Nutricion de Vertebrados Peces Anfibios Reptiles Aves Mamiferos

 

DS\_GKGJD LC RC_\CO_NLJ[ ]CKC[ NDBGOGJ[ _C]\GIC[ NRC[ @N@GBC_J[

[c`ndn lci >8 ni ?7 lc `nyj

Nktgvglnlcs >. Kjdsu Kjdsuitn itn cd bjr`n n`pign y subgkgc subgkgcdtc dtc sjorc in dutrgkgûd dutrgkgûd cd ndg`nic ndg`nicss vcrtco vcrtcornljs rnljs cd ci kunlcr kunlcrdj. dj. (pck (pckcs, cs, ndbgog ndbgogjs, js, rcptg rcptgics, ics, nvcs, `n`àbcrjs) n.

Lgouf Lgoufcc sgst sgstc`n c`n lga lgacstgv cstgvj j lc pckc pckcss kjd kji kjijrcs jrcs y pn pnrtcs rtcs Cinojrc `npn `cdtni (>3 glcns) sjorc dutrgkgûd cd pckcs, cs g`pjrtndtc quc sc cxpigquc ci prjkcsj lci nig`cdtj lcslc quc gdgkgn cd in ojkn hnstn quc sjd cig`gdnljs ijs lcsckhjs prjluktj lc in lgacstgûd .

 

 

DS\_GKGJD CD ]CKC[

Kj`j cxgstc lgvcrsglnl lc pckcs su nig`cdtnkgûd vnrgn5 cd ci knsj lc ijs pckcs quc knrdàvjrjs ciijs lgspjdcd lc ud npnrntj lgacstgvj kjrtj y ud cstû`naj onstndtc vjiu`gdjsj, y sc nig`cdtnd lc jtrjs pckcs. Cd kn`ogj, ijs hcroàvjrjs lgspjdcd lc ud gdtcstgdj inraj y su cstû`naj dj cs arndlc5 sc nig`cdtnd lc vcactnics, kj`j ins nians. Cd ci knsj lc ijs Ig`dàvjrjs kjdsu`cd trnstjs y jrandgs`js vgvjs y tn`ogçd sc nig`cdtnd lc vcactnics. ]nrn pjlcr nig`cdtnrsc kucdtnd kjd hnogiglnlcs pnrn csknvnr cd ci bjdlj y nsà ijarnr cdkjdtrnr nig`cdtjs5 ]jr öitg`j, ijs pckcs j`dàvjrjs sc nig`cdtnd lc tjlj ij quc puclnd knpturnr kj`j nig`cdtjs vgvjs, `ucrtjs y vcactnics. Ci sgstc`n lgacstgvj lc ijs pckcs cs ci cdknranlj lc in rupturn lci nig`cdtj (ndnojigs`j) cd kj`pjdcdtcs quc puclcd scr usnljs cd in kjdstrukkgûd lc ducvjs tcfgljs (kntnojigs`j). Ci sgstc`n lgacstgvj lc ijs pckcs kucdtn kjd udn npcrturn y udn snigln, nsà kj`j lc `ukhjs ûrandjs y cstrukturns quc puclcd cstnr prcscdtcs j dj cd knln udn lc ins cspckgcs lc pckcs. Ojkn

Cd ci sgstc`n lgacstgvj lgacstgvj lc ijs pckcs, in ojkn cs in knvglnl n trnvçs lc in kuni in kj`gln cs gdarcsnln gdarcsnln ni kucrpj lci pcz. Ins `ndlàouins lc cstjs jrandgs`js `ucstrnd udn arnd vnrgnogiglnl rcsuitnlj lc ijs lgbcrcdtcs `jljs lc vgln y n`ogcdtcs cd ijs quc sc hnd lcsnrrjiinlj knln udn lc ins cspckgcs. In icdaun

cs udn cstrukturn onstndtc sg`pic sgcdlj sûij udn supcrbgkgc gd`ûvgi, arucsn y ruajsn cd in `ndlàouin gdbcrgjr. Çstn dj cs dckcsnrgn cd in `ndgpuinkgûd `ndgpu inkgûd lci nig`cdtj pucstj quc çstc cs `ndcfnlj `ndcfnlj n trnvçs lci kjdtrji kjdtrji lc kjrrgcdtcs kjrrgcdtcs lc naun y ci pjsgkgjdn`gc pjsgkgjdn`gcdtj dtj lc ijs lgcdtcs. Cd tgourjdcs tgour jdcs y rnyns in icdaun nlqugcrc ud pjkj `îs lc `jvg`gcdtj. `jvg`gcdtj. Cd `gxgdjs y in`prcns in`prcns cstn cstrukturn kucdtn kjd lgcdtcs y cs onstndtc `jvgoic. Kjorn cspckgni g`pjrtndkgn cd ci sgstc`n lgacstgvj lc ijs pckcs nquciijs quc puclcd tcdcr lgcdtcs cd ci brcdtc lc in ojkn y n ij inraj lc ins `ndlàouins, nsà kj`j cd in bnrgdac y in icdaun. Ijs lgcdtcs lc ijs cins`jorndqugjs cstîd sg`pic`cdtc kjdtcdgljs lcdtrj lc in cdkàn, pcrj dj sc cdkucdtrnd udgljs ni kucrpj knrtginagdjsj quc sjpjrtn n in `ndlàouin. Cd pckcs ûscjs puclcd cdkjdtrnrsc knsjs cd ijs quc ijs lgcdtcs dj sc cdkucdtrcd udgljs n in `ndlàouin j kj`j cd in `nyjràn, cd ljdlc cstns cstrukturns cstîd bgfns ni tcfglj bgorjsj j ni hucsj lc in `ndlàouin. Cd `ukhns cspckgcs lc pckcs, nsà kj`j cd tgourjdcs y rnyns, ijs lgcdtcs sjd pjigbgjljdtcs ij kuni sgadgbgkn quc çstjs sjd rcc`pinznljs kjdtgdun`cdtc n `clgln quc sc vnd pcrlgcdlj.

 

Bnrgdac y Csûbnaj

[caugln`cdtc n in ojkn sc cdkucdtrn in bnrgdac, in kuni cs in kjdtgdunkgûd lci tuoj lgacstgvj quc kj`gcdzn ni bgdni lc in ojkn. Cd cstn sc cdkucdtrnd hcdlglurns orndqugnics pjr ins kunics ci naun cs trndspjrtnln lcslc ci kndni nig`cdtgkgj hnkgn ins orndqugns. Cstn cstrukturn sc cdkucdtrn rckuogcrtn lc tcfglj cskn`jsj. Cd ci sgstc`n lgacstgvj lc ijs pckcs, ci csûbnaj cs ud tuoj `uskuinr quc sgauc n in bnrgdac y iicvn ni cstû`naj. Cstî kj`pucstj pjr ljs knpns lc `öskuij dj cstrgnlj, udn lc ins kunics cs ijdagtulgdni y in jtrn kgrkuinr. Cstû`naj

Ci cstû`naj lc ijs pckcs dj sc cdkucdtrn tnd ogcd lgbcrcdkgnlj kj`j sà ij cstî cd jtrjs vcrtcornljs y cd `ukhjs knsjs sc puclc kjdsglcrnr  gdkiusj nuscdtc. \gcdc udn bjr`n lc ’S‐ npudtndlj hnkgn in ojkn j puclc scr ud snkj kjd in cdtrnln y snigln `uy kcrkns in udn lc in jtrn. Cstn cstrukturn kjdsgstc cd ud snkj `uskuinr kjd ud n`ogcdtc gdtcrdj nitn`cdtc îkglj. N lgbcrcdkgn lci csûbnaj, ci cstû`naj cstî kj`pucstj  pjr trcs knpns lc `öskuij dj cstrgnlj6 in knpn cxtcrgjr cs ijdagtulgdni, in lci `clgj kgrkuinr k grkuinr y in gdtcrgjr sc uogkn n ud îdauij joigkuj lc ins jtrns ljs. Ins kjdlgkgjdcs îkglns lc cstc ûrandj kn`ognd lcpcdlgcdlj lc sg çstc sc cdkucdtrn iicdj j dj, lcoglj n quc in sckrckgûd lc îkglj kijrhàlrgkj cs cstg`uinln pjr in cxpndsgûd lc ins pnrclcs cstj`nknics. Ins cdzg`ns `îs kj`udcs cdkjdtrnlns cd ci cstû`naj lc ijs pckcs sjd ins pcpsgdns. In vîivuin quc rcauin ci pnsj cdtrc cstc ûrandj y ijs gdtcstgdjs sc kjdjkc kj`j vîivuin pgiûrgkn. ]îdkrcns c Hàanlj

Cd sgstc`n lgacstgvj lgacstgvj lc ijs pckcs hny quc lgbcrcdkgnr n ijs cins`jorndqugjs cins`jorndqugjs y pckcs pui`jdnljs, pui`jdnljs, cd ci quc ci pîdkrcns pîdkrcns sc cdkucdtrn cdkucdtrn ogcd lgbcrcdkgnlj, `gcdtrns quc cd tcicûstcjs cstî onstndtc rclukglj j lgbusj. Cstc ûrandj sckrctn cdzg`ns (trgpsgdns, n`ginsns y igpnsns) hnkgn ijs gdtcstgdjs n trnvçs lc su prjpgj kjdluktj j usndlj ci kjdluktj hcpîtgkj. Ci hàanlj cs ud ûrandj cd ljdlc sc ni`nkcdn ci aigkûacdj, sc prjlukcd cdzg`ns quc nyulnd n in lgacstgûd y udn vnrgclnl lc jtrns sustndkgns, hjr`jdns y `jiçkuins lc g`pjrtndkgn. Ci tcfglj hcpîtgkj dj tgcdc udn bjr`n pnrtgkuinr, sgdj quc jkupn ci cspnkgj quc hny cdtrc ci cstû`naj y ci kjrnzûd. Cstn cstrukturn tgcdc ni `cdjs udj j hnstn 8 kjdluktjs quc kjdlukcd ni gdtcstgdj. Gdtcstgdjs y _cktj

Ci gdtcstgdj cs ud inraj y lcianlj tuoj kjd udn ljoic knpn lc `uskuinturn, kjd in cxtcrgjr ijdagtulgdni y in knpn gdtcrgjr kgrkuinr. Cd acdcrni sc puclc lckgr quc cd ci npnrntj lgacstgvj lc ijs pckcs, in ijdagtul lci gdtcstgdj sc gdkrc`cdtn n `clgln quc in lgctn sc trndsbjr`n lc j`dàvjrj n lctrgtàvjrj y iucaj hcroàvjrj scaöd in cspckgc. Lcoglj n quc in nosjrkgûd lc dutrgcdtcs tj`n iuanr n ij inraj lc ins pnrclcs lc cstn cstrukturn, lcoc hnocr prcscdkgn lc udn arnd supcrbgkgc pnrn quc sc rcnigkc ci prjkcsj. Cd tgourjdcs, rnyns y jtrjs pckcs prg`gtgvjs, hny  prcscdkgn lc udn vîivuin cspgrni quc kjrrc cd pnrtc lci l ci gdtcstgdj y ni tcdcr tcd cr csn bjr`n nyuln ny uln n krcnr `îs supcrbgkgc lcdtrj lc udn lgstndkgn lnln. Ci rcktj cs ci bgdni lc ijs gdtcstgdjs y ci iuanr cd ljdlc ins hckcs snicd lci kucrpj ni naun kgrkudlndtc. Cd pckcs ûscjs ci rcktj tcr`gdn cd ci ndj quc sc cdkucdtrn sgtunlj ni inlj lc ins npcrturns urgdnrgns y rcprjluktgvns. Cd niaudjs pckcs ci kjdluktj lgacstgvj sc kurvn, kj`j cd in ndaugin ciçktrgkn cd ljdlc ci ndj sc uogkn cd in anrandtn.

 

o. Lgouf Lgoufcc sgstc sgstc`n `n lgacs lgacstgvj tgvj lc ndbg ndbgogjs ogjs kjd kkjijrc jijrcss y pnrtcs pnrtcs.. Cinojrc `npn `cdtni (>3 glcns) sjorc dutrgkgûd cd ndbgogjs, cs g`pjrtndtc quc sc cxpigquc ci prjkcsj lci nig`cdtj lcslc quc gdgkgn cd in ojkn hnstn quc sjd cig`gdnljs ijs lcsckhjs prjluktj lc in lgacstgûd.

DS\_GKGJD CD NDBGOGJ[

 

Cd in nig`cdtnkgûd lc ijs ndbgogjs, niaj quc jkurrc cd in `nyjràn lc ndg`nics tj`n udn `nyjr g`pjrtndkgn cd cstc arupj lc ndg`nics, sc trntn lc ins lgbcrcdkgns nig`cdtgkgns kundlj ijs jrandgs`js sjd nluitjs cd kj`pnrnkgûd kjd ijs lc kjrtn clnl. Cs kgcrtj quc ijs ndbgogjs sjd ijs ödgkjs vcrtcornljs quc subrcd ud lcsnrrjiij gdlgrcktj y quc lcslc ci pudtj lc vgstn lc su rcprjlukkgûd pnsnd pjr vnrgjs cstnlgjs inrvnrgjs (`ctn`jrbjsgs), pjr ij kuni sc puclc cdtcdlcr quc ins lgbcrcdkgns cd in nig`cdtnkgûd cstçd cspckgni`cdtc `nrknlns. Cd csc scdtglj, sc puclcd lgstgdaugr ljs tcdlcdkgns cd in nig`cdtnkgûd lc ijs ndbgogjs scaöd ci cstnlgj lc su lcsnrrjiij. Ijs jrandgs`js nluitjs, yn tjtni`cdtc lcsnrrjiinljs, sc nig`cdtnd oîsgkn`cdtc n pnrtgr lc ndg`nics, pjr ij quc sc ics pjlràn kjdsglcrnr knrdàvjrjs j `îs cstrgktn`cdtc gdscktàvjrjs5 cd kn`ogj, ijs gdlgvglujs cd cstnlj lc inrvn, nudquc tn`ogçd puclcd nig`cdtnrsc lc jtrjs pcqucþjs ndg`nics, nkjstu`ornd n hnkcrij `nyjr`cdtc gdagrgcdlj kj`pucstjs lc jrgacd vcactni. Nig`cdtnkgûd ndbgogjs nluitjs

In nig`cdtnkgûd lc ijs ndbgogjs nluitjs cs vnrgnln cd budkgûd lc in cspckgc, nudquc hny quc lcstnknr quc sjd knznljrcs y sus  prcsns bnvjrgtns sucicd cdkjdtrnrsc cdtrc gdscktjs, ausndjs y onojsns. Kj`j sgc`prc, ci tn`nþj lci ndg`ni lctcr`gdnrî tn`ogçd ci tn`nþj lc ins prcsns quc puclcd gdacrgr. ]jr csj, nudquc in `nyjràn lc ndbgogjs nluitjs sc nig`cdtnd ödgkn`cdtc lc gdvcrtcornljs, niaudns cspckgcs `îs arndlcs sjd knpnkcs lc lcvjrnr n pcqucþjs `n`àbcrjs, rcptgics j nvcs. Sd cfc`pij lc cstc knsj ij cdkjdtrn`js cd ci cskucrzj kj`öd, quc sc trntn lc ud ndbgogj quc cd clnl nluitn nlqugcrc arnd cdvcranlurn. Cstc ndg`ni, nlc`îs lc kj`cr gdscktjs y jtrjs gdvcrtcornljs cs knpnz lc nig`cdtnrsc lc pcqucþjs rntjdcs. Ins tçkdgkns quc utgigznd pnrn knznr n sus prcsns lcpcdlcd lci `clgj cd ci quc tcdan iuanr cstn knpturn. Cd ijs knsjs cd ijs quc in  prcsn vgvc cd ci `clgj tcrrcstrc, in hcrrn`gcdtn quc sucicd utgigznr cs udn icdaun cxtcdsgoic, lc `jvg`gcdtj `uy rîpglj, y  onstndtc pcanfjsn quc cs knpnz lc ntrncr n in prcsn hnstn in ojkn. Nlc`îs, niaudns cspckgcs sjd knpnkcs lc lnr snitjs lc kjdsglcrnoic cdvcranlurn pnrn sjrprcdlcr n sus prcsns y nkcrknrsc n ciins rîpgln`cdtc. Kundlj ci nig`cdtj vgcdc cd bjr`n lc ndg`ni nkuîtgkj, ci `ckndgs`j `îs hnogtuni lc knzn cs in nspgrnkgûd, `clgndtc in kuni gdtrjlukcd pnrtc lci naun y lc ijs ndg`nics quc kjdtcdan cd su ojkn y n pnrtgr lc nhà c`pgcznd in lgacstgûd. Nig`cdtnkgûd lc ndbgogjs cd cstnlj inrvnrgj

Ci knsj lc ijs rcdnkunfjs, j ndbgogjs cd bnsc inrvnrgn cs onstndtc `îs kurgjsj. Hny quc rckjrlnr quc cd cstc `j`cdtj ins inrvns vgvcd cxkiusgvn`cdtc cd `clgjs nkuîtgkjs, pjr ij quc in nig`cdtnkgûd cstnrî kjdlgkgjdnln pjr cstn sgtunkgûd. Cd cstc knsj sc  puclcd nig`cdtnr tndtj lc jtrjs ndg`nics pcqucþjs kj`j lc nians j kj`pucstjs vcactnics quc cdkucdtrcd cd ci naun. ]jr ij tndtj, sc pjlràn kjdsglcrnr quc ijs rcdnkunfjs sjd ndbgogjs j`dàvjrjs yn quc puclcd tj`nr nig`cdtjs lc lgstgdtj jrgacd. Csj sà, in `nyjràn lc su dutrgkgûd vgcdc lnln pjr ijs vcactnics yn quc ijs ndg`nics quc puclcd gdacrgr rcprcscdtnd udn pnrtc `ukhj `îs  pcqucþn lc su nig`cdtnkgûd. N `clgln quc vnd krckgcdlj, in knpnkglnl quc tgcdcd pnrn nig`cdtnrsc lc jtrjs ndg`nics vn nu`cdtndlj prjarcsgvn`cdtc y pjr ij tndtj in prjpjrkgûd lc dutrgkgûd lc jrgacd ndg`ni c`pgczn n scr `îs g`pjrtndtc hnstn quc ci rcdnkunfj sc lcsnrrjiin kj`pictn`cdtc y sc kjdvgcrtc cd ci nluitj knrdàvjrj.

 

@jljs lc nig`cdtnkgûd lc ijs ndbgogjs

N pcsnr lc quc ijs ndbgogjs pjsccd kgcrtjs rnsajs nlnptntgvjs pnrn su nig`cdtnkgûd, sc kjdsglcrnd ndg`nics jpjrtudgstns quc sc nig`cdtnd nig`cd tnd lc ij quc puclnd y dj tndtj lc ij quc ciijs cigfnd. Cs kgcrtj quc ijs nluitjs nluitjs pjsccd udn icdaun pjlcrjsn pjlcrjsn y pcanfjsn, pcanfjsn, udns `ndlàouins pnrn sufctnr npnrn sushnkcr prcsns kgcrtnsudjs cspckgcs, udnstnd ndkns pnrn pjlcr snitjs. [gd c`onraj, cstns nlnptnkgjdcs dj sjd subgkgcdtcs lcy,ijscdndbgogjs knznljrcs cbgkgcdtcs kj`j rcnigznr puclcd scr ijs bcigdjs, pjr cfc`pij. Cs pjr csj quc cd in `nyjràn lc jknsgjdcs in prcsn vcdlrî lnln pjr ins kgrkudstndkgns y dj pjr ins prcbcrcdkgns lci ndg`ni. Cd nig`cdtnkgûd lc ijs ndbgogjs, in tçkdgkn lc knzn cs `uy rcicvndtc y cstî onsnln `nyjr`cdtc cd ud kj`pjrtn`gcdtj lc nkckhj. Cstj kjdsgstc kjdsgstc cd scdtnrsc scdtnrsc n cspcrnr cspcrnr n quc npnrczkn udn prcsn. [c puclcd `ndtcdcr gd`ûvgics gd`ûvgics lurndtc inrajs pcrgjljs pcrgjljs y udn vcz quc in prcsn sc hn nkcrknlj ij subgkgcdtc, cs kundlj sc nktgvnd y snknd sus nr`ns, yn scn n trnvçs lc in icdaun j lc ijs snitjs. @ukhjs ndbgogjs ndbgogjs tgcdcd in knpnkglnl knpnkglnl lc kn`ubinrsc kn`ubinrsc pnrn sjrprcdlcr tjlnvàn `îs n sus prcsns. Nudquc niaudjs puclcd scr `uy vcdcdjsjs, sc trntn lc ud `ckndgs`j lc lcbcdsn y dj ud `ckndgs`j lc knzn kj`j puclc supjdcr cd jtrjs arupjs lc ndg`nics. Cstrukturn lci sgstc`n lgacstgvj lc ijs ndbgogjs >- Cd ins inrvns

Cd sus bjr`ns tcrrcstrcs y nkuîtgkns ci sgstc`n lgacstgvj lc ijs ndbgogjs `utn. Ij `gs`j jkurrc kjd sus hîogtjs nig`cdtgkgjs. Ijs rcdnkunfjs j inrvns sc nig`cdtnd lc nians y lc rcstjs lc jrandgs`js `ucrtjs. ]crj, udn vcz nluitjs, sjd knrdàvjrjs, pjr ij quc kj`cd `jskns, nrnþns c gdscktjs. ?- Cd ndbgogjs nluitjs

Ci npnrntj lgacstgvj lci ndg`ni nluitj kucdtn lc vnrgns cstrukturns6 Cd ins inrvns, in cstrukturn cs scdkgiin, kucdtnd kjd udn ojkn, ud csûbnaj, ud cstû`naj kj`j ni`nkcdnljr y ud gdtcstgdj ninranlj. Cd prg`cr iuanr tgcdc udn ojkn inran kj`j vàn lc cdtrnln lc sus nig`cdtjs. [us ojkns dj tgcdcd lgcdtcs pcrj sà kucdtnd kjd udn icaun `uy lcsnrrjiinln, budln`cdtni pnrn kj`cdznr ci prjkcsj nig`cdtgkgj. Niaudjs puclcd tcdcr lgcdtcs pcrj sjd `uy pcqucþjs. In icdaun lc ijs ndbgogjs cstî prjvgstn lc udn vgskjsglnl quc in hnkc `uy pcanfjsn. Cstj ic pcr`gtc ni ndg`ni knpturnr n sus  prcsns quc sucicd cstnr vjindlj j pnrnlns cd ci n`ogcdtc.

 

Nlc`îs, in icdaun cs prjtrîktgi. Cstn knrnktcràstgkn gdlgkn quc puclc prjycktnrsc hnkgn nbucrn lc in ojkn kuorgcdlj udn inran lgstndkgn. \rns in ojkn sc cdkucdtrn ci csûbnaj kjrtj y ndkhj. Cstc cs ci kndni quc kjdcktn kjd ci cstû`naj y pjr ljdlc pnsnd ijs nig`cdtjs hnkgn ci gdtcrgjr lci kucrpj. Ci cstû`naj, pjr su pnrtc, kjdtgcdc aiîdluins quc prjlukcd ins cdzg`ns lgacstgvns. Cstns sustndkgns sjd knpnkcs lc nyulnr n in lcskj`pjsgkgûd y trndsbjr`nkgûd lc ijs nig`cdtjs cd dutrgcdtcs. Nlc`îs, cstn knvglnl cxtrnkciuinr cs ljdlc gdgkgn in lgacstgûd prjpgn`cdtc. In cstrukturn lci cstû`naj kucdtn kjd udn vîivuin ndtcs lc çi y udn lcspuçs quc g`pglcd quc ijs nig`cdtjs sc lcvucivnd j sniand lci cstû`naj hnkgn nonfj. In prg`crn cs iin`nln knrlgns y in scaudln pàijrj. Ci cstû`naj sc kjdcktn lcspuçs kjd ci gdtcstgdj lcianlj, cd ci quc sc prjlukc in nsg`ginkgûd lc ijs dutrgcdtcs `clgndtc in nosjrkgûd. @gcdtns, cd ci gdtcstgdj arucsj cs ljdlc sc prjlukcd ins hckcs bcknics, quc cqugvnicd n ijs rcsglujs quc dj puclcd scr  nprjvckhnljs pjr ci jrandgs`j lci ndbgogj. Nquà tn`ogçd jkurrc udn rcnosjrkgûd lc iàqugljs pnrn scknr ci prjluktj rcsgluni. Jtrn pnrtgkuinrglnl cs quc ci gdtcstgdj lc ijs ndbgogjs dj tcr`gdn cd ud ndj sgdj cd udn ’kijnkn‐. Cstn cs udn nocrturn cdsndkhnln kj`öd lci sgstc`n lgacstgvj cxkrctjr, urgdnrgj y rcprjluktjr. Nlc`îs, kucdtn kjd aiîdluins ndcxns, kj`j ci hàanlj y pîdkrcns, quc prjlukcd sckrckgjdcs g`pjrtndtcs quc nyulnd cd in lgacstgûd.

 

k. Lgouf Lgoufcc sgstc sgstc`n `n lgacs lgacstgvj tgvj lc rcp rcptgic tgicss kjd kjijr kjijrcs cs y pnrtc pnrtcs. s. Cinojrc `npn `cdtni (>3 glcns) sjorc dutrgkgûd cd rcptgics, cs g`pjrtndtc quc sc cxpigquc ci prjkcsj lci nig`cdtj lcslc quc gdgkgn cd in ojkn hnstn quc sjd cig`gdnljs ijs lcsckhjs prjluktj lc in lgacstgûd.

DS\_GKGJD

In nig`cdtnkgûd lc ijs rcptgics vn n lcpcdlcr lc ins dckcsglnlcs dutrgkgjdnics lc knln cspckgc, yn quc cxgstcd ijs sgaugcdtcs tgpjs6 Knrdàvjrjs

Cstjs rcptgics sjij sc nig`cdtnd lc in knrdc lc jtrjs ndg`nics, kj`j ins scrpgcdtcs, qugcdcs kj`cd n sus prcsns cdtcrns sgd `nstgknrins. Ijs kjkjlrgijs sjd jtrjs ndg`nics dctn`cdtc knrdàvjrjs quc sc bgfnd cd ci tn`nþj lc su prcsn y quc n pcsnr lc tcdcr  lgcdtcs dj `nstgknd pcrj sg in trgturn kjd sus `ndlàouins.

 

Jtrjs rcptgics quc sjd kjdsglcrnljs knrdàvjrjs sjd ijs quc sc nig`cdtnd lc pckcs j lc kgcrtjs ndg`nics nkuîtgkjs. Nudquc pjsccd lgcdtcs sjij ic sgrvcd pnrn knpturnr n su prcsn, pcrj dj pnrn `nstgknrin, tni cs ci knsj lc ins tjrtuans `nrgdns quc utgigznd su pgkj y sus cxtrc`glnlcs pnrn iicvnr ci nig`cdtj hnstn ci npnrntj lgacstgvj. Gdscktàvjrjs

Jtrj arupj lc lc gdscktàvjrjs onsnd sucsnig`cdtnkgûd in gdacstn lgnrgn lc gdscktjs y niaudjs pcqucþjs. lc`îs ins knrnktcràstg knrnktc ràstgkns kns cstc tgpj lc rcptgics rcptgi cs quc tgcdcdcdudn icaun quc rcnigzn `jvg`gcdtjs `jvg`gcdtj s `uygdvcrtcornljs rîpgljs, rîpgljs, quc ics pcr`gtcSdn knznr bîkgi`cdtc n sus prcsns. Sd cfc`pij lc rcptgics gdscktàvjrjs sjd ins inanrtgfns, ins kunics sc nig`cdtnd lc `jskns, hjr`gans, nrnþns, cdtrc jtrjs. Hcroàvjrjs

Cstjs rcptgics sc nig`cdtnd lc cic`cdtjs lc jrgacd vcactni, kj`j pindtns, nroustjs, îrojics, cdtrc jtrjs. Cs ud arupj `uy rclukglj ijs rcptgics hcroàvjrjs y cd jknsgjdcs niaudjs cspckà`cdcs lc cstc arupj jotgcdcd ijs dutrgcdtcs quc rcqugcrcd lc niaudjs gdscktjs y pcqucþjs gdvcrtcornljs. Niaudjs rcptgics hcroàvjrjs sjd ins tjrtuans tcrrcstrcs, ijs inanrtjs lc kjin cspgdjsn y ins gaundns. J`dàvjrjs

[c lgkc quc in `nyjràn lc rcptgics rcptgics sjd j`dàvjrjs, j`dàvjrjs, yn quc in nig`cdtnkgûd nig`cdtnkgûd puclc kj`ogdnr lgbcrcdtcs lgbcrcdtcs tgpjs lc nig`cdtjs, pjr ij quc sc puclcd nlnptnr n udn u jtrj tgpj lc lgctn. Dj jostndtc, puclcd tcdcr bnvjrgtgs`j pjr ijs nig`cdtjs quc prjkclcd lci rcgdj ndg`ni, pjr kundtj sjd nig`cdtjs `îs bîkgics lc lgacrgr n lgbcrcdkgn lc ijs nig`cdtjs lc jrgacd vcactni. [G[\C@N LGAC[\GRJ LC _C]\GIC[ \gc`pj

Ci tgc`pj sc pnsn cdtrc in lgacstgûd lc in kj`gln y in cspcrn hnstn quc in prûxg`n prcsn sc prcscdtc. Jtrn vcdtnfn lc tj`nr `îs tgc`pj pnrn lgacrgr udn kj`gln cs quc rcqugcrc `cdjs lc udn lçkg`n pnrtc lc in `gs`n kndtglnl lc cdcraàn quc ud `n`àbcrj utgigzn pnrn lgacrgr in kj`gln `gs`n. Ci sgstc`n lgacstgvj lc ijs rcptgics cs kj`pictj y sg`ginr ni lc ijs `n`àbcrjs. Niaudns cspckgcs pjsccd lgcdtcs, quc sucicd rcc`pinznr pcrgûlgkn`cdtc, `gcdtrns quc jtrns knrckcd lc ciijs. ]jr ij quc rcprcscdtn n ins scrpgcdtcs, pjsccd kji`giijs huckjs  pjr ijs quc trndspjrtnd ci vcdcdj. _cptgics hcroàvjrjs Kjdstgtukgûd lci npnrntj lgacstgvj

 

Ni gauni quc ijs rcptgics knrdàvjrjs, ijs rcptgics hcroàvjrjs dj puclcd `nstgknr pnrn nkcicrnr in lgacstgûd. Cd su iuanr, sc trnand  pgclrns y augfnrrjs, quc khnpjtcnd nirclcljr cd ci gdtcstgdj pnrn nyulnr n lgacrgr in kj`gln. Ci npnrntj lgacstgvj lc ijs rcptgics ij kjdstgtuyc in ojkn, pjr ij acdcrni arndlc, in bnrgdac, cd cstc knsj kjrtn, n in quc ic sgauc ud csûbnaj ninranlj quc kjdlukc ni cstû`naj. Cstc kj`prcdlc udn knvglnl csbçrgkn lc arnd tn`nþj y udn pcqucþn rcagûd quc kj`udgkn kjd ci gdtcstgdj lcianlj, y cstc kjd ci rcktj. Ci rcktj sucic scr `nyjr quc ci gdtcstgdj lcianlj y lcsc`ojkn cd ci ndj. _cptgics knrdàvjrjs Nig`cdtnkgûd

Ijs rcptgics knrdàvjrjs tgcdcd gdtcstgdjs kjrtjs lgscþnljs pnrn rj`pcrsc cbgkgcdtc`cdtc pjr in knrdc. Nudquc cs ud prjkcsj sg`pic, ijs rcptgics sjd `îs icdtjs quc ijs `n`àbcrjs pnrn lgacrgr ijs nig`cdtjs. In gdknpnkglnl pnrn `nstgknr, nsà kj`j ud `ctnojigs`j `îs onfj, ijs joigan n pnsnr `îs tgc`pj pnrn lgacrgr, pcrj tn`ogçd pcr`gtc pcràjljs `îs inrajs cdtrc ins kj`glns. Cs ud prjkcsj icdtj pjr `clgj lc fuajs aîstrgkjs, quc tnrln vnrgjs làns cd lcskj`pjdcr ci kucrpj lci ndg`ni pnrn rcnigznrsc tjlj ci prjkcsj ijs rcptgics dj sgc`prc tjljs kj`cd n lgnrgj y cdtrnd cd pcrgjljs lc nyudj, `gcdtrns cstîd rcnigzndlj in lgacstgûd lc niaudn prcsn arndlc, y iucaj cskupcd ijs hucsjs.

 

l. Lgouf Lgoufcc sgstc sgstc`n `n lgacs lgacstgvj tgvj lc nvcs kkjd jd kjijr kjijrcs cs y pnrtc pnrtcs. s. Cinojrc `npn `cdtni (>3 glcns) sjorc dutrgkgûd cd nvcs, cs g`pjrtndtc quc sc cxpigquc ci prjkcsj lci nig`cdtj lcslc quc gdgkgn cd in ojkn hnstn quc sjd cig`gdnljs ijs lcsckhjs prjluktj lc in lgacstgûd.

DS\_GKGJD

Ins nvcs tgcdcd rcaà`cdcs lgctçtgkjs `uy vnrgnoics, nudquc, cd acdcrni, su`n`cdtc rgkjs cd prgdkgpgjs cdcraçtgkjs y prjtcàdgkjs, quc pcr`gtnd udn rîpgln trndsbjr`nkgûd lci nig`cdtj. [caöd ci tgpj lc kj`gln quc gdagcrcd puclcd scr kinsgbgknlns cd ud prg`cr 

 

npnrtnlj npnr tnlj cd6 Bgt Bgtûbn ûbnans ans,, quc sc nig`cd nig`cdtnd tnd lc sus sustnd tndkgn kgnss vcactni vcactnics5 cs5 zjûbnans zjûbnans,, kj`cljr kj`cljrns ns lc tjlj tjlj tgp tgpjj lc ndg`niçs ndg`niçs lcslc gdvcrtcornljs `gkrjskûpgkjs hnstn pckcs, `n`àbcrjs u jtrns nvcs5 dckrûbnans, kjdsu`gljrns lc knlîvcrcs, y j`dàvjrns, quc sc dutrcd gdlgstgdtn j nitcrdntgvn`cdtc lc vcactnics y ndg`nics. Cd ijs arupjs quc rcqugcrcd in dutrgkgûd kjd prcsns lci rcgdj ndg`ni, lcstnknd ins knrdàvjrns, cdtrc ins quc sc cdkucdtrnd tgpjs tnd lgstgdtjs kj`j rnpnkcs y [trgagbjr`cs, prgdkgpni`cdtc. Ins gktgûbnans quc knpturnd j rnpgþnd pcsknljs y cd ins quc pjlc`js gdkiugr ci îaugin pcsknljrn, in anvgjtn, ci `nrtàd pcsknljr j ijs pgdaùgdjs. Ijs rugscþjrcs, kurrukns, pctgrrjfjs y pgknpgdjs, cdtrc jtrns, sjd gdscktàvjrns, yn quc kj`cd tjln kinsc lc gdscktjs cd sus bjr`ns nluitns j inrvnrgns, j ogcd sc cspckgnigznd cd niaöd arupj lctcr`gdnlj, kj`j ijs nocfnrukjs j ijs hnikjdcs nocfcrjs. Ijs bin`cdkjs y niaudns ndîtglns tgcdcd ud kurgjsj `jlj lc prjkurnrsc ci sustcdtj kjdsglcrnlj 'pindktûbnaj', pucs bgitrnd kjd su  pgkj y icdaun ci ijlj y ins sustndkgns quc ins nauns iicvcd cd suspcdsgûd, nprjvckhndlj nsg lg`gdutjs krustîkcjs y jtrjs jrandgs`js gdtcarndtcs lci pindktjd. N pcsnr lc cstns bjr`ns lc dutrgkgûd, tnd cspckgnigznlns cd `ukhjs knsjs, sc puclcd prcscdtnr lc hckhj rcaà`cdcs `gxtjs, quc gdtcarcd cd su lgctn sustndkgns ndg`nics y vcactnics lc bjr`n hnogtuni j kàkigkn, lcpcdlgcdlj lc ins cstnkgjdcs nt`jsbçrgkns lci nþj j lc ijs kgkijs bgsgjiûagkjs lc ijs pîfnrjs. In lgctn j`dgvjrn cs prjpgn lc ud arnd dö`crj lc cspckgcs c gdkiusj gdkiusj nvcs quc budln`cdtni`cdtc budln`cdtni`cdtc kjdsu`n kjdsu`ndd brutjs y sc`giins, sc`giins,  pjr cfc`pij, puclcd lurndtc in dglgbgknkgûd j kcon k con lc sus pjiiucijs scr gdsnkgnoics gdscktàvjrns. Bjr`ns lci pgkj y nig`cdtnkgûd

In kjdbgaurnkgûd lci pgkj lc ins nvcs sucic cstnr cstrckhn`cdtc rcinkgjdnln kjd ci tgpj lc nig`cdtnkgûd. ]gkjs rjoustjs, bucrtcs y andkhuljs quc sgrvcd pnrn nontgr y lcspclnznr ins prcsns sjd cscdkgnics pnrn ins rnpnkcs. Ijs brgdaàigljs brgdaàigljs tgcdcd pgkj acdcrni`cdtc acdcrni`cdtc kûdgkj, lc ijdagtul ijdagtul `clgn, nprjpgnlj nprjpgnlj pnrn lcsknsknr lcsknsknrgiinr giinr sc`giins. sc`giins. Ijs dcktnràdgljs dcktnràdgljs y kjigorgcs, quc lcocd sjrocr ci dçktnr, dckcsgtnd ud npçdlgkc bgdj, inraj y igacrj quc ics pcr`gtc iicanr hnstn ci bjdlj lc ins kjrjins lc ins bijrcs. Ins pcqucþns nvckgiins quc sc dutrcd lc gdscktjs oindljs tgcdcd pgkjs bgdjs, pjkj rjoustjs y dj lc`nsgnlj inrajs.

 

N pcsnr lc in cspckgnigznkgûd nig`cdtgkgn y ins lgvcrsns `jrbjijaàns lc ins `ndlàouins lc ins nvcs, kj`j puclc nprckgnrsc cd ci  pgqugtucrtj, kj`cljr lc pgþjdcs, j cd ci bin`cdkj, kjdsu`gljr lc pindktjd c gdvcrtcornljs lg`gdutjs, cxgstcd npnrcdtcs cxkcpkgjdcs kj`j ci cdjr`c y lcsprjpjrkgjdnlj pgkj lci tukîd j ci lc`nsgnlj inraj lc in nouogiin quc, sgd c`onraj, cstîd  pcrbcktn`cdtc nlnptnljs n in ogjijaàn y kj`pjrtn`gcdtj kj`p jrtn`gcdtj lc knln udn lc ins cspckgcs lc nv nvcs cs

]_JKC[J LGAC[\GRJ LC IN[ NRC[

]gkj

Ins nvcs utgigznd su pgkj pnrn nig`cdtnrsc. \jln in kj`gln quc cdtrn ni kucrpj lci nvc pnsn prg`crj pjr ci pgkj. Ins nvcs dj tgcdcd lgcdtcs, nsà quc dj puclcd `nstgknr in kj`gln.  Dj jostndtc, cd ci gdtcrgjr lci pgkj puclcd scr cdkjdtrnlns aiîdluins quc sckrctnd snigvn quc sgrvc pnrn hu`clckcr ijs nig`cdtjs,  pcr`gtgcdlj quc cstjs puclnd scr trnanljs bîkgi`cdtc. In snigvn quc sc cdkucdtrn cd ci gdtcrgjr lci pgkj kjdtgcdc cdzg`ns lgacstgvns kj`j n`ginsn quc sgrvcd pnrn gdgkgnr ci prjkcsj lc lgacstgûd lc ijs nig`cdtjs. Ins nvcs tn`ogçd usnd su icdaun pnrn c`pufnr ci nig`cdtj n in pnrtc trnscrn lci pgkj y nsà pjlcr  trnanrij (Fnkjo & ]cskntjrc, ?=>;). Csûbnaj

Ci csûbnaj cs ud tuoj bicxgoic quc kjdcktn ci pgkj kjd ci rcstj lci trnktj lgacstgvj lci nvc. [c cdknran lc iicvnr ci nig`cdtj lc in  ojkn ni oukhc y lci oukhc ni prjvcdtràkuij. prjvc dtràkuij. Oukhc

Ci oukhc cs udn snigcdtc lci csûbnaj ijknigznln cd in rcagûd lci kuciij lci nvc. Ijs nig`cdtjs y ci naun trnanljs sjd ni`nkcdnljs cd cstn ojisn hnstn quc puclcd pnsnr ni rcstj lci trnktj lgacstgvj. Kundlj ci oukhc cstî vnkàj j knsg vnkàj, ic cdvàn scþnics lc hn`orc ni kcrcorj pnrn quc ci nvc gdagcrn `îs nig`cdtj. Nudquc ins cdzg`ns lgacstgvns sckrctnlns cd ci pgkj gdgkgnd ci prjkcsj lc lgacstgûd, cd ci oukhc cstc prjkcsj cs onstndtc icdtj, yn quc cstc ûrandj sgrvc kj`j ud iuanr lc ni`nkcdn`gcdtj tc`pjrni pnrn ijs nig`cdtjs. Cstc `ckndgs`j lc ni`nkcdn`gcdtj sc lcsnrrjiiû lcspinznrsc cd kn`pj nogcrtj pnrn cdkjdtrnr nig`cdtj.cd nvcs quc sjd tàpgkn`cdtc knznlns pjr jtrjs ndg`nics, pcrj dckcsgtnd

 

Lc cstn bjr`n, ins nvcs puclcd kjdsu`gr udn kndtglnl kjdsglcrnoic lc nig`cdtj rîpgln`cdtc y iucaj `jvcrsc n ud iuanr `îs scaurj n lgacrgr lgkhj nig`cdtj. Cd niaudns jknsgjdcs, ci oukhc puclc scr nbcktnlj pjr prjoic`ns lc jostrukkgûd j g`pnktnkgûd. Cstj sukclc kundlj ci nvc iicvn ud inraj pcrgjlj lc tgc`pj sgd kjdsu`gr nig`cdtj y lc rcpcdtc gdagcrc udn n`pign kndtglnl. Kundlj cstj jkurrc, ci nig`cdtj puclc gdgkgnr ud prjkcsj lc lcskj`pjsgkgûd cd ci gdtcrgjr lci oukhc y cdbcr`nr ni nvc. Ci oukhc tn`ogçd puclc jostrugrsc kundlj ci nvc kjdsu`c arndlcs trjzjs lc `ntcrgni vcactni quc oijqucnd ci pnsj lc nig`cdtj ni rcstj lci sgstc`n lgacstgvj. Sd oukhc gdbin`nlj tn`ogçd puclc oijqucnr in trîqucn j snigln lci ngrc, knusndlj quc ins nvcs `ucrnd pjr sjbjknkgûd. ]rjvcdtràkuij

Ci csûbnaj kjdtgdön lcspuçs lci oukhc y ij kjdcktn kjd ci prjvcdtràkuij. Cstc ûrandj cs kjdjkglj kj`j ci cstû`naj aindluinr lc ins nvcs ljdlc in lgacstgûd prg`nrgn kj`gcdzn. Ci îkglj hglrjkiûrgkj y ins cdzg`ns lgacstgvns kj`j in pcpsgdn sc `czkind kjd ci nig`cdtj gdacrglj y c`pgcznd n lcskj`pjdcrij lc `ndcrn `îs cbgkgcdtc. Cd cstc `j`cdtj, in kj`gln tjlnvàn dj hn sglj `jigln. Rcdtràkuij j `jiicfn

Ci vcdtràkuij j `jiicfn cs ud ûrandj lci sgstc`n lgacstgvj tndtj lc ins nvcs kj`j lc ijs rcptgics, ijs ausndjs lc tgcrrn y ijs pckcs. Ssuni`cdtc Ssuni `cdtc sc ic kjdjkc kj`j ci cstû`naj cstû`naj `ckîdgkj, pucs cstî kj`pucs kj`pucstj tj pjr ud pnr lc `öskuijs bucrtcs kjd udn `c`ornd `c`orndnn  prjtcktjrn quc nktönd kj`j sg bucscd ijs lgcdtcs lci nvc. nvc . Ci nig`cdtj kjdsu`glj pjr ci nvc y ijs fuajs lgacstgvjs prjvcdgcdtcs lc ins aiîdluins snigvnics y ci prjvcdtràkuij pnsnd n in `jiicfn ljdlc tjlj scrî `jiglj y `czkinlj. Niaudns vckcs, ins nvcs puclcd kjdsu`gr pcqucþns rjkns lcdtrj lci nig`cdtj. Çstns sucicd scr noindlnlns cd ci prjvcdtràkuij y `jiglns cd in `jiicfn. Acdcrni`cdtc, ins rjkns `jiglns pcr`ndckcd cd in `jiicfn hnstn quc su tn`nþj cs ij subgkgcdtc`cdtc pcqucþj kj`j pnrn pnsnr   pjr ci rcstj lci trnktj lgacstgvj.

 

Kundlj ud nvc gdagcrc ud jofctj bgijsj, kj`j udn tnkhucin j ud andkhj lc arnpnljrn, ci jofctj puclc quclnr ntrnpnlj cd in `jiicfn. Cstjs jofctjs puclcd pcrbjrnr in `jiicfn kundlj sus `öskuijs c`pgcznd n `jvcrsc rîpgln`cdtc. Ins nvcs quc prcscdtnd prcscdtnd lnþjs cd ins pnrclcs lc in `jiicfn, `jiicfn, kj`gcdznd n subrgr subrgr lc lcsdutrgkgûd lcsdutrgkgûd y cvcdtuni`cdt cvcdtuni`cdtcc `ucrcd (Ijjd, ?==3). Gdtcstgdj lcianlj

Ci sgaugcdtc pnsj lc in lgacstgûd jkurrc cd ci lujlcdj y ijs dutrgcdtcs igocrnljs pjr ci nig`cdtj sjd nosjrogljs prgdkgpni`cdtc cd in pnrtc onfn lci gdtcstgdj lcianlj. Ci lujlcdj rckgoc ins cdzg`ns lgacstgvns y ogknrojdntj lci pîdkrcns y ogigs lci hàanlj pnrn kjdtrnrrcstnr ci cbcktj lci îkglj hglrjkiûrgkj prjvcdgcdtc lci prjvcdtràkuij. Ijs fuajs lgacstgvjs prjlukgljs pjr ci pîdkrcns sc rcinkgjdnd prgdkgpni`cdtc kjd in lgacstgûd lc prjtcàdns. In ogigs cs ud nacdtc ig`pgnljr g`pjrtndtc cd in lgacstgûd lc iàpgljs y in nosjrkgûd lc vgtn`gdns sjiuoics cd arnsn kj`j in N, L, C y E. In pnrtc onfn lci gdtcstgdj lcianlj sc kj`pjdc lc ljs pnrtcs, quc ycyudj y ci àicjd. Ci lgvcrtàkuij lc @ckeci `nrkn ci bgdni lci ycyudj y ci gdgkgj lci àicjd. Cstc lgvcrtàkuij sc bjr`n lurndtc ci cstnlgj c`orgjdnrgj lc ins nvcs (Ojwcd, >771). Kckn

In kckn sc kj`pjdc lc ljs ojisns kgcans ljdlc ci gdtcstgdj gdtcstgdj lcianlj y arucsj sc udcd. Niaudjs rcstjs rcstjs lc naun kjdtcdgljs kjdtcdgljs cd ci nig`cdtj lgacrglj sjd rcnosjrogljs cd cstc pudtj. Jtrn budkgûd g`pjrtndtc lc in kckn cs in bcr`cdtnkgûd lc ijs rcstjs lc nig`cdtj quc nöd dj hnd tcr`gdnlj lc scr lgacrgljs. Lurndtc Lurnd tc ci prjkcsj lc bcr`cdtnkgûd, bcr`cdtnkgûd, in kckn prjlukc îkgljs arnsjs y ins jkhj vgtn`gdns vgtn`gdns O (tgn`gdn, (tgn`gdn, rgojbinvgdn, rgojbinvgdn, dgnkgdn, îkglj  pndtjtçdgkj, pgrgljxgdn, ogjtgdn, îkglj bûigkj y vgtn`gdn O>?). In kckn sc cdkucdtrn ijknigznln `uy kcrkn lci bgdni lci trnktj lgacstgvj, sgd c`onraj, cd ciin tjlnvàn sjd nosjrogljs niaudjs dutrgcdtcs lgspjdgoics cd in kj`gln (Bnrdcr & Egda, >71?). Gdtcstgdj arucsj j kjijd

N pcsnr lc quc su dj`orc gdlgkn quc ci gdtcstgdj arucsj cs lc `nyjr tn`nþj quc ci lcianlj, cd rcniglnl cstc cs `îs kjrtj. In budkgûd prgdkgpni lci gdtcstgdj arucsj cs nosjrocr ijs rcstjs öitg`js rcstjs lc naun prcscdtcs cd ci `ntcrgni lgacrglj.

 

Kijnkn

Cd in kijnkn, ijs rcsglujs lc in lgacstgûd sc `czkind kjd ijs rcsglujs lci sgstc`n urgdnrgj (urcn). Ins nvcs acdcrni`cdtc cxpuisnd in `ntcrgn bckni prjvcdgcdtc lci sgstc`n lgacstgvj fudtj kjd ijs krgstnics lc îkglj örgkj rcsuitndtcs lci prjkcsj lci sgstc`n cxkrctjr. Kj`j ins nvcs dj jrgdnd, cxpuisnd ijs lcsckhjs lc îkglj örgkj cd bjr`n lc udn pnstn oindkuzkn y krc`jsn. Ins hckcs lc ins nvcs  puclcd gdlgknr cd quç cstnlj lc sniul sc cdkucdtrnd. Ci kjijr y in tcxturn lc in `ntcrgn bckni gdlgkn cd quç kjdlgkgjdcs sc cdkucdtrn ci trnktj lgacstgvj. Cd in kijnkn tn`ogçd kjdvcrac ci sgstc`n rcprjluktgvj lc ins nvcs. Kundlj udn hc`orn pjdc ud hucvj, in vnagdn sc pigcan sjorc in supcrbgkgc lci hucvj, lc tni bjr`n quc in kijnkn sc pucln norgr sgd cdtrnr cd kjdtnktj kjd ins hckcs j in jrgdn (]juitryHuo, ?=>1).

c. Lgouf Lgoufcc sgst sgstc`n c`n lga lgacstgv cstgvj j lc `n`àb `n`àbcrjs crjs kkjd jd kjijr kjijrcs cs y pnrt pnrtcs cs Cinojrc `npn `cdtni (>3 glcns) sjorc dutrgkgûd cd `n`àbcrjs, cs g`pjrtndtc quc sc cxpigquc ci prjkcsj lci nig`cdtj lcslc quc gdgkgn cd in ojkn hnstn quc sjd cig`gdnljs ijs lcsckhjs prjluktj lc in lgacstgûd.

 

DS\_GKGJD

Ijs `n`àbcrjs sjd ud arupj lc ndg`nics vcrtcornljs quc hnd cvjiukgjdnlj hnstn scr knpnkcs lc nig`cdtnrsc lc udn arnd lgvcrsglnl lc bjr`ns. Niaj quc tgcdcd cd kj`öd lcslc ci pudtj lc vgstn lc in nig`cdtnkgûd lc ijs `n`àbcrjs cs in prcscdkgn lc ud npnrntj lgacstgvj ij subgkgcdtc`cdtc sjbgstgknlj kj`j pnrn jptg`gznr in prjlukkgûd lc cdcraàn pnrn pjlcr `ndtcdcr in tc`pcrnturn kjrpjrni. Ijs `n`àbcrjs sc gdkiuycd tndtj cd ci arupj lc ijs prclnljrcs kj`j cd ci lc ins prcsns cd `ukhjs ckjsgstc`ns. Sdn knrnktcràstgkn rcicvndtc cd in nig`cdtnkgûd lc ijs `n`àbcrjs cs ci hckhj lc quc sûij niaudns cspckgcs sjd knpnkcs lc jkupnr ijs  pucstjs `îs nitjs cd ins fcrnrquàns trûbgkns y dj lcocd prcjkupnrsc lc scr lcvjrnlns pjr jtrjs `n`àbcrjs. Hîogtjs nig`cdtgkgjs

Cdtrc ijs hîogtjs nig`cdtgkgjs j tgpjs lc nig`cdtnkgûd lc ijs `n`àbcrjs sc cdkucdtrnd trcs arndlcs arupjs quc sc budln`cdtnd cd ci tgpj lc kj`gln quc gdagcrcd cstjs ndg`nics6 ijs knrdàvjrjs, ijs hcroàvjrjs y ijs j`dàvjrjs. @n`àbcrjs knrdàvjrjs

 

Ci prg`crj y `îs knrnktcràstgkj lc ijs `n`àbcrjs cs ci arupj lc ijs knrdàvjrjs. Kj`j su dj`orc gdlgkn, sc nig`cdtnd cxkiusgvn`cdtc lc in knrdc lc jtrjs ndg`nics y pnrn ciij tgcdcd quc nknonr kjd in vgln lc su prcsn. Cd cstc arupj sc gdkiuycd lgvcrsns cspckgcs lc `n`àbcrjs, lc vgln nkuîtgkn y tcrrcstrc. Lc hckhj, ijs knrdàvjrjs bjr`nd ud arupj tnxjdû`gkj, kjdkrctn`cdtc ci jrlcd Knrdgvjrn y quc sc lgvglc cd ljs suoûrlcdcs6 in bcigbjr`gn y in kndgbjr`gn. Lc `ndcrn scdkgiin sc pjlràn lckgr quc udn cstî bjr`nln pjr ijs ndg`nics rcinkgjdnljs kjd ijs bcigdjs `gcdtrns quc in jtrn cstî bjr`nln pjr ndg`nics c`pnrcdtnljs kjd ijs kîdgljs, nudquc in vnrgclnl vn `ukhj `îs niiî. Cd in pnrtc lc ijs bcigdjs sc gdkiuycd jtrns `ukhns cspckgcs lc `n`àbcrjs kj`j ins hgcdns, ins `ndajstns j ins kgvctns. Cd in bn`gign rcinkgjdnln kjd ijs kîdgljs, in lgvcrsglnl cs tjlnvàn `nyjr. Nlc`îs lc ijojs, kjyjtcs y khnknics, pjlc`js cdkjdtrnr jsjs, `npnkhcs, kj`nlrcfns, bjkns, icjdcs `nrgdjs y `jrsns. @n`àbcrjs hcroàvjrjs

Ci scaudlj arnd arupj, ci lc ijs hcroàvjrjs, cstî bjr`nlj pjr ndg`nics quc sc nig`cdtnd oîsgkn`cdtc lc pindtns. Lcdtrj lc ijs `n`àbcrjs, ci arupj `îs g`pjrtndtc lc hcroàvjrjs ij kjdbjr`nd ijs ru`gndtcs. Ijs ru`gndtcs pjsccd ud npnrntj lgacstgvj tjtni`cdtc nlnptnlj n cstn nig`cdtnkgûd kjd kuntrj knvglnlcs quc hnkcd ins budkgjdcs lci cstû`naj. [u lgacstgûd lgacstgûd sc rcnigzn rcnigzn cd ljs pnsjs6 udn prg`crn lgacstgûd gdkj`pictn gdkj`pictn y udn pjstcrgjr rc`nstgknkgûd rc`nstgknkgûd pnrn pjlcr   prjkclcr n in lgacstgûd kj`pictn. Niaudjs lc ijs ndg`nics quc bjr`nd pnrtc lc ijs ru`gndtcs y pjr ij tndtj sjd hcroàvjrjs sjd ins vnkns, oucycs, oöbnijs, jvcfns, knorns y kgcrvjs. [gd c`onraj, ijs ru`gndtcs dj sjd ijs ödgkjs hcroàvjrjs y jtrjs cfc`pijs ijs cdkjdtrn`js cd ijs knoniijs, cicbndtcs y niaudjs prg`ntcs. @n`àbcrjs j`dàvjrjs

Ci öitg`j arnd arupj quc kinsgbgkn ijs hîogtjs nig`cdtnrgjs cs ci lc ijs j`dàvjrjs. Cd cstc arupj sc gdkiuycd nquciijs ndg`nics knpnkcs lc nig`cdtnrsc tndtj lc pindtns kj`j lc jtrjs ndg`nics. [jd ndg`nics quc dj prcscdtnd nlnptnkgjdcs cspckgnics pnrn dgdaudj lc ijs ljs tgpjs lc kj`gln y quc sc nig`cdtnd lc nquciij quc tcdand ni nikndkc. Niaudjs cfc`pijs lc ndg`nics j`dàvjrjs puclcd scr in bn`gign lc ijs kcrljs kj`j ijs fnoniàcs, in `nyjràn lc prg`ntcs kj`j khg`pndkçs y ajrgins, niaudjs rjcljrcs kj`j in rntn j rntûd, pcqucþjs `n`àbcrjs kj`j ins znrgaùcyns y ijs crgzjs y niaudns cspckgcs lc jsjs y kîdgljs. Jtrjs tgpjs lc nig`cdtnkgûd lc ijs `n`àbcrjs

Nlc`îs lc cstjs trcs arndlcs arupjs tn`ogçd cxgstcd jtrns bucdtcs lc nig`cdtnkgûd, quc nudquc `cdjs kj`udcs, tn`ogçd kucdtnd kjd vnrgns cspckgcs lc `n`àbcrjs `n`àbcrjs cdtrc ciijs5 ud cfc`pij scràn ci lc ijs gdscktàvjrjs gdscktàvjrjs j ndg`ni ndg`nics cs quc sc nig`cdtnd knsg cxkiusgvn`cdtc lc gdscktjs, cstc arupj cstî bjr`nlj pjr `n`àbcrjs pcqucþjs y `nyjr`cdtc lc vgln djkturdn. Niaudjs ndg`nics gdscktàvjrjs scrànd ins `usnrnþns, ijs tjpjs y niaudjs crgzjs.

 

\n`ogçd cxgstcd ijs ndg`nics quc sc nig`cdtnd sjij lc pckcs. [c pjlràn gdkiugr kj`j ud suoarupj lcdtrj lc ijs knrdàvjrjs, pcrj cd `ukhns kinsgbgknkgjdcs sc kjdsglcrnd kj`j ud arupj gdlcpcdlgcdtc. Niaudjs lc ijs `n`àbcrjs quc sgaucd cstc tgpj lc nig`cdtnkgûd puclcd scr ijs lcibgdcs, ins bjkns, ins `jrsns, ins jrkns, ins dutrgns y ijs jrdgtjrrgdkjs.

Npnrntj lgacstgvj lc ijs `n`àbcrjs

Ci npnrntj lgacstgvj lc ijs `n`àbcrjs cstî lgscþnlj pnrn nu`cdtnr in cbgkgcdkgn lc in prjlukkgûd cdcraçtgkn dckcsnrgn pnrn ci `ndtcdg`gcdtj `ndtcdg `gcdtj lc in tc`pcrnturn tc`pcrnturn kjrpjrni. kjrpjrni. W cstj sc kjdsgauc kjdsgauc nu`cdtndlj in cbgknkgn tndtj lc in lcarnlnkgûd lc ijs nig`cdtjs nig`cdtjs kjdscaugljs pnrn hnkcr nkkcsgoics in `nyjr kndtglnl pjsgoic lc dutrgcdtcs, kj`j lc in nosjrkgûd lc cstjs. In ojkn

Ci npnrntj kj`gcdzn cd in ojkn. Cs nquà ljdlc tgcdc iuanr in trgturnkgûd `ckîdgkn lc ijs nig`cdtjs y su gdsnigvnkgûd, ljs nspcktjs cscdkgnics pnrn kjdscaugr udn lgacstgûd `îs cbgknz. Ijs lgcdtcs sjd udn knrnktcràstgkn lc ijs `n`àbcrjs, nudquc dj tjljs ijs nluitjs ijs prcscdtnd. W kjd cxkcpkgûd lc ins oniicdns quc ijs tgcdcd tjljs gaunics, ci rcstj lc ins cspckgcs sjd hctcrjljdtns, cstj cs, quc tgcdcd vnrgjs tgpjs lc lgcdtcs Ins aiîdluins snigvnics (pnrûtgln, suoigdauni, suo`ndlgouinr)

sjd ins cdknranlns lc prjlukgr in snigvn, quc cs udn sustndkgn iàqugln vgskjsn c`picnln cd in iuorgknkgûd lci ojij nig`cdtgkgj dckcsnrgn tndtj pnrn in `nstgknkgûd kj`j pnrn su trîdsgtj hnkgn ci cstû`naj. In snigvn kjdtgcdc udn cdzg`n, in ptgnigdn, quc kj`gcdzn in lcarnlnkgûd lci ni`glûd ndtcs lc quc çstc iicauc ni cstû`naj. ]crj nlc`îs in snigvn cs g`pjrtndtc cd in lcskjdtn`gdnkgûd lc ijs nig`cdtjs, yn quc pjscc udn sustndkgn onktcrgkgln, in igsjzg`n, quc lcstruyc pnrtc lc in bijrn `gkrjogndn quc çstjs vchgkuind. Ijs hcroàvjrjs, quc dckcsgtnd `nstgknr `îs gdtcdsn`cdtc ci nig`cdtj, prcscdtnd ud `nyjr lcsnrrjiij lc çstns, `gcdtrns quc cd ijs `gstgkctjs cstîd nuscdtcs. Cd in ojkn sc prjkcsnd nlc`îs in tc`pcrnturn, tcxturn y snojr lc ijs nig`cdtjs lc tni `ndcrn quc ci sgstc`n dcrvgjsj kcdtrni  puclc nlckunr ins sckrckgjdcs lc tjljs ijs ûrandjs g`pigknljs cd in lgacstgûd n ins dckcsglnlcs kjdkrctns pnrn knln nig`cdtj  prjkcsnlj. Csûbnaj

Ci csûbnaj cs udn vàskcrn tuouinr lc dnturniczn `uskuinr quc kj`udgkn in ojkn kjd ci cstû`naj, kuyn budkgûd prgdkgpni cs ci trndspjrtc lc nig`cdtjs lc in ojkn ni cstû`naj, kjd nkkgÿd purn`cdtc `ckîdgkn. Cstû`naj

 

Ci cstû`naj cs ud snkj lc dnturniczn aindluinr y `uskuinr ljdlc tgcdc iuanr in lcarnlnkgûd y prcpnrnkgûd lc ins prjtcàdns pnrn in pjstcrgjr nosjrkgûd lc sus dutrgcdtcs. Cd in lgacstgûd aîstrgkn, ci îkglj kijrhàlrgkj quc vgcrtcd ins pnrclcs lci cstû`naj ln iuanr n in lcsdnturnigznkgûd lc ins prjtcàdns, quc sc hnkcd vuidcrnoics n in nkkgûd lc udn cdzg`n tn`ogçd sgdtctgznln cd cstn vàskcrn, in pcpsgdn. Cstn cdzg`n rj`pc ins knlcdns prjtcgkns trndsbjr`îdljins cd pçptgljs y pjigpçptgljs quc scrîd nsg`ginljs cd ins pjstcrgjrcs bnscs lc in lgacstgûd. ]jr  jtrn pnrtc, in lgacstgûd lc ijs pjigsnkîrgljs sc lctgcdc yn quc in nkglgbgknkgûd lci `clgj prjvjknln pjr ci îkglj kijrhàlrgkj, g`pglc in nktunkgûd lc in ptgnigdn, lctcdgçdljsc ci prjkcsj kj`cdznlj cd in ojkn. Cd ci cstû`naj dj hny cdzg`ns quc ntnqucd n ijs iàpgljs, pjr ij quc pnsnd pjr ciin sgd subrgr nitcrnkgûd niaudn. [gd c`onraj, rnicdtgznd in lgacstgûd lci rcstj lc ijs dutrgcdtcs. Gdtcstgdj lcianlj

Ci gdtcstgdj lcianlj cs udn cstrukturn tuouinr quc kjdstn lc trcs pjrkgjdcs, lujlcdj, ycyudj c àicjd ljdlc tgcdc iuanr in sgaugcdtc bnsc lc in lgacstgûd lc ijs nig`cdtjs. Ci lujlcdj cstî kj`udgknlj kjd ci cstû`naj n trnvçs lci pàijrj, ud csbàdtcr quc pcr`gtc ci  pnsj cd pcqucþns pjrkgjdcs lci kjdtcdglj cstj`nkni cstj`nkn i (qug`j) kundlj çstc cstî igstj pnrn kjdtgdunr ci prjkcsj lgacstgvj. Ni kj`gcdzj lci trîdsgtj gdtcstgdni, ci pîdkrcns vgcrtc su fuaj. Çstc, nlc`îs lc udn nitn kjdkcdtrnkgûd lc ogknrojdntj quc dcutrnigzn in nkglcz lci qug`j, pjscc vnrgns cdzg`ns quc gdtcrvgcdcd cd in lcarnlnkgûd lc ijs dutrgcdtcs6 in n`ginsn pndkrcîtgkn kjdtgdön in lcarnlnkgûd lc ijs pjigsnkîrgljs kj`cdznln pjr in ptgnigdn, ins igpnsns nktönd sjorc ijs trgaigkçrgljs scpnrndlj in aigkcrgdn lc ijs îkgljs arnsjs, jtrns cdzg`ns tcr`gdnd in lgacstgûd lc ins prjtcàdns quc dj bucrjd lcarnlnlns pjr in pcpsgdn aîstrgkn. In nkkgûd lc ins cdzg`ns pndkrcîtgkns sc kj`pic`cdtn kjd in nkkgûd lc ins snics ogignrcs kjdtcdglns cd in ogigs, udn sckrckgûd  prjlukgln pjr ci hàanlj quc tgcdc nlc`îs in `gsgûd lc vcrtcr ni gdtcstgdj kgcrtns sustndkgns quc dj puclcd scr cig`gdnlns kjd in jrgdn, pnrn scr cxkrctnlns kjd ins hckcs. Ins snics ogignrcs sjd udjs pjlcrjsjs lctcracdtcs quc scpnrnd ins arnsns cd pcqucþns ajtgtns quc puclcd scr `îs bîkgi`cdtc lcarnlnlns pjr ins igpnsns pndkrcîtgkns. Gdtcstgdj arucsj

Lc cstc `jlj, kundlj ci kjdtcdglj lgacstgvj nikndzn ci gdtcstgdj arucsj, sjij qucln naun, `ntcrgni dj lgacrgoic y ijs `gdcrnics scarcanljs cd ins lgstgdtns bnscs lci prjkcsj. \n`ogçd cstî bjr`nlj pjr trcs trn`js, kgcaj, kjijd y rcktj. Kjdtgcdc udn rgkn y vnrgnln bijrn `gkrjogndn quc scarcand cdzg`ns knpnkcs lc tcr`gdnr in lgacstgûd lci nig`cdtj, jotcdgçdljsc nzöknrcs quc bcr`cdtnd prjlukgcdlj îkgljs jraîdgkjs lc ijs quc nöd puclc jotcdcrsc niaj lc cdcraàn. Lgacstgûd cd hcroàvjrjs

Ijs hcroàvjrjs prcscdtnd udscr `nyjr lcsnrrjiij lc ins vàskcrns lgacstgvns, yn quc ijs nig`cdtjs rcqugcrcd prjkcsjs quà`gkjs y `ckîdgkjs `îs gdtcdsjs pnrn lgacrgljs.

 

In lgbcrcdkgn `îs sgadgbgkntgvn ndntû`gkn y budkgjdni`cdtc in prcscdtn sgd luln niaudn ci kj`picfj cstû`naj lc ijs ru`gndtcs, lgvglglj cd kuntrj kj`pnrtg`cdtjs (rctàkuij, ru`cd, j`nsj y noj`nsj)6 Ijs nig`cdtjs gdacrgljs pjr cstjs ndg`nics pnsnd n in pndzn j ru`cd lgrcktn`cdtc, knsg sgd `nstgknr, ljdlc tgcdc iuanr udn bcr`cdtnkgûd `gkrjogndn arnkgns n in bijrn onktcrgndn cxgstcdtc cd su gdtcrgjr. Lc cstc `jlj, kj`gcdzn in lcarnlnkgûd lc ins nitns kndtglnlcs lc ni`glûd y kciuijsn quc tgcdcd ijs nig`cdtjs lc jrgacd vcactni. Sdn vcz quc ci nig`cdtj cstî prjkcsnlj, ijs ru`gndtcs rcauragtnd ci nig`cdtj y cs cdtjdkcs kundlj tgcdcd iuanr ijs prjkcsjs lc `nstgknkgûd c gdsnigvnkgûd. Ci ojij lcogln`cdtc `nstgknlj c gdsnigvnlj vucivc n scr gdacrglj y iican ni rctàkuij, tn`ogçd kjdjkglj kj`j ojdctc j rclckgiin, ljdlc tgcdc iuanr udn ducvn bcr`cdtnkgûd lc tgpj `gkrjogndn sg`ginr n in quc tuvj iuanr prcvgn`cdtc cd ci ru`cd. Lcslc nquà, n trnvçs lci naufcrj rctàkuij-j`nsni, pnsn ni j`nsj quc dj cs sgdj udn kî`nrn kjd pigcaucs pnrnicijs kuogcrtjs pjr   pnpgins kûrdcns quc sgrvcd, pnrn prjkclcr n in `jiturnkgûd lci nig`cdtj. Cd ci bjdlj lc ijs pigcaucs, tgcdc iuanr in nosjrkgûd lc naun, snics `gdcrnics y îkgljs arnsjs. Lurndtc ci pnsj lci nig`cdtj pjr ci j`nsj j igorj, dj sc lctgcdc in bcr`cdtnkgûd. Ci öitg`j kj`pnrtg`cdtj cs ci noj`nsj y sc kjrrcspjdlc ndntû`gkn y budkgjdni`cdtc kjd ci cstû`naj `jdjkn`crni lci rcstj lc ijs `n`àbcrjs. ]crj dj tjljs ijs hcroàvjrjs hcroàvjrjs sjd ru`gndtcs, ru`gndtcs, y pnrn sjiukgjdnr sjiukgjdnr ci prjoic`n prjoic`n lc in lcarnlnkgûd lc ijs pjigsnkîrglj pjigsnkîrgljs, s, ud arupj lc ndg`nics ndg`ni cs cdtrc ijs quc sc hniind ijs cicbndtcs, cicbndtcs, ijs çqugljs j ijs prg`ntcs prg`ntcs hn cvjiukgjdnlj cvjiukgjdnlj gdkrc`cdt gdkrc`cdtndlj ndlj ci vjiu`cd lci kgcaj  pnrn quc tcdan cd çi udn gdtcdsn bcr`cdtnkgûd onktcrgndn lc in kciuijsn, nosjrogçdljsc ijs dutrgcdtcs prjlukgljs tndtj cd cstc trn`j kj`j n ij inraj lci kjijd. Ci jtrj arupj ij kjdstgtuycd ijs hcroàvjrjs lc pcqucþj tn`nþj kj`j rjcljrcs y inaj`jrbjs, quc, ni dj pjlcr rctcdcr lurndtc `ukhj tgc`pj ci nig`cdtj cd su jrandgs`j, cxkrctnd ijs nig`cdtjs kjd noudlndtcs dutrgcdtcs quc dj hnd pjlglj scr tcr`gdnljs lc lgacrgr, pjr ij quc prjkclcd n in gdacstgûd lc cstns hckcs quc scrîd ducvn`cdtc prjkcsnlns pnrn tcr`gdnr lc nsg`ginr ijs dutrgcdtcs kjdtcdgljs cd ijs nig`cdtjs. Jtrj cstû`naj kjd kgcrtns lgbcrcdkgns cs ci lc ijs jsjs hjr`gaucrjs, quc prcscdtn ud snkj quc rckucrln n in `jiicfn lc ins nvcs, cd ins quc ci knpnrnzûd lc ijs gdscktjs lc ijs quc sc nig`cdtn, cs trgturnlj prcvgn`cdtc n su pnsj ni cstû`naj. ?.

Kj` Kj`pic pictc tc ci ssgau gaugcd gcdtc tc ku kunlr nlrj j

Cs g`pjrtndtc quc sc rcnigkc ci kunlrj, pucs pjr `clgj lc ic pjlc`js kj`pnrnr y joscrvnr in prcscdkgn j nuscdkgn lc kgcrtjs ûrandjs. Cstc kunlrj sc lcsnrrjiin cd ci kunlcrdj, pucs cd cstn auàn sjij sgrvc lc `ucstrn pnrn lcsnrrjiinr.

 

_cprcscdtndt c

]CKC[

NDBGOGJ[

NRC[

@N@GBC_J[

In nig`cdtnkgûd lc ijs ndbgogjs nluitjs cs vnrgnln cd budkgûd lc in cspckgc, sjd knznljrcs y sus prcsns bnvjrgtns sucicd cdkjdtrnrsc cdtrc gdscktjs, ausndjs y  onojsns. ci tn`nþj lci ijs hcroàvjrjs ndg`ni lctcr`gdnrî lgspjdcd lc ud tn`ogçd ci tn`nþj lc gdtcstgdj inraj y su ins prcsns quc puclcd cstû`naj dj cs gdacrgr. in `nyjràn lc arndlc5 sc nig`cdtnd ndbgogjs nluitjs sc lc vcactnics, kj`j nig`cdtnd ödgkn`cdtc ins nians. lc gdvcrtcornljs, niaudns cspckgcs `îs ijs Ig`dàvjrjs arndlcs sjd knpnkcs kjdsu`cd trnstjs y lc lcvjrnr n pcqucþjs jrandgs`js vgvjs y `n`àbcrjs, rcptgics j tn`ogçd sc nvcs y lc pcqucþjs

In nig`cdtnkgûd lc ijs rcptgics vn n lcpcdlcr lc ins dckcsglnlcs dutrgkgjdnics lc knln cspckgc, Knrdàvjrjs6 sc nig`cdtnd lc in knrdc lc jtrjs ndg`nics, kj`cd n sus prcsns cdtcrns sgd `nstgknrins. Jtrjs ndg`nics sc bgfnd cd ci tn`nþj lc su prcsn y quc n pcsnr lc tcdcr lgcdtcs dj `nstgknd,  pcrj sg in trgturn kjd sus `ndlàouins.

Ins nvcs tgcdcd lgctns nig`cdtgkgns, su`n`cdtc rgkns cd  prgdkgpgjs cdcraçtgkjs y  prjtcàdgkjs, quc  pcr`gtcd udn rîpgln trndsbjr`nkgûd lci nig`cdtj. [caöd ci tgpj lc kj`gln quc gdagcrcd puclcd scr kinsgbgknlns cd ud  prg`cr npnrtnlj cd6 Bgtûbnans, quc sc nig`cdtnd lc sustndkgns vcactnics5 zjûbnans, kj`cljrns Gdscktàvjrjs lc tjlj tgpj lc Onsnd su nig`cdtnkgûd ndg`nics lcslc cd in gdacstn lgnrgn lc gdvcrtcornljs gdscktjs y niaudjs `gkrjskûpgkjs hnstn

Cdtrc ijs hîogtjs nig`cdtgkgjs j tgpjs lc nig`cdtnkgûd lc ijs `n`àbcrjs sc cdkucdtrnd trcs arndlcs arupjs quc sc budln`cdtnd cd ci tgpj lc kj`gln quc gdagcrcd cstjs ndg`nics6 ijs knrdàvjrjs, ijs hcroàvjrjs y ijs j`dàvjrjs.

nig`cdtnd lc vcactnics. ]nrn  pjlcr nig`cdtnrsc csknvnd cd ci bjdlj hnstn ijarnr cdkjdtrnr nig`cdtjs5

rntjdcs. in hcrrn`gcdtn quc sucicd utgigznr cs udn icdaun cxtcdsgoic, lc `jvg`gcdtj `uy rîpglj, y onstndtc  pcanfjsn quc cs knpnz lc ntrncr n in prcsn ijs j`dàvjrjs sc hnstn in ojkn. Ijs nig`cdtnd lc tjlj ij rcdnkunfjs, j ndbgogjs quc puclnd knpturnr  cd bnsc inrvnrgn vgvcd

gdvcrtcornljs `n`àbcrjs u  pcqucþjs. cstc tgpj lc  pckcs, jtrns nvcs5 rcptgics tgcdcd udn dckrûbnans, icaun `uy rîpgln, quc kjdsu`gljrns lc ics pcr`gtc knznr `îs knlîvcrcs, y bîkgi`cdtc n sus j`dàvjrns, quc sc  prcsns. dutrcd gdlgstgdtn j Hcroàvjrjs nitcrdntgvn`cdtc lc Cstjs rcptgics sc vcactnics y ndg`nics. nig`cdtnd lc Cd ijs arupjs quc

cstc arupj sc gdkiuycd lgvcrsns cspckgcs lc `n`àbcrjs, lc vgln nkuîtgkn y tcrrcstrc.

kj`j vgvjs, nig`cdtjs `ucrtjs y

cic`cdtjs jrgacd vcactni, cdlc jknsgjdcs

ij kjdbjr`nd ijs ru`gndtcs.

ijs pckcs knrdàvjrjs lgspjdcd lc ud npnrntj lgacstgvj kjrtj y ud cstû`naj  onstndtc vjiu`gdjsj, y sc nig`cdtnd lc jtrjs  pckcs. Dutrgkgûd

_C]\GIC[

cxkiusgvn`cdtc cd `clgjs nkuîtgkjs,

rcqugcrcd in prcsns dutrgkgûd kjd

@n`àbcrjs knrdàvjrjs

sc nig`cdtnd cxkiusgvn`cdtc lc in knrdc lc jtrjs ndg`nics y pnrn ciij tgcdcd quc nknonr kjd in vgln lc su prcsn. Cd

@n`àbcrjs hcroàvjrjs

cstî bjr`nlj pjr ndg`nics quc sc nig`cdtnd oîsgkn`cdtc lc pindtns. Cstc arupj

 

vcactnics.

puclcd nniig`cdtnr tndtj lc jtrjs ndg`nics pcqucþjs kj`j lc nians j kj`pucstjs vcactnics quc cdkucdtrcd cd ci naun. @ukhjs ndbgogjs tgcdcd in knpnkglnl lc kn`ubinrsc pnrn sjrprcdlcr tjlnvàn `îs n sus prcsns.

jotgcdcd ijs dutrgcdtcs quc rcqugcrcd lc niaudjs gdscktjs y  pcqucþjs gdvcrtcornljs.

lci rcgdj ndg`ni, lcstnknd ins knrdàvjrns, kj`j rnpnkcs. Ins gktgûbnans quc J`dàvjrjs knpturnd j rnpgþnd [c dutrcd lc ijs  pcsknljs y cd ins nig`cdtjs quc quc pjlc`js gdkiugr  prjkclcd lci rcgdj ci îaugin pcsknljrn, ndg`ni, pjr kundtj sjd in anvgjtn, j ijs nig`cdtjs `îs bîkgics  pgdaùgdjs. Ijs lc lgacrgr n lgbcrcdkgn rugscþjrcs, lc ijs nig`cdtjs lc  pctgrrjfjs, sjd jrgacd vcactni. gdscktàvjrns, yn quc kj`cd tjln kinsc lc gdscktjs. N pcsnr lc cstns bjr`ns lc dutrgkgûd, tnd cspckgnigznlns cd `ukhjs knsjs, sc  puclcd prcscdtnr lc hckhj rcaà`cdcs `gxtjs, quc gdtcarcd cd su lgctn sustndkgns ndg`nics y vcactnics lc bjr`n hnogtuni j kàkigkn, lcpcdlgcdlj lc ins cstnkgjdcs nt`jsbçrgkns lci nþj j lc ijs kgkijs bgsgjiûagkjs lc ijs  pîfnrjs. In lgctn j`dàvjrn cs  prjpgn arnd c dö`crjlclcudcspckgcs

@n`àbcrjs j`dàvjrjs

Cd cstc arupj sc gdkiuycd nquciijs ndg`nics knpnkcs lc nig`cdtnrsc tndtj lc  pindtns kj`j lc jtrjs ndg`nics. [jd ndg`nics quc dj  prcscdtnd nlnptnkgjdcs cspckgnics pnrn dgdaudj lc ijs ljs tgpjs lc kj`gln y quc sc nig`cdtnd lc nquciij quc tcdand ni nikndkc. Jtrjs tgpjs lc nig`cdtnkgûd lc ijs `n`àbcrjs6 ijs gdscktàvjrjs j

ndg`nics quc sc nig`cdtnd knsg cxkiusgvn`cdtc lc gdscktjs, cstc arupj cstî bjr`nlj pjr `n`àbcrjs pcqucþjs y `nyjr`cdtc lc vgln djkturdn. \n`ogçd cxgstcd ijs ndg`nics quc sc nig`cdtnd sjij lc  pckcs.

 

gdkiusj nvcs quc budln`cdtni`cdtc kjdsu`nd brutjs y sc`giins. Gdacstgûd

ci nig`cdtj cs gdacrglj pjr in ojkn y subrc ud prgdkgpgj lc trgturnkgûd cd ci csûbnaj.

\gcdc udn ojkn inran kj`j vàn lc cdtrnln lc sus nig`cdtjs., dj tgcdc lgcdtcs, pcrj sà kucdtn kjd udn icdaun `uy lcsnrrjiinln, budln`cdtni pnrn kj`cdznr ci prjkcsj nig`cdtgkgj. In icdaun cstî prjvgstn lc udn vgskjsglnl quc in hnkc `uy pcanfjsn. Cstj ic  pcr`gtc ni ndg`ni knpturnr n sus prcsns. Sdn vcz knpturnln su  prcsn pnsn pjr ci csûbnaj quc cs kjrtj y ndkhj, cs ud kndni quc kjdcktn kjd ci cstû`naj y pjr ljdlc  pnsnd nig`cdtjs hnkgn ciijsgdtcrgjr lci kucrpj.

Cd in ojkn sc cdkucdtrn udn icdaun `ûvgi y prjtrusgoic, cs lckgr quc cs knpnz lc scr c`pufnln hnkgn nlcindtc, quc ic  pcr`gtc nanrrnr y trnanr su prcsn. Iucaj  pnsn su nig`cdtj ni csûbnaj ljdlc sc lgrgac ni cstû`naj.

]gkj

In ojkn

Ins nvcs utgigznd su  pgkj pnrn nig`cdtnrsc. cd ci gdtcrgjr lci pgkj cstîd ins aiîdluins quc sckrctnd snigvn quc sgrvc pnrn hu`clckcr ijs nig`cdtjs,  pcr`gtgcdlj quc cstjs puclnd scr trnanljs bîkgi`cdtc. In snigvn cdzg`ns lgacstgvns kj`j n`ginsn quc sgrvcd  pnrn gdgkgnr ci  prjkcsj lc lgacstgûd lc ijs nig`cdtjs. Ins nvcs tn`ogçd usnd su

Ci npnrntj kj`gcdzn cd in ojkn. Cs nquà ljdlc tgcdc iuanr in trgturnkgûd `ckîdgkn lc ijs nig`cdtjs y su gdsnigvnkgûd. Ijs lgcdtcs sjd udn knrnktcràstgkn lc ijs `n`àbcrjs, nudquc dj tjljs ijs nluitjs ijs  prcscdtnd. Ins aiîdluins snigvnics

sjd ins cdknranlns lc  prjlukgr in snigvn, quc cs udn sustndkgn iàqugln vgskjsn c`picnln cd in iuorgknkgûd lci ojij

icdaun pnrn nc`pufnr nig`cdtgkgj ci nig`cdtj in pnrtc tndtj pnrn indckcsnrgn trnscrn lci pgkj y nsà `nstgknkgûd kj`j  pjlcr trnanrij.  pnrn su trîdsgtj hnkgn Csûbnaj ci cstû`naj. In snigvn [c cdknran lc iicvnr kjdtgcdc udn cdzg`n, ci nig`cdtj lc in in ptgnigdn, quc  ojkn ni oukhc. kj`gcdzn in Oukhc lcarnlnkgûd lci Ijs nig`cdtjs y ci ni`glûd ndtcs lc quc naun trnanljscd sjdcstn ni`nkcdnljs

çstc iicauc Cd ni in ojkn cstû`naj.

 

 ojisn hnstn quc  puclcd pnsnr ni rcstj lci trnktj lgacstgvj. Ins cdzg`ns lgacstgvns sckrctnlns cd ci pgkj gdgkgnd ci  prjkcsj lc lgacstgûd, cd ci oukhc cstc  prjkcsj cs onstndtc icdtj, yn quc sjij sgrvc pnrn ni`nkcdnr tc`pjrni`cdtc ijs nig`cdtjs.

sc prjkcsnd nlc`îs in tc`pcrnturn, tcxturn y snojr lc ijs nig`cdtjs lc tni `ndcrn quc ci sgstc`n dcrvgjsj kcdtrni puclc nlckunr ins sckrckgjdcs lc tjljs ijs ûrandjs g`pigknljs cd in lgacstgûd n ins dckcsglnlcs kjdkrctns  pnrn knln nig`cdtj  prjkcsnlj.

]rjvcdtràkuij

Csûbnaj

Nquà in lgacstgûd  prg`nrgn kj`gcdzn. Ci îkglj hglrjkiûrgkj y ins cdzg`ns lgacstgvns kj`j in  pcpsgdn sc `czkind kjd ci nig`cdtj gdacrglj y c`pgcznd n lcskj`pjdcrij lc `ndcrn `îs

Ci csûbnaj cs udn vàskcrn tuouinr lc dnturniczn `uskuinr quc kj`udgkn in ojkn kjd ci cstû`naj, kuyn budkgûd prgdkgpni cs ci trndspjrtc lc nig`cdtjs lc in ojkn ni cstû`naj.

cbgkgcdtc. Cd cstc `j`cdtj, in kj`gln tjlnvàn dj hn sglj `jigln. Lgacstgûd

In trgturnkgûd lc ijs Ci cstû`naj, pjr su  pnrtc, kjdtgcdc nig`cdtjs sc hnkc cscdkgni`cdtc cd ci aiîdluins quc  prjlukcd ins cdzg`ns cstû`naj y, cd du`crjsns cspckgcs, lgacstgvns. Cstns sustndkgns sjd knpnkcs cd lgvcrtàkuijs cd bjr`n lc lclj.

lc nyulnr n in y lcskj`pjsgkgûd

In rcagûd lci cstû`naj cstî ljtnln kjd udn `uskuinturn arucsn quc trgturn ci nig`cdtj kjd jofctjs lurjs quc gdagcrcd.

@jiicfn

Cstû`naj

Cs ci ûrandj lci sgstc`n lgacstgvj lc ins nvcs, cs ci cstû`naj `ckîdgkj,  pucs cstî kj`pucstj

Ci cstû`naj cs ud snkj lc dnturniczn aindluinr y `uskuinr ljdlc tgcdc iuanr in lcarnlnkgûd y

lcinins ud pnrbucrtcs lc Cd in pnrtckjd lcipnrclcs  pjr  prjtcàdns pnrn `öskuijs kjd  prcpnrnkgûd cstû`naj

 

trndsbjr`nkgûd lc ijs nig`cdtjs cd dutrgcdtcs. Cstn knvglnl cxtrnkciuinr cs ljdlc gdgkgn in lgacstgûd  prjpgn`cdtc. In cstrukturn lci cstû`naj kucdtn kjd udn vîivuin ndtcs lc çi y udn lcspuçs quc g`pglcd quc ijs nig`cdtjs sc lcvucivnd j sniand lci cstû`naj hnkgn nonfj. In prg`crn cs iin`nln knrlgns y in scaudln  pàijrj. Nlc`îs, kucdtn kjd aiîdluins ndcxns, kj`j ci hàanlj y pîdkrcns, quc prjlukcd sckrckgjdcs g`pjrtndtcs quc

lcianlns, sc scarcand ijs fuajs aîstrgkjs. Ci cstû`naj sc lgvglc cd ljs kj`pnrtg`cdtjs, udj `uskuinr ljdlc sc cdkucdtrnd ijs anstrjigtjs, sjd  pgclrns rcljdlcnlns, djr`ni`cdtc jvninlns, quc cstîd j hnd cstnlj kjdtcdglns lcdtrj lc in vàn lgacstgvn lci ndg`ni  pnrn nyulnr n in trgturnkgûd lc ijs nig`cdtjs. Cstns bnkgigtnd in lgacstgûd6 ins rjkns sc invnd cd ci cstû`naj, nyulndlj n `jicr in `ntcrgn vcactni. Ci scaudlj kj`pnrtg`cdtj cs `ukhj `îs nkglj quc

udn `c`orndn  prjtcktjrn Ci nig`cdtj kjdsu`glj  pjr ci nvc y ijs fuajs lgacstgvjs  prjvcdgcdtcs lc ins aiîdluins snigvnics y ci prjvcdtràkuij  pnsnd n in `jiicfn ljdlc tjlj scrî `jiglj y `czkinlj.

 pjstcrgjr nosjrkgûd lc sus dutrgcdtcs. Cd in lgacstgûd aîstrgkn, ci îkglj kijrhàlrgkj quc vgcrtcd ins pnrclcs lci cstû`naj ln iuanr n in lcsdnturnigznkgûd lc ins prjtcàdns, quc sc hnkcd vuidcrnoics n in nkkgûd lc udn cdzg`n iin`nln, in pcpsgdn. Cd ci cstû`naj dj hny cdzg`ns quc ntnqucd n ijs iàpgljs, pjr ij quc  pnsnd pjr ciin sgd subrgr nitcrnkgûd niaudn. [gd c`onraj, rnicdtgznd in lgacstgûd lci rcstj lc ijs dutrgcdtcs.

Gdtcstgdj lcianlj

Gdtcstgdj lcianlj

Ci sgaugcdtc pnsj lc in lgacstgûd jkurrc cd ci lujlcdj y ijs dutrgcdtcs igocrnljs  pjr ci nig`cdtj sjd

Ci gdtcstgdj lcianlj cs udn cstrukturn tuouinr ljdlc tgcdc iuanr in sgaugcdtc bnsc lc in lgacstgûd lc ijs

nosjrogljs  prgdkgpni`cdtc cd in

nig`cdtjs. Ci lujlcdj cstî kj`udgknlj kjd

nyulnd cd in lgacstgûd.

Nosjrkgûd

Cstjs lgvcrtàkuijs sckrctnd cdzg`ns lgacstgvns y kj`gcdznd in nosjrkgûd lc ijs dutrgcdtcs.

ci ndtcrgjr, pucs cd cstc sc puclc lgacrgr hnstn ci tcfglj ûscj (hucsjs, kucrdjs). Ci cstû`naj sc Iucaj lci prjkcsj kjdcktn lcspuçs kjd ci ndtcrgjr ci nig`cdtj yn gdtcstgdj lcianlj, cd trgturnlj pnsn n ijs ci quc sc prjlukc in gdtcstgdjs ljdlc sc nsg`ginkgûd lc ijs scpnrnd ijs dutrgcdtcs dutrgcdtcs `clgndtc in  pjr `clgj lc in

Ûrandjs ci nosjrkgûd hàanlj y kj`j ci pîdkrcns

nosjrkgûd, jrandgs`j.quc grîd ni

 

npjrtnd ducvns cdzg`ns lgacstgvns n `clgln quc ci nig`cdtj prjarcsn cd ci tuoj lgacstgvj. Ijs gdtcstgdjs kj`pictnd ci  prjkcsj lc lgacstgûd y lc nosjrkgûd lc ijs dutrgcdtcs.

 pnrtc onfn lci gdtcstgdj lcianlj. Ci lujlcdj rckgoc ins cdzg`ns lgacstgvns y  ogknrojdntj lci  pîdkrcns y ogigs lci hàanlj pnrn kjdtrnrrcstnr ci cbcktj lci îkglj hglrjkiûrgkj  prjvcdgcdtc lci  prjvcdtràkuij. Ijs  fuajs lgacstgvjs  prjlukgljs pjr ci  pîdkrcns sc rcinkgjdnd  prgdkgpni`cdtc kjd in lgacstgûd lc  prjtcàdns. In ogigs cs ud nacdtc ig`pgnljr g`pjrtndtc cd in lgacstgûd lc iàpgljs y in nosjrkgûd lc vgtn`gdns sjiuoics cd arnsn L, C y E.kj`j in N, Kckn

In kckn sc kj`pjdc lc ljs ojisns kgcans ljdlc ci gdtcstgdj lcianlj y arucsj sc udcd. Niaudjs rcstjs lc naun kjdtcdgljs cd ci nig`cdtj lgacrglj sjd

ci cstû`naj n trnvçs lci pàijrj, ud csbàdtcr quc pcr`gtc ci pnsj cd  pcqucþns pjrkgjdcs lci kjdtcdglj cstj`nkni (qug`j) kundlj çstc cstî igstj  pnrn kjdtgdunr ci  prjkcsj lgacstgvj. Ni kj`gcdzj lci trîdsgtj gdtcstgdni, ci  pîdkrcns vgcrtc su  fuaj. Çstc, nlc`îs lc udn nitn kjdkcdtrnkgûd lc ogknrojdntj quc dcutrnigzn in nkglcz lci qug`j, pjscc vnrgns cdzg`ns quc gdtcrvgcdcd cd in lcarnlnkgûd lc ijs dutrgcdtcs.

 

rcnosjrogljs cd cstc  pudtj. Jtrn budkgûd g`pjrtndtc lc in kckn cs in bcr`cdtnkgûd lc ijs rcstjs lc nig`cdtj quc nöd dj hnd tcr`gdnlj lc scr  lgacrgljs. Lurndtc ci  prjkcsj lc bcr`cdtnkgûd, in kckn  prjlukc îkgljs arnsjs y ins jkhj vgtn`gdns O (tgn`gdn, rgojbinvgdn, dgnkgdn, îkglj  pndtjtçdgkj,  pgrgljxgdn, ogjtgdn, îkglj bûigkj y vgtn`gdn O>?). In kckn sc cdkucdtrn ijknigznln `uy kcrkn lci bgdni lci trnktj lgacstgvj, sgd c`onraj, cd ciin tjlnvàn sjdniaudjs nosjrogljs dutrgcdtcs lgspjdgoics cd in kj`gln Cig`gdnkgûd

in `nyjr pnrtc lc ijs pckcs cxkrctnd rcsglujs dgtrjacdnljs cd bjr`n lc n`jdànkj.

Cd ci gdtcstgdj arucsj cs ljdlc sc prjlukcd ins hckcs bcknics, quc cqugvnicd n ijs rcsglujs quc dj

Ijs lcsckhjs sjd cxpuisnljs cd in kijnkn.

Gdtcstgdj arucsj j kjijd

Gdtcstgdj arucsj

]nrtc lc sus sc cxkrckgjdcs

 puclcd scr pjr ci nprjvckhnljs

in kijnkncstî lc ijs rcptgics

lc tn`nþj quc`nyjr ci lcianlj, cd

naun, `ntcrgni lgacrgoic y ijs dj

Lc cstc `jlj, kundlj N pcsnr lc quc su ci kjdtcdglj lgacstgvj dj`orc gdlgkn quc ci nikndzn ci gdtcstgdj gdtcstgdj arucsj cs arucsj, sjij qucln

 

lgbudlcd n trnvçs lc ins orndqugns cd ci naun kgrkudlndtc. Ci rcstj cs cxpuisnlj  pjr ijs rgþjdcs, ûrandjs cxkrctjrgjs quc bgitrnd in onsurn lc in sndarc

jrandgs`j lci ndbgogj. Nquà tn`ogçd jkurrc udn rcnosjrkgûd lc iàqugljs pnrn scknr ci  prjluktj rcsgluni. Ci gdtcstgdj lc ijs ndbgogjs dj tcr`gdn cd ud ndj sgdj cd udn ’kijnkn‐. Cstn cs udn nocrturn cdsndkhnln kj`öd lci sgstc`n lgacstgvj cxkrctjr, urgdnrgj y rcprjluktjr.

 pnrkgni`cdtc lgbcrcdkgnln cd ljs kî`nrns6 ci kjprjlcj, lcsc`ojkn ci gdtcstgdj arucsj, y ci urjlcj, lcsc`ojkn ci sgstc`n urjacdgtni.

rcniglnl cstc cs `îs kjrtj. In budkgûd  prgdkgpni lci gdtcstgdj arucsj cs nosjrocr ijs rcstjs öitg`js rcstjs lc naun prcscdtcs cd ci `ntcrgni lgacrglj.

`gdcrnics scarcanljs cd ins lgstgdtns bnscs lci prjkcsj. \n`ogçd cstî bjr`nlj pjr trcs trn`js, kgcaj, kjijd y rcktj. Kjdtgcdc udn rgkn y vnrgnln bijrn `gkrjogndn quc Kijnkn scarcand cdzg`ns Cd in kijnkn, ijs knpnkcs lc tcr`gdnr in rcsglujs lc in lgacstgûd lci nig`cdtj, lgacstgûd sc `czkind jotcdgçdljsc nzöknrcs kjd ijs rcsglujs lci quc bcr`cdtnd sgstc`n urgdnrgj  prjlukgcdlj îkgljs (urcn). Ins nvcs jraîdgkjs lc ijs quc acdcrni`cdtc nöd puclc jotcdcrsc cxpuisnd in `ntcrgn niaj lc cdcraàn. bckni prjvcdgcdtc lci sgstc`n lgacstgvj  fudtj kjd ijs krgstnics lc îkglj örgkj rcsuitndtcs lci  prjkcsj lci sgstc`n cxkrctjr. Kj`j ins nvcs dj jrgdnd, cxpuisnd ijs lcsckhjs lc îkglj örgkj cd bjr`n lc udn pnstn oindkuzkn y krc`jsn.

;.

\j`c bbjtjarn jtjarnbgns bgns j sskndcc kndcc y cdvgc ni kjr kjrrcj. rcj. _ckucrlc quc ci nsudtj cs su dj`orc y kursj.