use of creativity, supervisory support, empowerment, informal communication, opportunity for advancement, objective feedback etc., facilitates employees decision to work with confidence and interest. The resultant outcome is a weak work cultures is job stress, organizational conflict, job dissatisfaction, absenteeism and labor turnover. The success cannot be ensured where an industry is having disloyal labor force and weak work culture.

Lack of motivation Motivation is concerned with the needs prioritization of individual employee. If the organizational value system provides a better opportunity to fulfill member's psycho social and economic needs, there is increased probability for voluntary co-operation and contribution. However, the work culture of both sectors has found unable to maintain even the satisfaction of lower level needs like safety, security and stability of employment. A culture where, there is no opportunity to realize even the lower level needs, there members are not eligible even to think about their high level needs. The low level of motivation thus results in increased job dissatisfaction and job stress. It further leads to absenteeism, labor turnover, industrial unrest, conflict and disharmony. Without a motivated labor force, there is less chance for industrial success. Lack of commitment Commitment is basically a value-oriented behaviour of individual and group. It is the attitude and sentiment of member's attaches with the organization to do their best. The

management approach towards the removal of certainty and unambiguity by making provision for employee's job satisfaction, a supportive climate etc. has high influence on the attitude and behavior of employees. A coercive, power driven, authoritarian, less considerative and more task-oriented culture induces only lack of motivation, unrest, antagonism and a low level of commitment among members. The study indicates a low level of adjustment of members in both sectors with commitment and its low impact at organizational level. Non-committed labor forces are the biggest hurdles to organizational development. Low level of trust and confidence Success of an organization depends upon the quality of work, co-operation at all hierarchical levels and adherence to a constructive/proactive management policy that translates to a positive value system and strong belief among members. A culture, which shows labor management conflict, mistrust, suspicion, mutual non-acceptance, rigid rules and regulations, lack of recognition and opportunity for advancement etc. cannot win employee's unconditional trust and co-operation. The trust and confidence is the resultant outcome of the healthy psychological contract that exists between the employees and organization. Anything that affects this psychological bond can disrupt this contract. Unrealistic attitude The very purpose of the induction and training program is to develop a realistic perception about the norms and policies, expected behavior patterns, do's and don'ts etc. of the organization. But if the value system of the organization doesn't have anything good to transfer, it affects the attitude of employees. Socialization agents like trade union, peer groups, management, etc., influence the behavior of members in the formation of perception about organizations entrenched value system. If the value system promotes better work culture, these socializing agents transfer the same image and belief system to the new -comers. On the contrary, if the organization promotes low work culture, it will develop an unrealistic attitude and leads to unrealistic value expectations and demands. Superior subordinates Rivalry A work culture that weak at work place may develop severe problems at individual level. Such a culture promotes dependency to superiors and submissive attitude from their

subordinates that leads to personal rivalry. Since the management can hold member's timely promotions, incentives and other such benefits, the members are forced to follow the instructions of superiors. Greater level of dissatisfaction and job stress are major indicators of superior subordinates rivalry. Here the employee's growth opportunities, creativity, improvement in the skill and knowledge are totally denied. The personal conflict can in turn lead to higher-level conflicts and disagreements and can reach up to high-level organizational conflict as well. Poor self-concept Development of better self concept depends upon how far organization extends opportunity for organizational members to understand their skill, knowledge, potential, versatility, meaningness attached to organization, their life, realistic perception etc. Individuals differ in personal characteristics. In addition such differences create differences in work performance and behavior of individuals at the work place. A confident, skilled, ambitious member should get opportunity for growth and achievement. A coercive and power driven weak culture destroys the enthusiastic mindset and expectations of employees. All this leads to member maladjusted behavior. Loss of creativity Creativity means the individual's potential to think and experiment with new insights ideas and thoughts. Though members are creative, many a times, they do not get enough opportunity to implement these ideas because of superior's lack of support, non riskinitiative policy, non- challenging work environment, personal conflicts etc. This indicates that there is no freedom, support and autonomy to individual members in the organization. Absence of creative ideas, affect organization's improvement and advancement plans. It demotivates intelligent employees at work. Intention to quit The organizational value system affects employee's attitude and behavior. It leads members either to continue or quit their jobs. A cordial and cohesive value system, a supportive culture, satisfaction of existence, relatedness and growth needs etc. influence the member behavior. A culture in which member's consider that there is no value for his work, no objective feedback, no cordial-cohesive environment to work with, high rigidity, increased marginalization, victimization, personal rivalries etc., then they have

the very tendency to quit the organization. This leads to high labour turnover, absenteeism, low quality and quality of production, less profit etc. High resistant behavior An organization's value system, which promotes member's enthusiasm, spirit and interest to work, has to face only lower level of resistant behavior, from members. While the culture maintains high task-oriented and less relationship oriented practices through norms and regulations, and the policies and decisions go against the expectations of worker, where management have to face high resistant behavior. A mutual suspicious mentality, non-acceptance of policies, consequent oriented behavior control, work under tension, anxiety, ambiguity etc. develops high resistance on the member's part. It disrupts the smooth progress and daily functioning of activities by developing work hurdles. It leads to industrial tension and unrest. Insecurity feeling Major expectations of working class population are the safety, security and stability of their employment. These are maintenance factors and their absence develops job dissatisfaction and job stress. A value system, which maintains the uncertainty about member's existence needs and growth needs, cannot extend work satisfaction and individual satisfaction. A greater alienation members experience from the role they perform and work. It develops lack of involvement, lack of commitment towards work, disloyalty, commitment to union organizations and poor industrial relations. Low quality of life The quality of life is the degree to which members of an organization are able to satisfy their personal needs through their work experience in the organization. The members have many need and they expect these needs to be fulfilled by their organization, which includes job security, adequate pay, employment benefits, cordial and cohesive work environment, openness, collaboration, experimentation, autonomy etc. These factors have significant effect in moulding the behavior, personality, member's performance and commitment. These are indications of quality of life of employees in an organization. In a weak organisational culture since there is poor labor management relationship, low opportunity for growth, low inter personal relationship and less job security members feel at work, etc, there is low quality of work life.

Worker's inefficiency The efficiency of member is directly related to their attitude and commitment to work. The work culture has a significant role in developing both attitude and interest among employees to contribute more to the organization. Objective feedback, individual attention, recognition of outstanding performance, open feed back, transparent communication, acceptance, affection and achievement from organization, a supportive leadership, organization's commitment in the improvement of its members etc. have significant impact on the attitude, feelings and interest of employees to work efficiently. The maintenance of this strong culture improves organizational growth but fate is opposite if there is weak culture. It directly affect the organisational efficiency. Low expectation Expectancy is the probability that a particular action will lead to a particular outcome. The strength and motivation of members to involve work and derive pleasure out of it depends on how the organization meets individual's specific needs and expectations. These expectations are related to specific needs of the individual's goals. An objective performance appraisal system based on merit, a better pay, security and safety of employment, feeling of equality, openness, no favoritism, good working conditions, cordial interpersonal relationship etc. are employees' expectations from the organization. How far the work culture meets these expectations has a significant effect on employees' motivational level. It develops the comfort of life and peace of mind to the members at work. Some thing which go against the their expectancy leads to low level peace of mind and comfort of life at work. Low-level expectancy leads to low-level affiliation with work and more affiliation to rights and privileges. Low competency The work culture has high influence on the members' expectation and competency. The culture of competency lies in merit based performance ratings and value for skill, qualification, knowledge and effort extend by the members. Any intervention of organizational factors affects the objectivity of appraisal e.g. superior dependency, submissiveness, loyalty, and favoritism all affect employee's perception towards the value system. Moreover, the defective and subjective appraisal will affect the employee's

motivation to work with competency spirit. Higher the levels of favoritism lower the level of expectancy among members and lower their involvement to work. Conclusion The implication part summarizes the far-reaching consequences at the individual level and organisational level that related to the strong and weak culture of the organisation. Important implication of the results is the need for management to recognize far-reaching consequences at the individual level and organisational level. To prevent the far-reaching negative consequences of weak culture's impact on the human behaviour at work, there leadership of the organisation should taken care the policy formulation and its implementation. Weaker the culture organisation have lower the work motivation, work commitment, work relation, loyalty and work ethics. The management of Weak culture should take adequate steps thorough change initiatives for organisational development.

Organizational Change Organizational change may be defined as the adoption of a new idea or a behavior by an organization (Daft 1995). It is a way of altering an existing organization to increase organizational effectiveness for achieving its objectives. Successful organizational change must continually focus on making organizations responsive to major developments like changing customer preferences, regulatory norms, economic shocks and technological innovations. Only those organizations that are able to undertake suitable change programs, can sustain and survive in a changing and demanding economic order in their bid to remain ahead of others in the race. Forces Of Changes Forces for change are of two types: Internal forces External forces.

Internal forces Change in the top management- Change in the top management and consequent change in the ideas to run the organization also leads to change in the system, structure and processes.

Change in size of the organization- Change in the organization‘s size leads to change in the internal structure and complexity of the operations in the organization.

Performance gaps- When a gap between set target and actual results (in terms of market share, employee productivity and profit) is identified, organizations face the forces to change and reduce the gap.

Employee needs and values- With changing needs and values of the employees, organizations change their policies. For example, attractive financial incentives, challenging assignments, vertical growth opportunities and autonomy at work may be provided in an organization to attract and retain its effective employees.

External forces

Technology – Technological changes are responsible for changing the nature of the job performed at all levels in an organization. Business scenario- Due to rapid changes in the business scenario with increasing competition and global economy, the needs and demands are also changing among the customers, suppliers and other stakeholders. Organizations are, therefore, forced to change their operational methods to meet the demands of the stakeholders. Environmental factors – Environmental factors such as economic, political and demographic factors play a vital role in devising organizational policies and strategy. For example, organizations may have to change their employment policies in accordance with the government policy, demand of the non-government organizations and changing economic conditions of a country. Resistance To Change Resistance to change may be of two types: Individual resistance Organizational resistance.

Individual resistance-

Change leads to insecurity among the employees because of its unknown consequences. Employees do not know for certain whether the change will bring in better prospects. For example, because of technological change people may feel threatened due to the fear of obsolescence of skills, less wages and losing the job. Change sometimes leads to new dimensions of work relationships. Due to organizational redesign, the employees may have to work with other set of people than their existing co-workers with whom they have direct relationship, and it is generally not welcome by most of the employees.

Organizational resistance-

Change may bring some potential threat to the organizational power to some people. Therefore, people try to resist change. The structural inertia in the bureaucratic

organizations also hinders change. Furthermore, resource constraints play a vital role in resistance to change. Responses To Change The responses to change depend upon the employees‘ perception about the change. Different individuals differ in their attitudes and hence, the perceptions towards change. Therefore, one important task of the management of an organization is to understand and create a positive attitude among employees regarding change. Reactions to Change Three major reactions to change are: Anger- After employees have passed over the shock of the new situation, most people who view the change as having a negative impact on their personal situation, many times, they will begin to blame the management or talk ill about management. This agitation and anger, if not addressed, may lead to some people actually trying to sabotage the change process by taking stances varying between active non-cooperation and passive resistance. Denial- Many people, depending on their basic values and beliefs, move from anger to acceptance. However, there are a significant number of people who go through a denial phase. A person going through this phase will make up excuses why he or she should not be held accountable for anything that goes wrong with the organization as a result of the change. Such attempts to disassociate from the new situation often cause the person to alienate oneself from the group. Acceptance- Once the person has accepted the change as real and that it is going to happen, he or she begins to rationalize his or her role in the new situation. It is important to understand that not only can an individual accept the situation and begin to work towards the new vision, but one can also accept the situation as having a negative impact and choose to leave the organization. Either way, the individual accepts the fact that the new environment exists. Overcoming Resistance to Change Some approaches can be taken to reduce the resistance to change. Some of them are listed below (Schermerhorn, Hunt, and Osborn 2000): Education and communication -Open communication and proper education help employees to understand the significance of change and its requirement. For that, proper initiative should be taken to provide the information regarding the type, timing, implication, purpose and reason for change.

Employee participation and involvement- People generally get more committed towards the change, if they are directly involved in the change process. This way, they have the opportunity to clarify their doubts and understand the perspective and requirement of change for the organization. The management also gets the chance to identify the potential problems that may occur in the workplace and the chance to prevent it. Facilitation and support- Change agent can offer a range of supportive measures to reduce resistance. Empathetic and considerate listening can reduce employees‘ fear and anxiety towards change. Counselling sessions to reduce stress, trauma, etc., can be an effective measure. Negotiation and agreement- Organizations which have a fair chance to face potential resistance from the union representatives, can defuse the resistance by involving them directly in the change process. They should be properly briefed about the need and value of change. However, this can be a costly proposition when there is more than one dominant union in the organization, as all the contending parties would fight for power and recognition. Characteristics Of Organizational Change Characteristics: It is deliberate, systematic and well thought of. Velocity of change depends on the degree or level of significance. Status quo is challenged. Reaction can be both positive and negative. Focuses on long-term change. The forces for change: Organization-environment relationship (merger, strategic alliances, etc.) where organizations attempt to redefine their relationships with changing social and political environment. Organizational life cycle (changes in culture and structure of organization‘s evolution from birth through growth towards maturity). Political nature of organization (changes in internal control structures, etc.) to deal with shifting political current. Theories of Change Force field analysis theory Lewin (1951) proposed a three step sequential model of change process:

Unfreezing At this stage, the forces, which maintain the status quo in the organizational behavior, are reduced by refuting the present attitude and behavior to create a perceived need for something new. It is facilitated by environmental pressure such as increased competition, declining productivity and performance, felt need to improve the style of work, etc. Moving/changing This stage involves a shift in behavior of organizations by modifying system, process, technology and people. This phase can be explained in terms of compliance, identification and internalization (Rao and Hari Krishna 2002). Compliance or force occurs when individuals are forced to change whether by reward or by punishment. Internalization occurs when individuals are forced to encounter a situation that calls for new behavior. Identification occurs when individuals recognize one among various models provided in the environment that is most suitable to their personality. Refreezing At this stage, actions are taken to sustain the drive for change and to facilitate the institutionalization process of the change even in a day-to-day routine of the organizations. Here, the desired outcomes are positively reinforced and extra support is provided to overcome the difficulties. Action research model Action research model is another model of planned change. According to this model, planned change is a cyclical process in which initial research about organizations provides the data to guide the subsequent action to bring the required changes. It emphasizes on the significance of data collection and diagnosis prior to action planning and implementation and careful evaluation of the actions. This model describes change in eight steps: Problem identification It starts with the identification of one or a combination of problems in the organization and consequent requirement of bringing change in organizational practices. Consultation with the expert It is the phase where the organization consults with the experts in the same field to generate the ideas for improvement of the situation. At this stage an open and collaborative atmosphere is intended to be set up. Data gathering and preliminary diagnosis This stage is usually completed by the expert often with the organizational members‘ help. The four basic modes of data gathering are interview, process observation, questionnaires and organizational performance data.

Feedback to key client or group Because action research is a collaborative activity, the diagnostic data is fed back to the client usually with a group or work team meeting. The consultant provides the client with all the necessary data. Joint diagnosis of the problem At this point, the clients and the expert jointly decide whether they want to work on the identified problems. Joint action planning The consultant and the client then jointly decide on the further action. This is the beginning of the movement process (refer to Lewin‘s model). At this stage, specific actions are taken depending on the culture, technology and the environment of the organization. Action This stage involves actual change from one organizational state to another. It may include new methods and procedures, reorganizing structures and work designs, and new behaviors. Data gathering after action Since action research is a cyclical process, data must also be gathered after the action has taken place. Dimensions of Planned Change Though the models of change describe how to implement change, steps of planned change may be implemented in a variety of ways, depending on the clients‘ needs and goals, the change agents‘ skills and values, and the organizational context. Planned change can be contrasted across situations on two key dimensions: the magnitude of organizational change and the degree to which the client system is organized (Cummings and Worley 1997). Magnitude of change Planned change can range from incremental change, which involves minute alterations in the operations, to quantum change i.e. fundamental change in organizational operations including structure, culture, reward system, information processes, etc. Degree of organization In highly mechanistic and bureaucratic organizational dimensions, structure, job design, leadership styles, policies are too rigid and inflexible. In this type of organizations, communication is suppressed, conflicts are avoided and employees are apathetic. In contrast, flexible organizations have loose task definition, communication is fragmented and job responsibilities are ambiguous. In bureaucratic organizations, change through loosening the control on behaviour is attempted. Strategies for Change Management

According to Bennis, Benne and Chin (1969), four basic strategies can be adopted to manage change: Empirical-Rational People are rational and will follow their self-interest once a change is revealed to them. Change is based on the communication of information and the proffering of incentives. Normative-Re-educative People are social beings and adhere to cultural norms and values. Change is based on redefining and reinterpreting existing norms and values, and developing people‘s commitments to new ones. Power-Coercive People are basically compliant and will generally do what they are told or can be made to do. Change is based on the exercise of authority and the imposition of sanctions. According to Nicklos (2004), there can be a fourth strategy in adapting to changes, i.e. environmental-adaptive. Environmental-Adaptive People oppose loss and disruption, but they adapt readily to new circumstances. Change is based on building a new organization and gradually transferring people from the old one to the new one. Toolkit for Managing Change According to Nicklos (2004), some of the factors to select an effective change strategy and some tips to manage change are described as follows. Generally, there is no single change strategy. One can adopt a general or what is called a ‗grand strategy‘ but for any given initiative some mix of strategies serves best. Which of the preceding strategies to use in your mix of strategies is a decision affected by a number of factors. Some of the more important ones are: Degree of resistance – Strong resistance argues for a coupling of power-coercive and environmental-adaptive strategies. Weak resistance or concurrence argues for a combination of empirical-rational and normative-re-educative strategies. Target population -Large populations argue for a mix of all four strategies. The stakes – High stakes also argue for a mix of all four strategies because when the stakes are high, nothing can be left to chance.

The time frame- Short time frames argue for a power-coercive strategy. Longer time frames argue for a mix of empirical-rational, normative-re-educative and environmentaladaptive strategy. Expertise- Having adequate expertise at making change argues for some mix of the strategies outlined above. Not having the expertise argues for reliance on the powercoercive strategy. Dependency – This is a classic double-edged sword. If the organization is dependent on its people, management‘s ability to command or demand is limited. Conversely, if people are dependent upon the organization, their ability to oppose or resist is limited. (Mutual dependency almost always signals a requirement for some level of negotiation).

Stress Management Introduction Stress has been defined as a physical, mental or emotional response to events which cause mental or bodily tension. In the modern day life stress is a part and parcel of our lives. At the same time, it should not exceed the capacity of an individual to handle it. If it exceeds in proportion to a person‘s abilities to cope with it, it would cause mental and physical imbalance in the person. Therefore, a major challenge for every one today is to make stress work for you as a productive force rather than as a deterrent which can cause imbalance in an individual. While handling a stressful situation, the brain signals the release of stress hormones. These chemical substances in turn trigger a set of responses that provides the body with extra energy: blood-sugar levels rise, the heartbeat speeds up and blood pressure increases. The muscles tense for action. The blood supply is diverted away from the gut to the extremities to help the body deal with the situation at hand. Types Of Stress

Stress can manifest itself in a number of ways depending upon the suddenness of an even to be dealt with and types of stressors to be handled by an individual. It may manifest itself either physically, emotionally and / mentally, as certain symptoms. Physical – This happens when the body as a whole suffers due to stressful situation. There are many symptoms like, headaches, tension in the neck, forehead, and shoulder muscles. Long periods of stress can cause other serious symptoms like digestive problems, ulcers, insomnia (sleeplessness), fatigue, high blood pressure, nervousness, excessive sweating, heart ailments, strokes and hair loss as well.

Emotional – These responses are due to stress affecting the mind and include, anxiety, anger, depression, irritability, frustration, over-reaction to everyday problems, memory loss and a lack of concentration for any task. Anxiety is exhibited as a response to loss, failure, danger or a fear of the unknown. Anger is a response to frustration or social stress and can become a danger to other individuals, if not kept in check. Depression is frequently seen as an emotional response to upsetting situations, such as, the death of a loved one, illness and failure. Psychological – Long-term stress can cause psychological problems in some individuals. Symptoms may include social isolation, phobias, compulsive behaviors, eating disorders and night terrors. Stress may be classified into two types: positive stress (Eustress) and negative stress (Distress). Moderate and manageable levels of stress for a reasonable period of time can be handled by the body through mobilization of resources and is accompanied by positive emotions, such as, enjoyment, satisfaction, excitement and so on. This beneficial element in stress has been defined by Selye (1974) as Eustress (EU- meaning – good). However, an overload of stress resulting from a situation of either over arousal or under arousal for long periods of time causes the following: first an unpleasant feeling, followed by physical damage, fatigue and in extreme cases, even death of an individual. This has been termed by Selye as distress (dys- meaning – bad). Potential Sources Of Stress While environmental factors are forces outside the organization, which may act as potential sources of stress due to uncertainties and threats that they create for any organization and its members, factors within organization can also act as potential source of stress. Together or singly they may create a tense and volatile working environment which can cause stress for organizational members because the inability of individuals to handle the pressures arising out of these sources.

The following may be seen to be the potential sources of stress:

Environmental factors: o Environmental uncertainty influences stress levels among employees in an organization. o Changes in the business cycle create economic uncertainties. o Political uncertainties can be stress inducing. o Technological uncertainty can cause stress because new innovations can make an employee‘s skills and experience obsolete in a very short period of time.

Organizational factors: o Pressures to avoid errors or complete tasks in a limited time period, work overload, a demanding and insensitive boss, and unpleasant coworkers are a few examples. o Task demands are factors related to a person‘s job. They include the design of the individual‘s job (autonomy, task variety, degree of automation), working conditions, and the physical work layout. o Role demands relate to pressures that are a function of the role an individual plays in an organization. a. Role conflicts create expectations that may be hard to reconcile or satisfy. b. Role overload is experienced when the employee is expected to do more than time permits. c. Role ambiguity is created when role expectations are not clearly understood. Interpersonal demands are pressures created by other employees. Organizational structure defines the level of differentiation in the organization, the degree of rules and regulations, and where decisions are made. Excessive rules and lack of participation in decisions might be potential sources of stress. Organizational leadership represents the managerial style of the organization’s senior executives. CEOs, by virtue of their managerial styles create an organizational culture which reflects tension, fear, and anxiety. They overemphasize tight control, hire and fire policies which keep organizational members on hot seat and create stress among them. Individual factors: o

o o

o

These are factors in the employee‘s personal life. Primarily, these factors are family issues, personal economic problems, and inherent personality characteristics. Broken families, wrecked marriages and other family issues may create stress at workplace as well. Economic problems created by individuals overextending their financial resources. Spending more than earnings stretches financial positions, create debt situation leading to stress among individuals. A significant individual factor influencing stress is a person‘s basic dispositional nature. Over-suspicious anger and hostility increases a person‘s stress and risk for heart disease. These individuals with high level of mistrust for others also cause stress for themselves.

Stressors are additive–stress builds up.

Individual DifferencesFive individual difference variables moderate the relationship between potential stressors and experienced stress:

a. Perception b. Job experience c. Locus of control d. Self-efficacy e. Hostility

a. Perception: Moderates the relationship between a potential stress condition and an employee‘s reaction to it. Stress potential doesn‘t lie in objective conditions; it lies in an employee‘s interpretation of those conditions. b. Job experience: The evidence indicates that experience on the job tends to be negatively related to work stress. First is the idea of selective withdrawal. Voluntary turnover is more probable among people who experience more stress. Second, people eventually develop coping mechanisms to deal with stress. Collegial relationships with coworkers or supervisors can buffer the impact of stress. c. Locus of control: Those with an internal locus of control believe they control their own destiny. Internals perceive their jobs to be less stressful than do externals. Internals are likely to believe that they can have a significant effect on the results. Those with an external locus believe their lives are controlled by outside forces. Externals are more likely to be passive and feel helpless. d. Self-efficacy: The confidence in one‘s own abilities appears to decrease stress. e. Hostility: People who are quick to anger, maintain a persistently hostile outlook, and project a cynical mistrust of others are more likely to experience stress in situations.

Consequences Of Stress

Stress shows itself in three ways—physiological, psychological, and behavioral symptoms.

Physiological symptoms: o Most of the early concern with stress was directed at physiological symptoms due to the fact that specialists in the health and medical sciences researched the topic. o Physiological symptoms have the least direct relevance to students of OB. Psychological symptoms: o Job-related stress can cause job-related dissatisfaction. o Job dissatisfaction is ―the simplest and most obvious psychological effect‖ of stress (Robbins, 2003). o Multiple and conflicting demands—lack of clarity as to the incumbent‘s duties, authority, and responsibilities—increase stress and dissatisfaction. o The less control people have over the pace of their work, the greater the stress and dissatisfaction. Behavioral symptoms: o Behaviorally related stress symptoms include changes in productivity, absence, and turnover, as well as changes in eating habits, increased smoking or consumption of alcohol, rapid speech, fidgeting, and sleep disorders. Managing Stress

High or low levels of stress sustained over long periods of time, can lead to reduced employee performance and, thus, require action by management. Individual approaches: Effective individual strategies include implementing time management techniques, increasing physical exercise, relaxation training, and expanding the social support network. Practicing time management principles also leaves as an important element in managing stress, such as: a. making daily lists of activities to be accomplished. b. prioritizing activities by importance and urgency. c. scheduling activities according to the priorities set.

d. knowing your daily cycle and handling the most demanding parts of your job during the high part of your cycle when you are most alert and productive. Non-competitive physical exercise has long been recommended as a way to deal with excessive stress levels. Individuals can teach themselves to reduce tension through relaxation techniques, such as, meditation, hypnosis, and biofeedback. Having friends, family, or work colleagues to talk to provides an outlet for excessive stress. Organizational approaches o Strategies that management might want to consider include: a. Improved personnel selection and job placement leading to right person-job-fit thereby reducing chances of non-performance and stress level. b. Use of realistic goal setting, redesigning of jobs can help in aligning the individuals and job effectively and reduce stress. c. Training in stress management techniques can be helpful. d. Increased employee involvement improves motivation, morale, commitment, and leads to better role integration and reduction in stress. e. Improved organizational communication helps in creating transparency in organizations and reduces confusion, thereby decreasing stress level at work. f. Establishment of corporate wellness programs is an important component in managing stress among organizational members by rejuvenating and refreshing them from time to time leading to increased productivity with renewed energy. Framework For Stress Management As there is a positive side to stress and provides, drive, excitement and motivation for individuals to push themselves to achieve more in their lives in the fulfillment of their set goals, there is no requirement to eliminate stress form one‘s life. Managing stress should be given importance rather than elimination. The goal should be to find the optimal level of stress that can be handled effectively by an individual which will motivate the person and not overwhelm and distress an individual.

How can one find out what is optimal stress for an individual? There is no single level of stress that is optimal for all people. We are all motivated or distressed by different levels of stimulations in a given situation. Age, mental strength, upbringing and cultural factors can be important elements that my influence our abilities to handle stress. How much resilience a person can exhibit while handling stressful situations would vary across individuals as they are likely to differ in their physiological responses to it. Researches have shown the following regarding our capabilities to handle stress: 1. The person who enjoys arbitrating disputes and moves from job site to job site would be stressed in a job which was stable and routine, whereas the person who thrives under stable conditions would very likely be stressed on a job where duties were highly varied. 2. Our personal stress requirements and the amount which we can handle before we succumb to stress changes with age. 3. It has also been found that many illnesses are related to unrelieved stress. If one is experiencing stress symptoms, one has gone beyond the optimal stress level; then it is necessary to reduce the stress in the individual‘s life and/or improve the ability to manage it. How Can One Manage Stress Better? Identifying unrelieved stress and being aware of its effect on an individual‘s life is insufficient for reducing its harmful effects. Just as there are many sources of stress, there are many possibilities for its management. There are two choices in this regard- either change the source of stress and / change your reaction to it. What is the path for doing so? 1. Become aware of the stressors and the emotional and physical reactions. Notice what causes distress. Ignoring them is not a solution. Listing out all the events that cause distress is important. What does an individual tell himself/ herself about the meaning of these events? Determining how the body responds to the stress. Does the individual become nervous or physically upset? If so, in what specific ways? 2. Recognizing what can be changed. Is it possible to change the stressors by avoiding or eliminating them completely? Can their intensity be reduced? Is it possible to shorten an individual‘s exposure to stress? Can one devote the time and energy necessary to make a change (for example, goal setting, time management techniques may be used)?

3.Reduce the intensity of the emotional reactions to stress. The stress reaction is triggered by our perception of danger: physical danger and/or emotional danger. Are we viewing your stressors in exaggerated terms and/or taking a difficult situation and making it a disaster? Are we trying to please everyone? Are we overreacting and viewing things as absolutely critical and urgent? Do we feel you must always prevail in every situation? Work at adopting more moderate views; try to see the stress as something you can cope with rather than something that overpowers us is a solution for reducing stress, internally. 4. Learning to moderate our physical reactions to stress. Slow, deep breathing will bring your heart rate and respiration back to normal. Relaxation techniques can reduce muscle tension. Electronic biofeedback can help you gain voluntary control over such things as muscle tension; heart rate, and blood pressure. Medications, when needed and prescribed by a doctor can help in moderating the physical reactions. However, these alone cannot do the job. Learning to moderate these reactions on our own is a desirable solution in the long run. 5. Build our physical reserves. Exercising for cardiovascular fitness three to four times a week (moderate, prolonged rhythmic exercise is best, such as walking, swimming, cycling, or jogging). Eating wellbalanced and nutritious meals are a must. Maintaining the ideal weight is essential. Avoiding nicotine, excessive caffeine, and other stimulants can be a great help in reducing stress. Mixing leisure with work and taking breaks from routine work can relax and reduce stress in a person. Getting adequate sleep is of utmost importance. Being consistent with the sleep schedule helps in reducing stress to a large extent. 6.Maintaining our emotional reserves.

Developing some mutually supportive friendships and stable relationships help in sharing bottled-up emotions and reduce stress. Pursuing realistic goals which are meaningful to, rather than goals others have for set for us which we do not identify with can help in reducing stress. Expecting some frustrations, failures, and sorrows as apart of life can make us gear up mentally in handling stressful situations rather than succumb to them.

Organization Development Introduction

Organization development (OD) is a planned approach to improve employee and organizational effectiveness by conscious interventions in those processes and structures that have an immediate bearing on the human aspect of the organization (Ramanarayan, Rao, and Singh 1998). OD is an organization-wide planned effort, managed from the top, to increase organizational effectiveness and health through planned interventions in the organizational processes, using behavioural science knowledge. In the initial phase of the development of OD, primary focus was on human as well as the process aspect of the organizations with a view to improve trust, communication, teamwork and interpersonal relationship (Friedlander and Brown 1974). Characteristics Of Organization Development A number of special characteristics together distinguish organizational development from other approaches to managing and improving organizational function. Behavioural science base It is primarily concerned with improving the organization by focusing on aspects that have a bearing on human and social improvement. Its principles have been drawn largely from the field of organizational behavior and social sciences. Normative approach to organizational change OD is a normative process grounded in value-laden assumption of what constitutes ideal individual and organizational growth. Development for the OD practitioners means the movement of individuals and organizations in certain directions consistent with democratic and humanistic values and ideals such as autonomy, self-actualization, etc. Deliberate intervention in the organization OD implies deliberate intervention in the ongoing processes of an organization. While all the social systems, in the ordinary course of events, tend to grow in predictable patterns, they may fail to optimize their capabilities due to an inability to recognize their potential or to anticipate and effectively cope with internal and external crisis. Development implies planning and action to ensure that growth takes place consistent with values. Normative deductive strategy It is based on the assumptions that the social norms are one of the strong reinforcers of behaviour (Chin and Benne 1976). The culture of the organization is affected by those norms and hence, to change the existing organizational culture prevalent norms have to be reduced, modified and replaced by more effective ones. This approach talks about the

change in the organization, which looks forward to a long-term improvement through internalization of new norms of behavior. Systems approach to change Leavitt (1972) has viewed an organization as a social system consisting of different subsystems such as task, structure, technology and human resource, interlinked by various processes. Any change in one part or process has implications for other parts or processes relevant to the system. OD techniques are used to change or modify the processes to change the system consequently. Using action-research model Action-research model is a ―data based, problem solving model that replicated the steps involved in the scientific method of inquiry‖ (French and Bell 1991). OD, using this model, involves a systematic process of diagonising organizational problems through data collection and analysis, feeding the data back to the organizational client group, discussing the findings, planning collaborative action and implementing proposed solutions. Use of external consultant

Here, the assumption in OD is that the presence of a qualified behavioural scientist as an external consultant can help the process of OD in the following manner: The specialized knowledge of that consultant becomes available to the organization. The consultant, as a neutral outsider, is likely to face lesser resistance during the process of change. He is less likely to have a personal stake in implementation of proposed change. Process Of Organization Development A typical OD process can be divided into the following phases: Problem identification: The first step in OD process involves understanding and identification of the existing and potential problems in the organization. The awareness of the problem includes knowledge of the possible organizational problems of growth, human satisfaction, the usage of human resource and organizational effectiveness.

Data collection: Having understood the exact problem in this phase, the relevant data is collected through personal interviews, observations and questionnaires.

Diagnosis: OD efforts begin with diagnosis of the current situation. Usually, it is not limited to a single problem. Rather a number of factors like attitudes, assumptions, available resources and management practice are taken into account in this phase. According to Rao and Hari Krishna (2002), four steps in organizational diagnosis can be identified: Structural analysis: Determines how the different parts of the organization are functioning in terms of laid down goals. Processes analysis: Process implies the manner in which events take place in a sequence. It refers to the pattern of decision-making, communication, group dynamics and conflict management patterns within organizations to help in the process of attainment of organizational goals. Function analysis: This includes strategic variables, performance variables, results, achievements and final outcomes. Domain analysis: Domain refers to the area of the organization for organizational diagnosis. Planning and implementation: After diagnosing the problem, the next phase of OD, with the OD interventions, involves the planning and implementation part of the change process. Evaluation and feedback: Any OD activity is incomplete without proper feedback. Feedback is a process of relaying evaluations to the client group by means of specific report or interaction. OD Interventions OD intervention refers to an activity that is carried on in an organization with the help of an internal or external OD consultant for achieving a given goal or objective (Prasad 1970). Broadly, OD interventions can be categorized as under: Human process interventions Techno-structural interventions Human resource interventions Strategic interventions Human Process Interventions These interventions are aimed at the social processes occurring within organizations. Some of the important human process interventions are discussed below.

T-groups T-groups are designed to provide members with experiential learning about group dynamics, leadership and interpersonal relationships. The basic T-group training or sensitivity training is to change the standards, attitudes and behavior of individuals by using psychological techniques and programs. Sensitivity training involves group confession where the individual‘s problems become the problems of the group, which in turn tries to find a solution. After critiquing others and being critiqued, doubt is introduced into the mind of each individual as to whose standards are really proper. The objectives of T-group training are: Increased understanding, insight and self-awareness about one‘s own and others‘ behavior and its impact on self and others. Better understanding about the group and inter-group processes (facilitating and inhibiting group function). Increased diagnostic skills. Increased ability to transfer learning into action. Process consultation It has been defined as a set of activities on the part of the consultant that helped the client to perceive, understand and act upon the process of events that occur in the client‘s environment in order to improve the situation as defined by the client (Schein 1987: 11). It deals primarily with five important group processes: Communication. The functional roles of group members. The ways in which the group solves problems and makes decisions. The development and growth of group norms. The use of leadership and authority. Third party interventions It focuses on interpersonal or inter-group conflicts. Conflicts can arise from two sources: Substantive issues like work methods, pay rates and conditions of employment. Interpersonal issues such as differences in personality, task orientations, perceptions among group members, completion over scarce resources. Team building It is an effective approach to develop and nurture a team culture in an organization, which helps the group members to enhance their interpersonal and problem-solving skills. It also helps group members to develop a higher level of motivation to carry out the group decisions by overcoming specific problems like apathy, general lack of interest among members, loss of productivity, increasing complaints within the group, confusion about assignments, low participation in meetings, lack of innovation and initiation, increasing

complaints from those outside the group about the quality, timeliness, effectiveness of services and products, etc. This intervention can be used for the following types of teams: Groups reporting to the same supervisor, manager/executive. Groups involving people with common organizational goals. Temporary group formed to perform a specific, one-time task. Groups consisting of people whose work roles are interdependent. Groups whose members have no formal links in the organization, but whose collective purpose is to achieve task they can achieve as individuals. Depending on the types of teams, there are a number of factors that affect the outcome of a specific team-building activity: The length of time allocated to the activity. The team‘s willingness to look at the way in which it operates. The length of time the team has been working together. The permanence of the teams. Techno-structural Interventions Due to increasing global competition and rapid technological and environmental changes, the organizations are forced to move away traditional bureaucratic structures (functional, self contained and matrix structure) to more flexible structures (process-based and network-based structures). This involves streamlining of workflows through structural adjustments by breaking down functional barriers. In this context, the techno-structural interventions help the organizations in structural redesigning aiming at reorganizing organizational structure, the alternative methods of organizing work activities and integrating people in a better way. Human Resource Interventions These are concerned with methods of managing people in a more effective and efficient way while ushering in the change process in an organization. These interventions are traditionally associated with the human resource management function and are increasingly becoming an integral part of the change management activities, for example, dealing with setting performance goals for groups and individuals, performance appraisal and reward management. Activities such as career planning, managing work-force diversity, managing employee wellness also come under this category. Strategic Interventions These interventions focus on organizing the resources of the organization to gain a competitive edge in the market. These generally adopt the top-down management of change approach and require a thorough and in-depth environmental scanning and awareness. The basic philosophy of this approach lies in developing core competencies or getting access to larger market share and technology, hitherto absent in the organization, through alliances with other organizations possessing the same. On the other hand, interventions such as organizational culture change programme and organizational

learning helps organizations to gain the internal capacity to institute their change management process successfully through continuous awareness, self-renewal and learning. Thus, the thrust in this process is mainly on identifying the external sources of change and developing internal capabilities to address them. Abad Ahmed (1972) has proposed six steps in an OD process: 1. Motivation for change The motivation for change emerges from pressures, external or internal, felt by the top management or the new strategic decisions of top management. 2. Data collection, problem identification and diagnosis Throughout the OD programme, especially at the outset, these activities should be acted upon through interviews, surveys and meetings. Both, top management, other organizational members and OD specialist take active part in these activities. 3. Planning strategy for change At this stage, the diagnosis of problem is transformed into a proper action plan. Specific goals are set and the specific approaches for attaining these goals are also specified sequentially. 4. Intervening in the system It aims to resolve difficulties, remove hurdles and give momentum to increase the effectiveness of the organization (Dwivedi 2001). Here the OD specialists, and/or the top management take active part in the process. Some examples of these interventions are: job enlargement, process consultation and other laboratory methods, which have been discussed earlier in this chapter. 5. Reinforcement and follow-up A possibility of regression to the earlier behavioural pattern does exist if adequate care is not taken to adapt mechanisms for reinforcement and follow-up of the planned change. Establishing task force, project teams and temporary systems in the organization can be created to perform the responsibility to implement and monitor the plans defined in the OD programme. 6. Monitoring and evaluation A need for careful monitoring to get feedback regarding the effectiveness of the OD programme is always felt. In this respect, appraisal of the change efforts, comparative analysis of control groups, pre and post-intervention assessments are some of the methods to get the feedback in this regard.

Role of OD Consultant According to Maheswari (1979), the role of an OD consultant is of a guru (teacher) who needs to possess the knowledge, wisdom and sensitivity vis-à-vis the problems of an organization. On the basis of his wisdom, he may advise the client (organization) to implement certain changes. However, it has to be remembered that effective implementation of the advices are sole responsibility of the client. The consultant intends to advise the client to take appropriate actions, convinces the client for the required changes and helps it to modify the mindset. OD consultants, in Indian organizations, generally face the following difficulties (Dwivedi 2001): The perception of the entrepreneurs about OD The owners of the organization, in India, feel threatened that their power would be reduced if the OD interventions are applied, and it would be difficult to discipline people. They also feel uncomfortable in discussing about their operational methods with their managers or consultants. Moreover, they generally do not trust consultants fully. Role of the OD consultants There is confusion about the role of the OD consultant. It is commonly believed that the role of the OD consultant is to diagnose all organizational problems, suggest proper solutions, put these all in a report and leave it to the anagement to take actions on it.

Job Satisfaction Measuring Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction is the sense of fulfillment and pride felt by people who enjoy their work and do it well. For an organization, satisfied work force ensures commitment to high quality performance and increased productivity Job satisfaction helps organizations to reduce complaints and grievances, absenteeism, turnover, and termination. Job satisfaction is also linked to a more healthy work force and has been found to be a good indicator of longevity. And although only little correlation has been found between job satisfaction and productivity, it has also been found that satisfying or delighting employees is a prerequisite to satisfying or delighting customers, thus protecting the ―bottom line (Brown, 1996). Creating Job Satisfaction Probably the most important point to bear in mind when considering job satisfaction is that there are many factors that affect job satisfaction and that what makes workers happy with their jobs varies from one worker to another and from day to day. Organizations aspiring to create a work environment that enhances job satisfaction need to incorporate the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Flexible work arrangements Task variety and significance Job security A supportive work environment Competitive salary

6. Career opportunities Job enrichment It is a deliberate upgrading of responsibility, scope, and challenge in the work itself. Job enrichment usually includes increased responsibility, recognition, and opportunities for growth, learning, and achievement. Large companies that have used job-enrichment programs to increase employee motivation and job satisfaction include, AT&T, IBM, and General Motors (Daft, 1997). Workers’ role in job satisfaction A worker should also take some responsibility for his or her job satisfaction. Everett (1995) proposed the following questions which employees ask themselves in regard to job satisfaction at the workplace: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

When have I come closest to expressing my full potential in a work situation? What did it look like? What aspects of the workplace were most supportive? What aspects of the work itself were most satisfying? What did I learn from that experience that could be applied to the present situation?

The following suggestions can help a worker find personal job satisfaction: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Seek opportunities to demonstrate skills and talents. Develop communication skills. Acquire job related skills and try to implement them. Demonstrate creativity and initiative. Improve team building and leadership skill. Learn to de-stress.

The ways of expressing job dissatisfaction There are a number of ways in which employees can express dissatisfaction (Robbins, 2003). They are: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Exit Voice Loyalty Neglect

1. Exit: Behavior directed toward leaving the organization, actions like looking for a new position as well as resigning. 2. Voice: Actively and constructively attempting to improve conditions, including suggesting improvements, discussing problems with superiors, and some forms of union activity.

3. Loyalty: Passively, but optimistically waiting for conditions to improve, including standing up for the organization in the face of external criticism/ crisis, and reposing trust in the organization and its management to take the right decisions and set things in order. 4. Neglect: Passively allowing conditions to worsen, including chronic absenteeism or lateness, reduced effort, and increased error rate