Music Notation &Terminology

4.

MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY KARL W: GEHRK£NS

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MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY

By

KARL

W. GEHRKENS, A.M.

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF SCHOOL MUSIC O BERLIN CONSERVATORY OF MUSIC

THE A. S. BARNES COMPANY NEW YORK 1914 -:-

s

-:-

COPYEIGHl/igiSrBV

THE

A. S.

BARNES COMPANY

PREFACE The study

of

music notation and terminology by classes in

conservatories and in music departments of colleges and normal schools

is

a comparative innovation, one reason for the non-

existence of such courses in the past being the lack of a suitable

text-book, in which might be found in related groups clear

accurate definitions of the really essential terms.

and

But with the

constantly increasing interest in music study (both private

and

in the

pubhc

schools),

demand that music and therefore more class of pupils, it lish courses in

and with the present

persistent

teaching shall become more systematic efl&cient in

turning out a more intelligent

has become increasingly necessary to estab-

which the prospective teacher

of

having had considerable experience with music

music (after

might and accurate knowledge of a fairly large acquire a concise ntmiber of terms, most of which he has probably already encoimtered as a student, and many of which he knows the general meaning of, but none of which he perhaps knows accurately enough to enable him to impart his knowledge

and economically to others. the need of a text-book meet To

itself)

clearly

classes the author has

been

for this purpose in his

own

for several years gathering material

and

hoped that the arrange-

from

all

ment

of this material in related groups as here presented will

available sources,

it is

serve to give the student not only

some

insight into the present

meaning of a goodly number of terms, but will also enable him to see more clearly why certain terms have the meaning which at present attaches to them. To this latter end the derivations

PREFACE

iv

many

of

of the terms are given in connection

with their

defi-

nition.

The aim has not been

to present an exhaustive Ust,

and the

selection of terms has of course been influenced largely

author's

probably

own

individual experience, hence

this

For

this state of affairs

no apology

would probably be impossible to write subject which would satisfy everyone in either

except that

a book on

by the

teachers wiU

that important terms have been omitted that

feel

should have been included. is offered

many

it

the selection or actual definition of terms.

In formulating the definitions themselves an attempt has been made to use such words as note, tone, et cetera with at least

a

fair

on

degree of accuracy, and while the attitude of the author

this point

it is

may

be

criticized as being puristic

and pedantic,

nevertheless his opinion that the next generation of music

students and teachers wiU be profited by a more accurate use

of certain terms that have been inaccurately used for so long that the present generation has to a large extent lost sight of

the fact that the use is inaccurate. The author is weU aware of the fact that reform is a matter of growth rather than of edict,

but he

is

also of the belief that before reform

begin to come, the need of reform must be

ntunber of actively interested persons. so few musicians realize the need of

felt

can actually

by a

fairly large

It is precisely

any change

because

in music termi-

nology that the changes recommended by committees

who

have given the matter careful thought are so slow in being adopted. It is hoped that some few points at which reform in the terminology of music is necessary may be brought to the attention of a few additional musicians thru this volmne, and that the cause may thus be helped in some sHght degree. It

is

suggested that in using the book for class-room pur-

poses the teacher emphasize not only the definition and derivation of all terms studied, but the spelling and pronunciation as

PREFACE well.

For

this latter

V

purpose a pronouncing index has been

appended. It is impossible to give credit to all sources

from which

ideas have been drawn, but especial mention should be made of the eminently clear and beautifully worded definitions compiled

by

Professor

Waldo

Pratt £or the Century Dictionary,

S.

and the exceedingly valuable range of topics found in the

articles

new

on an almost

all-inclusive

edition of Grove's Dictionary.

Especial thanks for valuable suggestions as to the arrangement of the material, etc., are also

due to Dr. Ra3miond H. Stetson,

Professor of Psychology, OberKn College; Arthur E. Heacox, Professor of Theory, Oberlin Conservatory of Music;

Charles

I.

Rice, Supervisor of Music, Worcester, Mass., as

well as to various

Association

and

members

who have

of the

Music Teachers' National

offered valuable advice along certain

specific lines. K. w. G.

Oberlin Conservatory op Music, June, 1913

CONTENTS

— Some Principles of Correct Notation — Rules for turning stems. — Use of cross-stroke. — — Sharp and doubleRest. — — F Clef and C G sharp. — Flat, double-flat and natural. — Tie. — Dot a note. — Symbols of Music Defined / Chapter — Leger Lines. — and Great degrees. — — Treble and bass — Movable C — Sharp. — — Double-sharp and — Symbols of Music Defined (continued) Chapter Key-signature; how determine whether a major or Natural. — minor key. — Accidentals; with across bar. — Rules concerning altered degrees. — Enharmonic. — Notes; pitch and — English Lists length tones. — 29 Rests. — notes and — 32. Less common forms. — 33. Whole peculiar use — names 34. Bar. — 35. Double-bar. Chapter IV. — Abbreviations, Signs, — 41. Continuation. — 42. Rest. — 43. Pause. 36-40. Signs for — 44. Hold. — 45-47. Alteration of Pitch. — Octave names. (continued) Chapter V. — Abbreviations, Signs, Dots over or under notes. — Dash over 49-51. Dots after notes. — — S\xa or with dots. — Dash over Tie. — note. — Accent marks. — m.d., m.g., Dash and dot over note. — note. — — 61. Arpeggio. — Messa voce. — Violin bow Chapter VI. — Embellishments — 66-68. Mordent. — 69-72. Definition and kinds. — Acciaccatura. Appoggiatura. — Tiun. — ^ Chapter VH. — Scales Key. — Origin. — Three Definition, and old forms. — — Diatonic, defined. — Major diatonic. — general .

Chapter

I.

Note.

I.

2, 3.

Clef.

6.

S.

Clef.

7.

8.

10.

9.

11.

after

II.

12. StaflE

Clef.

Staff.

13.

14. Staff

Clefs.

16.

19. Flat.

i

4.

20.

Clef.

17.

5

15.

18.

double-flat.

III.

21.

8

22, 23.

tie

24, 25.

26.

28.

27.

staff

of

of

30.

rests.

^31.

rest,

for.

of.

etc.

13

repetition.

48.

•

etc.

52.

55. Slur.

54.

tie

56.

58.

57.

60.

59.

di

62.

etc.

78.

77.

76.

83.

The

82.

fifteen positions.

— Scales (continued) Harmonic minor. — Original form. — diatonic. — — Relative minor. — 90. Tonic Eleven Melodic minor. — Chromatic Diatonic scale names. — 92. Syllable-names. — minor. — — Whole-step — 94. Nine

^ Chapter

84.

VIII.

Minor

86.

85.

88.

positions.

87.

89.

93.

91.

scale.

27

79.

81.

80.

classes.

—

22

Trill.

75.

73, 74.

Tetrachords.

signs.

63.

65.

64.

17

53.

positions.

scale.

95.

vii

33

CONTENTS

viii

— Auxiliary Words and Endings — Measure Definition. — Two Rhythna vers meas— Syncopation. — Simple and compound measures. — — — Other — Rare Commonest The C and ^ Chapter XI. — Tempo by Misuses the word "time." — 105-107. How to Three ways substituting "rhythm," "measure," and "tempo." — tempoA convenient grouping finding the correct tempo. — terms. Chapter XII. — Tempo iio-iig.Tempo-terms. Chapter XIII. — Dynamics 20-13 Terms dynamics. Chapter XIV. — Terms Relating to Forms and Styles form. — form. — Basis Difference between Definition — — MonoIntroductory. — Two form and Polyphonic music. — Counterpoint. — phonic music. — Imita— Canon. — School round. — Fugue. Forms and Styles Chapter XV. — Terms Relating Period. Antecedent. Phrase-section. — Consequent. — Theme. — Thematic development. — Primary forms. — Ron— Dances — Scherzo. — Sonata. — — Chamber Music. — Quartet. Concerto. — SymSonata-form. — Sonatina. Grand Sonata. — phony. — Symphonic or tone poem. Program music. — Vocal Music Chapter XVI. — Terms Relating — Anthem. — A Motet. — Choral. — Oratorio. — Cantata. — Opera. — Mass. — Libretto. — — Recitative. — Lied. — Ballad. — Folk— Part-song. Madrigal. — song. — Chapter XVII. — Rhythm, Melody, Harmony and Intervals The four elements music. — Rhythm. — Melody. — Timbre. — Interval — harmonic and melodic. — Harmony. — Nimiber name and name. — Prime. — Second. — — — Fourth. — Third. — Seventh.— Ninth. — Octave. — Major, minor, diminished and — Inverted augmented Chapter XVIH. — Chords, Cadences, Chord. Triad. Root. — Major, minor, diminished, aug— The Common chords. — Fundamental mented — — SeventhSecond Figured Cadence. — chord. Ninth chord. — Authentic cadence. — Perfect authentic. Imperfect authentic. — Plagal cadence. — Deceptive cadence. — Half-cadence. — Sequence. — Moduharmonic and melodic: Dominant Seventh. — Suspension. — Chapter IX. Chapter X.

essential

97.

ure.

98.

characteristics.

100.

99.

loi.

varieties.

42 44

102.

varieties.

103.

varieties.

signs,

104.

of

108.

of

109.

{continued)

1

48

correct these:

of

$2 56

relating to

1.

62

"*

of

132.

of

133.

style.

134.

136.

135.

138.

142.

141.

tion.

styles.

140.

143.

to

{continued)

145.

144.

154.

67

146.

148.

147.

150. Suite.

do.

137.

139.

149.

in suite.

151.

152.

Trio.

153.

156.

155.

158.

157.

159.'

160.

to

162.

161.

166.

.'

capella.

163.

164.

168.

167.

171.

170.

Aria.

172.

of

178.

182.

174.

177.

179.

180.

181.'

186.

187.

183.

188.

189.

193.

intervals.

185.

Fifth.

190.

Sixth.

191.

perfect,

194.

intervals.

195.

etc

196.

197.

triads.

198.

First inversion.

199.

inversion.

202.

200.

position.

bass.

201.

203.

204.

205.

207.

lation,

82

184.

specific

192.

169.

173.

176. Glee.

175.

76]

165.^

206.

208.

209.

210.

87

CONTENTS 211. Retardation.

and open

position.

— — — —

ix

— 212. Anticipation. — 213. — 215. Transposition.

Pedal point.

Chapter XDC. Miscellaneous Terms Chapter XX. Miscellaneous Terms (continued) Appendix A. The History of Music.Notation Appendix B. Musical Instruments £,

Two

classes.

—

2.

Piano.

—

214. Close

9S

98 loi

Organ, reed and pipe.

3, 4.

—

—

112 S-

Instru-

— Band. — Orchestra. — The — Wood-wind. — Brass. — Percussion. Books recommended. — Proportion instruments an orchestra. — — — Double-bass. — Flute. — — — Oboe family. — Clarinet and bass saxoComet. — Trombone. phone. — Trumpet. — French horn. — — Tuba. — Kettle-drum. — Harp. Appendix C. — Acoustics — Sound, production — transmission — Rate — Tones, — — — Quality. — Overtones. — — Pitch. — properties Standards Equal temperament. — Appendix D. — Terminology Reform No. Apiendix E. — Analysis of Beethoven Sonata, Op.

149

Pronocnceng Index

iS9

ments used

for ensemble playing.

stringed instruments.

14. Violin.

15. Viola.

19. Piccolo.

I.

of

24.

of.

Intensification

8.

12.

25.

28.

2.

5.

of.

clarinet;

23.

Definition.

iS.

17.

21.

27.

travel.

11.

13.

16. Violoncello.

20.

22.

26.

8.

7.

10.

in

of

12.

6.

9.

of.

6.

9. Intensity.

13.

of.

3.

Classification

of.

131

4.

7.

11.

10.

of pitch. ,

31,

3

139

CHAPTER

I

Some Principles of Correct Notation The

1.

note (from nota

— Latin — a mark or sign) consists

of either one, two, or three parts,

(^ J /) these being referred to respectively as head, stem, and hook. The hook is often called tail or cross-stroke. The stem appears on the right side of the head when turned up, but on the left side when turned down.i J f The hook is always on the right side.^ J^ f In writing music with pen the head and hook are best made with a heavy pressure point, but in writing at the board they are most easily made by using a piece of chalk about an inch long, turned on its side.

on the pen

When

2.

only one part (or voice)

is

written on the

the following rules for turning stems apply:

head

(i)

If

staflf,

the note-

must turn up. (2) If the note-head is above the third line the stem must turn down. (3) If the note -head is on the third line the stem is turned either up or down with due regard to the symmetrical appearance of the measure in which the note occurs. The following examples wiU illustrate these points. is

below the third line, the stem

Fig. 1.

fe^ ip.f^-^^ff=f^=H-^-r^tf It should be noted at the outset that this statement regarding the down-turned left side of the note-head, and also a number of similar principles here dted, refer more specifically to music as it appears on the printed page. In the case of '

stem on the

hand-copied music the down-turned stem appears on the right side of the note, thus

This

is

done because of greater

facility in writing,

and

for the

same reason other

\

slight

modifications of the notation here recommended may sometimes be encountered. In dealing with children it is best usually to follow as closely as possible the principles according to which printed music is notated, in order to avoid those non-satisfying and often embarassing explanations of differences which will otherwise be unavoidable. 2 An exception to this rule occurs in the case of notes of unequal value stroked together,

when the hook appears on the

left side,

thus

fj

.

MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY 3.

of the

When two parts upper part aU

are written

tiirn up,

on the same

and those

staff,

the stems

of the lower part turn

may

be clearly distinguished^ (Fig. 2.) But in music for piano and other instruments on which complete chords can be sounded by one performer and

down, in order that the parts

music in which all voices have several notes often have one rh3d;hm, same approximately the stem in common as in Fig. 3. also in simple, four-part vocal

Fig. 3.

mfai^^m Fig. 2.

4.

Notes of small denomination (eighths and smaller) are two or more, all stems in the group

often written in groups of

being then connected by one cross-stroke.

In such a case

all

the stems must of course be turned the same way, the direction

being determined by the position of the majority of note-

heads in the group.

Notes thus stroked

or of different denomination. Fig- 4-

&^^ is

See Fig.

may

be of the same

4.

... E£

In vocal music notes are never thus stroked when a syllable given to each note. (See p. 19, Sec. 55, C.) 5.

Rests, like notes, are best

made with a heavy pen

stroke

or by using a piece of chalk on its side. (See note under Sec. i.) The double-whole rest, whole rest, and half rest occupy the

third space imless for the sake of clearness in writing

two parts on the same staff they are written higher or lower. The rests of smaller denomination may be placed at any point on the staff, the hooks being always placed on the spaces. The hook

SOME PRINCIPLES OF CORRECT NOTATION of the eighth rest is usually placed

on the

3

Rests

third space.

are sometimes dotted, but are never tied. 6.

The G clef should be begun at the second line rather than

below the

staff.

ginners learn to cess

Experiments have shown clearly that be-

make

most

it

easily in this

may be

further simplified

J

The descending

thus,

.

curve at or near the fourth

by

The F clef is made

way, and the proit

two

into

line.

The

first

parts,

ascending

stroke crosses the

curve occupies approximately the 7.

dividing

circular part of the

and second

either thus, §!^, or thus,

spaces.

^,

the dots

being placed one on either side of the fourth line of the

which

is

The C

the particular point that the clef marks.

has also two forms, Itj! and

W

staff,

clef

.

8. The sharp is made with two Ught vertical strokes, and two heavy slanting ones, the slant of the latter being upward from left to right, #. The sharp should never be made thus, ^,

The

double

sharp

is

made

either thus x or

x,

the

first

form being at present the more common.

made by a down stroke retraced part way up, the curve being made without lifting pen from paper. The double flat consists of two flats, ^ t>b. The natural or cancel is made in two strokes, down-right and right-down, 9.

The

flat is best

^

thus lib,. 10.

The The

tie

usually connects the heads of notes, thus ,0*.

a note always appears on a space, whether the note-head is on a line or space. (See Fig. 5.) In the case of a dot after a note on a line, the dot usually appears on the 11.

dot after

space above that line

on the space below

if

it if

the next note

is

higher in position and

the following note

is

lower.

1 It is to be hoped that the figure for the double-flat suggested by Mattheson (who also suggested the St. Andrew's cross (X) for the double-sharp) may some time be readopted. This figure was the Greek letter B,_made thus, /S, and its use would make our notation one degree more uniform than it is at present.

MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY Fig.

Note.

5

— Correct notation must be made a habit rather than a theory, and in order

to form the habit of writing correctly,

secured

by asking students

tion, thus:

"Key quarter,

This may perhaps be best on ruled paper) from verbal dicta-

necessary.

Teacher says, of BI7, three-quarter measure:

and Mi a quarter.

a quarter.

drill is

to write (at the board or

First measure,

Second measure,

SOL

DO

a quarter,

a,

LA

quarter note,

RE

a quarter, and

a

SOL

Third measure, LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, eighths, stroked in pairs. Fourth DO a dotted half." Pupils respond by writing the exercise dictated,

measure, high after

may

which mistakes in the turning of stems,

etc.,

are corrected.

The

pitch

be dictated instead of the syllables if desired, and still further practice provided by asking that the exercise be transposed to other keys.

names be

may

CHAPTER

II

Symbols of Music Defined

A sta^ is a collection of parallel lines, together with the

12.

The modern

spaces belonging to them. six spaces, these

being ordinarily referred to as

third line, fourth line,

line,

lowest)

;

has five lines and

staff

and space below

and

{i.e.,

fifth line

definition

and discussion above

hne, second

(beginning with the

space below the

first line), first

and space above. more specifically

space, second space, third spaeej fourth space,

The

first

refer

to one of the portions of the "great staff," the latter term being

often appUed to the combination of

treble

and bass

commonly used

(with one leger line between) so

staffs

in piano

music, etc.

The below by

or

notes

may

may

extent of the staff

13.

be increased either above lines or

above and below them. 14. The hnes and spaces constituting the leger hnes

any) are often referred to as

if

separate Kne and space

The

staff."

lines, and on the spaces

the addition of short lines called leger

be written on either these

is

'^

staff (including

each

staff degrees, i.e.,

considered to be

"a degree

of the

tones of a scale are also sometimes referred to as

"degrees of the scale." 15.

A

clep

is

a sign placed on the

pitches are to be represented e.g.,

the

G

clef

staff represents

space F, 1

etc.

The word

by

staff to

its lines

and

designate spaces.

what Thus,

shows us not only that the second Hne of the G, but that the

The F

first line

clef similarly

leger is derived

represents E, the

shows us that the

from the French word

first

fifth line

LEGER, meaning

light,

and

this use of the word refers to the fact that the leger lines, being added by hand, are than the printed lines of the staff itself. lighter i.e., less solid in color

—

—

—

—

a key the reference being to the derived from CLAVIS fact that the clef unlocks or makes clear the meaning of the staS, as a key to a puzzle enables us to solve the puzzle. 2

The word

clef is

MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY

6

of the bass staff represents the first

fourth hne the

first

F

below middle C,

The student should note fied

forms of the

A

letters

G

below middle C, the

etc.

that these clefs are merely modi-

and F, which (among others) were

used to designate the pitches represented by certain Unes when For a fuller discussion staff notation was first inaugurated. of this matter see i6.

When

the

Appendix

G

clef is

I,

p.ioi.

used the

staff is usually referred to

the hass staff. and when the F Such expressions as "singing from the treble clef," or "singing in the treble clef," and "singing in the bass clef" are still frequently heard, but are preferably replaced by "singing from the treble staff," and "singing from the bass staff." Fig. 6 shows the permanent names of lines and spaces when the G and F clefs are used.' as the treble

Fig. 6.

staff,

clef is used, as

SYMBOLS OF MUSIC DEFINED The C 7, 8,

the

clef

used in

clef as

and

its

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8. Alto

clef.

w A

sharp

is

with which

it

same

10

I

clef,

B

in

ir-

iii

a character which causes the degree of the associated to represent a pitch one half-

otherwise would.

in Fig. lo (o) the fifth line

Fig. 10 (6) these

Tenor

1^

it is

step higher than Thus

stafiE

and

first

space represent the pitch F, but in

degrees represent an entirely different tone

student should note that the sharp does not then raise anything staff

shown in Figs. line on which

Fig. 9.

clef.

—V T-

1-

C

18.

is

be noted that in each case the 9. is placed represents "middle C." It will

Soprano

staff

various positions

7

degree to represent a higher tone than

F and F# as "B raised"!

difference between

referring to

C

as

between

it

otherwise would.

B and

;

it

— F#.

The

merely causes a

There

is

just as

much

C, and yet one would never think of

Fig. 10.

i 19.

iE

A flat is a character that

with which lower than

it is

it

causes the degree of the

staff"

associated to represent a tone one half-step(See note under Sec. 18 and.

otherwise would.

apply the same discussion here.) 20.

A

double-sharp causes the staff degree on which

placed to represent a pitch one whole-step higher than

without any sharp. degree on which

lower than

it

it is

it

it is-

would

Similarly, a double-flat causes the staff

placed to represent a pitch one whole-step,

would without any

flat.

Double-sharps and "double-flats are generally used on

staff degrees

that have^

already been sharped or flatted, therefore their practical effect is to cause staff degrees to represent pitches respectively a half-step higher and a half-step lower than

would be represented by those same degrees sharp on this degree would cause sharp,

i.e.,

it

Thus in and the double-

in their diatonic condition.

Fig. 10 (b) the first space in its diatonic condition

'

represents F-sharp,

to represent a pitch one-half step higher than F-

F-double-sharp.

1 The expression "diatonic condition'' as here used refers to the staff after the signature has been placed upon it, in other words after the staff has been prepared to. represent the pitches of the diatonic- scale.

(^z fi-^icc

eQ, D, D# or El^, E, F, Fjf or G>, G, G# or Ab, A, Ajif or Bb, B, but in each case it is the same scale because the intervals between its tones are the same. We have then one major scale only, but this scale may be written in many different positions, and may be sung or played beginning on any one of a number of different pitches. 82. It is interesting to note that the major scale consists

intervals

are half-steps,

of

two

identical series of four tones each;

i.e.,

the

tones of the scale are separated from one another

first

by

four

exactly

the same intervals and these intervals appear in exactly the

same order as Fig. 53 will

in the case of the last four tones of the scale.

make

this clear.

The

first

four tones of any dia-

tonic scale (major or minor) are often referred to as the lower tetrachord^

and the upper four tones as the upper

Fig. 53. Lower Tetrachord

Upper Tetrachord

^

^— T.

"?

3

—

t

tetrachord.

T^oU step

1 The word tetrachord means literally "four strings" and refers to the primitive instnmient, the four strings of which were so tuned that the lowest and the highest tones prodviced were a perfect fourth apart. With the Greeks the tetrachord was the unit of analysis as the octave is with us to-day, and all Greek scales are capable of division into two tetrachords, the arrangement of the intervals between the tones in each tetrachord differentiating one scale from another, but the tetrachords themselves always consisting of groups of four tones, the highest being a perfect fourth above the

lowest.

MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY

30

It is interesting further to note that the

of

any sharp

scale is

upper tetrachord

always used without change as the lower

tetrachord of the next major scale involving sharps, while the

lower tetrachord of any flat scale

chord of the next

used as the upper tetra-

is

See Figs. 54 and 55.

flat scale.

Fig. 54. of

C

New Tetrachord to

Scale of

C

New Tetrachord to

Upper Tetrachord from Scale

complete Scale of

G

i F!g. 55Lower Tetrachord from

-s>

ilE From

83.

may

i

fifteen different positions, as follows:

No sharps or flats

-e

2Z-

-S"

=2-

:5==s;

i w

G, One Sharp

-O.-

D,

iw

-2?

Two

Sharps



^

=-

#

A, Three sharps

i

4^—

iM:

ft^



=^

rr,

^ p

^ i^

Cb, Seven Flats

;fc|

i

:g^-H7^^=i

It will

be observed that in the above

beginning on F# and i.e.,

ia:

Gt' call for

while the notation

are the same.

same

tones.

The

is different,

scales of Q.%

When two

scales

series of scales those

the same keys on the piano, the actual tones of the scale

and Db likewise employ the thus employ the same tones

MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY

32

but

differ in

notation they are said to be enharmonic.

(cL

p. 38, Sec. 93.) Note.

— The student

is

advised to adopt some uniform method of writing scales,

and flats appearand then repeated collectively at the end as a signature. repeat these scales and signatures over and over until absolute

preferably the one followed in those given above, the necessary sharps

ing before the notes in the scale

He

is

also advised to

familiarity

is

attained.

F, C, G, and D.

E.g.,

E—F#—Gfr—A—B— C#—D#—E; signature, four sharps,

CHAPTER

VIII

Scales (Continued) 84.

The minor

diatonic scale is used in several slightly but the characteristic interval between the

different forms,

and third tones (which differentiates it from the major remains the same in every case. This interval between the first and third tones consists of four half-steps in the major scale and of three half-steps in the minor scale and this differ-

first

scale)

ence in size has given scale

having the larger

the designation major for the

rise to

third,

and minor

for the scale having

the smaller one.

The original (or primitive) form of the minor scale has tones arranged as follows. 85.

its

^

whole

n

As

o

half

step

step

its.

whole

a

whole

name impUes,

r

step

step

step

(being derived from the old Greek

86.

is

it

AeoUan it is

therefore

The harmonic minor

except that

/-

whole

rj

step

whole

scale),

g

step

this is the oldest of the three

of the absence of a "leading tone"

one-part music only, and

half

forms

but because

suitable for the simplest

little

used at present.

scale is like the primitive

form

substitutes a tone one half-step higher for the

seventh tone of the older

{i.e.,

the primitive) fomi.

This

change was made because the development of writing music in several

parts

(particularly harmonic part-writing)

necessary a "leading tone," to

move on up

i.e.,

a tone with a strong tendency

to the key-tone as a closing point. 33

made

In order

MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY

34

to secure a tone with such a strongly

upward tendency the

between seven and eight had to be reduced in size to a half-step. It should be noted that this change in the seventh tone of the scale caused an interval of a step-and-a-hah beinterval

tween the sixth and seventh tones

step

step

^

o whole

^'^alf

whole

..

whole

r

step

step

of the scale, half

/•

step

and

-

half

a half

step

„

step

The melodic minor scale substitutes a tone one haK-step higher than six as well as one a half-step higher than seven, but this change is made in the ascending scale only, the de87.

The

scending scale being like the primitive form. sixth

(commonly

referred to as the "raised sixth")

higher

was used

to get rid of the unmelodic interval of a step-and-a-half*

(augmented second), while the return to the primitive form in descending is made because the ascending form is too much like the tonic major scale. ^

whole

„

^

1iaif~'"

whole

step

step

« whole

/-

step

This form

^

half

r

whole step

step

is

whole

r

step

step

whole step

>

whole step

^ whole step

T''taJf~

•-,

half

„

step

^ whole

step

whole step

^

step

used only to a very limited extent, and then

principally in vocal music, the harmonic form being in almost

universal use in spite of the 88.

The minor

augmented second.

scale in its various positions (up to five

and

aU three forms foUows: a composition based on any one of these forms (or upon a mixture of them, which often occurs) is said to be in the minor mode. It wiU be noted that the first four tones are alike in all three forms; i.e., the lower tetrachbrd in the minor scale is invariable no matter what may happen to the upper tetrachord. The sign + marks the step-and-a-half. sharps and five

The

flats)

in

step-and-a-half (augmented second) is "unmelodic" because it is the same a minor third and the mind finds it difficult to take in as a second (notes representing it being on adjacent staff-degrees) an interval of the same size as a third. '

size as

SCALES Primitive

Form

Harmonic Form

A

[ie=^^^^

35 Melodic Form

Minor

Signature

MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY

36

A

89.

scale

minor

scale having the

same signature as a major

said to be its relative minor.

is

E.g.,

—e

is

the relative

minor of G, c of Et?, d of F, etc., the small letter being used to refer to the minor key or scale, while the capital letter indicates the major key or scale unless accompanied by the word minor. Relative keys are therefore defined as those having the same

G and e are relative keys,

signature. 90.

A minor

and f#, etc. same tone as a ma-

as are also]A

scale beginning with the

jor scale is referred to as its tonic minor.

three flats in

its

signature

is

e with one sharp

degrees in natural condition;

minor

of

E

with four sharps,

Thus,

e.g.,

C

the tonic minor of

etc.

is

c with

with

all

the tonic

Tonic keys are therefore

those having the same key-tone. 91.

The

eight tones of the diatonic scale (both major

and

minor) are often referred to by specific names, as follows: 1.

Tonic tonic

key, 2.

3. 4.

— the tone.

is

(This refers to the fact that the

the principal tone, or generating tone of the

i.e., it is

the tone.)

— above the tone. Mediant — midway between tonic and dominant. Sub-dominant — the under dominant. (This name Supertonic

does not refer to the position of the tone under the

dominant but to the fact that the fifth below the tonic is also a dominant tone the under dominant just as the fifth above is the upper dominant).

—

—

5.

6.

—

Dominant the governing tone. word dominus meaning master.) Super-dominant or Sub-mediant

(From the Latin

— above the dominant. — midway between tonic

and sub-

dominant. 7.

Leading tone

— the tone which demands resolution

to the tonic (one-half step above 8.

Octave

— the eighth tone.

it).

SCALES The

92.

and minor

syllables

commonly

37

applied to the various major

scales in teaching sight-singing are as follows:^

— DO, RE, MI, FA,' SOL, LA, TI, DO. Minor'' — original — LA, TI„DO, RE, MI, FA, SOL, LA. LA. harmonic — LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FA, LA, melodic — LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FI,

Major

SI,

SI,

SOL, FA, MI, RE, DO, TI, LA. and pionundation that have one (ut) was changed to DO as early as the sixteenth century because o£ the difficulty of producing a good singing tone on at. For the same reason and also in order to avoid having two diatonic syllables with the same initial letter, the tonic-sol-fa system (invented in England about 1812 and systematized about 1850) changed SI to TI and this change has been almost universally adopted by teachers of sight-singing in this country. The more elaborate It

is

interesting to study tte changes in

occurred (and are

still

both

spelling

The

occurring) in these syllables.

tonic-sol-fa spelling of the diatonic syllables

(DOH, LAH,

first

etc.),

has not, however, been

favorably received in this country and the tendency seems to be toward simplification rather than

toward elaboration.

It

is

still

further

probable that further changes in

both spelling and pronunciation will be made in the near future, one such change that seems especially desirable being some other syllable than RE for the second tone of the major scale, so that the present syllable may be reserved for "flat-two," thus providing a uniform vowel-sound for all intermediate tones of the descending chromatic scale, as is

already the case in the ascending form.

1 These syllables are said to have been derived originally from the initial syllables to Saint John," the music of which was a typical Gregorian chant. The of the " application of these syllables to the scale tones will be made clear by reference to this h3nmn as given below. It will be observed that this hymn provided syllables only for the six tones of the hexachord then recognized; when the octave scale was adopted (early in the sixteenth century) the initial letters of the last line ( s and i) were combined into a syllable for the seventh tone.

Hymn

Sane

-

te

Jo-han-nes.

A considerable number of teachers

(particularly those who did not learn to sing by syllable in childhood) object to calling the tonic of the minor scale la, insisting that both major and minor tonic should be called do. According to this plan the syllables used in singing the harmonic minor scale would' be: DO, RE, ME, FA, SOL, LE, 11, '

DO. There is no particular basis for this theory, for although all scales must of course begin with the key-tone or tonic, this tonic may be referred to by any syllable which wiU serve as a basis tor an association process enabling one to feel the force of iftie a home tone. Thus in the Dorian mode the tonic would be tone as a closing point RE, in tie Phrygian, MI, etc.

—

MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY

38 93.

The

half -steps.

chromatic scale^

is

one which proceeds always by always equal no matter

Its intervals are therefore

with what tone

it

begins.

Since, however,

we have (from

the

standpoint of the piano keyboard) five pairs of tones^ which are enharmonically the same,

it

may

readily be seen that the

chromatic scale might be notated in aU sorts of fashions, and this is iQ fact the real status of the matter, there being no one

method vmiformly agreed upon by composers. Parry (Grove's Dictionary, article chromatic) reconunends writing the scale with such accidentals as can occur in chromatic chords without changing the key in which the passage occurs. Thus ,taking C as a type, " the first accidental will be T>\>, as the upper note of the minor ninth on the tonic; the next will be Eb, the minor third of the all of which can occur without key; the next F#, the major third of the supertonic and the remaining two will be A\> and Bb, the minor sixth and causing modulation

—

—

seventh of the key."

—

According to this plan the chromatic scale beginning with

—

C

the form being the would be spelled C, Db, D, Eb, E, F, F#, G, Ab, A, Bb, B, C same both ascending and descending. This is of course written exclusively from a harmonic standpoint and the advantage of such a form is its definiteness.

94.

For

sight-singing

usually written

by

purposes

the

chromatic

scale^

is

representing the intermediate tones in

ascending by sharps, (in some cases naturals and double-

and the intermediate tones in descending by flats (sometimes naturals and double-flats). The chromatic scale in nine different positions, written from this standpoint, follows, and the syllables most commonly applied in sight-singing have also been added. In the first two scales the student of sharps),

harmony is asked to note that because of the very common prac' The student should differentiate between the so-called "tonality" scales like the major and minor, the tones of which are actually used as a basis for "key-feding" with the familiar experience of coming home to the tonic after a melodic or harmonic excursion, and on the other hand the purely artificial and mechanical construction of the chromatic scale. * Many other enharmonic notations are possible, altho the "five pairs of tones" above referred to are the most common. Thus E# and F are enharmonically the same, as are also Cb and B, C# and Bk, etc. ' The word chromatic means literally colored and was first applied to the intermediate tones because by using them the singer could get smoother and more diverselyshaded progressions, i.e., could get more color than by using only the diatonic tones. Composers were not long discovering the peculiar value of these additional tones and soon found that these same tones were exceedingly valuable also in modulating, hence the two uses of intermediate tones at the present time| first, to embelUsh a melody; second, to modulate to another key.

—

SCALES tice of

39

modulating to the dominant and sub-dominant keys,

the intermediate tones #4 and i'y are quite universally used In other in both ascending and descending melody passages.

words the

scales that f oUow

would more nearly represent actual

in each case #4 (FI) were substituted for ^5 (SE) in the descending scale; and if ^7 (TE) were substituted for #6

usage

if

(LI) ia the ascending form.

iiE -P-^^ RE DO di

fe

ig

TI

^

b«

ri

tJ

-^ MI

\>wr

FA

--!^

-^-i •

SOL

fi

°

-

si

o

LA

b*

-g

g"

TI

li

a

b*

g~

DO

MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY

40

[r^^i^Jt^-^Mtf^-'^^"-^ Eb

n

-^^^d^-,,-:^^

^-^

^!U-^ ^^i-^^-M'-^^^'^^'^-^^-^:^^ —

is

Note. In writing chromatic scales from this sight-singing standpoint the student urged to adopt a three-step process; first, writing the major diatonic scale both

ascending and descending; second, marking the half -steps; third, inserting accidental notes calling for the intermediate tones. In the above chromatic scales these inter-

mediate tones have been represented by black note-heads so as from the notes representing diatonic scale tones.

95.

The

Sec. 79)

is,

whole-step

as its

name

scale

mentioned in which the intervals

in every instance of whole-steps.

This reduces the number of tones in the scale to seven. ginning with

C

them

(the third type

implies, a scale in

between the tones consist

to differentiate

Be-

the scale reads: C, D, E, F# or Gb, Ab, Bb, C.

This scale has been used somewhat extensively by the ultra-

modern French school of composition represented by Debussy, Ravel, and others, but is not making any progress toward imiversal adoption. The remarks of a recent EngKsh writer ^ on this subject may be interesting to the student who is puzzled

by

the apparant present-day tendencies of French music.

He

says: If

" The student of some interesting modern developments will also speedily discover

that the adoption of the so-called whole-tone scale as a basis of music

is, except upon a keyed instrument tuned to the compromise of equal temperament, unnatural and impossible. No player upon a stringed instrument can play the scale of whole-tones and arrive at an octave which is in time with the starting note, unless he deliberately changes one of the notes on the road and alters it while playing it. The obvious result of the application of the whole-tone scale to an orchestra or a string quartet would be to force them to adopt the equal temperament of the pianoforte, and play every interval except the octave out of tune. When this modification had taken hold all music in the pure scale would be distorted and destroyed, unless string players were to face the

'

Stanford

— Musical Composition (1911)

p. 17.

SCALES

41

temperament and the pure from the start, and were able to tackle either form at a moment's notice. A thorough knowledge of the natural genesis of the scale of western nations will be the best antidote to fads founded upon ignorance of it. It is a curious commentary upon this question that Wagner, in the opening of the third act of Tristan (bars 6 to 10), experimented with the whole-tone scale and drew his pen through it, as was to be expected from a composer whose every work proves the writer to have had the pure scale inbred in him."

practically impossible drudgery of studying both the equal scale

There

may

be some difference of opinion among acousti-

cians as to whether

Mr. Stanford

is

correct in his scientific

assimiptions regarding the difference between "tempered" and

"pure"

why

scales/

but even

so, there is

a far more potent reason

the whole-step scale wiU probably never become popiilar

as the major and minor scales offers

no

now

are, viz., the fact that it

possibility of inctdcating tonality feeling,

which has

always been the basis of even the simplest primitive music.

Tonahty

scales give rise to a feeling of alternate periods of

contraction

and relaxation

— an active

tone (or chord)

fol-

lowed by a passive one, but no such effect is possible in the whole-step scale, and it seems suitable therefore only for that class of

and

music whose outlines are purposely intended

indefinite

— the impressionistic

style of

to he

vague

music writing.

^ Recent tests in Germany seem to prove conclusively that the tempered scale is the scale ordinarily employed by both vocalists and players on stringed instruments, and that the ideal of and agitation for a pure (i. e., untempered) scale in vocal and in

string music

is

somewhat

of

a myth.

CHAPTER IX Auxiliary Wobds and Endings Being a

96. sitions,

list

of articles, adverbs, conjunctions, prepo-

and endings, often

compounding terms

in

utilized

relating to musical effects.

A — preposition — variously translated to, at, for, by, in, with, towards. A cappella — in church style. A capriccio — at the fancy of the performer. A deux mains — for two hands. A mezza wee — with half voice. A la, or alia — in the manner of. Alia marcia — in the style of a march.

— very, or very much. Allegro assai — very — Ben marcato — well marked. — with, or with Coi, Con amore — with tenderness. — with the voice. Colla Come — Come prima — as at Contra — against. In compound words means "an octave below." Da — from. Da Capo — from the head. Di — by, with, Di bravura — with daring. Di molto — exceedingly — very much. Allegro di molto — exceedingly rapid. Doppio — double. Doppio movimento — double movement. — and. — louder and E, Ensemble — together, the opposite — La, basso — the bass. tempo — the same speed. — as loudly as piu — the most. piu Issimo — Italian superlative ending. Forte — fortissimo. — Italian diminutive endings. Andante — andanlino. Poco — Ino, — loud. Meno — Meno Mente — the ending which changes a noun or adjective to an adverb. Largo largamente. — medium loud. Mezzo or mezza — or medium. Mezzo — very much louder. Molto — much, or very much. Molto — in or at — at the down beat. Net, Nel — not too much. Non — not. Non — or more Ossia — or Ossia piu f — for the Per — Per —a Peu — Un peu increase tone. — more. — more loudly. Assai

Ben

fast.

well.

the.

con, col, colla, colle, collo

voce

as, like.

first.

of, for.

Cresc.

ed, et

faster.

et accel.

of solo.

_

II,

I',

the.

le

II

II

L'istesso

II

forte possible

possible.

etto

pochetto.

less.

forte

less

half,

forte

cresc.

the,

nella, etc.

the.

battere

tanto

else.

for.

little.

P»il

else

exile

il

violino

cresc.

easily.

violin.

little

Pti) forte

42

in

AUXILIARY WORDS AND ENDINGS

43

— Poco a poco — by — then. E poi coda — and then the coda. — as loudly Possible — Forte — the manner Allegro quasi andante — a rapid movement, the an andante; almost as slow as an andante. Sans — without. Sans peddles — without — a long passage to be played Sempre — always, or continually. Sempre throughout Senza — without. Senza accompagnamento — without accompaniment. Sino, sin — as See Solo — ensemble. Opposite 5m6 — imder or lower. Subdominant — the under dominant. Tanto — same as — three Tre — Tre Trh — very. Trbs vivement — very — not too or rwn troppo Troppo — too much. Non Un peu — a Una corda — one Una, un, una — one, or A working knowledge of these auxiliary terms will aid the Poco Poi

little.

little

yet in

in

as possible.

possible

possible.

Qitasi

little.

la

fairly

of.

style of

pedals. forte

forte

its entirety.

p. 14, note.

far as.

alone.

of

troppo, q. v.

three.

corde

strings.

lively.

allegro

tanto allegro,

a.

string.

fast.

little.

student greatly in arriving at the meaning of hundreds of

terms without stopping to look up each individual one.

CHAPTER X Measure From

97.

the standpoint of the eye, a measure

is

that

portion of the staff found between two bars, (in certain cases

may

this space

and end

be

less

than a measure, as

movement)

at the beginning

e.g.,

but from the standpoint of the ear a single, isolated measure is not possible, and the term must < therefore be defined in the plural form. of a

;

Measures are similarly accented groups of evenly-spaced beats, each group having at least one accented and one nonaccented beat. first

The

strongest accent falls normally

on the

beat in the measure.

Two

essential characteristics are involved in the ordinary

musical measure: (i) A group of even beats (or pulses), always felt, though not always actually sounded, one or more of these beats

'•^

being stronger than the rest;

Certain rhythmic figures (J^, J^, J73, j j J J, which form the actual musical content of these groups. (2)

The student

Rhythm

is

will

etc.)

note the essential difference between [rhythm and measure.

the regular recurrence of accent in a series of beats (or pxilses), while meas-

In listening to is the grouping of these beats according to some specified system. a piece of music, two hearers A and B may feel the rhythm equally strongly, but A one, two etc., while B feels one, two may subjectively group the beats into etc. Rhythm is thus one, two, three, four one, two, three, four the groups as ure

—

—

]

|

]

—

|

—

seen to be a fundamental thing, inherent in the music itself, while measure is to a certain extent at least an arbitrary grouping which musicians have adopted for practical

purposes.

In syncopation the normal system of accenting is temporarily suspended and the accented tone falls on the 98.

regularly imaccented part of the measure.

Syncopation

may

therefore be defined as the temporary interruption of a normal 44

MEASURE series of accents,

cented^ Thus

i.e.,

accenting a beat that

in Fig. 56,

e.g.,

45 is

usually not ac-

measure one has the regular^

system of accents normally found in four-quarter-measure,

on one, secohdary accent on three) but meashas only one accent, and it falls on the second beat.

(strong accent

ure three

;

Fig. 56.

iW^ !b4

1

J

I

Measures are usually classified as simple and compound. A simple measure is one which has but a single accent, i.e., the measure cannot be divided into smaller constituent groups. There are two main classes of simple measures, two-beat measure, and three-beat measure. A compound measure is (as its name imphes) one made up by combining two or more simple measures, or by the elaboration of a single measure (in slow tempo) into several constituent groups. The principal compound measures are four-beat and six-beat, both being referred to as compound-duple measures. Five-beat, seven-beat, nine-beat, and twelve-beat measures are also 99.

classified as

An

compound measures.

English writer'

a simple measure

is

divided into halves is

classifies measures as duple, triple, or quadruple, speci£j?ing that one in which each]beat is represented by a note whose value can be

vj

= «rj^ifil = j

one in which each beat

into three parts,

\J.=

is

represented

^'°-^ ^^^ ^ compound measure J ^^'^- ' by a dotted-note, whose value can be divided

^J^^i^,= J

J

J/-

There

is

thus seen to be

considerable diflEerence of opinion as to the meaning of the words simple and compound

when

applied in this connection, the principal question at issue being whether fourbeat measure is an individual variety, or whether it is a variety compounded out of two-beat measures, either by placing two of these in a group or by the elaboration of a

measure into a largpr number of beats, as is often necessary in slow tempi. Perhaps the easiest way out of the difficulty is to admit that both may be true but in different compositions. That is, it is frequently impossible to tell whether a composition single

—

and yet it is someone cannot in the majority of cases distinguish between two-beat and four-beat measures, it will probably be best to leave the original classification intact and regard four-beat measure as a compoimd variety. that

is

being listened to

is

in two-beat, or in four-beat measure;

times possible so to discriminate.

^

Pearse

— Rudiments

Since, however,

of Musical

Knowledge, p. 37.

>

MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY

46

loo. 1.

The commonest

varieties of

measure are:

Duple (sometimes called even measure, or even time), in which there are two beats, the first one being accented.

Examples

measure are

of duple

two-quarter,^ two-eighth,

I,

§>

and two-half measure,

i,

re-

spectively. 2.

Triple, (the old perfect measure), in

three beats, the

first

which there are

one being accented, the second

Examples are I, I, I, threethree-quarter, and three-half measure, re-

and third unaccented. eighth,

spectively. 3.

Quadruple, in which there are four beats, the

first

and third being accented (primary accent on one, secondary accent on three), the second and fourth unaccented. (See note above, under Sec. 99.) 4.

Sextuple, in

which there are

fourth being accented,

tempi this ure,

is

six beats,

the

always taken as compound duple meas-

a dotted quarter note having a beat.

It

noted that the two measures i C-LT CJLT are identical in effect with I f loi. ^8

,

and

first

In rapid

the others not.

r

i

wiU be f

Iff

T f T T

T

'

•

Other varieties of measure sometimes found are % and

but these are practically always taken as three-beat and

each group of three tones

—

I

I

four-beat measures respectively, being equivalent to these

I

'

JTj J73 102.

J

.

is

Quintuple

is

thought of as a

identical in effect with (five-beat)

and

|

if

triplet.

JJ^

septuple

J^

J

(seven-beat)

measures are occasionally met with, but these are rare and

wiU always be sporadic. The five-beat measure is taken as a combination of three and two, or of two and three (sometimes a mixture of both in the same composition), while the '

For explanation of terminology, see

p. 48, Sec. 106.

MEASURE seven-beat measure

is

47

taken in groups of four and three, or of

three and four. 103.

The

sign

B

is

usually understood to

mean four^

quarter measure, and the sign