Nedergaard‐Larsen Culture-bound Problems in Subtitling

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Culture‐bound problems in subtitling Birgit Nedergaard‐Larsen Available online: 28 Apr 2010

To cite this article: Birgit Nedergaard‐Larsen (1993): Culture‐bound problems in subtitling, Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 1:2, 207-240 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0907676X.1993.9961214

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CULTURE-BOUND PROBLEMS IN SUBTITLING

Birgit Nedergaard-Larsen

Abstract

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Language and culture are closely interrelated. In subtitling, as in all forms of interlingual transfer, this may cause problems in rendering culture-specific or language-specific elements. The author discusses strategies available to the subtitlers confronted with such phenomena in films. The strategies range from verbatim transfer, via culturally neutral explicitation and paraphrase, to target language adaptation. Four French feature films are analysed with reference to the way extra-lingual culture-specific elements are rendered in Danish subtitles. The author discusses which factors to consider when deciding on an appropriate strategy. The analysis shows a tendency, possibly norm-governed, toward retaining the localflavor of the film, yet remaining faithful to the source language expression whenever possible.

Introduction One of the most fascinating aspects of films - apart from the fact that they can be wonderful entertainment - is that they offer unique scope for getting acquainted with other cultures. Film is a broad concept of course, covering many different types even within the genre of feature films. Some deal with general, universal themes; psychological problems, relations between people etc. Others are rather products of the culture from which they arise, thus providing their audience with a living insight into these cultures. This may cause problems if a film is to be shown in a different cultural framework. Not that the problems are necessarily insoluble, but close attention should be paid to their solution. Such culture-bound problems in subtitling will be discussed here, illustrated with select examples of problems in subtitling French feature films for broadcasting in Danish and Swedish television. Following some theoretical reflections on translation and culture, a typological outline of cross-cultural translation problems will be presented. Thus in the first round the problems dealt with are not specifically related to subtitling, since many general translation problems are common to subtitling and other forms of translation. Next, the problems that are specific for subtitling will be discussed, both general subtitling problems and culture-bound ones. After defining the problem types and the factors specifically related to subtitling, strategies for solving culture-bound subtitling problems will be discussed. An analysis of select examples will follow. These examples are limited to

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problems related to extralinguistic1 culture-bound elements in some recent French feature films. Here, the employed strategies, possible alternatives and factors that may influence the choice of strategy in each case will be discussed. Finally, these problems will be viewed in a larger perspective. This will include a discussion of which factors could influence the view of cross-cultural subtitling problems, and which norms may be said to govern the choice of subtitling strategy. Translation and culture Translation and culture are closely interrelated. Self-evident as it may seem today, this statement has no deep roots in the history of translation. Not until the middle of this century was it a recognized fact, and particularly American scholars such as Edward Sapir and later Benjamin Whorf have dealt with translation and culture. In 1956, Whorf wrote about the relation between language and thought: And every language is a vast pattern-system, different from others, in which are culturally ordained the forms and categories by which the personality not only communicates, but also analyzes nature, notices or neglects types of relationship and phenomena, channels his reasoning, and builds the house of his consciousness.2

Sapir and Whorf pointed out that translation is extremely difficult, especially when translating from a language and culture distant from your own. Many attempts have been made by translation theorists to refute the SapirWhorfian thesis about the close interrelation between language and culture. Thus in the 1960s linguists believed in the so-called principle of universality. Among them the Frenchman Georges Mounin, who tried to establish the extent of non-universal elements in language and culture. He reached a very small number, but did not take into consideration the fact that the informative value of such elements in a text is often much greater than that of ordinary more universal words. He also attempted to make his views plausible in other ways, but in fact, a closer examination of his examples tends to prove the Sapir-Whorfian thesis rather than disprove it.3 That a connection between language and culture exists should not, however, lead to the conclusion that translation is impossible as has sometimes been postulated in translation theory. The point is to understand that this connection exists, and to find out how to overcome such culturally determined translation problems. Many recent scholars of translation are concerned with the relation between

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language and culture. Thus, Hatim & Mason present a theory of translation that focuses on the cultural context and its decisive importance: "Translating (is) a communicative process which takes place within a social context"* They see the translator as a mediator: Translators mediate between cultures (including ideologies, moral systems and socio-political structures), seeking to overcome those incompatibilities which stand in the way of transfer of meaning. What has value as a sign in one cultural community may be devoid of significance in another...3.

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Hatim & Mason delve in many different scientific disciplines that they use to support their theory. But their main point is that translation is communication across linguistic and cultural barriers, and that the problems met with by the translator lie both within and outside the language. Also Mary Snell-Hornby deals with the cultural aspect of translation in Translation Studies • An Integrated Approach from 1988. She distinguishes between problems that exist within a language, and those that lie outside i t She refers to the linguistic aspect as "dimension": Dimension refers to the linguistic orientation realized in lexical items , stylistic devices and syntactic structures, and it becomes a translation problem when multidimensionality in linguistic expression is involved.... Thus dimension focuses on internal aspects of language...'

Those aspects that lie beyond language are called "perspective": With perspective I mean the viewpoint of the speaker, narrator or reader in terms of culture, attitude, time and place; this shifts, for example in parody and satire, and invariably in translation. ... [Thus] perspective [focuses] on the relationship of the text to external, social and cultural factors...7

Culture-bound problems Culture-bound problems are often mentioned and described, both in literature on subtitling and on translation in general. When culture-bound elements are discussed in relation to translation, the term will often refer to the non-linguistic sphere, to different phenomena or events that exist in the source language culture. But, as described above, language itself is often also culture-bound, since we meet 'culturally specific elements' in both the language system and in actual usage. Vinay and Darbelnet's Stylistique comparee dufrangais et de I'anglais clearly illustrates the extent of the culture-bound elements in translating. The fundamental idea of the book is the contrastive aspect of translation, and culture-bound differences are found on many different levels: On peut envisager des maintenant ce que doit etre cede discipline [la stylistique compared]: tres vaste, de toute evidence, puisqu'elle s'appuie en premier lieu sur la connaissance de deux

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structures linguistiques: deux lexiques, deux morphologies; mais aussi [peut-etre surtout] parce qu'elle s'appuie sur deux conceptions particulieres de la vie qui informent ces langues ou en dlcoulent par voie de consequence: deux cultures, deux literatures, deux histories et deux geographies ..."

Culture-bound problems within the language itself are numerous and extensive. They may be grammatical categories that exist only in this one language, vocative forms (tu/vous), the use of certain rhetoric, metaphors and idioms. In spoken language they may be dialectal or sociolectal speech variants, or the problem may be spoken language characterised by an intonation that indicates anger, interrogation, irony etc. In the present article the extralinguistic culture-bound problems will be discussed. Not that these problems are necessarily greater then the intralinguistic problems; on the contrary, perhaps. But it would be too extensive to deal with both types of problems in detail. There are also certain differences regarding strategies and possibilities that would present difficulties in a joint description. In the following, therefore, only extralinguistic problems will be referred to. These are not, however, limited to certain references to objects, persons or events. As mentioned earlier Whorf described how language decides our perception and classification of reality. Vinay and Darbelnet define a "metalinguistic" element as follows:' Nous entendons par "me'talinguistique" l'ensemble des rapports qui unissent les fails sociaux, culturels et psychologiques aux structures linguistiques.' Thus, the extraliguistic element is present in language - otherwise there would be no translation problem - and decides among other things which words actually exist, and how reality is classified. Vinay and Darbelnet mention the division of the times of the day, words for buildings (with specific purposes), types of provision shops, measure and weight, meals, and words that refer to social life or educational systems.10 Gautier" gives examples of what he calls culture-bound, documentary elements in films. Such elements can be geographical, historical, cultural and political: he mentions architecture, tools, customs and rituals and various objects. Adding to this he describes how films contain ideological and economic messages pertaining to customs, morals, values, life-style, living standards and industrial systems. Such culture-bound problem types are mentioned by a number of authors, and for the sake of clarification they may be summed up in the following typology. Far from being exhaustive, this classification gives an idea of the sort of problems we are discussing:

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Table 1

Extralinguistic culture-bound problem types Geography etc

History

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Society

Culture

geography meteorology biology

mountains, rivers weather, climate flora, fauna

cultural geography

regions, towns roads, streets etc

buildings

monuments, castles etc

events

wars, revolutions, flag days

people

well-known historical persons

industrial level (economy)

trade and industry energy supply etc

social organisation

defence, judicial system police, prisons local and central authorities

politics

state management, ministries electoral system, political parties politicians, political organisations

social conditions

groups, subcultures living conditions, problems

ways of life, customs

housing, transport, food, meals clothing, articles for everyday use family relations

religion

churches, rituals, morals ministers, bishops religious holidays, saints

education

schools, colleges, universities lines of education, exams

media

TV, radio, newspapers, magazines

culture, leisure activities

museums, works of art literature, authors theatres, cinemas, actors musicians, idols restaurants, hotels nightclubs, cates sports, athletes

Culture-bound problems may occur in any translation. In fact, they may also

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occur in texts within the same language, for example in texts dealing with the problems of a particular group of people, or in technical texts, often in need of some kind of intralingual12 translation or rewording to be comprehensible for non-professionals. In textbooks on translation these problems are often mentioned along with various methods and strategies for solving them. But before we look at translation methods, we must look more closely into the kind of translation which is in focus here: Subtitling. Problems related specifically to subtitling Subtitling13 is a special type of language transfer: a written, condensed translation of a predominantly spoken original.

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Subtitling... consists of three interlocking parts of theoretically separate, but in practical terms, simultaneous activities: the transfer of information from one language to another, an abbreviation or condensation of the text; the transfer from the spoken to the written language."

The problems that apply to translation in general also, to some degree, apply to subtitling. But the problems are not always of the same score, and in subtitling there are some additional, media-related problems that must be confronted and solved. When dealing with problems in subtitling it is therefore important to understand that subtitling functions, and should be judged, differently from printed translations. Factors related to the type of translation and to the medium, will affect the end result: Table 2 Factors in subtitling determining the scope of translation problems Translation type

transitory (means time/space problems) condensed from speech into writing

Media-related factors

visuals

feed-back effect - gestures, facial expressions - objects, scenery text (signs)

soundtrack

feed-back effect (dialogue) -prosody - dialect etc - (proper) names - the order of elements sound effects

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Translation types Especially when dealing with culture-bound matters, the condensation found in subtitles can be a problem. The total dialogue is not transferred 1:1, although select passages of dialogue may be transferred 1:1 in various parts of the film. The condensation of subtitles is primarily due to their transitory nature: - subtitles must be read while the film runs (limited time) - subtitles must fit on the screen (limited space) The time factor depends on how fast the audience is expected to read. The greater the reading speed, the less condensation: the subtitles need not stay on the screen for long (allowing time for more subtitles) or more can be expressed in each subtitle (if the two lines are not already filled out). Much has already been written about these limiting factors and problems relating to subtitling. Here we will simply state that the answer to any translation problem in subtitling, whether culture-bound or not, will naturally be partly determined by the amount of time and space available. Evidently subtitles do not leave space for footnotes, long explanations or paraphrases. Sometimes there may not be enough space even for short explanations, and in certain siuations it may be necessary to omit some elements completely. All this is closely connected with the choice of subtitling strategy, something that will be discussed below. On the other hand, the fact that the translation shifts from speech to writing may in some cases be positive. A written expression has a stronger effect than a corresponding spoken expression. Therefore subtitling should in some cases be abbreviated or toned down in relation to the spoken original, also when factors of time and space do not come into play. Media-specific factors A film is a particularly complex art form. It has both a visual and an acoustic channel; the image and the soundtrack. Four different types of film signs15 can be isolated: - verbal acoustic signs (dialogue) - non-verbal acoustic signs (music, sound effects) - verbal visual signs (written signs in the image) - non-verbal visual signs (what is otherwise seen in the image) Subtitles are verbal visual signs that are added to the original image without changing the visuals or the soundtrack of the film - apart from the fact that the

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subtitles cover the bottom part of the screen. Precisely because subtitles are added, the so-called feed-back effect arises. There is a feed-back effect both from the visuals and from the soundtrack.16 The strength of the feed-back effect from the dialogue depends partly on the audience's degree of familiarity with the language of the dialogue, partly on how closely this language is related to the language of the audience. Thus, the feed-back effect is due partly to the fact that the subtitles are added while the original dialogue remains audible, partly to the fact that the visuals may contain elements that supply the dialogue. Cross-cultural translation problems can be either increased or diminished by the feed-back effect. In some situations the subtitler will have to depart from an otherwise suitable translation strategy because of the feed-back effect. At other times the feed-back effect will reduce or eliminate a translation problem, if for example the institution or object mentioned is seen on the screen. This last case illustrates the fact that there is often some degree of redundancy in films. This redundancy may arise due to repetitions, which are frequent in spoken language, especially in spontaneous speech. Adding to this, redundancy is a result of the complex nature of films. Redundancy can be found in the dialogue + visuals (an utterance accompanied by gestures and facial expressions) or in dialogue + sound (an utterance accompanied by marked prosody or sound effects). In some cases an utterance will be accompanied by redundancy from both the visuals and the soundtrack at the same time. This can definitely be a positive factor, reducing a translation problem, so that in some cases it may be quite acceptable to omit an item." One might claim that precisely the fact that there are visuals, images that support the subtitles, can make the subtitling successful as translation: A literary translator has nothing but words to communicate a message which both in form, content and reference to time and place is far removed from the reader he believes to be translating for ... Compared to certain types of literature it is relatively easy to obtain a succesful translation in the visual media, precisely due to the constraints they impose - on the translator as well."

Evaluating subtitles The above indicates that the translation type and the media-specific factors do not necessarily increase the translation problems: some factors may reduce these problems. Traditionally, in fact until very recently, it was supposed that subtitling was a highly defective translation - if the label 'translation' was indeed deserved.

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One of the common mistakes made by critics in their evaluation of the results has been a tendency to focus on the negative aspects of the medium and the translation type, and to overlook the positive ones. Also, many such conclusions have been drawn without any real analysis. Not until recent years have subtitling theorists seriously started taking the translation type and the media-specific factors into consideration, and this has considerably changed the view of subtitles and the conclusions that are reached. Thus, Henrik Gottlieb's analysis of the Danish subtitles in the film comedy Young Frankenstein showed that the major part of the original dialogue was represented without any mentionable loss:

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Since two-thirds of the dialogue of an "ordinary feature film" can be transferred to Danish subtitles without loss of expression or content, this would indicate that the status of subtitling compared to for instance literary translation, deserves reconsideration. 19

So the media-specific factors do not in themselves imply a defective translation, and it might be supposed that: ... the lingustic adroitness of the subtitler, combined with acoustic and visual redundancy in the original version will compensate for the major part of the media-specific loss of information that any subtitling has been presumed - without empirical proof - to impose on the dialogue in a feature film or a TV-programme.20

In the following analysis, concentrating on the subtitler's rendering of culturebound elements, the media-specific factors will be considered in the evaluation of the different solutions to these problems. Subtitling strategies In all types of translation work, some kind of strategy will be employed, intuitively or consciously. Dirk Delabastita has taken an interest in strategies in film translation and the norms that govern the choice of strategy. His point of departure is Gideon Toury's theories concerning literary translation. Toury belongs to "The Low Country Group" that emerged as a new trend in translation studies in the mid 1970's, later termed the "Manipulation School": Their aim is, quite simply, to establish a new paradigm for the study of literary translation, on the basis of a comprehensive theory and ongoing practical research.... What they have in common is, briefly, a view of literature as a complex and dynamic system; a conviction that there should be continual interplay between theoretical models and practical case studies, an approach to literary translation which is descriptive, target-oriented, functional and systemic; and an interest in the norms and constraints that govern the production and the reception of translations...21

Delabastita describes22 how Toury's model for literary translation can be applied to film translation. Toury's model focuses on three aspects of translation:

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- Competence (possible relationships), which is theoretical, focusing on translation strategies. - Norms (required relationships), which is methodical, focusing on the norms that govern the choice of translation strategy. - Performance (actual relationships), which is pragmatic, focusing on an analysis of actual ' translations.

Delabastita points to the lack of systematic analysis of film translations. Often, too much attention has been paid to the media-specific problems and limitations.23 Instead, he proposes a more profound analysis, for example along the lines of Toury's model. In other words, we should deal theoretically with translation problems, suggest possible strategies, analyse specific translations and on this basis find the implicit or explicit norms that govern the choice of translation strategy. In the following, translation strategies for solving culture-bound translation problems will be described along with those factors one must take into consideration when choosing a strategy. Next, specific subtitling examples containing culture-bound elements will be analysed. This analysis does not pretend to be an extensive empirical analysis as proposed by Delabastita. But it will provide material for examining whether certain types of problems tend to lead to certain types of strategy. "Either/or" or "both/and" When discussing translation strategies, it must be emphasized that it is not a matter of the translator choosing one specific strategy to be used throughout the book or the film. Such an either/or-at\itad& was seen in classical discussion of free versus literal translation. In this century this discussion has been continued as a dispute about equivalence. As you will know, equivalence is a concept which is widely employed and at the same time highly controversial in translation theory. In the 1960s the American bible translator E.A. Nida set up a distinction between formal equivalence (close to the source language text - "faithful") and dynamic equivalence or equivalence of effect. He himself was in favour of this latter, rather target language-oriented type.24 Others have operated with whole series of equivalence types that might be used alternately in one translation process, for example the German scholar Otto Kade.25 Incidentally, many scholars have questioned whether it is at all possible to use an exact, mathematical term like equivalence ("meaning value") when dealing with something as inexact and relative as translation. But regardless of whether one employs the term equivalence or not, it is important to establish that a strategy cannot be selected once

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and for all. But we can establish different translation strategies to choose from in the translation process. Translation strategies Many theorists have set up translation strategies. Vinay and Darbelnet's seven strategies are almost classics by now:

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1. L'emprant (transference, loan word) 2. Le caique (imitation) 3. La (reduction litterale (literal translation) 4. La transposition (change in grammar) 5. La modulation (variation) 6. L'equivaJence (idiomatic equivalence) 7. L'adaptation (cultural adaptation)

When dealing with extralinguistic, culture-bound problems strategies 1, 2, 3 and 6 and 7 are of interest, while number 4 and 5 are particularly concerned with grammar and syntax. No. 1, loan or direct transfer of the source language-word, is common with names of places, institutions and sometimes professional titles and vocative forms: Paris, Moulin Rouge, monsieur are transferred verbatim. No. 2, imitation, may be a direct transfer, but adapted to target languge, for example professional titles or institutions: secretaire d'Etat -» statssekretcer (Secretary of State) Assemblee Nationale —» Nationalforsamling (National Assembiy)No. 3, literal translation, can be used with names of institutions and professional titles that also exist in target language: lycee -» gymnasium (grammar school) , mditre -¥ advokat (lawyer ) . No. 6, idiomatic equivalence or situational adaptation, can be used when translating culture-specific phenomena: Certificat d'etudes primaires —» Folkeskoleeksamen (General Certificate of Education ) This procedure can also be used when translating phenomena that may exist in both source language and target language but are somehow typical of one country: cyclisme (French) cricket (English) about a typical national sport. No. 7, cultural adaptation, where the idea is to find a recognized cultural parallel: Eg. la Comedie-Frangaise —» Det KongeligeTeater (Royal Shakespeare Company). These categories, however, are not sufficient for solving all types of cross-cultural translation problems:

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Foreign viewers cannot be expected to be familiar with all the cultural and social associations of television programmes originating in cultural environments other than their own. It therefore seems reasonable to replace names with which viewers in one country associate certain things by more explicit general terms or to phrase the context in such a way that the intended meaning becomes clear.26

Thus, in many situations it is necessary to produce an 'explicitation'27 along with or instead of using one of the five above-mentioned strategies. There may be a need for explaining connotations / associations of certain words and concepts: Peter Newmark speaks of the subtext, being "... -what is implied but not said, the meaning behind the meaning."2S as in the case when Eton is translated into Danish by dyr privatskole [expensive private school]. Helene Reid also uses this term.29 She emphazises that the translator - apart from digging up the subtext - must often interpret which of a series of possible associations is the right one in the specific situation. This is brought up in Luyken with the example "You mustn't forget: I went to public school, of course" : Even if a suitable translation could be found, no Language Transfer could ever render all the emotional associations linked with the idea of the public school in England (single-sex education, monastic life, separation from parents, social privilege, sports and, not so long ago, corporal punishment). In Language Transfer, therefore, the one aspect of public school education will have to be selected which is most significant for the story and somehow conveyed to the audience.30

Whether the subtext should be made explicit is a different matter. Newmark believes that what is implicit in the original must also be implicit in the translation, there should be no explicitation.31 Reid believes that the translator (subtitler) should make sure the audience understands the message.32 This discussion will be taken up later, when considering what decides the choice of strategy in specific cases. Hervey & Higgins33 set up - apart from general translation strategies - some strategies especially for what they call cultural transposition: 1. exotism 2. cultural borrowing 3. caique 4. communicative translation (idioms, proverbs etc) 5. cultural transplantation

Especially for proper names they have the following strategies: 1. unchanged from the ST to the TT34 (can be an exotism) 2. transliteration (adaptation to target language's phonetic/graphic conventions) 3. cultural transplantation

Here, also, explicitation is missing.

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Strategies for culture-bound problems The above comments serve for setting up the following diagram:35 Table 3 Translation strategics for culture-bound problems

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Transfer/loan

identity/exotism

la Comddie Francaise —> la Come'die Francaise

imitation

secretaire d'Etat -» statssekretar (Secretary of State)

Direct translation

lycSe -> gymnasium (grammar school)

Explication

HEC -» handelsh0jskole (Business school) Place Beauvau -> Indenrigsministeriet (Ministry of the Interior) la Revolution -> den franske revolution (the French Revolution)

Paraphase

1'oral de 1'ENA -> eksamen i statskundskab (exam in political science)

Adaptation to TL-culture

situational adaptation

agrege d'histoire -» cand.mag. i historie (M. A. in History)

cultural adaptation

Rue Saint-Denis -» Halmtorvet (Soho)

Omission

Omission The translation strategies could also be viewed in a somewhat different perspective. In fact we are dealing with a range of strategies moving from the totally target language-culture-oriented to the totally source language-culture-oriented. Instead of a box-like diagram, which is useful for the sake of clarification, the strategies could be seen as a continuum from the complete non-translation at the one end to total adaption at the other one, like this:

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Table 4 Culture-bound problems in SL -»

rue SaintDenis

secretaire d'Etat HEC

Strategy * SL-culture-oriented i

rue Si-Denis (identity)

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pigerne i rue SLDenis explication + identity

general

luderkvarter (prostitutes district) explicitation

1

» TL-culture-oriemed

Halmtorvet (Soho) cultural adaptation

HEC identity Hautes Etudes Commerciales explicitation of acronym

handelsh0jskole (business school) explicitation

Ixreanstalt som svarer til Handelsh0jskole (college similar to business school) parapbase

secretaire d'Etat identity

statssekretxr (Secretary of State) imitation

minister aflavere rang (lowranking minister) explicitation

The movement runs from the source language-culture-oriented via the general and further towards the target language-culture-oriented. However, it would not be true to say that an explicitation always closer to the source language than a paraphrase. Similarly, an explicitation may in some instances be closer to the source language than an imitation. Especially if we have to do with an explicitation of an acronym with no further explication (cf. HEC in the example above). Choosing the optimal strategy So, there are various strategies for translating culture-bound elements. The next problem of interest is obviously to find out what to consider when choosing one strategy or the other.

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General considerations Before dealing with specific problems of translating culture-bound elements, some general considerations should be made: Table 5

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General points to consider (concerning a film or a whole TV programme) Genre

fiction fact etc

Loyalty

SL-author's linguistic expression SL-author's identity

TL-audience's knowledge

of language of culture of period

Importance of genre It is often claimed that genre is decisive for the choice of translation strategy. Visual media can be divided into genres where: - language is central (satire, comedy, song programmes) - people are central (portraits, drama, feature films, shows) - events are central (news, documentaries, sports)

In feature films, the object of analysis in this article, people are central, and therefore the translation should attach importance to those elements that describe the speaker's personality.36 But in many situations one does not get much real help simply by looking at the genre. Many films, especially feature films may contain elements from other genres, for instance if a person in a film watches news on TV. Besides, the mentioned "people are central" rule-of-thumb for TV fiction, etc, is by no means a panacea for solving all culture-based translation problems: In documentaries dialect should be translated neutrally, in fiction, genres dialect, sociolect and speech variants should be reproduced in some way. But how? And is it always necessary? Loyalty and expectations of the audience As mentioned earlier37 it is a moot point whether the implications of a text, its subtext, should be made explicit. In Newmark's opinion what is implied in fiction

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should remain implied in the translation. But there is a great risk that the implications are not understood at all in the target language-culture, in a different cultural context, although most people will understand them immediately in the source language-culture. As a translator or subtitler you will therefore have to estimate the distance between the two languages and cultures, and you will obviously have to decide whether you want to be loyal to the author's exact words or his intention. These factors are general, and they should be considered for the subtitling of the film as a whole. But it does not provide much help in choosing the appropriate strategy in each case. Specific considerations Several factors must be taken into consideration when you are dealing with a specific translation problem: Table 6 Specific points to consider: Function

description of characters creation of ambience (local colour etc) relevance for plot

Possible connotations

necessary for comprehension unnecessary for comprehension

TL-audience (supposition)

will immediately comprehend will need an explanation - will not understand - will easily misunderstand

Visuals /sounds (redundacy/feed-back effect)

promote comprehension (redundancy) present a separate problem

Speech -» writing (intensified effect)

in case of 1:1 representation if euphemisms are indiscriminately explified

Media-related limitations

lack of space lack of time

Function The first point to consider is the function of an element. Does it describe a character, create ambience, or is it directly relevant to the plot? Where a charac-

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ter has already been amply described by means of other elements, this could be an argument for leaving out the element altogether if time and space are limited and comprehension not adversely affected. However, if the culture-bound element is important for the plot structure, it should obviously not be omitted, and it may be necessary to explicitate.

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Connotations Connotations - secondary meanings or associations of particular names, events etc. - are often specific to one culture and present a special problem. In many cases such connotations are vital for comprehension, but it is often difficult to include them in a subtitle. The subtitler will have to judge whether the explicitation of such culture-related connotations is important for the description of a character, the plot structure or the understanding of the context. Audience In general, each element will have to be considered individually as to whether it will easily be understood by the target language-audience or if there is a need to explicify. This cannot be decided once and for all according to an estimate of the distance between the two languages and cultures. Certain culture-bound elements will be generally known abroad (for instance Sorbonne) and can be transferred directly. Others will presumably be unknown (such as HEQ and should be made explicit or paraphrased, as they may otherwise confuse the audience. The media-specific aspect Finally the media-specific aspect should be taken into consideration. Is there a case of redundancy? Even if the culture-bound element cannot be understood in isolation, the meaning of it may appear from the context. It may be evident in the situation, there may be redundancy in the dialogue, or there may be a positive feed-back effect, rendering further explanations superfluous. Judging chosen strategies Thus, when choosing or judging strategies, both general and specific points must be considered. In fact, many of these considerations and choices are probably made intuitively

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by the subtitler. But it may still be useful to clarify what to consider when faced with different problems, which can be of great help when analysing existing subtitles. If the rendering of dialogue representing a particular culture-bound problem is successful, it may be because the subtitler - consciously or intuitively - has chosen a good strategy. Conversely, when faced with a rendering which does not seem optimal it is easier to find the parametres that should have been taken into account by the subtitler. I will discuss this in detail below. Analysis of specific examples An analysis of some specific examples will give an impression of how culturebound elements in feature films can be translated. In the following, some examples, found in four French films, are examined.38 Prior to the detailed analysis of specific examples some general comments on these four films - all recent French feature films - are required. Most examples are taken from L'homme de pouvoir from 1985. The film is set in contemporary Paris and the protagonist is a politician, a former minister who belongs to the bourgeoisie. There are several references to the Algerian War, for obvious reasons much more familiar to the French than to a Danish audience. As a supplement, examples have been taken from Mon oncle d'Amerique (1980), Le 4eme pouvoir (1985) and Le dernier metro (1980). Of these, the first two films take place in the present time. The last film takes place in 1942 in Paris during the German occupation, but as World War II is a favourite topic both in films and novels, the period should not cause Danish viewers much trouble. The examples have been arranged according to the choice of strategy, so that each strategy is illustrated with one or more typical examples. Transfer (identity/exotism) Example 1 (Mon oncle d'Amerique) Dialogue: Janine Gamier, nee a Paris le 13 Janvier 1948 dans le vingtieme arrondissement. Subtitle: Janine Gamier, f0dt 13.1.1948 // i 20. arrondissement, Paris. [Janine Gamier, bom 13.1.1948 in the 20th arrondissement, Paris).

Problem type: geography (Parisian arrondissement). Only this one word has been directly transferred. Vingtieme is obviously translated to 20. The indication of the arrondissement is part of the characterisation of the person and her social class. The characterisation is quite explicit in this example where a narrator describes the protagonists' background. Genre-wise the style is similar to a docu-

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mentary portrait in this part of the film, but the three main characters are fictitious. The difference between growing up in, for instance, the 16th and the 20th arrondissement is probably not evident to most Danes, unless it is in some way made explicit. In this case, the feed-back effect compensates for the immediate lack of understanding. We see a backyard and the mother working at her sewing machine. We are told that the father works in a factory and that they are communists, so the working-class background is obvious even if you do not know that the 20th arrondissement is a working- class neighbourhood. The chosen solution has the advantage of retaining a certain local colour. Alternative strategies 'Exploitation' (for example working-class neighbourhood in Paris). This strategy lacks local colour and is unnecessary because of the feed-back effect Example 2 (Le dernier metro) Dialogue: Nadine Marsac, elle est a mon avis le meilleur 61eve du Cours Simon. Subtitle: Nadine Marsac, den bedste // elev fra Cours Simon. [Nadine Marsac the best student at Cours Simon)

Problem type: cultural life (name of drama school). The name of the school, the fact that the person - a young actress, and a subsidiary character in the film is from precisely this school, is part of her characterisation. Also, it adds local colour. It is not relevant for the plot. The name Cours Simon will not mean anything to the Danish audience. However, it appears from the context that it must be a drama school, so there is no immediate need for an explanation. But the fact that it is a school of particular fame, founded and directed by Rene" Simon from la Come'die-Francaise in 1925, will not be conveyed in any way to the Danes. So, certain connotations are lost Alternative strategies 'Explication' (for instance: Nadine Marsac, best student at the renowned Cours Simon). This solution is probably too long, and in any case a bit portentous in style compared to the matter-of-fact original. There are many other examples of 'identity' where names are given without any kind of adaptation. This is the case with most names of towns, streets, theatres, night-clubs etc. For example La Joconde (night-club), Grand Guignol and Theatre Hebertot in Le dernier metro, and Pare Monceau (name of a park).

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carrefour Messine-Haussmann (names of two streets: avenue de Messine and Boulevard Haussmann) in Le 4eme pouvoir. In these cases, as well as in many others, the name is transferred verbatim, and what the name refers to is selfevident So there is no reason for a closer examination of such examples. Transfer (imitation) Example 3 (L'homme de pouvoir) Dialogue: Tu domes un coup de pied dans la buvette de I'Assemblie Nationale, il en tombe cinquante. Subtitle: Pr0v baren i Nationalforsamlingen. II Der er mindst 50.

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[Try the bar at the National Assembly. There are at least 50.]

Problem type: name of parliament. Typical example of 'imitation* of conceptions or institutions that exist in Denmark, but have a different name. The example has no great importance for characterisation or plot, but obviously adds a certain amount of local colour. Alternative strategies 'Identity' (L'Assemblee Nationale), 'explicitation' (the French parliament) or 'Cultural adaptation' (Parliament for L'Assemblee Nationale) or The Parliament Refreshment Room for the whole expression la buvette de I'Assemblee Nationale). L'Assemblee Nationale (identity) is rather exotic. An imitation has the advantage of retaining local colour without seeming unduly exotic. The French parliament is an unnecessary explicitation. The two last solutions are, as all cultural adaptations, easily comprehensible but nevertheless highly questionable.39 Example 4 (L'homme de pouvoir) Dialogue: N'est-ce pas, monseiur le secretaire d'Etat? Subtitle: Ddce sandt, hr. Statssekretsr? (Isn't it, Mr State Secretary?) Problem type: politics (administrative title). The problem in this example lies in the fact that a secretaire d'Etat in France is a minister of a lower rank than a ministre. When the protagonist uses monsieur le secretaire d'Etat it is probably meant as a politely disguised impertinence, and it tells us something about the relation between these two persons. Later in the film the same person is titulated monsieur le ministre by one of his less reticent fellow party members. So, certain connotations are lost on the Danish audience, but the cool, restrained relationship between the two persons is evident from the context; partly from the whole situation, partly from the dialogue, and partly from the visuals that show us their

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facial expressions. Alternative strategies 'Exploitation* of connotations (Mr. Under-minister). This makes the connotations almost too explicit, and it seems quite impertinent, especially in writing. Besides, there is no such thing in Danish as an under-minister. Example 5 (Mon oncle d'Amerique) Dialogue: Lfigion d'honneur, Croix de guerre trente-neuf-quarante-cinq, Palmes acad£miques. Subtitle: JEreslegionen, Krigskorset 39-45, // Akademiets Palmer. [Legion of Honour, the War Cross 39-45, Academy Palms.]

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Problem type: Decorations and distinctions. The example characterises a person and adds local colour. The translation is completely adequate and there is no need for further explanations. Direct translation Example 6 (L'homme de pouvoir) Dialogue: II a invit6 comme vous le souhatiez le president de la Chambre de Commerce. Subtitle: Som De ville, kommer // formanden for Handelskammeret. [As you wished, the chairman of the Chamber of Commerce is coming.]

Problem type: professional and industrial bodies. In this case we are not dealing with an 'imitation' because the same kind of organisation exists in Denmark, making a direct translation possible. For the same reason there are no special cross-cultural problems for the Danish audience. The name is an indirect characterisation, as it tells us something about the protagonist's professional contacts. Explicitation Example 7 (Le 4eme pouvoir) Dialogue: Xavier Mareche, le specialiste de l'effraction, 6vad4 avant-hier de Fleury-Merogis oil il purgeait une condamnation de inclusion a perpe'tuite'. Subtitle: Till livstid dSmde Xavier Mareche, // som rymde Wn fangelset i gSr. [Xavier Mareche, life prisoner, who escaped from prison yesterday.]

Problem type: social conditions (name of a prison). Typical example of the way in which specific names are substituted for general categories. In this case the culture-bound element is relevant to the plot, and since the name will not mean anything to Danes (or Swedes) this explicitation is quite necessary. But the local colour is lost, naturally.

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Alternative strategies 'Identity' (Fleury-Merogis). Most foreigners would not understand what this item of information was about. Example 8 (Le 4eme pouvoir) Dialogue: Est-ce pour assurer l'avenir de ce contrat que la France foumit des armes au FLNRS, c'est-a-dire a la rebellion? Subtitle: Ger Frankrike geriltarOrelsen FLNRS vapen for at sakra kontraktet? [Is France supplying the guerilla movement FUV/JSwiih weapons to safeguard the

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contract?]

Problem type: Politics (political movement). Very few Danes (or Swedes) will immediately understand what this refers to. Here an 'explicitation* plus a 'transfer' is used. This strategy is only applicable when time and space allows. It has the advantage of providing an explanation while retaining the local colour. One might object to the lack of idiomaticity, but in this case, where the name is directly relevant to the plot, it is a good solution. Also it permits the omission of the last part of the sentence. Alternative strategies 'Identity' (FLRNS). The meaning would most likely be lost on Scandinavians. Example 9 (L'homme de pouvoir) Dialogue: Lui pourtant, il est iest& a I'Ecole Alsacienne jusqu'au bachot. Subtitle: Han gik ellers selv i privatskole, II til nan blev student [He went to a private school himself, right up to his A-Ievels.]

Problem type: name of a school with certain connotations. Another example of an 'explicitation' that goes from the culturally specific to the general level. The example is part of a characterisation; it was definitely not just any old school the protagonist went to. The special connotations of I'Ecole Alsacienne are not really conveyed, but privatskole does give associations of privilege, also in Danish. The example demonstrates that both the denotation of the element and the connotations of it can present problems. Alternative strategies 'Identity' {I'Ecole Alsacienne). The connotations would probably be lost, and many people may not even understand that the name refers to a school.

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Example 10 (L'homme de pouvoir) Dialogue: A partir de quinze heures, vous avez plusieurs rendez-vous rue de Bellechasse. Subtitle: Fra kl. 15 // flere m0der i ministerieL

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[From 3 pm several meetings at the Ministry.]

Problem type: street name referring to a ministry. The whole sequence is in fact part of a characterisation because we are given information related to the professional functions of the protagonist. The street name itself does not mean anything for either chacterisation or plot, but it gives local colour. The example demonstrates the way names of streets or buildings are often used to indicate the institution which is housed there. Even if we do the same in Danish (Christiansborg for Folketinget) such references can be difficult to understand for foreigners. Later in the same film Place Beauveau is used to indicate the Ministry of the Interior. Here, the function is also made explicit rather than just using a name which means nothing to a Danish audience. In this case the explicitation is quite necessary, because the element is relevant to the plot. Alternative strategies 'Identity' {rue de Bellechasse). There is a risk that the target languageaudience will not understand what the name refers to. 'Transfer/explicitation' (the Ministry in rue de Bellechasse). This may well be a better solution because both comprehension and local colour are included. But it is ruled out by the time and space factors. Paraphrase Example 11 (L'homme de pouvoir) Dialogue: On n'est pas a Voral de VENA. Subtitle: Vi er ikke // lil eksamen i statskundskab. [This is not an oral exam in political science].

Problem type: Acronym for an educational institution with special status in France. Solution: A paraphrase containing an explicitation. This means a certain loss both of information (the connotations of ENA) and of local colour. The particular name ENA is not relevant to the plot, but it adds some local colour. It could be relevant to the characterisation, in that we may assume that the speaker went to the ENA or that the person he speaks to teaches there, but we are not told this directly.

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Alternative

strategies

'Identity' (oral exam at ENA). The situation would probably be clear; that the speaker is angry at his advisor because he feels that he is being treated like an immature student at an exam. But what ENA is, and stands for, would not come across. 'Explicitation' of the acronym (exam at the Ecole Nationale de 1'Administration). This solution appears somewhat long-winded, and the connotations are still not clarified. Example 12 (L'homme de pouvoir)

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Dialogue: Us veulent qu'apres ce soir-ci vous ne poussiez plus vbus presenter a la moindre Election. MSme comme conseiller municipal au fin fond de la Creuse. Subtitle: Man 0nsker, at De fra nu af ikke // kan opstille til nogen form for valg. Dcke engang som byradsmedlem i en fjern afkrog. [You are not to run for any election again. Not even for the town council in the remotest backwater.]

Problem type: geographical name (an area in France). Here, la Creuse is used as an example of something really rural, far from the capital. The example is directly relevant to the plot. It is important that the audience understands exactly what is meant. Hence the 'explicitating paraphrase'. Alternative strategies 'Transfer' (deep down in la Creuse). It would not really mean anything to a Danish audience. They might not understand that the name was used as a metaphor for the provinces in general and might think that it was especially in la Creuse he would not be considered for election. Situational adaptation Example 13 (Mon oncle d'Amerique) Dialogue: Lycee. Ecole Normale Supfiriore. Agrige d'histoire. Professeur dans un lycee parisien. Subtitle: Cand.mag. i historic. II Underviser pa gymnasium i Paris. (M.A. in History. Teaches at a Parisian grammar school.) Problem type: university degrees. The example characterises a person. It is an efficient solution, where a French university degree is replaced by a similar and well-known Danish title. But perhaps efficiency is attained at the cost of credibility. Time is very limited in this passage, where the dialogue is very fast and frequent cuts require consideration.

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Example 14 (Mon oncle d'Amerique) Dialogue: Ecole libre. Action catbolique. Certificat d'etudes primaires. Subtitle: Aktiv i katolsk bevaegelse. Folkeskole-eksamen. [Active in the Catholic movement. General Certificate of Education.]

Problem type: name of an exam. The example characterises a person, and the problem is parallel to the one in example 13. Cultural adaptation Example 15 (Le dernier metro) Dialogue: Des re'pe'titrices comme vous cherchez, vous en trouverez tant que vous en voulez...rue Saint-Denis. Subtitle: Den hjaelp De er ude efter, skaffer De Dem let...//... p5 Halmtorvet.

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[The help you need, you'll easily find ... // in Soho]

Problem type: street name with certain connotations. This strategy is very efficient, since most Danes will immediately understand what they are talking about. The dialogue characterises the persons, it tells us something about the relationship between the speakers, but the French setting is unmistakeable. Thus, the "Soho type" solution, as all cultural adaptations, creates a credibility problem. Alternative strategies 'Transfer' (in rue Saint-Denis). There is a risk that Danes will not get the right associations. There is no help in the visual side, but the situation itself might point in the right direction. 'Transfer' plus 'explicitation' (with the girls in rue Saint-Denis). The local colour is preserved and the audience gets an explanation. But this solution is too verbose. 'Explicitation' of function (red-light district). This does not leave any doubt either, and credibility is preserved. But it is devoid of local colour. Omission Example 16 (L'homme de pouvoir) Dialogue: J'ai pris des renseignemens au RG. Subtitle: Jeg har skaffet oplysninger. [I have procured information.]

Problem type: name of a register (Renseignements Ge'ne'raux). It has been omitted for lack of space. It is not important for plot or characterisation, but adds a certain local colour.

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Example 17 (Mon oncle d'Amerique) Dialogue: Lycte. Ecole Normale Supiriore. Agrgge1 d'historie. Professeur dans un lycge parisien. Subtitle: Candmag. i historie. // Undetviser pa gymnasium i Paris. [Master's degree in history. Teaches at a grammar school in Paris.]

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Problem type: Schools/educational institutions. The two omitted elements contain information relevant to characterisation. Obviously, there is a loss of information, but the omission does not leave a gap in the characterisation because there is a certain redundancy in the dialogue. The educational background of the person is clearly conveyed because its final stage is included in the Danish subtitle. Economy of space and time speak strongly in favour of omission here. Recapitulation of the analysed examples The analysis of specific culture-bound elements is not a systematic examination of all existing elements of this kind in a large number of films. A selection has been made for the purpose of representing the various strategies with good and typical examples. So definite conclusions cannot be drawn, but some tendencies can be outlined. The function of the culture-bound element Generally speaking, the function of the culture-bound element cannot be said to be decisive for the choice of strategy. Most of the examples are descriptive of characters, and these characterising elements were found in all the different types of translation strategies (Examples 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, and 17). Obviously, function alone does not tell us much in these cases. Regarding elements directly relevant for the plot, the picture is somewhat different as these were only represented by two strategies: 'explicitation' and 'paraphrase', (examples 7,8, and 12). These are precisely the strategies that stress comprehension, so if an element is directly plot-relevant, it would appear that comprehension is given high priority. Few elements represented local colour only (examples 3 and 16). The strategies represent the two extremes 'imitation' and 'omission'. Many of the other examples, however, contained local colour and were relevant for plot or characterisation, which is hardly surprising when dealing with culture-bound elements. But where problems of comprehension arose, these were given higher priority than local colour.

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Expectations of audience comprehension The 'identity', 'imitation' and 'direct transfer' strategies are used especially when one does not expect the target language-audience to require an explanation. Conversely, 'explicitation', 'paraphrase' or 'adaptation' are used in most40 situations when the target language-audience requires an explanation. Media-related factors There were not many examples of the feed-back effect affecting the choice of strategy. The most obvious is example 1. In the two examples of 'omission' (16 and 17) there was a certain redundancy, so that the meaning came across in spite of the omissions. Lack of time and space, which are the factors most frequently mentioned in relation to subtitling, were, on the whole, of minor importance. In two cases an element was omitted (16 and 17) but without loss of meaning, and in one case (10) the optimal strategy was opted out to save time. Based on the above it seems that it would be difficult to give exact guidelines for the selection of strategies. It appears that in each case the specific factors must be weighed against one another, resulting in a flexible, ad hoc subtitling practice. But there are some other points to consider in relation to the various strategies. Subtitles must be idiomatic ('explicitation') When choosing a subtitling strategy it must be borne in mind that subtitles should preferably be idiomatic, since they represent oral statements, although they appear as written text segments. This presents something of a problem in the case of explicitation, especially combined with a direct representation of the culturebound element. This is seen in example 11 (FLNRS -» guerillarorelsen FLNRS). It appears somewhat heavy and leamer-language-like. In this case the information was directly relevant to the plot, which speaks in favour of this choice of strategy. But explicitation should be avoided in cases where it is merely a matter of preserving local colour. Another problem regarding explicitation is the feed-back effect from the soundtrack. Often the audience will understand proper names even if they are not very familiar with source language. But generally, if an explanation is required, this should be given higher priority than any problems with the feed-back effect.

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The feed-back effect will probably be most evident anyway in connection with names of towns, institutions etc, names that the target language-audience already know and therefore understand. And in those cases the name can be transferred without problems or explanations. Subtitles must be credible ('cultural adaptation') Especially when choosing 'cultural adaptation* a credibility problem may arise. Example 15 shows how rue Saint-Denis was translated into Halmtorvet. In my view, this is an unacceptable solution. The strategy might well be very efficient. The idea and the connotations are communicated to the target language-audience, and the majority will understand. But there is a great credibility gap. First of all the audience can see that this is not taking place at or anywhere near Halmtorvet, a well-known square in Copenhagen. Secondly, they can hear that the word Halmtorvet is not spoken. Thirdly, they know that this word would never appear in a film taking place in Paris in 1942 during the German occupation. The specific period, place and time is quite essential to the story told in the film so we are definitely not dealing with an incidental framework around certain occurrences. In literature on film translation much has been written about dubbing,41 and this type of translation is often compared with subtitling. In my opinion, an essential argument against dubbing is the credibility gap. There is simply an incompatibility between the visuals that show some people of a certain nationality in a certain country, and the dubbed dialogue in another language. Hans VOge says: The more authentic the images, the greater the discrepancy between those images and the dubbed-in, native language of the audience. The native language does not fit the image.42

In my view, exactly the same argument applies to cultural adaptation. It does not fit the image, which is evidently from a foreign culture. In this connection there is quite a big difference between 'situational adaptation* and 'cultural adaptation'. 'Situational adaptation' seems more acceptable as in example 13, where agrige d'historie becomes cand.mag. i historie {MA. in History). The difference probably lies in the fact that the first case was a matter of specific, existing proper names of places (or persons, for that matter) and the second a matter of more abstract designations that are related to a specific culture, but not in the same way unique. It could also be said that a "situational adaptation" like the above-mentioned could still be considered a translation,

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whereas the 'cultural adaptation' is a total change. Incidentally, there was only this one example of 'cultural adaptation' in the four films examined. It should be pointed out here that this credibility problem is typical of extralinguistic culture-bound problems, especially when dealing with names of specific, existing places or persons. Intralinguistic translation problems, such as the rendering of idioms, represent quite the opposite case. Here the translator must beware of expressions that are too closely translated from the original. Only references to the surrounding culture should have local colour. Linguistic formulations should preferably be exclusively target language wordings, no matter what they refer to. Naturally, it is important that the target audience understands what is being said and referred to in the foreign language dialogue. But with extralinguistic culture-bound elements certain strategies should be either opted out or used with caution to ensure a credible and fairly idiomatic result. The representation of culture-bound elements On the basis of the analysed examples it would be fair to conclude that, on the whole, it is possible to adequately represent culture-bound elements in Danish subtitles to French films. If elements have been omitted altogether they are usually redundant or relatively unimportant. Elements that are vital for comprehending the plot or just the outline of the story are generally represented in an accessible form in the subtitles. Elements that characterise persons or attain local colour have been included whenever possible. In many cases such elements are redundant or of lesser importance so that omission or condensation does not impair the overall picture of either characters or environment. Culture-bound subtitling problems and norms If norms for selction of translation strategies for culture-bound subtitling problems can be deduced, one could point to the tendency to explicitate or paraphrase only where problems of understanding are expected. In other words, the culturebound features are preserved whenever possible in an unchanged form ('identity') or in a slightly adapted form ('imitation', 'direct translation'). But the subtitler's expectations of and attitude to his audience are to a certain degree an individual matter. Delabastita describes43 how it must be established what are free variations

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(ascribed to the individual translator) and what is norm-governed (that is following a particular pattern). Among norm-governed factors he mentions genre (text type), special target language-target group considerations and the open versus closed nature of the target language-culture towards other cultures. As described above, there is a certain amount of scope for free variations in the estimate of the explanations required by the target group. In many situations subtitlers will probably make more or less similar judgements, but there will also be cases of dissimilarity. Regarding the tendency only to explicify or paraphrase when there is a need for it one would imagine that this tendency exists in Denmark (or Sweden) regardless of which country/culture the film comes from. There would probably be differences in the distribution of the various strategies, but this is due to the fact that some languages/cultures are more foreign to Danes than others and therefore need more exploitations. But naturally, a documentation of this assumption would demand an extensive empirical study. Another equally interesting aspect would be the study of strategies chosen in other countries. Are there substantial differences between the large dubbing countries and the small subtitling countries? Or are there differences within the group of subtitling countries? All this is related to the open/closed nature of the target language-culture towards other cultures. The choices that are made according to this openness or closedness towards others are probably not made consciously, but presumably in accordance with the norms that count in other areas of one's culture. This connection to other systems is a central point in the theory of "polysystems" put forward by the "Manipulation School": Thus our orientation implies that the study of film translation - and any other form of translation - is necessarily part of the larger project of the analysis of the "polysystem" of culture as a whole.'""

Thus, the preference for using 'identity' or 'imitation' in order to retain some local colour, when this does not give rise to problems of comprehension, might well be norm-governed and valid in other parts of our culture. But it may also be caused by the feed-back effect, and by a tendency (also possibly norm-governed) to avoid changes, particularly of names, in relation to the dialogue. But a comparison with strategies in dealing with similar culture-bound elements in e.g. literary translations would be necessary for establishing whether this tendency is more marked in film subtitling.

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When dealing with subtitling of French films in Denmark it is interesting to examine the norms governing the selection of translation strategies for culturebound problems, but it is perhaps even more interesting to look into the norms governing the selection of televised material to be translated: what is imported for domestic broadcasting, and what is not? Numerous studies have shown that English language material predominate in the international flow of film and TV programmes:

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Obviously, the 2500 or so English language imports into non-English speaking countries account for the vast majority of cinema films distributed in Europe in both 1985 and in 1989, representing roughly ten times the number of each Italian, German and, in fact, British productions, and about five times that of French audiovisual productions screened in European countries.45

It would take us too far in this connection to examine all the media-political and media-historical reasons that lie behind this American dominance. But after this tentative analysis of cross-cultural problems in subtitling French feature films into Danish, it is at least fair to conclude that the reason is not that for example French films cannot be translated and made accessible to a Danish audience. There are a number of strategies that can be used according to various considerations. And in most cases a satisfactory rendering of the culture-bound element is possible without sacrificing the essential nuances. Hence, cross-cultural problems ought not to prevent anyone from importing or consuming foreign films. Quite the opposite, one could wish for many more French, and even more "exotic" films that can contribute to a greater knowledge and understanding of other cultures: But perhaps the greatest and more constant challenge given the objectives of multicultural television, is the attempt to convey something of the cultural ambience of the original production. Concepts and values are inherent in the structure and form of a language and these concepts cannot always be expressed in another language. A drama or film deriving from another culture will in part be based on assumptions and concepts which may not exist in that form outside that culture, and which cannot be adequately summed up in a four second subtitle. Nevertheless, it can be argued that the loss of nuance or level of meaning is a small compromise for the possibility of some access and insight into our different cultures.*6

Conclusion Language and culture are closely interrelated, and this gives rise to culturespecific problems, both intralinguistic and extralinguistic. Such problems occur in all types of translation, including subtitling. Contrary to what is often taken for granted, neither culture-bound nor other translation problems are necessarily greater in subtitling than in other modes of translation. In fact, some features of

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audio-visual translation even reduce the problems. There are a series of strategies available to the subtitler for solving extralinguistic culture-bound translation problems, ranging from verbatim transfer of source language elements via culturally neutral exploitations or paraphrases to target language adaptation. There are a number of factors to consider before selecting a strategy, or evaluating the strategies that have been followed, intuitively or consciously, in actual subtitlings of films. First there are some general points to consider related to the film as a whole, regarding genre, loyalty towards the original and what to expect of its new audience. Subsequently, and especially, there are specific points to consider regarding the various problems related to the function of the culture-bound element, its connotations, the audience's expected ability to comprehend, as well as mediaspecific factors such as redundancy and feed-back effect. The analysis of specific examples showed a tendency, possibly norm-governed, to retain the local colour of the film and to remain faithful to the source language when this did not cause problems of comprehension. But a strategy must definitely be selected in each individual case. It must be particularly borne in mind that the subtitles should "sound right", since they represent spoken language. The result must be credible. This makes the use of very target language-specific concepts, especially names, problematic. To sum up, it can be concluded from the above, that, generally speaking, it is feasible to transfer culture-bound elements from French feature films in such a way that they are made accessible to a Scandinavian audience.

Notes 1. Problems referring to the surrounding reality (as compared to intralinguistic or language-related problems, that arise due to differences in language systems and usage). This will be discussed on the following pages. 2. Benjamin Whorf 1956: 252. 3. See Mounin 1963 Les Problems theórique de la traduction, analysed in Pedersen 1987: 83-86. 4. Hatim & Mason 1990: 3. 5. Hatim & Mason 1990: 223. 6. Snell-Hornby 1988: 52. 7. Snell-Hornby 1988: 52. 8. Vinay & Darbelnet 1977: 20. 9. Vinay & Darbelnet 1977: 259. 10. Vinay & Darbelnet 1977: 261-265. 11. Gautier 1981: 111-112.

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12. See Roman Jakobson's classification of translation (1966: 233) a. Intralingual translation or rewording is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language. b. Interlingual translation or translation proper is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language. c. Intersemiotic translation or transmutation is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of non-verbal sign systems. 13. In this paper "subtitling" equals "interlingual subtitling" (see note 12). The following discussion of subtitling is, where no other sources are referred to, based on Gottlieb 1991. 14. Luyken et al. 1991: 156. 15. Delabastita 1990: 101-102. 16. See table 2. 17. This will be demonstrated in the section devoted to translation methods. 18. Gottlieb 1991: 29 (translation from Danish by EG). 19. Gottlieb 1991: 55. 20. Gottlieb 1991: 67. 21. Hermans 1985: 10-11. 22. Delabastita 1989: 194-214. 23. See the discussion of media-related problems on the previous pages. 24. See Nida 1964 Toward a Science of Translating, as referred in Pedersen 1987: 96-97 25. See Kade 1968 Zufall und Cesetzmäßgkeit in der Übersetzung, as referred in Snell-Hornby 1988: 20. 26. Luyken et al. 1991: 163. 27. Explanation or clarification, possibly by using a wider term. 28. Newmark 1988: 77. 29. Reid 1990: 7-10. 30. Luyken et al. 1991: 157. 31. Newmark 1988: 78. 32. Reid 1990: 10. 33. Hervey & Higgins 1992: 28-34. 34. ST = source language text TT = target language text. 35. The translation units for which the strategies are used, may vary. It may be a single word, a collocation or a sentence. The strategies described account only for the culture-bound element 36. See Gottlieb 1991: 48-49. 37. See p. 235. 38. One of the films was subtitled in Swedish but was included because it contains some good examples. The problem categories are obviously similar, but a certain allowance should be made for differences between Danish and Swedish regarding the chosen strategies. Another film has been broadcast without subtitles, and the examples refer to my own subtitling of the film. The last two films were shown on Danish TV with Danish subtitles. 39. See the discussion of 'credibility' on p. 235. 40. There are some exceptions, however. Note especially example 1, where "identity" is used. But here the visuals provide ample compensation for the loss of information. 41. In dubbing (=post-syncronization) the original spoken dialogue is replaced by a spoken translation where each character or actor in the film is given his or her "stand-in". In Denmark, this syncronized type of translation is used only for children's programmes. In Germany and many other European countries, dubbing is the preferred mode of translation even for general audiences. 42. Vöge 1977: 123-124. 43. Delabastita 1989: 210-211 and 1990: 103. 44. Delabastita 1989: 210-211. 45. Luyken et al. 1991: 11-12. 46. Manzoufas 1982: 18.

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Works cited Delabastita, Dirk. 1989. Translation and mass-communication: film and TV translation as evidence of cultural dynamics. Babel XXXV (4), 193-218. Delabastita, Dirk. 1990. Translation and the Mass Media. In Basnett, S. & Lefevere, A. (Eds.) Translation, History and Culture. London: Pinter, 97-109. Gautier, Gérard-Louis. 1981. La traduction au cinema. La Revue du Cinéma: Image et Son #363, July-August 81. Paris, 101-118. Gottlieb, Henrik. 1991. Tekstning - Synkron Billedmedieoversxttelse. Copenhagen: Copenhagen University. [Unpublished prize-thesis] Hatim, Basil & Ian Mason. 1990. Discourse and the Translator. London/New York: Longman. Hermans, Theo. 1985. Translation studies and a New Paradigm. Preface to Theo Hermans (Ed.) The Manipulation of Literature. Studies in Literary Translation. London/Sydney: Croom Helm. 7-15. Hervey, Sandor & Ian Higgins. 1992. Tliinking Translation. London/New York: Routledge. Jakobson, Roman. 1966. On Linguistic Aspects of Translation. In Reuben Brewer (Ed.) On Translation. New York: Oxford University Press, 232-239. Luyken, Georg-Michael et al. 1991. Overcoming language barriers in television: Dubbing and subtitling for the European audience. Manchester, European Institute for the media: Media Monograph No. 13. Manzoufaz, Marena. 1982. The art of the Subtitle. The subtitling Unit at Channel 0/28. Media Information Australia # 25, August 82, 17-18. Newmark, Peter. 1988. A Textbook of Translation. New York/London: Prentice Hall. Pedersen, Viggo. 1987. Oversxttelsesteori. Copenhagen: Samfundslitteratur. Reid, Helene. 1986. The relationship of Subtitling to Programme Genres and Audience Categories. Manchester. The European Institute for the Media [a preliminary paper fot the Study on Language Barriers]. Reid, Helene. 1990. Literature on the Screen: Subtitle Translating for Public Broadcasting. Something Understood, Studies in Anglo-Dutch literary translation. DQR Studies in Literature #5. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 79-109. Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1988. Translation Studies - An Intergrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Vinay, J.P. & J. Darbelnet 1977 [orig. 1958]. Stylistique comparée du français et de l'anglais. Méthode de traduction Nouvelle édition revue et corrigée. Paris: Didier. Vöge, Hans. 1977. The Translation of Films: Sub-Titling versus Dubbing: Babel XXIII/3. Revue Internationale de la Traduction. Bonn. 120-125. Whorf, Benjamin Lee. 1956. Language, Thought and Reality. Selected writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. John B. Carroll (Ed.). The M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, eleventh printing 1974.

Films discussed Truffaut, François. 1980. Le dernier metro. France. Danish title: Den sidste metro. Subtitled by Antoinette Geoffrey. Leroy, Serge. 1985. Le 4ème pouvoir. France. Swedish title: Sanningenspris. Subtitled by Kersdn Lennerthson. Frydland, Maurice. 1985. L'homme de pouvoir. France. (Nedergaard-Larsen's own subtitles used in the article). Resnais, Alain. 1980. Mon oncle d'Amérique. France. Danish title: Min amerikanske onkel. Subtitled by Lone Voigt.