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R HY T HM — S E N T E N C E S A ND Anal o gy be twee n mu s ic and p oe t ry 1 8— The di s ti ncti o n be t wee n p o e t ry and p ro se ; 19 z o — V ar i e ti es o f v ers e 2 1 — Mu s ic r e s em b l e s v e se r eg ular ity o f acc e n t — R hyth m a q u e s ti o n o f th e p o s iti o n o f cad enc e s 2 3— A S en ten ce no t p r o se o r Per iod d e fi ne d 2 4— Th e m o s t u s u al l e ng t h s o f a s e nt e n c e 2 5 — R e as o n fo r fo ur o r ei gh t -b ar rhyth m 2 6—A P/ as e d efi ne d 27 th e p re val e n ce o f tw o fem i ni ne en di ng 2 8 —Th e fi rs t p h rase e ndi ng Se n te nc e in a mi no r key th e with a midd l e cad ence 9 3o—D itt o with a full cad ence 3 1 — Mo dul ati o n in th e fi r s t p h rase 3 2 3 3 — Mo dul ati o n at th e en d o f a s e n t e nc e 3 4 3 5— Q u ad r upl e ti me is re all y o mp un d ti me 3 6—Mu ic in q u ad r upl e ti me o ft e n inaccu — — n n n e n A e e a d a e b a r s 8 cc t d u cc t d Ho w to d e ter m i ne ra t ely b a r e d 3 37 whic h b ars are acce nte d 3 9— Ex ampl e b y B e th o v en 4o —O th e r e x am ples -Se n t e nc e s c o n tai n i n — h ree h r a s s t p r e fer re d to 4 g 43 Se n t n ces o f fo u r 4 p hras es e x a mpl e by H ayd n 44 —Ditto b y Mo zar t ; o ve rl appi ng o f p h as e s 45 — Ditt o b y Me nd el ss o h n two p h ras es o f fo u r bars ans wer e d by o ne o f e i gh t 46 —D itt o b y Wagner 47 — III

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ub divi s i bl e 49 ; t h e i r rel ati o n to — T h e S ectio n ; h o w to fi nd its li mit s — So me p hras e s 2 o ne ano t h er so 5 no t divi s i b l e i nt o s e cti o ns 5 3— Th e h ar mo ny to b e c o ns id ere d in maki ng s ub di vi s i o ns 5 4— Sli gh t e r c ade n ti al e fi ec t u su al in se cti o ns 5 5 —An e xc e pti o n 5 6 T h e Mo tiv e th e ge r m fr o m w h ic h mu s ic is d e v e l o p e d 5 8—Th e ge neral p ri ncipl e —Ph rase s abeginning wit h an i nc o mpl e te reg ul ati ng th e fo r m o f th e mo tiv e 5 9 mo tive 60—A s e n t e nc e divid e d i n to m o tives 6 1 — A l e ss s i mpl e sen t e n ce — W he n it is to b e as s u med i mp o r tance an aly z e d 6 2 — The fe mi ni ne e ndi ng 63 o f c o rre ct divi s i o n i n t o m o tives in e xpl ai ni ng h ar mo nic p r o g res sio ns 64 6 5 T h e m o tiv e s c o rre s p o nd to th e w o r d: o f a s e nt e nc e 66 —Ex am pl e b y H ayd n 67 —Sub -mo tives 68 —The mo tive defi ne d 69— Mo tives o f two b ar s 7o 7 1 — n n s 2 Th e c o ns titu e n t s o f a m o tiv e 73 ~ m n n e tiv wit f i i di e e h Mo e 7 g — n e s o h h o e u y w l u ti f t e S mmar o 74 T he p ri ncipl e s o nly apply fully to s e n q te nce s o f r e g ul ar c o ns t r ucti o n 7 5

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CON TEN TS

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” “ — n o a o m n s e l i n d d t r a n i t dul ti Mod at o e ne ; 7 7 U s e o f th e mo t ive in d e te r -r el ati on sh ip — K 8 e n a o m o dul ti mi ni ng th e po i n t o f ; n early re l ate d 79 y 7 k eys 8 o —D egree s o f neam ess in r el a ti o nsh ip o f m aj o r k ey s 8 1— D itt o in mi no r key s 8 2—K eys in th e s ec o nd d egr e e o f r elati o nsh ip 8 3 — Ch o rd s co mm o n to 8 4 8 5 — C ho rd s in wh i c h an e nh arm o nic c h ange is i m pli e d 8 6 s uc h k e y s — a k e y s in th e r e r e e o m o e 8 K i k y l t d c d d a j h e o n t n t e s e i M no r e s r e a g 7 y - 0—T h e mi no r k e th e co n m n r k e 8 8 n h t a o c d d ti o s ip o i f r l a r e e n e o e o e s 9 y y g v erse O f the maj o r 9 1—U nre l ate d k ey s 92 93 — Tab1e o f R el ate d K eys 94

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— h a n m s e s e s s a o a o dul ti l t x u tl The means 95 Mo dulati o n by c h o r d s co m mo n to t w o ke y s ; e xampl e by Mo zar t 96-99 -Mo dul ati o ns in mi no r k eys ; — — n D o b h r M T a c I o o dul ati o n by t ri ad s 1 02 x pl B t v oo itt B e h o e e b a m e e y y - 1 06— S uch h i n n dul ti a m a j o r t r i a d w ic h s di a t o i c i b t h k e y s b o 1 0 n s a o Mo 3 y — — r n n t e m e 1 0 a o m n r r dul ti ui c fi d D i t ic i t i e re o b o o a d s 1 8 n s r 0 Po s a o mo 7 q — Mo dul ati o n wit h m o r e t han o ne ambi uo u s s i b l e mo dul ati o ns with t h ese I o g g c ho r d 1 1 0— Mo dul ati o n to an u nrelate d key 1 1 1 — Mo dulati o n by means O f c h r o matic t ri ads 1 1 2 1 1 3 — Ex ampl es o f e xtre me m o dul ati o ns 1 14—Mo dula ti o ns b e tw e e n ke y s in th e s e c o n d d egr e e o f r elati o nsh ip 1 1 5 — Mo dul ati o n to th e m edi an t maj o r 1 1 6 — S u gg e s ti o n s o f rel at e d m i no r k e ys 1 1 7— Mo dul ati o n to th e fl at s ub me di an t 1 1 8— Ditt o to th e s ub me di an t an d fl at m e di an t 1 1 9 Exampl e o f mo dula ti o n b e tween k eys in th e se co n d d egree o f r el ati o nsh ip by Mo z ar t 1 2 o —D itt o b y Be e t h o v e n 1 2 1 — D itt o by S c h ub er t 1 22— D itt o by B rah m s 1 2 3— Mo dul ati o n s b e twee n u nr el ate d k e s ; e x am pl e by Be e th o ve n 1 24 — D itt o by S ch ub er t 1 25 1 2 6— D itt o by D vo rak 1 27 o f mo

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— m n r I T he fun d ament al s e ve nth s ; f n a e a s o s o dul ti fu d t l di c d m e a n s o n b Mo a o y g e x a mpl e b y W agn e r 1 3 1 — Mo dula ti o n by m e ans o f th e di mi ni sh e d t r i ad 1 32 T h e di at o n i c s e v en th s ; wh ich fo r ms ar e avail abl e fo r m o dul ati o n 1 33—Ex 1 36 1 37— Mo dula ti o n by am pl e s b y Bac h 1 3 4 1 3 5 — D itt o b y Me n d el s s o h n ch ro matic ch o r d s o f th e maj o r n i n th 1 3 8— En na r mon ie modula tion 1 39 B i tt o b y c h o r ds o f th e mi no r n i n t h ; e xam pl e b y Mo zar t 1 4o — D itt o by H and el 1 41 — D itto by S po hr 1 42— D itt o by Be e th o ve n 1 43—Th e enh armo nic c h ang e o f fu nd ame n tal s e v enth s to augme nte d s ixth s 1 44— Ex ample s by S c h u b er t 1 45- 1 48—D itt o by B ee th o v e n 1 49 1 so — T h e e nh ar m o nic c hang e s o f th e d o mi nan t m i n o r t h i r t e en t h 1 5 1 — E x am pl es 1 5 2 1 5 3— Mo dul ati o n s wi t h o ut a c o n ne cti ng c h o r d 1 5 4— An i m pli e d e nh ar m o n ic m o dul a ti o n p oss ible 1 5 5 — O ne no t e o f a c h o r d r e t ai ne d in th e fo ll o wi ng c h o r d 1 5 6— Mo dul ati o n b y m ean s o f s c al e p as s ag e s 1 5 7 1 5 8 — Co mp o un d mo dulation ; e x am pl e by S c h ube r t I Sg— Th e e x act p o i n t o f mo dul ati o n 1 6o — L e s s fre q ue nt me t h o d s 1 62 —D itt o by S c hu b er t 1 63 1 64 o f m o dul ati ng ; e x am pl e b y Mo z ar t 1 6 1 D itto by Wagn er 1 65 1 66— Analy s i s o f ch ro matic mo dul ati o ns 1 67— N o d efi nite r ul e s as to c h o ic e o f m o dul ati o ns can b e g iv en 1 6 8— Ex er ci ses in m o dul ati ng 1 69 ,

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— t c c t uct d f typic l tiv a m o e 1 e r m t h e n s r o e n e s o Se n 77 E xam pl e by Bee th o v e n 1 7 8 — Alte rati o n o f i nt e r va l 1 79 —T he “r h yt h m ical fi gu re 1 8o — D i sg ui s e d -b ar s e n — — o f e h r n o n s tiv t t d tiv t ucti i t e s 1 C o 1 r a s m o 8 n 1 8 2 e mo es 81 Co g 3 — — — h r 1 a s e 8 6 n f h e o re C o a n es o t cc t d b c f p C d e T h rs 1 8 a e a en e te n ce s 1 8 4 5 s t r ucti o n o f t h e s e cti o ns 1 8 7 — F o r mul a fo r indica ti ng th e s ub divis i o ns o f s e n — — 1 n e 1 8 a r e n e h h b s te noe s 1 88 Var i o u s fo rm s o f t e e ig t t c 9 93 D itt o wi th m o dul ati o ns 1 94-1 98— Mo dul a ti o n to an u nrel at e d key e x am p l e by S ch ub e r t — — Th e fo r m ul ae fo r n h 2 oo i e c pl t c p iti ly i h t b r s n l t a n e e m o s o n A m e o o I gg o g g e i gh tb ar s e n t e nc es in w h ic h o nly o ne p h r as e is di vid e d i n t o s e cti o ns 2 01 — — 2 s n 0 6 o r m ula m o o h o f o e d l uc t c 2 M t o d c p iti F n 2 o z o Mo e s o f s h s e n e e s 5 — n 2 o s o n o s e re d e t c w ic t p divi d i t cti h r a s s a e fo r s en e n e s in h h b o h 7 W h e re to ch ange the har m o ny 2 o 8—Effe ct o f the an ticipati o n o f the har mo ny o n an u naccente d b ea t o r b ar 2og—T welve bar s en te nces z 1 o — S i milarity o f p h ras es 2 1 1 2 1 2— R e p e titi o n o f cad en c e 2 1 3— R e pe titi o n o f the s e c o n d ph ras e 2 1 4—T we lve -b ar s en tences m o s tly th e e xte ns i o ns o f e i gh t bar 2 1 5 S ixt e e n -b ar s e n t e nc e s 2 1 6—Exampl e by Mo z ar t 2 1 7— D itt o b y Men d el s so h n w here m o s tly to b e met analyz e d 2 1 9 —T h e n or ma l fo r m o f s en t e nc e with 2 20 ,

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yth ms are v ar i ati o ns o f th e no rmal rhyth m no t ne w fo rms 2 2 1 — Pr o lo ngatio ns o f th e fi nal cad enc e 22 2—L eng t h eni ng th e l as t n o t es o f th e cad e nce 2 2 3 — R e p e ti ti o n and p ro l o nga ti o n 2 24— Me t h o d o f i n dica ti ng s uc h re pe titio ns 227 — R e p e titi o n o f ditt o wit h v ar i a ti o n 2 28 2 2 5 — Ext e ns i o n o f ca d e n c e Ca de ntial p ro l o ngati o n in b o t h th e p h ras es o f a se n ten c e 2 2 9—O th e r m e t h o ds o f e xt e n di ng th e e nd o f a se nt e nc e 2 3o 2 3 1 — Pro l o ng ati o n c f th e be gi nni ng o f a s en t enc e 2 3 2— R e p e titi o n o f a se cti o n in th e m iddl e o f a s e n t e n c e 2 3 3 A s e nt e nc e g rea tly p r o l o ng e d 2 34-2 36— S uc h p r o l o ngati o ns r e s ult fro m t he c o m p o ser s mu s ical feeli ng 2 37— Le ng the ni ng o f a p hrase b y the i n t erp o lati o n o f an u nacc e n t e d b ar ; e x am pl e by Mo z ar t 2 3 8— D itt o by Me n d e ls s o h n 2 3 9 Ditto b y S c h u b e r t ;fi ve-bar r hy t/zm 2 4o —T h e i n ter p o l ati o n o f an u nacc e n te d b ar mo s tly t ak e s pl ac e in app ro ac h i ng a cad en c e 241 -I n te r p o l ati o n o f an a cc e n te d b ar 2 42 2 43— T h e i n t e rp o l at e d bar re p ea t e d s e q u e nti al l y ; e x am pl e by Bee th o ve n 2 44— Acce nte d b ar s i nse r te d in b o th ph rases o f a s enten ce 245 246 — Th e diffe renc e o f e ffe ct p r o duce d b y th e i nte r p o lati o n o f unaccen te d and ao ce n te d b ars 2 47 — C o n tr acti o n o f a se n t e nc e ; e li s i o n o f an u nacc e nt e d b ar 2 48 Efl ec t o f e li s i o n o f th e fi rs t b ar O f a s e nt e nc e 249 — Ex ampl e an Anglican c han t 2 5o —Eli si o n o f an i nte rm edi at e u naccen te d b ar ; e x am pl es by Me ndel s s o h n 2 5 1 2 5 2 — Ho w to di s ti ng ui s h b e twe e n eli s i o n o f an u nacc e n t e d an d in T/zr ee-bar r /y t/zm 2 54— Exam ple s in te rp o latio n o f an a cc ent e d b ar 2 5 3 nati o nal m u s ic 2 5 5 — R e as o n o f th e sa ti s fact o r y e ffe ct o f t h r ee -b ar r h yth m 2 5 6 — Be e th o ve n s r itmo di t e battu te in th e ni n th sy m ph o ny e xplai ne d 25 7 —T he o v erlappi ng o f tw o p h ras es o r se n tence s 2 5 8— Example by Dus se k 25 9 - D itt o b y S c h u mann 2 6o — D itt o by Me nd e ls s o h n 2 6 1 —seven -ba r r /z t/nn ; y Exampl e b y Bee th o ven 2 62 2 63 —D itt o b y Mo zart 2 64— Es tabli sh i ng a fi gure 2 65 — Be gi nni ng in th e m iddl e o f a s e n te nc e 2 66 2 67 o f a cc o m p an i men t Eli s i o n o f an e n ti re u nacce nte d p h r ase 26 8 —The c o m pl e x r hythms o f po ly p h o nic mu s ic 269—Anal ys i s o f a fugu e by Bach 2 7o — 2 76 — In fu g u e s reg ul ar i t y o f acc e nt o ft e n s uppli es th e pl ac e o f r eg ul ar r hyth m 2 77— The r easo n fo r t h is 2 7 8 —An aly s i s o f p ass age s c o n ta i n i ng i rregu lar r hyt h ms ; e x am pl e by H aydn 281 2 8 2—D itt o by Mo zar t ( t h re e b ar rh yth m) 2 79 2 8o —D itt o b y S c h u b e r t 2 83 2 84— D itt o by H ay dn 2 8 5 —W h e n ar e d e vi ati o ns fr o m reg ular r h yth m m o s t s uitab l e 2 86—Cr oss -accen t3 ; e x ampl es b y Be e th o v e n 2 8 7 2 8 8 -D itto by \Ve b er 2 89 2 90—Cu ri o us e xam pl e by S c h u mann 2 91 — Exam pl e b y Cle men ti 2 92 —Efl e ct o f aug me ntati o n p ro duc e d b y c r o ss acc e n t s 2 93—Th e i ns er ti o n o f o ne be at in a b ar ; e xampl e b y H and el 2 95—D itt o b y S c h u mann 2 96—D itt o b y Me n de l ss o h n 2 97—Ch ang e in th e s u b di vis i o n o f th e b ar 2 98—Th e eli si o n — o f a s i ng l e b e at 2 99—Qu in tup le t i me ; e xam pl e b H d l n e Di tt o b y a oo y g B o i e ldi e u 3 o 1 —D itt o b y C h o pi n 3o2—S ep tup le t i me ; e xam pl e by L i s z t 303 D ttto by Be rli o z 3O4—H i n ts to the s tud en t 305

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I N A RY FO RM

a p g e 15 I

d e fi ne d 306— T h e d ev e l o pme nt O f th e lar ger fo r ms fro m th e s mal le r -tu ne s an d d o ub l e c h ant — m n r m h n i m pl e t b i a r y f o y T h e s s s s 3 08 3 0 o7 ; 9 % h e c o n ci se b i nary fo rm o f two sentence s ; e xamples b y S ch umann 3 1 0-3 12 D itto b y Co re lli 3 1 3—Mi nu e t and Tr i o b y Mo zar t 3 14— Ex am pl e by S chube rt — — — n D 1 6 o ee h o e n 1 i tt H yd D itt by B t v 1 o b a 3 y 3 7 U s e o f t h i s for m in 3 5 v o cal mu sic 3 r 8— E x ample by We be r 3 1 9—D itto by Mo zar t 32o —Th e b in fo r m wit h s e nten c es o f l es s r egul ar l eng th 32 1 — Ex am pl e by H ayd n analy — 2 3- 2 5 — D itt o o f Mi nu e t b f h ly i v tt by B a c 22 A n G a o e a s s o 3 3 3 y H an d el 3 26 I rregular r hyth ms illu s t rat e d 327— T h e e xt end e d b i nary fo r m in v o cal mus i c ; — 2 2 8 e x am pl e b y H an del 3 3 9 T h e bi nar y fo rm wit h tw o s ubj e cts 330 A naly s i s o f Prelud e by B ac h 33 1 3 32 —A d ag i o b y Mo zar t analy z e d 333— 335 “ — I mp o r tance o f t h i s v ar i e ty o f b i nar y fo r m 3 36 T h e name tw o -p ar t So ng Fo rm as appli e d to Bi nary Fo r m 337— H i n t s fo r fi r s t att e mpts in c o m p o s i ti o n 338 —Wr i ti ng h ymn-tu ne s 3 39 34o — O utli nes to b e fi ll e d up 341 342 O r i gi nal tu ne s 3 43 —Parap h ras i ng giv e n e x ampl e s 344— S ho r t pi e c e s w it h tw o and t h r ee s e n t e n c e s 345 — D itt o with fo u r s e n t e n c e s ; v ar i e ty o f c ad e n c e and o r d e r o f mo d ul ati o n 346— H i nt s fo r th e c o ns t r ucti o n o f s e n te n c e s o f i rr eg ul ar leng t h 347

B in ary For m

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C HA PT ER

X — T HE .

SIM L

P E

TERN A RY FO RM

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ag e

’ — 349 Ep isoae

D efi niti o n o f Ter n ary vi e ws o f th eo r i s ts an — — m a e b a 0 M o r t r e e re E x pl z f d t o es se n ti al o f t ernary fo r m 1 Th e 35 y 35 fi s t par t o f a t ernary mo v e men t m u s t be a c o m pl e te b i nary fo m 35 —The p ri ncip al th eme m us t re cu r in th e th i r d p art 35 3— T h e e las ticity o f t h i s fo rm 3 5 4 —A naly s i s o f th e and ant e o f Be e th o ven s s o nata O p 7 9 35 5 3 5 6— An dan te b y Mo z ar t analyz e d 3 5 7 3 5 8 — D itt o by H ayd n 3 5 9—3 6 1— Analy s i s o f - 6 — D itt o o f th e P e 6 2 h S o n a a a h é d i t t ti u h A a o f t e t e Ad agio o f q 3 9 3 g o Be e t h o ven s s o nata O p 3 1 N O 1 37o -3 73— D itt o o f th e A d ag i o o f Web er s -Th e t e r nar y fo r m r a ely u s e d in l ar e w o r k s e xc e pt fo r s o nat a in C g s l o w mo v e m e n t s o r m i n u e t s 37 8 —U se o f th e t er nar y as an i n d e p e n d e n t fo r m 3 79 — E x am pl e b y Ch o pi n 38o 38 1 — D itt o b y S c h ub er t 3 8 2—383 — D itt o b y S ch u m an n 38 6-391 —Th e t e rnar y fo r m in v o cal m u s ic 3 92—Air by H an d el “ — — Ex ampl es re ferr e a t o 394 A mix e d fo r m 3 95 396— Mo d e rn analyz e d 393 e x am pl e s o f t er n ary fo r m in v o c al m u s ic 397—T h e m iddl e p o r ti o n m ay b e in di ff en t temp o 398 399—G eneral su mmary 4oo —All larger fo r ms are d e vel o pe d — r m r n a er n C o ncl us i o n 401 typic l i y t y f a b r r o m t h e o a ro f For m 348 — D i ffer en t ,

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MU S ICA L FO RM .

A PT E R

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I N TR O DU CTI O N

I .

E very work of art whether O f small o r l arge dimensions must be constructed in accordance with some definitely formed plan in the mind o f the artist We cannot conceive o f a p ainteI going to his easel and beginning to work o n his canvas without having decided what was to be the subj ect o f his picture N ob o dy but a lunatic would s et to work before he had made ’ up his mind whether h e was going to paint a bit o f S till life a portrait a landscape o r a piece o f architecture The details of his picture might and most probably would undergo more or less important modifications during the progress o f his work ; but its general design would b e clearly in his mind before he began operations S imilarly an architect would know perfectly well whether he were going to design a private dwelling-house a shop a church or a concert hall and he would lay o ut his plans according to the kind o f building required A composer goes to work on the same principle Before 2 utting pen to paper he makes up his mind what sort piece he o f p is going to write N obody in the world ever sat down to write a and found when he had finished that he had s e t o f waltzes composed a fugue instead The simple reason is that the two works are constructed o n an entirely di fferent plan The plan o r design according to which a piece of music is written is called its FO R M f I t is rather di ficult to imagine a composer sitting down to 3 write without any definite idea of what he was going to compose L et us try for a moment to think what would be the pro bable result A ssuming him to be naturally gifted and that his ideas flowed freely his thoughts would ramble o n in an aimless manner without logical connexion and the whole piece would be a mere incoherent rhapsody o f the nature o f an improvisation If he “ — had no ability the result would be a musical chaos without But to a talented musician such a thing as we form and void 1

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are supposing would be almost impossible J u st as when we are thinking o ne thought naturally suggests the next one s o to the musician there would be an involuntary connexion o f ideas more o r less clearly recognizable and an absolutely incoherent piece by a good composer is hardly conceivable f A lmost the only kind o composition without a clearly 4 defined form is the Fantasia — a piece in w hi ch ( as its name implies ) the composer is left free to follo w his o wn fantasy But if we examine the different examples of the Fantasia left us by the great composers — Haydn Mo zart Beethoven Mendelssohn o r S chumann — w e shall find in all o f them clear evidences of design though the plan of the di fferent pieces varies too much to allow us to make any generali zations as to the form O f a F antasia f o f music It was said j ust now that by the F o rm a piece o 5 is meant the plan o n which it is constructed hese words however without further explanation will convey but a vague impression to the student who may not unnaturally ask what there is to plan The O bj ect o f the present volume is to answer this question as far as possible ; and o ur first enquiry will be What are the constituents of that which is called Mus i cal F orm ? E xpressed in the fewest possible words they may be said to be Melody Tonality R hythm and Proportion To these in all larger works and in most smaller must be added Modulation an d D evelopment 6 The simplest definition o f Melody is perhaps the following “If sounds o f di fferent pitch are heard o ne after the other we get MEL O DY ( Har mony 9 This definition however by itself is quite inadequate ; for it is possible to write a succession o f sounds which by n o conceivable stretch o f imagination can be calle d a melody as for example the following ,

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It

is clear therefore that something more than mere di fference o f pitch e nters into the composition o f melody 7 The student will hardly require to be told that the series of notes j ust given can in n o sense be regarded as a melody because it is in no key Here therefore the second o f o ur constituents o f F orm viz : T O N AL I TY comes into requisition Without a clearly defined tonality music is impossible B ut even tonality by itself is n01 su fficient to make a series of di fferent notes into a Satisfactory melody We will write such a series in the key o f C and will moreover write it in common time marking the position o f the accents by bars .

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al l

T he

Ha r mony Co u n te r po i n t fir e th ro ugh o ut this wo rk c th e o th e r v o lu mes o f th i s se ri e s ( Auge ne r Co )

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I N TR O D UC TIO N

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This is at all events more intelligible than the atrocious series O f intervals given in the last section ; but it still fails to satisfy either the ear o r the mind Why is this ? What is it that is still want ing ? 8 The best way to answer this q uestion will be to rewrite the above bars making such modifications as are necessary to render the succession o f sounds satisfying to the ear O nly very slight alterations will be required .

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will be seen that the only changes made have been the extending of the seventh bar into tw o with a point of repose at the eighth bar and the addition o f the tonic at the end Though commonplace enough and of the least possi ble value in itself we have now an intelligible and satisfactory melody which before we had not Those who have studied the harmonizing of melodies 9 V X I C ount e r p o i nt C h will see that in the a b ove musical ( ) ’ sentence two Caaenees have been introduced— a half cadence 06 Counterp o int 5 ) at the eighth bar and a full cadence Counte rpo int These cadences 48 2 ) at the sixteenth bar divide the music into two equal parts of eight bars each ; it is therefore said to be in eight -bar RHYTHM The wh ole question o f the nature and functions o f R hythm will b e discussed in th e n ext ch apter ; it will be su fficient here to sa that by the word y ’ R hythm is meant the more or less regular recurrence o f cadences A comparison of the two passages in 7 8 will show what an important part it plays in even the simplest music it may indeed be said that Melody and R hythm are inseparable 10 We will now once more alter the melody given in 8 It

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We have ent irely spoilt the mus i c by this last alteration th ou g h we h ave still the same two cadences as before The ,

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utterly unsatisfactory effect o f this new version arises from the fact that the cadences n o w divide the music quite irregularly the “ first strain ( or phrase containing five bars and the second nine This illustrates the fourth o f the essentials o f F orm mentioned in 5— the necessity O f PR O PO RT I O N The two parts The student must not infer o f the melody are badly balanced that it is necessary that the cadences should always recur at exactly the same distances In smaller compositions especially in dance-music this is often the case ; but if a larger work such as a symphony o r sonata were cut up by cadences into regular sections o f four o r eight bars throughout ( j ust as a linendraper might measure and cut o ff tape by the yard ) the effect would be monotonous in the extreme N evertheless as we shall see later there must be some kind o f balance some proportion between the various subdivisions of a piece of music In all except the smallest and simplest forms MOD U LAT I O N 11 plays an important part It is however n o t s o absolutely essential as the points we have already touched o n as it is possible to compose short pieces the form o f which shall b e quite satisfactory and yet which contain no m odulation s at all Many well-known double chants are examples o f this A nothe r important constituent o f most larger forms is 12 By this is meant the treatment o f a theme often DEV EL O PMEN T composed of only a few notes by the various devices — sequential imi tation inversion augmentation diminution & c — at the co m man u o f the composer in such a way as to obtain unity in the whole ; that is to say that there S hall be logi cal connexion between the various parts o f the work The instrumental works o f the great composers are full o f these developments In very small pieces ther e Is O ften n o opportunity for them though even among these specimens are to be found as we shall see later which have been developed from an apparently insignificant germ 13 It must nev e r be forgotten that there is a very intimate relation between me lod y and harmony SO much i s this the case that it is almost impossible for a musician to compose a melody without an implied harmonic groundwork Hence the frequent us e o f melodic passages whi ch are simply chords broken o r taken i n arpeggio as in the followin g commence m e nt o f a well -know n Welsh air ,

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will be seen that the firs t two bars cons i st o f n otes o i t h e t o ni c chord th e third bar o f the supertonic the fourth bar o f tne dominant and so o n The melody itself irresistibly s ug ges ts its o w n harm ony and this would be n one the less the case were passing notes introduced between the different notes o f the chords It

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IN TR O D UC TI O N

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A similar point is ill ustrated by the following mel ody MOZ A R T F ig .

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L et the student play o r sing this melody without any harmony and o b serve h o w evidently it is founded upon the harmonies with which the composer has accompanied it and o f which we have given only the basses 1 It must here be distinctly said that no attempt will be 5 made in this book to teach the in ve ntion of melody The only thing possible here is to teach its construction L ike a poet a composer is born not made E ducation is as necessary in the o n e case as in the other ; and just as a poet could produce nothing o f value without having studied the laws o f grammar and prosody so the musician must devote himself to the study o f theory if he would attain excellence Harmony and C ounter point are his grammar ; F orm is his prosody Moreover j ust as one may have a perfect knowledge both O f grammar and prosody and yet be no poet a musician may have a thorough knowledge o f theory and yet be no composer Melody is a gift from Heaven the invention o f which cannot possibly be taught ; our obj ect is to S how the student how to make the best use o f the gifts that Heaven may have bestowed upon him ; anything mo r e is o ut o f our power 16 The best models o f form are to be found in what is known “ as absolute music that is instrumental music not written o n any definite programme If a composer is endeavouring to illustrate any special subject the nature o f his subject will probably modify the form o f the work The same is O ften the case w ith vocal music in which the words exercise an important infl uence o n the form e specially in dramatic m usic We s hall now procee d to the study o f the vari o us fo rms 17 beginning with the simplest ; but i t will first be neces sary to deal at some length with the im p ortant q uestion of Rh yt h m ,

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M US ICA L

6

FO R M

C H APT E R I I — H H M T R Y

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SEN T EN CES A N D PH

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Ther e i s considerable analogy between the construction o f music and o f poetry ; and it will be o f much assistance to the student in endeavouring to understand the subj ect o f R hythm with which we are no w about to deal if we illustrate it by reference to the sister art E verybody knows that what distinguishes poetry from 1 9 prose so far as i ts form is concerned is that in poetry the accents and to a les s extent the cadences o f the verse recur at more o r less regular intervals while in prose they do not do so L et us as an illustration take some familiar lines the commence ’ ment o f L ongfellow s E xcelsior T h e sh ad e s o f ni gh t w e r e falli ng fas t A s t h r o u gh an A lpi ne V ill age p ass d A y o ut h w h o b o r e mid s n o w and ice A b anner wit h a s t ang e d e vic e Exce l s i o r 1 E veryone who reads these verses feels that the accent recurs regularly o n every second syllable and that after every eighth syllable there is a cadence marking the en d o f a each line therefore contai ning fou r accents The last line which has only four syllables is a kind o f coda to the stan za 20 I n the passage we have j ust quoted the cadential feeling is strengthened by th e rhymes at the end O f the lines ; but that rhyme is by n o means a necessity in poetry and that the cadences can be quite clearly felt without its aid will be seen by another ’ ’ — S hort extract from L ongfellow s S ong of Hiawatha R o und an d r o u nd th ey wheel ed and d ar t e d Fill e d th e Ev ni ng S t a wi t h m u s ic W ith th ei r so ngs o f j o y and fr e d o m F ill e d th e Ev ni ng S tar wit h s pl end o ur W it h th e fl utte ri ng o f th ei r plu mage Here the cadential feeling is j ust as distin ct as in the E xcelsior each line again contains four accents and the accents come on every second syllable It is the combined regularity O f accent an d i n a less degree o f cadence that makes the above passage verse and not prose “ 21 We have j ust said and in a less degree o f cadence It is hardly needful to remind the student that it is by no means 18

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w d v ers e w o uld b e p erh ap s mo re accu rate t h an h er e b ut “ i t ar i se fro m th e fact t hat v er se is so o ft en u se d as e q uivale nt s t an za a h y m n o f fo u r w e p re fe r to re tai n th e m o re c o mmo n

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S EN TE N CES

Ch an 11

PHR A s e s

A ND

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necessary that all the lines o f a poem should be o f the same length It would be superfluous to quote examples o f lines o f di fferent lengths ; they are to be met with everywhere N either do the accents always occur o n every second syllable O ften we find them on every third syllable as in the line Th e Assyri an c ame d o w n lik e th e w o lf o u th e fo ld The portion contained between o ne accent and the next is termed by prosodists a Fo o t S ometimes feet o f two and t hr ee syllables ’ are combined in the same line as in Tennyson s But th e tender g ace o f a day t hat is dead W ill ne ve r c o me b ack to me What is really needed is that there shall be some kind O f system in the placing o f the accents and cadences but not t h at there shall be absolute uniformity A ll music even the simplest resembles poetry in requiring 22 regularity of accent and system in cadence With regard to the former there i s greater strictness in music than in verse for with very rare exceptions the accents recur at perfectly regular dis tances throughout a piece o f music The only analogy in music to prose is to be found in recitative which is simply declamation sung instead of spoken and in the G regorian intonation and the “reciting notes ’ o f the chants to which the psalms are often sung in o ur churches 23 After what has been said the student will be in a position to understand the analogy we have spoken of between poetry and music In what is to follow we assume his thorough familiarity with the whole subj ect o f cadences If his ideas o n this matter are at all misty we advis e him to read C hapters XV and XV I o f Counterpo int to refresh his memory A s R hythm is entirely a question o f the position o f the cadences it is evident that unless these are thoroughly understood further progress is impossible 24 A s our first example we will take the commencement o f a well known choral Ch al : gn t R g i O g .

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We have already used this passage in Counte rpoint as an illustration O f simple forms o f cadence and we now employ it to S how the most common variety o f rhythm It will be s ee n that the passage contains eight bars and that there is a half-cadence at * the fourth bar and a full cadence at the end A passage ending with a full cadence an d which can be subdivided by some form O f middle cadence into at least two parts is called a SEN TEN CE o r PER I O D ,

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u nd e r th e no tes ( V a Ia &c ) in th i s and th e fo ll o wi ng e x amples i ndicate the har mo ni es o f th e l as t no te s o f th e cad ences T he

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M US ICA L

8

FORM

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II

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z e this sentence we s ee that it natura l ly divides If we analy 5 itself into tw o equal parts the division being marked by the half cadence and each half containing four accents E ach o f these ha lves therefore corresponds in this respect to the verses by L ong fellow that we quoted above I n an enormous maj ority of musical periods the number of accents and therefore O f bars consists of — f 2 some multiple o either 4 8 o r even 1 6 bars We shall se e later that sentences can also be constructed O f other lengths than these but such are exceptional The cause o f the extreme prevalence o f tw o four o r 26 eight-bar rhythm as compared with any other is the natural feeling for balance o f o ne part against the other O f this the student can convince himself by a very simple experiment L et him listen to any soun d repeated at regular intervals such as the ticking O f a clock o r the pulsations O f a locomotive steam -engine He will find himself involuntarily counting them in twos and fours He cannot without a mental effort think o f them as falling in groups O f three ; and after trying to feel them in threes for a while as soon as his attention relaxes they will fall into twos again o f themselves We cannot help feeling o ne tick o f the clock as accented and the next as unaccented though as a matter o f fact they may be both o f exactly the same strength A nd what is true o f the ticking o f a clock also applies to musical forms After a statement ( l es is ) we require a corresponding reply j ust as the shortest poem must contain at least two lines L et the student compare the two melodies given in the last chapter in 8 and 1 0 and n ote how perfectly satisfactory is the effect o f the first because eight bars are answered by eight while the very reverse is the case with the second because five bars are answered by nine N O isolated phrase even though ending with a full cadence can m ake a se nte n ce because the want o f a response creates a feeling o f i ncompleteness The follo wing passage illustrates this ARN E x A ta 2

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Here in spite of the full cadence at the end the m i nd clearly feels the want of something to follow O ne phrase by itself i s as incomplete as half a pair o f scissors ,

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We now give an other e xample O f an eight-bar sentence this time in triple instead O f in common time H A D N Sym yi C ph 27

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SE N TE N CES

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A ND

PHRA

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E xcept that the accents come on every thir d in stead o f on eve ry second beat and that it commences o n an unaccented instead of an accented note this sentence is precisely similar in its co n structi o n to that given in 2 4 It has a half cadence at the fourth bar and a full cadence at the eighth The two passages o f four bars each into which the sentence is divided by the middle cadence are called PHRASES The first subdivision o f a sentence will invariably be into phrases S uch short sentences as we have given generally contain two phrases in longer sentences we not infrequently find a larger number S uch sentences will be S poken o f later 28 The following passage shows the same construction O f a sentence in a minor key BE E THO VE M m tt O p 5 N 7 ‘

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Here again we have a half cadence ending the first phrase at the fifth quaver of the fourth bar We s ee here also an example “ O f what is termed by prosodists a feminine ending — that is the ending o f a verse ( in musical language O f a phrase ) on an unaccented note following the accented note on which the actual cadence mostly occurs S uch feminine endings are very common both in phrases and sentences 29 It is by no means necessary that the firs t phrase o f a sentence should end with a half cadence as in the examples hitherto given Any form of middle cadence ( Counte rpo int 4 8 0) may be employed We give a few examples O f the more common middle cadences Sy m p h y i G HA D ,

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Here the cadence at the fourth bar is a full cadence ( V 7a Ia) ; but the effect o f finality is avoided by taking the third o f the tonic chord in the upper part 0 In the following passage 3 “ Ch l O G tt du f mm G tt ,

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the first phrase ends

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the third

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MUS ICA L

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harmon i zin g o f the last two notes being Ia IV a It will be noticed that the sentence contains only four b ars instead of eight as hitherto and the phrases only two bars each instead o f four This is because the passage is written in quadruple time instead E ach bar n ow contains two accents instead o f o ne o f in duple and the total number of accents in the sentence is the same as in the examples previously quoted We shall return to this point which is o f considerable import an ce later ,

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We next give an example o f a sentence i n which the first phrase ends with an interrupted cadence H A N D EL D b ah 31

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We have given Handel s bass as well as his melody here because the first phrase might have been harmoni zed with a full cadence at the fourth bar ; i n this case there would not have been two short sentences o f four bars each because a sentence must contain at least two phrases S uch a construction is sometimes to be found as i n the following choral ,

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Cho r a

V IIb

V l t i h wi ll di g a e

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e be n .

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Here we hav e indicated the best harmonies for the cadences It is much better to treat the B in the third bar as part O f the chord o f V IIb than to t ak e V a Ia at the end o f each phr ase though either is possible .

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We have j ust said that the first phrase of a s en tence may end wi th a full cadence B ut when this is the case we generally find that there is a modulation introduced in the course o f the sentence and that the first phr ase ends in a di fferent key from the second The most usual modulation i n a short sentence will be into the key o f the dominant if the piece is in a maj or key and to the relative maj or if in a minor key We give an example O f each by Beethoven BE E THO VE N S t O p 6 2 3

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B EE THO V E N

Q uar t e t , O p

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In this sentence the first phrase ends like the preceding with a half cadence the modulation is n o w to the relative minor of the dominant— a case o f somewhat rare occurrence S POH R S t i A fl t Op 5 ,

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In this example in a minor key the first phrase ends with an inverted cadence in the tonic ( V b Ia) an d the sentence closes with a full cadence in the relative maj or 3 5 When the sentence ends with a modulation the firs t phrase sometimes contain s a full cadence ( V a Ia) in the tonic key H A D N Sy mp h y i F Mi u t “ ,

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elative minor

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Here the second phrase begins with a transient modulat i on to r

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general when the first phrase ends with a full ,

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S EN TEN CES

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13

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cadence the third O f the tonic chord is as here placed in the upper part to avoid the feeling o f finality produced if the tonic itself is at the top S ometimes though more rarely the tonic is found in the upper part as in the following passage by Haydn H A D O v tu A md t A d te ,

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0 in a sentence only four bars in length 3 divided into two phrases O f two bars each and we explained that this was because the time was q u a drup le containing two accents in each bar instead o f only o ne E very bar of 2time is in 2 reality two bars of , thrown into o ne and is therefore a CO MPO U N D ’ bar In E nglan d the term compound time is usually restricted to those bars which contain two o r more bars of trip le time and “ we frequently find it defined as that in which each beat is o f the “ value o f a dotted note But the G erman definition a larger bar composed O f two or more smaller bars is far more accurate an d it is indeed necessary fo r the proper understanding of rhythm that we should regard quadruple time in many cases as compound time The reason is that the two accents in a bar o f quadruple time are not of the same strength E very beginner is taught that in 2time there is a strong accent o n the first beat of the bar and a weaker accent o n the third ; and it is needful to bear this in mind in all compound times in order to get the cadences in the right positions r ought to know that in a cadence E very student knows o 7 3 in common time the last chord S hould come upon a strong accent “ The chief exception to th is rule is in the case of the feminine endings O f which we gave an example in 33 and O f which other specimens may be seen in Counterpo int The 48 3 numerous instances to be found in the works O f the great composers o f the final chord o f a cadence occurring in quadruple time o n the third beat o f the bar instead O f the first are in the maj ority o f cases due to th e fact O f the bar-lines being put in the wrong places throughout the whole piece This arises simply

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from i nattention o n the part o f composers who are often indi fferent s o l ong as the cadence comes o n an accent whether that accent i s strong o r weak A n example o f this as striking as ’ it is familiar may be seen in S chubert s popular Impromptu in B flat O p 1 4 2 NO 3 SC H U E R T I mp mp tu O p 4 N 3 ,

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Here the cadences i n each case come on the third beat o f the bar This is most whereas the piece ought to begin with a half bar conclusively proved by the final caden ce in the 1 5 th and 1 6th bars ,

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This cannot possibly be correct as here written for it violates o ne — that when chord o f the strictest rules as to the treatment of a 2 it is followed by another chord o n the same bass note it must not be on a weaker accent than the chord that follows it ( Ha r mony But by changing the position of the bar-lines the 16 passage becomes correct an d intelligible at onc e ,

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S uch instan ces of mispla ced bar-lines are by n o means uncommon i n compound time D r R iemann in his Catechismus der ’ ’ Phrasierung proves that the whole o f C hopin s well known Nocturn e in E flat ( O p 9 No 2 ) is wr ongly barred ‘

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We said j ust now that every bar of quadruple time 6 3 ) consisted o f two bars o f duple time thrown into o ne We know that a bar of quadruple time contains a strong accent o n the first It is therefore composed b eat and a weaker accent o n the third This o f an accented and an ( in comparison ) unaccented bar E very brings us to our next point and o ne o f great importance musica l se nte nce or p a rt of a se nte n ce is made by a n a ltern a tion ’ a cc e nt e d a n a un a c c e nt e d rs In the maj ority O f cases these a b of — follow one another with regularity one accented and o ne unaccented —this being the most natural arrangement as we have already seen wi h accents C ases o f departure from this general r ule will be treated O f in a later chapter of this volume ; fo r the present we are concerned only with sentences in which the alternations O f accent and n o n—accent are quite regular It is the utmost importance in fact indispensable in o f 39 investigating rhythms to be able to determine with certainty which bars o f a phrase o r sentence are accented and which unaccented — this we have a very easy rule to guide us the bar in which a Fo r c adence occurs ending the phrase o r sentence is always ( except sometimes with feminin e endings ) an accented bar and in the large maj ority o f pieces it is only necessary to count back from this point and to reckon every alternate bar as an accented o ne till we reach the beginning of the p h rase We choose a 4 0 A n example will ma k e this quite Clear scherzo by Beethoven because here the time is s o rapid that there can be no question o f any secondary accent in the bar such as is sometimes found in slow movements o f 3 time B EE THOVE N S t O p 8 38

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This passage and indeed the whole sch e rzo 18 very O ften played inco rrectly beginning with an accented bar It is almost imp o s sible to play it without accenting some o f the bars more strongly than others as the student will easily find if he tries to do so To S how which are the correct bars to accent we will put two bars 6 into o ne an d write the passa ge in ,, time which will give us a stronger and a weaker accent in each bar If we accen t the first th i rd fifth and seventh bars we get this result ,

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Here the cadence is evidently wrong ; for the dominant chord is It is quite clear o n the strong an d the tonic on the weak accent that the correct reading is to accent the second fourth sixth and we then have the following e ighth bars .

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The form is n ow perfectly satisfactory If the student will play the whole s cherzo placing the accents as we have indicated he will fin d the same regularity in the position of the cadences throughout The silent bar j ust before the trio is then seen to be a necessity to preserve the rhythm We quote the last six bars o f the scherzo and the beginning o f the trio writing it as before in time 2 .

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will be seen that if we adopt any other accentuation than that here indicated the cadences will come in the wrong places throughout the whole movement L et it be said in passing that the 2time we have here given is not as it is com monly “ described compound common time but compound t rip le time for it is made by putting two bars o f triple time into o ne A tru e compound common time would be or made by putting 2 3 tw o bars of dup le t i me I nto o ne 4 1 Many similar illustrations might be given of the import an ce o f d i st i ng ui sh ing be tween accented and una ccented bars ,

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We refer the student as especially striking examples to the scherzos ’ in Beethoven s sonatas in C O p 2 N o 3 and E flat O p 2 7 N o 1 in both o f which the effect is entirely ruined by accenting ,

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the wrong bars In each case he will be able to find the right accentuation by reckoning backward from the cadences as explained above It should be added that it is not every passage that can be s o simply analyzed we often meet with more complex rhythms as we shall see later ; but in probably the _maj ority o f cases especially with older music the simple rule here given will be found su fficient 4 2 We have now to speak o f sentences which contain more than two phrases o r more than eight simple bars o r four compound bars but in which the subdivision into phrases o f four bars is to be distinctly seen S entences containing three phrases are less common than those which contain four most pro bably because as the third phrase has no following phrase to balance it the natural feeling O f proportion is somewhat disturbed N umerous examples may nevertheless be found a very familiar one “ being the first part of G od save the Queen which consists o f three phrases o f two bars each A very good example o f this construction will be seen in the following commencement of an old G erman melody the composer o f which is unknown .

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Here though there only s ix bar-lines there are in reality twelve ’ b ars as each bar is compound containing two accents We h ave therefore reckoned this as a twelve-bar passage and have numbered the fourth eighth and twelfth bars as being thos e The first phrase o f four bars end s w hich contain the cadences has an w ith an inverted half cadence the second at bar inverted cadence and the third a full cadence i n the tonic key ,

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example is taken from and illustrates some other points 43

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O f Haydn s quartetts

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H AY D N

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Quar te tt

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FOR M

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Here we s ee at bar 4 a full cadence on a tonic pedal O bserve — that the feeling o f finality is avoided here i n two ways fi r st by placing the third o f the tonic at the top o f the chord and secondly by the feminine ending which defers the appear an ce of the tonic chord till the unaccented beat o f the bar A t bar 8 we have an ordinary half cadence with both Chords in their root position ; and the sentence ends wi th a full cadence in the key o f the dominant above a tonic pedal in that key 44 S entences consisting o f four phrases are far more common than those with three I n these we find a more perfect symmetry the first phrase being answered by the second and the third by the fourth o r else ( and perhaps quite as frequently ) the first by the third and the second by the fourth O ur examples will sho w both thes e varieties H A D N Qua t tt O p 5 5 N 3 .

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Here the four-bar phrases are very clearly defined by the rests that follow them The first an d third are in unison In such cases we must always think o f the implied harmony The El; in the fourth bar must be here either the leading note in the key of F o r the third o f the supertonic chromatic chord in B flat Its being followed immediately by El: in bar 5 proves it to be the latter ; and the implied harmony o f bars 3 and 4 is probably something like this .

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Here it is quite evident that the sentence ends with the full cadence at the -s ixteenth bar while it is no less clear that it i s divided into two equal parts by the half cadence ( with a feminine ending ) at bar 8 SO far therefore it is quite regular But if we try further subdivision we see that there is n o cadence at bars 4 and 1 2 for a chord o f the dominant seventh does no t suggest a cadence E vidently the subdivision here comes o n the resoluti o n s o that the two halves o f the discords — that is in bars 5 and 1 3 o f the sentence appear to divide into two unequal portions of five bars and three B ut as we shall learn in the next chapter the first note o f the melody here does not form part of the first phrase which really begins o n the sixth quaver E and extends to the first note o f bar 5 The phrase is ,

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It will be seen that it contains four str o ng accents The second phrase begins at t/ze e nd of til e fi rst o n e and bar 5 i s at the same time the last bar o f the first phrase and the first bar of the second The second phrase is .

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L ike the first it contains four strong accents Here we see fo r the first time an example o f the overlapping o f two phrases — a thing o f very frequent occurrence o f which we shall find numerous exa mples when we come to deal with less regular and more complex rhythms The second half o f this sentence it will be seen is the exact counterpart o f the first half .

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We will now give another variety sentence 46

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W A G N ER

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Tannhéiuser

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SEN TE N CES

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PHR A S ES

21

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( 16)?

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Here the sentence is completed at the sixteenth bar and there is a half cadence with a feminine ending at the eighth bar But if we examine these two halves we find that while the first divides at the fourth bar with an irregular cadence — supertonic preceded by first inve rsion o f tonic— the second half does not divide at all for there is nothing in it which can be considered as a su ffi cient — n a cadence Here we have another very common case eight bar phrase which divides into two fours is answered by another eight bar phrase which is indivisible The balance of the whole sentence is perfectly regular ,

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This point will be treated of in a later chapter o f this volume ; all we are now concerned with is the showing di fferent kinds o f sixteen -bar sentences o f regular construction .

4 7 O ur .

L ohengrin

last example will be a well-known passage in W AG

N ER

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Lo h e n

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If we exam i ne the melody o f the upper part alone we shall see it begins with tw o phr ases o f four bars each like the passage quoted in the last paragraph from the Tannh auser overture these eight bars are answered by another eight bars indivisible into two fours S o far the two passages resemble o ne another ; but there is an important difference in the fact that here the phrases at bars 4 an d 8 are less clearly marked o ff because in the half caden ces the seventh is added to the dominant harmony The construc tion of the melody prevents o ur regarding the tonic chords in bars 5 an d 9 as belonging to the preceding phrases as we did in the extract from Mo zart in 4 5 we must therefore regard this as a S ixteen bar sentence the di fferen t phrases o f which are more closely connected than usual O bserve that here it i s the s econd phrase which answers the first instead o f the t/zir d as in In 44 4 5 spite of there bei ng no full cadence at the eighth bar it is often advisable to consider an eight-bar period as a s ente n ce even though it may en d with a half cadence his i s because the e i ght-bar 2 formation as we have already seen is the n o rma l 5 o n e ; and it would greatly complicate o ur analyses i f we some times counted up to eight bars and at other times to sixteen It will be needful to bear this in mind in the later chapters o f this volume 48 We have no w given enough examples o f various kinds to enable the student to understand the nature o f a musical sentence in which the rhythm is regular We next proceed to show h o w a sentence ca n be further subdivided ,

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I V I SI O N S

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23

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SEN TEN CE

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In the last chapter we explained the nature of a musical senten ce and we showed that it ended with some form o f full cadence and that it was divisible into at least two parts called phrases We have now to show that these phrases are themselves su bdivisi ble and we shall ( to use a mathematical expression ) reduce them to their lowest terms F or this purpose we will take a few of the S imple sentences given in the last chapter and analyze them more minutely 0 L et us first take the two lines o f the choral quoted in 5 24 It will be remembered that the eight-bar sentence is divided by the half cadence into two four-bar phrases which we “ will call to distinguish them the fore-phrase and the after phrase F -p h 49

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Here the after-phrase is the response to the fore-phrase and just as the full cadence at bar 8 has a feeling o f greater completeness than the half cadence at bar 4 the whole second phrase is felt to be more w ezg/uy than the first We saw in the last chapter that a phrase contained accented and unaccented bars 38 By an extension o f the same principle we may now say that a sentence contains accented and unaccented phrases This important relation o f accent and non -accent applies alike to the smaller and larger divisions o f the music 1 N ow let us take these ph rases and try to subdivide them 5 further A s each phrase contains four complete bars the natural division would seem at first sight to be into two halves o f two bars each ,

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These halves o f a phrase we call SECTI O N S B ut if we take these sections separately we find that the first and third have a very .

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MUS ICA L

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I I I.

i ncomplete an d unsat i sfactory e ffect The reason o f this is partly because they end o n an unaccented note We shall see later in this chapter that it is possible unde r ce rta in conditions fo r the smaller s ub—division s o f a sentence to e nd o n an unaccented n ote but we shall also see that those conditions are not present here But the chief reason why the division into sections here given is s o unsatisfactory i s that the notes D and A at the en d o f bars 2 and 6 are s o evidently closely connected with and leading up to the following accented notes C and G It is quite clear that the proper division o f these phrases into sections is the following .

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that although each phrase is now divided unequally— i nto two section s o f o n e-and-a-half an d tw o -and-a-half bars re spectively the balance o f the music is in n o degree disturbed because each section contains as before t wo accents O bserve

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additional proof o f the correctness o f the sectional divisions we have here gi ven is furnished by the fact that we can now put cadences ( o f course only m iddle cadences ) at the end o f each section This wi ll be seen if we harmonize the sentence in the simplest way 2 5

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It is evident that there is n o point o f repose at tbc end o f the second and sixth bars while the inverted cadence in the second bar and the interrupted caden ce in the sixth furnish us with resting places and unmistakably indicate the points at which the phrases S hould be subdivided It i s n every phrase wh i ch will divide into two sections o t 53 In some o f the examples o f sentences given in the last chapter we saw how two phrases o f four bars each were 46 an swered by o ne phr ase o f eight bars thus obtaining variety without destroying the balan ce o f the whole In the same way we very often find that if the fore-phrase is divided into sections the after-phrase is indivisible as in the following example B EE THO V E t Op N S ,

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s S ometimes though not frequently the fter phra e so 54 s i a divi ded into sections while the fore-phrase is undivi ded Th i s i s “ the case in the commencement o f the air I will S i ng of Thy ’ great mercies in S t Paul St P ul ME D E LS S OH -

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The fact that the second phrase ends with a half cadence and therefore does not complete the sentence makes no difi er ence for o ur purpose as we are quoting the passage simply to show the alternation o f phrases which are and are not divisible into sections L ooking at the fore-phras e the student may ask why can there not be the end o f a section after the first note in the second bar ? The answer is that Mendelssohn has harmonized the passage in such a way that there is no possible break in the bar as will be seen by referring to the oratorio ; and in subdividing phrases harmonic considerations are o f much importance as we found in the last chapter in determining the limits o f the phrases them selves We shall deal with this point later in the chapter ,

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— in deed it is often unadvisable— that It is not necessary 55 the cadential feeling S hould be as marked at the end of a section If it were the continuity o f the music as at the end o f a phrase would frequently be destroyed and we sho uld have the e ffect In our example in 5 2 the cadences at the o f continual halting end o f the first and third sections have a much more incomplete character than those at the ends o f the phrases We often find therefore that an eight-bar phrase which cannot be subdivided into two four-bar phrases can yet be divided into four two -bar sections This is the case in the example from the overture to ’ Tannh auser that we gave in the last chapter It wi ll be remembered that it consists o f two four-bar phrases followed by The latter which begins o n the last crotchet o ne of eight bars o f bar 8 divi des into four sections thus W AG N ER T h li u .

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The reasons fo r the points at which we make the divisions wi ll seen when we come presently to speak of motives

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MUSICA L

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sections Fo r the sake well as the melody .

of

FOR M

( Chap

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III

clearness we now gi ve the harmony ,

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Here the subdivisions are much more disti nctly marked by the cadences than in the passages we have been examining The fore phrase as we saw in the last chapter ends with a full cadence the effect o f finality being avoided by the feminine ending— deferring the tonic chord to the unaccented half o f the bar— and by putting the third o f the tonic chord in the upper part This phrase is divided into two sections o f exactly equal length the first o f which ends with a full cadence N otice that a lthough the section extends to the second beat o f the bar there is n o feminine ending here nor at the end o f the sentence because the repetition o f the G is equivalent both melodically an d harmonically to o n e G held as a dotted crotchet The cadence is on the accented beat at the beginning o f the bar The after-phrase is n o less clearly divided into two section s by a half cadence ; and the st udent will s ee how beautifully symmetrical the whole sentence is in spite O f the small var i ety o f cadences used We recommen d the student to examine the other sentences 57 given in the last chapter an d to try to d i vide them into sectio ns H e will be well repai d for his trouble fo r himself There is still m ore subdivision possible E very n e 8 o 5 section contains at least two accents and can be separated into smaller parts containing only one accent each S uch parts are called MOT I V ES an d correspon d exactly to the fee t in poetry w H ere we have what borro a scientific term we may t o ) ( (g call the protoplasm — the germ out o f which all music springs A thorough knowledge o f the n ature o f th e m otive is therefore indispensa ble to anyone who would u nderstand the fundamental p rinciples o f musical form ’ mo tive is the A nglicize d fo r m o f th e G er man Mo tif and mu s t The w o d t e n a t h e h u n b t o n e n a p u c d lik tiv w ic i duc s a cti wit cc h h no t be o no n e e th e mo e Mot eve s p e lt o n th e se c o n d s yll ab l e as if it w e r .

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MUS ICA L

28

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FO R M

[ Chap Iii

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the other hand the unaccented n ote ought to be connected, n o t with the following but with the preceding accen te d note to form a motive an d w e adopt the same p r ocess o f shortening the second note we obtain the followi ng ,

on

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E veryone s musical feeling will tell him at once that this division is incorrect and that the breaks come in the wrong places 6 2 B efore proceeding to lay down any general principles we will analyze another sentence in which the moti ves are much less simple We will take the passage by B eethoven quoted in 5 3 BEE THO V E N S t O p N ,

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We have quoted only th e melody because every student may be ’ reasonably presumed to have a copy o f Beethoven s sonatas and can see the harmony ( to which we shall have to refer ) for himself It will be remembered that the sentence consists of two phrases while the o f which the fore phrase is divided into two sections after-phrase is undivided 6 3 A s the sentence begins o n an unaccented beat the first motive is a c omplete o ne ending with the crotchet A The secon d mot i ve completes the first section an d extends to the first E i n the s econ d bar That the section does not en d o n the crotchet F is clearly proved by the harmony which shows a half cadence 3 3) with a feminine en ding In the case o f a feminine ending ( whether such as we find here o r with a suspension or an appoggiatura ) a motive will always e nd o n an unaccented n ote I n any other case it will end with an accented note unless it can be seen from the comparison with other similar mot i ves that the following motive does not begin immediately after the accented note An example will illustrate this point W E ER Ob ,

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Here the sentence begins with an incomplete motive without the “ fi r st up beat ( the point o f departure That the following ,

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Ch ap

SEC TIO N S

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MO TI V ES

A ND

29

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notes A and F do n ot form part of the second motive is proved by an examination o f the passage which is founded excepting the commencement o f each phrase on a motive o f three n otes seen most clearly in the last three bars of the sentence The modifications both in melody and length o f notes which the motive undergoes will be explained in a later chapter The sentence therefore begins with an incomplete motive with a feminine ending 64 It should be most clearly understood that we are never justified in assuming a feminine ending to a motive unless the harmony ( as in the second bar o f the example in 6 2 ) o r the context ( as in the passage from Weber j ust given ) unmistakably shows that the unaccented note belongs to the preceding accented R eturning now to our example from Beethoven what we o ne have j ust said explains our marking the third motive as ending o n F though the following C belongs to the same harmony It is only by consistently following o ut this system that we are able to explain some o f the progressions to be found in the works of the great masters D r R iemann has admirably shown this in the case of the apparent consecutive fifths in a well-known passage in ’ Bach s O rgan Toccata in D minor BA H T t i D mi ,

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Here it looks at first sight as if the harmonic progression were the following the e ffect of which is horri ble ,

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But when we subdivide it into motives we implied harmony i s quite correct ,

se e

at once that the

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O bserve that the feminin e ending here is proved by the motive

i n which it is needful to include the A as the resolution o f the s eventh B ; this illustrates what has been said as to the importance o f harmonic considerations in deciding the li mits o f a moti ve ,

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0 3

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A s the whole passage is sequential the other moti ves necessar ily have the sam e form 6 5 We now give another example illustrating a somewhat di fferent point but showing no less clearly the necessity o f regarding unaccented notes in their relation to the following accented T i in F O p 8 SC H U MA ,

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Here it looks o n a cursory inspection as if the secon d O f each group of quavers were a passing note wrongly quitted by le ap But as soon as we divide the quaver passage into motives .

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we see that th e secon d quaver belongs to the following harmony ’ an d is in fact an anticipation at an octave s distance o f the immediately succeeding crotchet in the upper part S uch passages as these furnish con clusive proof o f the correctness of the rules here laid down as to the nature o f the motive 6 6 It will n ot be necessary after what has been already said to analyze the remaining motives of the passage in 6 2 o ne by o ne The student will be easily able to understand them for himself B ut there is o n e very important caution to be given H e is n ot to suppose that any break is o f necessity to be made even in thought much less in performance between o ne motive and the next The points o f rest are at the ends o f sentences and phrases and sometimes ( though not invariably and always to a les s extent ) at the ends o f sections S peaking roughly these divisions may be compared to the sto p S in p un cti ation The en d O f a sentence corresponds to a full stop that of a phrase to a semicolon and o f a section to a comma This must n o t be t ak en ,

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S ECTION S

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MO TI V ES

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as more than an attem p t and necessarily a rough one to sh o w the analogy between musical and literary composi tion But th e motives are the equivalents o f musical fee t ; and it would be just as a bsurd to make or to think o f a b re ak after every m otive as i t would b e to pause after every foot in reading poetry We are at present only a n a ly zing musical sentences ; it is when we come later to construct the m for ourselves that we shall feel th e true importance and the real functions o f the motive 6 7 Before proceed ing further we will take o ne more example 6 a n d the sentence by Haydn given in divide it into 5 motives It is only n ecessary to give the melody HAYD N Sy mp h y i G ,

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Instead o f analyzing this for the student it will be better to leave him to exa mine it fo r himself and to s e e why the divi sions O f the motives are where he finds them 68 There is o n e more point still to be noticed S ome o f these motives are capable o f further subdivi sion Fo r example the fourth can be divided thus ,

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S uch subdivisions are not uncommon especially in motives which are in slow te mp o and contain many notes These parts o f a motive we will call S ub-motives ; if we consider the m otives as musical words the sub-motives are the syllables 6 9 We are now in a position to give an intelligible definition o f a motive We give it in the following words A MO TI V E is composed of a strongly acce nted note p rece ded by on e or more un a cce nted o r less acce nted notes and follo w ed by un a cce nted notes on ly III/zen t/ze lza r mony req u ires it or t/ze contex t s /zo w s t/za t t/ze fo llo w in mot i e do e s e i n i mm e d i a t e l y a f t e r n v o t b g g t/ze a ccent 0 In quick music with sometimes only one note in the bar 7 the motive will consist o f two bars Thus the motives in the scherzo o f Beethoven quoted in 40 will be the following : B EE THO VE N S n t O p 8 ,

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It will be seen that the third motive has a feminine ending but that the fourth has not as there is merely a repetition o f the same ,

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MUS ICA L

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FOR M

( Ch ap i n .

notes L et it be noticed that the framework of the third and fourth motives is the same which we have already given 5 9) as the simplest possible form of the motive .

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A striking proof o f the correctness of the rule laid down at the beginning of the last section is fu rnished by the trio in the ’ scherzo of Beethoven s quartett in E flat O p 74 o f which we give the first bars Qu t tt O p 74 71

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is quite evident that the motives in the viola part must be as here marked for the cadence must come o n an accented bar and therefore indicate the en d o f a motive N o single note will form a motive ; we therefore count back taking each accented bar as the end o f a motive till we come to the beginning But with the Violoncello part the limits o f the o f the passage motives are no t at first sight s o clear ; fo r we often have motives We might therefore o f different lengths going o n simultaneously be in doubt whether the motives in the bass should not be marked thus It

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B ut B eethoven has clearly indicated his intentions here -At the ’ “ begi nnin g o f the trio he writes S i ha 5 immaginar la battuta .

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Chap

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S EC TION S

III ,

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MO TI V ES

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“ — in other words to di g that is we have to imagine g time throw two bars into one and think o f the crotchets as if they were “ almost prestiss im o as here quavers N ow in rapid 3 time marked there w ill only be o ne accent in the bar consequently only o ne motive extending over two bars as lze re w ri tte n but which we know from Beethoven himself are here equ ivalent ”

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We give o ne more example of a different kind showing -bar motive with feminine endings two It is the commence h t e ’ ’ ment o f N o 6 of S chubert s Mo men s Musicals The first sentence contains sixteen bars with only o ne beat in each and therefore equivalent to the eight-bar sentence with two beats in a bar o f which we have seen so many examples in the last chapter We number the accented bars throughout A s the piece is universally accessible it will be su ffi cient to give the me l ody 72

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Here we see an ordinary eight-bar sentence each bar being divided into two The figures 2 4 6 8 &c therefore really S how the position o f the strong accent of each bar and the special point to be noticed is that six out o f eight motives have feminine endings To make this clear we write the passage 0 as we did that by Beethoven in in time 4 § ( ) 2 ,

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The construction will now be seen to be quite regular n o w L et us examine the constituents o f a motive These 73 are three in number The notes composing a motive may vary in pitch in duration o f time and in accent O f these constituents the last is by far the mo st imp o rtan t and is indeed indispensable A motive must consist o f at least two notes of which o ne will be accented and the other unaccented E ven if each note fills a whole bar and therefore begins o n an accented beat the larger t ime-measurement comes into operation and we have .

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an accented an d an unaccented bar as in o ur examples in 40 and 7 1 I n the maj ority o f cases variety of p i tch and o f time duration are also to be found as will be seen by examin i ng the various mot i ves in o ur examples But either o r both of these can be dispensed with as will appear from the following extracts from familiar works ,

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S o nata in C, O p

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I n this passage there is plenty o f variety o f pitch but the motive s f composed f notes o exactly the same time value o ar e ,

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Here is the converse case ; the pitch remains the same but the length o f the notes varies B EE THO VE N B g t ll O p 33 N 7 ‘

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the fifth sixth and seventh bars of this passage contain in the upper parts only o ne note each we have here evidently two bar motives If we examine the second motive ( bars 2 to we s e e that neither pitch nor length o f notes varies but the indispensable attribute a cce nt remains There is a weaker accent at the beginning o f the third bar dividing the motive into two sub -motives and a strong accent o n the last note o f the motive 74 B efore proceeding to the next divis i on o f o ur subj ect it will be advisable to summarize as clearly and concisely as we can the important general principles that have been laid down i n this and the preceding Chapter I By R by t/zm i s meant the system o n which the caden ces in a composition ar e placed If these cadences come at equal distances through a piece o r portion o f a piece such piece or “ portion o f a piece is said to be i n regular rhythm ; if the ,

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accented bars examine the cadences and remember that the last note o f a cadence except where there is a feminine ending always comes o n an accented bar In rapid te mpo with only o ne 1 beat in a bar ( see examples a motive will often extend 7 over two bars 75 It must be un derstood that the principles here laid down apply fully only to sentences which are perfectly regular in their construction It is only o f such that we have been speaking in these chapters More complex and irregular rhythms are often to be met with : these will be treated o f in a later chapter o f this volume ,

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Chap

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IV )

REL A TION SHIP

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C H APT E R

MO DU LATI O N

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In th e preceding chapters we have explained the nature o f a musical sentence o r period and have shown h o w it can be divided into phrases sections and motives We have seen that in many sentences even in those that are quite short modulations are employed and are indeed often most useful Before pro cee ding to S how the student h o w to construct musical sentences for himself it will therefore be advisable to deal with the whole question of modulation — a very large su bj ect as will be seen but a thorough knowledge of which is indispensable to anyone who wishes to compose The matter has been partially treated o f in Ha rmony C hapter X and referred to incidentally in later parts It will now be needful to enter upon its o f the same volume discussion more systematically and we shall be obliged to repeat for the sake of clearness some few things with which the student will be already familiar — s i f By odulation is simply meant a change o key that M 77 the temporary disestablishment o f the original tonic and the substitution of a new o ne in its place If the substitution o f the “ new tonic is only momentary the modulation is said to be a “ transient modulation o r more briefly a transition 6 7

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Here we s ee at ( a) a modulation into D minor returning in the next bar to the original key A t ( b) is a modulation to A minor and at ( c) to F maj or ; but in n o case are there more than two chords in the new key A s no single chord can ever define a key a r mony H the modulations here are the briefest possible ( they are therefore tra nsien t modulations or tran sitions 78 Here the student may naturally ask How can we tell that at ( c) there are only two chords in the key o f F P for the B flat is ,

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r e r s u se th e S o me or to s g n a o n to a a mo r e m o te key ; b ut t h e s e ns e in h h w e ar e h e r e s ng ro r a e , is m o r e a and w e sh a h ere o re res r to ase s in h h any ne w key ( he he r re a e o r no t) is o n m o me n ar o he o n

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[ Chap Iv

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not contradicted by a B natural till later Why may not the third and fou rth chords from the end be also considered to belong to the key o f F as they contain no notes foreign to the signature of that key ? r ates the importance o f The answer to this question illust 79 considering the division of a sentence into the motives spoken o f in the last chapter It is quite clear that the third and fourth chords from the en d form part o f the same motive and will therefore be i n the same key It is true that they mtg/2t both be in the key o f F B ut if the 2o n G were in the key o f F it would be the second inversion o f the dominant chord which cannot — n i a l l be used cade t y that is followed by another chord o n the same bass note o r its octave ( Harmony It is evident from what follows that this chord is here in the key o f C couse quently we regard the unaccented chord o f the same motive as being also in that key and there are only two chords in the key .

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The first question wi th which we have to deal is that o f key-relationship O n th i s point we quote the definition given I n “ — Two maj or keys are said to be related to Ha rm o ny 2 2 3) o ne another when their tonics are consonant ; and the more perfect the consonance the nearer the relationship To this we now add that the m ore nearly the keys are related the more chords they will have in common This will be clearly seen later when we come to speak o f the chords common to any two keys ; fo r the present we leave o ut o f consideration all discords and chromatic chords It is evident that the nearest related maj or keys to C are F and G because their tonics form perfect consonances with C ; and as each key has only o ne note o f its diatonic scale different from that o f the s cale of C it is clear that each o f these keys wi ll have four diatonic triads common to itself and the key o f C F or the same reason A minor having six of the seven notes o f its diatonic scale common to itself and C and therefore four diatonic triads in common is a nearly related key to C ; while the relative minors of F and G though l ess closely connected with the key o f C are also included among the nearly related keys by reason o f their close relationship to its dominant and subdominant 8 1 We have j ust seen that though the five keys G F, A m inor E minor and D minor are all nearly related to C maj or they are not all eq ua lly nearly related The exact degree o f relationship depends o n the number of chords which they have in common W e find that o f diatonic triads ( o f which alone we are speaking at present ) G F an d A minor have four each in common wi th C while E minor has only three and D m in or only B y the addition o f discords and chromatic harmonies the o ne number o f chords in common will be considerably i ncreased in each case b ut D minor will still be the least nearly related o f the 80

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IV ]

K E Y REL A TION SHIP -

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“attendant keys

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C as this circle o f related keys is often called and E minor will come next in ascending o rder This is probably the reason why a modulation from any maj or key to its supertonic minor is less O ften met with especially as a first modulation than o ne to any other o f the nearly related keys It must be understood that we are n o t referring to such merely u t b to transient modulations as those shown in our example 77 those more pronounced modulations where a phrase o r sentence ends in the new key 8 2 Let us now examine the nearly related keys to a m i nor key and we shall obtain some different results We make our cir cle o f attendant keys o n the same plan as with the maj or key that is we take the m inor keys a perfect fifth above and b elow o ur tonic and the relative maj ors of these three keys But if in order to determine the respective nearness of relationship o f the di fferent keys we apply the same test as with the maj or keys we shall find some striking differences in the results now obtained L et us take A minor as o ur central tonic because the whole circle o f nearly related keys will be the same s ix as with C maj or But whereas t h e keys a perfect fifth above and below C maj or had four chords each in common with it the keys o f E minor and D minor have but o ne chord each in common with A minor The only key which has four chords in common with A minor is its relative maj or C ; this is therefore its most nearly related key N ext comes its submediant maj or F— the relative maj or o f its subdo m inant— with three chords in common while G maj or ( the relative major o f the dominant E minor ) has like D minor and E minor only o ne chord common to it self and A minor Again our theory as to nearness o f relationship depending upon the number o f chords common to the two keys agrees with the practice o f composers ; fo r we find that the most frequent modulations especially as first modulations from any minor key are to its relative maj or o r to its submediant maj or 8 3 We must now examine those keys which stand in the second degree o f relationship Taking first the maj or keys they will be those in which the tonics are still consonant but in which the consonance is imperfect instead o f perfect Taking as before C as o ur centre the keys will be those at the distance o f a major o r minor third above or below it viz : E E flat A and A flat Here the test of relationship we have hitherto applied fails us altogether for there is not a single common chord which as a dia ton ic c/zor d belo ngs to C and any o ne o f the other keys we have j ust named E vidently we must now look for some other bo n d o f connexion 8 4 F ortunately we have not to go far in order to find what we q uire In maj or keys the tonics o f which are at a distance o f a maj or o r minor third from o n e another we shall always find so me triads which are diatonic in one o f the two keys and ”

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chro matic in th e other F or example the triads o n the tonic subdominant and submediant o f C maj or are all o f them o br o matic triads in E maj or ( Ha rmony C hapter O bviously the relation between the keys o f A flat and C will be the same as between C and E the tonics in both cases being a maj or third apart and the chromatic triads o n the m inor s econd the sub dominant and the minor sixth o f C will all be diatonic in A flat 8 5 If we now take keys whose tonics are a minor third apart — cg C and A maj or o r C and E flat we shall find similar connexions The chords o f the supertonic and subdominant o f C are the chromatic chords on the subdominant and submediant o f A and the diminished triad o n the leading note o f C is the upper part o f the dominant minor ninth o f A O n the other hand the diatonic chord o n the subdominant o f A is the chromatic chord It will be evident that as the relation o n the supertonic o f C be tween C and E flat is the s ame as that between and C we can work o ut a similar connexion o f chords between these two keys also 8 6 The number o f triads common to two keys in the second degree o f relationship can be increased if we include those in which an enharmonic change would be implied Fo r example the dominant chord o f A maj or if we substitute A flat for G sharp becomes the last inversion o f o ne o f the forms o f the dominant thirteenth in C ; and the dominant chord o f E maj or by a similar substitution o f E flat fo r D sharp becomes a super tonic maj or thirteenth in C E xamples o f bo th these chords of the thirteenth in the shape and with the n otation here referred to will be seen in Ha rm o ny B ut this possibility o f bringing 4 2 6 42 7 a chord into a new key by enharmonically changing o ne o r more o f its notes though extremely useful as will be seen later for the purposes o f modulation does not affect the question o f nearness f remoteness key relationship fo r the very S imple reason that r o o it can be applied alike with related and with unrelated keys We have mentioned i t here to show that there are m ore chords common to two keys in the second degree o f relationship than would appear at a first glan ce 8 7 We remember that with nearly related keys the maj or keys o f the tonic and subdominant bring their relative minors along with them i nto the circle o f near relationship B ut this is only partially the case with the relative minors o f keys distan t a third from what we may term the central tonic In the group which we have been discussing in which C is the centre and the related maj or keys o f the second degree are E E flat A and A flat it will be evident at once that the relative minors of these keys will not all stand upon the same footing The key o f C minor has so many chords common with C maj or that it is doubtful whether it ought not to be included among the most nearly related keys ; while the key o f F minor has several o f its .

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IV )

K E Y-R EL A TION S HIP

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41

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most important chords ( tonic chromatic supertonic and domi nant ) appearing either as diatonic or chromatic chords in the key o f C O n the other hand the connexion between the key o f C and those o f F sharp minor and C sharp minor is very remote for the few triads common to the keys are among those which either in the o ne key o r the other are the least frequently used as the student will easily discover o n investigating the chords common to the two keys We arrive therefore at this result that only those relative minors o f keys in the second degree O f relationship are themselves related to the central tonic which contain more flats in the signature than the tonic 88 We have already seen 8 2 ) that among the nearly related keys to a minor key the minors o f its dominant and subdominant were much less nearly related to the tonic than was the case with the dominant and su b dominant o f a maj or key In fact all minor keys are more loosely related to each other than maj or keys and the rule given above that two maj or keys are related to one another when their tonics are consonant does no t apply at all to two minor keys in the second degree of relationship that is when the tonics are at a distance o f a third from o ne another 8 9 L et us test this statem ent w ith the minor keys at a distance of a maj or and minor third above and below A minor These will be C minor and C sharp minor above and F minor and F sharp minor below E xcluding ( as we have done in other cases ) those chords which require an enharmonic change to take them into o ne o f the other keys we find that the only triads in A minor which are common to it and to either o f the four keys we have j ust named are the two diminished triads o n the second and seventh degrees o f the scale O f these the triad on the second degree o f the scale can also belong to the keys o f C minor and F minor as part o f the fundamental harmony o f G while the diminished triad o n G sharp can also belong to the keys o f C sharp and F sharp minor as part of the fundamental harmony o f C sharp Both triads in A minor are part o f the dominant harmony ; in no case have we a co mple te chord ; and this slight point of contact is no t enough to establish a relationship between the keys 0 While however these minor keys are not the mselves 9 related to the minor key whose tonic is at a distance o f a third from them we shall nevertheless find that two o f their relative majors are related A little thought will show the student that the relative maj ors o f the fl a tte r keys than A minor ( E flat and A flat ) will be quite unrelated ; but the relative maj ors of the s/zarp er keys viz A maj or and E maj or will be j ust as closely related as we saw in 8 7 that the keys o f C minor and F minor were related to C maj or The relationship is in fact identical 1 It is an interesting point an d worth noticing as we pas s 9 that in the relations we have j ust noticed the minor key is the ,

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MUS ICA L

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42

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[ Chap Iv .

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exac t converse o f the maj or I n this secon d group o f related keys the minors which are related to any tonic maj or are the tonic minor and the subdominant minor— in other words those minor keys whose signature contain s three and four fl ats more than the original key while in the sam e group the related maj or keys to any tonic minor are the tonic maj or and the dominant maj or — the maj or keys whose signature contains three and four I t will be seen that in all s/za rp s more than the original key cases o f relationship in the second degree between a maj or and a minor key the tonics of the two keys will be consonant n o t include th e It should furt h er be observed that we do 2 9 dominant minor o f a maj or key n or the subdominant maj or o f a minor key among the related keys because the immediate j uxta position o f thes e keys produces a disturbing effect o n the tonality This will be clearly seen if we put the two keys next to o ne another with o n e intermediate chord to make the modulation .

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H ere the modulation is effected at ( a) as we shall explain in the next chapter by tak i ng the chord o f D maj or as the chromatic chord o n the supertonic o f C an d quitting it as the dominant chord o f G minor But the effect i s unsatisfactory ; for it suggests at the second an d third bars either a maj or subdomin an t chord in G minor o r a minor dominant chord in C If we make the convers e modulation from G m inor to C we shall have the fect s ame unpleasant e f 93 A ll other keys whether maj or o r minor except i ng thos e “ already spoken o f are said to be unrelated keys I n the case o f two maj or keys the want o f relationship ar i ses from the fact o f the tonics being dissonant 8 0) while the connexion o f minor keys is as we have already seen s o much looser than that o f m aj or ones that in all other keys than those above considered the points o f contact are too slight to allow u s to regard the keys as related 94 We con clude this chapter wi th a table o f all related maj or and minor keys — not n ow taking any o ne key as a centre but expressing the relationship o f the tonics to o ne another according to their interva l s ,

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44

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C H A P T ER V T HE

MEAN S

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( Chap v

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MO DU L AT I O N

MEAN S

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W e have now to dea l with the very important question 95 I n what way is a m odulation best e ffected between any two keys that may be named ? This is a question which it is impossible to answer in a few words or even in a few pages ; nor indeed can anything more than a very general answer be given at all F or the means o f modulation are in many cases practica l ly almost exhaust l ess especiall y between nearly related keys In endeavouring to exp l ain the methods of procedure we shal l follow o ur usual plan o f taking actual p assages from the works o f the great masters analyzing them to see what course has been pursued and trying to deduce a few genera l principles for the guidance of students f I n a very large maj ority o cases a modulation is e ecte 6 f f d 9 by means o f a chord common to the key quitted and to that entered E ven the simp l est modu l ations to n early re l ated keys are most l y made in this way A s an examp l e we give a short subj ect by Mo zart MO ZA R T P i n T i o in G .

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This theme consists o f two sentences of eight bars each each sentence being subdivided into two four-bar phrases A t occurs a modu l ation into the key o f the dominant This is effected “ 22 a r m o n by introducing a chord containing note H a y 9) ( b elonging to the new key but foreign ( 226 as a diato nic note ) to that which we are leaving and by following that chord by other ,

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chords d efining and fixing the new key Here F ill is foreign to the key-signature o f C but the student will be aware that the chord at ( a) might also be the chromatic supertonic chord in the key o f C That it is not so here is proved by what follows The modulation is therefore e ffected by taking the chord at ( a ) as the chromatic supertonic chord of C and q uitting it as the dominant chord of G A t a return is made to the key of C by restoring the é 97 ( ) Here the chord is taken as the tonic seventh of G and quitted as the dominant seventh of C The chord at ( 6) should be specially noticed Though it regards its notes ) the same inant chord seen at the second quaver seventh of G The student will learn later that it would be very weak after making one modulation to G and then returning to C to go back to G immediately Therefore the chord at ( c) is now treated as a chr omatic chord in C as is seen by what follows The : in the melody two bars later is only 1 1 6277 72072 F l 3 l ( a chromatic passing note between G and Ft] 3 but at ( d ) a “ transition to minor is effected in a transient modu lation ( or di fferent w ay which we must now explain ”

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first sight there seems here to be no connectin g link between the two keys 3 for the preceding bar cannot be in A minor or it would have G il: 3 while that note does not belong t o the key o f C at all The fact is that we have here the ver common ca e o f an implied enharmonic modulation If for G ’ at ( a) we substitute its enharmonic A b it will be seen that the chord is the last inversion of a dominant minor ninth in the key of C It is taken as such 3 then by the enharmonic change to G it the chord becomes the first inversion o f a dominant minor ninth in A minor resolved o n the tonic in the following chord When a modulation is thus made by means o f an implied enharmonic change it is usual ( though not invariable ) to wr ite the chord as here in the notation o f the key which is being approached and not o f that which is being q uitted Lastly the return is made to C maj or by taking the chord at ( e) as the subdominant of A minor and quitting it as supertonic o f C 98

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Though no modulations are here made except to the nearest related keys this simple little theme is very instructive for it furnishes examples o f all the most common methods of modu lating A t ( a) and ( é ) we see chords taken as chromatic in o ne key and quitted as diatonic in another 3 at ( d) the modu l ation is made by m eans o f an implied enharmonic change 3 and at ( e) the chord used for modulation is diatonic in both keys 99

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We next give examples o f simp l e modulations in minor keys ; and for o ur first illustration we choose the well-known ’ Allegretto from Beethoven s seventh symphony 1 00

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B EE H O V E N S ymph n y i T

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Beginning in A minor the first modu l ation i s made at ( a) to the relative maj or by taking the first chord o f the bar as the tonic o f A minor and quitting it as the submediant o f C The treatment f a t o the end the bar proves it to be here part the f o f the Fi o f chromati c supertonic chord o f C and not the leading note o f G At ( a) the music modulates to E minor by a similar process to the last the chord being taken as tonic of C and left as submediant At ( t ) we return to A by contradicting the D i;o f the o f E minor preceding chord which is thus seen to b e taken as the dominant chord o f E and quitted as the chromatic supertonic chord o f ’ Lastly at ( a ) we fin d the chord o f A maj or taken as a tonic chord in that key ( with only a tr ansien t modulation to the tonic maj or ) and left as the chromatic maj or chord o n the tonic o f A minor the treatment o f the chord being according to the rule given in Har mony 289 In the above example the first modulation is as usual 101 to the key o f the relative maj or I n the following arrange ment by Bach o f o n e o f the o ld chorals we s ee a different order o f modulation “ B A CH C ntata A h i h h ,

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It is rare in a minor key to find the first modulation as here to the maj or key o f the minor seventh ( the relative maj or o f the dominant minor ) It is effected at ( a) by means o f the only — iatonic chord common to the two keys the chord o f A minor d being taken as tonic in that key and left as the supertonic o f G major From G maj or the modulation is made at ( a) to its relative minor by taking the chord as a submediant and quitting it as a tonic— the reverse o f the process shown at 1 00 ( a) and ( a) At the cadence in E minor in th e following bar the Tierce de Picardie is employed s o as to lead back more naturally to A minor in which key the next phrase begins The modulations ’ at ( c) and ( a ) to the relative major and back will be readily understood by the student after what has been already said As most o f the modulations we have been examining are 1 02 made by means o f triads common to the two keys we next have to enquire what are the possibilities of modulation by mean s o f t r iads only We first take the maj or triad ,

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E very major triad may be as a diatonic chord the tonic dominant or subdominant o f a major key and the dominant o r submediant of a minor key A little thought will show that by considering the chord merely from these points o f view we can e ffect modulations between five keys thus 1 03

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By taking the chord as a tonic and quitting it as a d ominant we can modulate to the subdominant key maj or o r m inor I

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At the in both these examples the chord is taken as tonic an d qu i tted as a dominant bringing us at ( a) to F maj or and at ( b) to F minor 1 04 I I Conversely by taking any chord as a dominant and quitting it as a tonic we can modulate to the key o f the dominant maj or ,

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Here we begin in F maj or at ( a) and in F mino r at ( a) and in each case modulate through the same chord as before to the key o f C maj or I I I By taking a chord as a tonic an d quitting it as a 1 05 submediant we can modulat e to the key o f the mediant minor ,

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I V Conversel y by taking a chord as the submediant o f a minor key an d quitting it as a tonic we can modulate to the key o f the submediant maj or ,

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V By taking a chord as a subdominant and quitting it as a submediant we can modu l ate from a maj or key to its relative minor 1 06

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V I C onverse l y we can modulate from a minor key to its r e l ative maj or by quitting the submediant o f the minor key as th e s ubdomin ant o f the maj or .

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It is very important to notice that in all cases where a modulation is effected by means o f a triad as the triad is itself ambiguous t/ze modulation n eeds to ac confi r med— that is the triad must be followed by other chords which clearly establish the new key It will be seen that we have done this in all the examples we have given If we now take the minor triads we shal l find that like 1 08 the maj or they can also be diatonic in fi ve keys 3 for a minor chord may be the supertonic mediant or submediant of a maj or key o r the tonic or subdominant of a minor key 3 and we can so “ to Speak ring the changes between these k e ys with minor chords in the same way as with maj or ones After the full examples given o f modulation by mean s o f maj or triads it will be unnecessary to give similar passages with minor chords We shall continue o ur catalogue of modulations by means o f these triads and leave the student to make examples for himself similar to those given above He must begin by defining the key he is leaving by means o f its principal chords 3 he must then introduce his ambiguous chord and conclude by co n fi rmmg his new key We now give some o f the chief modulations to nearly related keys by means o f minor triads 1 09 V II By quitting the supertonic chord o f a maj or key as a tonic we can modulate to the minor key of the supertonic ( the relative minor o f the subdominant ) V I I I By quitting a minor tonic chord as a supertonic as at 101 a we can modulate to the maj or key the minor seventh f o ( ) ( the relative maj or of the dominant minor ) IX By quitting the submediant of a maj or key as a tonic as at 1 0 1 ( o) a modulation can be made to the key of th e relative minor X By the converse process — quitting a minor tonic as a — e 1 0 1 o w e subm diant as at can modulate to the key the o f ) ( relative maj or X I By quitting a minor tonic as a subdominant we can modulate to the key o f the dominant minor X II By quitting a minor subdominant as a tonic we can modulate to the key o f the subdominant minor 1 10 Though we have by no means exhausted the subject ve have here shown twelve different ways of modulating between all the n early related keys by means of those triads only which are diatonic in both keys We have al so made these modulations as concisely as we could— that is in the fewest possible chords But with nearly related keys in which there are three o r four triads in common these ambiguous chords can be used in succession l eaving a momentary uncertainty about the tonality which is often o f excellent e f fect Fo r examp l e if we wi sh to modulate from 1 07

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“ C to A min or in stead o f going by the shor t cut 1 0 6 ( a ) we can proceed more de l iberately thus

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Here the chords marked with a bracket in the third and fourth bars may be equally well regarded as submediant subdominant and supertonic in the key o f C maj or an d as tonic submediant and subdominant in A minor 3 and the use o f three o r four ambiguous chords makes the modulation s ound smoother and l ess sudden Hitherto we have only spoken o f modulations between 111 nearl y re l ated keys 3 but it is possible by diatonic triads alone to modulate to an unre lated key as in the fo l lowing fine examp l e by B eethoven B EE HO V E N S n ta in E fl t O p 7 ,

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Here the passage begins in D minor 3 the chord at the fifth bar is taken as the first inversion of the submediant chord o f D minor and quitted as the first inversion o f the dominant o f E flat to which chord the seventh is added i n the next bar and the modu l ation is confirmed by its resolution o n the tonic chord 1 12 There still remain to notice other important modulations which can be e ffected by means o f triads — especially maj or triads We saw in 1 0 3 that every maj or triad could be a diatonic chord in three maj or and tw o minor keys B ut besides these it can be a chromatic chord in severa l other keys It may be the chromatic maj or tonic chord in a minor key ( Har mony 9 2 8 9) 3 it may be a chromatic chord o n the minor second o f either a maj or o r minor key o r the fundamenta l chromatic chord o n the supertonic also in either a maj or o r minor key 3 o r lastly it may be the chromatic maj or chord o n the flat submediant o f a maj or key ,

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We take first the modulation from a maj or to its k e y 1 med iant maj or There are three triads by which this can be made .

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the tonic chord the first key is quitted as the chord on ( ) the flat submediant o f the second 3 at ( o) the submediant o f the first key is quitted as the minor chord o n the subdominant o f the second 3 and at ( o) the first inversion o f the subdominant is quitted as the N eapolitan sixth o f the new key 1 17 It shou l d be noticed that the chord o f modulation here suggests in each case the key o f E min or rather than o f E maj or 3 a ) we used the same chord as here at 1 05 indeed at to a ( ( ) modulate from C to E mincr 3 and we could modulate to the same key with the chords used at ( o) and W e shall find that in all modulations between maj or keys in the second degree o f relation ship when this is effected by means o f triads that these triads will suggest a minor key which is related to both the maj or keys 1 18 B y a converse process to that j ust exp l ained we can modulate to the key o f the maj or third below— the flat submediant At

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The student should have n o di fficu l ty in analyzing these modula tions for himself O bserve in the chords bracketed an illustration The chords at o f what has been said in the last section s uggest an interrupted cadence in C minor while at ( o) and there are distinct suggesti ons of F minor In a similar way we can modu l ate to the maj or keys o f 1 19 the submediant and the flat mediant by mean s o f triads which are chromatic in the o ne key an d diatonic in the other We g1y e a few simple examples leaving the student to analyze them for h i mself .

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Many more passages might by given but these wil l suffi ce as ,

The llustrations 3 note again the suggestion o f a minor key connexion between maj or and minor keys which are i n the second — 8 7 90) is s o natural and degree o f relationship to o ne another o bvious that no examples are necessary We now give a few quotat i ons from the works o f the 1 20 great masters showing modulation by means o f triads only between keys which are in the second degree o f relat i onsh ip S uch ex amples are not very common ; more frequently the modulat i on l s effected by means of a discord MO Z A R J up it S ymph ny i

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In this well known passage from the finale of the J upiter symphony a modulation is made at at from G maj or to C minor by quitting the chromatic minor chord o n the subdominant o f th e former key as the tonic o f the latter 12 1 O ur next illustration shows the same chord used to e ffe ct a modulation to the maj or key o f the mediant B EET H O VE N Tri in B fl t O p 97 ‘

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x is taken as the submediant o f F and quitted as Here the chord the chromatic min or chord o n the subdominant o f A— the converse process o f o ur l ast example where the chord was taken as chromatic and left as diatonic ,

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[ Cha p v .

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W e next show the same chord used for modu l ating to the — ubmediant here from C to A maj or s S C H U BE R T Sonata in B fiat 1 22

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The fol l owing passage shows a modulation to the flat s ubmedian t — the key o f the maj or third be l ow B RAH M S Ei D ut ch R q ui m 1 23

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Here the mod ul ating chord is taken as a chromatic chord in F maj or forming an interrupted caden ce and quitted as the ton ic chord o f D fi at W e have a lready incidentally referred 111 to the 1 24 ) possibility o f modulating between unrelated keys by means of triads only an d shal l no w conclude this branch o f o ur subj ect by giving some further examples o f modulations o f this kind which are by n o means uncommon O ne o f the chords frequently used for this purpose is the N eapolitan sixth B EE HO V E N Sonat O p 3 N ,

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Here a modulation from F sharp minor to C maj or is e ffected by taking the chord x as the N eapolitan sixth in the former key and quitting it as the dominant o f the latter Compare the example 1 14 a ( ) .

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In the following passage 5 .

SC H U B E RT Symphony in C .

we see the chord taken as the ton i c the Neapolitan s ixth o f A maj or .

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MUS ICAL FOR M

0 5

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1 26

latio n s

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next examp l es show somewhat more unusual mod u

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Here the chord o f E flat in the fourth bar is taken as the sub dominant of B flat and quitted as the dominant o f A flat It wou l d have been more correct from this point o f view that the passing note D should have been D flat ; possibly S chubert thought o f the modulation as being to E flat first in which case “ we have here an examp l e o f compound modu l ation which will be spoken o f later .

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The last i ll ustr ation we shall give is very curious D O RXK St b t M t r .

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Here the chord at is taken as the chromatic fundamenta l triad o n the supertonic o f B flat minor an d quitted as the tonic o f C maj or The ear expects a modulation to F minor at the third bar after the chord o f C and the e ffect o f the sudden entry o f the key o f C maj or here is very striking 1 28 W e have dealt in this chapter excl usivel y wi th modu l ation by means o f triads and we have endeavoured to show how much is possibl e in this way al one B ut modu l ation by mean s o f discords is perhaps even more common especially in modern music 3 and we enter here o n another so wide a branch o f o ur subj ect that we must devote a sep ar ate chapter to it .

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THE MEA N S

Chap vi i .

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CH AP T E R V I T HE

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MO D U LAT I O N

57

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W e have seen in the last chapter in how many di fferent ways modulations can be e ffected by means o f triads alone We found it impossible to deal even with this branch o f o ur subj ect e xhaustively 3 and we shall be stil l less able to do so in treating in the present chapter o f the many other methods o f modulating which have still to be noticed It may be confidently affirmed that the resources at the disposal o f the musician are limitless and that a composer o f genius will be almost sure from time to time to discover some new device which has not previously been hit upon All that can be done here is to indicate some of the chief methods of modulating other th an by triads an d to illustrate such methods from the works o f the great composers 1 0 We purposely in the last chapter excluded the diminished 3 triad because this is really the upper part o f a fundamental discord 3 we now have first to show some o f the modulations which can be effected by means o f such discords 131 Modulation by means of the fundamental chords o f the seventh are not at all uncommon especially between nearly related keys E xamples o f these were seen and explained in the subj ect by Mo zart given in 96 3 they are often used as there in modu lating between the keys o f the tonic maj or and minor the tonic and dominant o r the tonic and subdominant O ccasionally the same chord can be employed to bring together two unrelated keys as in the following stri king passage by Wagner WA G N E R Di M i t r i ng r 1 29

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W e ha ve quoted enough o f the context to show unequivocally that this passage begins in G The chord in the third bar is therefore taken as the tonic seventh of that key 3 but its resolution proves that it is quitted not ( as usua l in such a case ) as the dom inant of C but as the supertonic o f F for the rest o f the extract is unmistakably in that key E very fundam ental seventh evidently be l ongs to s ix possible keys as it may be either dominant super tonic o r tonic o f a maj or o r minor key and for purposes of modulation it may be taken in any o ne o f these keys and quitted in any other 1 32 If the root o f the chord o f a fundamenta l seventh be omitted we have th e diminished triad E vident l y this form o f the chord is a l so available for the modu l ations j ust mentioned But in addition to these there is another modulation possib l e The diminished triad o n the supert onic o f a minor key is the upper part not o f a fundamental seventh but o f a domi nant minor ninth ( Har mo ny 3 6 7) 3 an d by regarding such a triad in its two aspects it is possible to modu l ate from a maj or key to its relative minor o r nice war m A good example o f this is foun d in ’ “ ’ Mendelssohn s Thanks be to Go d in El ijah ME ND E LSS OH N Elij h .

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Here the chord is taken as the first inversion o f the diminished triad o n the leading note o f E flat ( secon d i nversion o f the dominant seventh o f that key ) and quitted as first inversion o f the triad o n the supertonic o f C minor which is really the t h ird inversion o f the dominant minor ninth in that key 1 33 But it is not only the fundamental chords o f the seventh s that can be used fo r modulation 3 we can also employ the o called “di atonic sevenths In order to understand this clearly it is important fo r the student to remember what was explained in Har mo ny 490 — that al l these diatonic discords are in real ity p ar ts o f the fundamental cho d o n the dominant There are only ,

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Here the chord is taken as a seventh o n the subdominant o f E flat an d quitted as a seventh o n the submediant o f C minor In their harmonic origin these chords are respectively the third inversion o f the dominant thirteenth o f E flat and the fourth inversion o f the dominant th i rteenth o f C minor O bserve that though the detai l s are di fferent the prin ciple o f procedure is the same in this and in the preceding example I n b oth cases the degree o f the s cal e in the minor key o n which the chord is seen is a third higher than in the maj or key while the generator is a third l ower .

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1 36

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O ur

next i ll ustrations are more modern ME ND E LSS OH N

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Here a m odulation is made from F sharp minor to D maj or by taking the chord 1: as the seventh o n the subdominant o f the former key ( third inversion o f the domin ant thirteenth ) and quitting it as seventh o n the submediant ( fourth inversion o f dominant thirteenth ) in the l atter >

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W e saw in 1 34 1 3 modu l ations from a maj or key to 5 its relat i ve m in or W e now show the converse m odu l ation — from a minor key to its re l ative maj or ME ND E LSS OH N Athali 137

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Here the modulating chord is taken as a diatonic seventh o n the supe r tonic of G min or ( fourth inversion o f a dominant eleve nth ) ,

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and quitted as a seventh o n the leading note o f B flat ( th ird inversion o f the dominant maj or ninth ) 1 38 In the passage j ust examined the modulation is e ffected by a dominant maj or ninth The supertonic and tonic maj or ninths can also be used for modulation It will be remembered that in the inversions o f chords of the ninth the generator is mostly omitted ar mo ny H In this c se the chord will look like a chord a ( o f the seventh 3 but as the supertonic and tonic discords are always chromatic we shall now have ofi r o matio sevenths and not diatonic as hitherto O ne example of each will su ffice .

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In this pas sage the chord a: is taken as the third inversion of the supertonic maj or ninth in E flat and left as the fourth inversion o f the dominant eleventh in G minor ,

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Here the chord contains the same n otes as the corresponding chord in the preceding examp l e 3 but it is now taken as the third inversion o f a tonic maj or ninth in F an d quitted as before as the fourth inversion o f the dominant eleven th o f G minor ,

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It will be obvious that fundamental chords o f the minor ninth like those o f the s eventh can be used for modulation between six nearly related keys A s a matter o f fact they are not infrequently employed in this manner as in the example But the chief importance of this given in Har mony at 344 chord for the purpose now under consideration arises from the fact that its inversions by means o f on/zar monio modulation can belong to any o n e o f the twenty-four maj or and minor keys — r 0 a m n H o 8 6 This point has been so fully explained in 35 3 y ) that it will be su fficient to refer the student to what was there said and to give a few examples from the works o f the great masters o f enharmonic modulation by means o f this chord 1 39

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fir st ill ustration shows a modu l ation from a minor key to its re lative maj or MO Z A R T Quint tt in G min r 1 40

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The student already knows that this simp l e modu l ation might be e ffected in many other ways Here the chord is taken as the third inversion o f the supertonic minor ninth in G minor ( o f 1 and quitted as the secon d inversion the same c ourse with C 1 f o 9 7) c hord in the key o f B flat the notation as usual being that of the key which is being approached and not o f that which is being left The chord is resolved in the following bar o n the root position o f the dominant eleventh .

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A speciall y fine examp l e o f modu l ation by this means is which was referred to but not s een in the fo ll owing passage uoted in ar mo ny 0 H 6 3 q HAND E L M i h 141

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T he modulation from the third to the fourth bar in which there is a pparently no chord common to the two keys o f F minor and G minor wil l b e referred to l ater i n this chapter 1 45 ) 3 the point for from w hich the passage is quoted is the sudden modulation at G minor to E m inor by taking the chord as the last invers i on o f ,

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a supertonic ninth ( with B il ) in the former key the first inversion o f a supertonic ninth ( with A 1 ?) ,

quitting it as i n the latter .

S pohr was very partial to this kind o f enharmonic mo d ulatio n 3 o ur next i l lustration is from his works SPO H R La t J udgm nt 1 42

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Here at the fourth and fifth chords we see two m inor ninths in succession 3 and the modulation might be considered as taking place o n either o f these If we regard it as taking place o n the first the second chord o f the second bar is taken as the fi r st inversion o f a tonic ninth in G and left as the third inversion o f a dominant ninth ( with C Dand E ” ) in G flat being resolved on the first inversion o f a superton i c ninth We prefer here to consider the modulation as being made at the chord because the preceding chord is not written in the notation of the key which is being approached The chord is therefore taken ( with F t;and A ll) as the third inversion o f the dominant minor ninth in G and quitted as the first inversion of the supertonic minor ninth in G fi at 1 43 O ur last exampl e o f this modulation brings together two very remote keys B EE HO V E N S n ta O p 6 ,

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A modulation is here e ffected from D maj or to flat minor by quitting the third inversion o f th e supertonic minor ninth in D as the first inversion of the same chord in flat minor The student will readily see what enh ar monic changes are required In all the examples we have given the chord o f modulation is written in the notation of the new key ; this is the general though not the invariable practice of composers

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While the chord o f the minor ninth is probably that which is most frequently used in enharmonic modulation it is no t the only o ne available for this purpose The chord of the fundamental seventh by an enharmonic change o f its upper note becomes a chord o f the augmented sixth and vice ver sa It is 1 44

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r enera l ly the dominant o tonic seventh which is thus treated g very seldom the supertonic because this would connect two very remote keys C maj or or minor and F sharp maj or o r minor ) and such a modu l ation can mostly be better managed in another way E vidently the only form o f the chord o f the augmented -part h rmony s ix th which can be used here at least in four i s a ) ( the Ger man sixth 3 fo r the French sixth contains a note ( the fourth ) which is n ot part o f a chord o f the seventh whi l e the Italian sixth is inadmissible because o f its doubled third 14 r f u first examp l e o this modu l ation contains two o r O 5 three matters fo r comment ,

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To show the harmonic progressions more c l earl y we have omitted the arpeggios for the piano and given on l y the stri ng parts o f the passage The music commences in F maj or the key o f th e movement 3 the second bar gives the third inversion o f the tonic seventh o f that key The chord in the third bar is n ot in the key o f F but l ooks like the dominant seventh o f G minor 3 in fact the harmonic progression i s identica l with that by Hande l which we saw in the third and fourth bars of the example to § 1 4 1 ; While however the chord o f the seventh o n D can not belong to the key o f F the preceding chord can be in the key of G minor and is in fact the upper part ( seventh ninth e l eventh and thirteenth ) of the chord o f the tonic thirteenth in that key res olved quite accordin g to rule o n a dominant discord In Har mo ny 434 will be found two other examples o f the same form o f this chord the second o f which is also i n the same position and has the same reso l ution The secon d an d third chords o f the passage we are now 1 46 analyzing therefore prove th e key o f G minor 3 but as we are going to leave that key immediately we have here another example “ compound modu l ation In the chord o f the domi of nant seventh o f G m i nor C is now enharm onical l y changed to B fi and the chord becomes the German sixth on the submediant ,

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of F sharp minor in which key a ful l cadence i s made the last c hord of which it is needless to quote O bserve here that the modulating chord is written in the notation o f the key quitted no doubt because the harmo nic progression would have appeared more obscure had a tonic seventh in the key o f F been resolved o n an augmented sixth in the key o f F sharp minor 1 4 7 O ur next illustration mun d SC H U BE R R ,

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somewhat similar to the last except that there is n o compound modulation here and that at the resolution of the augmented sixth ( really B # ) is delayed by an upward suspension It should be noticed that when a dominant seventh is enharmonically changed to an augmented sixth the tonic o f the new key will be a semitone lower than that of the preceding 3 also that the two chords will be in the same position — that is the root position o f a dominant seventh becomes the root position o f a German sixth and the inversions will also be the same as will be seen in o ur next example 14 8 We now show the converse case in which a chord is taken as a German sixth and quitted as a dominant seventh S H U BE R Symp h ny i C N 7

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This very fine passage will perhaps be found rather troublesome fo r the student to analyze because o f the extreme key ( C flat maj or ) in which it commences The chord o f modu l ation would in C flat be written thu s ,

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and as the notation o f nearl y every note is enharmonical ly changed it becomes perplexing B ut if we remember that the enharmonic key o f C flat is B natural and writ e the passage fro m the third bar in that key it becomes clear at once ,

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W ith this notation , th e chord is at once seen to be

last inversion o f the G erman sixth in B 3 by the enharmonic change it becomes the last invers ion o f the dominan t s e venth of C An enharmonic change from an augmented sixth to a dominant seventh raises the toni c a semitone just as we saw in the last section that the convers e change l owered it to the same extent We are o f course speaking o f the augmented sixth on the minor sixth o f the scale 3 the much rarer chor d o n the minor second o f the scale is seldom if e ver changed in the same way as the modulations thus induced would be very remote I n o ur next examp l e we see the tonic seventh instead o f 1 49 the dominant changed to an augmented sixth B EE H O V E N S ataL OO 5 3 the

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This is a case of by no means infrequent occurrence 3 it obviousl y induces a modulation to the maj or o r minor key o f the mediant The last example to be given o f this method of modula 1 50 tion differs in some r espects from the preceding ones B EE H O VE N S n t O p 3 N 3 .

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chord at ( a) is the tonic min or thirteenth o n C G il being written instead o f A b A t ( O) a modulation is made to the key of D flat by enharmonically changing Eli to F? 3 the chord then becomes the first inversion o f a minor thirteenth o n A D The note is not written in the notation o f the key which is being approached because the min or thirteenth when it resolves by r ising a chromatic semitone is usually written as an augmented fifth ( Har mony The

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A s examples o f modulation by means o f this chord from the works o f the great composers are scarce we give a short passage wr i tten expressly to show al l its possibilities 1 53

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In these eight bars the chord under n otice is introduced six times A t ( a ) an d ( O) are the root position and first inversion o f the ’ chord on B at ( e) and ( a ) the last inversion o f the same chord o n ’ — G the n otation of ( a ) being disguised 3 at ( e) is the root position and lastly at ( f ) is the same chord as at o f the chord o n E flat n o t analyze the modula with the same treatment We will O ( ) tions induced by these enharmonic changes as it will be profitable for the student to do this for himself .

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Hitherto al l the m odulations of which we have spoken have been e ffected by means o f chords common to the two keys 3 but we sometimes also meet with cases in which there appears to be n o s uch connecting link These will almost always be in modulations between nearly related keys the most common being from a maj or key to o ne o f its three nearly related minor keys We saw in th last chapter how to make such modulati o n s by means o f chords common to the two keys 3 but it is o ft en made by following a chord distinctly belongin g to the o ne key by o ne no less dist i nctly belonging to the other as in the following simple passages in all o f which commencing in C we ass um e that that key has been already established 1 54

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At ( a) we fo l low the tonic chord o f C by the dominant chord o f minor and at ( O) by the dominant chord o f D minor ; while at f the dominant chord C is followed by the dominant chord of c o ( ) E minor O bserve that in every case the chromatic note foreign to the key o f C is the leading note o f the new key and that the notes o f the scale o f C which are chromatically altered are the tonic dominant and supertonic We can always make a modula tion by sharpening o ne o f these three notes o f a key to make it into a leading note O bviously it would also be possible ( though less usual ) to modulate into the tonic maj ors o f the three minor keys here shown by the same means

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It must be remarked here that it is oSS iO Z e here to 5 p consider that there is a chord common to the two keys Fo r instance at ( a ) of the last example we might call the chord o f C maj or the upper part o f the supertonic minor thirteenth o f A minor ; while at ( O) we might regard it as the upper part of the tonic eleventh o f D minor ; and at ( e) the chord of G might be the upper p art o f a supertonic thirteenth in E minor O r o n the other hand by assuming an implied enharmonic change in the dominant chords o f the new key we can bring all these chords into the keys we are leaving as various forms o f thirteenths We give these explanations to show the possibility o f establishing a connexion by means o f chords common to the two keys ; but it must be admitted that it is rather far-fetched and that the principle laid down in the last section is much simpler and more natural 1 6 It will be noticed that in all the examples given in 1 54 5 the two chords where the modulation is e ffected have one note in common A t ( a) and ( o) the third of the first chord is the root o f the second and at ( O) it is the fifth o f the second S ometimes a modulation is made by retaining one o f the notes o f a chord alone and then taking it as a di fferent note in the next chord 15

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The scherzo o f B eethoven s seventh symphony a ffords a very fine example o f this B nn n o vn n S ymph ny in A '

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extract is preceded by a fu ll cadence in the key o f F maj or The third of this chord after being sustained by i tself for four bars becomes the fifth o f the chord o f D maj or with which the ass ai meno p r es to begins It wil l be seen that the method o f procedure is exactly the same as at 1 5 4 ( a ) though the modula tion is to the maj or instead o f to the minor key of the submediant I t should also be noticed that after the four bars o f unison a ny chord might have followed o f which the n ote A formed a part .

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But unison passages can also be used for modulation in other ways s cale passage whether diatonic o r chromatic can practica l ly l ead to almost any key 3 for it can stop o n any note an d be followed by any chord to which that note belongs o r by a chord containing the next note of the scale above o r below Tw o passages by S chubert will illustrate this SCHU E S n t in A min r O p 64 1 57

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Here we twice see the ascending diatonic scale o f A minor each time ending on the submediant o f the key The first time there is no modulation 3 but o n the repetition o f the passage the note F taken as the submediant of A minor is retained as the dominant o f B flat major to which unrelated key a modulation is made The modulation might also be considered as taki ng place in the next bar ( the chord being taken as N eapolitan sixth in A minor and quitted as tonic o f B flat ) but the explanation we have j ust given seems here to be the more natural because o f the analogy o f the passage with that which follows the first scale ,

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An even finer example scale passage is the following 1

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Here we commence in F sharp minor but at the piano in th e fifth bar begins a descending scale chromatic after the first two notes and leading down to D tl This n ote is taken as the root o f the dominant seventh in G maj or and followed by the passage quoted in 1 4 7 The last note of that passage is immediately succeeded by a repetition of the present one with the substitution of C for B as the first crotchet A t the fifth bar S chubert now proceeds as follows ,

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Here the chromatic s cale ends a semitone higher than before and D# instead o f D is taken as the root of a dominant seventh bringing us most unexpectedly into the key o f G sharp minor O bse rve that in each case the notes of the chromatic scale are ,

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the key which is be ing

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No t infrequentl y, especially

in modu l ations between unrelated o r refno te keys some other key is incidentally touched upon in passing In such a case the modulation is said to be It is requisite for a compound modulation that there comp ound shou l d be no confirmation o f the intermediate key by means o f a cadence in it— in other words the incidenta l modulation must only be transient W e have a l ready seen o ne good examp l e 1 4 5 3 we n o w give another also by o f compound modulation in S chubert SC H U B E R Son ta in A min r O p 4 1 59

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Here the two very remote keys o f flat minor and E minor are connected in a manner as new and origina l as it is seen o n ana l ysis to be simp l e and natura l A t there is an enharmonic change the chord o f G ill; minor being o f notation ( n o t modulation ) identical with that o f A D minor The chord is taken as a tonic and quitted as the last inversion o f a dominant maj or thirteenth in E maj or resolving o n the second invers ion o f the dominant seventh which in its turn reso l ves o n the tonic o f E minor E asy as such a modu l ation looks it is in such unexpected strokes that the genius o f a composer is revealed .

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We saw in 79 the importance of the motive in deter mining the point o f modu l ation The motive as the smallest subdivision o f a phrase or sentence wil l always be in one key 3 and a modu l ation wi ll always occur not in the middle o f a motive but at the beginning o f o ne W e remember that it requires at l east two chords to make a modulation j ust as at least two n otes are necessary to form a motive ; and exactly as in the latter the second o f the two notes must be the accented o ne s o the chord confirming a modu l ation should be o n a more strongly accented beat n e accent in a bar if there be only than the chord o r bar o ( ) inducing it If the student examines the various examples o f modulation given i n this and the last chapter he will see this principle carried o ut in nearly every case 1 60

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We will now give a few passages illustrating some o f the less frequen t ways o f modulating but which cannot be classified under any o f the heads we have given O ur first example is taken ’ from the Adagio o f Mo zart s great quintett in G minor 1 61

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In order to show the part writing clearly it has been necessary to The score is more than use a compressed score of three staves ordinarily di fficult to read because Mo zart probably to make the s eparate parts easier to each player has written some o f them w i th sharps and some with flats We therefore give the outline o f the harmony with a notation wh ich can be more easily followed -

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quotation is immediately preceded by a full cadence i n E flat minor in which key therefore the passage begins The c hord at the end o f the first bar is taken as the N eapolitan sixth in E flat minor and quitted as the tonic o f F fi at maj or The addition in the bass o f B i] in the next bar gives us the second inversion o f the tonic followed at the half bar by the root position o f th e dominant with a 4 3 suspension The third and fourth bars show us the dominant seventh o f the same key in root position and first inversion with chromatic passing notes in the second vio l in and Violoncello In the fifth bar the dominant seventh of E ( or Fb) i s enharmonically changed to the augmented sixth in E flat minor to which key a return is made It would be possible 1 62

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cons i der that there is a transient modulation to F sharp minor in the t h ird bar and aga in i n the fourth 3 but in such cases the passage must be looked at as a whole 3 and it is simpler and more natural to exp l ain the notes as we have done above as ch romatic passing notes and to regard them as examples o f appar en t and not rea l modulations 1 63 O ur next illustration S C H U B E RT Son t in B fl t

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shows an unusua l and very abrupt modulation from F maj or to C sharp minor In order to s e e the connexion o f the two keys we m ust think o f the l atter as D flat minor — the tonic minor o f the flat submediant in F The modulation is e ffected by taking the chord in the third bar as the first inversion o f a dominant minor thirteenth in F its notation in that key being .

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B y an enharmonic modulation ( changing E tl to F9 ) the interval o f the diminished fourth from E to A 7 becomes a maj or third and the chord becomes the toni c chord o f the new key ,

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— A somewhat similar modu l ation now from D minor to 1 64 C sharp minor— i s seen in the following passage Scn us nrzr La arus .

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Here again we have an enharm onic modulation by means o f a chord of the thirteenth The first chord of th e second bar cannot possibly belong to the key o f D minor because the E flat which it w o uld then contain could only be derived from the tonic .

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thirteenth in A flat resolving in the next bar o n the third inversion o f the supertonic eleventh Har mo ny the eleventh falling ( to the third at the end o f the bar In the fifth bar we have the second inversion o f the tonic ninth in D flat the ninth falling to the root in the next bar The chord o f the seventh which remain s resolves o n the supertonic ninth ( over a dominant pedal ) in th e seventh bar an d this in its turn o n a dominant seventh ( with an appoggiatura ) in th e ninth bar I n bar 1 0 the dominant seventh o f D flat is quitted as tonic seventh o f flat resolvin g on the dominant ninth o f the same key The who l e passage is a striking examp le o f that free use o f chromatic harmony which is o n e o f the most ’ characteristic features o f Tristan und Iso l de ,

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1 66

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O ur

last i ll ustration is taken from the same work W G NI R Tri t n u d I l d .

A

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s a

n

e

so

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Here w e see a ve ry i nterest i ng example o f a compoun d modula t i o n — from G to B minor passing through the key o f F sharp maj or F irst let the student notice that in the first six bars in spite o f the numerous accidentals the music never leaves the key of G A ll the chromatic notes are either auxiliary notes o r parts o f chromatic chords I n the seventh bar there is an enharmonic modulation 3 the first chord would be in the key o f G ,

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that is the third inver s ion o f the dominant minor thirteenth the notes present being the third seventh minor ninth and minor thirteenth By the enharmonic change o f three o ut o f the four notes of the chord it becomes the first inversion o f the supertonic maj or ninth in F iji resolved i n the n ext bar o n the dominant seventh o f the sam e key ( the at the en d o f the bar is a — — chromatic passing note and the more correctly C X is an ,

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p VI .

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MEA N S O F MOD UL A TI O N

THE

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77

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auxiliary note o f The chord o f the dominant seventh of F ifi in the eighth bar is quitted as a supertonic seventh o f B minor resolving o n the dominant seventh o f that key 1 6 7 We have given the above passage as o n e of o ur illustra tions not only because o f its musical beauty but because o n a casual glance it looks a particularly hard nut to crack ; and we wished to show that there are few if any passages in the works o f the great masters which a little thought and patience will not enable us to analyze satisfactorily The student who wishes to go more deeply into the subj ect o f chromatic modulation will find in ’ the score o f ristan und Isolde an almost inexhaustible field for research 1 68 In this and the preceding chapter an endeavour has been made to explain as cl early and concisely as possible the chief means o f modulation The a p plication o f these means cannot be taught It is impossible to lay down any rule as to when o ne method of modulating is preferable to another In this j ust as in the invention o f melody the student must exercise his own j udgment and skill The only advice we can give is to use as much variety as possible E nharmonic modulation in particular should be sparingly employed as it soon gives monotony to the music and mannerism to the style E xtreme chromatic harmony sho uld with very rare exceptions be regarded as the flavo ur ing not as the principal ingredient of the musical repast 1 69 The student should now write modulations between all ossible maj or and minor keys making each modulation in at p least two o r three different ways He should begin with modula tions between nearly related keys first by means of triads only then with discords and lastly by means o f enharmonic modula tion He should then take the keys in the second degree of relationship and lastly the unrelated keys and deal with them in the same way He will also find it extremely useful to practise modulatin g at the piano In order to do this with ease it is essential tha t he should be perfectly familiar with the chords common to the tw o keys always remembering that there are n o two keys however remote which have no t some chords and even some triads in common It may be well to give him a caution against too frequent modulation by means o f the chord of the minor ninth ( the diminished seventh ) a very easy and therefore seductive way for an indolent pupil but one which soon becomes wearisome and as we have said above o f enharmonic m o du lation in general gives monotony to the music .

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MUS ICA L FORM

78

p

( Cha

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C H AP TER VI I

I

T HE C O N TR U CT O N O F

S

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v 11

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S I MP LE S EN TEN CES W I T H

REGU LA R R HYTHM

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The student who has thoroughly mastered the contents o f the preceding chapters o f this volume wi ll n ow be in a position to begin to compose short musica l phrases and sentences o f regular rhythmical construction F or this purpose be will not at present have to apply the whole o f his acquired kn ow l edge o f modulation because in such short and s i mple exercises as he is a b out to write it wil l hard ly ever be advisab l e to m odulate beyond the most n ear l y related keys and we might add it will never be expedient to mo dulate to an unrelated key S uch modulations are chie fly found in the larger forms o f which nothing has as yet been said I n C hapters I I an d I I I we anal yzed musica l sentences 1 71 an d showed that they could be subdivided into phrases sections an d m otives We shal l no w pursue the opposite method — the synthetical and proceed to build up sentences from their com ponent parts Fo r this purpose we begin with the smallest part and o ur first question will be What can be done with the motive ? — The simplest possible form o f the m otive what we may 1 72 term the typical motive — was seen in 5 9 to be found in the last two chords of a full cadence Fo r t he present we are on l y going to concer n ourselves with the melodic form o f the motive 3 we therefore start with the simple progression from leading note to tonic as the germ which we are about to develop The tonic will o f course be o n the accented be at 1 70

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It is n o t necessary that the two notes he l eading-note and ton i c ; any two notes at the dis tance o f a second from o ne another and bearing the same relation as regards accent wil l answer our purpose equal ly wel l There is a great deal more to be done w i th this little 1 73 mot ive of two notes than the student might imagine at first sight 3 w e shal l show presently that it is possible to construct complete musical sentences from it In the first place it can be repe ated either at the sam e o r at a d ifferent p i tch ,

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REG UL A R

V IL ]

SEN TE N CES

79

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Here are a few o f the very simplest e ffects to be obtained fro m this motive A t ( a ) is the repetition at the same pitch 3 at ( O) it is repeated each time a second higher 3 at ( c) a third higher 3 at ’ a ( ) a third higher and a second lower alternately an d s o o n The student can easily find many other variations .

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But we can make fu r ther changes by varying the l engths Fo r ins tance in ( O) we may substitute o f the notes o f the motive two quavers for the unaccented crotchets when the motive w ill appear in the following shape 1 74

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,

&c

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we may make the unaccented notes into quavers and accented into dotted crotchets

th e

Or

&c

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O r,

again we may put the passage into triple time ,

&c

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If between the repeated notes we i nsert an auxiliary note we o btain a new variation ,

&c

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N ote in this l ast example where the division of the motives is marked and remember the reason ,

of But we have not yet nearly exhausted the possibilities 5 — t this s imple motive It may also be inver ed a descendin g 17

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MUS ICA L FO RM

80

hap V I I

(C

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second being substituted fo r an ascending one — and an almost infinite variety o f combination is poss ible o f the inverted with the direct form o f the motive We give a few examples first o f the i nverted form alone and then o f the inverted and direct form s combined .

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( 5)

C ompare ( a ) an d ( O) with ( e) and ( f ) o f 1 73 The passages at ’ a f and show combinations the two forms the motive It o f c o ( ) ) ( will be seen that we could easily make countless other varieties L et the student experiment for himself an d s ee !what new forms " he can obtain 1 76 Besides such alterations o f the time as were seen in 1 74 use can also be made o f augmentation and diminution o f the whole m otive ; an d these wil l O pen up an in finity o f new com : h i mations into which we cannot go here Though we have s o to speak touched little more than the edge o f our subj ect we have said enough to give an idea o f what can be made even from s o apparently unpromi sing a motive as this 1 77 We sometimes meet with an entire musical sentence construct ed from so s i mp l e a m ot i ve a l one The choral o f which we hav e analyzed the commencement in § 6 1 is made entirely from the typical motive which we have been treating S o also is the melody o f the following chant by D r C rotch D R CR O T C H .

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It will be seen that the first half of this chant is made from th e inverted an d the second half from the direct form o f the m otive The apparent irregularity o f the rhythm with alternate phrases of three and four bars will be expla ined in the next chapter o f t h is volume .

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R EG UL A R

V ll ] .

SEN TEN CE S

81

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A very beautiful example of a sentence Co nstructed from this same motive is the following by Beethoven B EE H O V E N S nata O p 3 1 78

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This eight-bar ser tence modulating to the dominant consists o f each motive being separated from the follow two four-bar p hr as ing by rests O n th e repetition o f the passage these rests are filled up by the same moti ve ,

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the four th and eight bars will be seen a fresh modification o f the motive This is really an augmentati on o f an irregular kind 3 instead o f the notes being o f double the length they are o f only the same length but are divided by rests 1 79 W i th motives consisting o f more than two notes a kind o f variation often to be met with consists in the alteration o f intervals between some o f the notes good exampl e o f this method will be seen in the following passage B EE H O V E N T i in C min r O p N 3 .

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OI HS ICA L

82

FOR M

[ Chap V II

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This examp l e is instructive in more than motives here have mostly a feminine ending

respect The This is proved by

o ne

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the third , lutio n

n

which the

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BL , T

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being the reso

the preceding C must belong to the same motive and we therefore 6 3 ) are ab l e to determine the lim its o f the other motives by ana l ogy C o mp are the feminine ending the i n ( example from Bach In the first two bars o f the present passage we s e e the repetition o f the motive at the same pitch 3 at the third is another repetition but with the last note varied The next motive is inverted and w ithout the feminine ending 1 8 0 The two following motives need n o explanation 3 at the sevent h we s ee an entire change in the intervals the quavers being taken by leap instead o f by step and only the rhythmica l figure ' ' — — f very often spoken as the rhythm being pre o ( LL lj fi) * served The last m otive requires a little analysis as at first sight it does not s eem to be the same as the others The harmony o f the bar again proves a feminine ending 181 to the motive To make the passage cl ear we write o ut the turn at fu ll l ength of

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ornamentation

of

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If

of

we think

and

the F we

shal l

E

as an

once

at

s ee

the D

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that we have stil l the

same motive though its form is somewhat disguised The motive now corresponds exactly to that which ends the first phrase 3 to bor row an analogy from poetry we may say that we have here a musica l r Oy me 182 S ometimes e ven greater mod i fication s ar e found in the form o f a motive 3 i t is indeed not uncommon to find only the 1 80 rhythmic figure retained If thi figure be strongly s ) marked as in the passage l ast quote d it wil l be su fficient to establish the identity o f the motive S n ta in C ,

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wo r d rhythm is ofte n us e d in this s e nse as w ell as in th at in w h i ch we T o avoid confusion w e sh all use the t e rm have e mploye d i t in this v o lu me “rhythmical fi ure or sim ly “figur e to indi cate th e tim e -subdi visions o f the g p not s of a mot i ve ”

The

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MUS ICA L FORM

84

[ Chap

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V II

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W e n ow proceed to show how to construct the simplest musical sentences beginning with those o f on l y e ight bars in length These are the shortest s entences which are generally to be met with in actual composition s 3 fo r although we very fre quent l y find sentences containing only four bars these wil l almost always be foun d o n examination to be bars o f compound tim e The first thing to ea ch o f which contains two accents remember is that every sentence in order to produce an e ffect must be divisible into at least two phrases o f completeness 2 4— 2 6 3 otherwise the feeling of response and balan ce which ) is indispensable to the satisfaction o f the mind wi ll be wanting F rom what has been said in the preceding chapters the student wil l kn ow that these two phrases should be o f equa l l ength — that is o f four bars each It is hardly needfu l to add that the end o f the first phrase will be shown by s ome kin d o f caden ce ’ 185 m oment s considerat i on will show us something m ore con cerning the senten ce w e are going to construct We know that the cadence should al ways come in an accented bar 3 therefore the fourth an d eighth bars o f o ur sentence wil l be accented F urther as the alternation o f accent an d n o n-accent shou l d be regular we s e e that the second and sixth wil l also be accented bars though less strongly accented than the fourth an d eighth which respond to them 3 for we have al ready l earned that 5 9) response imp l ies accent In every regularly constructed sentence therefore, the uneven bars will be unaccented and the evenly n umbered bars accen ted If a sentence begin with an in complet e bar then we begin to reckon from the following strong accent 3 an d the first comp l ete bar wi ll be an unaccented bar ( S ee the examp l es in 53 The particular cadence to be chosen for the end o f th e 1 86 fore-phrase is entirely optiona l If the sentence cont ain no modu l ation the fore-phrase will most probably end with either a h alf cadence or a full cadence with the third o r fifth o f the tonic ch ord at the top It may also en d with an inverted o r interrupted cadence o r ( more rarely ) with a p l aga l cadence o r a plagal half 0 cadence as in the e xample If the sentence end with a 3 modulation the fo re p h r ase n ot infrequently contains a full cadence in the tonic key with the root o f the tonic chord in the upper If o n the other part as in the example by Haydn in 3 5 hand the sentence closes in the tonic key, but the fore phrase modulates such m odulation wil l generally be to a nearl y related key— most usually the dominant fo r a sentence in a maj or and to the relative maj or for a s entence in a minor key 1 8 7 W hile we often find that each phrase o f a senten ce will 2 5 6 and 7 2 it divide into two sections as in the exam p les in 5 is al so frequently desirable that o ne of t h e two phrases should s o divid e, whil e the oth er shou l d be indivisibl e I n such a case it is 1 84

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R EG ULA R

V II ] .

SEN TEN CES

85

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very common to make the second section a repetition o f the first HA YDN Q ua t tt

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imitation

Op

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No 5 .

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( 6)

Here the fore-phrase divides into two sections the second being a modified imitation o f the first The after-phrase begins with the same motive ( with elided up -beat and feminine ending ) as f the two sections o the fore phrase but the rest o f the phrase is formed from an entirely new motive an d cannot be subdivided in to sections The construction o f the sentence is ,

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N otice that here the fore-phrase ends with an inverted cadence It will be seen that this sentence naturally divides itse lf 188 into three parts by means o f the middle cadences It will be ’ convenient to adopt D r Riemann s plan o f indicating these sub divisions by means of letters The first theme o f the sentence tw o bars in length we call A ; the second which is a variation o f the first will be shown to be such by the addition o f an asterisk 3 the second theme o f the sentence ( bars 5 to 8 ) we call B O n this method the form o f the sentence appears as .

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The bracket indicates that the two short themes together form o ne p hr ase 189 O ur next i ll ustration shows a very common form of sentence HA Y D N Q ua t tt O p 64 N .

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MUS ICA L FOR M

86

[ Chap V II

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The student will now be su fficient l y accustomed to the analysis o f sentences to render it unnecessary to do more than mark the bars in which the cadences and therefore the subdivisions fall Here each phrase divides into two sections 3 the fore—phrase ends with a h half cadence The first section o f t e after phrase is identical with the corresponding section o f the fore p hrase 3 but the secon d section is varied s o as to l ead to a full cadenc e Calling the two sections as before A an d B the formu l a fo r a sente nce of th is kin d will be ,

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Examp l es

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of

this form o f senten ce are almost continually to be ’ met with The opening o f the theme o f B eethoven s variations i n G is a very good specimen 1 90 An other form hardly l ess common and bear i ng much resemblance to that j ust shown is seen in the fol l owing passage P ri .

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REG UL A R

SEN TEN CE S

87

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Here again eac h phrase divides into two sections ; but whereas the third section is as in our last example a rep etition of the first the fourth instead o f being a variation o f the second brings entirely new material This fourth section we call C and th e formula for the sentence is ,

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A+B +A+Q 1 91

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In

o ur

next example

MO Z A R T

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S n ta in E flat f P iano and V i lin o

o

or

a

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&c

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T

( 8)

each phrase contains two sect i ons 3 the fir st three sections are sequential in construction while the fourth contains new material Here we see the form ,

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It is somewhat less common to find the second section f f the fore phrase repeated as the first section o the after phras e o r without transposition as in the following either with o ( ) MO Z A R T S n t f P i no d V i lin in E min r 1 92

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o

a a

or

a

an

o

6

( SN

Here the student will readily

s ee

tha t the formu l a

A+ B +B

+ C

is

o

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MUS ICA L

88

FOR M

[ Ch ap vn .

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S pace forbids us to discuss all the possible variation s o f this simp l e form B efore proceeding to speak o f senten ces that modu l ate we give o n e example again by Mo zart i n which each o f the four sections contain s di fferent material the formula being o f course 1 93

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MO Z A R T

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Sn t o

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in B fl at fo r

a a

Pi n a

o and

V i lin o

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We have already given in C hapter I I s o many specimen s — s ee 2 3 o f eight bar sentences containing modulations that 3 ( we need only supplement them here by a few examples o f the l ess frequent varieties O ur first s hows the no t very common case o f a sentence which modu l ates to the key o f the relative minor B EE H O VE N V ri ti n O p 76 1 94

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Here we have another examp l e

of

the form

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a

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Chap

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VI I ]

REGULA R

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S EN TE N CES

89

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The modulation from a maj or key to the maj or key of the 5 i submediant ( a key in the second degree o f relationsh p ) is also somewhat rare B EE HO V E N B g t ll O p 33 N 3 19

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The formula o f this sentence is evidently the same as the last Another good example o f this modulation ( but in a sentence sixteen bars in length and differently co nstructed) wil l be seen at ’ the beginning of the scherzo o f Beethoven s P astoral S ymphony .

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nother

a

O ur

next two

illustrations

are counterp arts of

o ne

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HA YDN

Q u rt tt a

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e

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Op 7 .

Here the fore-phras e ends in the tonic key with an inverted cadence 3 the sentence modulates from D minor to the maj or key o f its dominant It will be seen that it is now the second section an d not the third which corresponds to the first and that the form o f this sentence is ,

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A+A+B+B

I n the following passage we s ee the converse case 3 the fore-phrase now ends in the dominant maj or and the after-phrase 1 97

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MUS ICA L FORM

0 9

iChap V i i .

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returns to the tonic key O bserve that th e four bars o f compound ti me are equivalent to the eight bars o f the preceding e xamples t Op 6 .

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1 98

key

to

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We next give an e xample

Its

maJ o r

to n l c

°

of

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a modulation from a minor SC H U B E R Al f n o u d E tr ll T

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o

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n

s

e

a.

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In spite o f the c l ose connection o f these two keys in their harmonic derivation this modulation is much less frequent than that between relative maj or and minor keys O f the great com posers S chubert has probably been the o n e who has employed it most frequently 1 99 We said in § 1 70 that in short sentences it was never The fol l owing pas e xpedient to modulate to an unrelated key sage may be regarded as the exception that proves the ru l e S C H U B E R Eco i O p 8 N 7 ,

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T.

ss a se , A

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FOR M

IV US ICA L

2 9

( Ch ap V i i .

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In o ur next sentence we divide sections instead o f the fore-phrase 2 03

th e

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after—p hr ase into

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Here we have begun with a comp l ete bar to show the stu dent that sentences can be s o commenced The first motive is there fore incomplete its unaccented notes being elided We have already mentioned that the first bar will be an unaccented 18 l o ne a w a this s the case in a regularly formed sentence i s 3 5) y beginning with a complete bar The fore-phrase h as a femin in e ending ( compare and the similarity o f the two sections o f the after-phrase is obvious 2 04 The fol l owing senten ce has each porti on formed from different motives ,

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A s o ur last examples were in four part harmony, we have wr itten this sentence for the piano for which much greater freedom o f part writing is allowed We have also for the sake o f variety concluded the fore-phrase with an interrupted cadence 2 05 In our examp l e o f the last form mentioned in 2 0 1 -

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REGULA R SEN TEN CES

vi i ) .

93

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we have indicated th e time as p r es to to prevent any feeling of a second accent in the bar In a slow tempo this passage would be equivalent to a sixteen -bar sentence 2 06 Although in the different sentences given here as ex amples we have marked the subdivision into motives as well as into phrases and sections it will be well to say that it is neither necessary nor expedient for the student in writing similar se n tence s to build them up laboriously a motive at a time S uch a ’ method would be like an author s constructing his sentences painfully word by word We wrote the sentence in 2 02 in this way because that was designed to illustrate the formation o f a sentence from only one motive 3 for it will be seen that the quaver figure at B is the diminution o f the motive at A But in actual composition it is far more likely that a whole phrase o r at leas t a section ( sometimes even a whole sentence ) will he invente d at once This was the case in the rest of o ur examples 3 and the subdivision into motives was made afterwards The motive will be taken as the basis when it is intended to develop a whole phrase from o ne germ Having written sentences in which only one o f the 20 7 phrases is divided into sections the student should write others in which each phrase is s o divided He can n ow also b egi n to introduce modulations either at the end o f the fore-phrase or at the end o f the sentence The sentences can take any o f the following forms — others are also possible .

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A+A+A+B

A+A+B+B A+ B +A+B A+ B +A+ C A+B +B +C

Where the same section is repeated the repetit ion will frequently be varied either in melodic outline in harmony in key o r in any combination of these After the numerous examples o f these forms that have already been given it is needless to write further — 2 0 2 2 0 5 will illustrative sentences Those that we wrote in su fficiently show the student how to set to work 13 2 08 In the first chapter o f this volume we referred ) to the close connection between melody and harmony This must never be lost sight of in constructing such s entences as those o f which we are now speaking In this matter there is a most impo rtant rule to be gi v en to the student W ith few exceptions ,

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M US ICA L FOR M

94

such as a passage founded upon following

Me Oar mo ny Oar mo ny

p

V ii

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chord as for instance the ,

B EE

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T H O N Son t V E

a a,

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Op

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2 2.

Oe c/zanged o n a n accen ted Oca t ; a nd tire tne mor e ado isaOle it Oeco mes to cOa nge tile

s/zo uld alw ay s

tOe accent,

s tr o nger

o ne

[ Cha

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W e know that in the eight-bar sentences which we have been constructing the m ost strongly accented bars are the fourth and eighth and next to them the second and sixth O n t hese bars we nearly always find a change o f harmony 3 but it is not at all uncommon to fin d the harmony o f an accented bar continued through the following unaccented bar very good e xample o f this wi l l be seen in the passage from Bennett given in 1 3 90 Here the cadence in F maj or at the fifth bar clearly shows t h e end o f a phra s e — in other words an accented bar ; and the harmony o f this bar is repeated in the following ( unaccented ) bar The same principle applies if there is more than o ne chord in a bar to the smal l er subdivisions In the simplest form o f motive c ontaining only o ne unaccented and o ne accented note s ee our ( n 2 02 we most l y find a new harmony o the accented e xample ) n ote o f the motive as in the first four bars o f this example 3 though the same harmony o r at least the sam e bass note is often c ontinued to the unaccented part o f the following motive This is seen in bars 6 and 7 o f the same example The student must n o t infer from what has been said that 2 09 it is always wrong to anticipate the harmony o f an accented bar but it must be pointed o ut o r beat o n the preceding unaccented that when this is done — and it is by no means infrequent in modern music— the effect wil l be produced either o f an anticipa This will be t ion o r o f a syncopation which is nearly the same seen from the fol l owing passages B EE HO V E N P i an Tri O p N .

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M US ICA L FORM

96

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21 1

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p

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V ii

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More common l y however when a sentence is omposed ,

of

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three four bar phrases it will be found that either the first and second o r the second an d third phrases are n early if no t quite the same few examp l es wil l make this cl ear HA Y DN Sym ph n y i C -

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The first an d second phrases here have feminine endings and are virtual ly identical the cadence alone being slightly varied The third phrase ends with a modu l ation to the dominant The formula o f this sentence wil l be A A B ,

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2 12

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O ur

next il l ustration is somewhat di fferent B EE T HO VE N S nata .

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2,

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Here the second phrase is a transposition o f the first into the key o f the relative maj or 3 each o f these phrases divides into two sections The third phrase also conta ins two sections the first o f which is the same as the second section of the second phr ase with inversion o f the two upper part s O ur formula for this sentence will therefore be rather more comp l ex as we must take note of the sections as well as o f the phrases It will be ,

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R EG ULA R SEN TEN CES

V ii ) .

97

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By comparing our last example with the original text it will be seen that we have omitted the last two bars in which the final cadence is repeated We shall see in the next chapter that such repetitions of cadences do not affect the real rhythmic construction o f the sentences 2 14 It is probably quite as common to find the second phrase repeated as the first In this case the second phrase will mostly end with either an inverted o r an interrupted cadence which in the third is changed to a full cadence The fo l lowing passage is a very good illustration o f this MO Z A R Cl rin t Q uint t 2 13

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Here the second phrase ends with what would be the usual form o f interrupted cadence were not the bass note at the end o f the seventh bar B il: instead o f B This change induces a transient modul ation to the key of the relative minor The formula for the sentence is evi dently B B 215 O ur last three illustrations have all been taken from minuets It will perhaps be hardly too much to say that twelve bar sentences are more frequently met with in minuets than in other forms especially when these sentences are constructed o n either o f the models A + A + B o r A + B + B It is indeed a question whether such passages as the s e should be regarded as genuine twelve-bar sentences o r as extensions of an eight-bar s entence ( as we shall show in the next chapter ) by the repetition o r o n e o f its phrases In the case o f sentences such as those

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MUS ICA L FORM

8 9

ich ap V i i .

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t in 2 1 h ere 0 n o such quest i on can course arise Here o f 43 a l can be no doubt — 216 S entences o f sixteen bars 44 4 7) so closely resemble those of eight bars in their general form an d construction that after the full directions given concerning the latter no t much need now be added ~Any o f the formul ae given in 2 0 7 can be used in making these sentences but the student must remember that e ach o f the subdivisions will now be a phrase o f four bars instead H e must endeavour to combine symmetry o f a section o f two and variety and must be e speciall y car eful to avoid monotony in his cadences B eyon d these general directions no new instruc tions need be given 217 We now give two examples o f sixteen -bar sentences both o f which show points not illustrated in the sentences o f the same length given in C hapter I I MOZ ART C i f tutt ,

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( 12)

Here we have a sentence symmetrically divided into four four-bar phrases O f these the first an d third are identical but while the s econd ends with a half cadence the fourth ends with a full cadence The form is therefore exactly the same as that o f the 1 89 e ight -bar senten ce given in ,

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th es e cas es i t is ofte n pre ferabl e to r egard a t w elve -bar se ntence as an e xt e nsion of o ne of eight b ars as w ill b e s ee n by th e e x ampl e s in th e ne xt chapte r in

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from L ohengrin in A fter the inverted cadence in D flat at th e second bar there is no point o f repose till the twelfth bar where we find another inverted cadence The first eight bars can hardly be said to form two phrases ; for the seventh and eighth bars are a repetition of the fifth and sixth which are themselves a variation o f the third and fourth We have here in fact o n a l arger s cale a similar form to that seen in the eight-bar sentences -phrase was undivided in 2 0 3 and 2 0 in which the fore and 5 th e after-phrase was divided into two sections The formula for this passage wil l therefore also be ,

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A+ B +B with the d ifference that A now contai ns eight bars and B four

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This passage furnishes a very excellent example o f the way in which in the larger musica l forms a sentence may be extended and prolonged If by the omission o f a ll repetitions we re duce the melody to its simplest form it takes the following shape 2 19

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It wi ll be seen that we have here a perfectly regular eight-bar sentence constructed o n the formu la ,

By rep etitions with variations and prolongation o f the passage marked ( a ) the first four-bar phrase is ext ended to eight 3 an d the repetition of the entire second phrase with avoidance the first time completes the sixteen bar sentence o f which o f the full caden ce the two halves are now pe rfectly balanced It is impossible within the l imits o f such a volume as this 2 20 to deal with the numberless variation s o f detail to be found in even such simple and regular sentences as those o f which we have treated in this chapter Al l that is in o ur power is to indicate genera l princip l e s and to show as far as we can what are the fundamental laws underlying the construction o f musical phrases and sentences We have several tim e s had occasion to point o ut that the eight and sixteen -bar sentence is the nor mal one and that it is so because the balance and counterpoise o f the m embers We have also shown th e o f a sentence is a law o f nature importance o f contrast as well of symmetry If the studen t h as thoroughly grasped the principles already laid down he ought now -bar sentences for himself be able to construct regular sixteen to ,

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RE G UL A R SEN TEN CES

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after the various models given for his guidance in this and pre ceding chapters How much musical value his exercises may possess will depend upon the amount o f imagination with which he has been endued 3 but even if his own compositions should be worthless the knowledge he has acquired will be o f much value to him in enabling him to analyze and to appreciate the works o f the He is n o t however to suppose that he will always great masters find sentences as regular and simple in construction as those of which we have been speaking These are mostly to be found in smaller forms of composition both vocal and instrumental S uch are many national airs and hymn-tunes as well as much dance music But in the larger forms m o re especially o f instrumental music we meet with extensive modifications o f these simple o ut lines 3 and with these we shall proceed to deal in our next chapter It was necessary th at the normal form should be thoroughly understood before we could enter upon the important subj ect o f its variati ons .

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C H AP T E R V I I I I R REGU LAR

P X

A N D CO M LE

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R HYTHM

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Though the perfectly symmetrical four and eight-bar phrases and senten ces with which we have been dealing in the last chapter may be truly said to be the basis o f all musica l forms it is only in smaller works that we fin d them uniformly and per s is ten tly maintained In larger compositions in or der to pre vent the monotony which would inevitably result were a cadence introduced at every fourth bar, we frequently find the sentences and phrases modified sometimes by extension sometime s by contraction We have now to show how both these processes may be applied without disturbing the balance and proportion o f the work It wi l l be most important for the student to bear in mind that the rhythms of which we h ave n o w to treat are n ot actual new form s but in every case var ia tion s of tne nor mal u t m o o r a n d ez t n r /z n O a r s f We shall first speak of those y f g sentences in which extensions are made by the insertion o f o ne o r more ba r s an d then o f those in which we find contractions by the elision o f bars o r overlapping of phrases 222 O ne of the simplest and perhaps the most common method o f extending a senten ce is by t/ze p r olongation or r epetitio n The e ffect o f a perfect cadence is that of of its fi n al cadence r epose and the feeling is only strengthened if a pause be made upon the last chord as is frequently done at the end o f a piece The same effect is produced if the final chord be repeated once o r more as in the following very familiar form o f full cadence 22 1

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( 8a)

Here we mark the bar in which the last chord of the cadence i s found as ( 8 ) 3 the fo ll owing bars containing the repetition s of the final chord we indicate as ( 8 a) and ( 8 b) as they do not begin another sentence We shall adopt the same plan throughout this chapter whenever a bar is repeated ,

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V 111

the accented bars Up to the eighth bar the form is regular being that which has been so often seen in the l ast chapter A t bar 8 the sentence is prolonged by the substitution o f an inter r u te d for a full cadence The last two bars are then repeated in p a varied form bar 7 being n o w extended into tw o The p ro lo ngatio n o f the cadence here only makes the feeling o f repos e more complete 22 5 It will be seen that the interrupted cadence is marked 8 A s we shall frequently in the course of this chapter have ( occasion to use this and similar signs it is i mportant that its exact meaning should be clearly understood A s the fourth bar of the after phrase it is evidently but as this eighth bar does not here complete the sentence it has a double function The final cadence at the end o f the passage will be ( 8 ) 3 obviously the next preceding accen ted bar will be The two bars which follow are both unaccented fo r they are merely ( as said j ust n ow ) an extension o f the unaccented bar therefore the caden tia l bar here is marked as the eighth in its relation to what precedes and as the sixth in its re l ation to what is to follow 226 The above passage al so illustrates two other important points with both o f which we shal l have to deal 3 —the repetition o f an entire cadence an d the occurrence o f t wo unaccented bars between two accented W e shall first give examples o f repetition s an d extens i ons o f cadences .

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In the fo ll owing interesting passage

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which is the concl usion o f the scherzo o f o ne o f the best known o f ’ B eethoven s sonatas for piano an d vio l in we have for the sake of clearness omitted the imitations in the vio l in part as they do not affect the construction o f the sentence As in o ur last example we have quoted here only the after-phrase A t the eighth bar is a 28 caden ce with a feminine ending repeated without alteration ) -

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I RR E G UL A R

V iii ) .

RH YTHMS

1 05

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the fol l owing bar ( 8 a) and then again repeated over two bars —a kind o f free augmentation

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S ometimes a cadence will be varied

its repetition HAY D N Q u rt tt O p 74 N on

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Haydn s 8 3 Quartetts are an exhaustless m ine o f varied rhythm s the study o f which may be warmly recom m ended to all musicians w h o have access to them In the present p assage we see a per fe ctly regular eight -bar sentence ending w ith a half cadence feminine ending this is immediately succeeded by a ful l ; ( ) cadence in the dominant key ( 8a) o n a ton ic pedal 3 this cadence i s twice repeated in the two next bars and followed by two repetitions of the tonic chord It will be noticed that the pro lo ngatio ns o f the cadence themselves occupy four bars so that there is a symmetry about the whole sentence which consists o f bars 4 4 ,

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r N ot infrequently the fore phrase as wel l the afte a s 9 phrase has a cadential prolongation H V DN Q ua t tt O p 7 N o 3 -

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( 8 5)

Here the bass notes o f the cadence are repeated in unison as a kind o f echo The substitution o f G for E flat in the final bar is probably due to the fact o f the l atter n ote being below the compass of the violin 2 30 O ther kinds o f variation o f the extended cadence will be seen in our next examples HA Y DN S t in C .

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Here there is an inverted cadence at the fourth bar but it is quite evident from the structure o f the pass ag e that the two following bars ending with a half cadence belong to the fore-phrase The fourth bar therefore must be regarded in a double aspect like the 2 2 4 3 we accordingly mark it as e ighth bar in o ur exa mple -bar phrase could begin The student will se e that a four (4 in the third bar ,

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The after-phrase corres ponds exactly in construction to the fore phrase ; we th erefore mark and the whole sentence is perfectly symmetric al an d in six-bar rhythm In the following passage 23 1 HA YDN Qu t tt O p 9 N ,

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( 63 )

It is self-evident here that the first section o f the after-phrase is repeated 3 no further exp l anation o f the passage will be required .

S omewhat similar but more extended is the following ’ ’ example from Mendelssohn s L ieder ohne Worte To save space ’ we give only the melody because the music is in everybody s hands and it is therefore unnecessary to quote the harmony to which the student can refer for himself 2 34

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ME N D E L S S OH N

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The first bar which we have not quoted merel y establishes the figure o f accompaniment and as we shal l see presently does no t count as part o f the first sentence The first eight bars o f the melody are perfectly regular 3 the harmony shows us by the position o f the cadences which are the accented bars This senten ce ends in F sharp minor the A being sharpen ed to bring back the origina l key ,

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The second sent en ce i s very greatl y prolonged The fore-phrase ends in the fourth bar with an inverted cadence in F sharp minor 3 the tw o -bar section which follows is first repeated exactly ( 6a) and then twice in a varied form ( 6 b and 6c) It is perfectly clear that neither o f these points marks the close o f the s entence 3 for a sentence cannot end o n a second inversion The fact that each o f these two-bar sections is n ot only built o n the same motive but ( what is more important here ) ends o n the same shows each these accented bars to be a repetition c h r f o d o E 235

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IR R E G UL A R

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of we therefore mark them ( 6a b c ) When at last the cadence is reached at the fi; instead o f the expected full close in F sharp minor we have an interrupted cadence inducing a modu lation into D maj or This bar t h erefore though final in its relation to what has preceded leads into the passage that follows If this passage were merely a repetition o r emphasizing o f the cadence we should mark the following cadence as ( 8 a) ( Com 227 pare the cadences in the examples We have not done so here because a new after-phrase is added 3 the phrase ending with the interrupted cadence is therefore not only th e after-phrase to its predecessor but the fore-phrase to that which follows F or this reason we mark it ( 8 ,

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We have two reasons for not regarding the eight bars that follow as forming a new sentence F irst as we have already explained the interrupted cadence shows that the last sentence is not completed 3 besides this o f the eight next bars the second four are only a repetition of the first with a varied cadence We therefore consider the bar with the full cadence in D as an d the following ( inverted plagal ) cadence in G as ( 8a) The repe tition o f the final cadence o f course gives us ( 8 b) 2 36

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Here let us digress for a little to prevent a possible mis apprehension o n the part o f the student We do n o t intend for a moment to assert o r even to imply that a composer when writing a sentence o f irregular rhythm such as those we are explaining in this chapter is co nsciously making variations from the normal four o r eight -bar sentence any more than we should imagine that in inventing some new harmonic progression he troubles himself to think about the roots o f his chords But j ust as the theorist can satisfactorily explain any harmony the e ffect o f which is good even though the composer might quite possibly be unable to account for it himself so we are endeavouring to show that the irregularities o f rhythmical structure so frequently met with in the works o f the great masters can be j ustified o n intelligible grounds if we only have some rational system o n which to work It would be absurd to imagine that Mendelssohn when composing the passage that we have b een analyzing said to himself N ow I wi ll take an eight-bar sentence and extend it by various means to twenty-four bars He was doubtless guided by his musical feeling 3 and the business o f the theorist is to explain the prin cip le s o n which even unconsciously to himself a composer works and to show that his practice rests o n a solid foundation 237

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We have now to deal with the numerous cases in which a phrase or sentence is lengthened by the insertion o f o n e bar S ometimes it is an unaccented bar that is interpolated as in o ur example two consecutive unaccented bars being thus 2 24 brought b etween two accented We have already seen an addi 2 38

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unaccen ted bar at the beginning of a phrase in 2 3 2 3 we n ow show its in sertion i n the middle o f the phrase MOZ ART Cl rin t Q int t t .

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Here the half cadence is deferred by the insertion o f the unac No further explanation is required c en te d bar ( 7a) A nother very good example o f this procedure is seen in 2 39 ’ ’ the first of Mendelssohn s L ieder ohne Worte A s in 2 34 we quote only the melody l eaving the student to examine the harmony for himself h Wort B k N MEN D E S O H N Li d .

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H ere the inserted bar ( 7a) is not a continuation as in our last The e xample but an actual repetition o f the preceding bar following bar contains a cadence with a feminine ending ; as this does not terminate the sentence but leads to another phrase o f four bars we mark it ( 8 as in the example in 2 3 4 S ometimes an unaccented bar is interpolated in both 2 40 phrases o f a sentence producing a regular fi ve-bar rhythm as in t h e following passage SCH U B E R S n t i E fl t O p ,

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M US ICA L FO R M

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the position of the accented bars in the fore-phrase is self-evident 3 the sixth bar being the repetition o f the second is clearly an accented bar The addition o f G t} to the chord changes it from the tonic chord of A to the dominant seventh o f D 3 the following bar completes the cadence in that key 3 and as the last chord o f a cadence always falls in an accented bar ( except occasionally with a feminine ending which is no t found here ) the additiona l bar is clearly an accented o ne and we mark it ( 6a) ,

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next example o f which ( as in o ur other quotations ’ from the L ieder ohne W orte ) we give only the melody is somewhat di fferent ME ND E L SS O HN L i d r ohn W ort B k N0 2 43

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Here the added bar ( 6a) is a free sequen tial repetiti on o f the preceding bar s o far as the melody is concerned 3 the harmon y again clearly shows it to be an accented bar ,

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E xceptionall y it is possible to repeat the added bar itself sequentia ll y thus sti l l further extending the length o f the phrase very interesting examp l e o f this is shown in the following passage by B eethoven B EE HO VE N S n ta in A O p N 2 44

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If the student will examine the movement from which we have taken the above he will see at once that this is an after-phrase beginning as marked with the fifth bar A t bar 6 is an inverted cadence with feminin e ending ; this cadence is twice sequentially is a further and re p eated in bars ( 6a) and ( 6b ) 3 an d the bar ,

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RH YTHMS

IR R E G UL A R

V 111 ) .

113

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reer imit tion the preceding The whole after phrase is thus a f o f extended from four to seven bars W e sha ll see presently that a seven-bar phrase or sentence is usual l y a contraction from one o f eight bars Here it is evi dently an extension 3 but such a case as this is exceptional A s with unaccented bars we sometimes find 2 45 accented bars interpolated in both the fore and after phrase o f a sentence producing a regular fi ve-bar rhythm S C H U B E R Q u t tt in A minor O p 9 .

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Here the second bar which we kn ow to be an accented bar is repeated 3 and the sixth bar is also repeated though with some variation both o f melody and harmony ,

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In the last example to be given here o f the interpo l ation of an accented bar E PR O U T Pi n Q u rt tt O p 8 2 46

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the fore-phrase begins with a full cadence the e ffect o f finality being prevented by placing the fifth o f the tonic chord at the top The cadence is repeated in the following bar The after-ph rase c orresponds exactly in construction to the for e-phrase I t will be ,

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MUS ICA L FOR M

1 14

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[ Ch as V

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III

seen that both here an d in the passage by S chubert quoted in the l ast section we get a perfectly satisfactory and complete sentence if we omit the repeated bars 3 but the e ffect o f the passage would be entirely destroyed in both cases If the student w il l compare the two senten ces last given 2 47 with ,that seen in 2 40 which is also in fi ve-bar rhythm he will find that the e ffect produced by the interpolation o f an unaccented bar is quite di fferent from that made by the addition of an ac I n the former case the caden ce is deferred 3 in the cen te d bar latter the result is to accentuate o r emphasize the cadentia l feeling : although naturally this will not be s o strong in the middle o f a phrase as when the accented bar is added at the end as in the examples g i ven in the ear l ier part o f this chapter 2 48 We n o w come to S peak o f those cases in which the norma l rhythm o f four o r eight bars is a l tered by contraction Here we have t h e converse process to that o f which we have been treating The m ost common way in which this is e ffected is by the e l ision o f an unaccented bar S ometimes this will be the first bar o f a phrase o r sentence as in the commencement o f ’ ’ M ozart s overture to F igaro MOZ ART Fi g ro ,

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In order to find o ut in such cases as this where the elision takes place we must first ascertain by m eans o f the cadences which are th e accented bars remembering that the principal cadences fall in the fourth an d eighth bars Here although the passage is in unison it wi ll be seen at on ce that a half caden ce is implied in the third and a full cadence in the seventh bar In fact on the subsequent repetition o f the passage with harmony above it these c adences are found at the places we have indicated These bars therefore mark the ends o f the fore and after-phrase 3 we acc ord By count i ng back from the ingly mark them ( 4) and cadences we find that the first bar ( an unaccented bar ) is missing and has been elided We have already l earned that every regu l ar l y formed 24 9 musical senten ce consists o f an al ternation o f accented an d each unaccented bar being followed by unaccented bars an accented exactly as in the motive the unaccented notes are fol l owed by the accented W e also saw in 60 that i t was very co m mon for a sentence to begin with an incomplete motive o f whi ch the unaccented part had been elided The elision o f the ,

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r 16

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[ Ch a

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p V II I .

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s The student will ob erve that two accent d bars can be e 53 — n brought next to o e another in two ways either ( as in o ur last two examples ) by the elision o f an unaccented bar o r ( as in the 2 42 2 4 6 by the interpolation o f an accented examples given in ) bar He must be carefu l to distinguish between these two methods ; an d he never n e ed be in any doubt as to which has been adopted if he notices the total l ength of the phrase The effect o f elision is to reduce a four-bar to a three -bar phrase 3 the e ffect o f interpolation is to lengthen it to a fi ve-bar phrase 2 0 f We spoke j ust n o w of the elision the u n 2 54 o 5 ) accented bar at the beginning o f a phrase N ot infrequently both phrases o f a sentence have the first bar elided ; in this case we have three-bar rhythm j ust as in 2 40 2 4 5 2 46 we s aw fi ve-bar rhythm N HA Y DN Q rt tt O p 2

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f This kind o rhythm is to b e met with in some nationa l 55 airs The o ld S cotch s ong L e ezie L in dsay is a good example O ld Scotch 2

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( 4)

A nother interesting specimen o f the same rhy thm is seen in the following Hungar ian nation al air Hung ri an Ai a

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The peculiar syncopated e ffects noticeable in this last melody are characteristic o f Hungarian music 2 56 It will be felt that the e ffect o f the three-bar rhythm in the di fferent passages last quoted is entirely satisfactory in spite .

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IR R E GUL A R

V III l .

RH YTHMS

1 17

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there being an uneven number of bars After what has been said in the earlier part o f this volume as to the n ecessity o f balance it would seem at first sight as if this ought not to be the case That it is s o nevertheless is due to the fact that these three bar phrases each contain a n even n umOer of accented Oa r s ’ 2 48 The passage from the ove rture to Figaro quoted in sounds perfectly correct though the first phrase contains three bars and the second four In the case o f melodies such as those given in the last section in which every phrase contains three bars the symmetry will be more readily perceptible 3 but the following passage will prove that it is not indispensable that elision should take place in all the phrases E PR O U T C n rt t D u t O p 6

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This melody consists o f four phrases o f which the first second and fourth are three-bar phrases while the third is o f the normal length o f four bars In spite o f this irregularity which a p r ior i would seem as if it ought to disturb the balance it will be felt that the e ffect is perfectly satisfactory and this can only be accounted for by the fact that each phrase still contains the regular number ( two ) o f accented bars ’ 2 57 The well known passage in the scherzo o f Beethoven s ninth symphony where the composer has indicated R itmo di tr e ’ Oa ttute is often quoted as an example o f three -bar rhythm This however is not a three-bar rhythm at all in the sense in which we are now using the term It will be rememb er ed t hat the scherzo ,

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US ICA L [M

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is in very rapid temp o with only o ne heat in the bar and that therefore ( lik e the passage from the qu artett in E flat given in 7 1 ) the motives consist o f two bars an d the movement is in reality in 2time ( compare the scherzo o f the sonata O p 2 8 quoted in 3 The first theme of the s cherzo now under notice if put into 2time s o as to show the position o f the accented bars will appear as follows B EET HO VE N 9th S ymph ny ,

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In the second part o f this scherzo the Ritmo di tr e Oa ttute ’ ( literally Rhythm o f three Oeats ) shows as th er e is on l y o ne h eat in a bar that not every second but every t/zir d bar is to be accented 3 consequently this part o f the m ovement is really in 2 time ‘

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In both this and the preceding example we have marked the unaccented bars by dotted l ines It will be seen that there can be no question here o f the elision o f an unaccented bar ; it is merely a change in the distance between the accented bars “ corresponding in what we may term the l arger metre to a change from duple to triple time We have seen earlier in this chapter that a sentence can 2 8 5 be extended by the interpolation o f either an unaccented o r an accented bar We cannot however contract a sentence o r phrase by the elision o f an accented bar in the same manner as o f an unaccented The nearest approach to this is the overlapping o f two phrases o r sentences produced by the conversion o f the final f o accented bar f n phrase into the first unaccented bar the o o e ) ( ) ( following This is not uncommon 2 59 O ur first example o f this S nata in G O p 39 N D O SS E R .

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1 20

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( 3)

Here the second sentence begins at the eighth bar with the same subj ect as the first though in a slightly modified form and in the At the eighth bar of this second key o f the relative maj or sentence a full close i s avoided and the last four bars are repeated We have therefore not marked the second ( 8 ) as ( 8 = 4) 3 but as the added phrase is merely a repetition o f the last o ne we mark its accented bars as ( 6a) an d ( 8 a) We have here an example o f the repetition o f the whole after-phrase ,

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A more familiar instance o f this overlapping o f two phrases is found in the fol l owing passage from the L ieder ohne ’ Worte ME ND E LSS OH N L i d r ohn Wort Bo k 3 N 261

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f n f o If the unaccented bars an eight bar sentence e o o 2 62 - ar r n e O Oy tOm is produced phrase be elided se v This though or less commonly met with than three bar o r fi ve-bar rhythm can hard l y be described as rare A very interesting specimen is found ’ in the scherzo o f B eethoven s great sonata in B flat O p 1 0 6 .

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IR R E G UL A R RHY THM »

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( 8)

This passage begins with a sentence o f fourteen bar s made o f two seven bar phrases A n examination o f the harmony o f the passage shows us that in each phrase there is an elision of the penultimate bar It cannot be too strongly impressed on the student that the only way to determine with accuracy the form of sentences of irregular construction is to examine the harmony o f the passage I n the first phrase here it is evident that down to bar 6 there is a regular response to o ne bar by the next 3 as the cadence occurs in the following bar one bar sooner than expected ‘

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must be th e seventh bar that has been elided After th e repetition o f this phrase in the higher octave ending with a full close in the key o f the dominant we see a complete e ight-bar phrase without any elision ending with a half cadence in C minor feminine ending ) ’ ( 2 63 O f the bar s rest which follows this phrase we will speak directly 3 but first we will examin e the after-phrase which co m pletes this secon d sentence L ike the two phrases o f the last sentence it contain s seven bars 3 but it is n ow the first bar o f the phrase ( not as before the seventh ) which is elided This is m ost cleafly proved by the harmony 3 for we find the dominant harmony o f C minor in the third and fifth bars followed in the fourth an d sixth by the tonic h ar mony o f the same key Th e latter are therefore the accented bars and the elision takes place ’ at the beginning o f the phrase The bar s rest following the fore phrase is equivalent in its mental effect to a pause o n the last n o te o f the p hrase 3 for the min d always carries o n the preceding harmony through a rest N otice in this last phrase the change o f harm ony o n the unaccented beat by means o f syncopation The four phrases o f this passage which consists o f 7 7 8 7 bars are in their seeming irregu l arity somewhat paralle l to th e bars seen in § 2 5 6 A nother very good example o f seven -bar rhythm is the 2 64 fo ll owing MOZ ART Q u rt tt in F N 3 it

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1 24

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( Ch ap V

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ften meet with more than commence a piece

th e

Haydn in severa l cadence before commencin examp l es

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of

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a sentence used to

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2 67

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his quartetts begins with a full his principal theme We give two .

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HAY D N

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Q u rt tt a

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( 8)

HA YD N

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Qu rt tt a

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( 4)

In both these passages the O pening bars are evidently th e s eventh an d eig h th o f a sentence that is to say the second ( o r accented) half of the after-phrase We have already met with examples o f the elision o f an unaccented bar 3 here we have the elision o f an unaccented section ,

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I n o ur next extra ct we unac cented phrase 2 68

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see

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IR R EG ULA R

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RH YTHMS

1 25

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WE BE R S nata in C o

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If it be asked Why are not the first four bars o f this passage to be regarded as the fore—phrase and the next four as the after phrase ? the answer is to be found in what follows which we have not space to quote in full F or the sake o f those students who do n o t know the sonata we give the melody only o f the continua tion of the passage down to the end o f the sentence We start from the last bar o f o ur previous quotation ,

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will now be seen that starting after the bar marked ( 8 ) in o ur example a ( ) we have a perfectly symmetrical sentence of sixteen bars dividing into four four-bar phrases and o f the pattern with which we became acquainted in the las t chapter ( 3 It is quite clear that the O pening four bars form no part of this sentence ; they are an introductory after-phrase o f which th e fore-phrase is non -existent — in other words an abrupt commencem e nt in the middle o f a sentence ,

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In polyphonic compositions such as fugues the rhythms o ften become extremely complex owing to the overlapping of phrases caused by fresh entries o f the subj ect sometimes at irregular distances Hen ce we very frequently find in such pieces interpolations an d elisions o f bars In some cases however a little thought will enable us to unravel the tangl ed web of parts “ though passages are to be found in which it is necessary to make believe a great deal in order to trace the four-bar const r uction a t all 2 70 To illustrate what has j ust been said we will take an ’ ’ e ntire fugue from Bach s Fo rty E ight and analyze it with the needfu l exp l anations J S BAC H W hlt mp i t Cla i r Fugu 36 26

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R H YTHMS

1 29

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( 4)

( 2)

MUS ICA L FOR M

1 30

( Chan

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We have selected this fugue because its construction is compar We shall nevertheless find in it irregularities o f atively simple rhythm that we have not met with in the passages we have pre ng u u e vio usl analyzed W ith its form as a f we h ve here nothi a g y to do 3 that su bj ect has been treated in an earlier volume o f this series 3 we are no w concerned solely with its r /zy t/zmical structure The subj ect ends o n the first note o f the fourth bar and 2 71 being therefore of the l ength o f th e normal phrase it renders the analysis much simpler The answer fol l ows immediately and the fi rst sentence ends in C minor at the eighth bar A codetta ( ee Fug ue 188 of three b a r s follows 3 at the end of the third bar ) .

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bar an d that the whole first sectio n of the fore hrase has been e ided l p 2 76 A fter the explanations already given the analysis o f the rest o f the fugue offers little di fficulty A t ( lz) we find an unac c e n te d bar a interp olated while the entry the subj ect at the f o (5 ) end o f this bar causes another overlapping ( 6 1 ) in the next bar The entry o f the alto in stretto at causes another contraction while the ( 8 1 ) at the beginning of the coda at ( R) is similar to that which we have already seen at 2 77 We have intentionally selected one o f the clearest o f all ’ Bach s fugues as regards its rhythmical structure 3 but it will be seen that out o f eleven sentences that it contains not half are regular in form I n the maj ority of fugues the elisions and extensions are far more frequent than in this o ne 3 indeed s o much is this the case that o ne often entirely loses the feeling o f the n orma l rhythm The student can easily convince himself of this by trying to analyze fo r himself such fugues as that in C maj or in ’ the first book of the F orty-E ight o r those in D maj or and E maj or in the second The truth is that a great many fugues cannot be stretched on the P rocrustean bed o f four and eight-bar rhythm without doing great Violence to their structure I n such cases regularity of rhythm becomes an altogether subordinate matter 3 its place is supplied by regularity o f accent ’ 2 78 A moment s thought will show us why this should be the “ case We know that by rhythm is meant the more o r less regular recurrence o f cadences We also know that cadences are points of repose dividing sentences and phrases sometimes sections also from one another B ut the peculiarity ) ( fers from n early all other form s o f fugue and that in which it di f is its con tinuity P roperly speaking it has n o o f composition points of repose 3 for though cadential formul ae are fre q uently emp l oyed the last note o f a cadence is always the point for a new departure Hence as in consequence o f the continuity o f the music j ust spoken o f the want o f repose is not felt so neither ca n any ill effect be produced by the absence o f regularity in the position o f the cadences The ear accepts bar-accent as a sub s titute for cadence We s hall now ana l yze some passages fro m the works o f 2 79 the great masters illustrating the various principles that have been laid down in this chapter O ur first example is the commence ’ ment o f o ne o f Haydn s quartetts II D N Qu rt tt O p 77 N ,

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RH YTHMS

I 33

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( 4a)

This passage offe rs no di fficulties in analysis and is given as a fair average example o f the kind o f rhythmic irregularities frequently to be met with in the larger instrumental forms O ur first business is to find o ut which are the accented bars The student should hardly need to be again reminded that they are those containing the cadences o r in which there is a change of harmony We see that the c hange to dominant harmony takes e ( 4 ) 3 two lace here at the fifth bar This will consequently b p bars earlier is another change of harmony indicating ( 2 ) 3 th e sentence begins in the preceding bar and we see that the first bar is the the starting point as in 2 66 ,

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The sentence is regularly constructed till its eighth bar 3 but as an inverted cadence is here substituted for a full cadence we see that the end o f the sentence has not been reached 3 another phrase is to follo w We therefore mark this bar The cadence is repeated ( 4a) in E minor in the following ba and after this the sentence proceeds to its regular close at th e eighth bar It will be seen that by the additions of a four-bar phrase ( 8 = 4) and a single bar ( 4a) the length o f the sentence is extended fro m eight to thirteen bars without disturbing the feeling of symmetry 280

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The following passage shows much greater irregularity :

A nda n te

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MUS ICA L FOR M

1 34

[ C hap V III

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Here the cadence in the third bar c l earl y indic tes a three b rhythm in the first p hr ase But o n examining the harmony closely we find that we have no t here the same kind o f three bar rhythm as in o ur examp l es 2 5 4 2 5 5 in which the first unac ce n ted bar was e l ided 3 for the incomplete dominant chord at the end of the first bar followed by the tonic chord at the beginning It o f the second gives the l atter the feeling o f an accented bar - ar

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Here the harmony leaves no doubt whatever as to its being the first bar o f the phrase which is elided The first sentence consists ~ o f eight bars reduced to s ix by the elision o f bars 1 and 5 The second sentence which begins at ( a ) contains exactly eight bars 3 it would nevertheless be a mistake to try to divide it into two four-bar phrases ; for the harmony o f the Second bar is no t cadential while that of the third bar is so proving that the third bar bears the stronger accent o f the two Besides this the construction o f the mel ody is almost identical with that o f the two preceding phrases I t is clear that we have here again three bar rhythm with elision o f the first bar 3 the phrase ends o n and the two bars ( 4a) and ( 4b) are repetition s o f the cadence such as we have already so frequently seen An after-phrase o f three bars with e l ision o f completes the sentence .

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IR RE GULA R

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RH YTHMS

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The second part o f the movement begi n s with three At more three bar phrases the first two completing a sentence O is an inverted cadence which with variations of form is four ( ) times repeated in the following bars ( 4a d) O bserve that here these cadential repetitions extending over four bars do duty instead o f the after phrase o f the sentence which is never co m l t e d by a full cadence A t the first subj ect returns evidently e c p ( ) beginning a new sentence O n e bar la ter is a second entry o f the subject ( like a stretto of a fugue ) In such cases where two entries overlap we reckon o ur rhyth m fr om tne vo ice t/za t las t en ter ed Here the third bar o f the upper part is the A t ( 4a) i second bar o f the lower and we mark the bar ( 3 seen the int e rpolation of an accented bar after which the rhythm is regular to the end o f the sentence and two more three—bar phrases similar to those at the beginning complete the movement ’ 28 u r last example is o n e of Haydn s charming minuets O 5 a form in which the composer was especially fond of sporting with varied and irregular rhythms HAY D N Q u rt tt O p 76 N 3% 2 84

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V III

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After the full anal yses we have given o f the preceding examples but few n otes will be necessary here The student will be s uffici ently accustomed to o ur method o f marking the bars to find little di fficulty in following the structure of the music It will be seen that the first sentence begins with an additional unaccented bar as in the passage by Mo zart quoted in 2 3 2 A t ( a ) we find as in o ur last example cadential repetitions substi tuted for the after phrase o f a sentence N o further exp l anation ought to be re quired Before proceeding to speak o f some other points that 286 have still to be noticed in connection w i th irregular rhythms we ,

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tonic at the third bar clearly shows the cadence ending the phrase 3 and the next bar ( the real fourth from the beginn ing ) is only a continuation o f the same harmony and cannot therefore be the accented bar Here the grouping o f the notes o f the 2 melody suggests , time and a charming effect is produced by the crossing o f the bar—accent and the phrasing accent The same effect i s seen again in o ur next example ,

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B EE H O V EN T

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The close o f the middle movement o f one of Beethoven s piano and violin sonatas is a very beautiful example of the same effect in slow time B EE H O V E N S n t O p 3 N 3 2 88

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In all the passages quoted above the feeling o f the triple time is m aintained in spite o f the cross accents S ometimes however by means o f dynamic indications the composer inte n It is tio nally de stroys for a while the feeling o f the original time i mpossible to play the following passage as Weber has marked it 2 89

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without losing the feeling of triple time and substituting for it that o f duple W E MR S n t i C O p 4 ,

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It will usually be found in such cases o f cross accent as these that the total numbers of bars in the phrase or sentence will be no rmal so that the balance o f the whole is not disturbed This is the case not only in the passage j ust quoted but in both of those given in 2 8 7 I n the example in 2 8 8 we see only the end of a sentence with repetitions and prolongation of the final cadence ,

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The converse process — grouping o r accenting passages in duple o r quadruple time as if they were in triple — is much ’ rarer The following passage from the finale o f Weber s Con 2 90

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looks at first sight as if it were an illustration 3 but it will be seen that though each bar contains thre e groups and three accents i nstead o f two yet as these three only occupy the same time as ,

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the regular two g roups

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[ Chap

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is rather anal ogous to the intro

duction o f trip l et s in common time

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we have The followi n g curious passage from o ne o f S chumann s s ongs fo r children is m uch more to the point S C H U M A NN V S hl r ff nl d O p 79 N 5 29 1

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Here the first be written

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bars are in reality four bars

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3 time and might ,

this is the beginning of the s ong there can be n o feeling o f 2 cross accent here because the regular accent of 7, time has never been established The position o f the cadences in the second and fifth bars would also be wrong were the time here really duple As

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A better examp l e o f groupings seen in the fol l owing passage 2 92

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C

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in common time is 2

LEME N

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M US ICA L FOR M

1 44

lc

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We have spoken above o f the insertion and elision o f o ne bar in a phrase The in sertion o r elision o f o ne h eat in a bar is also possible though very much rarer N o general prin cip les can be given for this procedure which can very seldom be adopted with good e ffect and mu st indeed be regarded as altogether exceptional A few examples are all that will be necessary here 2 95 O ur first illustration is from the works o f Handel HAND E L Ag ri ppin 2 94

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The third bar o f the fore-phrase o f this sen tence is lengthened by the insertion o f an accented beat j ust as in several o f the examples already given we have seen a sentence lengthened by the insertion o f an accented bar ,

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The following passage S

C H U MA NN

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an excellent example o f the cross accents spoken o f in 2 8 7 Th e changes of harmony show us as usual the accented bars of the sentence The sixth bar con tains fou r crotchets instead o f three an accented beat being added as in o ur las t quotation is

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The last example we give diffe r e nt kind 2 97

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an additional beat is

ME N D E LS S O HN

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Fantas i a O p .

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1 6.

of

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IR R E G ULA R

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RH YTHMS

p oco

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o r es .

Here five crotchets instead of four are seen in the fourth bar of our extract thus delaying the return o f the principal subj ect o f the movement in the following bar I n some editions the passage has been corrected by the omission o f the first crotchet o f the third bar and placing the following bar— line o ne crotchet later This however sacrifices the syncopated effect which was dou btless intended by Mendelssohn at the beginning o f this third bar The student will remember that a rest always carries on the mental impression o f the preceding harmony ; therefore a rest o n an accented beat as here produces the effect of the syncopation o f the preceding unaccented note It would have been so easy for Mendelssohn had he wished to have compressed the five crotchets in the fourth bar into four— for example ,

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that we can hardly doubt that the additional crotchet here is intentional 2 98 It will be well to note here that the familiar passage in ’ ’ the scherzo o f Beethoven s E roica symphony in which triple time is changed for four bars to dupl e B EE H OV E N 3 d Symph y .

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IU US ICA L

1 46

FOR M

(C

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ha p

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V i ii

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( 6)

i s not an examp l e o f the introduction o f an additional beat in a bar because til e lengt/z of Me Oar r emains unc/zanged What is really altered is the suOdivision o f the bar which is now divided into two parts instead o f into three We have here in fact the converse case o f that seen in o ur example in 2 90 The two following passages showing the very rare elision 2 99 of a beat in a bar wi l l need no exp l anation after what has been already said S C H U M A NN Grill n O p N 4 .

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I n concludi ng this chapter a few words must be said — — s oncerning two other varieties f irregular rhythm the o cal led o c p u l e and sep tup le time the former containing five beats in the u n t i q 0 0 3

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MUS ICA L FOR M

1 48

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[Cha p

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VI I I

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Here a peculiar quaintness o f e ffect is obtained by the al ternations 5 o f triple and duple time I n the passage in 7, time in the third ’ act o f Tristan und Isolde Wagner uses dotted bars in the same way .

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The following passage which is the opening o f the slow ’ m ovement o f Chopin s s onata in C minor is very curious S n t Op 4 C HO P N 0 2 3

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H ere there is much less regu l arity in the subdivision of the bars I n the first four bars it is di fficult to s ay with certainty whether the secon d accent is intended to be placed o n the third o r fourth crotchet though the sfor za ndi in the first two bars might seem to indicate the former A gain in the fifth and seventh bars the accent is clearly o n the fourth crotchet but in the sixth and eighth it seems rather to be on the third P robably Chopin intended this ambiguous e ffect ; but the result is hardly sat i s factory .

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A s curiosities and for the sake of completeness we as o ur last illustrations two specimens o f the extremely septuple t ime The first is found as ihn episode in the ’ ’ movement of L iszt s D ante S ymphony D nt Sy mph L SZ 0 3 3

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give rare firs t

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I

A n da n te

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Here we have alternate bars o f 2and fitime the su b division o f the larger bar being shown ( as in the example from Boieldieu in by a dotted line i ng 0 u r second example i the very curious music represent s O 4 3 ’ ’ the incantation o f the Magi in Berlioz s Childhood of Christ LE f du Chri t B ER OZ ,

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n a nce

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150

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VII I

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marked as a time signature 3 but in a note in the Here Iis “ ful l score the composer says The beats in the triple time are of the same length as those o f the quadruple and the combination The o f the two bars must resemble a l arge bar with seven beats time is therefore really the same as in the passage by L iszt quoted above 3 05 It will seldom if ever be advisable fo r the student to experiment with quintup l e o r septup l e time o r even with the insertion o r elision o f a beat i n a bar though it was necessary here to explain such procedures O n the other hand the exten sion and contraction o f a sentence by the interpolation o r elision o f o n e o r more bars may frequently be employed with advantage ’ to prevent too great monotony o r squareness o f rhythm E ven this however should n o t be attempted till complete mastery has been obtained o f the normal form treated o f in the last chapter Here as in so many other cases the general principle applies that nobody can be trusted to break the rules until he thoroughly well knows how to keep them no t

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152

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ending with a full cadence in the tonic key and each contai n i ng two phrases The fore phrase o f each senten ce is different 3 but the after phrase is identical The form therefore is A + B C B with which we are already acquainted 3 09 O ur next example is formed o n the same plan but the whole of the first senten ce is repeated and the after-phrases are extended by prolongation of the cadences from four to five bars Ch r l L i b t r J u w i ind hi r ,

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The very concise binary form o f which we are n ow speaking is comparatively rare excepting in simple songs ( such as n ational airs and V olkslieder ) dances and themes for variation We occasionally find it nevertheless as an independent form We give two short specimens by S chumann P pill n N SC H U MA NN 310

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SIMPL E BIN A R Y FO R M

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Here are two eight -bar sentences the former divided into two four-bar phrases while the latter is undivided ( compare A curious point about this piece is the very remote modulation to A flat at the beginning o f the second sentence It is extremely rare in such short pieces as this to find a modulation to an unrelated key ,

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1 1 3

lation

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O ur

next example is more regular in its course

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S

Pe d

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CH U MA N N

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B nt B latt r u

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MUS ICA L FOR M

I 54

[ Cha

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This littl e piece contains two eight-bar sentences each divided into two phrases The fore-phrase o f the first sentence ends with a half cadence in the tonic key whi l e the after phrase modu l ates to the dominant I n the second ( responsiv e) sentence the fore phrase modulates to the supertonic minor ( relative minor o f the subdominant ) and the after-phrase returns to the tonic ,

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N ow l et us look at the material from which the piece is constructed We se e that the first and second phrases begin With the same theme 2 1 3

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which is also found in a somewhat different form at the commence men t o f th e fourth phrase The latter half o f each phrase is .

M US ICA L FOR M

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iChap IX .

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SIMPL E BIN A R Y FOR M

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57

these pieces is by itself a complete specimen of the short binary form that we are now considering 3 while the two taken together constitute an example o f ternary form of which we shall speak in the next chapter If we examine the four phrases o f w hich the minuet is composed we s e e that the first and third are quite di fferent while the fourth is a transposition o f the second from the key of the dominant to that o f the tonic The formula * is therefore A + B C B In the Trio o n the other hand the second and fourth phrases are variations o f the first the formula * * being A + A B A 1 O f the large number f waltzes and other dances written o 3 5 by S chubert the greater part ( considerably over 2 00 pieces ) are in the form under notice We give o ne o f the waltzes as our last example of dance music r-W l r O p 9 N Tr SC H U ERT of

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58

lch a

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We have chosen this number because o f its containing a modu l a tion to a key ( the flat submediant maj or ) which is only in the f second degree o relationship It ought to be hardly necessary to remind readers tha t the key o f E maj or to which the modulation is here made is really F fi at -bar doub l e -sentence 1 6 In themes for variations the sixteen 3 ’ form is often met with as in the theme o f Beethoven s variations in G maj or beginning .

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W e give a less fami l i ar but very beautifu l example by Haydn HA Y D N Sym ph ny in C N .

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It is by no means un common in this concise binary form to find that the first eight b ar s end with a half-cadence In thi s case we consider the whole piece to contain two com plete sen tences though it is really formed from o n e long s i xteen bar 1 3 7

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1 60

l chap

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Though in vocal music the form of composition is often materially influenced by the words to be s et this is hardly at all the case in strophic songs — that is songs in which every stan za “ r strophe o f the poem is sung to the same music We give o ) ( two examples o f this form from the works o f the great masters W E ER L i b li d O p 5 4 N 3 3 19

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We have chosen this little melody as one o f the shortest examples we can find o f a complete piece in regular binary form L ike the 2 00 little song by S chumann give n in it contains only eight bars 3 but whereas that example consisted of only o ne sentence we have here two each four bars in length and divided into — phrases of two bars o r to speak m ore accurately the first sentence divided into two phrases an d the second less clearly divided This is a parallel case to that which we saw in the seventh chapter The 2 0 1 ) with respect to a single sentence containing two accents in the bar each here is really i m t e ; 3 i four—bar sentence therefore has the usual number o f accents The last two bars are the concluding symphony to the song and furnish an example o f the repeated and varied cadence M The fol l owing song by ozart 20 3 MOZA RT S ng Im F fi hling anf ng .

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begins with the end o f a sentence ( s ee fo r it is clear that the chord o f E flat at the commencement forms no part of the first phrase We have here two eight-bar sentences the first ending with a full cadence in the key o f the dominant The construction of the melody is quite symmetrical the form being the same as in the trio o f the minuet given in 3 1 4 viz : A s in o ur last example we find a repetition o f the final cade n ce as a concluding symphony 2 1 Hitherto we have been examining only those very small 3 and simple forms which consist o f two eight bar sentences 3 and we have said that such are somewhat rare When the binary form assumes larger dimensions we seldom find it divided by the cadences wit h such regularity When in the last chapter we introduced the subj ect o f extension and contraction o f sentences w e showed that the obj ect of such processes w as to avoid the monotony resulting from too great uniformity It is not often ( at all events in modern music ) that absolute uniformity of rhythm is maintained for more than sixteen bars excepting in dance music I n the last two examples we have quoted we have seen a re petition of the final cadence introduced for the sake o f variety ’ The minuet now to be given from o ne o f Haydn s quartetts shows a different manner o f avoiding monotony HAYD N Q u t tt O p 64 N 4 .

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( 4b)

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( 4c)

( 58 )

If the student will count the bars o f this minuet he will 3 o r exactly the length of four eight -bar s ee that there are 3 2 The first part is quite regular containing a sentence of s entences two four-bar phrases an d closing in the tonic key The secon d part commences with a four-bar phrase which is prolonged by cadential repetitions first o f two bars each ( 4a and 4b) then of F rom this point begins the return to the tonic key ; o ne bar ( 4c) and the responsive phrase of this second sentence ends not with a full cadence in D but with a half cadence in G ( compare the the example in 3 1 7 where the first sentence also ends with a 22

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N otice in the first place that here the cadences come regu l ar l y at every fourth bar throughout the piece This is because the movement is a Gavotte — o ne o f the old dance-forms 3 we have already said that absolute uniformity in the position of the cadences is more often to be found in dance music than in any -signature ther kin d f composition The time here given by o o Bach is equivalent to the more frequently used (1 3 and shows that there are two beats in a bar the minim being the unit of measure ment The piece consists o f three sentences the first o f which modulates to the key o f the relative maj or the most frequent first modulation as we already know for a piece in a minor key 2 3 4 The second sentence introduces a modulation in its fore phrase to A maj or while the after-phrase ends in F sharp minor the dominant minor o f the original key The third and final sentence returns through E minor to the original tonic its fore phr ase ending with a half cadence and its after-phrase o f course with a full caden ce in that key I t wil l be seen that with the exception o f G maj or m odulations are made to all the nearly related keys to B minor but that in no case is more than o ne cadence made in any other key than the tonic I n smal l forms such as those which we are now discussing modulation s/zould .

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B efore leaving this passage l et the student examine the thematic material from which it is constructed It wil l be seen that the two motives o f the first bars 32 5

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are almost continuously emp l oyed throughout the m ovement : for the semiquaver figure in the bass o f the second bar is only the diminution o f the four quavers in the treble of the preceding bar A careful analysis will show that o ne o r other o f these two motives is to be found in n earl y every bar except in the final cadences to .

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the three sentences The whole gavotte furnishes a practical illustration of what was said in Chapter V I I as to the treatment o f the motive 2 3 6 O ur next illust ration shows another variety of the same form 3 it is the slow minuet which forms the third movement of ’ ’ the overture to Handel s O pera Berenice HA N B r ni .

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The first part each i nstead ,

of of

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MUS ICA L FOR M

1 66

( Chap Ix .

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secon d senten ce closes in the dominant key The second part o f the m ovement b egins with a return to the original key from which a modulation is made to the relative minor After a full close in that key the music returns to the original tonic and a new idea is ’ presented in the short canon in the octave at o ne bar s distance The sentence is completed at the eighth bar though there is only a half cadence here It leads to the repetition o f the opening subj ect 3 and as t his has n ot now to lead into the domi nant key it is furnished with a new continuation its after -phrase being repeated for a final close The second part o f the minuet therefore contains three sentences the last o f which is extended by repetition of the after phrase from eight bars to twelve ’ 2 The B ourre e ( o ne o f the older dance forms ) from Bach s 3 7 sixth S uite Fran gaise is a good illustration o f the use o f irregular rhythms in the small binary form ’ S S uit F i N 6 BA CK g B o uR é E .

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We have already seen ( in the application 1 2 0 of 3 9 3 ) the very concise binary form of two eight-bar sentences in vocal music The somewhat l arger form which we are now considering is also frequently to be met with in vocal works Most of the ’ pieces known as Cavatinas are in binary form A s familiar ’ “ ’ examp l es may be cited the song P orgi amor in Mozart s Figaro ’ ’ “ the two airs in Haydn s S easons D istressful nature fainting “ sinks an d L ight and life dejected languish and as a m ore ’ “ modern instance B e thou faithful unto death in Mendelssohn s ’ S t P aul Handel also frequently employs this form both in his operas and in his oratorios We give a very beautiful and little “ — known example the air C onvey me to some peaceful shore ’ from the oratorio A lexander Balus 32 8

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The construction o f this piece is so simple that it requires but little explanation We have here a very good example o f the commencement of a movement in the middle of a sentence A n examination of th e music shows clearly that a 2 66— 2 new sentence begins after the full cadence in the fifth bar— that is with the entry of the voice Counting back from this point we find that the introductory symphony begins o n a fourth bar which we number accordingly There is a similar elision o f the first half of a sentence in the concluding symphony The rest o f the piece is quite regular in form w s a 2 In an earlier part of this volume it said in speaking 3 9 of quadruple time that it was n ecessary in many cases in order to ascertain the rhythm to regard each bar as equivalent to two It will be seen that in our last example ( as well as in some previously given ) we have not done this In order to decide whether a bar o f four crotchets in length is to be considered as o ne bar or two it is always n ecessary to examine the harmonic ’ s tructure o f the music In Handel s song we se e that with o ne single exception each bar contains only two chords Clearly the minim is here the unit o f measurement 3 and it is probable that Handel if he thought about th e matter at all only abstained from .

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marking the time-signature as ( i f because that might have gi ven an e rroneous impression as to the temp o o f the music We have here in reality only two beats in the bar and the time is an extremely slow a lla Or eve In 3 1 9 we have seen the converse case r eate d as quadruple time t The rhythm will be in all cases Z determined by the position o f the cadences 0 The simple binary form s ometimes assumes larger dimen 33 sions than in the examples hitherto given We have already quoted passages in which the first par t ended with a modulation to some nearly related key 2 2 2 6 n ot infrequently 3 3 3 3 3 7) there will be a complete sentence ( sometimes with extensions ) in this secondary key almost su fficient in importance to be termed a second subj ect In such a cas e this secondary theme is often repeated in the tonic key in the second part o f the movement This form is seen at least in its outline in the examples by Bach 2 3 and 2 7 and it is to be foun d in many of the P reludes in 3 3 ’ in the second part o f the W o hltemp erirte s Clavier A s o ne o f the clearest and most instructive specimens o f it we give the P relude in G maj or J S B A C H W hlt mp i t Cl avi r P r lud 39 ,

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I 73

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The division o f this prelude into its sentences and phrases required a little care ; it will however be found quite intelligible by those who have grasped the principles laid down in the last chapter as to extension and contraction of sentences The first sentence is contracted by the overlapping o f its two phrases and the second sentence begins o n the last note of the first o ne ( 8 1 ) 3 the former therefore does not end with a full cadence The after-phrase o f this second sentence is extended by two bars by means o f an interrupted cadence which changes the eighth to a sixth bar The whole of this last sentence from its second bar is in the key o f the dominant 2 The secon d part o f the movement commences with a 33 modified form of the opening theme now leading back from D through the tonic key to C the subdominant in which key the sentence ends A s before the two phrases of this sentence over lap The fo l lowing sentence shows an elision o f its first two -bar section It is quite clear that the full cadence in E minor marks the end of a sentence where we have marked it at ( 8 ) 3 counting back from this point we find the close of the fore-phrase at ( 4) no less distinctly indicated by the half cadence in the same key -phrase elided we have here ust as we in an entire fore s a w 2 68 j the first ( unaccented ) section o f the fore-phrase elided The following sentence is quite regular in structure ; it ends with a half instead of a full cadence as we have frequently seen is the case in the intermediate sentences In the last sentence o f this P in the fore phrase i x relude both phrases are extended to s bars 3 the extension is made by the sequential repetition of the first section 3 while the after-phrase from ( O) to the end is a somewhat modified transposition into the key o f the tonic o f the subj ect which at ( a ) in the first part o f the movement was given in the key o f the dominant T h is is the point that we particularly wish — t to illus rate in giving this prelude as o ne o f o ur examples the 1 33

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repetition in the tonic o f a theme which in th e first p art o f the movement has been heard in some other key I n other examples of this form and especially in those 333 such as Haydn and o f comparatively more modern composers Mozart we fin d still greater symm etry between the two parts o f the movement A s a very interesting specimen we give the fol l owing A dagi o by Mo zart .

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IX

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ix ) .

SIMPL E BIN A R Y FOR M

1

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77

( 8 -6)

This movement deserves a somewhat detailed analysis o f its con struction both from a rhythmical and thematic point o f View I ts two -par t form is very clearly marked by the fact of each half being repeated The first part contains twenty-four bars which however are not divided ( as might perhaps have been expected ) into three sentences o f eight bars each Instead o f this we find first a sentence o f the normal length and then a sentence extended by interpolations and repetitions of cadence from eight to sixteen We have already m et with a somewhat similar case in the bars minuet by Haydn given in 3 2 1 .

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f o It will be seen that the materials which the first and 4 33 second sentences are constructed are not only di fferent but we might almost say contrasted The first sentence is in F minor its fore-phrase en ding with an interrupted cadence and its after phrase with a full cadence in that key The second sentence begins at once in A flat the relative maj or key In spite o f its irregular length its rhythmical analysis offers not the slightest di fficulty if we be ar in mind our guidin g rule that the bars in which the cadences are found are the accented bars and that the most decided cadences indica t e the fourth and eighth bars o f a sentence We see that the fore-phrase is o f the regular length o f four bars and that the half cadence with which it concludes is repeated ( 4a) two bars later A t ( 5a) we see the inte rpolation o f an unaccented bar 2 3 8 ) 3 it is quite clear that we should be .

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78

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wrong to

consider this bar as the sixth and the next o ne as the seventh because the harmony shows the latter to be an accented bar as compared with the former Three bars later the interrupted caden ce changes the eighth bar to a sixth and the full cadence in 22 7 A flat is the true eighth bar Two cadentia l repetitions conclude the first part o f the piece n The second part this A dagio consists f three s e o f o 33 5 ten ces the first of which ends with a half cadence E xcepting that the first bar is a modification o f the opening motive o f the movem ent this s entence is formed entirely o f new material The second sentence begins with th e resumption o f the first subj ect in the key o f the dominant minor m odulating for the after-phrase to the original tonic F minor This phrase is extended by two bars an d is identical with the opening senten ce o f the first part with the omission o f tw o bars The concluding sentence ( eight bars extended to eighteen ) should be carefully compared with th e secon d sentence o f the first part I t wil l be seen that what was there in flat maj or is here repeated with slight modifications in F minor 3 we have at ( 4a) the same extension of the fore-phrase by repetition o f the half cadence 3 we have the same interpolation o f an unaccented bar at f the only dif eren ce any importance f o a 3 (5 ) is that the after-phrase is two bars l onger than befor e— the in terr up te d cadence occurring twice instead of once The entire movement may be analyzed thus ,

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F irst sentence ( F minor ) — 8 bars S econd sentence ( A flat) — 1 6 bars S econd Par t sentence— 8 bars

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Intermediate Modified repetition o f first sentence ( C minor and F minor ) — 1 0 bars Modified repetition o f second senten ce ( F minor ) — 1 8 bars 6 f all the varieties f the binary form of which we have o O 33 spoken the one j ust noticed is the m ost important because it is as will be seen in the next volume o f this series the germ o ut o f which the modern sonata form was developed Thos e students w h o are already acquainted with this form will h ave no di ffi culty in tracing it here in embryo We have seen h o w this l arger binary form is in its essentials an extension o f the smaller forms explained in the earlier part o f this chapter ; and we find here o ne more illustration o f what we then described as the organic growth o f the larger forms from the smaller i The Binary form in the various shapes in wh ch we have 5 37 “ seen it is ca l led by many writers the tw o -part S ong-F orm or “L ied-F orm We have n ot employed this name i n the present chapt er because in many cases it would be quite inappropriate .

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180

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p

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I t wil l be well to remember that there should be some kind of connexion between the parts o f the tune though it is not easy to define in what the connexion should consist O ften the develop ment o f the melody from o ne o r two m otives will effect this 3 s ometimes sequential passages may be introduced with advantage B ut if the student have any aptitude for composition his o w n musica l fee l ing wil l be his best guide ,

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W e no w give a few outlines fo r hymn tunes marking the n umber o f bars and indicating the basses of the cadences 1 4 3

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( 8)

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( 8)

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These outl ines can be fil l ed up in many di fferent ways 3 and the student should write at least two o r three tunes to each o f them He should be aware that if a melody begins with an incomplete bar the l ength o f the last n ote will m ost probably give the com that bar In order therefore to o un terp oin t l i n f C e t o o p ( determine the l ength o f the first n ote o f his tune he must look at the last note and deduct the value o f that note fro m that o f a whole bar .

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E ach of these tunes i s provided with di fferent ca dences T o illustrate a very common form we have made the first hal f o f the second tune end with a half cadence in the tonic instead o f with a modulation to the dominant It wil l a l so be seen that the 2 4 3

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THE

IX ]

ap

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SIMPL E BIN A R Y FOR M

18 1

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fourth tune is of a di fferent metre to the others — that known as ’ E ights and S evens Here each line begins with an accented instead o f an unaccented note and the first and third lines have feminine endings We have also introduced o ne o f the less frequent modulations at the end o f the first sentence 3 4 3 Having written various tunes o n the outlines given above the student should next write others selecting his o w n cadences He need not now confine himself to the metres o f which we have given examples but may experiment with other forms for himself 3 44 The next step in composition should be the writing o f l ittle pieces o f sixteen bars in other forms than that o f the hymn tune very useful exercise will be the p ar ap /zr asing of the various examples given in this chapter— that is the writing o f other pieces in exactly the same form but constructed o f different materials : A s an example 0 what is meant we give a paraphrase of the m inuet by Mozart in 3 1 4 ‘

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this piece ( which is wr itten merely as an exercise and has no pretension to other musical value ) be compared with the original If

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[ Chap Ix

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it will be seen that i t follows its outline very cl os el y Al l the cadences ar e identical the second bar o f the second phrase is a repetition o f the first and the fourth phrase is the transposition o f the second from the key o f the dominant to that o f the tonic This example will su ffi ciently show the student h o w to write simil ar o nes for himself f A fter writi g a number o such paraphrases as we ave n h 4 3 5 indicated the student may attempt original pieces in the same form H e should then begin to compose l ittle pieces with more than two sentences If he writes a piece with three sentences it will be better to l et the first part contain o ne sentence and the second two as in the example to 3 2 3 rather than the converse ; for it must be remembered that the secon d part o f the piece is the response to the first an d therefore shou l d be the weightier if there is any di fference between the two The third sentence may be either constructed o f new material o r it may be a repetition o f the first sentence with o r without variation It must o f course b e varied if the first sentence ends otherwise than with a full close in the tonic key 6 It wi l l not be advisab l e with this simp l e binary form to 4 3 let a piece exceed four sentences in length If there are four sentences there can either be two in each part o r o ne in the first an d three in the second In al l these larger pieces care must be taken to obtain as much variety o f caden ce as possible 3 and in modu l ating the student must be very careful as to the order o f keys chosen Remember especially that with a piece in a maj or key it is a l most always had to make the first modu l ation to the key o f the subdominant 3 fo r the subdominant is the key in which the original tonic is the dominant 3 and a modulation to this key soon weakens the feeling o f the origina l tonality if made too early O n the other hand after making a m odulation to the dominant side o f the key it is often best to l et the next m odu l a tion be to the subdominan t side 3 o n e modu lation counterbalances the other and the impression o f the original key remains unim paired It will be well in conclusion to give the student a few 4 7 3 hints as to the use o f the sentences o f irregular length treated o f in our l ast chapter O ur first advice will be not to use them at all until he is thoroughly accustomed to writing sentences o f the n ormal eight -bar form H e will then be able to extend his sen te n ce s by the addition o f a third phrase : i e by means o f our familiar formula He can also extend and repeat his — 2 2 2 H e may next introduce the repetition cadences 7 2 33 with o r without variation o f a single section The will be found more 2 38 24 7 interpolation o f a single bar ) ’ di fficult to e ffect satisfactorily and here the student s m usical feeling must come to his aid It is worse than useless to in tro duce a bar merely for the sake o f making the rhythm ir regular .

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MUS ICA L FO R M

n54

( Cha

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C H AP T E R X T HE

S I MP LE

p

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x

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TERN ARY FO R M

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We n ow come to the consideration of o ne o f the most important and perhaps the most frequently employed o f all musical forms — that known as the Ter nary For m By the word Ternary is meant that which divides into three parts j ust as by Binary form treated of in the last chapter is designated a th e form which divides itsel f into t w o parts This form is often called ’ the Three part S ong F orm j ust as the Binary F orm is also ’ known as the Two P art S ong F orm Fo r the reasons given in we do not adopt the alternative name 7 3 3 3 49 I t i s an unfortunate thing that great difference exists among theorists as to the nomenclature o f the different musical forms F or instance the minuet by Haydn given in 3 2 1 as an example o f binary form would be considered by some authorities to be ternary 3 while some o f the examples that we shall give in ’ the course o f this chapter are des cribed in Marx s Composition It is true that the various forms sometimes resemble a s Ron dos o n e another s o near l y that a l ittle carefu l examination is necessary to decide to which c l ass a particular piece may belong ; it is t herefore all the more desirable that we should have some distinct line o f demarcation whereby we may distinguish o ne form from a nother 0 In order to il l ustrate this po i nt l et us turn to the example 35 2 1 j ust referred to in and show why we consider it as being 3 ) ( in binary and not in ternary form Those who adopt the latter designation would say that the first eight bars form the first part the second and the o f the movement the following sixteen bars repetition o f the first eight bars the third part The obj ection to this method o f dividing the movement is that the second part is n ot contrasted w i th the first but is simply a continuation o f it true ternary form should always contain an episode o f some “ kind By the word episode is meant a subj ect altogether d istinct from the principal subj ect of the piece and m ore or less strongly contrasted with it It will be seen that this description wi l l not apply to the middle portion o f the minuet by Haydn o f which we are no w speaking 3 5 1 If the student wil l now turn to the minuet and trio by Mozart given in 3 1 4 o f which we remarked that while each piece separately regarded was in binary form the two together 3 48

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THE SIMPL E

x 1 .

TER N A R Y FORM

:

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2 55

with the repetition of the minuet constituted a ternary form he will at once see the di fference between this example and that by Haydn in Here the trio is clearly contrasted with the 32 1 minuet 3 we do not describe it as an episode because it form s a distinct whole by itself ; but it possesses an episodical charac ter inasmuch as its subj ect s are altogether different from those o f the minuet t h e m e m n ! 2 In a genuine ternary form r p a r t e t t l z e s o v fi o f 35 w ill a lw ay s é e in itself a co mp lete é zmn y fo r m ; that is to say it will contain at least two sentences o f which the second should end with a full cadence in the tonic key ; otherwise it is evident that the binary form will not be complete The second part of the movement may also be a complete binary form— as in the case o f the trio o f a minuet but perhaps more frequently instead of ending with a full cadence the middle portion o f the movement leads back to the return o f the first part We must add that in the very large maj ority o f cases this middle part will be in a different key from the first O ccasionally in the case o f a minuet and trio the latter will be in the same key as the former as in o ur example to 3 1 4 but this is n o t very common The third part of the movement will be a repetition of the first either wholly or partially ; not infrequently the first part is considerably *— varied free coda that is a tail-piece o r concluding portion which may be but is not necessarily constructed from subjects previously heard may be added at the discretion of the composer It is essentia l to the unity f the composition as a whole o 353 that the third part o f a ternary movemen t should contain the principal idea o f the first part O ften we fi nd it very considerably altered sometimes only o ne sentence o f the first part is repeated ; but the third part is never constructed like the second from new material The general outline the form j ust given can be filled f o 4 35 up in an almost infinite variety o f ways and the examples which we are about to give will show that it is far more elastic than the binary form ; we find specimens o f it in fact in almost every department of music n u r first illustration will be o e o f the shortest and O 3 55 simplest examples of a complete ternary form that we can find The three parts are indicated by Roman numerals ( I I I B EE H O VE N S n tina O p 79 A d t ,

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186

MUS ICA L FOR M

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r88

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MUS ICA L

FO RM

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N otice first the rhythmic construction o f this piece which though hardly to be described as rare is not very frequently met with The time is compound each bar containing three bars o f 3time Here is a case in which we distinctly have a second accent on the third beat o f the bar D r Riemann in his Catechism of Com ith the eli 5 10n position explains this passage as being in 3 time w o f the unaccented beat o f each alternate bar thus ,

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W hether this ingenious explanation be adopted o r n ot there can be n o doubt that each bar here contains tw o accents, and that each sentence is four bars in length instead of eight I t must never be forgotten that the length o f a sentence depends no t o n th e number o f its bars but on the number o f its accents and the position o f its cadences Here although the final chords o f the cadences always come o n the last beats o f the bars we have not feminine endings because these last beats are the strong ( fourth and eighth ) accents ,

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The first part o f this movement ( to the en d of bar 8 ) is a comp l ete binary form 3 5 2 ) containing two sentences the first closing in the relative maj or and the second returning to the tonic key The secon d part o f the movement begins with a modulation to E flat in which key we find the episode This is also made o f two sentences ; the first is four bars in length ending with a full close ( bar 4) with feminine ending ; the second sentence is ex tended to five bars by the repetition o f its first bar an octave higher ( 5a) Its fore-phrase finishes with an interrupted cadenc e -phrase with a f ull caden ce in bar 8 bar and its after The ( second part is completed by a third sentence m odulating back to G minor and ending with a half cadence in that key The third part is an exact repetition o f the first followed by a coda o f o ne senten ce in which four bars are extended to five by the sequential repetition o f the second bar The fi nal cadence has a feminine ending 6 35

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Ch an

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35 7

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THE

O ur

A nda n te

SIMPL E

TER IVA R Y

FO R M

1 89

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next examp l e is rather more extended t b l MO Z A R S ta in C

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M US ICA L FORM

1 92

( Ch ap x .

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The form o f this movement is perfect l y cl ear The first p art is l ike o ur last examp l e in binary form each half being repeated as we so frequently saw in the l ast chapter The second sentence is extended by the addition o f a new after-phrase The middle part o f the movement resembles in its form the trio o f a minuet each half being repeated It is in itse l f a pe rfect l y complete binary ’ * form and is followed by a eoo etla o f four bars containing two fu ll cadences over a tonic pedal The first part o f the m ovement is then repeated without modification and a short coda o f four bars is appended founded upon the subj ect o f the episode but in the maj or mode ,

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It is very common to find that the episode in a ternary form will have the same to nic as the principal subj ect but be in a maj or instead o f a minor key o r vice ver sa The andante j ust given i ll ustrates this point A nother familiar example is the ’ Andante o f B eethoven s S onata in D O p 2 8 The movement is s o well known that it wil l suffice to remind the student that it begins with a subj ect in binary form ( each part repeated ) in D minor The middle portion is also in binary form ( D maj or ) with repetitions after which the first part is r epeated with con s ide rable embellishment and a short coda conc l udes the move ment 3 58

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The variation o f the principal subj ect o n its repetition in the third part o f the movement is very frequently found as a feature o f the ternary form O ur next illustration wil l show this as we ll as some other points no t seen in o ur last extracts 3 59

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A dag io

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HA Y D N

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Q uart tt e

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O p 64 , N o 5 .

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n am e codetta ( a diminutive of code ) is appli ed to passages simil ar in ch aract e r to a cod a but introduc e d in th e course of i nst ead of at the e nd of a m ove m e nt T he

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Chap X ) .

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THE SIMPL E

TER N A R Y

FOR M

I 93

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(4

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Il[ US ICA L /

FO R M

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MUS ICA L FOR M

19 6

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In condensing this beautifu l movement o n two staves though some crossings c l every note of the original has been retained the two midd l e voices have n o t be en indicated for the sake o f clear ness The first part o f this A dagio contain s three sentences of which the first an d second are o f the norma l l ength o f eight bars each ; while the third is extended by various prolongation s from eight bars to eighteen W e recommend the student carefully to examine the rhythmic anal yses o f all the pieces in this chapter O ne o f o ur chief objects in giving these movements comp l ete is to furnish illustrations of the practical application o f the general principles given in C hapter V I I I as to the extension and contrae tion o f phrases and sentences ,

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The second part o f this m ovement opens in A minor with imitative treatment o f the first bar o f the prin cipal subj ec t 6 0 3

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THE

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SIMPL E

’ E V R R 1 T I A ’

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197

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The real episodical theme however is not found till the fifth bar when it enters in C maj or A n examination o f what follows proves very clearly that here is the beginning o f an eight-bar s entence ; we consequently mark this bar and we see here a sentence with an additional fore-phrase instead of ( as in s o many o f o ur earlier examples ) an additional after-phrase ( 8 u The tr e e pisode here consists of only the one eight bar sentence in the key of C maj or— a key in the second degree o f relationship to the original tonic The sentence is followed by a four bar phrase returning to A minor and ending on the dominant o f that key to lead back to the third part of the movement ,

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If the student will compare the third part with the first he will find that n ot only the rhythmic but the harmonic outlines o f the two parts are absolutely identical This third part is in fact nothing but a florid variation o f the first part U nlike th e two movements previously given there is here not a single bar o f c oda 6 1 3

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36 2

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Se n ate

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next illustration will be the A dagio of Beethoven s ’ P ath é tique B EE H O V E N S n t O p 3 O ur

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1 98

IlI US IcA L

FOR M

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SIMPL E

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20 1

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( 8 c)

Before proceeding to speak o f the form o f this m ovement it will be advisable to say a few words concerning the marks o f phr asing The meani ng o f the slur as an indicat ion o f legato is quite familiar an d the student is generally taught that between the end o f o n e slur and the beginning o f the next there should be a break which is e ffected by giving the last note under a slur rather less than its proper value But as a matter o f fact we scarcely ever find with the o ld composers ( and not often even with more modern ones ) that the marks o f phrasing correspond to the rhythmic subdivision We have shown in Chapters I I o f the phrases and sentences and III o f this volume the underl ying principles o n which mel ody is constructed ; and it has been seen that with rare exceptions unaccented notes belong to the following and not to the preceding accented note But if we try to play this movement attending strictly to the phrasing printed we get the most absurd e ffects The analysis o f the sentences into phrases sections and motives proves the correct phrasing to be quite different r meaning clear we will analyze two u I n order to make o 6 3 3 sentences ( the second and third ) o f this movement We begin at the ninth bar where the first sentence is repeated an o ctave higher ,

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examination o f the harmony o f the first o f these two sentences shows t hat the fore—phrase divides into two sections while the after-phrase is continuous The sequential character of bars 5 an d 6 prevents o ur regarding the E in bar 6 as the end of a section Here therefore we have an illustration o f what was said in 5 3 We need hardly say that the first sectio n o f the for e phrase ends o n E no t o n D which therefore ought not to be inc l uded in the first slur 6 In the second sentence the phrasing corresponds with 4 3 the motives throughout In order to show this m ore clearly w e have separated the last three semiquavers in the first three bars o f this sentence from the tied semiquaver preceding them ; and in bar 4 we have written o ut the turn in full as it is evidently the commencement o f the following motive O f the overlapping o f the phrases in this senten ce we shall speak presently 6 This vo l ume is not intended to teach pianoforte playing 3 5 though we hope it may be foun d useful by pianists as well as c o mp o s ers ; but the question o f phrasing is so intimate l y con n e ct e d with the structure o f a c o mposition that as the present piece furnishes a striking example of the loose and inaccurate way in which printed music is generally phrased it gives an opportunity to warn students n o t to be misled in making analyses for them selves by finding the natura l subdivision o f the sentences contra dicted by the position o f the s l urs f o We now com e to the analysis the form this adagio f o 66 3 Many writers con sider the first part o f the movement to en d at the sixteenth bar after the repetition o f the first sentence ; an d they regard the third sentence, which begins in F minor as the first episode In that case as the piece would have two episodes and in all three appearances o f the principal subj ect it would belong to one o f the Rondo forms o f which we shall speak in the next volum e o f this series We do not take this view because the second senten ce is only a repetition of the first with rather fuller harmony ; it is therefore analogous to the repetition of the first sentence which we saw in o ur example to 3 5 7 B esides this the third sentence is rather a continuation of than a contrast to what has preceded It is in fact the second part o f a large binary form which is comp l et e d by the r epetition o f its opening sentence ,

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M USI CAL FO R M

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MUS ICA L FORM

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( Cha p x .

h p

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a

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= 1) 5 (

THE SIMPL E

TERIVA R Y

FORM

.

2 09

MUS ICA L FORM

21

.

(5

1)

[ Chap X .

.

MUS ICA L

2 12

FO R M

[ Chap x

.

.

.

part of the movement N either the whole o f the first part no r any o ne complete sentence o f it is repeated but the use made o f the fore-phrase shows c l early enough the ternary form o f the movement which ends with five bars o f cadential repetitions over a tonic pedal 8 It will be seen that all the movements we have yet 37 analyzed in this chapter are slow movements from larger works I n all l arge compositions of severa l movements such as sonatas quartetts or symphonies when they are regular in construction if the ternary form is found it will be either in the minuet o r scherzo as already mentioned o r in the slow movement The first and last m ovements will be in other forms which wi l l be treated o f in the next vo l ume o f this series It is true that we exceptional l y meet with a ternary form in a first movement as in ’ Beethoven s S onata in E flat O p 2 7 N o 1 ; but it must be remembered that the title the composer has given to it So na ta ’ u a n a a s i F a t s i shows that the work is not in the regular form q ’ In Beethoven s S onata in G O p 1 4 N o 2 we find the ternary form in the finale ; but this is because the work ( quite exception ally ) ends with a scherzo A s a general rule the emp l oyment o f this form is restricted to the middle m ovements o f l arger works — that is for pieces which are 3 79 A s an independent form comp l ete in o ne movement— the ternary form is even more common than as a part o f a larger work A very large number N octurnes Impromptus o f modern pianoforte pieces ( Caprices & c ) are written in this form ; indeed it may be said that the ’ ’ maj ority of so -cal l ed Mo r cea ux ae Saloa when they exceed the l imits of the simple binary form will be found to be ternary in construction We shall n ow give a few examples o f this form analyzing them rhythmically as in previous cases 3 8 0 O ur first il l ustration will be one of the shorter N octurnes of Chopin .

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THE SIMPL E TER N A R Y FO R M

2 1 3,

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Fe d

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Ped

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214

M US ICA L FOR M

.

lCh aD X .

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2r6

MUS ICA L FORM

[ Chap x .

.

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This movement is remark ably clear in its construction and its analysis offers not the slightest di fficulty of any kind W ith the .

hap

C

.

SIMPL E TER N A R Y FORM

THE

it ) .

21

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7

exception o f the link o f two bars introduced betw een the end of the second and the beginn ing of th e third part the re is no rhythmic irregularity at all E very sentence throughout the piece is o f the normal length o f eight bars ; there is neither extension contraction o r overlapping with the solitary exception o f the repetition o f the final caden ce It is rare to find such rhythmic uniformity in a piece o f this length ; and the student should notice how carefully Chopin has avoided monotony by varying his cadences -bar 1 8 The first part f the movement contains five eight o 3 sentences o f which the fourt h and fifth ar e r ep etitio ns of the second and third with a little more ornamentation The ep isode in E flat contains three sentences the third leading back toward the original key o f which the chord of C minor is of course the subdominant Two bars o f link introduce the third p art which is the same as the first with the omission o f the two repeated s entences 2 8 r u next example o ffers considerably more material for O 3 comment S C H U ERT I mp r m p t O p 9 N ,

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(8

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FORM

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TER N A R Y

FOR M

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[ Cha

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it ) .

SIMPL E

TER IVA R Y

FORM

22 9

.

This movement begins with an eight-bar sentence ending with a full close in the tonic and twice repeated with unimportant modi The following sentence modulates through G flat to E fi catio n s flat minor ; and at ( a ) the sentence is extended by three bars We have here an instance o f overlapping by the conversion o f an accented into an unaccented bar ( 8 The next sentence is in the key o f G flat throughout and is followed by a link leading back to the first subject Though this link is eight bars in length we cannot consider it as a sentence for it has no cadence and consists simply of the chord of the dominant minor ninth of E flat The first theme of the movement is then repeated ; but its continuation is varied the second sentence being extended from eight bars to twelve and ending in the tonic minor in which key the first part o f the piece closes after several cadential extensions an d repetitions f h e A short link connects the final cadence o t first part 8 3 3 with the second which begins in the remote key of B minor ( the enharmonic of C flat the submediant of E flat minor ) The introduction of the major key o f the submediant for the middle part of a ternary form is very common but that o f the submediant minor ( as here ) is extremely rare f v o The rhythmic ana l ysis this middle di ision the o f 8 4 3 movement is very ins tructive N otice at ( O) that we m ark ( 8 = 4) instead o f marking the bar as ( 8 ) and the cadence four bars l ater ,

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MUS ICA L FOR M

2 3o

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[ Ch ap x

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as ( 8a) because there is n o full c l ose at When the full cadence is reached it is twice repeated ( 8 a 8 b ) At ( c) it i s evidently a second fore phrase ( the transposition o f the preceding -phras e that begins o n e a fourth higher an d not an after the bar ), is therefore ( 5 and the second section of this fore-phras e is then twice repeated in a varied form ( 4a 4b) ’ 8 a f A t begins a link considerab l e extent to introduce o 3 5 ( ) the third part of the movement N otice in the bars immediately preceding the link an example o f the cross accents spoken o f in 287 The third part o f the movement is an exact repetition o f the first and is followed by a coda in which the keys o f B ( C flat ) minor and E flat minor are brought into close j uxtaposition with a very curious and original e ffect After the explanations already given the rhythmic analysis o f this coda will offer n o di fficu l ty to the student O bserve that the movement ends o n an unaccented bar —that is with a feminine ending ’ 3 86 S chumann s pianoforte pieces afford many examples of the ternary form W e select for o ur n ext illustration the well ’ ’ known A ufschwung from the Phan tasie stiicke O p 1 2 n o t only because it shows a variety o f form that we have not yet met with but because its rhythmic ana l ysis is somewhat difficu l t and the explanation o f the same will be helpful to the student SC H U M A NN Ph ta i tii k O p N ,

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232

MUS ICA L FORM

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Ch ap X

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hap

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THE S IMPL E

TE R IV A R Y

FORM

C

( 8) J

33

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( a)

2

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MUS ICA L

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FOR M

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( 4b)

[ Chap X .

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23 6

Il/[ US ICA 1

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FOR M

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[ Cha

p

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SIMPL E TER N A R Y FO R M

THE

x ]

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2

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37

1

V

Many analysts would consider the

fir st

subj ect of this piece to end at the sixteenth bar and would regard the passage in D flat which follows as forming the first episode I n that case the piece would be a Rondo containing as will be seen three episodes and four appearances o f the principal subj ect We do not consider this to be the correct analysis o f its form because the chief subj ect would only contain one sentence ( which is repeated ) and would end at the sixteenth bar in a key other than the tonic of the piece It is much simpler to keep consistently to the principles enunciated in 3 5 2 and to regard th is movement as beginning with an extended binary form From this point o f view the first part o f the movement contains six sentences The first ( of which the second is a repetition ) begins in F minor and ends with a full cadence in A flat the relative maj or The three sentences that follow beginning and ending in the key o f D flat have it must be admitted an episodical character in s o far as that they are in contrast with what has preceded but we consider them nevertheless to belong to the first part o f the movement because they have not been preceded by a full close in the tonic — m i fi The first theme is then repeated and o d e d fi rst by ke y 38 7

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MUS ICA L FOR M

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[ Ch a

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the repetition o f its fore-phrase in the key o f B flat minor ( the subdominant ) and then by such an alteration of the after-phrase as will enable it to end in F minor 8 8 U p to this point the rhythmic structure o f this movement 3 has been quite regular and symmetrical the only departure from the norma l form has been the insertion o f an additional fore phr ase in the l ast sentence In the secon d part which we are now to examine the rhythms are much more complex — so much s o indeed that the analysis o f the passage requires to be c ar efully reasoned o ut step by step The first eight-bar sentence is quite regular with a feminine ending as al so is the following phrase of four bars but from this point the comp l ications begin a 8 If we count onward four bars from we find a third 3 9 ( ) inversion o f a fundamenta l ninth which cannot possibly be the B ut if we l ook at the third bar from ( a) we e n d o f a sentence s ee in it the tonic chord o f E flat preceded in the bar before by the dominant harmony o f the same key the rea l notation o f the passage being .

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Here we cl earl y see a caden ce in E flat ; we know therefore that the sentence ends here as we have al ready s een that it cannot end in the next bar Counting back from this point we see that the after-phrase has an elision of the fifth an unaccented ) bar Two ( bars later the cadence is repeated ( 8a) 0 The next sentence is also complicated in its rhythm 39 The bar at ( O) is evident l y an accented bar because o f the decided change o f harmony in it this is therefore a fourth bar marking the end o f a fore-phrase Two sequential repetitions -phrase follow a of this fore It l ooks at first as if the bar b 4 4 ( ) which we have marked ( 6) should be marked ( 4c == We have not so indicated it because the resemblance to what has preceded is hardly su fficiently c l ose It is quite clear that the two bars o n the last r iten uto here l ead up to the close o f the sentence of f eighth bar which the opening subj ct o the second part f o e ( ) the movement is repeated After an eight bar sentence with feminine ending as before a passage o f irregular construction 2 2 bars in length leads back to the first subject and the third part The passage in question begins at ( e) ; and an o f the piece examination o f the harmony shows us that here we have again an elision o f the first unaccented bar The fore-phrase is twice repeated and is followed by a link o f ten bars which does duty instead o f an after-p hrase The entire absence o f cadences ,

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MUS ICA L FOR M

.

V

O CE I

.

[ Chapz x

.

c nap it .

.

SIMPL E

THE

‘

)

FOR M

TERIVA R Y

24 1

.

The first part o f t his air is a perfectl y clear b inary form which evidently divides naturally into two parts The former o f these contains two sentences the first o f eight bars fo r orchestra alone ending in the key o f the tonic while the second in which the voice enters is extended by an additional after-phr ase to twelve bars and closes in the key o f the dom inant The second part beg ins with the fore-phrase o f the opening symphony given as before to the orchestra to which a new after phrase is added fo r the voice The following sentence is extended to ten bars by a sequential repetition ( 4a) o f the secon d section o f the fore phrase The next sentence is in compl ete the first section o f the fo r e p hr ase be ing elided We might consider this passage as a continuation o f the last sentence as its after-phrase is so similar ; but it is better here to regard it as a new sentence because it seems ( so to speak ) to make a fresh start after the full cadence in the tonic key with which the preceding sentence closed The concluding symphony o f four bars for the orchestra is so evidently cadential in feel ing an d character that we l ook upon it simp l y as a s trengthening o f the last cadence and therefore mark the last bar The second p art o f this air consists o f only o ne senterice as ( 8a) o f twelve bars after which the who l e o f the first part ( n o w become t e third is rep e a ted h ) 3 94 In airs constructed o n this p lan both parts are often A s very far more extended than in the example j ust an al yzed “ familiar instances may be cited the airs He was despised in ’ ’ “ the M essiah an d Honour and arms in S amson Many other songs o f similar form will occur to the memor y o f the ’ student wh o is acquainted with Han del s oratorios 3 93

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E xceptionall y we meet wi th movements whi ch it is di ffi cul t to consider as in any but ternary fo rm in which the fir s t Q 3 95

.

,

MUS ICA L FOR M

242

[ Chap X

.

.

part ends in the key o f the dominant instead o f in the tonic A striking example o f this is the song Why does the G od of Israe l ’ slee p ? in S amson which unfor tunat el y is far to o l ong to quote here The key o f the piece is B flat the first part o f the song contains 43 bars an d ends in the key o f F maj or The secon d part 3 2 bars in l ength begin s in G minor and passes through C mi nor to D minor in which key it concludes The third part contains 4 2 bars and is formed from the same material as the first but with considerab l e variety o f treatment it ends o f course in the tonic key ,

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The song o f which we are n ow speaking furnishes an i ll ustratio n o f the di fficulty which is s ometimes met with in exactly defining the form o f a movement We can hardly regard a piece but o n o f th e length o f 1 1 7 bars as being in simple binary form the other hand when carefu l ly examined this air fai l s to satisfy either o f the essential conditions we have l aid down as character izing the t ernary form N ot on l y does the first part not end in the tonic key but in the secon d part though the keys employed are j ust those which Handel wou l d have selected for the middl e ’ portion o f a s ong in B flat with a D a Capo the thematic material is the s ame as that o f the first part Th e piece is in fact a com promise between the binary and ternary form and is an example mixed forms o f which we shal l have more to say in the o f th e next vo l um e f f the more modern emp l oyment the ternary form in o O 3 97 ’ voca l music two excellent examples wi ll be found in Beethoven s ’ ’ songs A n die H offnung ( Op and L ied aus der Ferne The form is also no t infrequent in o ur E nglish ballads in which when the poem contains three s tanzas the first and third are set to the same music while the second is different f S om times the midd l e portion a ternary m ovemen t o 8 e 39 wi ll be in a different temp o from the first an d third parts Thi s ’ ’ is the case in B eethoven s L ied aus der Ferne j ust referred to where the midd l e part is in 3 time while the first an d third part s ’ ’ are in g A fin e instance wil l al so be seen in Handel s Al cina “ The first part o f the air Ah mio cor ! schernito sei ! is an a ndan te lar gfletto ( 2time ) in C minor in which the enchant es s bewails her desertion by her l over ; but when in the second part “ a o f the air s h e summ ons up her courage and vows vengeance M ( che fa gemendo Alcina ? the time changes to allegr o ( C) with an animated semiquaver figure for the violins after whi ch th e fi rs t par t is repeated 6 39

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399

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A better known instance

“Bee thov e n w rote two songs to th es e se tt i ng w h i ch is h e re re fe rr e d to .

of

w

a change

ords ; i t is

th e

of

time for

second

.

and

th e

lo nger .

MUS ICA L FO R M

2 44

.

[ Ch a

p

&c —

.

x

.

variation are either extensions o r varieties o f o ne o f the two typical forms described and exp l ain ed in this an d the preced ing chapter S uch forms are appropriately termed APP L I ED F O RMS Their nature and treatment will form the subje ct o f o ur next volume ; and it will be found that the organic growth o f which we have s everal times spoken in the present work wil l sti l l be traceable in the larger an d more complicated forms which have yet to be examined The deeper the insight which the student obtains into the fundamental prin ciples o f musical struc t ure the more thorough wil l be his appreciatio n and the richer his enj oy ment o f the artistic symmetry which underl ies the masterpieces o f the great composers ,

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IN D EX

A NA LY T ICA L n umber s r q er

Tlze

to the

‘

Acc en t in poe try and v e rs e 1 9 20 2 1 A cc e nt e d b ar c ad e nc e in 39 A CC E N T ED B A R int e rpol ate d i n a phr as e , ,

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lmost invariably i n after -phras e — why 2 42 ; i n both for e and afte r phras e producing reg ular fi ve -b ar rhythm 245 246 AC C E N T ED B E A T e lision of in a b ar 299 h armony to b e ch ange d on 2 08 ; ih t er p o latio n of in a b ar 2 95 -2 97 A cc e nt ed not e pre c e d e d by un acc e nt e d note th e simpl est form of the motiv e ,

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E N T ED

U N A C C E N T ED

AND

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fte r-phras e and fore -phras e 50 Ambiguous chords in mod ul ation ,

1 1 0.

A N AL O G

Y b tw n music ee

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po e try

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an e

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ss enti al of musical form

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1 0,

2 6.

Bar

in

-4 1 7 4 39

BI N A R Y

(V I

.

d efin ed 306 ; possi b ility of contracting an d e xt e nding s e nte nc es 307 som e tim e s calle d t wo " “ p art song form or li ed form 337 ; sym m e t ry and contrast 307 I S IMPL ES T B IN A R Y FOR M consisting of tw o compl e te s ent ence s 306 308 ; e x ampl e s 308 309 ; p r o lo ng atio n of a c ad e nc e 309 I I THE CO N CIS E B IN A R Y FO R M consisting of tw o s e nt e nce s 3 1 0 ; a ( ) found mostly i n simpl e songs danc es and th e m e s for v ari a tions 3 1 0 ; ( O) as an ind e pe n de nt form 3 10 ; e x ampl e by S chum ann an alyzed 3 1 0 ; modul ation in 3 1 0 ; anoth er re mot e modul a e xampl e by S chum ann 3 1 1 tion to n early related k eys 3 1 1 ; the m atic m at e ri al e x amin e d 3 12 ; gavotte by Corelli an alyze d 3 1 3 ; minu e t an d trio by Mozart an alyz e d a 1 w a ltz by S chub e rt a n lyz e d 3 1 5 4 3 modul ation to key in s econd d egr ee of rel ationship 3 1 5 them e for v ari ations by Haydn an alyze d 3 16 : contre d anse by B ee thov e n an alyze d 3 17 ; first e ight b ars e nding w ith a h alf c ad e nce e xpl ain e d 3 17 FOR M III CO N CIS E B IN A R Y IN V O CA L M US IC 3 1 8 : e x ampl e s quot ed 3 1 8 ; modu lations to n early relat e d keys 3 1 8 ; strophic song by FO RM

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Balanc e

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music and pros e 2 2 Anglican ch ant an e xample of th e e lision of an un acce nte d b ar 250 Anticip ation of h armony on un acc e nt e d b eat or b ar 209 A ntith esis and th e sis 26 A rpeggios and brok e n chords occurring in a m el o dy —impli e d h armony of 1 3 A tt e nd ant keys 8 1 Augm e nted sixth chord of us e d in e nh ar monic modulation 1 44-1 50 22

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bars 38 39 7 4 ( V L ) 1 8 5 ; h o w to d e t e rmin e -b ar motiv e s - 1 V I in t w o 73 ) 3 9 4 74 ( not es 5 9 60 ; ph ras es 50 A ccomp anim e nt e st ablishing a figure of

A CC

p ages

cce nt e d bar ( e xcept som e times w i th fe minin e e ndings ) 39 74 ( v1 Barring incorre ct e x ampl e of 37 B A R S acce nt e d and un acce nt e d 38 39 1 85 ; h o w to d e t e rmin e 74 ,

a

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A N A L YTICA L IN D EX

2 46

M song by oz art 3 an alyz e d 3 2 0 ; comm e ncing w ith e nd of a s e nte nce 3 20 ; r e p e tition of final c ad e nc e 3 20 E X TE N D ED B IN A R Y FO RM IV s e nte nce s of irre gul ar construction 3 2 1 ; absolut e uniformity of rhythm not ofte n m aint ain e d for more than ll e s t forms ; 1 6 b ars e xc e pt in th e Sm a 3 2 1 ; e x ampl e by Haydn an alyz e d s e nt e nc e prolonge d by re p etition 321 o f c ad e nc e 3 2 2 ; g avott e by Bach e e a n alyz e d 2 consisting of thr ; 3 3 s ente nc e s 323 ; re gularity of c ad e nce s modul ations 3 24 ; ih —w h y 3 24 ; th e m atic m ateri al e xamin ed 3 2 5 ; tre atm ent of th e motive 325 ; minu e t b y Hand el an alyze d 3 26 ; consisting of fi ve s e nt e nc e s 3 2 6 ; e xt e nsion of l ast s e nt e nce by re pe tition of i ts aft er phras e 3 2 6 bourr é e by Bach an alyz e d 3 27 ; consisting of four s e nt e nc e s 3 27 V E X TEN D ED B IN A R Y FO R M 1 N V O CA L M US IC 3 2 8 : c av atin a s m ostly w ri tte n in this form 3 2 8 ; use and e l i n oratorio o f this form by H a nd ope r a 3 2 8 ; e x ampl e by Ha nd e l 28 2 9 ; comm e ncing i n a n alyz e d 3 3 t he middl e of a s e nte nce 3 2 8 ; th e r egul arity of its form 3 2 8 ; th e tim e i h — unit of m e asur e m e nt 3 2 9 VI B IN A R Y FO R M W ITH T W O 3 033 7 5 6 7 5 3 30 ; s e cond subj e ct i n fe r e nt k ey to th e first 3 30 ; this a di f form th e g e r m out of w hich mod e rn son ata form h as b ee n d e v elop e d 3 36 its great import anc e 33 6 ; pre lud e by B ach an alyze d 33 1 33 2 ; s e cond sub j e ct on re p e tition app e aring i n key of tonic 3 32 ; e x ampl e by Moz art an alyz ed 3 33 -335 BI N A R Y A N D T ERN A RY forms th e only typical forms e xisting i n m usic 401 e by Bach a s an e x ampl e of e x é Bourr t e nd e d bin ary form 3 27 Broke n chords and arp eggios occurring i n a m elody— impli e d h armony 1 3

Webe r an alyz ed

s ent enc e s al ways i n accent e d ba ( e xcept som e tim e s w ith fe minin e ndings ) 39 ; fe minin e e ndings e x pl ain e d 28 3 7 ; in po e try and pros e 1 9 -2 1 l ength e ning l ast note s of 2 2 3 middl e 2 9-3 1 prolong a 1 86 tion of fin al 2 2 2 2 24 ; p r o lo ng atio o f in both fore and aft e r -phr as e 2 2 9

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l m e nt of music al form 9 ; at th e en d of s ection s 5 5 5 6 at th e e n d of p lzr as es 2 9-3 1 7 4 ( 1V ) 1 8 6 ; at th e e n d of s en ten ces 74 2 4 74 at th e e nd o f phr as e s and an e e

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r e p etitib n o

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r e p e titio

common practic e W i th B ee thove n 3 69 ; r e p etition of w ith e xt e nsion 2 2 7 re p e ti tio n of w ith vari ation 2 2 8 regul arity of i n d ance music an sm all compositions 1 0 Cad e nti al h armoni e s i nt e rm e di at e 3 74 Cavatin as mostly w ritt en in bin ary form of

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CHA N G E

HA RMON Y on acc e nte d b eat on acc ent e d not e of motiv e 2 08 2 08 Choic e of k eys to modul at e to 1 68 3 24 OF

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3 39. 346 th e

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C hord

of

dulatio n ,

C hord

s e v enth in e nh armonic mo

1 44-1 5 0

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of th e minor ninth in enharm o ni modul ati on 1 39-1 42 HO R D O F T HE MI N O R T HI R T EE N T H i mo e nh ar monic modul ation 1 5 1 -1 5 3 dulatio n to 1 8 k e ys by 1 5 1 C hord of the augm e nt e d sixth i n e nh ar monic modul ation 1 44-1 5 0 C H O RD S C O MMO N to t w o k e ys— k e r el ationship 8 0-8 3 ; to t wo k eys modul ation b y — ( see Modul ation Means of) ; to n early r el at e d k eys 8 0-8 3 ; to k eys in s e cond d e gr ee 0 r el ationship 8 3 -86 pos i t i on of Chords i n fi n al c ad e nce ,

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3 7, 40

CHR O MA T I C

modul ation 1 6 1 -1 67 ; s eal us e d as a m e ans of modul ation 1 5 8 not ation o f 1 5 8 ; tri ads u e d as m eans of modul ation 1 1 2 -1 2 8 C od a an d C od e tt a di ffer e nc e b e t wee n 3 5 7 ( not e) C O D A d e fin e d 3 5 2 ; e x ampl e s 3 5 5 -35 7 ,

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d e fin ed 3 57 ; e xampl e 3 57 C ompl e x rhythms i n polyphonic music

CO D ET I A '‘

2 69

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CO MP O S ITI O N ,

hints for fi rst a tte m pts in

r ite hy mn tun es t o w o w 8 l z ; 3 3 347

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modul ation 3 39 ; outline s to b e fill e d up 341 ; s equ e nti al p as sag e s 3 4o ; vari e ty o f_cad e nc e 339 ; ,

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A N A L YTICA L IN D EX

248

Four -bar

s e nte nce s th eir construc tio n e xpl ain e d 30 1 84 1 97 3 1 3 3 1 9 Full cad e nc e h o w to avoid th e fee ling o f fin ality in 2 9 3 3 3 5 FU G U E an alysis o f fugu e by Bach 2 76 ; irr e gul ar rhy hms in 2 77 2 70t Fugu e s re gul arity of acc e nt ofte n suppli e s th e plac e of regul ar rhythm in—w h y .

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2 77 , 2 7 8.

Fund am e ntal

discords us ed as a m eans of modulation ( see Modulation Means ,

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Ge rm an

d e finition of compound tim e

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rm an sixth th e only form of th e chord of the augm e nte d sixth availabl e in e nh armonic modul a tion 1 44 ,

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nticip ation of on un accente d beat or b ar 2 08 2 09 ; arpeggi os and broke n chords 1 3 e xtre me chrom atic us e of 1 68 ; impli e d in a m elody 1 3 ; through o f acc ent e d b ar continu e d un acc e nt e d b ar 2 09 ; to b e ch ange d on acc e nte d b eat 2 08 Haydn s qu arte tts an e xh austl e ss min e of vari e d rhythms 2 2 8 Ho w to avoid th e fee ling of fin al i ty in a full cad e nce 2 9 33 3 5 HYMN-T U N E construction of an alyz e d " ee D und as an e x ampl e 2 6 1 0 5 5 of th e simpl est bin ary form 3 08 ; hints fo r composing 339-342 outlin es ,

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341

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1 3 , 1 4.

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m elody conn ection

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36

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I nt e rm e di at e cad e nti al h armon ie s 374 IRR EG U L A R R HY T HMS are not new forms but vari ations of th e norm al four b ar rhythms 2 2 1 ; de fin e d and e ight 2 2 1 ; e ss e nti al d i ffe r e nc e be 74 t w ee n regul ar and irregular rhythms hints to th e stud e nt 305 ; 74 h o w to d e t e rmin e w it h accuracy th e form of s e nte nc e s of irr egular co n struction 2 62 ; mostly more e ffe c tive an d usu al in l arg e r th an in sm al l e r com positions 2 8 6 ; re gul arity o f acce nt oft e n suppli e s th e place of re gul arity of rhyth m in fugue s—w hy 2 77 2 78 IRREG U L A R R HY T HMS Ho w PRO D U CED I PR OLO N GA TION O F S EN T E N CES by ins e rtion of o n e or mor e b ars 2 21 ; ( a ) by r e p e tition of its fin al chord e xa mpl e 2 22 ; ( O) by l e ngth e ning l ast chords of a cad enc e m aking o ne bar into tw o e x ampl e 2 2 3 ; ( c) by re p e tition and prolonga tio n of fin al cad e nc e 2 24-2 2 6 e x ample by Moz art 224 ; h o w to indicate such rep e titions 2 25 ; two un acce nte d b ars b e tw ee n t wo acc ent e d b ars 2 24 2 2 6 2 3 8 ; e xampl e by Be e thov e n cade nce w it h fe minin e e nding 2 2 7 ; ( d) by re pe ti tion and v ari ation of fi nal ca i ence e x ampl e by Haydn 2 2 8 ; e by pro ( ) lo ngatio n of c ad e nc e in both fore and aft e r -phras e e x ampl e by Haydn 2 2 9 six-bar rhythm e x ampl e by Haydn 2 30 ; ( f ) by prolong ation of th e om men cemen t of a phras e or s e nte nc e 2 3 2 ; e xte nsion of first b ar into t w o i n both phras e s producing fi ve-Oa r r hy th m e x ampl e by Moz art 2 32 ; ( g) by int erpol ation of o ne or mo re b ars in the middle of a se nt e nce 2 33 re pe tition of e x ampl e by Moz art 2 33 a s e ction i n th e middl e of a s e nt e nc e 2 34 ; 233 ; e x a mpl e by Me nd elssohn a s e nt e nce greatly prolong e d e xpl an a tion 2 34-236 ; ( It) by i nte rpolation of an u n accented b ar i n ti n m iddle of a phras e 2 38 e x ampl e by Moz art 38 ; an 2 39 ; e x ampl e by Me nd elssohn un acce nte d bar re peat ed 2 39 ; ( 2) by ins e rtion of un acc e nte d b ar i n bot h ph ras e s p r cd ucing r egular j iv -Oa r 240 ; e x ampl e by S chu be rt r lty t/zm 240 ; th e b ar usu ally ins e rt e d on ap p r o aching a c ad e n ce 2 41 ; ( j ) by ,

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by Corelli as an e x ample of co n cis e bin ary form 3 1 3 ; by B ach as an e x ampl e of ex ten ded bin ary form

GA V

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HAR MO N Y in a m elody 1 3 ; in unison p ass ag es 44 Impli e d e nh armonic modul ation 8 6 Impromptu by S chube rt as an e x ampl e of t e rn ary form Incompl e t e motive 60 Incorr e ct b arring e x ampl e of 37 Incorr e ct phrasi ng 362 -365 IN T ERP O L A TI O N of acc e nt e d b ar ( see Ir r e gul ar R hythms) of a be at in a bar 2 97 2 95 of un acc e nte d bar ( see I rregul ar R hythms ) IMPL I ED

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A N AL Y TICA L

ins ert ion of accen ted bar in th e middle of a phras e 2 42 w h e n only o ne b ar is ins e rt e d i t w ill almost inv ari ably be in after-phras e - w h y 242 ; e x ampl e by Haydn 2 42 e xampl e by Me nd els sohn 243 an acc ent e d b ar re peate d 243 ; th e add e d b ar s e qu e nti ally r e e rtion of ao by ins d 244 ; ( R e e a t ) p ce nte d bar in both phr as e s producing Oa r r /zy t/zm 245 e x ampl e r eg u la r fi veby S chube rt 245 ; e xampl e by Prout ,

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2 46

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IN D E X

24

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9

b eginning in the middle of a s e nt e nce 266 ; be ginning w ith a full ca d e nc e 2 67 ; e lision of first p ar t of a s e nt e nc e 2 66 ; e lisio n of un acc e nt e d se ction 2 67 ; e lision of unacce nt e d phr as e

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2 68

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O MPL EX R H YTHMS O F POL YPHO N IC M US IC 269 ; fugue by Bach an alyz e d 70-278 regul arity of acce nt frequ e ntly t ak e s th e pl ace of re gul arity of rhythm 2 77 2 7 8 V E X A MPL ES O F IRR E G ULA R R HY THMS an alyz e d —b y Haydn 2 79 80 ; by S chube rt by 28 1 2 82 ; Mo zart 2 83 2 84 ; by Haydn 2 8 5

IV

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O N TR A C TIO N O F S EN T E N CES by elision of o ne or mor e b ars or by the ove rlapping of phrases acc e nt e d a n by lision of un e a 2 1 ( ) b ar 2 48 ; e ffe ct of e lision of first b ar of a s e nte nc e 249 ; e xample by Mozart 24 8 ; e x ampl e of an A nglic a n ch ant h o w to d e t e rmin e w hich b ar h as 250 be e n elid ed 2 48 ; ( O) by e lision of an int erme di ate b ar 2 5 1 ; e xampl e s by Me ndelssohn 2 5 1 2 52 ; h o w to dis tinguish b e t w ee n th e e lision of an un acc e nt e d and th e int e rpo l ation of an acc e nte d b ar 2 5 3 ( c) by e lision of an un acce nt e d b ar in both phras e s pro ducing tl ee-Oa r /y t/zm 254 ; e x am p l e by Haydn 2 54 ; e x ampl e of old S cotch 2 5 5 ; ex ampl e of Hung ari an by Prout 2 56 ; 2 55 ; e xampl e air r eason of th e s atisfactory e ffe ct of thr ee -b ar rhythm 25 6 ; R itmo di tr e battut e i n B ee thove n s N inth S ym phony e xpl aine d 2 5 7 ; ( d) by over la pping of tw o phrase s or s e nte nc es 2 5 8 ; contraction can e xpl an ation of not be effe cte d by th e e lision of an b ar — n eare st appro ach to acc e nte d this 2 5 8 ; e x ample by D usse k 259 ; e x ampl e by S chum ann 2 60 ; e xampl e by Me ndelssohn 6 1 ; ( ) by e lision of n e un acce nt e d b ar in an e ight -b ar s ent ence or phr as e producing sev en Oa r r / yt/ m 2 6 2 ; e x ample by B ee t hov e n 2 62 2 63 e x ampl e by Mozart b ar ph rase 2 64 ; e xampl e of a s v e n mad e by e xt ension fro m a four-bar phrase 2 44 IRR EG UL A R CO MMEN CE III st fi r a) C S N ( E T F S E N T E E 0 M N b ar e stablishing a figure of ac o m p an i m e nt e xampl e b y Haydn 2 65 ; ( O) C

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2 872 93

A CCEN TS : d e fin e d 87 ; crossing of the b ar acc ent an d th e rhythmic a cc e nt 2 87 ; fe ct of augm ent ation by 2 93 ; e x ef ampl e by Hand el 2 93 ; e x ampl e by S chum ann 2 96 e xample by S chube rt 3 8 5 ; groupi ng not e s of dupl e an d qu adrupl e tim e to produce the effect of tripl e tim e 2 87 ; e xampl e s 2 90-292 ; grouping not e s of tri ple tim e to p ro duc e the e ffe ct of duple time 2 87 -2 89 ; syncop ation 2 8 7 V II IN S ER TIO N O F O N E B EA T [ N A B A R ( a ) in tripl e tim e ex ampl e by Hand el 2 95 ; in tripl e tim e 2 96 ; ( O) in e xa mpl e by S chum ann quadrupl e ti m e e xampl e by Men delsso h n 297 ; ( c) ch ang e in the sub division of th e bar 2 98 V III E L IS IO N O F O N E B EA T IN A B A R e xampl e by S chum an n 2 99 ; k 2 99 e x ampl e by D vor a IR R E G ULA R CO IIIPO UN D u e e e l tim d fi n d n t e a u i p TIMES ( ) q 00 ; e x mpl e by Hand el x a e 0 0 3 ; 3 us e of dotte d ampl e by Boi eldi eu 3 01 b ars 301 ; e xampl e by C hopin 302 ; e x ampl e e d 300 l tim e d e fin e t u O e s ( ) p p by L iszt 303 ; use of dotte d b ars x ampl e by Be rlioz 304 e 0 ; 3 3 VI

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REL ATI O N SH I P ,

tt e nd ant keys 8 1 ; chords common to two ke y s 8 3 ; d e fi n e d 8 0 ; ke y of d omin ant 8 0minor not includ e d among the r el ate d k e ys to a m ajor key—w h y 92 ; key of subdomin an t major no t included

K EY

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A N A L Y TICA L

25 0

rel at e d k eys to a minor k ey— w h y 9 2 ; m ajor k eys w hos e t onics ar e conson ant to o ne anoth e r m ajor ke ys ar e s ai d to b e r e l at e d 8 0 w hos e tonics ar e disson ant to o ne anoth e r ar e unr e l at e d 93 ; minor k e ys ar e l e ss clos e ly r e l at e d to o n e anoth e r th an m aj or ke ys 8 8 93 ; n earn e ss of rel ationship de p e nds upon th e numb e r of chords tw o k eys h av e i n common 8 1 -83 no singl e chord can d e fin e a

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EA R L Y R E L A TE D K E YS r el ationship d e fi n e d 8 0 -8 2 ; ( a ) to a m ajor ke y 8 0 8 1 ; t abl e of n e arly rel at e d k eys 94 ( a ) ; ( O) to a minor k e y 8 2 ; t abl e of n early r el at e d k e ys .

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94

O D R E LA TIO N S HIP 0F D EG R EE 8 3 ; ( a ) to th e r e l a ti onship d e fin e d m aj or key conn e ction b e t w e n a chords com mon to such k eys 8 3 -8 7 8 4 8 5 ; chrom atic tri ads us e of 8 4 8 5 ; impli e d e n h armonic modul ation 8 6 ; r e l ative m inors rul e 8 7 ; tonic minor key 8 7 tabl e of k eys i n s e cond d egree of re l ationship 94 ( O) ; ( O) to a minor k e y d e fin e d 8 8 90 ; t abl e of k eys i n s e cond d egree of rel ationship .

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oth e r t h an m aj or ke ys 8 8 ; t able of n e arly rel at ed 94 ( a) ; tabl e of r e l at e d in th e s e cond d egree 94 ( O) MI N U E T by Mozart as an e x ampl e of bin ary form 3 1 4 ; by Haydn as an e x ampl e of e xte nd e d bin ary form 3 2 1 ; by Hand el as an e x ampl e of e xt e nd e d bin ary form 3 26 Mix e d forms 395 3 96 Mod e rn son at a form — its origin 336 MO D U L A TI O N a constitu ent of musi cal form 1 1 ; ambiguous chords in 1 07 1 10 ; at e n d of phr as e s 3 2 3 3 ; at e nd of s ent e nc e s 34 3 5 ; compound ( see Modul ation Means of) choic e of k e ys for 1 68 3 24 d e finitio n of 77 ; e nh armonic ( s ee Modul ation Means of ) ; ex e rcis e s in 1 69 ; hints concerning 1 68 1 69 3 24 3 39 3 46 ; i mportanc e of a thorough kno w l e dge of 7 6 ; i n constructio n of short s e n t e nce s 1 70 in sm all forms should n e v e r b e m ad e t wic e to th e s am e k ey 3 24 ; i n short pi e c e s 1 1 m eans of almost e xh austl e ss 9 5 ; n o sin gl e chord can d e fin e a k ey 7 7 1 60 ; ord e r of 1 70 346 ; point of u se of th e motiv e in de t e rmining 79 1 60 to subdomin an t k e y c are r e qu re d in 346 ; tr ansi e nt or transi tion 77 ; to n e arly r el at e d k e vs ( s ee Modul ation Me ans of) ; to k eys i n th e s e cond degre e of re l a tio nship ( s ee Modul a tion Means of ) ; to unrel ate d k e ys ( see Modul ation Means of ) MO D U L A TI O N ME A N S O F TO I B Y CH O R D S CO IIIMON T W O K E YS 96 ; ( a) from m ajor k eys to n early re l at e d k eys 96-99 ( O) fro m m inor k e ys to n early rel ate d k e ys 1 00-1 02 I I E Y ME A N S 0F TR IA O S ON L Y m aj or tri ads 1 03 ; from 1 02 ; ( a ) m ajor k e ys to n early r el ate d keys 1 03 eys 1 05 ( a ) 1 06 from minor k 1 04 ( a ) to n early r elat ed k eys 1 04 ( O) 1 05 ( O) 1 08 ; fro m 1 06 ( O) ; ( O) minor tri ads m aj or k e ys to n early r el at e d k eys 1 09 ; from minor k e ys to n ea rly re l ate d k eys 1 09 ; to unrelat e d k ey ,

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BY

HR O MA TIC 1 1 3 ; ( a ) to k e ys in th e 1 15 ; o f re l ationshi p

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A N A L YTICA L IN D EX

25 2

N early re l at e d k eys ( ee K ey R elationship) N inth cho d of th e minor ( diminish e d s e v e nth ) in e nha monic modul ation s

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tinction be twe e n 1 9 20 ; v ari eti e s o f ve rs e 2 1 P oint of modulation 79 1 60 P olyphonic music compl ex rhythms of ,

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N o single not e can form a motiv e 7 1 1 60 N 0 singl e chord can de fi n e a k ey 7 7 1 60 N o si ngl e phras e can form a s ente nce ,

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26 9

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Prelud e by Bach as an e xampl e of bin ar y form w i th tw o subj e cts 330 Prolongation and r p etitio n of c ad e nce ( see I rr egul ar R hythms) Proportion and b al anc e d e fin ed 10 .

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N octurn e by Chopin as an e xampl e of t e rnary form 3 80 3 8 1 N orm al form of s e nt enc e s consists of 20 2 1 e ight or s ixt e e n b ars R egular 22 1 ( N orm al rhythm 74 R h ythm ) N ot e s acc ente d and un ac cent e d 5 9 60 ,

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note common to two chords us e d as a m e ans of modul a tion 1 5 6 Outlin e s of hymn -tun e s to b e fill e d up O ne

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Q U A D R U P LE

T I ME,

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compound tim e ofte n incorre ctly b ar r e d e x ampl e s

36

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Q U I N T U PL E

T I ME

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xplain e d 300 ; ex - 02 ; i rr egul ar com ampl e s of 00 3 3 pound tim e 3 00 ; use of dott e d bars e

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301

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3 41

Ov rl apping of phras e s ( see I rregul ar R hythms ) Ove rlapping of phras e s d e fi n e d 45 Ove rl apping of s e nt e nc e s common e r than that of phras e s 36 7 Ove rlapping s e nt e nc e s an d phras e s 6 1 1 8 2 6 2 a e x mpl e s of 7 3 3 3 5 45 e

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382

R ecitative an alogy b e twee n music and pros e 2 2 REG U L A R O R N O RMA L R HY T HM d e fin e d -b ar 6 2 2 2 1 four 2 2 0 74 9 s e nt e nc e s e xplained 30 1 84 1 97 3 1 3

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EN TEN CES O F E IGH T B A R S un acc e nt e d 1 84 acc e nt e d an d b ars 1 8 5 ; c ad e nc e at e nd of fore phras e 1 8 6 cad e nce to b e in acc e nte d b ar 1 8 5 ; comm e ncing w ith inco m p le te b ar 1 8 5 ; forming a compl e t e composition e xampl e by S chum ann 2 00 ; formula for indic ating th e sub divisions o i s e nt e nc e s 1 88 ; formul a for construction of s e nt e nc e s 207 ; h armony anticip ation of 208 209 h armony of acc ent e d b ar continu ed through un acce nt e d b ar 2 08 ; ho w construct e d 1 84-1 8 7 ; m e thod of composition 206 ; mode ls for 2 02 205 ; phr as e s in 1 8 4 ; phr as e s divisibl e into s e ctions 1 8 7 s ections co nstruc tion of 1 8 7 ; usu al modul ations 1 86 v arious forms of 1 8 9-1 93 ; various forms w hich modul at e 1 94-1 99 ; w h e re to ch ang e th e h armony 208 S E N TEN CES T W EL V E II OF cont aining thr ee phras es 2 10 B A R5 2 1 4 ; fe minin e 2 1 0 ; e x amp les of 2 1 02 10 e 211 2 1 2 ; formul a e ndings in ofte n are e xten 2 14 ; in minu e ts 2 1 5 sions of e ight-b ar s e nt e nc es 2 15 ; simil arity of phrase s in 2 1 1 2 1 2 I

S

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PA RA P H R A S I NG d e fin e d o f.

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Pe riod o r s e nte nce d e fin ed 2 4 74 Ph antas iestiick by S chum ann as — e x ampl e of t e rn ary form 3 8 6 39 1 P H RA SE acc e nt e d and un acc e nt e d

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an

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full 4 f 7 cade nc e 2 6 2 9 h alf c ad e nc e inte rrupt e d 2 4 2 7 2 8 3 4 42 43 45 cade nc e 3 1 pl agal h alf cad e nce 30 ; i nv e rt e d cad e nce 34 ( O) 42 co ntain ing t w o s e ctions 5 1 de fin e d 27 74 fe minin e e nd i ng i n a 2 8 ; fore phras e and aft e r-phra e 5 0 ; i mport anc e of h armonic conside rations in 5 4 ; no t al w ays divisibl e into s e ctions 5 3 54

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to th e numbe r of phras e s composing a s e nte nc e a 2 8 e ov rl ping of 74 p 45 5 261 Phrasing incorre ct e x ampl e s of 3 62 -365 Po e try and mus ic an alogy be t we e n ,

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P H RA S ES n o r e striction

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AN A L YTICA L IN D EX Sl AfIYZ EYV 2 1 6 -2 1

SILNYCEYV CIZ S

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c ad e nc e s in 9; con taining four phras es 2 1 6 e x ample s of 2 1 7 -2 19 ; e x ampl e of e xte nsion from e ight b ars 2 1 8 -2 1 9 ; formul a mid dle ca d e nce s in 2 1 7 2 16 monotony i n th e cad e n ce s to be of e ight 2 1 6 ; si mil ar i ty avoid e d b ar s e nte nc e s 2 17 ; subdivision of 2 16

B A RS ,

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2 16

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R egul arity of cadence in d anc e-music an d smalle r compositions 1 0 3 23 R el ationship of keys ( e K ey R el ation ship ) R emot e modulation in short pi ec e s rare an e xampl e of 3 0 R espo ns e implie s acce nt 5 9 R esponsive phrase m eaning of 5 9 RH Y T H M an d m e lody i ns e parabl e 9 ; irregul ar d e fi n e d 9 3 24 74 ( see I rregul ar Rhythms ) ; r e ason for pre val e nce of two four an d e i g ht -ba 6 ; r egul ar ( ee R e gular R hythms) R hythmic figure 1 80 2 10 R itmo di tr e b attut e in B ee thove n s N inth S ymphony e xpl aine d 25 7 .

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numbe r of phras e s in a; 74 3 of four bars 30 1 8 4 1 97 3 1 3 3 19 of eight bars 2 4 2 7 -2 9 1 84-2 09 ; of tw elve b ars 4 2 43 2 1 0 -2 1 5 of six t ee n bars 44-47 2 1 6 -2 1 9 SEN T EN CES contraction of see I rre gul ar ( R hy thms ) e xte nsion of ( see I rre gul ar R hythms ) ; in three-bar rhythm ( ee I rregul ar R hy thms ) ; in fi ve bar rhythm se e e a I rr gul r R hythms i n six b ar ( ); rhyth m ( see I rregular Rhythms) in s ev e n -bar rh y thm ( ee I rregul ar R hy thms) of irr egul ar co n s tru c tion (see I rr egul ar R hythms ) ; of regul ar construction ( see R egular R hythms ) S EPT U P L E T I ME 300 ; e xpl ain e d 3 00 3 03 e xampl e s of 303 3 04 ; irre gular compound ti m e 300 ; use of dotte d bars 303 S e qu e nti al re p et i t i on of a b ar i n a phras e 22 1

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S e ve nth

minor i n e nh armonic modula tion ( s ee Modul ation Means of) S hort pi e c es in binary form h o w to w rite ( s ee C omposition ) S impl e bin ary form (see Bin ary Form ) S impl e t ern ary form ( see T e rn ary Form ) S ix-bar rhythm ( see I rr egul ar Rh ythms ,

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Scal e p assag es — di atonic and chrom atic us e d as a m eans of modul ation 1 5 7 ,

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S econd d egree of relationship of k eys ( s e K ey Rel ationship ) cade nce s S ECTI O N S d fin e d 5 1 74 ( Iv ) cad e n at e nd of 5 2 5 5 5 6 7 4 ( IV ) ti al fee ling l e ss d ecide d th an in phras e s 5 5 74 ( IV ) construction of divisible into motiv es 5 8 h o w 1 87 to find th e limit of 5 1 5 2 ; impor t anc e of h armonic consid e r ations in e

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2 30

S ixtee n -b ar se nt ence s ( e Regular R hythms ) S ixth chord of th e augm e nt d in en h armonic modul ation ( Mod ulation Means of S L o w MO V EMEN T S as e x ampl s of te nary form from son at as by Be thov e n -6 6 6 3 5 5 35 3 3 9 : b y Mozart 3 5 7 : b y W be r 3 74-377 ; from quarte tt by Haydn 3 59-3 6 1 S on ata form de velop d from th e bin ary form w i th tw o subj e cts 3 36 S on at a by Moza rt A d agio of as an x ample of th e bin ary form w ith two subj ects 3 33 -3 35 S O N G S as e xampl e s of concis e bin ary form 3 10 3 1 8 -3 0 ; as e x ampl e s of e xt e nd d bin ary form 3 8 ; strophic 3 9 ; as e xam pl e s of t e rn ary form s e

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see

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P ER I O D constructe d from

OR

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typical motive 1 77 1 78 constructe d from motive of more th an tw o not e s cont aining t wo phras es 24 1 79 1 8 0 aining thr e e phr as es 42 27cont ; 5 3 cont ning four phr s s a i a e 43 44 47 ; d e fi n e d 2 4 74 ( IL ) ; e nding w ith a h alf-cade nc e 47 74 e nding w ith modul ation 34 35 1 94-1 99 a fe minin e e ndings 2 8 74 SEN T EN CE formi ng a compl e t e composi tion 2 00 ; n orm al form of 2 5 2 6 22 0 ,

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A N A L Y TICA L

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S ubdivisions of 1V

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music al s e nt e nc e 49 1 7 1 ; of a music al .

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s e nt ence formula 18 8 S ubdomin ant key ca re r e quire d in modulating to — w h y 346 S U B -Mo T IV Es , 6 8

IN

39 1

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by S chum ann

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III I N V O CA L M US IC 392 ; e x ampl e by Ha nd e l an alyz e d 39 3 94 ; oth r e x ampl e s e fe rre d to 3 94 396 in mod e rn vocal music 397 T H EMA TI C MA T ER I A L an alys i s of an e x ampl e by Bach 3 5 by S chum ann .

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3 99 I IN C YCL IC W O R K S ( ) slo w mov e m e nt from son at a by B ee thove n an alyz e d 3 55 3 5 6 e pisod e in k e y of subm e di an t m aj or 3 5 6 modul ations construction 3 55 ; 3 5 6 ; rhythmic tim e e xpl ain e d 35 5 ; ( O) slo w th e m ov e m e nt from son at a by Moz art an alyz e d 3 5 7 3 5 8 ; cod a an d cod e tt a 3 5 7 ; e pisod e in k e y of tonic minor 3 5 8 ; ( c) slo w mov e m e nt from qu arte tt by Ha ydn an alyz e d 35 9 -36 1 ; e pisod e in k ey of fl at m e di ant m aj or 3 60 ; ( d) slo w mov m e nt from son at a by Be ethov e n an alyz e d 362 -373 ; incor re ct phrasing 3 62 -3 65 ; link d e fin e d In minu e ts sch e rzos an d found 6 8 3 slo w mov e m e nts 378 ; ( e) slo w move m e nt from son at a by B e e thov e n analyz e d 3 70 37 3 ; cod a 3 7 3 ; link 37 2 ( f ) slo w mov e m e nt fro m son at a by W e be r an alyz e d 374-37 8 ; e pisode in unusu al key 375 II A S A N I N D EPEN D E N T FO R M found in c apric e s nocturn e s im morc eaux de s alon e tc p r o m p tus a ) nocturn e by C hopin a n alyz e d 7 3 9 ( ( O) impromptu by S chube rt 3 80 3 8 1 an alyze d 3 8 2 3 8 5 cross acc e nts 3 85 ; link of consid er able e xte nt 3 8 5 ove r l apping o f phrase s 383 ; ( c) Ph antasi e .

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I TI O N bin ary form in e x ampl e by Haydn 3 16

T H EMES FO R V

AR A

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h e sis and A nteth e s is 2 6 T hirt ee nth chord of minor in e nh armonic modul ation 1 5 1 1 5 3 T hr ee-b ar rhyt m ( ee I rr e gul ar R hythms ) h T hre -p art s ong form ( t e rn ary form ) T

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3 48

compound G erm an d e fin i t i on of 3 6 ; e lision of a b e a t in a b ar 2 99 ; grouping th e note s of dupl e an d qu ad ruple tim e to produce th e e ffe ct of tripl e tim e 2 87 ; e x ampl e s 2 90 2 92 ; grouping t he note s of tripl e tim e to produce the e ffe ct of dupl e ti m e 2 87 2 89 h o w to d e t e rmin e w h e th e r a b ar of four crotch e ts is to be consid e re d as o ne b ar or tw o 3 2 9 ; ins e rt i on of a b eat i n a b ar 2 95 -2 97 ; qu adrupl e tim e a compound tim e 36 ; i ncorre ct barring in 37 ; quintupl e 300 -302 ; s e ptuple 300 303 304 ; u nit of m ea sure m e n t in 32 9 T on ality d e fin e d 7 T onic minor k ey and its re l ationship to its tonic m ajor 8 7 T ransi e nt modul ation — transition 7 7 T R I A D S chrom atic modul ation by ( see Modul ation Me ans of) ; di atonic m odul ation by ( see Modula tion Means T I ME,

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lve b ar s e nt e nce s ( see R egular R hythms ) T wo -b ar motiv es 7o 7 1 7 2 T w o four an d e ight -b ar rhythm reason for th e pre val e nc e of 2 6 T w o -p art song form ( bin ary fo r m ) 337 T ypic al forms 401 T ypic al motiv e 1 72 Twe

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cod a d e fin e d 35 2 ; cod e tt a d e fi n e d 3 5 7 ; d e fi n e d 3 48 3 5 2 3 5 3 400 ; diffe re nc e b e t w e e n bin ar y and t e rn ary form 3 5 0 -3 5 3 ; el as tic ity of this form 3 5 4 400 found in almost e v e ry d e p artm e nt of music 3 5 4 ; its import anc e 348 ; th e ep isode a n e ss e nti a l o f this form 3 5 0 ; d e fi n e d 3 5 0 400 ; form of 3 5 2 k e ys for and 8 6 e x ampl e s of 2 6 0 5 5 37 5 5 3 3 3 3 3 8 0 tim e som e tim e s ch ang e d for 398

T ERN A R

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of n early rel ate d k e ys 94 ( a ) ; of in th e s e cond d e gre e of rel ation .

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Fr anzOs is ch e

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Ouv rtur ; J oh ann e s Passion 1 34 ; S uite Fran caise N o 6 3 27 ; T occ at a in D minor 64 W o h ltem Fugu e 3 6 2 7 0 ; p e rir tes C l avi e r W o h ltemp erir tes Cl avi e r P relude 39 e

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Bagatell es Op 33 N o 3 19 5 ; B ag at ell e s Op 33 N o 7 7 3 ; C onc erto in G Op 5 8 3 2 ; “Egmont “ 2 66 ; Marmotte Op 5 2 N o 7 2 8 ; P i ano T ri o Op 1 “ NO 2 2 09 ; P rom e th eus 3 1 7 ; Q u arte tt Op 1 8 N o 3 34 ; Quart ett Op 5 9 N o 1 73 ; Q u arte tt Op 74 N o 1 5 3 62 7 6 ; S on at a Op 2 2 1 2 ; S on at a Op 2 N o 2 244 ; S on ata Op 5 N o 1 2 92 ; S on ata Op 7, 1 1 1 ; S on ata Op 1 3 3 62 ; S on ata Op 1 4 N O 2 2 87 S on at a Op 2 2 2 08 S on at a Op 23 1 78 S on ata Op 2 4 2 2 7 ; S on at a Op 2 6 3 2 1 43 ; S o nata Op 2 8 40 7 o ; S on ata Op 30 N o 3 2 8 8 ; S on at a Op 3 1 N o 2 1 24 2 87 ; S on at a Op 3 1 N o 3 1 5 0 ; S on at a Op S onata Op 7 8 2 10 ; S on at a Op 7 9 3 5 5 ; S on at a Op 1 06 2 62 ; T hird S ym phony 2 98 ; S e v enth S ymphony 1 00 1 5 6 ; N inth S ymphony 2 7 3 T ri o i n 5 C minor Op 1 N o 3 1 7 9 ; T ri o in B fl at Op 97 1 2 1 ; V ari ations Op

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