Muslim scientists' contribution in development of science

Muslim Scientists Influence on The Flourishment of Science European science in the Middle Ages comprised the study of nature, mathematics and natural philosophy in medieval Europe. Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the decline in knowledge of Greek, Christian Western Europe was cut off from an important source of ancient learning. Although a range of Christian clerics and scholars from Isidore and Bede to Buridan and Oresme maintained the spirit of rational inquiry, during the Early Middle Ages Western Europe would see a period of scientific decline. Middle Ages is historically periodized by the term Dark Ages. It emphasizes the demographic, cultural and economic deterioration that supposedly occurred in that time. With the division of the Roman Empire, the Western Europe lost contact with much of its past. In the Middle East, Greek philosophy was able to find some support under the newly created Arab Empire. With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, known as the Islamic Golden Age, lasted until the 13th century. This scholarship was aided by several factors. The use of a single language, Arabic, allowed communication without need of a translator. Access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, along with Indian sources of learning, provided Muslim scholars a knowledge base to build upon. Historians have justly remarked that the school of Baghdad was characterized by a new scientific spirit. Proceeding from the known to the unknown; taking precise account of phenomena; accepting nothing as true which was not confirmed by experience, or established by experiment, such were fundamental principles taught and acclaimed by the masters of the sciences.

Contribution of Muslim Scientists in Different Sectors of Science George Sarton’s Tribute to Muslim Scientists in the “Introduction to the History of Science,” “It will suffice here to evoke a few glorious names without contemporary equivalents in the West: Jabir ibn Haiyan, al-Kindi, al-Khwarizmi, al-Fargani, al-Razi, Thabit ibn Qurra, al-Battani, Hunain ibn Ishaq, al-Farabi, Ibrahim ibn Sinan, al-Masudi, al-Tabari, Abul Wafa, ‘Ali ibn Abbas, Abul Qasim, Ibn al-Jazzar, al-Biruni, Ibn Sina, Ibn Yunus, al-Kashi, Ibn al-Haitham, ‘Ali Ibn ‘Isa al-Ghazali, al-zarqab, Omar Khayyam. A magnificent array of names which it would not be difficult to extend. If anyone tells you that the Middle Ages were scientifically sterile, just quote these men to him, all of whom flourished within a short period, 750 to 1100 A.D.”

Mathematics The word ‘algebra’ comes to us from a Latin translation of the title of an important mathematical book, ‘al-Kitāb al-mukhtasar ṣ fī h ṣisāb al-jabr wal-muqābala’, by Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Musa Al-Khwarizmi (770-840 C.E.), The “Father of Algebra”. A translation of al-Khwarizmi's name itself gives us the word ‘algorithm’. Al-Khwarizmi also helped introduce Arabic numerals (which were adopted by the West), the decimal position system, and the concept of zero.

Omar Khayyám (1044-1123 C.E.) was famous during his times as a mathematician. He wrote the influential ‘Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra’ (1070), which laid down the principles of algebra, part of the body of mathematics that was eventually transmitted to Europe. I Khayyám wrote ‘Sharh ma ashkala min musadarat kitab Uqlidis’(Explanations of the Difficulties in the Postulates of Euclid) published in English as "On the Difficulties of Euclid's Definitions". Omar Khayyám created important works on geometry, specifically on the theory of proportions.

Nasir Al-Din Al-Tusi (1201-1274 C.E.) pioneered spherical trigonometry which includes six fundamental formulas for the solution of spherical right-angled triangles. One of his most important mathematical contributions was the treatment of trigonometry as a new mathematical discipline. He wrote on binomial coefficients which Pascal later introduced. Al-Biruni (973-1048 C.E.) was among those who laid the foundation for modern trigonometry. Ninety-five of 146 books known to have been written by Bīrūnī, were devoted to astronomy, mathematics, and related subjects like mathematical geography. Al-Kindi (801–873 C.E) authored works on a number of important mathematical subjects, including arithmetic, geometry, the Indian numbers, the harmony of numbers, lines and multiplication with numbers, relative quantities, measuring proportion and time, and numerical procedures and cancellation. Al-Karajī (953–1029 C.E.) was a 10th-century Iranian mathematician and engineer who worked on algebra and polynomials which gave the rules for arithmetic operations for adding, subtracting and multiplying polynomials; though he was restricted to dividing polynomials by monomials. He wrote on the binomial theorem and Pascal's triangle. In mathematics, al-Haytham ( 965–1040 C.E.) built on the mathematical work of Euclid and Thabit ibn Qurra and worked on "the beginnings of the link between algebra and geometry." He developed a formula for summing the first 100 natural numbers, using a geometric proof to prove the formula.

Physics The Muslim scientists focus in physics was not on the experimentation and induction but they relied on philosophy, speculations and thoughts. They came up with different theories and innovative research work. Afterwards the attention towards the experimentation was drawn which became the main pillar of development in physics. Abul Fath Al-Khazni did research work on dynamics and hydro statics. He gave two main theories which include Theory of Obliquity and Inclination and the Theory of Impulse. These theories proved to play significant role in kinetics. He came up with an apparatus to determine the specific gravity of different liquids. He also gave concept of resistance. Abū ʿAlī al-HḤasan ibn al-HḤasan ibn al-Haytham ( 965–1040 C.E.), also known by the Latinization Alhazen or Alhacen is widely considered to be one of the first theoretical physicists, and an early proponent of the concept that a hypothesis must be proved by experiments based on confirmable procedures or mathematical evidence—hence understanding the scientific method 200 years before Renaissance scientists. Haitham examined the refraction of light rays through transparent objects including air and water. In fact he was the first scientist to elaborate two laws of reflection of light. He made a number of monumental discoveries in the field of optics, including one which locates retina as the seat of vision. His book on optics "Kitab Al-Manazir" vividly shows his grip on the subject. He constructed a pinhole camera and studied formation of images. Due to his noteworthy contributions he is regarded as one of the prolific Muslim scientists of all times. In his book ‘Mizan al-Hikmah’ Haitham has discussed the density of the atmosphere and developed a relation between it and the height. He also studied atmospheric refraction. He has also discussed the theories of attraction between masses, and it seems that he was aware of the magnitude of acceleration due to gravity. Al-Biruni A renowned name in the field of physics. He determined the density of 18 types of precious stones. He came up with the rule that specific density of a body suits the volume of the water which is responsible for moving it.

Ibn Sīnā, in ‘The Book of Healing’, developed a theory of motion, in which he made a distinction between the inclination (tendency to motion) and force of a projectile, and concluded that motion was a result of an inclination (mayl) transferred to the projectile by the thrower, and that projectile motion in a vacuum would not cease. Ibn Sina was among those who argued that

light had a speed, observing that "if the perception of light is due to the emission of some sort of particles by a luminous source, the speed of light must be finite."

Astronomy Astronomy was important to Muslims because of their religion! They needed to know the beginning of the month of Ramadan, the hours of prayer, and the direction of Mecca. By observing the position of the sun and moon, Muslims could know the direction of Mecca. As Islam expanded to an empire over 6,000 miles wide, astronomers could help them know these things. Astronomy also led to developments in trigonometry, a field of mathematics important to the mapping of the earth and to the computation of planetary orbits. Al-Farghani was one of the most distinguished astronomers in the House of Wisdom. He wrote "Elements of Astronomy, a book on celestial(heavenly) motion and science of the stars. It was translated into Latin in the 12th century and exerted great influence upon European astronomy. 'Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi was a Persian astronomer who lived during the 10th century. In 964, he described the Andromeda galaxy, our closest neighbor, and called it "little cloud". This was the first record of a star system outside our own galaxy. Al-Sufi's book on stars was translated into many languages and had a big influence on European astronomy.

Al-Zarqali (1029-1080 C.E.), known as Arzachel in Europe, was the most famous astronomer of his age. He made a kind of astrolabe that measured the motion of the stars. His work was translated into Latin and other languages and his books were studied later in Europe. As an astronomer one of al-Battānī's best-known achievements in astronomy was the determination of the solar year as being 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes and 24 seconds which is only 2 minutes and 22 seconds off. Al-Battānī's work is considered instrumental in the development of science and astronomy.

Chemistry

The science of Chemistry is unquestionably the invention of the Muslims. It is one of the great branches of science in which Muslims have made the greatest contributions and developed it to such a high degree of perfection that they are considered authorities in this science.

Jabir Ibn Hayyan is known as the father of modern chemistry and along with Zakariya Razi, who is the greatest name in the chemical science. The book written by the Jabir Bin Hayyan was considered as the Bible of chemistry until the 18th century. Still the people refer his books as a reference point. He explained scientifically the two principal operations of chemistry, calcination and reduction, and registered a marked improvement in the methods of sublimation, crystallization, filtration, evaporation and distillation The mineral substances were also classified by Al-Jabiz. Abu Mansur Muwaffaq has contributed to the method of the preparation and properties of mineral substances. Abul Qasim who was a renowned chemist prepared drugs by sublimation and distillation. High class sugar and glass were manufactured in the Islamic countries. The Arabs were also experts in the manufacture of ink, lacquers, soldiers, cements and imitation pearls.

Medicine Ibn Sina (981–1037 C.E), known as Avicenna was a scientist of medicine, philosophy, mathematics & astronomy. He was particularly noted for his contributions in the fields of Aristotelian philosophy and medicine. He composed the Kitab ash-shifa` (“Book of Healing”), a vast philosophical and scientific encyclopedia, and the Canon of Medicine, which is among the most famous books in the history of medicine used as standard medical textbook in Muslim State & Europe upto 18th century, even now plays an important role in Unani Medicine. Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (865-925 C.E.), known as Rhazes for the western world, was one of the most prolific Muslim doctors and probably second only to Ibn Sina in his accomplishments. He wrote more than 200 books, including Kitab al-Mansuri, Greek medicine, and al-Hawi, an encyclopedia of medicine in 20 volumes. Ibn Al-Nafis goes down in the history of medicine as the first scholar to describe the respirecirculatory system. His other great contribution to medicine was his pharmacological works, which drew remedies from all across the world but also introduced mathematics and the idea of dosages to administration of treatments.

Engineering

The Banū Mūsā brothers, in their Book of Ingenious Devices, describe an automatic flute player which may have been the first programmable machine. The flute sounds were produced through hot steam and the user could adjust the device to various patterns so that they could get various sounds from it.

Decline of the Islamic Golden Age

Invasions The Crusades put the Islamic world under pressure with invasions in the 11th and 12th centuries, but a far greater threat emerged from the East during the 13th century: in 1206, Genghis Khan established a powerful dynasty among the Mongols of central Asia. During the 13th century, this Mongol Empire conquered most of the Eurasian land mass, including China in the east and much of the old Islamic caliphate The destruction of Baghdad and the House of Wisdom by Hulagu Khan in 1258 has been seen by some as the end of the Islamic Golden Age. In the Iberian Peninsula, the Catholic Monarchs completed the Reconquista with a war against the Emirate of Granada that started in 1482 and ended with Granada's complete annexation in early 1492, which also marks, for some historians, the end of the Islamic Golden Age. The Ottoman conquest of the Arabic-speaking Middle East in 1516-17 placed the traditional heart of the Islamic world under Ottoman Turkish control. Starting in the 16th century, the opening by the European powers of new sea trade routes to East Asia and the Americas bypassed the Islamic economies, greatly reducing prosperity by the start of the 17th century.

Free thought There is little agreement on the precise causes of the decline, but in addition to invasions by the Mongols and crusaders, and the destruction of libraries and madrasas, there is evidence that political mismanagement and the stifling of ijtihad (independent reasoning) in the 12th century in favor of institutionalised taqleed (imitation) thinking played a part. Few caliphs enforced the literal interpretation of the Qur'an and Hadith. Science and rationalism were dismissed in favor of revelation, and Greek philosophy was condemned as anti-Islamic.

Economics To account for the decline of Islamic science, it has been argued that the Sunni Revival in the 11th and 12th centuries produced a series of institutional changes that decreased the relative payoff to producing scientific works. With the spread of madrasas and the greater influence of religious leaders, it became more lucrative to produce religious knowledge. Ahmad Y. al-Hassan has rejected the thesis that lack of creative thinking was a cause, arguing that science was always kept separate from religious argument; he instead analyzes the decline in terms of economic and political factors, drawing on the work of the 14th-century writer Ibn Khaldun. Al-Hassan extended the golden age up to the 16th century, noting that scientific activity continued to flourish up until then. Several other contemporary scholars have also extended it to around the 16th to 17th centuries, and analyzed the decline in terms of political and economic factors.