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Survey o
Historic Costume
Survey o
Historic Phyllis G. T Tortora ortora Queens College of the City University of New York York
Keith Eubank Queens College of the City University of New York York
Fcld Books Nw Yok
Costume A History o Western Dress FIFTH EDITION
ExEcutivE Editor : Olga T. Kontzias AssistAnt Acquisitions Editor: Amanda Breccia EditoriAl dEvElopmEnt dirEctor: Jennier Crane AssistAnt dEvElopmEnt Editor: Justine Brennan AssociAtE Art dirEctor: Erin Fitzsimmons production dirEctor: Ginger Hillman sEnior production Editor: Elizabeth Marotta copyEditor : Progressive Publishing Alternatives photo rEsEArch: Elizabeth Greenberg and Sarah Silberg nEw illustrAtions: Steve Stankiewicz covEr dEsign: Erin Fitzsimmons covEr Art: © Craig McDean / Art + Commerce BAck covEr
Art:
Copyright The Frick Collection, New York; Young Woman with Servant, Stephen Slaughter, English, 1697–
1765. Photograph courtesy, Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartord. The Ella Gallup Sumner and Mary Caitlin Sumner Collection Fund; American Folk Art Museum, git o the Siegman Trust, Ralph Esmerian, trustee, 2001.37.1/Photo by John Parnell. tExt dEsign
And lAyout:
Barbara J. Barg
Copyright © 2010 Fairchild Books
All rights reserved. No part o this book covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any orm or by any means—graphic,, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, means—graphic photocopying, recording, taping, or inormation storage and retrieval systems—without written permission o the publisher.
Library o Congress Catalog Card Number: 2008936655 ISBN: 978-1-56367-806-6 GST R 133004424 Printed in the United States o America
TP08
CONTENTS
Preace
xix
Acknowledgments xxi Some Notes on Using This Book Chapter One
Part Pa rt ON ONe e
Part Pa rt tW tWO O
Part Pa rt th thre ree e
t anc n Wold
Part Six
c. 300 0
b.c.
–
a.d.
300
13
Chapter Two
The Ancient Middle East c. 3500–600 B.c.
Chapter Three
Crete and Greece c. 2900–300 B.c.
Chapter Four
Etruria and Rome c. 800 B.c.–A.d. 400
t Md dl ag s
c. 300 –15 00
75
99
The Early Middle Ages c. 300–1300
107
Chapter Six
The Late Middle Ages c. 1300–1500
145
t rn s sn c
c. 140 0–1 600
19
51
Chapter Five
Chapter Eight
Part Five
1
Introduction
Chapter Seven
Part FOur
xx
175
181 The Northern Renaissance c. 1500–1600 203
The Italian Renaissance c. 1400–1600
Boq nd rococo
c. 1600 –1800
229 237
Chapter Nine
The Seventeenth Century 1600–1700
Chapter Ten
The Eighteenth Century 1700–1790 265
t Nn n Cny
1800– 1900
295
Chapter Eleven Chapter Twelve
The Directoire Period and the Empire Period 1790–1820 The Romantic Period 1820–1850 327
Chapter Thirteen
The Crinoline Period 1850–1869 353
Chapter Fourteen
The Bustle Period and the Nineties 1870–1900
Fom twn o twny-fs Cny
307
379
1900– 2008
411
417
Chapter Fiteen
The Edwardian Period and World War I 1900–1920
Chapter Sixteen
The Twenties, Thirties, and World War II 1920–1947 447 The New Look: Fashion Conormity Prevails 1947–1960 495
Chapter Seventeen Chapter Eighteen Chapter Nineteen
Bibliography Credits
The Sixties and Seventies: Style Tribes Emerge
1960–1980
The Eighties, the Nineties, and the Twenty-rst Century 1980–2008 579
652
659
Index 661
529
EXTENDED CONTENTS
Preace xix Acknowledgments
The Family 23 Fabrics and Cloth Production 23
xxi
Some Notes on Using This Book xxv
Sources o Evidence about Sumerian Costume
23
Mesopotamian Costume/Sumerian Costume CHAPTER ONE
or Men and Women: c. 3500–2500 b.c. 24 Costume Components or Men and Women 24
Introduction 1 The Origins o Dress 1
Mesopotamian Costume/Later Sumerians and
Limitations to the Design o Garments 2 Common Themes in Costume History
Babylonians: c. 2500–1000 b.c. 24 Costume Components or Men/Military Dress: c. 2500–1000 b.c. 25 Costume Components or Men/Civilian Dress:
across Time 3 Functions o Dress in the Social Context 3 Clothing as a Means o Social Communication
5
c. 2500–1000 b.c. 26
The Historical Context 5 Cross-Cultural Inuences 6
Costume Components or Women: c. 2500–1000 b.c. 26
Geography, the Natural Environment, Environme nt, and Ecology
7
Mesopotamian Costume/Later Babylonians and the
Clothing as an Art Form 7 The Phenomenon o Fashion in Western Dress 8
Assyrians: c. 1000–600 b.c. The Tunic 28
Costume Components or Men: c. 1000–600
Sources o Evidence or the Study o Historic
b.c.
Costume Components or Men/Military Dress 29 Costume Components or Women:
Costume 9 Summary 10 Notes 11 Selected Readings
27
c. 1000–600 b.c. 29 11
Mesopotamian Costume or Children: c. 3500–600 b.c. 30 Egyptian Civilization 30
PART ONE The Ancient World c. 3000 b.c. – a.d. 300 13
Social Structure 30
Table I.1 Civilizations o the Ancient World 14 Decorative Arts Table 14
Sources o Evidence or the Study o Egyptian Costume 31 Egyptian Art 31
CHAPTER TWO The Ancient Middle East c. 3500–600
b.c.
The Contents o Tombs 31 Egyptian Decorative Motis 32
19
Chronology 18
Contributions o Artisans to Costume 32 Textile Production and Technology Jewelry 33
Historical Background: Mesopotamia 20 Historical Background: Egypt 20
32
Dierences in the Development o Egyptian
Egyptian Costume: c. 3000–300 b.c. 33
and Mesopotamian Civilizations 21 Mesopotamian Civilization 22
Costume Terminology 34 Table 2.1 Garments Worn by Egyptian Men and
Social Structure 22
Women during Various Historical Periods 34
ii
28
iii
exndd Conns
Egyptian Costume or Men: c. 3000–300 b.c. 35 Costume Components or Men 35 Contemporary Comments 2.1
Greek Costume or Men and Women: 650–300 b.c. 62 Table 3.1 Types o Chitons Worn by Greek Men
35
Egyptian Costume or Women: 3000–300 b.c. 38 Costume Components or Women 38 Costume Components or Men and Women 41
Contemporary Comments 3.1
Egyptian Costume or Children: 3000–300 b.c. 43 Illustrated Table 2.1 Some o the Headdresses Worn in Ancient Egypt 44
Religious Costume 45
Illustrated Table 3.1 Examples o Hairstyles
Greek Costume or Children: 650–300 b.c. 67 Costume Components or Children 68 Greek Costume or Specialized Occupations
Costume or Musicians, Dancers, and Acrobats 45 Summary 45 Themes 45 Visual summary Table 46 Later Survivals o Mesopotamian and
or Occasions 68 Wedding Dress 68 Contemporary Comments 3.2
69
Military Costume 69 Theatrical Costume 70
Egyptian Dress 47
Summary 70 Themes
48
CHAPTER THREE Crete and Greece c. 2900–300
64
and Headdress Worn by Men and Women in Greece 66
Egyptian Costume or Specialized Occupations 45 Military Costume 45
Notes 48 Selected Readings
and Women 62 Costume Components or Men and Women 63
70
71 Later Survivals o Greek Dress 72
Visual summary Table
b.c.
Notes 72 Selected Readings 73
51
Chronology 50 Minoan and Mycenaean Civilizations 52 Historical Background 52
CHAPTER FOUR Etruria and Rome c. 800
Social Organization and Material Culture o Minoan
Chronology 74
and Mycenaean Civilizations 52
The Etruscans
Art and Technology o Minoan and Mycenaean Civilizations 53
400
76
Art and Trade o the Etruscans 77
2900–1100 b.c. 53 Costume Components or Men and Women 54
Etruscan Costume or Men and Women: c. 800–200 b.c. 77 57
Transitions in the Dominant Styles 57 Greek Civilization 57
Costume Components or Men and Women 77 Etruscan Costume or Children: c. 800–200 b.c. The Romans 80
Historical Background 57
Historical Background 80
Social Organization o the Greek Civilization 58 Fabrics and Cloth Production 60
Social Lie in the Roman Empire 81 Fabrics and Clothing Production 81
Sources o Evidence or the Study o Greek Costume 61 Greek Art 61
75
Historical Background 76 Social Lie o the Etruscans 76
Minoan Costume or Men and Women:
Minoan Costume or Children: 2900–1100 b.c.
b.c.–a.d.
Sources o Evidence or the Study o Roman Costume 82 Roman Costume or Men and Women 83 The Toga
83
80
exndd Conns
Table 4.1 The Appearance and Signicance o Various Types o Togas 83 Contemporary Comments 4.1
85
ix
Byzantine Costume or Men: a.d. 300–1450 110 Costume Components or Men 110 Byzantine Costume or Women: a.d. 300–1453 113 Costume Components or Women 113
Costume Components or Men: 500 b.c.– b.c.–a.d. 400 87 Costume Components or Women:
Byzantine Costume or Men and Women: a.d. 300–1450 114 Costume Components or Men and Women 114
500 b.c.– b.c.–a.d. 400 87 Costume Components or Men and Women: 500 b.c.– b.c.–a.d. 400 90 Illustrated Table 4.1 Examples o Hairstyles and Headdress Worn by Men and Women during the Roman Empire 91 Roman Costume or Children: 500 b.c.– b.c.–a.d. 400 92 Military Costume or Men during the Roman Empire 92 Roman Costume or Special Events 93 The Synthesis 93
Western Europe rom the Fall o the Roman Empire to a.d. 900 115 Historical Background: The Fall o the Roman Empire 115 Historical Background: The Merovingian and Carolingian Dynasties 115 Sources o Evidence about Costume 116 Costume in Western Europe: Fall o the Roman Empire to a.d. 900 116 The Production o Cloth 116
Bridal Costume 93
Costume or Men: The Merovingian and Carolingian
Religious Garb 93
Dynasties 117 Costume Components or Men: The Merovingian
Changes in Costume during the Declining Years o the Roman Empire 93 Summary 94 Dierences between Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Costume 94
Costume Components or Men: The Carolingian Period 117 ConTemporary CommenTs 5.1
Themes in Etruscan and Roman Dress 94 Visual Summary Table 95 Survivals o Etruscan and Roman Dress 95 Notes 96
118
Costume or Women: The Merovingian and Carolingian Dynasties 118 Costume Components or Women: The Merovingian Period 118
Selected Readings 96
Costume Components or Women: The Carolingian Period 119
PART TWO The Middle Ages c. 300–1500 99 Decorative Arts Table
Period 117
104
Clerical Costume in the Early Middle Ages 119 Dress o Priests 119 Monastic Dress 120 Historical Background: The 10th–13th Centuries 121
CHAPTER FIVE The Early Middle Ages c. 300–1300
107
The Feudal Monarchies 121 Political Developments in Europe: 900–1300 122
Chronology 106
The German Dynasties 122
The Byzantine Period c. 339–1453 108 Historical Background 108
Anglo-Saxon and Norman Britain 123 The French Kings 123
Social Organization in the Byzantine Period 109 Culture, Art, and Technology in the Byzantine Period 109
Factors Related to Developments in Costume The Crusades 123 Medieval Castles and Courts 124
123
x
exndd Conns
Town Lie 124 Early Indications o Fashion Fashion Changes
Fashion Change Becomes Evident 151 124
Fabric Production 124 Art 125 Costume in the 10th and 11th Centuries 126 Costume Components or Men: 10th and 11th Centuries 126 Costume Components or Women: 10th and 11th Centuries 128 Costume or Men and Women: 12th Century 129 Costume Components or Men: 12th Century 130 Costume Components or Women: 12th Century 131 Problems o Costume Terminology in the 13th Century 132 Contemporary Comments 5.2
133
Table 5.1 Old English and French Costume Terms 134 Costume in the 13th Century 135 Costume Components or Men: 13th Century 135 Costume or Women: 13th Century 137 Accessories o Dress or Men and Women:
Costume or Women: 14th Century 155 Costume Components or Women: 14th Century 155 Illustrated Table 6.1 Late Middle Ages Accessories 156 Costume or Men and Women: Women: 15th Century Century Costume or Men: 15th Century 158 Contemporary Comments 6.2 159 Costume or Women: 15th Century 162 Illustrated Table 6.2 Evolution and Styles o 15th-Century Headdress or Women 167 Costume or Children: 14th and 15th Centuries 168 Dress or Rites o Passage 168 Costume or Specialized Occupations 169 Student Dress 169 Military Dress 169 Summary 170 Themes 170 Visual Summary Table
171
Selected Readings 173
140
Summary 141 Themes 141 Origins, Developments, and Survivals o Byzantine and Early Medieval Styles 141 Notes 142 Selected Readings 143
PART THREE The Renaissance c. 1400–1600 175 Decorative Arts Table
178
CHAPTER SEVEN The Italian Renaissance c. 1400–1600
CHAPTER SIX The Late Middle Ages c. 1300 –1500 145
181
Chronology 180 Historical Background 182 The Political Political Organization in Renaissance Italy 182
Chronology 144 Historical Background 146 Medieval Social Structure 147
Lie in Renaissance Italy 182 The Production and Acquisition o Textiles
The Peasant 147
183
The Cloth Industries in Renaissance Italy 183
The Nobility 147 The Bourgeoisie 148 Contemporary Comments 6.1
158
Survivals o Styles Styles rom the Late Middle Ages 172 Notes 172
10th–13th Centuries 138 Military Costume 138 Visual Summary Table
Costume or Men: 14th Century 151 Costume Components or Men: 14th Century 151
The Manuacture and Acquisition o Clothing 184 Cross-Cultural Cross-Cultural Infuences rom the Middle Middle East 184 149
Fabrics and Tailors 149 Sources o Evidence or the Study o Costume 150
Sources o Evidence about Costume 184 185 Costume or Men and Women: 1400–1600 185 ConTemporary CommenTs 7.1
Art 150
Costume or Men: 1400–1450
185
Documentary Sources 150
Costume or Women: 1400–1450
185
xii
exndd Conns
Some Distinctive Costume Traditions 241 Puritan Costume 241 Spanish Costume 242 Production and Acquisition o Textiles and
Sources o Inormation about Costume 270 The American Colonies in the 18th Century 270 Urban Clothing Styles 270 Working-class and Rural Dress 270
Clothing 242 Sources o Evidence o Historic Costume 243
Some Infuences on Costume in the 18th Century 271
Costume or Men: 17th Century 244 Costume or Men: 1625–1650 244
Costume or Men: 18th Century 271 Costume or Men: Up to Mid-18th Century 272
Table 9.1 Terms Describing Men’s Trouser-type
Contemporary Comments 10.2
Garments: 16th Century to 19th Century 245 Costume or Men: 1650–1680 247 Contemporary Comments 9.1 Costume or Men: 1680–1710
249 250
Changes in Men’s Men’s Costume Ater the Mid-18th Century 274 Costume or Men: Ater the Mid-18th Century 275 Illustrated Table 10.1 18th-Century Accessories
Costume or Women: 17th Century 251 Costume or Women: 1630–1660 251 Illustrated Table 9.1 17th-century Accessories 252 Costume or Women: 1660–1680 254 Costume or Women: 1680–1700
273
255
Costume or Men Men and Women: 17th Century Century 256 Contemporary Comments 9.2 257 Costume or Children: 17th Century 258 Costume Components or Children 259 Summary 260 Themes 260
278 Costume or Women: 18th Century 279 Costume or Women: 1715–1730 280 Costume or Women: 1730–1760 281 Costume or Women: 1760–1790
282
Contemporary Comments 10.3 283 Other Costume Components or Women: The 18th Century 284 Illustrated Table 10.2 Typical Women’s Hairstyles and Headdress in the 18th Century 286 Costumes or Active Sports or Men and Women:
Visual Summary Table 261 Survivals o 17th Century Styles 262 Notes 263 Selected Readings 263
The 18th Century 287 Costume or Children: The 18th Century 287 First Hal o the 18th Century 287 Second Hal o the 18th Century 288 Summary 290 Themes 290
CHAPTER TEN The Eighteenth Century 1700–1790
265
Chronology 264 Historical Background 266 The Arts 266 Social Lie in 18th-century France 267 Contemporary Comments 10.1 268
Visual Summary Table
291
Survivals o 18th Century Dress 292 Notes 292 Selected Readings 293
Social Lie o the Afuent in 18th-century
PART FIVE The Nineteenth Century 1800–1900 295
England 268 Production and Acquisition o Clothing
Historical Background 295 France 295
and Textiles extile s
269
Advances in Textile Technology 269 Home versus Factory Production o Cloth 269 Clothing Manuacture and Sale 269
England
295
Italy and Austria 295 The United States 296 Industrialization 299
exndd Conns
Cross-Cultural Infuences on Fashion 299 Textiles rom India 299 Resumption o Trade with Japan 300 Morality and Values in the 19th Century Century 301 Dress Reorm or Women 302 Changes in Clothing or Men 302 The End o an Age Notes 303
CHAPTER TWELVE The Romantic Period 1820–1850 327 Chronology 326 Historical Background 328 England 328 France 328 The United States 329
303
Decorative Arts Table
Women’s Women’s Social Social Roles and Clothing Styles Styles 330 Manuacture and Acquisition o Clothing and
304
Textiles CHAPTER ELEVEN The Directoire Period and the Empire Period 1790–1820 307
330
Sources o Evidence about Costume 330 Costume or Women: The Romantic Period 331 Costume or Women: 1820–1835 331 Costume or Women: 1836–1850 335
Chronology 306 Historical Background 308
Illustrated Table 12.1 Examples o Women’s
France: The Revolution and the Directory 308 France: The Empire 310 England 311
Hairstyles and Headdress: 1820–1850 337 Costume Components or Women: 1820–1850 338 Illustrated Table 12.2 Romantic Period:
Contemporary Comments 11.1 The United States 313
312
The Arts and Costume Styles Styles o the Period Period 313 The Revolution in Men’s Men’s Clothes 314 Production and Acquisition o Clothing and Textiles extile s 314 Sources o Inormation about Costume 315
Accessories 339 Costume or Men: The Romantic Period 340 Costume or Men: 1820–1840 340 Costume or Men: 1840–1850 342 Costume or Men: 1820–1850 343 Costume or Children: The Romantic Period 344 Costume Components or Girls 345 Costume Components or Boys 345
Costume or Women: Directoire and Empire Periods 315
Contemporary Comments 12.1
Illustrated Table 11.1 Typical Women’s Hairstyles
Clothing or Slaves in North America 347
and Headdress in the Empire Period 318 Costume or Men: Directoire and Empire
Summary 348 Themes 348
Periods 319
Visual Summary Table
346
349
Illustrated Table 11.2 Empire Period: Accessories 320
Survivals o Romantic Period Costume Styles 350 Notes 350
Costume or Children: The Empire Period 323
Selected Readings 351
Costume or Girls 323 Costume or Boys 323
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
Summary 323
The Crinoline Crinoline Period 1850–1869 353
Themes 323 Visual Summary Table
Chronology 352 Historical Background 354
324
Survivals o Empire Style Costume 324 Notes 324 Selected Readings 325
xiii
Worth and the Paris Couture England 354 France 354
354
exndd Conns
CHAPTER FIFTEEN The Edwardian Period and World War I
CHAPTER SIXTEEN The Twenties, Thirties, and World War II
1900–1920 417
1920–1947 447
Chronology 416
Chronology 446
Historical Background 418 The United States 418
Historical Background 448 The Twenties 448
Great Britain and France at the Turn o the Century 418
Changes in the Social Social Lie o the Twenties 449 The Thirties 450
World War I 418
Contemporary Comments 16.1
The Eect o the War on Fashions Fashions 419
World War II
450
451
Infuences on Fashion 419 The French Couture and Paul Poiret 419
Some Infuences on Fashions 451 The Movies 451
Contemporary Comments 15.1 Fortuny 421
Contemporary Comments 16.2 Royalty and Cae Society 454
420
The Changing Social Roles o American Women 422 The Automobile 423 American High Society 424 The Production and Acquisition o Clothing 424 Sources o Inormation About Costume 424 Costume or Women: 1900–1920 424 424
Illustrated Table 15.2 Selected Hairstyles and Hats or Women: 1900–1920 429 Illustrated Table 15.3 Selected Examples o
Production and Acquisition o Textiles and Clothing 454 Technological Developments Aecting Fashion 454 The French Couture 455 457
Table 16.1 Designers o the French Couture: 1920–1947 458 Théâtre de la Mode 461 Art Movements and Their Infuence on Fashion 462 Art Deco 462 Surrealism 462
Footwear or Women: 1900–1920 430
Costume or Women: 1914–1918
The Automobile 454
American Designers
Illustrated Table 15.1 Selected Undergarments or Women, Men, and Children: 1900–1920 426
Illustrated Table 15.4 Accessories: 1900–1920 Costume or Women: 1909–1914 432
452
Sports 454
Oriental Infuences on Art and Fashion 422
Costume Components or Women: 1900–1908
x
431
434
Sources o Inormation about Costume 462 Costume or Women: 1920–1947 462 Costume or Women: 1920–1930
462
Costume or Women: 1918–1920 436 Costume or Men: 1900–1920 437
Illustrated Table 16.1 Selected Undergarments or Women, Men, and Boys: 1920–1947 464
Costume or Children: 1900–1920 441
Illustrated Table 16.2 Selected Hairstyles and Hats
Costume or Girls 441 Costume or Boys 442
or Women: 1920–1947 468 Costume or Women: 1930–1947
Costume or Boys and Girls 442
Illustrated Table 16.3 Selected Examples o
Summary 443 Themes 443
Footwear or Women: 1920–1947 471 Costume or Women: 1920–1947 474
Survivals o Edwardian Edwardian and World War I Styles Styles Visual Summary Table Notes 445 Selected Readings 445
469
444
443
Illustrated Table 16.4 Accessories: 1920–1947 479 Costume or Men: 1920–1947 480 Costume or Children: 1920–1947 487
xi
exndd Conns
Costume or Girls 487 Costume or Boys 487
Illustrated Table 17.2 Typical Hats or Women: 1947–1960 515 Illustrated Table 17.3 Selected Examples o
Costume or Boys and Girls 488 Illustrated Table 16.5 Children’s Children’s Clothing Styles: 1920–1938 489 Costume or the Teenage Market 490
Illustrated Table 17.4 Accessories: 1947–1960 517 Signs o Silhouette Changes: 1954–1960 518
Summary 490 Themes 490 Visual Summary Table
Popular Footwear: 1947–1960 516
Costume or Men: 1947–1960 519 Clothing or Active Sports 522 Costume or Children: 1947–1960 523
491
Survivals o Styles Styles o the 1920s and 1930s Notes 492
492
Selected Readings 493
Costume or Inants and Preschool Children 523 Costume Components or Girls 523 Illustrated Table 17.5 Children’s Children’s Clothing Styles:
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
1947–1960 524 Costume or Boys 524
The New Look: Fashion Fashion Conormity Preails
Costume or Boys and Girls 524
1947–1960 495
Summary 525 Themes 525
Chronology 494 Historical Background 496
Survival o New Look Styles 525
International Developments: 1947–1960 496 The United States: 1947–1960 497
Visual Summary Table Notes 527
526
Selected Readings 527
Infuences on Fashion 499 The Silent Generation Moves to the Suburbs 499 Fashion Fashion Inuences rom the Young 499
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
The Impact o Television
The Sixties and Seenties: Style Tribes Emerge
500
1960–1980 529
Internationalism 500 Production and Acquisition o Clothing and Textiles 502 The Fabric Revolution
502
Europe and the Soviet Union
The Changing Couture 502 The American Mass Market 504 Table 17.1 Infuential Paris-Based Designers, 1947–1960 504 New Centers o Fashion Design
Chronology 528 Historical Background 530
505
530
The Middle East 530 Arica and the End o Colonialism 530 The Emergence o Japan as an Economic Power Power 530 The United States 531 The Impact o Social Change on Fashion 535
Costume or Women: 1947–1960 505
Style Tribes and Street Styles 535
Table 17.2 Some Major American Fashion Designers Who Came to Prominence during World War War II
Some Style Tribes o 1960–1980 The Women’s Women’s Movement 538
and Were Important in the 1950s 506 Style Features o the New Look 507 Costume or Women: 1947–1954 507 Contemporary Comments 17.1
508
Illustrated Table 17.1 Selected Undergarments or Women, Men, and Boys: 1947–1960 509
The Civil Rights Movement
535
539
Other Infuences in Fashion 539 The White House Inuences Styles 539 Table 18.1 Some Media Infuences on Fashion: 1960–1980 540 Political Events 541
exndd Conns
The Space Age 541 The Fine Arts 542
CHAPTER NINETEEN The Eighties, the Nineties, and the Twenty-frst Twenty-frst
Ethnic Looks 543
Century 1980–2008 579
The Changing Fashion Industry 543 Increasing Variety in Fashion Segments
Chronology 578 543
Historical Background: International 580 The Cold War Ends 580
Attempts to Curb Fashion Changes 544 Changes in Fashion Design
544
Contemporary Comments 18.1 Labeling and Licensing 546
Progress Continues toward European Union The Middle East 580
545
Japanese Economic Inuences
Designers o Men’s Men’s Clothing 546 Costume or Women: 1960–1980 546 Table 18.2 Infuential Designers in Paris and Other
580
581
Historical Background: United States 582 Political and Economic Developments 582 Energy and Environmental Issues 583 The Changing American Family 585 Changes in the Roles o Women 586
Fashion Centers: 1960–1980 547 Costume or Women: 1960–1974 550 Illustrated Table 18.1 Selected Undergarments or Women and Men: 1960–1980
xii
551
The Computer Revolution
586
The New Immigrants 587 AIDS 588
Illustrated Table 18.2 Typical Hats and Hairstyles or Women: 1960–1980 558
The Fashion Industry Undergoes Changes 589
Illustrated Table 18.3 Selected Examples
Table 19.1 Some Style Tribes and Their Impact on
o Popular Footwear or Women and Men: 1960–1980 559
Mainstream Fashion 590 Postmodernism 592 Elements o the Fashion System 592 The Role o Haute Couture in the 1980s and
Illustrated Table 18.4 Accessories: 1960–1980 560 The Introduction o the Midi: 1970–1974 561 Changes in Costume or Women: 1974–1980
1990s 562
Contemporary Comments 18.2 563 Costume or Men: 1960–1980 567 Costume or Children: 1960–1980 572 Inants and Toddlers 572 Preschool and School-Age Children 572 Costume or Girls 572
Costume or Boys 574
Selected Readings 576
1980–2008 596 Changes in the Production and Retailing o Apparel 598 Prominent in the Period 1980–2008 600 The Origins o Major Fashion Trends o Retro Fashions 602 Contemporary Comments 19.1
574
Notes 576
Table 19.2 Some Prominent Designers Working in Paris and Other Fashion Centers:
1980–2008 602
Costume or Boys and Girls 574 Summary 574 Visual Summary Table 575 Survivals o Styles o 1960–1980
Ready-to-Wear 594
Table 19.3 Some American Designers Who Became
Illustrated Table 18.5 Children’s Children’s Clothing Styles: 1960–1980 573
Themes
593
603
Various Social Groups Inuence Fashion Fashion 604 576
Current Events 607 The Media as Fashion Fashion Inuences
608
Table 19.4 Some Media Infuences on Fashion: 1980–2008 609 Inuences rom the Fine Arts 610
xiii
exndd Conns
Demographic Changes 610
Costume Components or Men: 1974–2008 635
Contemporary Comments 19.2 611 The Trend to Casual Dress 612 High-Tech Fabrics
Costume or Children: 1980–2008 641 Inants and Preschool-Age Children 641
612
Contemporary Comments 19.3 Fashionable Fashionable Fabrics 615
School-Age Children: Trends Aecting Boys and Girls 642
614
Sports and Activewear 615 Costume Components or Women: 1980–1995
Costume Components or Girls 643 Costume Components or Boys 643 616
Illustrated Table 19.1 Selected Undergarments or Women and Men: 1980–2008 619
Summary 646
Illustrated Table 19.2 Typical Hairstyles and Headcoverings or Women and Men:
Visual Summary Table 647 New Views o Fashion 648 Notes 650 Selected Readings 651
1980–2008 624 Illustrated Table 19.3 Selected Examples o Popular Footwear or Women, Men, and Children: 1980–2008 626 Costume Components or Women: 1995–2008 Illustrated Table 19.4 Accessories: 1980–2008 629
Illustrated Table 19.5 Children’s Children’s Clothing Styles: 1980–2008 644
Bibliography 652 627
Credits 659 Index 661
PREFACE
W
ith each new edition o a book some ele-
artists o the era. Taken together, these new color ea-
ments o that book change. And those changes may provide an opportunity to
tures will help the reader enter more ully into these periods o Western history.
ocus on some aspect that adds to the useulness o the publication. Survey o Historic Costume has, rom
Dress o each era must be viewed within the con-
its beginnings, taken seriously the need to accompany
text o the period. To assist readers who may have a limited background in history, a brie summary o the
the text with appropriate illustrations. The history o
major historical developments related to the chapter
costume is in major part a visual history. In this th edition, the major change is the incorporation o ull
is provided. Clothing is a part o the basic equipment or everyday lie, and so in each chapter brie note is
color throughout the book. Although a separate color
made o some o the important aspects o the lie o
section has been a eature o previous editions, having the color illustrations throughout the book enriches
the people o the time. Where the arts, specic individuals, events, or societal values can be seen to infu-
the text and the concepts. Survey o Historic Costume is intended or use as a basic text or readers who desire an overview o the h is-
ence styles, these are discussed. The technology and
tory o costume in the West. We continue to emphasize A History o Western Dress so that readers will rec-
nology or the making o cloth and clothes and in
economy o the production and distribution o abrics oten infuence clothing; thereore, changes in tech-
ognize that the book ocuses on historic costume in
the economic systems o production and distribution are noted where appropriate. As the ashion industry
the Western world and makes no attempt to survey the
becomes more complex in the 20th century, changes
vast topic o historic costume in all parts o the world. Our purpose is to present a survey o this vast subject
in its organization and unction are stressed. Ater the setting has been delineated, specic styles
rather than an innitely detailed picture. At the same
o each period worn by men, by women, and by chil-
time, it is our intention to make that picture as complete as possible within the limitations o space.
dren are described. Organization and contents are parallel in all chapters, and all elements o dress, ranging
All chapters ater the introduction o chapter 1 begin
rom undergarments to accessories, are included or
with a chronology o important events during the time period covered in the chapter. A new element in this
every period. In this way a rather detailed picture o costume can be provided even within the space lim ita-
edition is the inclusion o illustrations that relate to
tions imposed on a single volume.
aspects o some o the items in the chronology. These photographs are joined to the relevant events with
We also believe that it is important or readers to have depictions o costume rom original source mate-
a dotted line. Six other groups o photographs are
rials available not only to illustrate some o the unamil-
located in Decorative and Fine Arts Tables, which appear at the end o each o the six parts into which the book
iar terms, but also to supplement the general, survey approach o the text. The captions o the illustrations
is divided. These illustrations provide a sense o the
not only identiy various parts o the costume and pro-
aesthetic context that surrounded individuals living at this time. The objects shown range rom textiles o the
vide the contemporary names or elements o the styles, but also identiy the aspects o the pictures that provide
period, urniture, domestic and monumental architec-
supporting evidence to the costume historian o the
ture to sculpture and paintings by some o the greatest
nature o costume at this period. The material in the xix
xx
Prfac
captions o illustrations is as important as the contents
tume and also to provide some o the detailed analyses
o the book and should be read as careully as the text. Tables and illustrated tables are utilized throughout
o costume topics that are not possible in a text that surveys so broad a topic.
the book in an attempt to summarize material briefy
A bibliography at the end o the book lists some o
and eectively. Each chapter includes at least one box in which comments rom contemporary sources on
the many books written about historic costume, organized by topic. This bibliography does not duplicate
some aspect o clothing are reproduced. These quo-
materials listed at the end o each chapter, nor does
tations are intended to provide readers with a favor o the attitudes toward clothing that individuals o the
it include books dealing with techniques o theatrical costuming or sociocultural aspects o dress.
period held as well as contemporary descriptions.
Several tools have been provided or readers. Each
Historic costume reerence books and materials (particularly or some o the early periods where actual
chapter contains a chronology listing important dates and events in the order in which they occurred. Many
records are conusing, contradictory, and scarce) show
o the words or items o historic costume are not
marked dierences in terminology and content. We have attempted to present as accurate a summary as
English terms. Where the pronunciation o these terms is not obvious, a phonetic pronunciation o the
possible and one that we hope is ree rom the tendency
word is provided in parentheses just ater the word.
to present largely apocryphal stories o the origins o styles as act. When such material is introduced, it is
New eatures in this edition are many. The text and illustrations have been updated to 2008. The results
clearly labeled as questionable or as legend.
o recent research have been incorporated in the text
In this text, the terms clothes and clothing are synonymous and mean wearing apparel. Dress is a general
where they are relevant. New illustrations have been added throughout. The most important o these are
term that includes not only garments, but also aspects
the Visual Summary Tables that present a visual and
o personal appearance that can be changed, such as grooming. Style is the predominant orm o dress o
verbal summary or each chapter. The idea o recurring themes or concepts in dress introduced in the
any given period or culture. Styles may persist or very
third edition continues, as do the sections that identiy
long or shorter periods o time. Fashion is synonymous with style ater the latter part o the Medieval Period but
and illustrate later revivals o styles rom each period. The index is organized so that it can be utilized as
implies styles o relatively short duration. Costume is
a glossary o terms. Terms printed in boldace type are
used as a synonym or dress by those who work in the museum eld and by many scholars who study historic
dened within the text; the page numbers printed in bold type immediately ater these words in the index
dress. Some scholars preer the use o the word dress
are the pages on which these words are dened or
because to many people costume means dress used in the theater or in dance or or masquerade.
explained. Two supplementary publications are available or
Bibliographies at the end o each chapter are
those using this book as an academic textbook. One is
intended to serve three purposes. They list books that contain a good cross section o illustrations o original
an Instructor’s Guide, the other is a PowerPoint. Both can be obtained rom the publisher. The Instructor’s
source materials or costumes o the period covered in
Guide provides inormation about sources o DVD
that chapter. They identiy books that provide a more complete picture o lie in the period covered so that
and video materials that complement and ampliy this book and Web sites that provide inormation about
those who desire can learn more about the period.
costume, as well as suggested teaching strategies and
Finally, periodical articles dealing with costume or related topics are cited. The purpose o including such
evaluative techniques. The PowerPoint program is an interactive visual
articles is to introduce students to some o the jour-
presentation. Beginning with early civilizations in
nals that are sources o urther inormation about cos-
Mesopotamia and Egypt and ending in 2008, the
Prfac
xxi
program parallels the organization o the book as it
work o Heard. For the 16th through the 19th centu-
reviews the geographic, economic, and artistic context or each culture and period in the history o Western
ries, the several volumes o handbooks on costu me by the Cunningtons, and that by Mrs. Cunnington and
dress. Visuals provide users with a wide array o pri-
Alan Manseld or the 20th century, were among the
mary source images rom all periods in combination with drawings and diagrams showing the structure o
most useul o the materials cited. Not only were they a superlative source or detailed inormation, but they
clothing, and photographs o actual garments. A spe-
were also a helpul tool or cross-checking conficting
cial eature is the inclusion o links to the Internet or additional visuals and urther research and study.
inormation. For menswear o the 20th century, the Esquire Encyclopedia o 20th Century Men’s Fashion was by
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS No person, even ater a lietime o study, can be
ar the most useul secondary source an author or researcher could nd with its wealth o detailed inor-
expected to be knowledgeable in all aspects o historic
mation quoted directly rom the ashion press and its
costume solely on the basis o his or her own research. Fortunately there are many individuals who have spe-
many illustrations rom the periods covered in this book. For women’s women’s ashions in the 20th century, prob-
cialized in certain countries or periods and whose
ably the most extensive reerence prepared to date is Vogue History o 20th Century Fashion. For inormation
work has been invaluable in the preparation o a broad survey o this type. It is important that these sources
about ashion designers, Who’s Who in Fashion, ourth
be given special acknowledgment beyond a citation in
edition, by Anne Stegemeyer was invaluable.
ootnotes or a listing in the bibliography. Elizabeth Barber’s books on prehistoric textiles,
Underclothing has been thoroughly illustrated and explored in the books by C. W. Cunnington, Nora
which contain both the results o the most recent
Waugh, and Elizabeth Ewing. Waugh’s work is espe-
scholarship and her interesting insights, were very useul. For materials dealing with costume o the ancient
cially helpul in its inclusion o quotations rom the literature o various periods concerning dierent types
world, the books o Mary Houston and Lillian Wilson
o undergarments. For some specialized material in
were o inestimable help, while the work o Gillian Vogelsang-Eastwood on Egyptian dress and o Judith
the area o bathing costume, Claudia Kidwell’s monograph was useul, as was the work she and Marjorie
Sebesta and Larissa Bonante (editors) on Roman
Christman did on American ready-to-wear. ready-to-wear.
dress added new inormation. The work o Larissa Bonante served as a basis or much o the material on
The works o François Boucher and Millia Davenport should be noted or their wealth o illustrative mate-
Etruscan costume and related Greek styles.
rial drawn rom sources rom the various periods,
For the Medieval Period, Joan Evans’s work on costume o the Middle Ages and the ne handbook
although we recommend that readers approach these books armed with a magniying glass.
by Phillis and Cecil Willet Cunnington were invalu-
A number o scholars have explored the many com-
able. Goddard’s work on French costume o the 11th and 12th centuries also provided useul inormation,
plex changes that ashion has undergone in the 20th and 21st centuries. We note particularly the work o
as did works by Piponnier and Mane and by Koslin
Ted Polhemus, Amy de la Haye, and Cathie Dingwall
and Snyder. A recent addition to scholarship about the Middle Ages that is helpul in understanding the
on “style tribes,” Diana Crane’s Crane’s insightul work on the contemporary ashion system, as well Valerie Steele’s
beginnings o ashion change is Sarah-Grace Heller’s
corpus o work.
Fashion in Medieval France. Elizabeth Birbiri’s ne study o Italian Renaissance
Books on subjects related to ashion and ashion design in the recent past have prolierated. There are
costume provided not only detailed inormation but
too many to cite specically. specically.
a wealth o excellent illustrative materials, as did the
xxii
Prfac
Having begun by citing some o the books to which
o America have consistently provided settings or
we are indebted, we also acknowledge libraries that were especially helpul rom the rst edition to this edi-
the reporting o new research and the interchange o ideas with colleagues rom around the world, and
tion: the Costume Institute Libr ary o the Metropolitan
these opportunities to hear about the latest scholar-
Museum o Art, the Pierpont Morgan Library in New York City, the research library o the New York
ship have been much appreciated. A number o anonymous reviewers had oered
Public Library, the Queens College Library, the Port
suggestions over the many years during which the
Washington Public Library, the library o the Fashion Institute o Technology, Technology, Alderman Library and Darden
rst edition was developed, and their input continues to infuence subsequent editions. Prior to publication
Graduate School o Business Administration Library,
o the rst edition, Elizabeth Ann Coleman, curator,
University o Virginia, the Charlottesville branches o the Jeerson-Madison Regional Library, the Briarcli
author, and scholar, did a careul reading and made excellent suggestions to the chapters on the 19th and
Public Library, the Westchester Public Library system,
20th centuries.
and the library o Westchester Community College. Some individuals also deserve special recognition.
We express grateul thanks, also, to the many users and readers o previous editions who have made help-
The late Vincent Tortora took many o the photographs
ul suggestions or revisions. Among those who have
used in this and previous editions and also reviewed and corrected phonetic pronunciations. His encour-
consistently oered sound advice are included Patricia Warner o the University o Massachusetts at Amherst,
agement and contributions made this book possible.
Patricia Cunningham o the Ohio State University, and
We missed his assistance in this edition. Thanks to Nan Mutnick, who assisted with the
Linda Welters o the University o Rhode Island, who not only oered valuable critiques and suggestions,
research about twenty-rst century ashionable dress.
but willingly shared resources. Other readers selected
Don Kurka, artist and Emeritus Proessor, University o Tennessee, oered invaluable advice on illustrative
by the publisher were also very helpul. Working with Fairchild Books was, as always,
material or the ne arts pages or the 20th and 21st cen-
a pleasure. Sincere appreciation is due to Olga T.
turies. We appreciate the willingness o designer Rob Hillestad, who provided photographs o his ne work.
Kontzias, Executive Editor, who once again smoothed the way or this project. Elizabeth Marotta, Senior
We are also grateul that the Huntington Historical
Production Editor, always displayed cheerul e-
Society, Society, Huntington, New York, has continued to permit reproduction o images rom its collection. Other
ciency and skill as she acilitated a variety o tasks. Because the new art is such an important part o this
important assistance in nding illustrative material
edition we especially want to acknowledge the major
came rom the Cleveland Museum, the Metropolitan Museum o Art Photographic Services Department,
eorts o Erin Fitzsimmons, Associate Art Director; Elizabeth Greenberg, Photo Researcher; and Sarah
and Jerey Ryan o the Museum o Modern Art. We
Silberg, Photo Researcher, in searching or and locat-
express gratitude to the New York Public Library or maintaining the superlative picture collection that is
ing the illustrations that add so much to this book. Claire King designed, crated, and produced the hand-
available to researchers. Dover Publications has been
some PowerPoint program, a valuable supplement to
very generous in permitting reproduction o images rom its books.
this text.
We cannot thank individually all o our colleagues
2009
Phyllis Tortora
and riends who contributed in many ways, but we would like to note that the International Textile and
Keith Eubank Briarcli Manor, New York, and
Apparel Association (ITAA), and the Costume Society
Charlottesville, Virginia
SOME NOTES ON USING THIS BOOK
umans select the clothing they wear or
H
an opening page on which a chronology summarizes
many reasons. When one studies the dress o various historical periods one may ocus
important events, developments in the ne or applied arts, and other developments relative to costume his-
on any or all o a variety o aspects. For some individu-
tory. This chronology is accompanied by photographs
als, it is the item o costume itsel that is important: How did it look? O what materials was it constructed?
illustrating selected elements on the timeline. Opposite the chronology page is an illustration typical o the
How was it worn? For others the object itsel is o lesser
period and a brie paragraph about the chapter con-
importance. Instead, the interest lies in its relationship to the world in which it was worn. What symbolic
tents. Chapter textual material begins by providing a brie summary o historical developments in the period
meaning did it have? What status did it coner? How
under study. Where those periods extend or thousands
does it refect its times? Or, it may be that aesthetic aspects are oremost in the mind o the reader who
o years, this summary is written in very broad strokes. With shorter periods, especially those rom the recent
may be viewing dress as an art orm.
past, the picture is presented in more detail. Following
For the most part, one looks at costume or some combinations o these reasons. The task o a text o
the setting o historical context, we introduce those sociocultural, artistic, political, economic, and/or tech-
this kind, a survey o the subject, is to attempt to sat-
nological developments o the period that are relevant
isy the needs o all readers. In doing so, some depth is necessarily sacriced. From this introduction to the
to or have infuenced costume. Each chapter also includes one or more readings
topic, individuals can go on to pursue their special
rom contemporary sources about some aspect o
interests more intensively, and we have provided lists o resources in each chapter as well as an extensive
dress. From these materials, readers should be able to get a glimpse o attitudes and values about clothing as
bibliography at the end o the book. These should
they were expressed by individuals o that period.
enable readers to move beyond this survey to a more specialized look at areas o particular interest.
A detailed presentation o the specics o costume or each period or men, women, and children ollows
The rst chapter o the book provides a general
the contextual materials. These details begin with a
introduction to dress, to theories about its origins, and to its unctions. Common themes (recurring or
description o the silhouette or predominant lines. From silhouette, the reader moves on to a comprehen-
uniying subjects or ideas) that can be seen in many
sive review o types o clothing in the period under
costume periods are identied and discussed. Readers will encounter many o these themes in subsequent
study. Each chapter ends with a summary that identi-
chapters.
es some o the themes that are most evident in that
To guide readers we have organized each o the Chapters 2 through 19 in much m uch the same way. The book
chapter, as well as a discussion o revivals o style elements that are evident in later periods. To make these
is divided into six parts, and each part is introduced not
examples more concrete, we have added an illustra-
only with some historical background but also ends with a two-page Decorative and Fine Arts Table, depicting
tion showing one example o a twentieth or twentyrst century design that has been inspired by some
a wide range o the arts o the period. Each chapter has
aspect o dress important during the period.
xxiii
xxi
Som Nos on using this Book
In any work dealing with costume, the illustra-
By comparing a Visual Summary Table rom one chap-
tions are particularly important. This work contains several dierent types o illustrations. In the body o
ter to that o previous and/or subsequent chapters, changes o ashions over time should be clear. clear.
each chapter, illustrations come as much as possible
The aorementioned list o reerences can lead
rom works o art, drawings, or, photographs made at the time being discussed. Where such material is
readers to additional illustrations o the period rom primary source materials, books that illuminate the
not readily available, redrawings are based on original
sociocultural context o the period more completely,
sources or work by scholars. Beginning in Chapter 6, there are Illustrated
and some research, scholarly, or other writings about some narrower aspect o costume in this period.
Tables that depict important accessory items in addi-
The index has been organized or use as a glossary
tion to illustrated tables o ootwear and headwear. Photographs o works o art rom early periods are
o terms. Immediately ater each term in the index is a page notation in boldace italic type. Readers will
oten dicult to interpret; thereore, visual sum-
nd a denition o this term on that page. Words that
maries that consist o clear line drawings have been added at the end o all chapters. When compared to
are dened are printed in boldace type in both the index and the text. The themes in the chapters are in
the photographs illustrating the chapters, these draw-
small capital letters in both the text and index. Also,
ings should make it easier to unders tand what scholars believe the silhouette and construction o garments to
as an aid to readers, when new terms or which the pronunciation is not clear are introduced in the text,
have been. Visual Summary Tables consist o brie ver-
a phonetic rendering o the pronunciation is provided
bal summaries o the major styles within each period along with a sketch o typical styles. These tables serve
in parentheses ater the word. Our objective throughout has been to provide a
as a summary or the period covered in the chapter
comprehensive survey o historic costume in the
and are intended to clariy the duration and eatures o the various ashion trends in each century or decade.
Western world, one that can serve as a basis or looking at dress rom a variety o perspectives.
CHRONOLOGY 2900–2100 b.c.
Early Minoan period 2000 b.c.
Development of the city of Knossos 2100–1600 b.c.
Middle Minoan period 1600–1100 b.c.
Late Minoan period 1571–1521 b.c.
Minos, legendary ruler of Crete c. 1450 b.c.
Eruption of volcano on the island of Thera, (now called Santorini), destroying Cretan cities, including Knossos 1400–1200 b.c.
Domination by Myceneans 1200–750 b.c.
Dark Age of Greece 776 b.c.
First Olympic games in Greece c. 650–480 b.c.
Archaic period 500–323 b.c.
Classical Age Flowering of Greek philosophy, art, drama, literature 356–323 b.c.
Alexander the Great after 323 b.c.
Hellenistic period Decline of Greek power
c. 2900 – 300
b
.c.
CHAPTER THREE
Crete and Greece
T
he remains o Minoan Civilization can be ound on the Mediterranean island o Crete, whereas traces o the Mycenaean Civilization that
succeeded them are ound on the mainland, which is now part o the modern country o Greece. The unique dress o these early peoples did not survive the Dark Ages that preceded the Archaic Greek Period. The culture o the Classical Period that ollowed inuenced the arts, philosophy, and political thought o many later periods in Western world history. history. Likewise, the styles o Greek Classical period dress have continued to inspire design up to the present time.
51
52
PART ONE The Ancient World
MINOAN AND MYCENAEAN CIVILIZATIONS HISTORICAL BACkGROuND
about 200 years earlier than the all o Crete and it is now thought that the Mycenaeans probably invaded and overcame the Minoans.
On the narrow island o Crete in the eastern
The Mycenaean civilization extended throughout
Mediterranean, another civilization ourished over much the same period o time as that o the Egyptians
Greece, centered in more than 300 towns. The towns spread out around the palaces, which each king tried
and Mesopotamians. Named or their legendary king,
to make a monument to his power and glory. The pal-
Minos, the Minoan people enjoyed peace and prosperity rom about 2900 to 1450 b.c. and developed
aces were decorated with magnifcent rescoes o great artistic and technical quality. The remains o these
an elegant culture. The Minoans were a prosperous
towns reveal works o architecture and large-scale
seaaring people who carried on an active trade with Egypt, Syria, Sicily, and even Spain. The Minoan peo-
engineering projects, which so astounded later generations o Greeks that they thought the walls o the
ple are depicted in the wall paintings o Egypt; their
Mycenaean cities and palaces had been built by giants.
pottery and other traces o their contact with oreign lands have been discovered in Asia Minor, mainland
Other sources o inormation about the Mycenaeans include grave sites in which the artiacts o gold and
Greece, and islands in the Aegean Sea. Their cities had
silver reveal a wealthy and sophisticated civilization.
no ortifcations because they depended on their eet or protection. The pleasure-loving, secure lie o the
At the end o the 13th century, the mysterious “Sea People” (whose origins are not known by historians)
Minoan people was caught by their artists in delicate,
devastated the eastern Mediterranean area and ruined
brightly colored rescoes that have been ound on the walls o excavated palaces in Crete and on the island
trade in a series o piratical raids. Many Mycenaean cities and towns suered. The people were driven within
o Thera. The crowning achievement o Crete was the
the city walls or saety while their houses outside
palace o Knossos. Its many rooms gave rise to the legend that a labyrinth under the palace housed a ear-
the ortifcations were destroyed. Mycenae survived another century beore it was destroyed, probably by
some creature, hal man and hal bull, that devoured
the Dorians, invaders rom the north. Some settle-
prisoners. Sir Arthur Evans, the English archeologist who
ments were abandoned because they had depended on trade that no longer existed. Throughout Greece
frst revealed the rich civilization o Crete, divided
the population declined. Among the Mycenaean
Minoan history into three main periods: Early Minoan (c. 2900–2100 b.c.), Middle Minoan (c. 2100–1600
cities, Athens survived although it was somewhat impoverished. At the beginning o the 13th century
b.c.),
b.c.,
and Late Minoan (c. 1600–1100
b.c.).
During
most o the Middle Minoan period, the Minoans maintained political control not only over Crete, but
Greece entered a Dark Age about which little is
known; the Minoan civilization disappeared at about the same time.
also over what is today mainland Greece. The mainland people, named or their most powerul city-state, Mycenae, gradually grew stronger. By about 1400 b.c.,
in a reversal o political control, the Mycenaeans
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND MATERIAL CuLTuRE OF MINOAN A N D M Y C E N A E A N C I V I L I Z A T I ON ON S
(My-seh-ne'-ans) My-seh-ne'-ans) had come to dominate Crete and the Minoan people. Archeologists had believed that this
Evidence about the organization and structure o Minoan and Mycenaean society is ragmentary.
reversal o power probably resulted rom a volcanic
Apparently the Minoans had what amounted to a two-
eruption on the island o Thera that caused earthquakes, fres, and tidal waves that wrecked Cretan cit-
class society, with the ruling classes separated rom the common people by a great gul. No genuine mid-
ies. Recent discoveries, however, place this eruption
dle class developed in ancient Greece.
CHAPTER THREE Crete and Greece
53
Women occupied a higher place in society than in
Men’s Men’s costume is more oten shown on wall paintings
most early cultures. They enjoyed equality with men, and they were not secluded in the household but par-
than in statuary. Many o the wall paintings have been restored, with details reconstructed rom ragments o
ticipated with men in public estivals. They engaged
the original paintings, so that inaccuracies may have
in athletics, oten joining men in a avorite Minoan sport, vaulting over bulls. The position o women in
been incorporated into the restorations.
Minoan civilization was an exception in the ancient
TEXTILE PRODUCTION AND TECHNOLOGY
world, possibly reecting the importance o emale deities. The major fgure in Minoan religion was the
Barber (1994) describes a Minoan village in which evidence has been uncovered or spinning, weaving,
“mother goddess.” At the same time, unlike Egypt
and dyeing both linen and wool textiles. Minoan wall
where queens did rule as pharaohs in some periods, the rulers o Crete were invariably men.
paintings and other art orms such as clay fgurines depict brightly colored, elaborately patterned gar-
For the wealthy standards o material comort were
ments. Barber’s (1991) careul analysis o evidence
high. Several palaces have been excavated and their remains reveal that the private apartments in the pal-
about Minoan textiles shows that many o the design motis seen in Minoan art could have been woven eas-
ace were well lighted, decorated with wall paintings
ily. Many others, more difcult and time-consuming,
(rescos), and even had running water piped into bathrooms.
are also technically possible with the types o looms in use. A ew could have been achieved only by tapes-
The Mycenaeans imitated many aspects o Minoan
try weaving, by embroidery, or by painting on textiles.
decoration and styles, but their social organization seems to have diered somewhat. Little is known
Color was used lavishly, and skill in dyeing textiles must have been well developed.
o the manner o lie o the ordinary citizen. Wealth
Egyptian wall paintings o traders dressed in
apparently was concentrated in the king’s court. There was a lesser nobility and a large group o lower-class
Minoan garments provide evidence o trade between Egypt and Crete. Archeological evidence shows that
cratsmen, peasants, and shepherds.
chemicals used to fx dyes on linen were imported to
ART AND TECHNOLOGY OF MINOAN AND MYCENAEAN CIVILIZATIONS ART AS A SOURCE OF INFORMATION ABOUT COSTUME
Crete. A seaaring people, the Minoans undoubtedly traveled widely around the Mediterranean trading their textiles or other goods.
As a result o the close contacts between Mycenaeans
MINOAN COSTuME FOR MEN AND WOMEN: 2900–1100 b.c.
and Minoans, the styles o clothing utilized by both groups were essentially the same rom the Middle
In commenting on many o the objects rom the early Greek civilizations that archeologists have ound, a
Minoan period until the Later Minoan period. Most
Greek archeologist George Mylonas (1966) said “. . .
o the evidence or costume during the Minoan civilization comes rom the statuary and wall paintings
these may be likened to the illustrations o a picture book or which the scholar must provide the text.”
discovered in Crete. Some rescoes and statuary o the
This text, however, can be widely divergent in its inter-
period have also been ound in mainland Greece. The costume o the small statuettes o Minoan god-
pretations and highly subjective. Precisely the same comment can be made about the representations o
desses and priestesses is depicted in good detail. The
costume rom the Minoan period. The lack o any
dress o these statues has been taken to be characteristic o the dress o upper-class women. Wall paintings
body o literature, legal texts, or religious writings and even the ragmentary nature o many o the paintings
o general scenes o Minoan lie confrm these details.
rom this period leave the costume historian at a loss
54
PART ONE The Ancient World
appearance o a garment depends very much on the fbers and abrics used. She criticizes eorts that did not use textile fbers and abrics o the same types that would have been used by the Minoans. COSTuME COMPONENTS FOR MEN AND WOMEN GARMENTS The garment worn closest to the skin was the loincloth, a ftted garment that covered much the same area as a pair o modern athletic bries. A similar costume (called the perizoma in Greek) was worn by Greeks and Etruscans. (See Figure 4.1, page 77.) Loincloths were depicted as worn by men and by women athletes. Men and women perormed athletic leaps over the horns o bulls. For this activity they both wore loincloths, which, when used or this purpose, were reinorced at the crotch to protect against the horns o the bulls. Men wore skirts. Some were short, ending at the
FIGuRE 3.1 Restored frescoes from the palace at
Knossos depict men from Crete who wear wrapped skirts with a tassel at the front. (Photograph by Vincent R. Tortora.)
thigh. These apparently wrapped around the body and generally ended in a point with a suspended, weighted tassel at center ront and/or center back. They are shown as being made o elaborately patterned abric. (Figure 3.1.) Ariane Marcar (2005), in a detailed analysis o all the known representations o Minoan dress, identifed a men’s garment that has the appearance o modern-day shorts. But
as to the precise unction o many items o
in examining these depictions she could fnd no
dress and the conclusions that are drawn are, thereore, somewhat tentative.
indication o seams at the side or at the crotch,
Scholars dier as to whether the dress o Minoans is more tailored and ftted or more draped. Clearly, some depictions show closely ftting, shaped garments that would appear to be more tailored, while others show simpler more draped styles (Figure 3.1). Houston (1966) suggests that the tailored costume o the Minoans (Figure 3.2) may have evolved rom the early use o leather or clothing. Attempts have been made to reconstruct Minoan dress based on wall paintings and sculpture. Barber (2000), an expert on early textiles, notes that the
FIGuRE 3.2 Female Minoan Snake Deity
dressed in a garment typical of those depicted for women. The bodice has short, slightly puffed sleeves and is open to below the breasts. Whether all women bared their breasts is not clear, but gurines of either priestesses or goddesses are represented with this bodice style. The ared skirt with horizontal bands is one of three common skirt types. An apronlike covering extends from below the waist to the hip area. Also see Figures 3.3 and 3.4. (Scala/Art Resource, NY.)
CHAPTER THREE Crete and Greece
55
FIGuRE 3.3 In another depiction of a snake
goddess, here is a skirt that is apparently made from rows of rufes. Her bodice is made of patterned fabric or fabric with ornamented applied bands, and she has a round, rolled belt at the waist. Like the goddess in Figure 3.2, she wears the apronlike covering below her waist. (Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY.)
and concluded that these were wrapped and
Because most depictions o this breast-
draped skirts, which she calls “kilts” as they
exposing style are o priestesses, some
resemble, somewhat, the Scottish men’s skirt called a kilt. Other skirts were depicted
authorities believe ordinary women covered the breasts with sheer abric
in longer lengths, ending either below the
(Boucher 1987). Most bodices had
knee or at the ankle. Some men’s skirts also appear to be made o sheep eece,
sleeves that ft the arms closely. A ew examples have small pus at the
not unlike the Mesopotamian kaunakes skirt.
shoulders.
Women’s skirts were bell shaped and had at least three dierent orms. One version was ftted at the
Paintings and sculpture show apronlike garments worn by women on top o skirts. (See Figures 3.2 and
waist, and ared gently to the ground. (See Figure
3.3.) They extend in ront and back to about mid-thigh.
3.2.) Another style (Figure 3.3) seemed to have been made o a series o horizontal or V-shaped rues or
Archeologist Arthur Evans (1963) believed that this
ounces, with each successive rue wider in circumerence than the one above it. In drawings and sculpture a third orm (Figure 3.4) shows a line down the center o women’s skirts. Some scholars have interpreted this as a biurcated garment similar to modern culottes. This may, however, however, have been an artistic convention used to depict V-shaped rues or could be the overlapping edge o a wrapped skirt. Women are also shown wearing sheep eece skirts. Women’s costume had a unique aspect. Smoothly ftted bodices, laced or otherwise, astened beneath the breasts, leaving the breasts exposed. (See Figure 3.2.)
FIGuRE 3.4 A third type of skirt is seen in wall paintings. The
exact construction is unclear. Some scholars suggest that the garment may have been wide-legged trousers, but it seems more likely that it is a wrapped skirt. (Scala/Art Resource, NY.)
56
PART ONE The Ancient World
garment was a costume worn in religious rituals by
been decorative selvages, woven tapes, or embroidery.
women and that it derived rom a primitive loincloth worn originally by members o both sexes.
(See Figure 3.5.) Mycenaean men are more likely to be depicted in tunics rather than skirts or loincloths.
Poncholike capes were usually worn by men in HAIR AND HEADDRESS
combination with skirts. These capes covered the upper part o the body and appeared to consist o a
Curly hair was apparently an ethnic characteristic.
rectangle o abric, olded in hal, with an opening cut
Probably much o the headdress had religious signif-
or the head. Both men and women wrapped shawllike garments made rom animal skins or heavy wool
cance and may have served as a symbol designating priest or priestess status.
around the body in cold weather.
Men wore their hair long and curly or short and cut
Tight, rolled belts were apparently made rom abric or leather and decorated with metal. Belts were
close to the head. Sometimes men tied their hair into a braid or lock at the b ack o the head; sometimes they
worn by men and boys rom the earliest periods and
held it in place with a fllet. Hat styles include elabo-
adopted by women during later Minoan periods. Because Minoan men are shown with abnormally
rate, possibly ritual types: high, round, and crownlike with a tall plume; turbans; small caps; and wide-
small waists (which may have been an artistic conven-
brimmed hats.
tion), some authorities speculate that these belts may have been placed on young boys rom age 12 or 14 in
Women’s long, curled hair was oten held in place with a fllet or elaborate arrangement o plain or jew-
order to constrict the development o the waist.
eled bands. (See Illustrated Table 3.1, page 66.) Hats
Men and women wore T-shaped tunics with long or short sleeves. Women’s tunics were long; men’s
ranged rom high, tiered, brimless styles to beretlike at hats.
were long or short. Tunics were generally decorated with patterned bands at the hem, along the sides, and ollowing the shoulderlines. These bands may have
FOOTWEAR Men and women wore sandals or shoes with pointed toes that ftted the oot closely and ended at the ankle. Athletes (bull-leapers) wore a sot shoe with what appears to be a short sock or ankle support. Archeologists have ound that the oors o Minoan palaces show little wear rom shoes, while entrance stairs are worn away rom the passing o shod eet. This has led to the conclusion that people went bareoot indoors but wore shoes outside. JEWELRY Men and women wore rings, bracelets, and armlets. Women wore necklaces. Although earrings were ound in Minoan graves, they are not generally depicted in
FIGuRE 3.5 Figures depicted on a sarcophagus from the 14th
century b.c. at Hagia Triada, Crete, showing a procession of two women and a man. The woman at the left wears a sheepskin skirt and a tted bodice. The man and woman at the right are wearing long tunics decorated with trimming that may be woven braid. (Courtesy of Fairchild Publications, Inc.)
the art. COSMETICS AND GROOMING Women apparently used eye makeup and, probably, lip coloring. Men were clean shaven.
CHAPTER THREE Crete and Greece
MINOAN COSTuME FOR CHILDREN: 2900–1100 b.c.
57
Ater a period o more than 400 years, main-
Little evidence exists or the costume o children. Boys
land Greece emerged rom the Dark Ages into the Archaic period. By this time costume in general
depicted in the paintings ound on Thera wore little
and the costume o women in particular had altered
clothing: a fshing boy wore nothing; those boxing had strings around their waists. Their heads were shaven
dramatically.
except or some locks o hair. hair. One statuary group rom
GREEk CIVILIZATION
Mycenae shows a small boy o perhaps about 3 or 4 years o age dressed in a oor-length skirt and wearing
HISTORICAL BACkGROuND Written records vanished during the Dark Ages. The
a necklace and a padded, rolled belt. Probably P robably children
political history o the period does not exist. Intellectual
wore simple costumes such as skirts or tunics. Ater puberty they undoubtedly assumed adult clothing.
achievements were limited to epic ballads, sung perhaps by wandering bards, which were eventually
TRANSITIONS IN THE DOMINANT STYLES
woven into a cycle amiliar to modern readers rom the poems attributed to Homer, Homer, The Iliad and The Odyssey. Although he related stories about the heroes o the
Some costume historians have pointed out paral-
Trojan War, which occurred during the Mycenaean
lels between the tiered skirts o Minoan women and the ringed kaunakes garments o Mesopotamia.
period, his epic poems describe the lie and customs o his own times, probably beore 700 b.c.
Similarities also exist in language elements between
As the Dark Ages ended and Greece entered the
Crete and the Middle East. Cretan traders traveled extensively throughout the Mediterranean area both
Archaic period, c. 650–480 b.c., the Greek people began to prosper as their cultu re revived. Village com-
to the east and to Egypt in the south. Certainly the
munities began to evolve into independent city-states
Cretan traders reached the areas o Asia Minor where the kaunakes garments were worn, but even i the ori-
that would provide the frst type o democratic government with elections, juries, and government by citi-
gin o the tiered skirt or Minoan women was to be
zens o the city-state.
ound in the Middle East, the orms that evolved during the height o Minoan civilization diered mark-
In the Classical Age, c. 500–323 b.c., Greece enjoyed a golden age, one o the most creative eras in the his-
edly rom the dress o Mesopotamia and Egypt during
tory o Western civilization. Greek philosophers such
concurrent periods. Sometime during the Dark Ages ater the close o
as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle pondered the nature o the universe, the meaning o lie, and ethical values.
the Minoan–Mycenaean period, the ftted, ull-skirted
Tragic dramatists such as Aeschylus, Sophocles, and
costume or women disappeared. Just how long it persisted ater the beginning o the Dark Ages and how
Euripides wrote dramas or the public dealing with the nature and ate o man. The Greeks developed “his-
it came to be supplanted by the later Greek styles is
tory,” a new literary orm, which related and analyzed
unknown. By the time political control o Crete had passed to the Mycenaeans the elaborately patterned
past experiences. Greek sculpture glorifed the human body; using new techniques to build in marble, the
abrics declined in use, giving way to plain cloth with
Greeks created architectural masterpieces.
simpler edgings. Barber (1991) speculates about this development, saying “One wonders i the Mycenaeans
Even beore the Classical Age, Greeks had or centuries been establishing colonies throughout the
cheerully bought up and wore the sumptuous Minoan
Mediterranean. The frst were on the western coasts
abrics as they began to take over aairs on Crete, but then allowed the local native industry to ade” (p. 330).
o present-day Turkey, which the Greeks called Ionia. Greek settlements had also been established in Sicily,
58
PART ONE The Ancient World
throughout southern Italy, and as ar west as south-
in work, a man might attend the assembly o the law
ern France. These centers o Greek culture and trade helped to spread Greek culture. Etruscan costume
courts. “His recreation was ound in the estivals and public acilities like gymnasiums which were provided
(the Etruscans were a people living on the Italian
by the city. Luxuries o diet, clothing, and urniture
peninsula whose civilization predated the that o the Romans) shows many resemblances to that o the
were or the very rich, although they, too, lived relatively simply. In democratic Athens extravagance and
Greeks, as do the later Roman styles. At the same
ostentation were quick to attract attention and draw
time Greek costumes borrowed rom the regions with which the Greeks came into contact, particularly rom
censure” (Roebuck 1966). In Homeric times, women occupied a subordinate
the Middle East.
position, but judging rom the writings o Homer they
Greek inuence was spread also by the conquests o Alexander the Great o Macedonia (356–323 b.c.),
had a rather open, companionable relationship with men. The general view o the place o women in classi-
whose ather had brought Greece under his control.
cal times has been that women lacked political power
Alexander carved out an empire that stretched rom Greece and Egypt in the west to the shores o the
and had little control over their own destinies. It has been said that rom birth to death they were under the
Indian Ocean in the east. Ater Alexander’s death his
control o some man. Even widows or divorced women,
empire ell apart; Greek inuence waned while that o the Romans began to expand. Gradually the Romans
although they retained title to their inherited property, had to be supervised by their nearest male relative.
supplanted the Greeks as the dominant orce in the
Marriages were arranged, and monogamy was the
Mediterranean region, although the art and the wisdom o Greece continued to inuence the world long
rule. Girls married at about age 14 to men who were usually about age 30. Scholars believe the average lie
ater its political power was eclipsed.
span or women was about 40 years. Husbands did
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
not consider their wives as equals, socially or intellectually, and did not appear with them in public.
OF THE GREEk CIVILIZATION
Secluded in the household, the wie oversaw the run-
Society in the time o Homer was made up o nobility and commoners. Households were largely sel-suf-
ning o the home, where she was responsible or the children, ood, and clothing. Through the spinning
cient, each one producing its own ood and clothing
and weaving o abrics and the making o clothing,
textiles. A man’s home was, quite literally, his ortress, protected by walls against the raiders who requently
she made a very real contribution to the economy o the household.
attacked the Greek settlements, which were located
Scholars dier as to how reely women could move
near the sea. By the Classical Age, a period or which written and
around the city outside the home. The current belie is that women were able to carry out at least some activi-
art records abound, Greek communities had grown
ties outside the home. They had to obtain water rom
into city-states, and had developed a ar more sophisticated and urban organization. A quite detailed picture
the town ountains, attended public speeches, visited religious sanctuaries, and participated in religious es-
o daily lie in ancient Greece can be painted. Athens,
tivals. Some o these activities included members o
the most amous city-state in Greece, was composed o a population o adult men (the active citizens), their
both sexes, but others were strictly or women. They could visit close riends and were permitted to attend
dependent women and children, resident oreigners,
tragic plays but not comedies, perhaps because these
and slaves. An ordinary Athenian lived in a small, unpreten-
tended to be bawdy. As Reeder (1995) notes, “In all movements outside the home, a woman was supposed
tious house made o sun-dried brick that lacked cen-
to be inconspicuous to the point o invisibility, and
tral heating and running water. When not engaged
although the use o the veil is not yet well understood,
CHAPTER THREE Crete and Greece
59
she was probably expected upon leaving her house to
sided over the cults o goddesses and male priests over
wrap her mantle or a veil around her head so that it obscured part o her ace and neck.”
those o gods. To be qualifed to become a priestess, women had to come rom auent amilies o high
This practice may have come to Greece rom Ionia
social rank. Some appointments were hereditary. The
and the Near East about 530 b.c., along with such styles as the Ionic orm o dress. This veiling symbolized the
duties included the care o the sanctuary, especially tending to the “holy things” kept there. Priestesses
subjugation o women to their husbands. Scholars
had to pay or some o the supplies used in ceremo-
see evidence or this custom in a large number o statues o women that have been ound in which veils
nies. They took part in processions. Oten depicted in art carrying trays o holy objects, priestesses made
are pulled down at least partially over the ace (Galt
liquid oerings called libations to the goddess (see
1931) and in reerences in the writing o poets such as Homer.
Figure 3.6). They oered prayers, and participated in sacrifces and ritual easting.
There were exceptions to the strict regulation
Laws relating to appropriate dress or participation
o women’s activities. In Sparta, the largest and the most militaristic Greek city-state, women were less
in religious rites were inscribed within sanctuaries. These were not universal, but were developed locally
restricted, a state o aairs other Greeks ound disquiet-
and were dierent or dierent cults. In many sanc-
ing. The historian Plutarch described Spartan women as bold, masculine, and overbearing and seemed
tuaries white garments, which were associated with purity, were required. In some places o worship lim-
shocked at the notion that they spoke openly “even on
its were placed on the cost o clothing. Purple (only
the most important subjects” (Durant 1966). Recently, Recently, Connelly (2007), in Portrait of a Priestess,
available in very costly abrics), ower-decorated or black garments, sandals, and rings were prohibited
has shown that the ofce o priestess was one area in
in another place. Some temples confscated dress that
which women could attain status equal to that o men. Although there are exceptions, emale priestesses pre-
violated prohibitions on decorated robes. In art it is not possible to identiy priestesses by their clothing,
FIGuRE 3.6 Depiction of a family performing sacrices, c. 530 b.c. Women are dressed in blue Doric pep-
los with red cloaks. Young boys wear himation-like draped cloaks. (Scala/Art Resource, NY.)
60
PART ONE The Ancient World
but some o the objects they carried were signifers o
weaving o a shroud or burial sheet. Ater each day o
their status. One in particular, the key to the sanctuary, seems to have been almost universal. Unlike a mod-
weaving she secretly, at night, unravels the work that she has done. In this way she avoids taking a new hus-
ern key, it was a large, long, narrow piece o metal with
band. Athena, goddess o wisdom, patroness o the
a sharp right-angled turn and oten a circular garland hung rom it.
city o Athens, and patroness o artisans, is credited in Greek mythology as being the frst woman to work
Another group o women not subject to the con-
with wool. As part o the religious ceremonies held
straints o married women were the prostitutes. The lowest class o prostitutes lived in brothels, oten in
in Athens every our years in honor o the goddess, a magnifcently patterned garment, the sacred peplos,
seaports. They dressed in such lightweight clothing
was carried in procession to the temple to be placed
that literary reerences described them as “naked.” Nudity or women was not socially acceptable. A
upon her statue. It had been woven by two women selected rom those who participated in ertility rites
slightly higher class o courtesans were the “ute
associated with the cult o Athena.
girls” who entertained with music and dancing at the otherwise all-male parties that were customary.
Sheepherding was practiced in the mountainous Greek peninsula, and rom those sheep woo l or weav-
These women are oten depicted on vase paintings
ing was obtained. The Greeks also used linen, par-
where some are shown clad in ordinary dress, some in special short dancing costumes, and others in the
ticularly ater the 6th century b.c. Linen use seems to have come to Greece rom Egypt by way o Asia Minor,
nude. The highest class o courtesans was the hetairi,
particularly rom the Ionian region where many
the literal translation o the word is “companions.” These women moved reely among men. They were
Greeks had settled. Most o the linen used in Greece was imported rom the Middle East and Egypt. The
oten better educated than ordinary women, and
island o Cos was known, in the late Greek period, or
some were known or their skill in philosophical disputation or or their literary eorts. A ew became
the production o silk, but scholars believe that the silk produced there was made rom abrics imported
quite amous. Many dyed their hair blonde (the pre-
rom China by way o Persia. Weavers unraveled the
dominant hair color among Greek women was dark), and it appears that the law required them to wear
abrics, turning them into fbers by untwisting the yarns. They combined silk fbers with linen fbers
specially decorated robes to distinguish them rom
in order to make the precious silk go arther. Cotton
respectable women. In the Hellenistic period (ater the death o
fber was apparently brought to Greece by the soldiers o Alexander the Great. For the most part, however,
Alexander the Great, 323
the status o women
Greek clothing was made rom wool or rom linen
seems to have risen somewhat. Female nudity in art increased (although it is not likely that women ever
(Faber CIBA Review). Review). The visual evidence or Greek styles oten comes
appeared nude in public), women were treated more
rom marble statues that have been bleached white
openly and sympathetically in drama, and, interestingly, the inuence o the hetairi on Athenian lie
over the centuries or rom vase paintings that do not show color. As a result it is oten mistakenly ass umed
diminished.
that Greek clothing had little color. Fabrics were col-
b.c.)
FABRICS AND CLOTH PRODuCTION
ored with dyes obtained rom plants, minerals, and shellfsh. Decoration o abrics during weaving or by
Spinning and weaving were considered ft occupa-
embroidery was common. Greek women were gited
tions or queens and goddesses. In Homer’s Odyssey, Ulysses’ aithul queen, Penelope, promises to choose
weavers, and they were talented in embroidery. Skill was developed in pleating abrics, and some
a new king or Ithaca ater she has completed the
sort o clothes press existed or smoothing and at-
CHAPTER THREE Crete and Greece
FIGuRE 3.7 Athenian women, c. 560
61
, (left to right) preparing wool, folding cloth, spinning yarn, weaving on an upright loom, and weighing wool ber. These women are dressed in the form-tting Dorian peplos of the Archaic period. (Courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Fletcher Fund, 1931.) b.c.
tening abrics and pressing in pleats. Fabrics were bleached with the umes o a sulur compound.
about dress. The statuary o the 7th century b.c. begins to be sufciently representational to permit some con-
Because Greek costume was draped, not cut and sewn,
clusions to be drawn about costume. The later periods,
the abric was probably woven to the correct size and did not require cutting. (See Figure 3.7.)
particularly the Classical period, abound in representations o costume in sculpture and painting.
Women manuactured all o the amily clothing
The Greeks developed the concept o ideal human
and covers or beds, cushions, and chests. Women making cloth at home generally carried out all o the
orm and proportions. Polyclitis, a sculptor (c. 450 b.c.), wrote an inuential treatise about his view o
steps in the process with the possible exceptions o
the appropriate standard o proportions or sculptors.
dyeing and ulling. (See Figure 3.7.) Fulling is a process whereby wool abrics are washed and shrunk
Through Greek art and writings this Greek ideal, a fgure about seven and a hal heads high with the hipline
to produce a dense, close weave. Dyeing and ulling
at wrist level halway down the body, continued to
were both processes that produced strong, unpleasant odors and required both space and a good supply
inuence ideas about perect male and emale proportions in subsequent periods and became a part o the
o water; thereore, they were not especially suited to
heritage o classical inuences in the Western world.
urban households. When textiles were produced commercially or sale in the marketplace, the labor was
Although Greek vase painting and sculpture provide plenty o evidence about the constru ction o cloth-
divided into specialties that included wool combers,
ing, the conventions o Greek art limit inormation
preparers o ax, spinners o yarn, dyers, ullers, and, when necessary, tailors to do the cutting and sewing.
about color in dress. Greek marble statues had been colorully painted, but over the centuries that color has been bleached away. Major Greek vase painting styles
SOuRCES OF EVIDENCE FOR THE STuDY OF GREEk COSTuME
include black fgure painting, with black fgures on an orange-red background; red fgure painting, with red
GREEk ART The sculpture and vase paintings o Greece provide
Only on these latter vases can one see color. The Greek attitude toward nudity should be men-
evidence concerning the costume o ancient Greece.
tioned in this context. Nudity was not acceptable to the
However, records rom the early Archaic period are unclear. The art o that time was highly stylized (it is
Minoans, the Mycenaeans, or the Homeric Greeks. Tradition records the date at which Greek men began
called “geometric art”), and provides little inormation
to participate in athletic events in the nude as around
fgures on black background; and white gr ound vases.
62
PART ONE The Ancient World
720
b.c.
GREEk COSTuME FOR MEN AND WOMEN: 650–300 b.c.
(Bonante 1977). Athletic games in Greece
were part o religious ritual. Athletes perorming in the nude thereore had a religious context. Furthermore, the Greek ideal stressed not only perection o the soul but perection o the body as well. At about the same time that nudity came into athletics, artists began to
The garment called the tunic heretoore was called a ky'tn) by the Greeks. Although many o the chiton (ky'tn) earliest depictions o Greek chitons give the impres-
make representations o the male nude.
sion o a garment sewn together at the shoulders and
Depiction o emale nudity did not, however, ollow. Although in earlier periods the ideal o the well-
under the arms, later versions were not necessarily sewn, but oten were created by taking a single
ormed emale body was clearly visible beneath the
rectangle o abric and wrapping it around the body, body,
sotly owing draperies o the costume, only in Sparta did women participate in athletics or attend the games.
securing it at the shoulders with one or more pins. (See Figure 3.7.) Variations in the appearance o chi-
Women dancers and acrobats wore, at the minimum,
tons were oten achieved by belting the chiton at any
a perizoma (a loincloth) and usually also a band covering the breasts. It is only ater 400 b.c., when atti-
o several locations, by creating and manipulating a old over the top o the abric, and by varying the
tudes toward women seem to have become somewhat
placement o the pins at the shoulder.
less restrictive, that artists sculpted some o the now amous nude or partially nude statues o women such
Full-length chitons were woven to the same size no matter how tall or short the person who was to
as the Venus de Milo.
TABLE 3.1 Types o Chitons Worn by Greek Men and Women NAME OF STYLE
WORN BY
LENGTH
FIT
FABRIC
DURATION
chitoniskos
men
usually short,
close to body, similar
usually
Archaic period to
between hip
in shaping to the doric
patterned wool
c. 550 b.c.
and thigh
peplos
to ank ankles les
clo close to bod body, ast asteened ned
usually
Archaic period to
(See Figures 3.6
with large straight pin at
patterned wool
c. 550 b.c.
and 3.7.)
shoulder ull, longer sleeves,
lightweight
550 b.c. to 480 b.c.,
astened with many small
wool or pleated
less oten rom
Doric peplos
Ionic chiton
wom women
men
short or long
(See Figures 3.8 and 3.9.)
women
long, to ground
brooches at shoulder
linen
480 b.c. to 300 b.c.
Doric chiton
men
short, with ew
narrower than Ionic,
wool, linen,
400 b.c. to 100 b.c.
exceptions
without sleeves, astened
or silk
(See Figure 3.10.)
with one brooch (bula)
Hellenistic chiton
women
long
at shoulders
women
long
similar to Doric chilton,
lightweight
but narrower, oten belted
wool, linen,
just below bosom
or silk
astened over one
sturdy, durable
throughout all
shoulder
abric, probably
Greek periods
(See Figure 3.11.)
exomis
working-
(See Visual
class men
Summary Table.)
and slaves
short
450 b.c. to 300 b.c.
wool
300 to 100 b.c.
CHAPTER THREE Crete and Greece
FIGuRE 3.8 Only rarely does Greek
art show colors of costumes. Here, a woman wearing a gold-colored Ionic chiton has a lavender chlamydon over her shoulder. (© The
63
to stab to death a messenger who brought the bad news o the almost total destruction o an Athenian military orce in battle. According to Herodotus, the wear-
Metropolitan Museum of
ing o the Ionic chi-
Art/Art Resource, NY/The Bothmer
ton, which did not utilize these large,
Purchase Fund, Fletcher Fund, and Rogers Fund, 1979 [1979.11.15].)
sharp pins, was mandated as a result. Contemporary Comments 3.1, page 64, contains Herodotus’s Herodotus’s description o th e scene.
wear the garment. Lengths could be easily adjusted by
Geddes (1987) relates men’s change rom the Ionic chiton to the Doric chiton in the Classical
increasing or decreasing the size o the overold.
period to changes in social and political attitudes.
Over the chiton Greek men and women placed shawls or cloaks. Some o the overgarments were deco-
He believes that the luxurious abrics and elaborate draperies o the ull Ionic chiton had oered many
rative; others were utilitarian. The summary and illus-
opportunities or the display o a man’s wealth. But
trations that ollow describe the major costume orms in use during the Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic
beginning in the late 5th century b.c., Greek political thought and practices encouraged values such as
periods o ancient Greek history. Various authors use
ftness, equality, and a sense o “thinking alike” that
conicting terminology to identiy dierent types o chitons. The terms used here are those thos e that seemed to the authors to be most consistently used by reliable sources. COSTuME COMPONENTS FOR MEN AND WOMEN
required, at the least, less aunting o wealth. The Doric chiton, which had simple, relatively straight lines, was seen to best advantage on a ft body and did not lend itsel to ostentatious display. It was, thereore, more in keeping with these new values.
THE CHITON
THE HIMATION
Greek art and literature indicate that
Just when the word himation (hi-mat'e-
the chiton underwent a number o changes over time. Table 3.1 sum-
ahn) ahn) came to be applied to a large rectangle o abric that wrapped around the
marizes the variations in the type o
body is not entirely clear. (See Figures
chitons worn by men and women at various times. Chitons are shown in Figures 3.8 and 3.9. The Greek author Herodotus claims the Doric peplos style o the Archaic Period was abandoned because o an incident toward the beginning o the 6th century b.c. in which Athenian women supposedly used their dress pins
FIGuRE 3.9 Woman in Ionic chiton over which she wears a chlamydon. (Atlanta Lekythos, Funerary Funerary Oil Jug, attributed to Douris, Greek, Athenian, 1st half 5th century B.C. Painted white ground terra-cotta, H. 31.8cm, 500–490 B.C. © The Cleveland Museum of Art, Leonard G. Hanna, Jr., Fund, 1966.114.)
PART ONE The Ancient World
64
3.12 and 3.13.) This garment has been compared to the
the himation may have been related to an emphasis
wrapped shawls o Mesopotamia. An earlier version worn in the Archaic period seems to have been called
on athletic ftness because it was easily taken o or sports, and just as easily put back on.
a chlaina (Evans 1964). Under the name himation, this OTHER GARMENTS
garment was in wide use by the late 5th century b.c. Various Various methods o draping the himation are depicted
The perizoma ( per-i-zo'ma), per-i-zo'ma ), Greek or a loincloth, was a
by artists, but the most common way o wearing it
garment worn by men either as an undergarment or or
seems to have been with the upper corner covering the let shoulder, shoulder, the bulk o the abric wrapped across
athletic contests. (See Figure 4.1, page 77.) Greek vases show women with bands o cloth that wrapped around
the back, passed under the right arm, and draped
the upper torso and, depending on how the bands were
over the let shoulder or carried across the let arm. Both women and men wore this garment over a chi-
placed, either bound or supported the breasts. Staord has ound these bands and also a garment that looks
ton. Philosophers and older gods are depicted in the
much like a 21st-century sports brassiere depicted on
himation alone, without a chiton beneath, but whether this was an artistic convention or actual practice is
vases showing women athletes. These garments seem to be similar to a Roman garment called the strophium
unclear. Geddes Geddes (1987) suggests t hat the popularity o
(see Figure 4.10, page 88).
Contemporary Comments 3.1 HERODOTuS DESCRIBES THE ORIGINS OF THE CHANGE FROM DORIC TO IONIC CHITONS In his history o the Persian Wars, Book V, Herodotus Herodotus recounts the story o how the women o Athens were required to change the style o their dress. Only one Athenian warrior escaped death in battle and returned, to tell the story o the deeat. . . . When he came back to Athens, bringing word o the calamity, calamity, the wives o those who had been sent out on the expedition took it sorely to heart, that he alone should have survived the slaughter o all the rest; they thereore crowded round the man, and struck him with the brooches by which their dresses were astened 1—each, as she struck, asking him where he had let her husband. And the man died in this way. The Athenians thought the deed o the women more horrible even than the ate o the troops; as however they did not know how to punish them, they changed their dress and compelled them to wear the costume o the Ionians. Till this time the Athenian women had worn a Dorian dress [see Figure 3.7.], shaped nearly like that which prevails at Corinth. Henceorth they were made to wear the linen tunic, which does not require brooches. 2 [Book V, Chapter 87.] 1
These “brooches” are not like modern broaches with saety clasps, but long, sharp, daggerlike pins.
2
Ionic styles (see Figure 3.9) were astened with small, button-shaped closures o fbulae, fbulae, probably closing more like a small saety pin. The later revival o Dorian styles did not include the use o the daggerlike pin or astening.
From The Persian Wars, by Herodotus, trans. by George Rawlinson. Copyright 1942 by Random House, Inc.; reprinted with permission o Random House, Inc.
CHAPTER THREE Crete and Greece
65
FIGuRE 3.11 Greek woman wears the
Hellenistic chiton, which is belted typically high under the breasts and made of lightweight fabric that molds the body lines. (Dancing Lady, Greek, c. 50 B.C. Marble, H. 85.4cm [with case]. © The Cleveland Museum of Art, John L. Serverance Fund, 1965.24.)
FIGuRE 3.10 Figure from a
Greek vase by Thomas Hope (18th century). Woman fastens the shoulder of her Doric chiton. Notice the small weights at the end of the drapery that falls from her right shoulder. (Courtesy of Dover Publications, Inc.)
The diplax (dy'plax ), ), a small rectangle o abric
the chlamys. Its wide brim provided shade in sum-
worn by women, especially over the Ionic chiton, was draped in much the same way as the himation. The
mer or kept rain o the head. Though not Greek styles, Phrygian ( frig'ee-an) frig'ee-an) bonnets, brimless caps
chlamydon (kla'mi-don) kla'mi-don ) was a more complicated orm o the woman’s woman’s diplax in which abric was pleated into a abric band. (See Figure 3.9.) Various styles o cloaks and capes were worn or cool weather. The most notable example was the chlamys (kla'mis), kla'mis), a rectangular cloak o leather or wool pinned over the right or let shoulder. Worn by men over a chiton, especially or traveling, it could be used as a blanket or sleeping at night. (See Figure 3.13.)
with a high padded peak that ell orward, were oten depicted. Phrygian bonnets in Greek art identiy wearers as oreigners rom the Middle East. This type o hat reappears in European styles in the Middle Ages. Both men and women wore the pilos ( pi'los), pi'los), a narrow-brimmed or brimless hat with a pointed crown. HAIR AND HEADDRESS FOR WOMEN See Illustrated Table 3.1, page 66, or a cross section o
HAIR AND HEADDRESS FOR MEN See Illustrated Table 3.1, or a cross section o hair-
hairstyles or the period. In the Archaic Period, women wore their hair long
styles or the period.
in curling tresses with small curls arranged around
In the Archaic Period, long or medium-length hair and beards predominated, whereas in the Classical
the ace. In the Classical Period, it was pulled into a knot or chignon at the back o the head.
Period, young men wore short hair and no beards and
Fillets, scarves, ribbons, and caps were used to
older men longer hair and beards. Types o hats oten shown in art included ftted
confne the hair. Paintings and sculpture o women depict veils that were worn over the head and are
caps and the petasos ( pet'a-sos), pet'a-sos ), usually worn with
sometimes shown pulled across to cover the ace.
66
PART ONE The Ancient World
Illustrated Table 3.1 Examples of Hairstyles and Headdress Worn by Men and Women in Greece
Youthul male gure with
Bearded philosopher rom
short, curly hair rom
Classical Period
Youth wearing a petasos
Classical Period
Youth wearing a Phrygian bonnet
Woman’s hairstyle Women’s Women’s hairstyles depicted on Archaic Greek sculpture
depicted in Minoan wall painting
Women’s hairstyles and headdress rom Classical Period depicted on vase paintings Thomas Hope, reproduced courtesy o Dover Publications, Inc.
CHAPTER THREE Crete and Greece
67
FOOTWEAR Both men and women wore sandals. Men also wore ftted shoes, ankle high or high mid-cal length; or, or travel or warare, leather boots that laced up the ront. (See Figures 3.12, and 3.13.) JEWELRY More oten worn by women than men, jewelry consisted o necklaces, earrings, rings, decorative pins or astening the chiton, and brooches. COSMETICS Statues and vase paintings do not reveal the extent to which makeup was worn. Writings o the period do record the use o perumes. Contemporary Comments 3.2, page 69, reprints passages rom The Iliad and The Odyssey that describe not only some o the clothing worn by women, but also cosmetics and jewels.
GREEk COSTuME FOR CHILDREN: 650–300 b.c. Inants were wrapped in swaddling clothes (bands o abric wrapped around the body) and wore close-ftting, peaked caps. Swaddling babies was a common practice throughout Europe until the 19th century FIGuRE 3.12 Greek youth wearing himation. (Courtesy of Photo Arts Company.)
and was thought to prevent deormity o children’s limbs. As the Greeks emphasized bodily perection, it may be that they held similar belies. A ew repre-
FIGuRE 3.13 5th century b.c. Greek vase shows (from left to right) a woman in an Ionic chiton with a shawl drawn
over her head; a naked cupid; a goddess in a Doric chiton; a woman in an Ionic chiton, a veil over her head and a cloak over her shoulders; two men in chlamys and petasos; and a man in a himation. Older men are bearded, the youth is clean shaven. (Courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1907.)
68
PART ONE The Ancient World
sentations o inants, perhaps older ones, show them
JEWELRY
wrapped in loose cloth draperies rather than in swaddling bands.
Children wore earrings, necklaces, and bracelets, especially those in the orm o a serpent.
COSTuME COMPONENTS FOR CHILDREN
GREEk COSTuME FOR SPECIALIZED OCCuPATIONS OR OCCASIONS
Sometimes small boys are depicted in the nude.
WEDDING DRESS
School-age boys wore short, belted or unbelted chitons. Girls’ chitons were arranged much as those o
The Greek bride’s costume or weddings was laden with symbolism. (See Figure 3.14.) The wedding gar-
older women and belted in a variety o ways. Boys and
ment had some areas that were dyed purple with a
girls wore himations; those or girls were worn over a chiton and or boys, either alone or over a chiton.
costly dye obtained rom a rare type o mollusk called the murex. The bride wore a belt tied with a double
For protection outdoors, art o the period depicts
knot known as a bridal or Hercules knot. The loos-
small, rectangular cloaks with clasps on the right shoulder. Another warm garment was a long cape with
ening o this knot, which took place on the wedding night, was both a symbol o and a necessary preace
a pointed hood that either closed in ront or had an
to the sexual union o the bride and groom. Her veil,
opening through which it could be slipped over the head.
which was either a mantle pulled up over the back o the head or a separate veil, was colored yellow-orange with the dye rom
HAIR AND HEADDRESS Small children and boys had short hair. Older girls dressed their hair the same ways as women. Boys and girls wore a at-crowned hat with a heavy roll as a brim. Girls wore a high, peaked hat with a at, sti brim. FOOTWEAR
the saron plant. Saron was associated with women because o its use as a medicine or menstrual problems. Over the veil was placed the stephane or bridal crown. Beore and during the ceremony, the veil covered the bride’s ace until the ritual unveiling o the bride, the anakalypteria, took place. Not until this unveiling had either the bride or
Children were oten shown bareoot.
groom seen each other, and this part
Foot coverings included sandals and closed shoes.
o the ceremony is thought to have symbolized the bride’s willing acceptance o the groom. Both bride and groom were also crowned with laurel wreaths, a religious symbol with divine asso-
FIGuRE 3.14 Woman preparing for her
wedding. The attendant at the left is handing her the stephane, or bridal crown. The bride, on the right, has a belt—tied with a bridal knot—around her waist and is in the process of donning her bridal veil. (Oil Flask [Lekythos] in the form of an acorn © [410–400 B.C.] Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.)
ciations that was intended to gloriy the weddings o mortals. The bride also wore special sandals called
nymphides and decked hersel with elaborate jewelry. (See Figure 3.14.) Finally, the bride presented
CHAPTER THREE Crete and Greece
69
Contemporary Comments 3.2 HOMER DESCRIBES WOMEN’S GROOMING AND DRESS In The Iliad, [Book 14, lines 169–186], Homer describes how Hera, a goddess, beautifes hersel so that she may persuade the god Zeus to do something she wishes. She went to her chamber. . . . There entering she drew shut the leaves o the shining door, then rst rom her adorable body washed away all stains with ambrosia, 1 and next anointed hersel with ambrosial sweet olive oil, which stood there in its ragrance beside. . . . When with this she had anointed her delicate body and combed her hair, next with her hands she arranged the shining and lovely and ambrosial curls along her immortal head, and dressed in an ambrosial robe that Athene [another goddess] had made her careully, careully, smooth, and with many gures upon it, and pinned it across her breast with a golden brooch, and circled her waist about with a zone [belt] that foated a hundred tassels, and in the lobes o her careully pierced ears she put rings with triple drops in mulberry clusters, radiant with beauty, and, lovely among goddesses, she veiled her head downward with a sweet resh veil that glimmered pale like the sunlight. Underneath her shining eet she bound on the air sandals.
In The Odyssey, an epic describing the adventures o Odysseus, a Greek warrior, suitors who believe Odysseus is dead give presents to his wie Penelope. These gits include clothing and jewels. . . . every man sent a squire to etch a git—Aninoos a wide resplendent robe, embroidered ne, and astened with twelve brooches, pins pressed into sheathing tubes o gold; Eurymakhos, a necklace wrought in gold, with sunray pieces o clear glinting amber. Eurydamas’s men came back with pendants, ear-drops in triple clusters o warm lights; and rom the hoard o Lord Polyktor’s son, Peisandros, came a band or her white throat, jewelled adornment. 1
A sweet-smelling substance.
The Iliad o Homer. [N.D.] Translated with an introduction by Richmond Lattimore. Chicago: University o Chicago Press. Homer: The Odyssey 1961. Translated by Robert Fitzgerald. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
the groom with a tunic, a chlanis, she had woven her-
metal plates or disks mounted on abric corselets and
sel. This git probably symbolized her mastery o an
held up by shoulder straps. Helmets made o either
essential housewiely skill.
leather or bronze that had chin straps and high crests were intended to make warriors look more earsome.
MILITARY COSTuME Military costume during both the Archaic and Classical Periods varied rom one city-state to another but usually included some orm o protective clothing worn over a tunic. In the Archaic Period, soldiers wore cloaks o rough wool. They protected themselves with such devices as breastplates made rom
Greaves, shaped leather or metal protectors or the lower legs, and wide metal belts and shields provided additional protection. In the Classical Period, chlamys-style cloaks were worn. Protective devices or common soldiers included a leather cuirass (kwi-ras' ) (a modern term or a closeftting, shaped armor that covered the body), a metal
70
PART ONE The Ancient World
belt, and greaves. Heavily armed inantry wore a metal or leather cuirass with a row o leather tabs hanging down rom the cuirass at the w aist to protect the lower part o body. (See Figure 3.15.) Helmets, worn either with or without crests, became more protective. They had extended pieces to cover the cheekbones, nose, jaws, and neck. In both periods men either went bareoot, or wore high boots. THEATRICAL COSTuME The theater was important in Greece and eventually acquired a traditional style o costume through which the theatergoer could immediately identiy the characters. Male actors played all o the parts in both comedies and tragedies. Tragic actors wore a tragic mask, with either tall wigs or tuts o hair astened to the mask, and thick-soled platorm shoes. Kings, queens, gods, goddesses, happy characters, tragic fgures, and slaves were each identifed by a specifc style o dress,
FIGuRE 3.15 Greek soldier wearing leather cuirass with
tume, several reerences are listed in the Selected
suspended leather panels. Note that the cheek guards of the helmet are raised. When in use, these panels would fold down to protect the side of the face. The soldier wears greaves on his legs. (Courtesy of Dover
Readings at the end o this chapter.
Publications, Inc.)
special insignia, or color. For those who are interested in a more lengthy exploration o Greek theatrical cos-
SuMMARY VISuAL SuMMARY The accompanying Visual Summary Table illustrates
ment o Minoan styles. The resulting cross-cultural interchanges may also have inuenced some specifc
the major styles o Greek costume. Major items o
garments, such as shoes and sheep eece skirts.
Minoan dress can be seen in Figures 3.1 to 3.5.
Minoan political control o Mycenae helped to spread Minoan-inuenced styles to the mainland o
THEMES
Greece. Eventually
political confict
in the orm
Although lack o precise inormation about Minoan lie and culture limits our ability to explore themes
o the conquest o the Minoans and the Mycenaeans by outside orces closed o inormation about these
related to social lie, we can readily see the impact on
peoples or a number o centuries.
dress o themes such as the production o textiles and related technology . Skills related to weaving
The Archaic and Classical Greek Periods provide more ertile territory or identifcation o important
and dyeing, especially o wool fbers, made possible
themes.
the wide variety o highly ornamented abrics used in Minoan dress. trade, exporting textiles and importing
Some o the variations in the orms o the chiton illustrate themes such as politics, cross-cul-
dyestus to and rom other Mediterranean countries,
tural infuences,
was another actor that contributed to the develop-
The Ionic chiton was a style with non-Greek origins,
and changes in
social values.
CHAPTER THREE Crete and Greece
71
most probably a Middle Eastern style adopted by
more compatible with the social value o equality than
Greeks in Ionia, a settlement at the ar eastern end o the Mediterranean. From Ionia the style spread to
the more elaborate Ionic chiton. The shape and construction o costume or men
the mainland, where it supplanted the Doric peplos.
and or women in Greece was not markedly dier-
About 480 b.c., as a result o war with Persia, a period o intense interest in the Greek past and a denigration
ent. Nevertheless, the theme o gender roles does appear in the dress o brides br ides and in veiling o married
o oriental styles apparently led to a rejection o the
women.
Ionic chiton in avor o a new style, the Doric chiton, which represented a sort o revival o the older, older, native
Many writers have commented on similarities between certain aspects o Greek arts and dress.
Doric peplos. For men the simpler Doric chiton was
These similarities are especially notable in architec-
Visual Summary Table Major Gree Garments
Doric peplos (c. 550 b.c.)
Ionic chiton (c. 550–480 b.c.)
Doric chiton (c. 400–100 b.c.)
Himation
Chlamys (cloak) and petasos (hat)
Exomis
72
PART ONE The Ancient World
ture. Decorative motis oten appear both on buildings
Romanized Europe or the six centuries ollowing the
and as ornamentation on garments. Tall, slender Doric and Ionic building columns with their uted suraces
death o Alexander the Great. It can even be argued that its inuence in certain aspects o dress can be
have been compared to the long, pleated tubular chi-
elt until the latter part o the Middle Ages. Moreover, Moreover,
tons worn by the Greeks.
Greek inuence on dress was not limited to the civilizations that coexisted with Classical Greece. Elements o
LATER SuRVIVALS OF GREEk DRESS
Classical art have been revived during the Renaissance
The travels o the chiton do not end with the decline
(15th and 16th centuries), the Neoclassical Period (18th century), and the Empire Period (early 1800s.) In this
o Greek power. The spread o Greek settlements and
latter period a method o belting the dress high, under
Greek culture throughout the Mediterranean world resulted in the adoption o many elements o Greek
the bustline, was copied rom Hellenistic chiton styles. (See Figures 11.2 and 11.3, pages 310 and 311.)
costume by contemporary Egyptians, by the Etruscans,
Called the empire waistline, this Greek-inspired style
and, later, by the Romans in Italy. By way o Roman costume, Greek costume can
was revived periodically by ashion designers o the 20th century, many o whom looked to historic peri-
be said to have served as a basis or the costume o
ods or design inspiration. The sot, owing lines o the Greek styles seem to appeal particularly to lingerie designers and designers o evening dress.
MODERN INFLuENCES Twenty-rst century echoes o women’s dress in ancient Greece can be seen in this pleated, high-waisted, sotly fowing white gown with characteristics similar to the Doric chiton. (Courtesy of Fairchild Publications, Inc.)
NOTES Barber, E. J. W. 1991. Prehistoric Textiles. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ———. 1994. Women’s Work: the First 20,000 Years. New York: W. W. Norton. ———. 2000. Letter to the editor. Archeaology (Nov.–Dec.), p. 6. Bonante, L. 1977. Etruscan Dress. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Boucher, F. 1987. 20,000 Years of Fashion. London: Thames and Hudson. Connelly, J. B. 2007. Portrait of a Priestess: Women and Ritual in Ancient Greece. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Durant, W. 1966. The Life of Greece. The Story of Civilization, Vol. 2. New York: Simon & Schuster, p. 84. Evans, A, 1963. “Scenes rom Minoan Lie.” In J. Hawkes, ed., The World of the Past. New York: Knop. Evans, M. M. 1964. “Greek Dress.” In M. Johnson, ed., Ancient Greek Dress. Chicago: Argonaut. Faber, A. 1938. “Dress and Dress Materials in Greece and Rome.” CIBA Review, p. 297. Galt, C. 1931. “Veiled Ladies.” American Journal of Archeology, Vol. 35, No. 4, p. 373. Geddes, A. G. 1987. “Rags and Riches: The Costume o Athenian Men in the Fith Century.” Classical Quarterly, Vol. 37, No. ii, pp. 307–331.
CHAPTER THREE Crete and Greece
Houston, M. G. 1966. Ancient Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Costume. London: Adam & Charles Black. Marcar, A. 2005. “Reconstructing Aegean Bronze Age Fashion.” In L. Cleland., M. Harlow, and L. Llewellyn-Jones, eds., The Clothed Body in the Ancient World. Oxord: Oxbow, p. 34. Mylonas, G. 1966. Mycenae and the Mycenaean World. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, p. 136. Reeder, E. D. 1995. “Women and Men in Classical Greece.” In E. Reeder, ed., Pandora: Women in Classical Greece. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, p. 20. Roebuck, C. 1966. The World of Ancient Times. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, p. 366. Staord, E. J. 2005. “Viewing and Obscuring the Female Breast: Glimpse o the Ancient Bra.” In L. Cleland, M. Harlow, and L. Llewellyn-Jones, eds., The Clothed Body in the Ancient World. Oxord: Oxbow, pp. 96–110.
SELECTED READINGS Books Containing illustrations of the
Period
from
of
and
Galt, C. 1931. “Veiled Ladies.” American Journal of Archeology, Vol. 35, No. 4, p. 373. Geddes, A. G. 1987. “Rags and Riches: The Costume o Athenian Men in the Fith Century.” Classical Quarterly, Vol. 37, No. II , p. 307. Jones, B. 2000. “Revealing Minoan Fashions.” Archeology, Vol. 53, No. 3 (May/June), p. 36. Llewellyn-Jones, L. 2002. “A Woman’s View? Dress, Eroticism, and the Ideal Female Body in Athenian Art.” In L. Llewellyn-Jones, ed., Women’s Dress in the Ancient Greek World. London: Duckworth, p. 171. Peterson, S. 1981. “A Costuming Scene rom the Room o the Ladies on Thera.” American Journal of Archeology, Archeology, Vol. 85, No. 2 (Apr.), p. 211. Rebak, P. 1996. “Aegean Breechcloths, Kilts, and the Ketiu Paintings.” American Journal of Archeology. Vol. 100 (Jan.), p. 35. daily life
Costume
original sourCes
Beard, M. and J. Henderson. Henderson. 2001. Classical Art: From Greece to Rome. New York: Oxord University Press. Hale, W. H. 1985. The Horizon Book of Ancient Greece. New York: Random House. Higgins, R. 1997. Minoan and Mycenaean Art. New York: Thames and Hudson. Kaltsas, N. 2003. Ancient Greek and Roman Sculpture in the National Archaeological Museum, Athens. Los Angeles: Getty Trust. Mylonas, G. 1966. Mycenae and the Mycenaean Age. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Preziosi, D. and L. A. Hitchcock. 2000. Aegean Art and Architecture. New York: Oxord University Press. Richter, G. 1994. A Handbook of Greek Art. New York: Phaidon. PeriodiCal
73
other artiCles
Alexander, S. M., ed. 1978. “Inormation on Historical Techniques, Textiles: 1. The Classical Period.” Art and Archeology Technical Abstracts, Vol. 15, No. 2. Blundell, S. 2002. “Clutching at Clothes.” In L. LlewellynJones, ed., Women’s Dress in the Ancient Greek World. London: Duckworth, p. 143. DeBrohun, J. 2001. “Power Dressing in Ancient Greece and Rome.” History Today, February, p. 18. Faber, G. A. 1938. “Dress and Dress Materials in Greece and Rome.” CIBA Review, Vol. 1, p. 296.
Browning, R., ed. 2000. The Greek World. New York: Thames and Hudson. Castleden, R. 1993. Minoans: Life in Bronze Age Crete. New York: Routledge. Chadwick, J. 1976. The Mycenaean World. New York: Cambridge University Press. Garland, R. 1998. Daily Life of the Ancient Greeks. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Grant, M. 1992. A Social History of Greece and Rome. New York: York: Scribner/Maxwell Macmillan International. Hawkes, J. 1968. Dawn of the Gods. New York: Random House. Lekowitz, M. R. and M. B. Fant, eds. 1992. Women’s Life in Greece and Rome. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Pomeroy, S. B. 1995. Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves: Women in Classical Antiquity. New York: Schocken Books. Robinson, C. E. 1989. Everyday Life in Ancient Greece. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. greek theater Costume
Brooke, I. 2003. Costume in Greek Classic Drama. Mineola, NY: Dover. Simon, E. 1982. The Ancient Theatre. New York: Methuen. Stone, L. M. 1981. Costume in Aristophanic Poetry. Salem, NH: Ayer.
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