Notes on Criminal Law
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NEGLIGENCE & STRICT LIABILITY OUTLINE 9.1. Introduction 9.2. Negligence 9.2.1 The meaning of negligence 9.2.2 Distinguishing between criminal negligence and civil (tortious) negligence 9.2.3 Approaches to negligence as a basis for criminal responsibility 9.3. Strict Liability 9.3.1 Utilitarian Arguments 9.3.2 The Moral Justifiability of Strict Liability? 9.3.2.1 Strict Liability offences are not `real’ crimes 9.3.2.2 Strict Liability offences focus on the harm done 9.3.3 Defences to Strict Liability 9.3.4 Enforcement of Strict Liability offences SUGGESTED FURTHER READING TO DO NOTES ON TOPIC 9.1. Introduction Some commentators would argue that offences of strict liability and those that require a mental element of negligence should not figure in a discussion of mens rea at all but we shall consider them here. During this consideration, we need to bear in mind that it is open to question whether the offences that we consider are ‘mens rea’ offences at all. If these ‘states of mind’ are to be included in a hierarchy of mens rea at all then they should come at the bottom. 9.2. Negligence 9.2.1 The meaning of negligence Negligence is usually determined to be an objective state of mind and, as such, it is often difficult to determine what, if any, is the relevant difference between objective recklessness that we considered in the last topic and criminal negligence Negligence takes as its standard the actions of the ‘reasonable man’. So, if the ‘reasonable
man’ would have recognised that there was a risk of harm occurring in the circumstances in which the accused person acted or omitted to act, then the accused person will be liable even in the event that she gave no thought to the possibility of that risk. It should be obvious from this that there is a degree of overlap between the concept of negligence and the concept of Caldwell recklessness under which it is possible for an accused person to be liable where she failed to give thought to an obvious risk. However, negligence extends beyond objective recklessness to cover the person who recognises the relevant risk and takes steps in the belief that doing so will eliminate the risk but the steps taken fall below the standard of conduct to be expected from a reasonable person 9.2.2 Distinguishing between criminal negligence and civil (tortious) negligence As a starting point for a discussion of negligence we need to determine how negligence within the criminal sphere differs from negligence in the tortious sense. This distinction was explored in the Nauru case of Gairoe v. DPP [1987] SPLR 171: Facts: The appellant worked a double night shift at a phosphate works. Going home at 7 am (going in the wrong direction around the island), he fell asleep at the wheel and the car crossed the central line of the road. It crashed into another vehicle. At least one of the occupants of this other vehicle was seriously injured. The appellant was convicted under s.328 of the Criminal Code of ‘negligent driving causing bodily harm’. He was also charged with negligent driving under the Motor Traffic Act but no conviction was entered. Section 328 reads as follows: (328) Negligent Acts causing Harm. Any person who unlawfully does any act, or omits to do any act which it is his duty to do, by which an act or omission bodily harm is caused to any person is guilty of a misdemeanour, and is liable to imprisonment with hard labour for two years. Appeal: against both conviction and sentence of 2 months’ imprisonment. Held: Appeal granted. The degree of guilt needed to establish criminal guilt under the Criminal Code is ‘gross or culpable negligence’ and there is a distinction between that standard and the lesser standard of completely objective negligence that pertains under the Motor Traffic Act. The appeal judge found that the evidence was not sufficient to satisfy the test that the magistrate had applied; i.e. that the negligence that had to be established was subjective in nature rather than purely objective as would be the case if it was civil negligence that had to be established. The judgment also refers to the case of Rex. v. Bateman (1925) 94 L.J.K.B. 791 in which Lord
Hewart drew the distinction between criminal negligence and civil negligence along the following lines: In explaining to juries the test which they should apply to determine whether the negligence, in the particular case, amounted or did not amount to a crime, the Judges have used many epithets such as ‘culpable’, ‘criminal’, ‘gross’, ‘wicked’, ‘clear’, ‘complete’. But, whatever epithet can be used and whether an epithet be used or not , in order to establish criminal liability the facts must be such that, in the opinion of the jury, the negligence of the accused went beyond a mere matter of compensation between subjects and showed such disregard for the life and safety of others as to amount to a crime against the State and conduct deserving punishment. So, criminal negligence is negligence that is to such a degree as to remove the actions or omissions of the offender from the wholly private sphere into the public remit of the criminal law. 9.2.3 Approaches to negligence as a basis for criminal responsibility Should negligence be sufficient to act as a fault element in terms of leading to a finding of criminal culpability? Whilst it is possible to see that negligence is a fault element, it is undeniable that it is a fault element of a significantly lesser degree than those fault elements that come at the top of our hierarchy of mens rea: namely intention and subjective recklessness. Within the UK jurisdiction there are very few crimes that recognise negligence as the sole basis for founding criminal liability (We will not consider the law relating to gross negligence manslaughter here but will look at it later in the course when we examine homicide offences). However, in some circumstances, in relation to particular offences, negligence is deemed to be the sole basis for imposing criminal liability So, for example, s.3 of the Road Traffic Act 1988 (as substituted by s.2 of the Road Traffic Act 1991) makes it an offence to drive a motor vehicle on a road without due care and attention or without reasonable consideration for other persons using the road (careless driving). See McCrone v. Riding [1938] 1 All ER in which Lord Hewart CJ defined the standard of driving that should apply in the following terms: That standard is an objective standard, impersonal and universal, fixed in relation to the safety of other users of the highway. It is in no way related to the degree of proficiency or degree of experience to be attained by the individual driver. (At p.158). We considered when we looked at Caldwell type recklessness that it did not really satisfy the criteria of being a ‘state of mind’ because it, in fact, led to the attachment of criminal liability where there was an absence of a state of mind. It would appear to be evident that negligence fails to fit into the classical definition of mens rea for exactly the same reasons...it is concerned with a failure to exercise due care or consideration, a failure to appreciate the risks attendant on a given action, omission or course of conduct.
However, Hart has countered this criticism by identifying that failing to think or give due consideration to the risk of harm arising out of a given act or course of conduct is not and, indeed, should not be deemed to be any less culpable or criminally responsible than any other `state of mind’: ...a hundred times a day persons are blamed outside the law courts for not being more careful, for being inattentive and not stopping to think...[I]f anyone is ever responsible for anything, there is no general reason why men should not be responsible for omissions to think, or to consider the situation and its dangers before acting. ("Negligence, Mens Rea and Criminal Responsibility" in Hart: Punishment and Responsibility; pp. 1512 as cited in Clarkson & Keating). A similar problem or criticism exists in relation to negligence as does in relation to objective recklessness. It is that it is difficult to accept that negligence should be accepted as a recognisable fault element so long as there is no recognition of the fact that some defendants are impaired in such a way as to make it impossible for them to avoid being negligent and, therefore, that such persons should not be deemed to be as equally morally culpable as those persons who are capable of avoiding being negligent but neglect to do so, for whatever reason. One exception to the law’s reluctance to attach criminal liability to negligence is in relation to ‘gross negligence manslaughter’ which we will examine in more detail when we look at homicide offences 9.3. Strict Liability A strict liability offence is one in which there is no requirement of mens rea in relation to one or more elements of the actus reus. Sometimes these offences are described as ‘absolute’ but this is misleading as it implies that there are no defences available to someone who has been charged with such an offence. Within the UK jurisdiction, most strict liability offences are statutory in origin and are often described as regulatory in nature. So, for example, there are strict liability offences within the realm of the law relating to various sorts of licensing and also in relation to the selling of foodstuffs whether in connection with food hygiene or in relation to weights and measures. Strict liability offences also exist in relation to issues of pollution. See Alphacell v. Woodward [1972] A.C. 824 In this case, the defendants were convicted under s. 2(1)(a) of the Rivers (Prevention of Pollution) Act 1951 for causing polluted water to enter a river. It was held that the fact that they had no knowledge that the pollution was taking place and that they mistakenly thought that their filtering system was operating effectively did not constitute a defence. The existence of such offences and the fact that persons can be criminally liable without the prosecution being under any obligation to address the issue of mens rea in relation to one or more elements of the actus reus of an offence would seem to be in direct conflict with
everything that we have considered about how the law does and, indeed, should construct criminal liability If we consider again the purposes of punishment (which is underlying to all other concerns when considering the development and operation of the criminal law) we can identify two central concerns that need to be addressed in relation to strict liability: 1. Can strict liability be justified in terms of deterrence or some other utilitarian ground? 2. Is it a doctrine that can be justified morally? Packer has attacked the concept of strict liability on the basis that it fails both of these tests: To punish conduct without reference to the actor’s state of mind is both inefficacious and unjust. It is inefficacious because conduct unaccompanied by an awareness of the factors making it criminal does not mark the actor as one who needs to be subjected to punishment in order to deter him (sic) or others from behaving similarly in the future, nor does it single him out as a socially dangerous individual who needs to be incapacitated or reformed. It is unjust because the actor is subjected to the stigma of a criminal conviction without being morally blameworthy. (As cited in Clarkson & Keating). 9.3.1 Utilitarian Arguments One justification for the creation of strict liability offences might be that it is in the interests of society that persons engaged in certain sorts of conduct be required to perform to the highest standards of care. The harm that might arise from them failing to do so is so serious in nature as to justify not allowing them any defence such as `reasonable mistake’ In addition, it might be argued that in the interests of the administration of justice, it is justified that the prosecution is not required to adduce proof of the mental element in question in order to save on the time and other resources of the courts. This is sometimes referred to as the ‘expediency’ justification or argument. Of course, it is not a very effective justification for the creation of statutory offences in which it is not necessary for the prosecution to prove mens rea in relation to one element of the actus reus but the need to prove mens rea in relation to all the other elements remains. 9.3.2 The Moral Justifiability of Strict Liability? The centrality of mens rea to the development of and thinking about criminal law means that some commentators have argued that strict liability offences are unacceptable because persons who take all possible care to avoid harm but fail to do so are not morally blameworthy and should not be subject to the sanction of the criminal law. This criticism has been addressed on two levels: 9.3.2.1 Strict Liability offences are not `real’ crimes Such a position seems to be reinforced in the UK where strict liability offences are
predominantly tried in the magistrates’ court and where they attract the most lenient sentences, in the event of a conviction, such as fines. But it is not a very strong argument and has been criticised on more than one occasion. It seems less than satisfactory to resort to an argument such as this within a discussion that has at its heart issues of culpability, responsibility and punishment. If strict liability offences are not ‘real’ crimes, then surely the criminal law is an inappropriate means of punishing the conduct involved whether such conduct takes the form of commission or omission. In addition, if such an argument is accepted, then the offences concerned may become ‘marginalised’ so that they are not taken seriously by anyone including the people who are committing them and this, in turn, must only undermine any deterrent effect that the creation of such offences and enforcement of the law in relation to them might have. 9.3.2.2 Strict Liability offences focus on the harm done Wootton argues that it is justifiable to expand the scope of strict liability offences on the basis that to create such offences and subsequently to prosecute those who commit them is in the interests of protecting society from harm. She maintains that the moral culpability of an individual offender is irrelevant in such an exercise: If, however, the primary function of the courts conceived as the prevention of forbidden acts, there is little cause to be disturbed by the multiplication of offences of strict liability. If the law says that certain things are not to be done, it is illogical to confine this prohibition to occasions on which they are done from malice aforethought; for at least the material consequences of an action, and the reasons for prohibiting it, are the same whether it is the result of sinister malicious plotting, of negligence or of sheer accident. A man is equally dead and his relatives equally bereaved whether he was stabbed or run over by a drunken motorist or by an incompetent one...(As cited in Clarkson & Keating). Whilst there are elements of such an argument that seem both persuasive and appealing, it is flawed in two ways. First, it presumes that the primary function of the courts is to prevent harm but it is not necessarily the case that all commentators would agree that this is indeed the case. Neither is it certain that the courts perceive their role in such terms. Second, if one were to take Wootton’s argument further it is evident that the law would be required to criminalise persons such as doctors for undertaking acts such as experimental surgery in the event that a patient died regardless of such other issues as the social utility of the activity in question. It is certainly the case that a preoccupation with the complexities of mens rea can lead the criminal law to be overly concerned with an individual offender to the exclusion of other relevant concerns such as the resulting harm. But it is not evident that referring to such harm as the central if not the sole factor for determining criminal responsibility necessarily solves more problems than it creates. 9.3.3 Defences to Strict Liability As has already been mentioned, it would be incorrect to describe strict liability offences as
‘absolute’ as such terminology would preclude the possibility of an accused person being able to rely on any defence to such a charge. In the case of Hill and Baxter [1958] 1 QB 277, the defendant successfully pleaded a defence of automatism to a charge of dangerous driving which is a strict liability offence. There is no reason to suppose that any of the general defences that we will consider in later topics would be unavailable to a defendant charged with an offence of strict liability. In addition, it may be the case that the statute that creates a strict liability offence actually provides a defence within the legislation itself. Such defences are often referred to as ‘due diligence’ defences and are based on a demonstration of an absence of fault. So, for example, s.21 of the Food Safety Act 1990 (UK) creates a defence of due diligence to the offence (created in s.14) of selling food which is not of the nature or substance or quality demanded. The defence is worded in the following terms: In any proceedings for an offence under any of the preceding provisions of this Part...it shall...be a defence for the person charged to prove that he took all reasonable precautions and exercised all due diligence to avoid the commission of the offence by himself or by a person under his control. 9.3.4 Enforcement of Strict Liability offences Even leaving aside the theoretical or principled objections to strict liability offences that have already been outlined, in practical terms further criticism has been levelled at what appears to be selective enforcement of such offences. This is particularly the case in relation to regulatory agencies who ‘police’ such crimes (adding to the perception that such offences are not really crimes at all because they do not come under the remit of ‘normal’ policing carried out by the police service). An example of such a regulatory agency that is often criticised in this regard is the Health & Safety Executive. Such agencies have justified their policies of selective enforcement by reference to the fact that it would not be practicable or even productive to prosecute every infringement of the legislation that came to their attention, and this would seem to be incontrovertibly true. In identifying those situations in which the prosecution route is taken by the HSE reference has been made to deliberate flouting of the law or recklessness as to (non)compliance with the relevant rules. So, even if fault is not a part of the definition of the offence, it certainly seems the case that issues of fault have a part to play in the decision as to whether or not a particular offence will be prosecuted. Of course, other agencies may adopt different approaches to enforcement leading to even more selectivity. Such selective enforcement is problematic, not least because it reinforces the perception that strict liability offences are not ‘real’ crimes at all and are not taken seriously even by those people whose job it is to police them.
SUGGESTED FURTHER READING Gairoe v. DPP [1987] SPLR 171. Public Prosecutor v. Andre Montaigne (19801988) 1 Van LR 209. Allen; chapter 4. Clarkson & Keating; pp.197216. HungerfordWelch, P. & Taylor, A. (1997) Sourcebook on Criminal Law; Cavendish: London; chapter 14. Wasik, M. (1982) "Shifting the Burden of Strict Liability" in Criminal Law Review; pp.567574. Peiris, G.L. (1983) "Strict liability in Commonwealth criminal law" in Legal Studies 3: 117145. Richardson, G. (1987) "Strict Liability for Regulatory Crime: The Empirical Research" in Criminal Law Review: pp. 295306.
TO DO • Read over the notes again and make sure that you understand everything that is written. In particular, make sure that you know the meanings of the words and phrases that are written in bold type and underlined. • Make a note of anything that you do not understand and bring it with you to the workshop so that you can ASK the lecturer to explain it to you. • Select one or two of the Suggested Further Readings to read and think about. This will give you more information about this topic. • Prepare outline answers to the Review Questions to assist with your revision of this topic. • Look at the relevant legislation in a South Pacific jurisdiction and see if you can identify an example of a
‘strict liability’ offence.
Criminal law notes — Presentation Transcript • 1. Criminal Law Notes • 2. I. 2 Main Forms of Law A. Civil Lawgoverns relationship between individuals or corporations in a society 1. malpractice suits, ownership disputes, breach of contract, etc. 2. The plaintiff usually seeks monetary damages • 3. B. Criminal Law 1. Felony—serious criminal offense, may be punishable with prison for a year or more or by death a. 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th degree b. Degrees of Murderi. 1st premeditated (some degree of planning), and deliberated (done on purpose) ii. 2ndonly malice aforethought (intent to inflict serious bodily harm, or to act with wanton disregard for consequences of actions). • 4. iii. Voluntary Manslaughter homicide without malice (maybe during a sudden quarrel) iv. Involuntary Manslaughter Killings that result from negligence didn't mean to, but should have known better. (Mainly motor vehicle deaths.) • 5. 2. Misdemeanorany crime that is not a felony. Less serious. a. Gross misdemeanor punishable by incarceration, usually in a local jail, for 30 days to 1 year. b. Petty misdemeanor— minor offense, less than 30 days in jail c. Violationticketable offense, doesn't go on criminal record. • 6. II. Sources of Criminal LawA. Constitutional law 1. Supreme law of the landB. Statutory law1. Enacted by legislative bodies 2. Can be overturned by (A)C. Administrative Law 1. rules and regulations from government agencies. a. pricefixing, health code violations, EPA violations…D. Case Law 1. law made by court decisions based on their interpretations of the other laws • 7. III. Final Note:Laws are subject to interpretation and may be modified as social norms change.a. You probably noticed in Helter Skelter that homosexual acts were considered criminal. The US Supreme Court struckdown remaining “antisodomy” laws in 2003. Such laws had already been repealed in 37 states. new
LECTURE NOTES FOR CRIMINAL LAW 1. Fundamentals of Criminal Law 2. Limits of Criminal Law 3. Principles of Criminal Liability 4. Accomplices and Parties to Crime 5. Inchoate Offenses 6. Defenses to Crime 7. Homicide Law 8. Advanced Homicide Law 9. Assault and Battery 10. Crimes Against Habitation 11. Theft Law 12. Forgery and Fraud Offenses 13. Crimes Against Public Order 14. Crimes Against the Government 15. Crimes By the Government 2.
FUNDAMENTALS OF CRIMINAL LAW: An Overview of Basic Ideas "Laws were made to be broken" (John Wilson) There's more truth to the above phrase than you might think. Criminal law is only a small part of the entire field of law, and one of the most recent, inconsistent, and undeveloped areas of law. A long time ago, tribal societies handled their differences in private. Some modern societies still do, like the civil law systems of France or Germany. The decisions over what was wrong and what was right were left in the hands of the people. Things like folkways, mores, customs, and norms took care of most problems. By contrast, everything about criminal law in America today (defining, classifying, grading, prohibiting, and punishing) is in the hands of the legislature or lawmaking body for each jurisdiction. Crimes are "owned" by the state, prosecuted by the state in its own name, and the only thing separating a Civil Wrong from a Criminal Wrong is a fine line that exists only because the legislature says it exists. To be fair, the government says it's doing it because of a duty or obligation to protect certain basic, underlying "societal interests" that cannot be taken care of by citizens themselves, who should be free to enjoy other, more sublime pursuits. This paternalistic stance is a rather rudimentary form of the idea of Social Contract, a relatively weak philosophical position that doesn't benefit minorities very well (majority rule: minority right). It's in direct opposition to the idea of Natural Law, among other things, which hold that there are certain universal elements to morality and individual conscience that don't necessarily require the coercive power of the state nor government intervention in human affairs. Natural Law, unfortunately, doesn't provide much specific guidance for rulemaking and it doesn't benefit women very well (woman as caretaker to man). The Constitution of the United States is largely written in terms of Natural Law which acts as a check on Social Contractoriented judgemade law which by its paternalistic nature is designed for the betterment of society, sometimes called Positive Law. Natural Law Positive Law
Congress shall make no law ... prohibiting the freedom of speech or other forms of personal expression. The judge ruled that the defendant had violated paragraph 101b of the Criminal Code for making obscene remarks via email and was sentenced to a precedentsetting 2 years in prison.
The best way to understand the "societal interests" that law serves is to look at the Classification of Statutory Law system. This remarkably consistent scheme varies little from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, and (with the exception of Environmental Crime) has been around since the 16th Century.
Crimes against the Treason, Sedition, Espionage state
Protection of National Security
Crimes against persons
Murder, Manslaughter, Rape, Kidnapping, Assault, Battery
Protection of Persons against Violence
Crimes against habitation
Burglary, Arson, Home Invasion
Protection of Safety and Security in One's Home
Crimes against property
Theft, Larceny, Robbery, Vandalism, Forgery, Extortion, Fraud, Protection of Private Property Embezzlement
Crimes against public order
Disorderly Conduct, Vagrancy, Incitement to Riot, Motor Vehicle Offenses, Alcohol & Drugs
Protection of the Public Peace, Order, and Safety
Crimes against Resisting Arrest, Obstruction of Preserving Honest and Efficient administration of Justice, Bribery, Escape, Contempt of Public Administration justice Court Crimes against public morals
Prostitution, Sodomy, Obscenity, Incest, Indecent Exposure, Gambling, Maintaining Traditional Morality Alcohol & Drugs
Crimes against nature
Bestiality, Animal Abuse
Maintaining Separation of Species, Public Health
Crimes against environment
Pollution, Fishing & Hunting, Smoking, Toxic Waste Dumping
Preserving Public Health and Natural Environment
It should be apparent by now that ALL CRIME IS AN INJURY AGAINST SOCIETY. Indeed, there doesn't even have to be a victim (victimless crimes) or someone to complain about it (consensual sex acts). Society as a whole, via its legislatures, has presumably made a collective judgment that certain behaviors are harmful to certain "societal interests". This bring us to the MOST important characteristic of Criminal Law: CRIMINAL LAW IS DISTINGUISHED FROM ALL OTHER KINDS OF LAW BECAUSE IT CARRIES WITH IT THE MORAL CONDEMNATION OF ALL OF SOCIETY. The essence of Criminal Law is its common punishment (Hart 1958). No matter what the offense, from felony to misdemeanor to infraction (or violation), the reaction expresses the moral contempt of society. Even for a minor traffic violation, there's always the slightest hint of having injured society and broken the collective, agreedupon rules. No matter how many times a parent scolds a child by saying "what would society think", it doesn't carry the same force as when it's implied by official reaction. The concept of Crime is closely tied to the idea of Criminal Law, but not in any simple way. The
connections are expressed in two ancient principles. nullum crimen sine poena
no crime without punishment
nulla poena sine lege
no punishment without law
It would be an immense oversimplification to say something like "Crime is what the Criminal Law is all about." The reasons are twofold. First of all, the Criminal Law is not just about Crime. It defines crime and its elements, to be sure, but it also provides the impetus for voluntary, positive, moral action, and as Samaha (1999) puts it, "a last resort as a method of social control." It's useful to think of Criminal Law as a set of both Proscriptive (prohibited) AND Prescriptive (preferred) rules for conduct. This is best understood by the oxymoron "crimes of omission" and here's some examples of these prescriptive rules:
Failure to remain at the scene of an accident Failure to aid a police officer when requested to do so Failure to report a death or location of a corpse Failure by a parent or guardian to provide adequate food, clothing, shelter, medical care, supervision, etc., for a child Failure to come to the assistance, or to summon police, for a crime victim (Good Samaritan laws) Failure to leave the area when told by a public official to do so Failure to properly identify yourself when lawfully asked to do so Failure to submit to a breathanalyzer (or other) test when lawfully required Failure to obey an order of a court
It's best not to think of these things as Crimes. They are moral or ethical commitments known as the law behind the law (Gardner & Anderson 1996). They are supposed to compel people to conform to a higher standard of conduct which is prescribed, not proscribed by the Criminal Law. They are Omissions. The second reason why Crime and Criminal Law are not the same is because Crime is all about blameworthiness, culpability, and a whole bunch of other concepts to be explained later. "Breaking the law" may involve a moral lapse, accident, or mistake. "Crime" ordinarily involves something deeper which is unjustifiable and inexcusable. Sometimes the distinction is made by saying that the Criminal Law is amoral (a set of impersonal, rational rules) and that Crime always involves morality. Another way of saying this is that a person accused of Crime is being tried for being a certain kind of person. Socalled Status Offenses, like vagrancy and curfew violation, make it clear that certain stations or conditions in life are criminal in themselves. The status of "criminal" is supposed to be reserved for the worst outcasts from society. The oldest way of Classifying Crime is to make three (3) distinctions: 1. Crimes "mala in se" Acts which are wrong in themselves. Anything wrong under Natural Law and virtually every act proscribed under Common Law is mala in se. The
conduct is unlawful because the transaction or contact between people is unnatural or immoral. Examples include murder, rape, burglary, and so forth. 2. Crimes "mala prohibita" Acts which are wrong because prohibited. Anything that interferes with Positive Law and much of Statutory Law is mala prohibita. The conduct is unlawful because it infringes on other's rights or just because it is prohibited. Examples include drunk driving, gambling, and so forth. 3. Crimes "distinguished from torts" Most crimes are also torts, the technical term for civil wrongs which are redressed by damages. Victims can sue criminals in tort action, and double jeopardy does not prohibit tort and criminal action for the same conduct. Tort Law grew out of Criminal Law, and involves the concepts of fault and liability but does not carry the social condemnation of Criminal Law. That's why a different standard of proof (preponderance of the evidence) exists for torts, whereas crime requires proving moral certainty or beyond a reasonable doubt. Examples include libel, slander, trespass, wrongful death, and so forth. Another way of Classifying Crime is to focus on the potential penalties imposed: 1. Capital Felonies Crimes which are punishable by death, or in states without the death penalty, life imprisonment without parole. An example would be aggravated murder. 2. Felonies Broadly defined, crimes which are punishable by a year or more in a prison. Historically, a serious crime involving forfeiture of all worldly possessions, imprisonment, and/or death. Another definition is an infamous crime, one which by its nature or character indicates a depravity in perpetration or intent to pervert justice and propagate falsehood that forever destroys the accused's credibility. Examples include murder, manslaughter, rape, larceny, robbery, arson, sodomy, mayhem, and in the case of infamous crime, anything involving falsehood, like treason, forgery, perjury, or bribery. 3. Gross Misdemeanors Broadly defined, misdemeanors are crimes punishable by jail sentences, fines, or both. A gross misdemeanor is a very great, or high, misdemeanor, typically carrying a sentence of close to a year in jail. They often involve moral turpitude, which by their commission imply a base, vile, or depraved nature regarding the private and social duties which a person owes to others or to society in general. It implies something is immoral in itself. Examples include obscenity, profanity, and solicitation. The doctrine of merger requires that if a misdemeanor is part of a felony, the less important crime ceases to have an independent existence and is merged into the felony, but this does not apply to lesser included offenses common in plea bargaining nor prosecutorial overcharging common in creating the impression of multiple counts which are really multiple degrees of the same offense. 4. Ordinary Misdemeanors Misdemeanors that typically carry sentences in the 90 to 180 day range. An example would include drunk driving, but varies by jurisdiction. The higher the misdemeanor, the more substantial the right to a jury trial. 5. Petty Misdemeanors Relatively minor misdemeanors that typically carry sentences in the 30day range. An example would include public drunkenness, but varies by jurisdiction. It has only been since 1972 that people accused of minor misdemeanors have had the right to representation by counsel.
6. Infractions (or violations) Typically these are traffic offenses or the breaking of municipal ordinances which are punishable only by suspension of privileges (Administrative Law) or fines (QuasiCriminal Law). Technically, they are not even Crimes since they do not result in a record of criminal conviction in most jurisdictions. However, it is possible to be jailed on a violation if the city in question has a municipal court. Such a court can impose a fine, but they cannot imprison for failure to pay the fine, only for failure to comply with a court order. A municipality is also not a legitimate law making body. Only state legislatures are. Municipalities are corporations approved by state legislatures, and they serve at the whim of the state legislature unless they have established home rule. Municipalities are the only corporations allowed to charter their municipal ordinances as their bylaws. Most ordinances do not state the penalties, but some do (Chamelin & Evans 1991). The best way of Classifying Crime is to use a jurisprudential approach. Jurisprudence has many meanings (see list) but generally refers to the science or philosophy of law as a whole. This method elucidates many of the more advanced concepts in Criminal Law. According to at least one legal scholar (Hall, 1949), any Crime has 7 elements, which I will first list, and then go into detail by number. By definition, a crime is any: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
legally proscribed (the concept of Legality) human conduct (the concept of Actus Reus) causative (the concept of Causation) of a given harm (the concept of Social Harm) which coincides with (the concept of Concurrence) a blameworthy frame of mind (the concept of Mens Rea) for which punishment is provided. (the concept of Punishment)
(#1) The concept of Legality combines the two principles we learned earlier, and says there can be no crime without law. There must be public respect for the law, for the office if not the office holders (which is the concept of legitimacy). Laws not based on societal norms are unlikely to gain general compliance. America's experiment with Prohibition from 19201933 is an example. If the principle of Legality is maintained, governments can inflict pain on its citizens because it will be seen that those who are punished are those who deserved to be punished from a societal standpoint. So how does a government go about creating Legality? (Class discussion) The answer is that there are at least 3 ways, 2 of which are derived from the writings of classical thinkers like Jeremy Bentham and Max Weber, and another derived from an unknown, mysterious source. 1. Cognoscibility (Bentham) This term describes a cognitive state when the law is so precise and easytounderstand that citizens can easily advise themselves on what they can and cannot do. Now, Bentham believed in Utility being more of an ultimate value than Justice (truly a Positive Law theorist), but the basic idea is similar to the theme of the old TV show, Beretta, "Don't do the Crime if you Can't do the Time". If the laws are selectively few in number and the punishments are carefully calculated, standardized, and wellknown, then people will "know" that the law is fair and just across the land. That's
legality. No loopholes, no exceptions, no travesties of justice. Everyone gets a fair deal. 2. RationalLegal Authority (Weber) This is the opposite of kadi justice, where a bunch of judges, jurors, pundits, or other experts make up the law on a case by case basis. The essence of rationallegal authority is that there is a system of abstract rules applied to concrete cases. There's a reason or logic behind every legal decision. No personalities involved. No appeals to tradition. Just stonecold professionals (kind of like the old TV show, Dragnet, "Just the Facts") working diligently toward everincreasing rationalization of the machinery of justice. 3. Rule of Law (unknown origin) Welcome to the fuzziest concept of all in Criminal Law. Lawyers claim to have an instinct for it, and it's said that only people who go to law school can ever understand it (Fletcher 1996). There's not much to go on with dictionaries or encyclopedias (Class assignment: Library and Internet search for definition), except for something extremely brief like "a principle, guide or norm that decisions should be made by the application of known principles, sometimes called the supremacy of law" (West 1984). That definition is a sham, and this lofty concept deserves better; so here goes. Rule of Law connotes Law with a capital L. There's no word for the meaning of law with a capital L in the English language. Other cultures have words like Recht (German), Droit (French), Pravo (Russian), Derecho (Spanish), and Mishpat (Hebrew). The closest English equivalent would be "Right", a term that appears in the translation of some important philosophical works, like Hegel's Philosophy of Right. It denotes a vision of government based on ideal Law, and was, ironically, referred to quite extensively during Nazi Germany in the notion of a Rechtsstaat. (#2) The concept of Actus Reus (a phrase meaning evil or bad deed) is derived from an old Latin phrase, and in many ways, is what separates Criminology from Theology because as much as we might like to, those of us who work with criminals all the time cannot be concerned with, nor inclined to punish, bad thoughts. Government is not concerned with evil unless it is manifested in behavior. Religion is concerned with evil as manifested in thought. actus non facit reum nisi mens sit rea:
an act does not make a person guilty unless the mind is guilty
It is important to understand the legal definition of "behavior". An involuntary jerk of the knee while having your reflexes checked is behavior, but not legal behavior. Psychologists also talk about being able to condition someone to do something, like make them brush their hair back while speaking, without their knowing about it. This is also not behavior in the legal sense. The word in social science that comes closest to the legal definition of behavior is "action". Action is always conscious, voluntary, and purposive behavior. There's a line in Shakespeare's Hamlet where the gravedigger ponders Ophelia's drowning, and asks "Did the water come to Ophelia or did Ophelia come to the water." The difference is one of accidental death vs. suicide. Or take guns, for instance, "Does the finger pull the trigger or does the trigger pull the finger." To take another example, lawyers would claim there's a good deal of difference between someone thrusting their sword into someone who is standing still, and someone holding their sword outstretched while the victim comes running into it. The "action", you see, is different in each
case and for each party to the crime, and although you and I may think it seems like splitting hairs, it's quite an important part of legal reasoning. There are certain criminal offenses where the act alone is all that's necessary to convict someone. These are called Strict Liability crimes (as opposed to True crimes which require both body and mind). Examples of strict liability include weapon offenses, traffic offenses, drug & alcohol offenses, public health laws, corporate crime, and littering. There's no need to prove an accompanying mental state because the Criminal Law imposes liability without fault. Such laws came about during the 1930s to better protect the public and workers from unsafe products and unsafe working conditions. The tradeoff in this arrangement is that strict liability offenses are usually only punishable by a fine. They're a controversial area of Criminal Law (case review: People v. Hager). There's more. From a legal point of view, "communication" is a form of action. A whole set of laws exist for what are called Inchoate crimes (incomplete crimes), such as conspiracy, attempt, possession, solicitation, terrorist threats, assault, sexual harassment, inciting to riot, aiding and abetting, and being an accomplice or accessory. Once again, mental state is irrelevant because the criminal statutes have usually described the behavior so well that the principle of Vicarious Liability applies. Anybody who participates in the planning, design, or coverup of a crime is subject to the same penalties as a person who actually carries it out. This is a controversial area, and in all fairness, some statutues require a combination of communication (words) and conduct (deeds), but then again, once you open the door to combinations, evidence of bad thoughts may even be admissible. The closest term we have for when wicked thoughts are assumed to apply to the act (and the intent) is Malice. (#3) The concept of Causation is one of the more advanced concepts in Criminal Law. An act by itself is not punishable in itself because it's assumed to be the cause of something else, the effect, or social harm that the Criminal Law is presumably more concerned with, and all crimes are cause and effect relationships. Establishing a causeandeffect relationship is no simple matter with legal reasoning, or for that matter in any social science. Suppose, for example, you beat up somebody, knocked them unconscious, and threw them in a dumpster. You walk off, and a few minutes later, a garbage truck comes down the alley, empties the dumpster, and crushes the poor fellow to death. Who killed him? You or the garbage truck driver? (Other examples for discussion: hospital infections, surgery complications, being run over, bitten by a dog, exposure to elements, struck by lightening)
The most important types of causes in Criminal Law are "causes in fact" (also called direct causes), proximate causes (also called legal causes), intervening causes, and superceding causes. Each of these have special rules or tests designed for them: Direct cause
The "but for" test The accused's act will be the cause in fact of a result if, but for the accused's act, the result would not have occured.
Proximate cause
The "foreseeability" test If it is foreseeable that the resulting harm might occur, then the person doing the original criminal act is responsible for the consequences.
The general rule is that the accused will remain responsible for the original Intervening cause criminal act even if there are intervening causes between the actus reus and actual injury. The general rule is that the chain of causation is broken, and the accused is Superceding cause not responsible, if there is a superceding cause so unforeseen and unpredictable that it would not be fair to hold the original actor to blame. (#4) The concept of Social Harm is a fairly undeveloped concept in Criminal Law, and it's what separates Criminology from Victimology. The Criminal Law exists for a public purpose, not private purposes. The Criminal Law is not concerned with the protection or vindication of individual victims, but rather society as a whole. The general rule has always been if a victim wants compensation, they should sue the offender after the state gets done with them. The problem, of course, is that most offenders are broke. There has been a trend in recent years to incorporate more victim assistance, compensation, and restitution in the plea bargaining stage of criminal justice. The additional problem is that there are a whole set of laws called Victimless crimes, such as sodomy, fornication, adultery, cohabitation, obscenity, fortunetelling, dueling, loansharking, gambling, drunkenness, and drug use, where only some of the American people believe society is the victim. The Law is not supposed to cave in to public opinion, but take the examples of abortion or drug legalization, and you begin to see what the problems are from not clearly articulating social harm. Progress on the victimology front is fine, but there are more serious "law and order" problems that can only be addressed by development of this concept. It's conceivable that development of the concept is stiffled because of a onesided focus on Street crime at the expense of Suite crime. While the average take of a street robber may be $25, American citizens won't recover from the effects of whitecollar crimes like the Savings & Loan bailout until Social Security runs out. (Class discussion with possible sidetrips to Radical Criminology) (#5) The concept of Concurrence requires that any act (actus reus) causing social harm must coincide, or be accompanied, with a criminal state of mind (mens rea). Both act and intent must concur in point of time. It's part of a formula in Criminal Law: ACT + INTENT + RESULT = CRIME DEFENSES There must exist a fusion, a coming together of act and intent. Normally, the intent comes first in
time, leading to the carrying out of the act. For example, it is not murder to accidently shoot someone and rejoice afterwards because mens rea follows actus reus. Another example: suppose your friend tells you to meet her at her house, and if she's late, to go ahead and break the lock on the door. OK, you do that, and once inside, you decide to steal her VCR. You have not committed burglary because your intent to steal came after breaking and entering. There is no specific length of time that the intent must exist prior to the act, only that they come together concurrently. The legal requirement of concurrence is usually taken care of by proving Motive. Intent and motive are not the same thing. In Criminal Law, motive is that which leads or tempts the mind to indulge in a criminal act, such as an impulse, incentive, or reason for commiting the crime. Intent is the mind being fully aware of the consequences. Many criminal statutes require intent as an element of the crime, but motive is never stated as an essential element of a crime in any criminal statute. Motive can be used to assist in establishing intent, but more likely, motive is introduced as a piece of evidence, often circumstantial, admitted along with evidence of opportunity, to impress the judge or jury. The presence of motive is evidence tending to presume guilt, and the absence of motive is evidence tending to presume innocence. (#6) The concept of Mens Rea (a phrase meaning evil or bad mind) is a welldeveloped concept, and perhaps the most complex and confusing concept in Criminal Law. Several problems contribute to this complexity. All 50 states are free to establish their own Precedent which results in disparate requirements of intent for similar crimes, there are distinctly different common law and Model Penal Code (MPC) definitions of mens rea, the notion of Blameworthiness is not precisely attached to certain types of mens rea and indeed may be more useful in defenses to crime, and finally, to successfully prosecute a case, a different type of mens rea may be needed to help establish the actus reus, concurrence, or other circumstance element stated in the criminal statute. The best way to understand mens rea (often mislabeled Intent) is to realize that it is always invisible. You can't really prove intent like you can with motive. You also can't really blame someone for their motive (it's understandable), only for their intent. Intent is different for every person and for every case, and it's impossible as well as futile to get inside the "mind" of each and every criminal offender. Confessions are the closest thing to direct evidence of mens rea, and even then, they must be corroborated. Therefore, the Criminal Law has established certain objective tests for inferring the subjective mental state (intent) of criminal offenders. To do this requires certain assumptions about Responsibility, and by adding in the rules for inferring intent, called determining Culpability, we arrive at a way to attach Blameworthiness. BLAMEWORTHINESS = RESPONSIBILITY + CULPABILITY Let's take the assumptions about responsibility first. It's easy. This is a given in Criminal Law. The entire criminal justice system operates on the assumption of Free Will. Much to the chagrin of psychologists, sociologists, and sociobiologists who have argued for years that human behavior is determined by forces beyond individual control, the criminal justice system assumes that every human being possesses free will and makes choices that they must be responsible for. Notice I
didn't say "accountable for" because we haven't yet reached the point where we can attach blame. The free will assumption has been called the theoretical underpinning of Criminal Law. It's important to understand the theory before making any assessment of it. Without getting into philosophical notions of Justice, there are two downtoearth reasons for the free will assumption. One is that the system could not operate efficiently if we took the time to closely examine the psychological makeup of each and every individual. The second reason is that there is a whole other side to the justice system, called Defenses, which offer more than enough safeguards, along with things like the Presumption of Innocence until Proven Guilty, to justify an assumption that crime is always a behavior that is freely chosen. (Class discussion: Are these enough safeguards?) Now all this doesn't mean that judges and lawyers don't believe in the influence of genetic, psychological, or environmental influences on human behavior. It just means that, for purposes of having a workable operating assumption, we have carved out criminal behavior from the dimension of all human behavior and decreed that this thing we call crime shall be considered as freely chosen from now on. Traditionally, this stance has been softened somewhat by mutually agreedupon recognitions. Notice I didn't say "exceptions". There are no exceptions to the free will assumption. However, there are the "Three I's": Insanity, Infancy, and Involuntary. The Criminal Law "recognizes" to varying degrees that insane people, extremely young people, and those with certain involuntary "medical" conditions should NOT be assumed to be responsible for their actions. These are best understood as Special Defenses that get to the idea of Voluntariness of Acts, or Volition (the ability to exercise free will). Insanity and infancy are fairly selfexplanatory, but the following is a list of involuntary "medical" conditions: reflexive behavior, unconscious behavior, behavior while asleep (sleepwalking), convulsive behavior (epilepsy), and involuntary intoxication (drugged against your will). Now we're ready to take up the notion of Culpability (faulting or blaming someone for the way their "mind" works). That definition I've provided in parentheses should stop and give you pause as to what precarious ground we're on with concepts like Mental Fault. Let's start with the common law approaches and then look at the MPC approach, both in tabular form. Most lawyers are trained in the common law approach because the MPC method is fairly recent and hasn't caught on as much as it should.
At common law, basic distinctions are made between at least 6 different types of Intent: General Intent, Specific Intent, Strict Liability, Transferred Liability, Constructive Liability, and Scienter. All crimes contain general intent, but some crimes only contain specific intent or involve other forms of intent.
General intent
The kind of intent which a judge or jury can easily infer or presume from the act itself. The intended result doesn't matter. The prosecution need not establish why the crime occured. It must be shown, however, that the defendant had an "awareness" of a criminal act being committed. Battery is a good example because the extent of injuries or why the fight started doesn't matter.
Specific intent
The kind of intent that legislatures have put in the language of the criminal statute. Usually requires a particular result beyond the act itself, such as "with purpose to defraud an insurance company" in the crime of arson for profit. Requires prosecution to prove additional elements and cannot be presumed by a judge or jury.
Strict Liability intent
Involves regulatory crimes where intent doesn't matter at all. Intent is not an element of the crime. It is immaterial whether the accused acted in good faith or knew they were violating the law. The prosecution doesn't have to prove the defendant knew their mail order package contained drugs or child pornography, for example.
Transferred Liability intent
Involves cases where the accused intended to harm one victim but instead harmed another. Relieves prosecution of the need to prove chain of events leading to harm. Basis of felonymurder rule.
Constructive intent
Involves cases where the accused should have known their behavior created a high or unreasonable risk of injury. Also called criminal negligence, and replaces any specific intent contained in statute, thereby constructing or converting an innocent act to a crime.
Scienter
A requirement in some statutes that the accused had some additional degree of knowledge beyond knowing a possible criminal act was being commiting. Examples include knowing that the victim is a law enforcement officer, knowing that the materials were stolen property, or knowing that the hitchhiker was an escaped fugitive.
Somewhat simpler and easiertounderstand is the MPC approach. Not all states use these words, and where known, I've worked the synonymous word into the definition and indicated it by quotation marks. They are arranged from the highest degree of mental fault to the lowest.
Purposely
When a person's conscious objective is to engage in a particular act or accomplish a particular result. They are behaving "intentionally" with respect to the attendant circumstances they are aware of or believe to exist at the time. Requires prosecution to show what was going thru the accused's mind at the time.
Knowingly
When a person knows the nature of their conduct will necessarily lead to a particular result. It means "willfully" carrying out a design or plan as a conscious exercise of their will. Requires prosecution to show what was going thru the accused's mind at the time.
Recklessly
When a person consciously disregards a substantial and unjustifiable risk that grossly deviates from a standard of care that a reasonable person would follow under the circumstances. Requires prosecution to show what was going thru the accused's mind at the time AND show what a reasonable person would do under the circumstances.
Negligently
When a person fails to be aware of a substantial and unjustifiable risk that dangerous circumstances exist or a prohibited result will follow. Such failure is also a substantial deviation from the standard of care that a reasonable person would follow under the circumstances. Requires prosecution to show what a reasonable person would do under the circumstances.
(#7) The concept of Punishment in Criminal Law must satisfy at least 4 criteria. Any penalty imposed must be: 1. painful and unpleasant 2. prescribed by the law 3. administered intentionally 4. administered by the state (Class brainstorming begins) In addition, it would be nice if punishment had a Rationale, like Retribution, Incapacitation, Deterrence, or Rehabilitation (which doesn't agree with #1 above). These are sometimes referred to as the goals of Criminal Law, and it would be an amazing feat of civilization if we could finally settle on one or the other. Here's a brief synopsis of the leading contenders:
Retribution
Incapacitation
Deterrence
Rehabilitation
Assumes that criminals deserve to be punished, mostly by long prison terms, as legal revenge for their harm to society. The modern "just deserts" approach considers it proper to punish because they deserve it and the state has gone to the trouble of prescribing a punishment for them. Attempts to make it theoretically impossible, either thru incarceration, execution, castration, mutilation, banishment, or other means, for criminals to prey any further upon society. Assumes that fearful penalties, mostly involving swift restraint, harsh conditions, and certain guilt, will prevent people from choosing to engage in crime. Specific deterrence focuses on individual criminals, and general deterrence focuses on potential criminals. Emphasizes the possibility of change, mostly involving treatment programs, that has as an end result the ideal of being able to convert criminals into noncriminals.
It would also be useful to have a Range of Penalties, and a systematic way of sentencing similar cases to similar penalties in that range. Here's the range as it now exists: Death Penalty
Lethal injection, electrocution, exposure to lethal gas, hanging, or other method.
Incarceration
Physical confinement in a prison, jail, or other lockedup facility.
Probation Split Sentence
A set of specific rules of conduct while in the community, and supervision of compliance with those rules. A brief period of shocking confinement followed by a period of probation.
Restitution
Making the offender provide financial repayment or other services for losses incurred by the victim.
Community Service
Making the offender perform public service work, like picking up trash.
Fines
Economic penalties requiring the payment of fixed sums of money.
PRINTED RESOURCES: Chamelin, N. & K. Evans (1991) Criminal Law for Police Officers. 5th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Fletcher, G. (1996) Basic Concepts of Legal Thought. NY: Oxford Univ. Press. Gardner, T. & T. Anderson (1996) Criminal Law: Principles and Cases. 6th ed. Minneapolis: West Publishing Hall, Jerome (1949) Cases and Readings on Criminal Law and Procedure. Indianapolis: Bobbs Merrill. Hart, H. (1958) "The Aims of the Criminal Law" Law and Contemporary Problems 23: 403405. Samaha, J. (1999) Criminal Law. 6th ed. Belmont, CA: West/Wadsworth. West Publishing Company (1984) The Guide to American Law: Everyone's Legal Encyclopedia. St. Paul: West Publishing. Last updated: 06/19/03 Lecture List for Criminal Law Instructor Home Page
THE LIMITS OF CRIMINAL LAW: a focus on the void-for-vagueness doctrine "Although it is unlikely a criminal will consider the text of the law before he murders or steals, it is reasonable that a fair warning be given the world, in language the common world will understand, of what the law intends to do if a certain line is passed" (O.W. Holmes) As we saw in Lecture #1, the Criminal Law has much power. In fact, it's too powerful. We need to have checks or limits on this power, which is what this lecture is about. But first, let's review the powers that the Criminal Law has:
Defining (what crime is, as well as quasicrimes of Omission) Classifying (crimes by statutory scheme, evil, penalty, or jurisprudence) Grading (crimes by seriousness, or amount of social harm) Prohibiting (social control for the betterment of society) Punishing (allows a government to inflict pain on its own citizens)
The following limits on Criminal Law are in alphabetical order: Adversary System A limitation on Criminal Law that controls the establishment of guilt. It guarantees the average citizen the right to have a prosecutor and a defense counsel oppose each other in a trial if they are unwilling or unable to dispose of the case prior to trial. The prosecution also has the burden of proof, initially. Bill of Attainder This refers to any legislative act which inflicts punishment without a criminal trial. It has been prohibited since 1867 and its original purpose was to eliminate lynching. It's modern use is most closely related to government regulation of certain professions and the privileges of executive immunity. For example, it prohibits loyalty oaths to practice law, and allows Presidents to refuse to turn over private documents to special prosecutors. Bill of Rights The first ten amendments to the Constitution limit the ability of government to define certain acts as criminal, and also have important things to say about the enforcement of Criminal Law. Corpus Delicti This Latin phrase meaning "body of the crime" means that the prosecution must prove ALL elements of a crime. To do this, the prosecution must consult the specific statute of the state that has jurisdiction. Although there are presumptions that the prosecution will also prove the identity of the accused and be able to produce a victim, those factors are NOT technically part of the concept of Corpus Delicti. For example, the corpus delicti of burglary consists of six elements: (1) breaking (2) and entering (3) the dwelling (4) of another (5) at nighttime (6) with the intent to commit a felony therein. In the law of homicide, however, one of the elements is (1) the death, and in this case, the ability to find or account for the body is part of the corpus delicti of homicide. Corroboration of Confession The general rule is that a conviction cannot rest alone upon an accused's out of court confession. Admission of the confession is only permitted if proof of Corpus Delicti will be presented later. Cruel and Unusual Punishment This is an 8th Amendment protection where the
words "cruel" and "unusual" have never really been adequately defined. A piecemeal approach has been followed in which the distinction is made between "ancient" and "modern" forms of punishment with the assumption being that ancient methods are unconstitutional and most modern methods are upheld. Recent issues have involved the question of proportionality, where habitual offenders with prior records receive stiffer sentences for the same crime as those committed without prior records. Double Jeopardy The same sovereign entity cannot prosecute the same individual twice for the same act or the same crime. This gets at the matter of Jurisdiction, and what is theoretically possible and what is done in practice. As a practical matter, both federal and state governments do NOT prosecute the same person, although they theoretically could, unless there are some dissimilarities to be found in the nature of the crime OR the first jurisdiction to prosecute does so unsuccessfully. Due Process of Law A phrase found in the 5th & 14th Amendment as well as every state constitution which forbids the government from taking life, liberty, or property without due process of law. At the fundamental level, due process ensures at a minimum the right to fair notice and a fair hearing. On other levels, it guarantees certain inalienable rights and freedoms. On a practical level, it is usually determined by various balancing tests that pit the needs of the individual against the needs of the government. The implied right to privacy also prohibits making crimes out of behavior protected by the right of privacy. Equal Protection of Law The government cannot make a law applicable to only one sex, race, or religion or treat one group of citizens differently from other groups without a rational reason. This idea is related to the notion of Due Process at the level of fundamental freedom, tying together fairness and inalienable right. The principle is that all persons must be treated alike, not only in law enactment but in law enforcement. Historically, it was used to strike down miscegenation laws, and contemporary examples would include the "powderrock" cocaine controversy for blacks and "sexual harassment" statutes for women. (Class discussion?) Ex Post Facto Laws Both the federal and state governments are prohibited from altering the law in any way so as to be detrimental to an accused person retroactively. This can occur in many ways: (1) the legislature passes a new law, and someone is prosecuted for committing the act before the law was enacted (unless there is a "savings" clause in the statute); (2) the legislature increases the penalties for an existing law, and someone is punished under the new penalty when they committed the act while the old penalty was in effect; (3) the legislature decreases the burden of proof, or in any way makes it easier for the prosecution to convict, persons who committed crime under the old system must be tried under the old rules. (Note: this does not apply to evidentiary rule changes.); and (4) the legislature adjusts the amount of good time credit or eligibility for parole to alleviate prison overcrowding, and then restores the old formula once the overcrowding problem has been solved. Jurisdiction The court system is organized by this, and there are three different types of jurisdiction: person, place, and type of crime. Different courts are limited by
jurisdiction in what cases can be brought before them. Presumption of Innocence All the presumptions of law independent of evidence are in favor of the accused, and every person is presumed innocent until proven guilty. This concept is closely related to the reasonable doubt standard and the notion of moral certainty. Reasonable doubt is the last presumption of innocence in criminal procedure, and actually it's an "entitlement" to the benefit of acquittal. Moral certainty is a term for the judgment call that remains to be made after reasonable doubt has been eliminated. Status Offenses The law cannot make being a certain kind of person a crime. This determination is made through analogy with a chronic medical condition: the law cannot criminalize having a "common cold". Most cases of chronic alcoholism don't qualify, but drug laws criminalizing the status of being an "addict" do. In practice, the law has many kinds of status offenses. (Discussion on medical analogy) Statute of Limitations This places a time limit on the period from commission of the offense to filing of the criminal charges. The Supreme Court has decided that it only applies when the suspect is in custody. States are free to devise their own statutes of limitations, and there is widespread variation, but in general, misdemeanors usually have one year, and felonies longer. There are two ways to extend the statute of limitations: (1) an arrest warrant extends it indefinitely or for a specified period of time; or (2) tolling the statute of limitations by not counting the period of time equal to the accused's absence from the jurisdiction. VoidforOverbreadth Doctrine This makes a statute or ordinance unconstitutional if the manner in which it is written has an unnecessarily broad sweep and invades the area of protected freedoms. Overbroadness occurs when a prohibition overlaps on a prescription, that is, citizens steer clear of good behavior because they are afraid of accidentally committing criminal behavior. When 1st Amendment issues are at stake (an area guarded closely to prevent any crimes being made out of free speech), the courts must consider this doctrine in conjunction with the void for vagueness doctrine, but in many cases, the two doctrines are applied separately. Ordinances that prohibit panhandling, for example, are overbroad if they describe the offense as "annoying" passerbys because what is annoying to some people does not annoy others. (Discussion) VoidforVagueness Doctrine This requires that legislatures use clear and precise language so that people of common intelligence do not have to guess at the meaning of a law or its application. If the language of a statute or ordinance is vague, it is unconstitutional, and the law must be struck down. Sometimes, the doctrine is applied just to the words, like "ill repute" or "lewd", and at other times, whether the law entraps citizens or is difficult for police to enforce is considered. A modern example would be the "racial profiling" controversy.
THE VOIDFORVAGUENESS DOCTRINE This doctrine, so eloquently put by Justice Holmes (in McBoyle v. U.S. 1931) in the opening quote at the start of this lecture, has ancient origins. The maxim of uncertain law, then no law comes down to us from the Romans, and there are numerous cases in American jurisprudence that lay claim to establishing the doctrine. Frequently cited formulations include: "Any statute which either forbids or requires the doing of an act in terms so vague that men of common intelligence must necessarily guess at its meaning and differ as to its application" (Connally v. General Construction Co. 1926) "Any statute, on its face, which is repugnant to the due process clause, [where] specification of details of the offense would not serve to validate it...No one may be required at peril of life, liberty or property to speculate as to the meaning of penal statutes. All are entitled to be informed as to what the State commands or forbids" (Lanzetta v. New Jersey 1939) "To have available, through a sufficiently precise statute, information regarding the standard of criminality before being charged with the alleged commission of a crime" (Watkins v. U.S. 1957) "A state may not issue commands to its citizens in language so vague and undefined as to afford no fair warning of what conduct might transgress them" (Raley v. Ohio 1959) It is not enough to challenge a law on the basis of imprecise words alone. A number of tests have been developed to tell when such attacks will be successful or not: • Should a layman, or common person, know that the conduct in question is so wrong that it is likely to carry a criminal penalty? This is the most common test, and one in which judges must resort to an understanding of public opinion, culture, and customs. • Is the statute capable of more precise language, without asking the legislature to do the impossible? This is sometimes known as the conjecture test, which looks at whether lawmakers seemed to leave things to the imagination. • Is the statute more uncertain than other statutes, or is part of a whole group of related unclear statutes? This test gets at the bulk of criminal law in a certain area. Last updated: 06/19/03 Lecture List for Criminal Law Instructor Home Page
PRINCIPLES OF CRIMINAL LIABILITY Criminal Liability is what unlocks the logical structure of the Criminal Law. Each element of a crime that the prosecutor needs to prove (beyond a reasonable doubt) is a principle of criminal liability. There are some crimes that only involve a subset of all the principles of liability, and these are called "crimes of criminal conduct". Burglary, for example, is such a crime because all you need to prove beyond a reasonable doubt is an actus reus concurring with a mens rea. On the other hand, there are crimes that involve all the principles of liability, and these are called "true
crimes". Homicide, for example, is such a crime because you need to prove actus reus, mens rea,
concurrence, causation, and harm. The requirement that the prosecutor must prove each element of criminal liability beyond a reasonable doubt is called the "corpus delicti rule". Liability needs to be distinguished from the following concepts: culpability (purposely, knowingly, recklessly, negligently) infers intent capacity (infancy, intoxication, insanity) capacity defenses responsibility (volition, free will, competency) presumptions
There are five principles of liability in Criminal Law:
Principle of Actus Reus Principle of Mens Rea Principle of Concurrence Principle of Causation Principle of Resulting Harm THE PRINCIPLE OF ACTUS REUS: ISSUES
involuntariness sleepwalking, hypnotic behavior, etc. are seen as examples of acting upon forces beyond individual control, and are therefore not normally included in the principle of actus reus. However, certain "voluntarily induced involuntary acts" such as drowsy driving might arguably be included if the prior voluntary act created the risk of a future involuntary act. manifest criminality caught redhanded, clearcut case of actus reus proven beyond a reasonable doubt possession the law recognizes various degrees of this. Actual possession means physically on your person. Constructive possession means physically under your control. Knowing possession means you know what you are possessing. Mere possession means you don't know what you are possessing. Unwitting possession is when something has been planted on you. The only punishable types of possession are the ones that are conscious and knowable. procuring obtaining things with the intent of using them for criminal purposes; e.g., precursor chemicals for making narcotics, "pimping" for a prostitute, and procuring another to commit a crime ("accessory before the fact")
status or condition sometimes a chronic condition qualifies as action, e.g., drug addiction, alcoholism, on the assumption that first use is voluntary. Sometimes the condition, e.g. chronic alcoholism, is treated as a disease which exculpates an individual. Most often, it's the punishment aspect of criminal law in these kinds of cases that triggers an 8th Amendment issue. Equal Protection and other constitutional issues may be triggered. thoughts sometimes, not often, the expression of angry thoughts, e.g., "I'll kill you for that" is taken as expressing the resolution and will to commit a crime, but in general, thoughts are not part of the principle of actus reus. Daydreaming and fantasy are also not easily included in the principle of mens rea. words these are considered "verbal acts"; e.g. sexual harassment, solicitation, terroristic threats, assault, inciting to riot.
THE PRINCIPLE OF MENS REA: ISSUES circumstantial determination of mens rea through indirect evidence confessions clearcut direct evidence of mens rea beyond a reasonable doubt constructive intent one has the constructive intent to kill if they are driving at high speeds on an icy road with lots of pedestrians around, e.g. general intent the intent to commit the actus reus of the crime one is charged with; e.g., rape and intent to penetrate specific intent the intent to do something beyond the actus reus of the crime one is charged with; e.g., breaking and entering with intent to burglarize strict liability crimes requiring no mens rea; liability without fault; corporate crime, environmental crime transferred intent the intent to harm one victim but instead harm another
THE PRINCIPLE OF CONCURRENCE: ISSUES attendant circumstances some crimes have additional elements that must accompany the criminal act and the criminal mind; e.g., rape, but not with your wife enterprise liability in corporate law, this is the idea that both the act and the agency (mens rea) for it can be imputed to the corporation; e.g., product safety yearandaday rule common law rule that the final result of an act must occur no later than a year and a day after the criminal state of mind. For example, if you struck someone on the head with intent to kill, but they didn't die until a year and two days later, you could not be prosecuted for murder. Many states have abolished this rule or extended the time limit. In California, it's three years. vicarious liability sometimes, under some rules, the guilty party would not be the person who committed the act but the person who intended the act; e.g., supervisors of employees THE PRINCIPLE OF CAUSATION: ISSUES actual cause a necessary but not sufficient condition to prove causation beyond a reasonable doubt; prosecutor must also prove proximate cause but for or sine qua non causation setting in motion a chain of events that sooner or later lead to the harmful result; but for the actor's conduct, the result would not have occurred intervening cause unforeseen events that still hold the defendant accountable legal causation a prosecutor's logic of both actual and proximate cause proximate cause the fairness of how far back the prosecutor goes in the chain of events to hold a particular defendant accountable; literally means the next or closest cause superceding cause unforeseen events that exculpate a defendant
PRINCIPLES OF RESULTING HARM: ISSUES These are issues involving the law of accessories and attempts (later lecture). RESPONSIBILITY FOR CRIME: PRESUMPTIONS Presumptions are courtordered assumptions that the jury must take as true unless rebutted by evidence. Their purpose is to simplify and expedite the trial process. The judge, for example at some point in testimony, may remind the jury that it is OK to assume that all people form some kind of intent before or during their behavior. It is wrong, however, for the judge to order the jury to assume intent or a specific kind of intent in a case. Presumptions are not a substitute for evidence. Presumptions are supposed to be friendly reminders about safe, scientific assumptions about human nature or human behavior in general. The most common presumptions are: reminders that the accused is considered innocent until proven guilty reminders that the accused is to be considered sane, normal, and competent It is important to understand that presumptions are not inferences. Presumptions must be accepted as true by the jury. Inferences may be accepted as true by the jury, but the trick is to get the jury to believe they thought of it first. Lawyers are not allowed to engage in the practice of "stacking of inferences", or basing an inference solely upon another inference. Lawyers are also prohibited by logic from making certain "impermissible inferences" and here's an example of how the logic goes: Evidence admitted:
Inferences that can be drawn:
Witnesses testify that X repeatedly hit Intent to kill or seriously injure; Y on the head with a club until Purposely or Knowingly using club as stopped by passerbys deadly weapon. Witnesses testify that X repeatedly hit Intent to kill cannot be inferred; Y on the head with a rolledup newspaper cannot be construed as a newspaper deadly weapon Last updated: 06/19/03 Lecture List for Criminal Law Instructor Home Page
ACCOMPLICE LAW An accomplice is someone who knowingly, voluntarily, and with common interest, participates in the commission of a crime, and can be charged with the same crime(s) for which the accused will be tried; complicity means association in a wrongful act; principal means anyone involved in committing a crime; an accessory before the fact aids, incites, or abets but is not physically present; an accessory after the fact receives, comforts, relieves, or assists a felon to avoid apprehension and conviction.
In accomplice law (complicity), the statutory law has evolved much beyond the common law, and the case law is extensive and confusing about exactly where the lines are drawn. Complicity is a concept that can be abused by prosecutors. Only a few basic restrictions exist: (1) the law does not recognize accomplices to any misdemeanor or the crime of treason; (2) an accomplice must normally be physically present during commission of the crime, but advice or words of encouragement beforehand as well as providing material assistance afterwards will create a liability; (3) no one can be convicted on the uncorroborated testimony of an accomplice alone; and (4) persons giving postcrime aid are punished less severely than those furnishing precrime aid. Most states have abolished the old common law distinction between principles (in the first degree, in the second degree) and accessories (before the fact, after the fact), preferring instead the word accomplices for the latter group which treats everyone as principals based upon the doctrine of complicity (participation transfers liability). Being an accomplice is NOT the same as: accessory after the fact this remains, in some jurisdictions, a separate and less serious offense for giving aid and comfort (harboring) to a fugitive. The law sees it as a separate offense because it's really helping someone avoid arrest or escape punishment more than helping someone commit a crime. Accessories always have a claim to less punishment. conspiracy conspiracy is a completely different crime; according to the Pinkerton rule, a person can be charged with both conspiracy to commit a crime and the crime itself under the law of accomplices (Example: two people agree to commit murder, and one acts as a lookout while the other kills somebody; both can be charged with conspiracy to commit murder and murder itself). facilitation or solicitation these are separate offenses, related to the ideas, respectively, of making it easier for someone to commit a crime and enticing someone to commit a crime that never occurs (Examples: aiding a juvenile who is used in crime to limit someone's exposure to prosecution; soliciting a prostitute; of the two, facilitation is closest to accomplice law). There are two (2) doctrines in this area to remember: (1) the doctrine of complicity this establishes the notion of "accomplice liability" which for anyone aiding, abetting, or giving counsel to a known felon has that felon's actus reus and mens rea attributed to them. Their participation is what creates the liability as if they had committed the crime alone. (2) the doctrine of respondeat superior this establishes the notion of "vicarious liability" where a master is responsible for the illegal conduct of their servant. The relationship is what creates the liability. It dispenses with the element of actus reus in the same way strict liability dispenses with the element of mens rea. It often comes up in business, where a corporation (as an entity, not a person) cannot commit a crime (cannot form criminal intent) but it can be held
"criminally liable" if the only punishment sought is a fine or seizure of property. Officers of a corporation can be punished by imprisonment only if the corporation has been held "criminally liable" first, the officer has been found guilty of malfeasance, misfeasance, or nonfeasance by their corporation, and (unless stated otherwise in statute) the officer causes, requests, commands, or in any way authorizes the illegal act to be committed.
ELEMENTS OF THE OFFENSE There are three (3) elements to accomplice liability: (1) proof that someone committed the underlying crime it is not necessary, however, for the government to have tried and convicted somebody, or even that the principal is identified; proof in this sense means probable cause that a crime was committed. (2) actus reus accomplice law eases the requirement of proving actus reus, but it does so with hardtodefine words. Words such as "aid", "abet", "assist", "counsel", "induce" or "incite" may have different meanings depending upon what jurisdiction you're in. Normally, you can't be considered as an accomplice simply for being there you must be constructively present this is known as the Mere Presence rule, but there are exceptions in places with Good Samaritan laws where you can be tried as an accomplice for just standing there and watching someone get beaten, e.g. Case law has ruled the following are examples of accomplice actus reus: acting as a lookout providing guns, supplies, or instruments of crime (even under color of financial transaction if seller is aware of purpose) driving a getaway vehicle sending the victim to the principal preventing warnings from reaching the victim (but not merely failing to disclose the occurrence of a crime to authorities) (3) mens rea this is the element that it all boils down to in obtaining a conviction for being an accomplice. All the words used in accomplice law ("abet" for example) carry an implication of purposive attitude toward the crime. Other courts have held to a less strict standard than "purposively" (even thought the MPC recommends this only) such as "knowingly" but still other courts have allowed "recklessly". Case law has ruled the following are examples of accomplice mens rea: an intent that the crime be committed; an affirmative desire to see it done knowledge that they are contributing to the commission of a crime, knowing that the outcome would have a dangerous result or criminal consequences recklessness and negligence under such circumstances as to indirectly benefit or share in
the financial proceeds of the crime; a "stake" in the outcome
DEFENSES There are three (3) ways to offer a defense to the crime of being an accomplice: (1) Mistake of fact this is not the same as "I didn't know it was a crime" (mistake of law) but a mistake of fact good faith claim because of the way a person perceives the world and makes reasoned judgments (2) Abandonment the complicity was abandoned in a timely manner; the accomplice terminated their participation either completely or in part such as to deprive the principal of effectiveness at committing the crime; "I didn't help so they could get caught and learn their lesson" (3) Withdrawal the complicity was repudiated voluntarily (not merely because of a fear of getting caught); "I didn't help because it was wrong"; some attempts are made to neutralize or thwart the crime such as by notifying authorities
Examples/Case Studies/Exercises/Scenarios (1) David had been telling everyone in town, including his livein mother, that he was going to kill his wife, that she was going to have an accident some day. One night after going to bed, David choked his wife to death for refusing to make love to him. He dragged the body down to the first floor to dismember it in the bathtub. He called down to the basement, where his mother slept, woke her up, and asked her to come up and lie on the first floor couch. The mother came upstairs, half asleep, and dozed on the couch. Under oath, the mother claimed to see her son dismembering the body in the bathroom but turned her head away so she would not see. Dave cleaned up the bathroom a bit, and disposed of the bags in a local lake. On the way out, he asked his mother to clean up the bathroom toilet and tub, and she did. The next day, the mother also agreed to corroborate David's story that his wife ran away. Under oath, David said he told his mother he killed his wife and was disposing of the body where no one would find it. His mother reportedly sobbed a bit and said "it will be for the best, son" This case does NOT qualify the mother as an accomplice, the reason being that the mother was asleep when the crime was committed. No presence, companionship, or counsel was provided by the mother before or during the offense. She cooperated by cleaning up the bathroom, but is insulated (by state statute) from accomplice after the fact because of her relationship as a parent. At most, she passively acquiesced or passively approved. The statement "it will be for the best, son" does not qualify as active encouragement or instigation. Further, since there's no Good Samaritan law (in this state), the mother as well as David's coworkers and people about town cannot be held liable for not preventing the murder. (2) Your wife of forty years is dying from a horrible, incurable disease. Because she cannot do it herself, she asks you to get her some poison so she can kill herself. You comply, placing the poison
in a glass by her bed. YES you are aiding and abetting a suicide, and the real criminal act is placing the poison within reach of your wife. (3) One of the passengers in a car you're driving robs a hitchhiker you've picked up and are about to drop off. NO nothing was said or done to indicate your approval or disapproval of the robbery by simply being driver of the automobile. (4) You are too drunk to drive your own car any more, so you let your best friend drive the rest of the way home. He's driving pretty carelessly, but still better than you could do. Unfortunately, your car collides headon with old lady who dies from the injuries. YES you are an accomplice to vehicular manslaughter and can be charged and penalized the same as the driver because (a) you put your vehicle (an instrumentality) in the hands of a criminal, (b) you sat sidebyside with the criminal, and (c) you permitted the criminal to continue driving (committing crime) without protest. (5) You are the owner of a rental car company, and two of your cars have been missing for about 2 months. The guys that rented them were kinda shady but they paid you in advance for a 1 month rental. It turns out they skipped town and racked up $50,000 in unpaid parking tickets with your cars, and the city is suing you for that money. YES, under the principle of vicarious liability, you, the registered owner (master) of the property are responsible for the fine. (6) Should parents be held criminally liable for offenses committed by their children? DEPENDS, on whether state constitution is interpreted to define parenthood as an insulated (immunized) class or so essential to society that they cannot be exempted. (7) Should stores that sell "rolling papers" (drug paraphernalia) be considered accomplices when they bust people and can prove that the papers (instrumentalities) were used in commission of a crime? DEPENDS, on which MPC (mens rea) standard is used. A few jurisdictions may use less than "purposely". (8) PRACTICUM: For each of the following cast of characters, indicate whether the criminal justice system should prosecute them as accomplices under the circumstances and why; if not, what additional circumstances would be necessary for prosecution?
Scenario #8: An estranged husband finds out his wife is sleeping with another man, so he buys a gun and takes a taxi over to that man's apartment where he waits outside and shoots his wife 3 4 times in the back while she comes out. She lays there and bleeds to death while the husband runs over to a friend's house to hide from police.
Cast of Characters: (1) the manufacturer of the murder weapon (2) the merchant who sold the murder weapon to the husband (3) the taxi driver who drove the man to the apartment complex (4) third parties in the apartment complex who may have seen the husband waiting (5) the other man the wife was seeing (6) third parties in the apartment complex who failed to call the police or an ambulance (7) the police who didn't provide protection (8) the ambulance service that eventually showed up (9) the apartment complex where the crime took place (10) the friend who concealed the husband from the police INTERNET RESOUCES: Catholic Encyclopedia: Accomplice Complicity Complicity, by George Fletcher, Israel Law Review The Structure of Complicity, by Miriam GurArye, Israel Law Review Keri's Cal Bar Review Notes: Accomplice Liability Nolo Press Encyclopedia, When You Can be Charged for Not Doing Anything PRINTED RESOURCES: Cohen, N. & J. Gobert (1976) Problems in Criminal Law. St. Paul: West. Fletcher, G. (1978) Rethinking Criminal Law. Boston: Little, Brown. Samaha, J. (1999) Criminal Law. 6th ed. Belmont, CA: West/Wadsworth. Last updated: 06/19/03 Lecture List for Criminal Law Instructor Home Page
INCOMPLETE (INCHOATE) CRIMES Anticipatory, incipient, incomplete, and preliminary crimes are all other words for inchoate crimes, acts that imply an inclination to commit a crime even though the crime is never completed. The word "inchoate" means underdeveloped or unripened. Because of the social need to prevent crimes before they occur, the common law long ago established three (3) separate and distinct categories of inchoate crimes the crimes of attempt, conspiracy, and solicitation. Over the years, there have not been any new categories added with the possible exception of possession (as in possession of burglar tools, bomb materials, gun arsenal, etc.) as an inchoate offense based on the notion of preparation, which has not normally been associated with inchoate crimes. Traditionally, inchoate crimes have always been considered misdemeanors, but over the years they have been merged into felonies as society has put more power in the hands of law enforcement and prosecutors to deal with recalcitrant problems such as organized crime, white collar crime, and drug crime. Traditional rules that exist are: (1) a person should not be charged with both the inchoate and choate offense, with the exception of conspiracy which can be a separate charge; (2) lesser penalties should ideally be imposed for inchoate crimes, but in many cases, the penalty should be exactly the same as for the completed offense; (3) inchoate crimes should have specific intent, spelling out clearly what the mens rea elements are; and (4) some overt action or substantial step should be required in the direction of completing the crime. This set of rules is sometimes referred to as the doctrine of inchoate crimes. It's best to deal with the three inchoate crimes in alphabetical order, if only for the following reason attempt is considered to stand closest to a completed crime, conspiracy is considered to be further removed, and solicitation is considered the furthest removed.
ATTEMPT Criminal attempt, in many ways, is all about failure (not being a very good criminal), for example, shooting at somebody and missing, holding up a cash register to only find $5, stealing a CD by taking it out of its case, stuffing it down your pants, and having it break in half before you get out of the store (the law includes strokes of luck in its conception of failure). The law of attempt is also about nipping violence in the bud, so even certain words ("threats", "challenges") qualify as attempts. There's no such thing as a crime called "attempt". Most states allow the prosecutor to pick what the crime is that's being attempted; that is, most states do not try to define attempted murder, attempted robbery, attempted rape, and so forth. Most states typically have a general attempt statute that specifies a punishment (usually the same as for the completed offense) and allows the word "attempted" to be placed before the target crime. The elements of attempt include: (1) specific intent this means that "purposely" is the only mens rea that qualifies. All inchoate crimes are specific intent crimes, and all specific intent crimes do not allow such states of mind as
reckless, negligent, or strict liability. (2) an overt act toward commission this is intended to weed out the plotters from the perpetrators, but the standards vary widely by jurisdiction. Acts of preparation do not count. Some places use fairly loose language like "some steps" while other places use the more rigorous "all but last act" standard. There are at least four tests used in various places: physical proximity doctrine this focuses upon space and time, establishes the "last act" standard which requires looking at the remaining steps probable desistance approach this considers whether the attempt would naturally lead to commission but for some timely interference not related to bad luck equivocality approach this looks at whether the attempt can have no other purpose than commission of a crime substantial steps test this is a MPCrecommended approach which looks for corroborating evidence in the form of conduct which tends to concur or verify a criminal purpose (3) failure to consummate the crime the law looks at the reasons why the crime failed, and in some cases, the reason mitigates the punishment or removes the liability, as in: legal impossibility a defense that what was attempted is not a crime (raping a mannequin, for example, because rape requires a human victim) Prosecutors have the burden of proving legal possibility as well as apparent ability factual impossibility a defense that some extraneous factor or outside force made it impossible to complete the crime; most jurisdictions will not accept this on the presumption that "luck" doesn't count (same as no defense) renunciation this is the idea of abandonment, and to be a successful defense, the actor must have given up for moral reasons, not just because of the risk of apprehension
CONSPIRACY The essence of conspiracy is an agreement. It doesn't have to be a written one. Usually, it's inferred from the facts or circumstances. What the agreement has to be about doesn't even have to be criminal, only "unlawful". Under some statutes, a conspiracy can involve any act injurious to public health, public morals, free commerce, or any act perverting justice. Because a conspiracy by itself is almost treated as a substantive crime in itself, this is the only inchoate offense that the law permits a person to be charged with in addition to the target crime (that is, a person can be charged with both murder and conspiracy to commit murder, e.g.). Conspiracy is the favorite tool of prosecutors. There's a lot of presumptions and procedural rules that favor the prosecution. It's easy to get a conviction for conspiracy because, basically, all the prosecutor has to do is present all the evidence and let the judge tell the jury what test will be used to determine whether an agreement existed. In most jurisdictions, proof of the agreement is
sufficient; no further (overt) act is required. In jurisdictions requiring an overt act, the standard is not as high as the law of attempt, and is basically proven by showing at least one of the conspirators had at least the intent to commit a substantive offense. Conspiracy is still a specific intent crime, so "purposively" must be used, not just knowledge, although there's a whole string of inconsistent case law that indicates erosion in this area. The elements of conspiracy include: (1) mens rea a specific intent to attain a particular criminal objective on the part of at least one person in the partnership. Purpose can be inferred from circumstances surrounding the combination, such as failure to keep records, clandestine meetings, quantities involved, continuity of the relationship, etc. There are different rules used by different jurisdictions on the kinds of relationships that qualify: unilateral rule the idea that among a group of conspirators, there is at least one individual with criminal intent bilateral rule the idea that one cannot conspire alone; at least two guilty persons are required Wharton's rule the idea that because conspiracy charges imply a danger to society, there must be more (>2) partners than the minimum number required to commit the crime (a third party must be involved), so therefore, conspiracy to commit adultery, bigamy, and incest will require 3 people (2) actus reus proof of an agreement is proof of the actus reus for conspiracy. Proof of an unwritten understanding will suffice. Most agreements are of two types, and the judge is obligated to instruct the jury how to determine the types: chain conspiracy this usually involves the distribution of something, like drugs, where each person in the conspiracy handles the commodity at different points in the process, like with the stages of manufacture, distribution, and sale wheel conspiracy this is where a hardcore group of participants ("middlemen") handle most of the transactions, like a hub, protecting those at the top and those at the bottom (the spokes) by only allowing them to participate is some of the transactions Defenses and Other Issues: Police officers cannot initiate a conspiracy that would automatically be entrapment. They can, however, give somebody an opportunity to enter into an existing conspiracy where the police agent is a feigned accomplice. The defenses of impossibility and abandonment are of no use in conspiracy law as they are considered the same as no defense. However, some jurisdictions will permit abandonment, but the standard is high, the defendant has to show their complete and total withdrawal by notifying the authorities about their own involvement and taking steps to thwart the conspiracy. Conspiracy doesn't recognize anything sacrosanct about the husbandwife relationship, and a corporation can also be charged as a person with conspiracy if more than one corporation is involved.
SOLICITATION Solicitation is best thought of as a substantive crime in itself, remote from being thought of as an attempt at a substantive crime. Solicitation occurs when the solicitation is made. Another way of saying this is that the crime of solicitation is over with the asking. The crime of solicitation is inherently incomplete (inchoate) because the law doesn't even care if the solicitation was influential or not. It also doesn't matter if it's a crowd or an individual being solicited, and it's even possible to perpetrate solicitation through an intermediary. What does matter is the thing being solicited the crime of solicitation should be restricted to certain serious felonies. At common law, these would be crimes that breach the peace or obstruct justice. Solicitation (specifically the actus reus of it) consists of words; words that create an inducement, defined as advising, commanding, counseling, encouraging, enticing, entreating, importunes, incites, induces, instigates, orders, procures, requests, solicits, or urges another to commit a serious felony with the specific intent that the person solicited commit the crime. This list is sometimes called the list of proper utterances for the crime of solicitation. The elements of solicitation include: (1) mens rea not intent to commit a crime, but specific intent to persuade someone else to commit a crime; also not joking around or making casual comments ("I wish that person would drop dead") but "purposely" wanting to persuade someone. (2) actus reus words that contain some sort of inducement; words that are on the list of proper utterances for the crime of solicitation; uttering the words is the actus reus, and it doesn't matter if the means of utterance is oral, written, or electronic. Defenses: Impossibility of any type is the same as no defense. Some jurisdictions allow withdrawal or renunciation. CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES/CASES/SCENARIOS: (1) The spread of AIDS: Attempted Murder? Should criminal liability be imposed on those who knowingly, recklessly, or negligently engage in behavior that might lead to unsafe sex, exposing others to possible transmission of the HIV virus? (Remember that traditionally, "purposely" has been the specific intent of inchoate crimes) Some cases: a Texas correctional officer was spit in the face by an inmate with AIDS who said "I'm taking as many with me as I can" (Weeks v. U.S.) The inmate's conviction on attempted murder was upheld. a Florida HIVpositive prostitute was convicted of attempted murder for biting a man after a dispute about money (Morrison v. State) The man tested positive for HIV six months later, but the CDC had to be called in to verify that the HIV strain was exactly the same as the prostitute's. a Georgia court upheld a conviction for attempted murder when an HIVpositive man bit
a police officer who was administering a choke hold (Scroggins v. State). The key piece of testimony was that the man sucked up excess sputum before biting the officer, evidencing a deliberate, thinking act. (2) Friends that let friends do drugs: Conspiracy or Just Good Buds? a group of college students all do drugs except for John who abstains and is the designated driver of the group (State v. Smith). One night while out partying outdoors, John finds himself alone behind the wheel of the car. Undercover officer Dick comes over and strikes up a conversation, saying "Hey, you're the friends of those guys, aren't you. One of 'em's over there now offering to sell some of his stash and I was gonna maybe scoop some up. How is it?" John says "Man, I don't do that stuff, it really messes you up. That guy selling it really flipped out the other day on it". Officer Dick then busts the whole group, including John for conspiracy to deliver controlled substances, and the conviction stood because John (a) drove the group to the site of the sale, and (b) John provided words of encouragement for the sale of the drug. Tom and Jerry were both charged with possession of cocaine with intent to distribute AND conspiracy to distribute cocaine. Jerry got off on all charges due to a lenient jury, but Tom only got off on the possession charge. Inconsistent verdicts are common in drug cases, and Tom's conspiracy conviction stood. INTERNET RESOURCES: ALIS Online: Renunciation of Attempt, Conspiracy, Solicitation Criminal Law Review Questions: Marquette Univ. School of Law Haeji Hong's Lecture Notes: Inchoate Crimes Internet Resource Links for JUS 293 Kent Law School: A Brief History of Conspiracy Quid Pro Quo's Criminal Law Outline PRINTED RESOURCES: Cohen, N. & J. Gobert (1976) Problems in Criminal Law. St. Paul: West. Fletcher, G. (1978) Rethinking Criminal Law. Boston: Little, Brown. Samaha, J. (1999) Criminal Law. 6th ed. Belmont, CA: West/Wadsworth. Last updated: 06/19/03 Lecture List for Criminal Law Instructor Home Page
DEFENSES TO CRIME Both statutory law and the common law provide many defenses to crime. Other than having an alibi (which is not technically a defense but a denial), there are two main types of defenses: (1) Justifications and (2) Excuses. These terms are not easily defined, and the distinction is less than perfect. Justifications refer to situations in which the defendant doesn't deny they did it but that they did it for all the right reasons, an appeal to higher loyalty or ideals (as in selfdefense) or more important reasons (as in necessity), for instance. Excuses refer to situations in which the defendant also doesn't deny they did it but that they are not responsible for it (as in insanity or diminished capacity defenses), typically on grounds of lacking volition over their free will. Sometimes, it's said that Justifications involve denying mens rea and Excuses involve denying actus reus, but the mindbody connection is complicated in this regard, and this saying can confuse you. Take sleepwalking, for instance, which might be treated as the inability to form mental intent although it's the body (which is asleep). The law also tends to think of "mental" disorder as brain disorder, to avoid metaphysical debates over whether or not it's possible for something invisible like a "mind" to get sick. Although in this lecture, we will simply divide the defenses into Justifications and Excuses, conceptually, one can formulate at least five different classes of defenses: defenses that involve protecting competing interests; selfdefense, defense of others, etc. where society excuses what would otherwise be a crime defenses involving avoidance of a greater evil; necessity or duress, e.g., where society views the source of the predicament as coming from outside the defendant defenses that attempt to disprove or negate mens rea; infancy, intoxication, mistake, and consent, e.g. defenses involving ignorance, where society recognizes that there might be sincere, genuine, and legitimate cases of not knowing the law or (naively) believing in something that negates an element of the crime. defenses related to insanity, which may or may not be related to the variety of diminished capacity, stressrelated, and domesticrelated defenses.
JUSTIFICATIONS SELFDEFENSE Selfdefense, or selfhelp, has always been a recognized justification, and it has many, many variations. It does not apply to preemptive strikes or paybacks, but it does cover a wide range of behaviors that make the crime seem justified, in fact, so justified that selfdefense is called a perfect defense (the defendant "walks"). Other justifications and excuses may only be imperfect defenses which are treated as mitigating circumstances resulting in a lesser punishment. Many of the various domestic violence defenses are examples of the defense of selfdefense. The law of selfdefense revolves around the notion of reasonableness. The person claiming it must have had a reasonable belief in imminent danger and used a reasonable degree of force. Some states have specifically mentioned selfdefense can be used when the danger is a specific felony, such as rape, sodomy, kidnapping, and robbery. Reasonable force means that if someone slaps your face and you shoot them, that's unreasonable because you escalated force a bit too far when just returning a slap in the face might have been more reasonable. Imminent is a word meaning in progress or about to happen right now. You can't use selfdefense for continuing and ongoing danger, although a few states have allowed this. Most states use an objective test to determine the sense of being imminent, and their statutes either spell out the grounds for a reasonable belief or they use a reasonable man standard. Other states use a subjective test (honest belief). Most states also adhere to the retreat doctrine. This is the rule that defenders must have taken all means to avoid or escape before attacking in selfdefense, although in some jurisdictions, the law views this as cowardly, and a standard called the true man doctrine is applied. Most states, however, adhere to the castle doctrine, the idea that when attacked in one's home, you should hold your ground and not be required to retreat. This is called defense of property.
Selfdefense can include protecting family, friends, and lovers; i.e., in defense of others. Anti abortion activists often claim this, but it's more typically associated with things like the Mother Lion syndrome or the like.
PUBLIC DUTY Another type of justification is a public duty defense. It's the basis for a lot of military justice, diplomatic immunity, and covers a number of things that police do, such as shooting looters after a disaster. The idea here is that there's a higher loyalty, and it's located in upholding the law. A dilemma in law arises with the notion of resisting unlawful arrest. Why can't citizens, for example, appeal to a higher duty when they think their arrest is unlawful?
NECESSITY The principle of necessity is best explained by the prototypical case of cannibalism in the lifeboat. The famous case of The Queen v. Dudley and Stephans involved two men who ate a 17 year old weakly youth, after saying a prayer for him, because they were starving to death out in a
lifeboat. This is an example of the choiceofevils defense the essence of which is in choosing the lesser of two evils or avoiding a greater evil (in the case of cannibalism, choosing to eat the weekly young man instead of letting the whole group starve). The MPC extends the necessity principle to include the following:
destroying property to prevent the spread of a fire violating the speed limit to get a dying person to a hospital throwing cargo overboard to save a sinking vessel and its crew dispensing drugs without a prescription in an emergency breaking & entering a mountain cabin to avoid freezing to death
Another type of necessity defense is the claim to economic necessity. This would be stealing to avoid hunger, for example, but the classical dilemma is whether or not it would be right for a father to steal a loaf of bread to feed his starving children. Conflicting opinions can be found in the law and it's approach to this problem. The extremely powerful and influential Commentaries (by Sir William Blackstone) for example state flatly that economic necessity is no defense. The AngloAmerican approach has therefore been that the state's power of pardon is enough to deal with poor people who commit crime out of need, so it would depend on case law and judicial opinion in a specific jurisdiction if this kind of defense would be successful.
CONSENT Courts tend to recognize the defense of consent when people exercise their autonomy and choose to die or inflict injuries on themselves. The defense cannot be used if someone has solicited or authorized someone else to inflict injuries on them. This defense can be used in cases where two people are engaged in a consensual attack with one another (e.g., "fighting"), cases of injuries in sporting events, and cases in which emergency medical care had to be given which resulting in more harm than good. Condonation (forgiveness) by the victim and negligence by the victim are not generally considered as defenses.
EXCUSES DURESS The main type of excuse is the defense of duress. The principle is that when people are forced to do something wrong, it ought not to count against them. There is widespread disagreement, however, over how duress is defined and what kinds of crimes can be excused by duress. States differ. Some permit only having a gun pointed to your head; others permit threats of bodily harm ("I'll hurt you if you don't do that"); and still others are fairly lenient is permitting such things as "If you don't do that, I'll tell other people something nasty about you". Whatever the threat, it must be immediate, not some ongoing situation of extortion or blackmail. And, whatever the threat, the crime must be minor and not serious. Murder, for example, can never be excused by duress. Some modern forms of duress statutes have included the specific defense of brainwashing, a type of duress involving breaking down somebody's will. If a person is confined, pressured for
months, given hypnotic drugs, narcotics, or other substances, the law looks upon and crime committed under these circumstances as lacking the element of actus reus.
INTOXICATION There are different ways to get intoxicated, and the law recognizes two ways: voluntary and involuntary. Voluntary intoxication goes to the element of mens rea (ability to form the capacity to understand purpose or intent), and is logically a justification. Involuntary intoxication, on the other hand, is an excuse because the person's body did not know it was under the influence. There's also an assumption of duress with involuntary intoxication. It's not that one would have had to been held down and had the liquor poured down them by force (it's almost like that if say someone insists you drink with them), but it's more like a friend tells you to try out these sugar pills and they turn out to be LSD so you think someone looks like a rabid dog and you shoot them. Theoretically, the principle of intoxication gets at the concept of volition. Sometimes, it's argued that watching television too long is a form of intoxication.
MISTAKE Mistake or ignorance of fact has always excused criminal responsibility under some circumstances, and in all circumstances, it's always acceptable that anyone holding a genuine and sincere belief in something which (if true) would negate their criminal liability should be something that does. The principle of mistake of fact excuses when it negates a material element in the crime. For example, taking the wrong umbrella when leaving the room because it resembled your own umbrella negates the element of mens rea (forming criminal intent to steal). The principle of mistake of law (ignorance of the law) excuses criminal behavior if a person has made a reasonable effort to learn the law. In practice, it's difficult to distinguish between mistakes of fact and law, and the law must be careful to not open the door to allowing everybody to claim ignorance.
INFANCY This is one of the three I's (Intoxication, Infancy, and Insanity) that make up the capacity defenses to crime. The principle is that age always affects criminal liability. At common law, under age 7, there's an irrebuttable presumption that someone is incapable of committing a crime. Under age 14, there's a rebuttable presumption that someone is incapable of committing a crime. Changes in juvenile law and the increasing practice of waivers to adult court have substantially changed this common law, however, as society seems increasingly ready to recognize that young people can, and do, commit serious crimes.
ENTRAPMENT Entrapment is a perfect defense (the defendant "walks"), but it's often just a way to shift the burden of persuasion to the prosecution. It's not a constitutional right. It's a 20th Century invention that has it's origins in sympathy for the accused. The principle, if there's one, of entrapment is that there's limited sympathy because of the need to balance the needs of law abiding citizens. It also depends on the crime. The law looks negatively at police entrapment in
cases of consensual, victimless crimes. In order for entrapment to occur, police must initiate the encouragement of crime, specifically by any of the following: pretending to be victims enticing suspects to commit crimes communicating the enticement to suspects influencing the decision to commit crimes making repeated requests to commit a crime forming personal relationships with suspects and appealing to the personal promising benefits from committing the crime supplying essential materials and/or contraband to complete the crime A variation of the entrapment defense is Outrageous Government Conduct. In this case, the focus is on the government rather than the mind of the defendant. The principle is that when government behavior is so offensive and so outrageous, it cannot be the basis for collecting evidence to convict a suspect. Examples might include police infiltration and instances of undercover policing involving romantic liaisons. Some states recognize the defense while others don't.
INSANITY The insanity principle bestows upon the government the authority to incarcerate without conviction people who are abnormal and not average, everyday criminals. The defense is usually only seen when the crimes are very serious and the punishment quite severe. A successful insanity defense is not about going free ("walking") but quite the opposite. Insanity impairs mens rea but it operates by affecting the brain (the body) via a mental illness. This is sometimes expressed as Insanity being a legal concept and mental illness a medical condition. The law reserves the right to not have to conform its definitions to those of the medical community, and to treat the whole issue of cureability as irrelevant. Insanity is an affirmative defense the defense has to prove it if they raise it, but in practice, whomever brings up the issue first in court has the burden of persuasion. Over the years, various tests have been used to determine insanity, including: M'Naghten rule, or rightwrong test focus is on the intellectual capacity to know right from wrong, pure intellectual awareness, cognition, being able to grasp the act's true significance, not just a feeling or emotional sensation that something's wrong. Irresistible Impulse test a revised type of M'Naghten rule in which the focus in on volition, whether the defendant exercised any free will in an attempt to inhibit their criminal behavior, or if they suffered from a "disease of the mind" so strong that they suddenly lost the power to avoid doing the act. If the crime was the product of a mental illness itself, this is considered satisfaction of the Durham rule. Substantial Capacity test a focus on the loss of "substantial", not "total" mental
capacity; the majority test in most jurisdictions because it is recommended by the MPC and conforms to the ALI (American Legal Institute's) definition as "if at the time of such conduct as a result of mental disease or defect, he lacks substantial capacity either to appreciate the wrongfulness of his conduct or to conform his conduct to the requirements of law". It substitutes the word "appreciate" for "knowing", and allows for the possibility of affective or emotional understanding. The phrase "conform his conduct" is intended to replace the idea of "suddenness" in other tests, and the code's definition of "mental disease or defect" excludes antisocial personality disorders, psychopaths, and sociopaths.
AUTOMATISM This is the preferred defense, instead of insanity, whenever it is claimed the defendant acted unconsciously or semiconsciously either due to a physical problem (epilepsy, concussion, or unexplained blackout) or mental problem (childhood trauma, mental things other than insanity, intoxication, and brainwashing).
DIMINISHED CAPACITY These are syndromes that are always emerging, but in general, are perhaps best exemplified by the various stress and stressrelated disorders. The principle of diminished capacity is that there are some mental diseases and defects that do not affect people sufficiently enough to make them insane, but the law recognizes them nonetheless. The law has really backed itself into a corner because it reserved the right to depart from definitions of the medical community, so all sorts of "legal diseases and defects", so to speak, are possible. Some jurisdictions, however, are quite tough, and will not even recognize anything short of insanity. Jurisdictions in California, for example, are known for having a "you're either sane or insane" policy, but much of this is caving into public opinion. The MPC, on the other hand, recommends admitting evidence of diminished capacity and/or any impaired mental abilities affecting the mens rea element in all crimes. The disease or defect supposedly possessed by the person suffering from the disorder is treated the same as insanity (affecting the body, hence denying actus reus, and being an excuse to crime). The standards of proof are almost always lowered, from beyond a reasonable doubt to preponderance of the evidence, but this is common in insanity cases too. The net effect of a successful diminished capacity defense is typically a lesser punishment or a charge reduction (murder to manslaughter, e.g.). Syndromes are medicallysupported complexes that diminish capacity and reduce the person's responsibility. They are at the heart of scientific evidence and evidence law. The experts must testify to both the science and the law. There might be scientific evidence that sugar, for example, can diminish capacity, but an expert or metaexpert needs to be found that can apply that scientific evidence to the facts in any individual case to address the material issue of responsibility. Many difficulties stand in the way of getting this kind of evidence admitted, most recently the Daubert rule, that the syndrome's effects must have been studied so scientifically that it's possible to calculate Type I and Type II errors, for example, or to estimate the power or quality of research. Not all states use the Daubert rule. Some rely upon the Frye Test or some variation of it, which is whether or not the syndrome in question has received general acceptance
in a scientific discipline, which gets at how much research has been conducted and its review or receipt in a professional association, for example, although science which tends to attract controversy can be assessed under a different, but related test, the Coppolino Test. Still other jurisdictions may use the Marx Test, which simply allows the expert to educate the jury about the science and let them form their own inferences. INTERNET RESOURCES: The Daubert Rule and its Applications Emerging Defenses to Crime The Evidence Site PRINTED RESOURCES: American Law Institute (1985) Model Penal Code and Commentaries. Philadelphia: ALI. Blackstone, W. (1978) Commentaries on the Laws of England. NY: Garland. Dershowitz, A. (1994) The Abuse Excuse. Boston: Little, Brown & Co. Fletcher, G. (1978) Rethinking Criminal Law. Boston: Little, Brown & Co. Fletcher, G. (1983) "Justification" pp. 94146 in S. Kadish (ed.) Encyclopedia of Crime and Justice. Goldstein, A. (1983) "Insanity" pp. 73542 in S. Kadish Encyclopedia of Crime and Justice. NY: Free. Last updated: 06/19/03 Lecture List for Criminal Law Instructor Home Page
THE LAW OF HOMICIDE Homicide is a neutral term. It describes an act with no moral judgment. Murder is the term that is nonneutral. It describes an act with moral judgment. The law of homicide has the most complex degree (grading) system of any area in Criminal Law. This grading system is reproduced below. The first two (2) fall in a category called "perfect" defenses. The last four (4) fall in a category called "imperfect" defenses. Perfect defenses always involve justifications and excuses. (1) Justifiable Homicides these are "no fault" homicides. They ordinarily involve the death of someone under circumstances of necessity or duty (commanded or authorized by law). Examples would be selfdefense, capital punishment, and police shootings. (2) Excusable Homicides these are misadventures, accidents, or acts of insanity. They ordinarily involve acts of civil fault, error, or omission. There's not enough fault to be criminal negligence. There's a legal defense to this act. (3) 1st Degree Criminal Homicide (Murder) These are acts involving the death of someone in "coldblood" or by "lying in wait". They are distinguishable by the MPC mental state of "purposely" which is defined in Homicide Law as having three (3) elements: (a) premeditated meaning fixed or obsessed; (b) deliberate meaning "cool"; and (c) malicious meaning scheming or clever. Also, the crime of felony murder (someone dies during commission of a felony) is automatically 1st degree homicide. (4) 2nd Degree Criminal Homicide (Murder) These are acts involving the death of someone in the "heat of passion". It's basically a catchall category today for acts such as shooting bullets up in the air, but historically, a number of older terms were associated with this grade; terms such as the "year and a day" rule (for when the death had to occur) and the idea of "malice aforethought" (which meant wicked, evil, depraved, spiteful, or with depraved heart). Of these terms, only the phrase "depraved heart murder" is still used. Heat of passion murder doesn't require provocation, but it still requires proof of intent. (5) Voluntary Manslaughter Manslaughter, in general, involves acts involving the death of someone without thinking. It involves "sudden passion". There's no premeditated deliberation. The requirement is "adequate provocation" and there's three (3) tests: (a) the person loses the ability to reflect cooly; (b) there's no sufficient time to cool off; or (c) the provocation must have caused action. Voluntary manslaughter is often what the jury will return as a verdict when they are deadlocked on the homicide charges. Historically, there's some interesting concepts associated with this grade, such as the in flagrante or paramour rule (which is the only exception to the mere words rule, which rules out words as provocation, if the spouse taunts). (6) Involuntary Manslaughter This is the crime of Criminal Negligence, sometimes called misdemeanor manslaughter. It's the least serious offense in the law of homicide. It typically involves acts related to public safety, such as operating a motor vehicle, railroad, or bus. Specifically, it involves the careless use of firearms, explosives, animals, medicine, trains, planes, ships, and automobiles. Many states have sorted out a separate category called Vehicular Manslaughter for cases involving automobiles. It's also interesting to know that, by tradition, most prosecutors will draw the line at this point (meaning it's all they'll prosecute for) for cases of
corporate crime. Premeditated Deliberation: This is the idea of planned in advance, coolness. There's some inconsistency in definition, but the phrase generally refers to anything "coldblooded". It's defined as "a careful thought and weighing of consequences, a judgment or plan, carried out cooly and steadily, according to a preconceived plan". "Planning" in the longterm is NOT required. A few seconds will suffice at law, as long as there's sufficient maturity and mental health. There's also something called the deadly weapon doctrine which allows the inference of intent if a deadly weapon is used. Adequate Provocation: This is the idea of extenuating circumstances. Only certain kinds of circumstances will reduce the crime in terms of degree. The reasonable person standard is used to determine if there's a reasonable belief in being of danger of losing one's life or suffering great bodily harm. The law on this point also recognizes the frailty of human nature (reacting without thinking). The following table might be instructive by giving examples of adequate provocation: Adequate: serious fights
Inadequate: scuffles
sudden passion with no time slapping or shoving to cool off pistol whipping, fists in face, insulting gestures staggering body blows waiving a gun around
abusive words
The last example of waiving a gun around might be inadequate also. It depends. Last updated: 06/19/03 Lecture List for Criminal Law Instructor Home Page
ADVANCED TOPICS IN THE LAW OF HOMICIDE: INTENTION There are certain kinds of crimes that have harmful consequences, and there are others sorts of crimes that consist of harmful actions. With these second sorts of crimes, like rape, robbery, larceny, and fraud, it's fairly easy to tell that the harm happened in the here and now there's an immediate connection between action and harm; someone was violated or dispossessed of an object, and these things don't normally happen by natural causes or by accident. By contrast, crimes of harmful consequences, like homicide, arson, mayhem, and assault, usually present us with the possibility of a gap in time between action and harm death, destruction, and injury might occur by natural causes or by accident. In cases of homicide, then, we must always infer or attribute the cause of death that is, we must examine the elements of causation and intent. This lecture is about intent, with minor references to causation. To understand the complexity of how intent and causation intertwine, consider the following scenarios: A. Susan decides to kill Tom, so she drives over to Tom's house, and just as she is about to knock on the door, Tom drops dead of a heart attack inside. Did Susan kill Tom? [No she had the intent but not the causation] B. Susan decides to kill Tom, so she drives over to Tom's house, and just as she is about to knock on the door, Tom sees her through the window and becomes so frightened he drops dead of a heart attack. Did Susan kill Tom? [It depends; a zealous prosecutor would say Yes. She had both intent and causation. Any good defense attorney would say No. Tom could been ready to drop dead at that moment] In both cases, after the action ensues (Susan about to knock on the door), there's no guarantee that the harmful consequences are even attributable (much less liable) to the actor without the element of INTENT (Susan intended to kill Tom). There's a difference between "intending to kill somebody" and "killing someone intentionally". Susan may not be guilty of killing someone intentionally (for lack of causation), but she certainly had the intent to kill. The "but for" test is most commonly used to determine causation, but the rules for determining intent are much more complicated. When we talk about INTENTIONAL CONDUCT, we're talking about situations in which people set out to accomplish something and they try to realize that accomplishment exactly as planned. They have a mental picture in their minds, so to speak, of precisely how they want things to turn out. There's no accidents, no complications, no side effects, just true intent. Intent is a legal concept that goes beyond Purpose. Probably the best way to understand Intention is to understand it's opposite Negligence. The irony is that the concept of Intent comes into criminal law from tort law and notions of liability. But even long ago, Roman lawyers distinguished between the terms dolus (intention) and culpa (fault, negligence). These terms have become the basis for criminal and civil responsibility, respectively. It's widely assumed that committing a crime intentionally is much worse, more culpable, more blameworthy, than committing a crime negligently. But where do we draw the line between intention and negligence? The answer is that intention is closer to motive, the idea that
there was a special inducement to commit the crime. Motive, considered along with Intent, help us easily distinguish harmful consequences from blameworthy and nonblameworthy accidents. Negligence is a blameworthy accident in which a person didn't exercise a reasonable degree of care. Negligence lacks a motive, however, and the only defenses to it are mistake and justification. Justification is the more important concept. A person is blameworthy for negligence (criminal negligence) only if it can be shown that they sized up the risks, and balanced the costs and benefits of the risk taking (justified the risk taking). This balancing of costs and benefits is called the Learned Hand formula (named after Judge Learned Hand who defined negligence as taking an unreasonable risk). The MPC makes a clear distinction between recklessness (one who perceives but ignores a risk) and negligence (one who fails to be sufficiently attentive to the risks or costs). So we are back to Intent a onesided focus on the benefits of a course of action. The presumption of Intent is that if a person decides to do harm, knows the risks (and punishments), and decides to do it anyway, their action is more deserving of contempt because they didn't consider the interests of others, only themselves. Intent is always selfish, and it's never sloppy. The person knows what they're doing. They are cunning and trying to be clever. Think of it as the sin of arrogance, or excessive pride, so to speak. Or think of it in terms of community expectations. That's what the "reasonable man" standard is all about. The problem with Intent and the Law of Homicide is how to individualize it. There are so many infinite degrees of temperament and intellect that no grading system, no matter how complex, is probably ever going to do justice for each and every individual. The problem with the "reasonable man" standard is not that it's sexist. It has just been stretched too thin to be useful anymore as a way of judging individual behavior. And, it's not much better to know each and every little thing about each defendant. If we comprehended them perfectly, we would probably excuse every criminal act, or at least mitigate the crime. Instead, what we need is a system of grading the lust for accomplishments, thrills, sensations, outcomes, ambitions, adventure. It's proper to hold people accountable for controlling their lust for adventure. That's the social control function of the Law of Homicide. Intention is something harbored in the mind before the act is done. One can always reflect on their intentions, and change their intentions before harm is done. The difference between risk and intent is that risk exists in the real world while intent exists in the minds of actors. Intent, considered as a mental construct, can also include unrealized intentions. The law usually regards these as aggravating factors, but they also make up substantive law, as in offenses where we add the prefix "Intent to commit ..." in front of a crime. Trespass becomes burglary, for example, when there's intent to commit a felony therein. Intoxication bears an interesting relationship to Intent. Even voluntary intoxication might be an excuse or justification. The general rule, however, is that intoxication negates a specific intent, but not the general intent. General intent is the intent required for the base crime, and specific intent is the factor that aggravates the offense. An intoxication defense might mitigate a homicide to a manslaughter, but it can't generate an excuse for the felony of murder. Psychological theory comes to bear on the subject when we stop to consider that the law is trying to control cognitions, not necessary attitudes. The cognitive approach (which in legal practice is
often reduced to a probabilistic approach) requires that we know what the actor really wanted. In many cases of homicide, it's not even clear if the persons themselves knew what they wanted. Therefore, the law assumes that motives matter and provide a basis for distinguishing between good and bad. Criminal Law recognizes different motives for homicide premeditation, deliberation, and killingforprofit. Motives, when established in court as evidence, tend to aggravate intentional criminal acts and override defenses. They put the defendant in a bad light, at least. In the end, all we can do is presume liability for homicide, and because we have to prove intent before the act occurs, that leaves open all sorts of possible justifications and excuses. Last updated: 06/19/03 Lecture List for Criminal Law Instructor Home Page
ASSAULT, BATTERY AND RELATED CRIMES The idea behind these crimes, commonly called "offenses against the person", is that every person has a personal space that should not be violated without consent. There are old common law traditions protecting personal security and bodily integrity. It goes back to the Magna Charta and involves the practice of touching people without their permission. It used to be (and still is, according to some nonverbal behavior experts) that higherstatus people (the wealthy) could touch lowerstatus people (the poor) whenever they wanted, but the poor could not touch the wealthy for any reason whatsoever. All that has changed or is changing, and the criminal law exerts a positive influence in helping create a more egalitarian and peaceful society in this regard. Many forms of violence are punished at law to preserve order in society, and the trick is to determine the punishment proportional to the crime. One of the things that the law looks at is the victim. It matters a great deal who the victim is. Traditionally, felonies have been reserved for victims who were police officers, paramedics, or other persons acting in the line of duty. As most students of criminal justice know, the law has been slow in helping the victims of spousal abuse, but it is now a felony is many states. Child abuse is different because traditionally, it has always included neglect as a form of abuse. Elderly abuse is a new area copying itself on the child abuse model. Hate crime is also a new area of concern. ASSAULT Assault is either (1) an attempted battery or (2) the placing of the victim in apprehension of receiving an immediate battery. ENDANGERMENT is a related offense to assault (but usually a misdemeanor) that involves recklessly endangering the safety of others. HAZING is a form of endangerment involving initiation rites which pose a threat to the health of the applicant. AGGRAVATED ASSAULT is a generic term for the most serious kinds of assaults, and this crime exists in order to tailor the punishment more efficiently. BATTERY Battery is the unlawful, unconsented touching of one human being by another human being. A few states have the offense of AGGRAVATED BATTERY, but not all.
MAYHEM Mayhem is the intentional permanent disfigurement of one human being by another human being. Historically, it was tied to the importance of having ablebodied soldiers to engage in defense of the kingdom. Scarring and involuntary tattooing are included in most state statutes. Consent is not a defense for mayhem. North Carolina has different degrees of mayhem based on maliciousness and the extent of injuries. Some states also call this offense MAYHEM and TORTURE. RAPE Rape is the unlawful, unconsented "carnal knowledge" of a woman by a man. Sex crimes are treated as especially serious matters in criminal law, only one step below murder. Criminal sexual conduct does not have to involve physical injury to the victim. Historically, the only sex crimes were RAPE and SODOMY. From 1600 to 1970, the law of rape concentrated on the element of consent. Women had to show some resistance. Before the 1950s, there was the utmost resistance standard; in the 1950s, there was the reasonable resistance standard. In 1970, most states abolished the requirement that the victim's testimony of resistance had to be corroborated. In addition, most states passed rape shield laws prohibiting any testimony about a women's past sexual history. Many states also abolished the requirement that a rape had to be reported promptly. And, many states have abolished the marital exception. All forms of sexual penetration vaginal, anal, and oral fall under today's criminal sexual assault statutes. And the law is now genderneutral. The elements of RAPE are: (1) actus reus of penetration; (2) actus reus of use of force or threat of force; (3) the circumstance of nonconsent; and (4) mens rea of engaging in sexual activity by force or threat of force without consent. Penetration is defined as "however slight". Merely putting a finger between the folds of skin over a vagina is penetration, and according to the intrinsic force standard, the act of penetration subsumes, or includes by inference, the act of force. Threats of force must have created an objectively reasonable fear OR a real fear of imminent bodily harm. Words do NOT have to be exchanged to express a threat. The law looks at the age, size, and mental condition of both perpetrator and victim. The physical location and relationship (if position of authority or domination) is also looked at. Proof of nonconsent does NOT require the prosecution to prove or disprove the victim announced any consent. The law looks at the physical actions rather than words. STATUTORY RAPE requires neither force, nor intent, nor nonconsent. Immaturity in age substitutes for all these elements. California and Alaska are the only states that permit a defense of mistake of age. To prove the mens rea element of rape, the prosecution looks at the prior behavior of the perpetrator, if they were in the habit of "scoring with girls", for example. The type of intent required by law is a specific intent to have intercourse by force and without consent. This often requires portraying the perpetrator as "kinky", into "rough sex", or if he/she likes it when their sex partner "struggles". The urge to twist nipples to inflict pain satisfies the mens rea element, for example.
CRIMINAL SEXUAL CONDUCT These are fairly new crimes that attempt to grade the degree of force; e.g.: • 1st degree the defendant was armed with a weapon, aided by another person (gang rape), or caused physical injury • 2nd degree "sexual contact" with an "intimate area" where at least one other element of 1st degree is present. • 3rd degree sexual penetration accomplished with force (rough sex) • 4th degree sexual contact accomplished with force (rough touching) ABORTION Abortion is the act of intentionally causing a miscarriage in a pregnant woman. FALSE IMPRISONMENT False imprisonment is the unlawful, unconsented confinement of a human being. KIDNAPPING Kidnapping is the unlawful, unconsented movement of a person of a person from one place to another place. THREATS The crime of THREATENING, sometimes called MENACING or TERRORIZING is the making of unequivocal, immediate, and specific threats with the intent to create fear in the victim. Depending on the state, the intent to create great bodily harm is required, but the main focus is the victim's fear. The threat can be conveyed by a third party or in any form. It's commonly used to prosecute bomb threats which cause evacuations of public places. COERCION, also called INTIMIDATION is a related offense involving inducing a person to do something against their will, such as participate in a crime or refrain from operating a competing business. Intimidation doesn't require the threat of violence, only the desire to control the behavior of somebody. EXTORTION, for example, doesn't necessarily require the element of violence but the usual payment of money or blackmail. STALKING is a related offense that requires proof of intent and repeated attempts to follow the victim or engage in other forms of HARASSMENT where there is no legal justification to do so. Some states, like Pennsylvania, have a combined stalking and harassment statute. Last updated: 06/19/03 Lecture List for Criminal Law Instructor Home Page
CRIMES AGAINST HABITATION: BURGLARY, ARSON, AND RELATED CRIMES Crimes against habitation are not crimes against property. A crime against a "house" would be a crime against property because a house is worth money, it has some material value. Instead, crimes against habitation are crimes against a "home", and the law seeks to protect instances of the concept of "home" from the social harms of INVASION, INTRUSION, DAMAGE, DESTRUCTION, and INSECURITY. "A house is not a home" as the old saying goes. BURGLARY and ARSON share important commonlaw origins. Both were serious crimes punishable by death in both England and colonial America. The sentiment that "a man's castle is his home" runs deep in AngloAmerican culture. Many of the early settlers to America also came from the English town of Colchester, where in 1575, armed townspeople first challenged the Queen's soldiers from entering homes without a warrant. Here's an excerpt from Lord Pitt's famous speech in the House of Commons about that time: "The poorest man may in his cottage bid defiance to all the forces of the Crown. It [His home] may be frail, its roof may shake, the wind may blow through it, the storm may enter, but the King of England himself cannot enter. All the King's forces dare not enter, nor cross the threshold of the tenement." (Lord Pitt) BURGLARY has evolved from a medieval concept of TRESPASS (a broad offense intended to protect churches, walled towns, and places likely to attract people) to COMMON LAW BURGLARY (limited to dwellings, at nightime, and with intent to commit a felony therein) to MODERN BURGLARY STATUTES (breaking and entering, but also remaining, with intent to commit any crime). It's necessary to understand the six (6) commonlaw elements of BURGLARY because some of these elements continue to function as core or aggravating factors today even though the crime no longer carries the death penalty. I've included comments about modern trends among these elements.
COMMONLAW ELEMENTS OF BURGLARY 1. Breaking The term "breaking" refers to any forceful parting, separating, piercing, or disintegration of a solid substance. Breaking is not the same as causing damage. Breaking is closer to the concept of trespass. All that's required is that some part of the structure was moved, a doorknob was turned, a door was opened, or a window was raised. It doesn't matter if the structure was locked, but it does matter if the opening (door or window left ajar) is large enough for a person to squeeze through without touching anything. Opening an unlocked door is breaking; squeezing through an open door is not breaking. To some degree, the law considers whether the thing involved is used for security purposes, but that is not a defining characteristic. How much something serves as an obstruction is a much more important consideration. For example, a case in Nebraska (State v. McDowell 1994) overturned the conviction of a defendant who was able to jump over a fence to steal transmission parts from a junk yard because no breaking occurred. Consent by the owner is a only valid defense, but if the consent was for limited purposes or for particular times, and entry occurs for other purposes or at other times, a
breaking is said to happen. Also, at common law, it is not a burglary if a person remains concealed or hidden within a dwelling even though they must commit a breaking to get out (this is a burglary under modern law and more typical of commercial burglaries). Breaking is sometimes broken down into two types: actual involving some minimal use of force; and constructive involving entry by means of fraud, conspiracy using an accomplice, or false pretenses. Entering structures in an unusual manner, such as via a chimney, is also considered constructive breaking.
2. Entering This element involves the placing of any portion of the body or item connected to the body inside the slightest portion of the dwelling, even momentarily. It is intended to get at various items called "burglary tools" (pry bars, augers, picks, etc.), but offenses can include just placing a finger or sticking the point of a gun inside a windowsill or doorway. The entry item can be connected to the body indirectly, for example, as in a bullet "entering" a home during a drive by shooting, a brick thrown through a jewelry store window, or a remote control used to open a dwelling's garage door. The entry requirement is satisfied constructively if someone sends a trained dog, monkey, or animal (not an infant, insane person, or someone incapable of commiting a crime) into the home. Entry items can be inanimate or animate, and they're connected to a person's body via the mens reas (or intent) of burglary. The point of entry is determined by "breaking the close", an imaginary geometric plane that defines the physical confines of the house. A "close" is different from a "curtilage". Each state has slightly different versions of the "entering" element, with some states like North Carolina, not even requiring entry it is enough that they tried. Here's a breakdown of different state versions: strict entry requirement this is the kind described above, e.g., tip of finger unprivileged entry requirement this looks at the relationship between the owner and an intruder surreptitious remaining requirement this looks at when it's lawful to be somewhere and when it's unlawful (after closing time, for example) eliminated entry requirement this is the kind that includes attempt (NC)
3. Dwelling At common law, any structure intended for sleep is considered a dwelling. Modern statutes tend to define it as any structure or building adapted for the accommodation of persons or the carrying on of business, whether or not occupied, and some states, like California, include vehicles. Abandoned properties do not ordinarily qualify as dwellings, but it's not the presence or absence of people that matter, but rather the character or use of the building (such as if it's someone's summer home or vacation cabin). States normally punish the burglary of an inhabited dwelling more severely than that of an uninhabited dwelling. Any adjacent building within the "curtilage" of a main structure is considered part of the dwelling, such as a garage, barn, stable, cellar, or shed. Vacant apartments are considered the same as houses, but like houses under construction, the common law rule is that a structure becomes a dwelling when the first occupants move in and ceases to become a dwelling when the last occupants move out (because of the building being condemned, permanently vacated, or scheduled for demolition). Four walls and a roof don't constitute a dwelling. Most states have expanded the concept to include motor vehicles, boats, airplanes, tents, camping areas, and unenclosed spots in a yard.
4. Of Another The structure must be used as a dwelling by someone other than the accused.
Ownership does not matter, as an owner can commit burglary of their own structure if it is rented and used by another. Whether or not a dwelling belongs to another depends on the right of possession, if they take care of it, fix it up, maintain it, or have some "sweat equity" in it. In cases of husband and wife dissolution or separation, an important consideration is the unauthorized entry requirement. The spouse keeping the house must control access (such as by changing the locks) to the home in order for the "of another" element to be satisfied. The fact of marriage only gives an estranged husband an economic interest, not a possessory one.
5. Nighttime Technically, this begins onehalf hour after sunset and ends onehalf hour before sunrise, but legally, it's defined as whenever it's too dark to discern a person's face or to recognize them. This element is intended to get at the characteristics of stealth, disguise, or coverup common to burglaries. Only about half of all burglaries are committed at night, however, and all states today recognize daytime burglaries with nighttime intrusions as an aggravating circumstance. Some states have eliminated the nighttime element completely. Burglary does not require onenight action; a person can commit a "breaking" on one night and an "entering" on another night. As crimes of stealth, burglaries typically last no more than four minutes and no more than $1000 worth of items are taken. 6. Intent to Commit a Felony Felonious intent must be present at the time of entry, not at some point once inside the dwelling. The most common reason for committing a burglary is to place oneself in a position to look around and commit a theft. It's the intent to steal something of value, not the act of theft, which satisfies this element of burglary. Burglary is not the same as theft. The act of breaking and entering at nighttime with the intent to commit any felony (e.g., homicide, rape, larceny or mischief) is burglary. The law wishes to avoid arguments over exactly what and how much the burglar intended to steal once inside. Therefore, most states have modified this mens rea element to the intent to commit any crime, thus avoiding the argument of whether or not the intended crime was a felony. A mental state of purposely, knowingly, or recklessly intending to inflict injury or commit harm will usually suffice. It's immaterial whether the intended crime was committed or not; what matters is whether there's a specific intent to commit a crime (other than burglary) prior to actually gaining entrance. This leaves open the question of what to do with offenders who, say, break in to keep warm or escape from harm, and who, once inside, see an item of value and decide to steal it. Such offenders cannot be charged with burglary, and most states charge them with robbery or some other attempted felony, although a burglary conviction may still hold because completion of a criminal act is presumption of a mens rea for burglary. On the other hand, the intent to steal cannot be inferred from the act of unlawful entry. Intent can only be inferred from a set of circumstances: forcible entry; point of entry (rear or side entrance); type of building (items a burglar might be interested in); time of entry; and hiding or attempting to escape when interrupted. 7.
MODERN BURGLARY LAW Burglary is sometimes graded into 1st degree (assaults a person present), 2nd degree (carries a weapon), 3rd degree (intends a felony or gross misdemeanor), and 4th degree (intends any misdemeanor), but more commonly the distinction is made between SIMPLE BURGLARY and AGGRAVATED BURGLARY. Burglaries of the 1st and 2nd degree would be the same as aggravated because these grades all involve inhabited dwellings and the offender being armed with a deadly weapon. New York state grades all its burglaries in terms of the potential for danger to the victim. Illinois has a special, more serious than burglary, offense for breaking into inhabited dwellings called HOME INVASION with intent to rob. All burglaries are felonies in every state, however, and penalties are harsh, ranging from five to twenty year sentences. The penalties for burglary are often more severe than the penalty for the intended crime. Conviction for three (3) burglaries (unauthorized entries) of any type usually qualify someone for a life without parole penalty under Three Strikes You're Out laws. BREAKING AND ENTERING is a term that some states use who have not modified their burglary statutes to define what a dwelling is. Breaking and entering (B & E) is usually reserved for structures other than residences where people sleep; e.g., offices, stores, shops, warehouses, factories, and vehicles. If the targeted location is used for conducting business, the offense is sometimes called COMMERCIAL BURGLARY. Some states also use the terms BREAK AND RUN, CRASH AND CARRY, SMASH AND GRAB, and CAR BURGLARY (the same as the crime of robbery might have the related crimes of highway robbery, or carjacking). POSSESSION OF BURGLARY TOOLS is a relatively minor offense in most states, and as serious a felony as commercial burglary in some states. To be convicted of this offense, the tools involved would have to be described on a list contained in the state statute, and the prosecutor would have to show intent to use the tools for unlawful purposes. Anyone manufacturing, altering, or supplying such tools may be covered by the statute as well. FEDERAL LAW contains no burglary statutes, at least not in the residential sense. Breaking into a bank, pharmacy, or post office can be prosecuted under state or federal law, and the sensible thing to do is prosecute under state law because the elements of the crime at federal law may be quite different from what's normally considered burglary. CRIMINAL TRESPASS involves entering or remaining on property without permission. The property must be marked in some way (No Trespassing signs) or the offender must have been told to leave. Anyone who remains under these conditions is usually charged with the related offense of DEFIANT TRESPASS which has its origins in grownup children who refuse to leave the home of their parents after being repeatedly told to do so. Trespassing on vacant land is usually a misdemeanor, but a common defense is that the area is an established and welldefined pathway, trail, or public beach. An honest belief that the owner would have granted permission, if asked, also serves as a good defense. Necessity (any old port in a storm) is also a defense, and some states exclude abandoned buildings from trespass laws, although other states include them to go after homeless squatters.
ARSON LAW Setting a fire that reaches a structure and burns are the essential elements of arson. Explosions are also treated as burnings for the purposes of arson law. It doesn't matter how much burning takes place. The common law rule is that however slight the burning, the arson is complete. A few states distinguish between "sooting" (smoke damage), "scorching" (blistering), "charring" (external surfaces destroyed), and so forth, but the main point is that a structure does not have to burn to the ground. The kind of structure and amount of damage are circumstances to be considered. An arson can occur inside a house if the item damaged qualifies as a permanent fixture. Sinks, lighting, and appliances qualify; personal property such as furniture, clothing, or documents do not. There's a difference between "setting a fire" and "burns" in that it is possible to set fire to something, but it gets extinguished before any burning occurs. For this reason, it's important that you read the precise wording of the state statute. If the statutory language contains the word "OR" sandwiched in between "setting a fire" and "burns", then that particular state considers the act of setting a fire an arson even if no burning occurs. Arson is a crime of general, rather than specific, intent. At common law, the mens rea of arson is "willfully and maliciously", but as a crime of general intent, malice can be inferred from the act itself. All that's necessary is proof that the person intentionally (at any MPC level of intent, even recklessly, although that's called RECKLESS BURNING in some states) started the fire. The criminal intent with arson, therefore, is intent or purpose to start a fire, even if there's no intent to burn a structure. The fire department, not the police, get to determine this, which is often called a fire of INCENDIARY ORIGIN (as opposed to one of unknown origin). A fire inspector must then testify in court that he/she also suspected arson, and then an expert witness must be called to corroborate the fire inspector's opinion. Arson is typically graded into 1st degree (homes, schools, churches), 2nd degree (unoccupied structures, vehicles), and 3rd degree (personal property). Arson is a crime against possession, not ownership, so it's possible for a person to be charged with burning their own house, or committing an arson against themselves. State statutes do not grade arsons in terms of motive, although they ought to. There's clearly differences between arsonforprofit, revenge arson, and pyromania. Some states reserve their harshest punishments for ARSON WITH INTENT TO DEFRAUD (arson for profit or arson for hire). Some states have the offense of AGGRAVATED ARSON which is kind of like felony murder, but carries additional penalties if a firefighter gets injured while trying to put out the fire. A person who's party to the crime is typically charged with arson rather than being an accomplice to the crime. Actions preliminary to arson, like pouring accelerant on the floor of a building or possessing firebombs, may be offenses related to arson under some state statutues. Making a false bomb threat or false fire alarm is also a separate, but related offense in most states. Arson involving damage to federal property is almost always prosecuted in federal court, as is anything (warehouses, truck facilities) involving interstate or foreign transport.
MALICIOUS MISCHIEF This is the crime of damaging or destroying the property of another, and it's called CRIMINAL DAMAGE or VANDALISM in some states. It's not generally more than a misdemeanor, but it can be a felony in some cases where there's large financial losses or a serious inconvenience to the general public. Complete destruction of property is not required, but there must be some physical damage which impairs the utility of the property or materially diminishes its value. The property can be inanimate or animate; the family pet can be vandalized. Most, but not all, states attempt to grade the offense by the amount of financial loss involved, with felonies starting in the $2500 range. Because this is primarily a juvenile crime, the law first considers whether there are any justifications, excuses, or mitigating factors for the behavior. The mental state required is at least recklessness in a general intent approach to "malice", but "willful or wanton disregard" for property is often spelled out in some statutes. Some states and cities have separated out GRAFFITI VANDALISM and POSSESSION OF GRAFFITI MATERIALS as more serious crimes, and most jurisdictions treat CEMETARY VANDALISM and HIGHWAY SIGN VANDALISM as quite serious. Interruption of public service (such as knocking out street lights, cutting telephone lines, throwing stink bombs in school, etc.) is also mischief, but some states treat it as CRIMINAL TAMPERING. The trend is toward state statutes that spell out specific types of mischief; INSTITUTIONAL MISCHIEF, for example, when schools or churches are involved, and ENVIRONMENTAL MISCHIEF, when environmental damage is caused. Many states and cities have passed laws making parents responsible for the financial costs of their children's mischief. INTERNET RESOURCES: Interesting Facts About Burglary Law: Burlington Police Department Combatting the Nation's Arson Problem: FEMA and FEMA's NAPI 2000 Penal Code (Texas): The Cop Shop PRINTED RESOURCES: Cromwell, P., J. Olson & D. Avery (1991) Breaking and Entering: An Ethnographic Analysis of Burglary. Gardner, T. & T. Anderson (1996) Criminal Law. Minneapolis: West. Inciardi, J. (1970) The Adult Firesetter: A Typology. Criminology 8: 14555. Maguire, M. (1982) Burglary in a Dwelling: The Offense, the Offender and Victim. London: Heinemann. Samaha, J. (1999) Criminal Law. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Shover, N. (1991) Burglary, pp. 73113 in Crime and Justice, M. Tonry (ed.), Vol 14. Chicago: Univ. Press. Skelton, D. (1998) Contemporary Criminal Law. Boston: Butterworth Heinemann. Unknown author (1951) "Statutory Burglary: The Magic of Four Walls and a Roof" Pennsylvania Law Review 100: 41120. Last updated: 06/19/03 Lecture List for Criminal Law
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THEFT LAW: CRIMES AGAINST PROPERTY & HYBRID CRIMES Just as all modern crimes against habitation have their origins in the ancient law of trespass, all modern theft laws have their origins in the ancient law of larceny. Trespass was designed to protect real property (items of possession affixed to the ground) from invasion, damage, and destruction. Larceny was designed to protect personal property (items of possession that were moveable) from MISAPPROPRIATION and STEALING. Up until the Industrial Revolution, larceny was the only kind of theft on the books, and a felony punishable by death (a "hanging offense"). Modern theft law recognizes many different kinds of crimes against property as well as hybrid crimes (both against person AND property, like robbery). Under federal law, for example, there are well over 100 different kinds of larcenythefts recognized. The states don't often recognize as many offenses, and not all of them follow the federal "consolidated" (UCR) approach of using the hyphenated phrase "larcenytheft". About 30 of the states use a consolidated "theft" approach, dropping the word larceny, and listing thefts by the type or value of property involved; e.g., theft of goods, theft of services, grand theft, petty theft. About 20 of the states use a "larceny" approach, subdivided into larcenies by trick and larcenies by force, relying upon common law definitions. Most larcenies and thefts are specific intent crimes (extortion is the exception as a general intent crime) which means that the mental state is precisely spelled out in criminal statutes. Any discussion of Theft Law is generally a discussion about the following crimes: (1) Larceny Theft; (2) EmbezzlementTheft; (3) False PretensesTheft; (4) Receiving Stolen Property; (5) Robbery; and (6) Extortion. Numbers 13 are typical of crimes consolidated into general theft statutes. ELEMENTS OF LARCENY Larceny is the wrongful taking and carrying away of personal property which is in the possession of another with the intent to convert it or permanently deprive the owner thereof.
1. Wrongful taking The state must show that there was an element of control, however brief, over someone else's property by the defendant. Control doesn't mean touching. If you sell someone else's bicycle to a passerby, even if you didn't touch it, you have taken it. The same with financial transactions; you don't need to actually handle money to take it. A common defense to this element is "borrowing". Since larceny is a specific intent crime, the law requires considering whether there's an intent to steal or a genuine intent to return something. There's no such thing as "finder's keepers" for lost or mislaid property under Theft Law. All states have littleknown statutes establishing the standards by which a reasonable effort must be made to find the true owner. However, if there's no real way of ever finding the true owner (like finding a dollar bill on the sidewalk), the taking does not constitute larceny. Many states have
constructed three levels of taking: • larceny (theft) by trick con games, schemes, and swindles • larceny (theft) by deception stings, scams, price altering • larceny (theft) by fraud inside trading, telemarketing, credit card
2. Carrying away In legal jargon, this is called asportation. It means that the property was completely moved (however slightly) from the place it was taken. Partial, or incomplete, movements, such as shuffling or rearranging an object does not count. Carrying away can be done by an innocent third person, if say, the item was stashed on them without their knowledge. A common defense in shoplifting occurs when the shoplifter senses they will be stopped, and therefore drops or abandons the item before leaving the store. Some state laws will say this is still carrying away since the item left it's merchandise area; other states will require the shoplifter have passed beyond the final point of purchase. The element of asportation is settled on the basis of common sense. The above two elements are often decided on the basis of something called trespassory taking, which looks at whether the person involved has "larceny in their heart". There are four rules (exceptions) associated with this, and the following types of persons cannot take anything in legal sense: • Employees cannot normally possess their employer's property because they have custody over it (thus, employees are not usually charged with shoplifting, but with pilfering or embezzlement) • People normally consent to "loan" their property to repairmen but do not relinquish possession (thus, repairmen can only be charged with larceny by trick or false pretenses if there's a transfer of title) • Bank tellers (or others authorized to handle money) are involved in transfers of custody, not possession (thus, cashiers can only be charged with larceny by trick or false pretenses) • Parking lot attendants (who have their customer's keys) cannot wrongfully take and carry away property because they possess it.
3. Personal property Under the old common law, only moveable property counted as personal property, but under modern statutes, almost anything qualifies as personal property. There are generally seven categories of property: • Real property real estate, trees, items attached to the land • Tangible property moveable, anything not affixed to the land • Documents money, tickets, paper, anything of value • Services labor, utilities, lodging, food, transportation • Information records, computer files, some services • Intellectual skills, talents, abilities or products thereof
• Contraband illegal items, unlikely to be reported stolen The value of the property stolen determines whether the charge is a misdemeanor or felony. Grand larceny, a felony, involves property generally worth more than $400 on average, but the dividing line differs in each state. Petty larceny, a misdemeanor, generally involves anything worth less than $400 on average. Some states also have particular interests in certain kinds of property. In Texas, theft of oil, no matter how little, is automatically a grand larceny; in California, it's avocados. Some states also use a "market value" approach to determining worth; others use "replacement cost". Evidence rules sometime require experts or appraisers to testify as to the worth of property.
4. In possession of another The law requires that the owner of the property testify that the taking was without his or her consent and to identify the stolen property in open court. Sometimes, as in the case of jewelry, it's difficult for the owner to make an identification. For this reason, law enforcement investigators often have a policy of marking objects of stolen property at the time of search & seizure. It must also be proven that the owner did not abandon the property, leaving open the honest belief that they did not care if it was taken. Things that are in a wild state, like wildlife, cannot be the property of another.
5. With the intent to convert or permanently deprive Larceny is a specific intent crime. The intent may be proven by direct or circumstantial evidence, and at a minimum, by a substantial risk of permanent loss, but more typically if the thief is counting on, but not hoping for, some "reward" or gain by the sale or return of the property. The substantial risk of loss is a fairly new element intended to encompass cases like joyriding, where the thief plans to eventually return the property, but the risk of permanent loss is present. If it turns out the thief truly believes the property is theirs, this is called the claim of right, a common defense to larceny.
EMBEZZLEMENT Embezzlement is the conversion of lawfully acquired property into something for unlawful purposes (personal use or profit). The property converted must have come into the suspect's possession via a position of trust, commonly called a fiduciary relationship. For example, employees, parking lot attendants, dry cleaning services, auto shops, and bankers typically occupy such positions of trust. The actus reus elements of embezzlement are the same as larceny except that the element of taking is relaxed and the element of breach of trust is added. All that's necessary to prove breach of trust is that the property was handled in a manner inconsistent with the trust arrangement. Embezzlement is a specific intent crime. The requisite mental state is an intent to defraud and convert property. This mental state is sometimes proven by considering what happened after the act of larceny. If the person claims they intended to return the exact same property, it is false pretenses. If the person intended to return similar or identical property because they have already spent the profit, or covered up the losses in some way because of the physical impossibility of returning the original property, it is embezzlement.
FALSE PRETENSES False pretenses is the crime of deceiving owners into willingly giving up rightful possession of their property with an intent to convert the property to personal use or profit. Persons who commit false pretenses do not have any lawful right to possession or any trust relationship. They simply lie, and this is the primary actus reus of false pretenses a lie, some kind of actual misrepresentation of the truth. It also must be shown that the victim relied upon the misrepresentation so much that they were willing to give up their property, not just possession of it, but ownership as well. This is the difference between larceny by trick and false pretenses in larceny by trick, the owner just gives up possession. With false pretenses, there's usually a transfer of title, deed, or ownership.
RECEIVING STOLEN PROPERTY Receiving, concealing, possessing, buying, or transferring stolen property are typically the behaviors associated with the crimes of fencing or trafficking in stolen goods. Receiving is generally defined as a single act, while concealing, possessing, buying, and transferring are conceived of as continuing acts. Fencing or trafficking are the continuing acts of being a middleman or distributor. The crime of receiving stolen property is a specific intent crime requiring proof that the person gained control over an item, knew that the item was obtained in a criminal manner, and (at any level of intent) intended to permanently deprive the rightful owner of his or her interest in the property. Control of the property can be actual or constructive, and it's the material fact of the item being stolen that matters, not the belief that it's stolen. If someone hides something they think is stolen, but it is not in fact stolen, then they have not received anything stolen. The level of mens rea is lessened in this crime to include negligence because a person should know, for example, that when they get "too good" a deal on something, it's probably stolen. This lowered culpability requirement is aimed at junk dealers and pawnbrokers.
ELEMENTS OF ROBBERY Robbery and extortion are hybrid crimes, both against person and property. It's also sometimes said that these are "aggravated" forms of larceny. Robbery is forceful stealing and extortion is blackmail. Robbery is the most common crime in the United States. The elements of robbery are:
1. Taking The general rule is that victim and offender must confront one another. There must be immediate possession and direct control, not "control" in the looser sense associated with larceny.
2. Carrying away The offender must gain immediate possession of the property and retain it in such a way as to make it immediately impossible for the rightful owner to regain possession. Only a slight movement of the property is necessary to fulfill this requirement if the element of impossibility is present or the threat of harm accompanies the taking. Victims must relinquish their property because they honestly and reasonably fear the robbers' threats. The victim is compelled to acquiesce in the taking of the property.
3. Property of others Actual ownership of the property by the victim does not matter; mere
possession is sufficient.
4. From their person or in their presence The general rule is that the property must be on the person or in the immediate vicinity. Other rooms in the house in which the victim is located is considered within their presence.
5. By immediate or threatened force This is the key element in robbery. There must be forceful intimidation (force or threat of force to inflict harm to the person, property, or rights of another). The threat can be to the victim, the victim's family, the victim's dwelling, or another person present. Threats to dwellings don't count in some jurisdictions. If there is no force or threat of force, the crime is larceny, not robbery. If there is a struggle, the force must be sufficient to overcome the victim's resistance; otherwise, the crime is attempted robbery. Some states don't require force at the time of taking, only at the time of escape.
6. With the intent to permanently deprive The intent required for robbery is the same as for larceny. Most states have divided robbery into degrees: • 1st degree robbery also called strongarm robbery or mugging. This requires the presence of a deadly weapon (play weapon suffices), serious injury, or the intent to create serious injury. A variant, called Home Invasion Robbery, occurs when the robber follows the victim home, knocks on the door to gain entry, or lies in wait after a breakin. • 2nd degree robbery this requires the presence of an accomplice or accomplices, any display of weapon, any injury or threat of injury. • 3rd degree robbery also called simple robbery, unarmed robbery, or forcible stealing. This simply requires use or threat of force. EXTORTION Extortion is the only general intent crime against property. It's synonymous with the term blackmail. It's the unlawful taking of property from another by threats of future harm. The element of time is what distinguishes extortion from robbery. Extortion is the threat of some future harm rather than immediate harm. There's also no need for victim and offender to confront one another. Extortion can be committed over the phone, by mail, or by email (but this of course makes it a federal crime). As a general intent crime, the motives for it don't really matter. It also doesn't matter if the victim cooperates (i.e., there's no such thing as attempted extortion). Here's some typical extortions: • threats to drive someone out of business • threats to destroy somebody's good name • threats to expose somebody's family or personal secret • threats to kidnap or injure somebody's friends or family • threats to collect a debt by illegal means
• threats to hurt somebody if they don't do something • threats to tamper with something that belongs to somebody Extortion is the most common criminal charge against corrupt police officers. Other than filing false statements/reports, LarcenyTheft is the most common reason for decertification of police officers. INTERNET RESOURCES The Armed Robbery Page Financial Crimes Preventing Crime at Places Uniform Crime Reports PRINTED RESOURCES Gardner, T. & T. Anderson (1996) Criminal Law. St. Paul: West. Samaha, J. (1999) Criminal Law. Belmont, CA: West/Wadsworth. Webb, G. (1981) Plain Language Law: Criminal Wrongs. Atlanta: Prof. Impressions. Last updated: 06/19/03 Lecture List for Criminal Law Instructor Home Page
CRIMES AGAINST BUSINESS: FORGERY AND FRAUD OFFENSES The world of business and/or commerce operates on the basis of documents (paper or electronic). It's been this way ever since the merchant class became literate, and documents took on the quality of expressing legal rights and obligations. In today's world, we prove important things by producing documents (e.g., birth certificates, drivers' licenses, titles, invoices, bills of sale). False
documents represent a threat to social stability and order. They undermine confidence in the authenticity of documents.
Forgery and fraud offenses refer to a variety of criminal behaviors designed to cheat a person, a business, or government agency out of their money, goods, or services. This aspect of the criminal behavior cheating or deceiving is the resemblance between these offenses and property crime. Indeed, many states don't have separate fraud statutes; they include such crimes under theft or larceny by fraud statutes. Another aspect of fraudulent behavior is it's similarity to whitecollar crime. Indeed, because it often involves the falsification of documents, it's a good example of this, but simple frauds aren't often committed by persons of high or respectable social status (which fits the definition of whitecollar crime, see footnote below). Another aspect of forgery and fraud offenses is that they corrupt the very foundation of public administration and/ or government regulation. Think about the harm done for a moment society is really the victim all the people who had a legitimate claim to money, goods, or services will now have to go without, with less, or burden society more to go with the same in order to make up for the losses incurred from those who had no legitimate right to the money, goods, or services. In many ways, forgery and fraud offenses are the hybrid of all hybrid crimes. Although most crimes against business are distinguished by the means used to carry them out, forgery is a specific intent crime while fraud is a general intent crime. Forgery requires a rather unusual mental state which easily distinguishes it from other crimes of theft. With fraud, it's sometimes said that it must always be intentional, as distinguished from negligent, but there are so many different forms of fraud, spelling out so many different circumstances, that it's probably better to refer to fraud as requiring constructive intent.
ELEMENTS OF FORGERY Forgery is the false making or material alteration of a writing where the writing has the apparent ability to defraud and is of apparent legal efficacy with the intent to defraud.
1. False making The person must have taken paper and ink and created a false document from scratch. Forgery is limited to documents. There can be no such thing as a forgery of art or forgery of machine because these items are not written documents. "Writing" includes anything handwritten, typewritten, computergenerated, printed, or engraved.
2. Material alteration The person must have taken a genuine document and changed it in some significant way. It's the writing itself which must be false, not the document. This element is intended to cover situations involving false signatures or improperly filling in blanks on a form.
3. Ability to defraud The document or writing has to at least look genuine enough to fool people. Forgeries of completely ridiculous things, like titles to swamp land in Florida, deeds to land on the moon, or a license to kill, do not qualify as having the apparent ability to fool most people.
4. Legal efficacy The document or writing has to have some legal significance affecting at least another person's right to something, usually some property right, broadly defined to include intellectual property like the form of a signature. Legal significance is distinguished from social significance. A writing of social significance cannot be the subject of forgery; e.g., a letter of introduction. Similarly, if you found an old book by a famous author and wrote their signature inside the front cover to make it look like an autographed edition, you would not be guilty of forgery because this has social, and not legal significance. But, if you were to sell the autographed book at an auction, you would be guilty of false pretenses.
5. Intent to defraud The specific state of mind for forgery does not require an intent to steal, only an intent to fool people. The person must have intended that other people regard something false as genuine. A forgery is complete upon having created such a document with this requisite intent. No use need ever be made of the document nor does it ever need to be tried out or circulated by the offender ("Possession is 9/10ths of the law"). The test is whether anyone might have been defrauded.
ELEMENTS OF UTTERING Uttering a forged instrument is the passing or making use of a forged writing or document with knowledge of its forged nature. This is the more usual pattern to charge the offender with both forgery and uttering because the forgery is used to accomplish some other crime, like false pretenses, some other property offense, or something as simple as purchasing alcohol with a fake ID. Falsification of information on employment applications has also been held to involve uttering.
1. Passing or making use This is any putting into circulation a writing or document that involves forgery. Any form of material gain may be the motive, but generally financial gain is the motive, as in the common practice of passing a bad check. Motive is not the distinguishing factor, however. There must be some legal significance to the circulation.
2. Intent to defraud This is the same as intent to defraud under forgery law. 3. Knowledge of forgery This is held to exist even in the case of the person passing something without saying anything, like "This isn't my real name, or there might not be enough money in the balance to pay this, but can you cash the check anyway?" In other words, silence (when knowing about something unusual) qualifies as satisfying this element. Merely attempting to offer something as genuine which is suspected to be false qualifies as offering or transferring (i.e., uttering).
Bad checks are perhaps the number one crime problem in the United States. Every day, 1.3 million "bad checks" are passed, and there's no way for the law enforcement apparatus to keep
up. Therefore, the U.S. has devised a rather unusual mix of criminal/civil law in this area, allowing businesses to let the person "make good" within a certain number of days (from 37 days) or else they are liable for up to triple the amount of the check.
ELEMENTS OF FRAUD Fraud consists of various deceitful means to convert or permanently deprive a person, business, or government agency of property, goods, or services. The statutory elements are usually the same as under Theft Law, although some states have separate fraud statutes that spell out the actus reus (like "bait and switch") more precisely. Fraud is always intentional (fraudulent intent), intentional by appearance (constructive intent), or intentional by inference from the act (general intent). The investigation of fraud, like public order offenses, often requires law enforcement to engage in certain unethical practices, like infiltration, entrapment, and sting operations. The variety of fraud offenses is sometimes amazing, and constantly growing. They also vary in their levels of sophistication. Here's an alphabetical list of the more common frauds: • Bank fraud When customers are told their saving accounts are invested in one place when they really are in another place • Consumer fraud When homeowners or shoppers are sold services or goods they don't really need • Contract fraud Taking advantage of government procurement procedures, bidrigging, bribes, or kickbacks • Insurance fraud Falsely claiming lost, damaged, or stolen property in order to receive insurance settlements • Mail fraud Use of the U.S. mails for fraudulent purposes • Pyramid Scheme fraud Multilevel marketing ploys in which employees must recruit other investors or employees • Stock Market fraud Inside trading or investment in startups to make fortune overnight in a public offering that never occurs • Telemarketing fraud High pressure phone calls to buy now before its too late or other bargain tricks • Welfare fraud Receiving benefits when one is not eligible FOOTNOTE: WHITECOLLAR CRIME [definition:] Planned illegal or unethical acts of deception committed by an individual or organization, usually during the course of legitimate occupational activity by persons of high or respectable social status, for personal or organizational gain that violates fiduciary responsibility
or public trust. (Proceedings of the Academic Workshop 1996; Morgantown, WV: National White Collar Crime Center)
This table gives an overview of "sophisticated" (Albanese 1999) crimes: Conspiracy:
White Collar Crimes against Thefts: Public Admin:
Crimes of Embezzle planning and ment, organiz. extortion, forgery, fraud
Bribery, perjury, obstruction of justice
Regulatory Offenses: Labor, trade, manufacture, environment violations
Organized Crime:
Cyber Crimes: Damage, alteration, threats, theft
Illicit services, infiltration
INTERNET RESOURCES CrimeBite (Check Fraud) Home Page Economic Crime Prevention Web Page NASD Securities Regulation Home Page National Fraud Information Center National White Collar Crime Center Prevention and Detection of Business Crime Reporting Online Consumer Fraud PRINTED RESOURCES Albanese, J. (1999) Criminal Justice. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Gardner, T. & T. Anderson (1996) Criminal Law. Minneapolis: West. Samaha, J. (1999) Criminal Law. Belmont, CA: West/Wadsworth. Skelton, D. (1998) Contemporary Criminal Law. Boston: ButterworthHeinemann. Last updated: 06/19/03 Lecture List for Criminal Law Instructor Home Page
CRIMES AGAINST PUBLIC ORDER & MORALS Crimes against public order and morals are intended to uphold minimum standards of decency and civility. Most of them have ancient roots, but in modern times have come to be associated with efforts to improve the quality of life, as in watchmanstyle community policing. The range of behaviors that quality of life laws govern is vast from public nuisances, to public indecencies, to public immoralities, to controlled substance use. They are usually general intent crimes where the inference of intent (purposely, knowingly, recklessly) is typically made by a judgment of offensiveness to some reasonable person's sensibilities. In other cases, like those involving substance abuse, they are usually strict liability crimes.
PUBLIC NUISANCES The crime of "making a public nuisance" is typically defined as an offense against, or interfering with, the comfortable enjoyment of life or property by a neighborhood or considerable number of people. The law in this regard is often aimed at controlling unlawful congregations and assemblies. The First Amendment right to assembly is not absolute. Under common law, an unlawful assembly is a gathering of three (3) or more persons for any unlawful purpose or under such circumstances as to endanger the public peace or cause alarm and apprehension. The full set of related crimes increase in seriousness as the number of people go up: • Affray 2 or more people spontaneously quarreling or fighting • Dueling or fighting 2 or more people gathering for a fight; with dueling reserved for persons of high social status • Unlawful assembly 3 or more people, for any unlawful purpose • Rout When unlawful assemblers move toward a place where they could carry out any unlawful purpose or plan • Riot 10 or more people, and any tumultuous disturbance (tumultuous is a word with many meanings noisy, disorderly, excited, rowdy, unruly, wild, hysterical, frantic, uproarious, chaotic) Another common nuisance crime is breach of peace, commonly called "disturbing the peace" or disorderly conduct. Disturbing the peace usually involves minor offenses involving noise at decibels greater than 85; such as playing a stereo too loudly. Disorderly conduct, on the other hand, can involve a wide range of behaviors, such as: • fighting, threatening, or engaging in tumultuous behavior • loud, unreasonable noises that would disturb a sensible person • vulgar words or gestures likely to provoke a violent reaction • obstructing a public access route or conveyance
• interfering with a lawful meeting, procession, or gathering • creating a chemically noxious and unreasonable odor • lascivious looking into the window or opening of a dwelling • exposing one's anus or genitals to the view of others • urinating or defecating in any place open to public view Often a city or state government will use public nuisance laws to control gang behavior. Other states rely upon organized crime statutes. Harsh penalties exist for encouraging minors to join a gang and aggravating factors exist for gangrelated felonies. The following is a sample of public nuisance laws aimed at the crime of engaging in gang activities: • confronting, intimidating, annoying, harassing, threatening, challenging, provoking, or assaulting any residents or patrons in groups of 3 or more • standing, sitting, walking, driving, or gathering with any known gang member • using words, phrases, gestures, clothing, or symbols commonly known as gang signs • using or possessing pagers or beepers in a manner tending to indicate participation in the possession and/or sale of narcotics • using or possessing marker pens, spray paint, or other objects capable of defacing property • approaching any vehicles, engaging in conversation with the occupants of any vehicles and doing nothing to prevent the obstruction or delay of vehicular or pedestrian traffic • possessing any weapons capable of inflicting serious bodily injury • trespassing or encouraging others to trespass • blocking free access or egress to sidewalks, streets, driveways, or doorways • signaling to or acting as a lookout to warn others of police approach To be sure, many jurisdictions prefer not to even recognize gang activity by making a legal offense about it. Gangs often thrive on a renegade status bestowed upon them by the adverse publicity of law enforcement crackdowns. Therefore, many jurisdictions prefer to incorporate the above gang activity indicators into civil abatement statutes. This involves using courtordered injunctions to command a group to stop doing something, or be held in contempt. Use of civil abatement has advantages for other types of public nuisances related to public health concerns, such as: • Closing down bars, bathhouses, and theaters where highrisk sexual activities have been observed (AIDSvirus breeding ground laws) • Quarantine of places and persons associated with unsafe sex practices, such as "per hour" hotels and prostitutes (mandatory testing laws)
• Regulation and rezoning of adult bookstores (urban blight laws) • Bulldozing crack houses (condemned property laws)
PUBLIC INDECENCIES For centuries, vagrancy and loitering laws have been used to protect society against the moral pestilence of vagabonds, paupers, and beggars just as if society was guarding itself against physical pestilence. The crime of vagrancy is committed by wandering about from place to place without any visible means of support, refusing to work even though able to do so, and living off the charity of others. Vagrancy laws are much broader than disorderly conduct laws. Some states use the term loitering rather than vagrancy, which is often defined as being in a place, at a time, and in a manner not usual for lawabiding individuals, and under circumstances that warrant alarm for the safety of persons or property in the vicinity. Most vagrancy and loitering laws (with the exception of curfew and truancy laws) have been held void for vagueness. They also tend to make the status of being poor a crime. According to the equal protection clause of the Constitution, things with the protection of status are not acts that can be criminalized. Indecency laws that remain on the books are always at risk of infringing upon a status group, but some that have not yet been declared unconstitutional are: • Abuse of animals Many states, like North Carolina, have a large number of crimes against nature statutes. Most of these are for abuses against animals and/or protecting the pets of one's neighbors. • Abuse of corpse This is the crime of treating a corpse in any way that would outrage family sensibilities. Most cemetery crime is also covered by "desecration of venerated objects" laws which allow the element of outrage against the sensibilities of anyone likely to observe or discover the actions. • Appearing nude in public This is the prototypical public indecency. Some states require it be "lewd" or "suggestive" which means obscene display of genitalia. • Panhandling or begging Blanket prohibitions against these acts are not constitutional; prohibitions against aggressive panhandling are. A belligerent, angry panhandler who follows a person who has refused to give money would be an example of aggressive panhandling. Courts have also upheld "unfriendly" panhandling as aggressive. • Public intoxication The Courts have ruled that chronic alcohol and drug addiction are acts, not statuses. Some states, however, have ruled that jailing drunks violates the state constitution. Other states maintain the criminal statute but emphasize treatment or rehabilitation. • Sleeping in public This has been challenged on the grounds that homelessness is a status deserving of strict scrutiny under equal protection analysis as a fundamental right to travel as one sees fit. The issue holds a precarious position in the courts, so most jurisdictions use disorderly conduct or civil abatement with their homeless problems.
• Urinating in public This is a crime that is enforced with discretion, being tolerated in some rundown parts of town and not in others.
PUBLIC IMMORALITIES Most jurisdictions hope to regulate public immoralities to some extent, but they commonly fall back on simply prohibiting something and then failing to enforce their prohibitions. This means that there are tolerated "vice" zones in most American cities, and also problems inherent with "unenforceable" laws that erode legality and legitimacy. Most of the crimes in this area are private and consensual. They are criminal not because there's a "victim" in the usual sense, but because the volitional behavior of both parties to the crime offends societal notions of morality. Crimes in this area tend to fall into two main categories: (1) regulation of marital status and sexual behavior; and (2) regulation of sexrelated vice. REGULATION OF MARITAL STATUS & SEXUAL BEHAVIOR
Adultery and Fornication involved the same act of sexual intercourse when being out of wedlock, the former offense when at least one of the partners is married. Prosecution of these crimes is so rare as to make the laws nonexistent.
Bigamy law prohibits a person from having more than one spouse at the same time. Most states allow a good faith exception if it was believed a previous spouse was dead or a previous marriage dissolved. No mens rea is required for this offense. Muslims and Mormons have historically practiced polygamy, but the former usually do not do so in the U.S. and authorities are sometimes reluctant to prosecute the latter.
Buggery or Bestiality is any type of sexual intercourse with an animal, or, in some states, anal intercourse with a man or women.
Cohabitation requires no proof of sexual intercourse. It's just "living together" outside of wedlock. It's the least prosecuted public order crime.
Incest law prohibits sexual intercourse between a male and a female who are too closely related. Typically, any relationship (or consanguinity) of being first cousins or closer is included as incest. The law tends to base relationship on family ties, not genetic ties. Therefore, adopted and "step" relatives are included.
Miscegenation is the intermarriage (and in some states living together) of persons of different races, generally white and black. All such statutes have been struck down by the Supreme Court.
Sodomy has traditionally been a catchall term for any "unnatural" sexual intercourse, and similarly, for any type of homosexual activity. Some states have abolished their sodomy statutes, and in those states where they are still on the books, questions about discrimination against homosexuals remain.
REGULATION OF SEXRELATED VICE BEHAVIOR
Prostitution is legal in parts of Nevada, but illegal (although tolerated) throughout the rest of the U.S., especially in certain "vice zones" where some communities have approached the problem by charging prostitutes with trespass if found outside the tolerated areas. Prostitution laws vary, as do definitions of the term "prostitute". The typical elements of prostitution are:
1. Offering to engage or soliciting in This is any offer of agreement, or in the case of soliciting, getting another to make the offer of agreement.
2. Any sexual contact This generally includes any kind of contact with the genitals; it's questionable from a constitutional standpoint if selfmasturbation (as in peep show) constitutes prostitution.
3. For a fee This is generally accomplished by exchange of money. Obscenity laws are enforced with variable success, and are unofficially tolerated if kept within certain "vice zones" where some communities have approached the problem by manipulating zoning ordinances and business permits. The Supreme Court in recent years has been accepting numerous obscenity cases, and the Communications Decency Act of 1996 doubles the penalties if computers are used to transmit child pornography, among other things. The typical elements of obscenity are:
1. Average person This is the reasonable man standard. 2. Applying contemporary community standards This refers to local norms about what is patently offensive. The material or performance must, as a whole, lack serious literary, artistic, political, and scientific value.
3. Appeal to prurient interest in sex This means that there's a onesided, almost obsessive, fascination with sex. Generally, this involves masturbation, excretory functions, sadism, masochism, lewd depictions of genitalia, genitalia in a state of arousal or turgid state, or depiction of a device designed primarily for genital stimulation.
CONTROLLED SUBSTANCES The federal government and all 50 states have controlled substance acts that are quite uniform in nature. Under such laws, it's a crime to do any of the following: • manufacture or deliver a controlled substance • possess a controlled substance • possess with intent to manufacture or deliver • create, deliver, or possess with intent to deliver a counterfeit • offer or agree to deliver and then deliver something not a substance
• keep a dwelling or property resorted to by persons using substances • acquire possession of a substance by misrepresentation or deception Some states follow a "trace amount" rule which doesn't require the amount to be usable; other states follow a "usable amount" rule. Possession can be either actual or constructive (if within an accessible area of control). Intent to deliver is determined by the quantity of drugs (and, among other things, if baggies are present and any lists of customers). Delivery is generally the transfer of drugs from a supplier to a dealer or distributor, and from a dealer or distributor to a user. Possession is usually a misdemeanor while delivery is usually a felony. INTERNET RESOURCES: A Guided Tour of the War on Drugs Ain't Nobody's Business if You Do Panhandling and Aggressive Panhandling San Francisco Task Force on Prostitution Summary of Key Obscenity Cases PRINTED RESOURCES: Gardner, T. & T. Anderson (1996) Criminal Law. Minneapolis: West. Reid, S. (1998) Criminal Law. Boston: McGrawHill. Samaha, J. (1999) Criminal Law. Belmont, CA: West/Wadsworth. Skelton, D. (1998) Contemporary Criminal Law. Boston: ButterworthHeinemann. Last updated: 06/19/03 Lecture List for Criminal Law Instructor Home Page
CRIMES AGAINST GOVERNMENT AND THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE Crimes against the government are infamous crimes (without fame or good report), and under common law, people committing such crimes have not even have the right to defend themselves at trial (a "firing squad" offense). The Constitution of the United States (Article 3, Section 3) does not specifically rule out or rule in the right to representation, but it does talk about treason (and attempting to overthrow the government) as a breach of allegiance and the
most aggravated, serious felony that one could commit. Terrorism against the United States is another such offense. The purpose of the criminal law in this area is to protect the innocent and preserve the political process of representative democracy and free elections. Crimes against justice, on the other hand, are common law misdemeanors that would hinder, corrupt, or impede the functioning of the judicial branch of government. Crimes such as bribery, subornation of perjury, and tampering with witnesses or evidence are typical
examples, but then there are crossover crimes, like tax evasion, where taxes support not only the judicial branch, but the whole government. The aim of the criminal law is to criminalize subversion of the system. Both crimes against government and against justice, with the exception
of treason, are usually general intent crimes where the actions speak for, or allow the inference of, culpability.
CRIMES AGAINST GOVERNMENT Over the years, the United States has had numerous laws relating to treason; e.g., numerous Alien and Sedition Acts. The sedition law now in effect is the Smith Act of 1940 which was made binding on the government in 1956 by the Supreme Court. The Smith Act, like all previous Acts in this area, has been both narrowly and broadly interpreted in guiding who or what the government can investigate and prosecute, as the following table illustrates: Narrow interpretation:
Broad interpretation:
1. Advocating the forceful overthrow of the 1. Any of (1), (2), or (3) in the column to U.S. government the left 2. Distributing with disloyal intent 2. Activities of anyone who might materials teaching or advising the forceful reasonably be expected to use force or overthrow of the U.S. government violence against the U.S. government (as 3. Organizing or helping any group having opposed to those who merely advocate it) a purpose in (1) or (2) ELEMENTS OF TREASON
1. Breach of allegiance The person must owe an allegiance to the United States. They must be citizens, naturalized aliens (permanent immigrants), or "nationals" (Samoa, Hawaii, Puerto Rico) and not aliens, on temporary visas, or foreign nationals who may reside in the U.S. The test is whether or not a person owes an allegiance to the U.S. government for any protection they may receive, not whether they are a citizen or resident.
2. Overt act of betrayal The person must commit some overt act, which is generally defined as any "material" aid or comfort to the enemy. Simply thinking disloyal thoughts is not treason. Words sometimes qualify; just as "fighting" words are not protected by the 1st Amendment, so are "treasonous" words punishable under Article 3, Section 3 and most state constitutions.
3. Intent to betray This is a specific mens rea element which requires that the government show the person engaged in the equivalent of purposely knowing. It's not exactly expressed this way, but Article 4, Section 2 of the Constitution prohibits conviction for treason unless the government can call at least two (2) witnesses who can testify as to intent or the offender confesses in open court. Other crimes related to treason include: • Espionage This is the crime of spying or being a party to spying. There are various motives, but the most common pattern is sale of secrets for money. Espionage acts can also involve the destruction of government records, obstruction of access to government buildings, or disruption of government functioning.
• Insurrection Also called rebellion; this involves arming oneself or one's group to the point that makes it creates a reasonable expectation that force or violence would be used against the U.S. government. • Mutiny This is the offense of unlawfully taking over command of the U.S. government, any part of the U.S. government, or any part of the armed forces. • Sabotage This is damaging or tampering with any national defense material or national defense utilities. Disgruntled workers at defense department airplane factories who recklessly leave loose bolts on equipment have been convicted of this. • Sedition This is any communication intended to stir up treason or rebellion against the government. Controversy exists in this area with the crimes of flagburning and other forms of unprotected free speech. • Subversion This is the crime of engaging in subversive activities, which is often a matter of free speech gone overboard or transmitting blatantly false information in hopes of helping the enemy (see Title 18 excerpt below). • Syndicalism This is the crime of organizing a political party or group advocating the violent overthrow of the U.S. government. • Terrorism This is the systematic use of violence or threats of violence to intimidate or coerce the government or whole societies by targeting innocent noncombatants. UNITED STATES CODE TITLE 18 CRIMES AND CRIMINAL PROCEDURE PART I CRIMES CHAPTER 115 TREASON, SEDITION, AND SUBVERSIVE ACTIVITIES Section 2388. Activities affecting armed forces during war (a) Whoever, when the United States is at war, willfully makes or conveys false reports or false statements with intent to interfere with the operation or success of the military or naval forces of the United States or to promote the success of its enemies; or Whoever, when the United States is at war, willfully causes or attempts to cause insubordination, disloyalty, mutiny, or refusal of duty, in the military or naval forces of the United States, or willfully obstructs the recruiting or enlistment service of the United States, to the injury of the service or the United States, or attempts to do so Shall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than twenty years, or both.
COUNTERFEITING The making of false money, bonds, postage stamps, and postal money orders, whether or not for personal use, is the crime of counterfeiting. Like forgery, there's a separate offense called "uttering" for passing counterfeit documents. Counterfeiting is generally regarded as a government threat because, in times of war, enemies often drop large amounts of counterfeit money into the other country in an attempt to destroy their economy.
TAX EVASION Drug dealers, gangsters, spies, and other organized criminals often live lavishly, and to do this, they must "launder" dirty money in order to make it look like a "legitimate" source of income. They must then pay taxes on their declared incomes, but the IRS uses a "net worth" method of determining tax evasion which ordinarily catches most cases, even the best money laundering schemes. Tax evasion and fraud are crimes because the government needs money to operate.
CRIMES AGAINST THE ADMIN. OF JUSTICE There are a number of laws intended to protect the judicial system. The most common form of prohibited behavior in this category is resisting arrest (which involves police officers acting in
the judicial capacity of bringing a defendant into the judicial system, or escape, if from a lawful detention). The older commonlaw offense (from which resisting arrest sprung from) is obstruction of justice. State statutes sometimes list dozens of different ways to obstruct justice, but the most common ways are to "frame" someone by planting evidence or "fix" someone's problem by withholding, destroying, or removing evidence. Related to obstructing justice are two (2) crimes of keeping silent: • Compounding a crime A crime is "compounded" when the victim agrees to not prosecute for a valuable consideration from the offender. It's the same as withholding evidence, but in return for receiving something of value from the offender, even if it's just the stolen property back. Usually, only serious misdemeanors or felonies can be compounded. • Misprision of felony This is an old (hue and cry) failure to report a crime if one is a witness or victim to it. Modern statutes require, in addition to a failure to disclose, some positive act of concealment, suppression of evidence, harboring of a felon, or intimidation of witnesses.
ELEMENTS OF PERJURY Perjury is the willful taking of a false oath in a judicial proceeding in regard to material matter at issue before the court. The essential elements are:
1. Willful taking of false oath An "oath" or some other form of oath allowed at law, is an essential element. The reasons are historical. Throughout history, perjury was a minor misdemeanor because the supernatural consequences of lying under oath were considered more severe than whatever the law could do to a person.
2. Judicial proceeding Historically, the crime of perjury could only be committed in open court, but states have expanded it to include affidavits, depositions, testimony, and statements in other proceedings.
3. Material matter at issue The person must lie about a subject that has a significant outcome at trial. The significant outcome doesn't have to be guilt or innocence, but it must be
more than social significance, such as lying about your age or place of birth.
4. [General or constructive intent] The person need not know positively that their statement is false. It is sufficient if proven they are merely uncertain about their statement, but went ahead anyway and made the statement. It's a matter of determining if the person cared or did not care about telling the truth. Under common law, the requirement was that two (2) witnesses were needed to support the intent to commit perjury, but modern law allows a single witness plus circumstantial evidence, or circumstantial evidence alone.
SUBORNATION OF PERJURY Procuring or inducing another to commit the crime of perjury is subornation of perjury. The suborner must know that the testimony to be given is false and that a person would willingly and knowingly testify falsely. Crimes that are somewhat related to subornation are: • Embracery wrongful influencing of jurors • Barretry stirring up lawsuits between people • Champerty wrongfully inducing a person to bring a lawsuit
ELEMENTS OF BRIBERY Bribery is the tender (or receipt) of anything of value to (by) a public office holder with the intent that the public office holder will be influenced in the performance of his/her official duties. In addition to bribery, public officer holders can be additionally charged with conflict of
interest (personally profiting from office) and/or criminal misconduct (where applicable). It's also a crime to fail to report a bribe.
1. Tender (or receipt) At law, it doesn't matter how something of value is transferred or even if anything is exchanged at all. Making, giving, or accepting a bribe are all the same. There's no such thing as attempted bribery.
2. Anything of value The law doesn't even try to define this loose term; generally, anything will suffice.
3. Public office holder Some states will specify the exact office holders that can be involved in bribery; other states identify certain legal categories (legislators, judges, jurors, law enforcement officers); other states include corporate officers, athletes, etc.); and still other states just refer to anyone, public or private, that has influence over anything. 4. [General or constructive intent] Although the definition of bribery spells out an intent to influence the performance of public office, because some states have watered down the "public" office requirement, a general intent (inferred from the act of bribery) to influence is usually the case. Some states, however, require a "mutual" intent between two parties.
5.
ELEMENTS OF CONTEMPT Contempt is the willful disregard of the authority of a court or legislative body. Anything that frustrates the dignity of these institutions can be held in contempt. Contempt of a legislative body typically occurs by protesters outside of Capitol Hill when they intimidate witnesses called to testify before Congressional committees. All orders and judgments of a court must be complied with promptly. A person can appeal, but absent a stay [of judgment], the person must still comply even if they have appealed. If a person is obstinate enough, they may be held in criminal contempt, which is a form of punishment. "Civil" contempt is used to compel people to do things until they do it.
1. Willful disregard There is no contempt unless there is some sort of willful disregard, some degree of intentional wrongdoing. Falling asleep in court or being late for reasons not your own, for example, cannot be subject to contempt. Failure to pay a fine, for being unable or unemployed, is not a defense to contempt.
2. [General intent direct contempt] Direct contempt occurs in full view of open court or the legislative body. It may be punished summarily, meaning there's no opportunity for a hearing about it. An example would be when Larry Flynt started shouting obscenities at his trial. The general rule is that there must be a personal attack on a trial judge in the form of a vicious slander or angry insult. Isolated uses of street vernacular, like "chicken shit", have not been held sufficient to support contempt charges.
3. [Constructive intent indirect contempt] Indirect contempt occurs out of the presence or hearing of a court or legislative body. A person so charged is entitled to a hearing on it before submitting to punishment for it. INTERNET RESOURCES: A Short History of Perjury Center for Democracy and Technology Center for National Security Studies The Literal Truth Defense to Perjury North Carolina Procedure on Crimes Against Justice Terrorism Law & Criminal Procedure (UK) US Dept. of State: Bureau of Diplomatic Security PRINTED RESOURCES: Gardner, T. & T. Anderson (1996) Criminal Law. Minneapolis: West. Samaha, J. (1999) Criminal Law. Belmont, CA: West/Wadsworth. Skelton, D. (1998) Contemporary Criminal Law. Boston: ButterworthHeinemann. Last updated: 06/19/03 Lecture List for Criminal Law Instructor Home Page
CIVIL LIABILITY Suing the government is the second most popular indoor sport in America, and police are often the targets of lawsuits, with over 30,000 civil actions filed against them every year, between 48% of them resulting in an unfavorable verdict, where the average jury award is $2 million. This isn't even counting the hundreds of cases settled thru outofcourt settlements, which probably runs in the hundreds of millions and involves about half of all cases filed. It may take up to five years to settle a police liability case. When police fail to perform their duties, perform them negligently, or abuse their authority, the possibility of civil liability exists. Unlike criminal cases, liability cases are tried in civil court. It's common to name everyone associated with the injury or damage as the defendant (officers, supervisors, agencies, even the government entity) in order to reach the "deep pockets". Chances are the higherups will have the ability to pay larger awards either personally or by raising taxes. There are two (2) ways to sue the police. One, the lawsuit may be filed in state court as a tort
law claim. This is the preferred method since torts can only be settled by money awards and the standard of proof is preponderance of the evidence, a standard much lower to convict than in a criminal case. Two, the lawsuit may be filed in federal court as a violation of Title 42 of the United States Code, Section 1983. This is referred to as a civil rights claim, and is essentially a charge that someone has had their constitutional rights violated. States cannot be sued in a civil rights claim, but municipalities and sheriffs can be sued if they are (a) acting under color of state law, and (b) violating a specific Amendment right in the Constitution. The standards under federal law are custom or policy, and deliberate indifference, a rather poorly defined concept which is similar to totality of circumstances. Although federal lawsuits can result in money awards, the amount is usually less since the main purpose is to win and get the agency to change the way it operates; i.e., obtain injunctive relief. STATE (TORT) LIABILITY LAW There are three types of torts under state law, each with different levels of proof and focusing upon different elements of the injury or damage. Evidence rules, precedent, and judicial discretion play a role in determining what type of tort law will be applied. STRICT LIABILITY In this case, the injury or damage is so severe and it's reasonably certain that the harm could have been foreseen that the law dispenses with the need to prove intent or mental state. The only issue is whether the officer or department should pay the money award, and since officers don't usually have any money, the department almost always pays. (Examples: reckless operation of vehicle; excessive SWAT tactics) INTENTIONAL TORT In this case, the officer's intent must be proven, using a foreseeability test involving whether or not the officer knowingly engaged in behavior that was substantially certain to bring about injury. (Examples: wrongful death; assault; false arrest; false imprisonment) NEGLIGENCE In this case, intent or mental state do not matter. What matters is whether some inadvertent act or failure to act created an unreasonable risk to another member of society.
(Examples: speeding resulting in traffic accident; not responding to 911 call) Most states have three levels of negligence: (1) slight or mere (absence of foresight); (2) gross (reckless disregard); and (3) criminal. To be prosecuted under tort law for negligence usually requires at least level 2 since to be prosecuted for mere negligence requires considering foreseeability which would support charging the person with an intentional tort or not. There are additional details of state tort liability associated with specific types of lawsuits, such as: • Wrongful death These are typically cases when the officer thinks a suspect is reaching for a weapon, shoots the suspect, and then no weapon is found on the suspect. Courts have ruled that the totality of circumstances must be looked at, especially the reason why the suspect came into contact with the officer in the first place. Merely alleging that a suspect appeared to be reaching for a weapon is no defense. • Assault & Battery A police assault would be if an interrogator threatens to throw a suspect out a secondfloor window; a police battery is (paradoxically) defined more loosely as any offensive contact without consent; e.g., a male officer performing an illegal search of a female over her protests. • False arrest The unlawful restraint of a person's liberty without their consent; e.g., using the caged area of a patrol car as a holding area, several officers surrounding somebody, or ordering someone to remain at the station could all be interpreted as false arrest. • False imprisonment This is different from false arrest in that an officer may have had probable cause to arrest, but later violates certain pretrial rights, such as access to a judge or bondsman. HOT PURSUITS: This highliability area typically involves reckless or negligent operation of a motor vehicle. It's also typically a strict liability area, and here are some of the acts used by the courts to infer intent or state of mind: not using flashers & sirens; not considering alternative to chase; using old, beatup police cars; excessive disregard of traffic control devices; not securing the chase path; not warning the public; using cutoff maneuvers & roadblocks that create the possibility for overreaction; not stopping to assist any innocent injured bystanders. The duties are threefold: To warn & protect; To secure the scene; To render assistance. FEDERAL LIABILITY LAW Two elements have to be present simultaneously under federal liability law. If a person loses in federal court, they still have recourse under state law. ACTING UNDER COLOR OF LAW This means that the behavior of officers not related to employment are not actionable. It does not mean that offduty officers cannot be sued. An officer moonlighting in a security job can be held liable since they are acting under color of law in performing a police function. And, it sounds like a contradiction, but police behavior that is clearly illegal and violates departmental procedure, like beating up a citizen, is regarded by the
court as acting under color of law. VIOLATION OF A CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHT These involve whatever the court believes to be specifically prohibited conduct regarding freedom of religion, speech, press, or assembly (1st Amendment), freedom from unreasonable search and seizure (4th Amendment), freedom from double jeopardy and selfincrimination (5th Amendment), rights to a speedy, public, impartial jury trial, and to be informed of the charges, confront and compel witnesses, and to have assistance of counsel (6th Amendment); freedom from excessive bail, fines, and cruel and unusual punishments (8th Amendment); and freedom from deprivations of life, liberty, or property without due process (14th Amendment). The leading case in police department liability under federal law is Monell v. Dept. of Social Services (1978). Under this ruling, it must be shown that the department adopted or promulgated (however informal) a "custom" or policy that was the driving force behind the officer's violation of constitutional rights. In essence, this is the doctrine of respondeat superior, since a policymaker (or "custommaker") has to be found to declare the department liable. A "pattern" of constitutional violations and an awareness of them by highranking officials must be demonstrated. However, there is precedent holding departments accountable for one single act as fulfilling "pattern" requirement. Examples of gross negligence or accumulations of mere negligence constitute deliberate
indifference. This standard is usually satisfied by looking at whether or not the agency
administration engaged in supervisory negligence. Virtually every decision a police administrator makes subjects them to possible liability. The following are examples of supervisory negligence: • Negligent hiring hiring persons unfit for police work; not conducting psychological exams; not conducting full background checks • Negligent supervision inadequate monitoring of employee performance; failure to reprimand when appropriate; tolerating sloppy police work; hearing rumors & not acting; being new to supervisor job • Negligent retention keeping employees on the job or promoting them on the basis of favoritism or friendship when they clearly should have been severely disciplined, demoted, or dismissed • Failure to train inadequately preparing employees to perform their duties; minimal or too easy academy training; little or no inservice training; no educational tuition reimbursement • Negligent entrustment inadequately preparing employees prior to entrusting them with responsibilities; a synergistic combination of failure to train and negligent supervision • Negligent assignment assigning known problem employees to critical or inappropriate duties; reckless drivers to patrol; racist officers to ghetto areas; sexist officers with a female partner • Failure to direct not giving officers clear, articulated guidance in how to perform
their duties; not having policies and procedures; having officers "sign off" on same without understanding them • Failure to discipline not having an effective discipline process; not following progressive discipline principles • Failure to investigate also a liability of officers; with supervisors, it's not having an effective Internal Affairs unit, inspections or integrity checks, a difficult (for citizens) complaint process, or a difficult (for employees) grievance process • Failure to protect also a liability of officers and jail managers; it's not inspecting safety conditions; allowing victims or witnesses to come in contact with suspects; (protection of public is an individual liability addressed with failure to direct for supervisors or writ of mandamus) • Failure to treat also a liability of officers and jail manager; not providing first aid, ambulance service, or counseling (given the foreseeability of suicide) • Negligent classification a jail manager liability; throwing adults in with children, or dangerous inmates in with nondangerous ones DEFENSES TO LIABILITY
Contributory negligence this is where the government shows that the plaintiff was also negligent, and contributed to their own injury or damage. No money award is granted if this defense is successful.
Comparative negligence this is when the court decides on a percentage split (say 6040) in terms of who is negligent. This defense tends to mitigate, or reduce the size of the money award.
Assumption of risk this is when the court decides that the suspect engaged in behaviors (e.g., fleeing from police) that assumed the risk of damages or injuries, and cannot expect to sue the police to recover.
Absolute Immunity This is a Section 1983 lawsuit defense that is limited to participation in the judicial process; i.e., testifying in court. If a police officer commits perjury on the stand, they cannot be threatened with civil liability, only the criminal offense of perjury. The courts reason that it's difficult enough to get people to testify without the threat of civil liability.
Qualified Immunity This is a Section 1983 lawsuit defense covering duties of a discretionary nature, such as when a police administrator decides to increase or decrease the number of patrols for drunk drivers. A motorist hit by a drunk driver charging that the department did not have enough patrol cars out protecting her would not win her lawsuit.
Probable Cause This is the standard defense to false arrest charges. Good Faith This covers a wide range of behaviors, even unconstitutional ones, if the officer is executing a warrant believing in good faith that the warrant was valid, but it later turns out the warrant was defective or invalid.
College Education When a department has a 4year college degree standard for all its
employees, this protects somewhat against various forms of supervisory negligence, such as charges relating to the failure to supervise, direct, train, or entrust, since it can reasonably be expected that college educated officers are better prepared to understand a broader range of motivation and control issues, more likely to read and understand policy manuals, temper police powers with good judgment or democratic values, and have a more professional orientation. INTERNET RESOURCES Americans for Effective Law Enforcement, Inc. AELE: Case Law Library The Liability Reporter Police Liability Assessment Guide Police Liability Concerning Human Rights PRINTED RESOURCES Carter, D. & A. Sapp (1990). Higher Education as a Policy Alternative to Reduce Police Liability. Police Liability Review 2: 12. Del Carmen, R. (1991). Civil Liabilities in American Policing. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall. Kappeler, V. (1993). Critical Issues in Police Civil Liability. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. Last updated: 06/19/03 Lecture List for Criminal Law Instructor Home Page
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