Music-Making Angels in Italian Renaissance Painting Symbolism and Reality

Research Center for Music Iconography, The Graduate Center, City University of New York

Music-Making Angels in Italian Renaissance Painting: Symbolism and Reality Author(s): Katherine Powers Source: Music in Art, Vol. 29, No. 1/2, Music in Art: Iconography as a Source for Music History Volume I (Spring–Fall 2004), pp. 52-63 Published by: Research Center for Music Iconography, The Graduate Center, City University of New York

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KatherinePowers,Music-MakingAngelsin ItalianRenaissancePainting: Symbolism and Reality

1. GiovanniBellini,Madonnaand Childenthroned between SS. Francis , Johnthe Sebastian andangels(1478-80).Oil onpanel,471x 258 ,Job , Dominic, , Lowz's, Baptist cm.Venice,Accademiadi BelleArti,cat.no.38. 52

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Music in ArtXXIX/1-2(2004)

Music-Making

Angels

in Italian

Symbolism Katherine

and

Renaissance

Painting:

Reality

Powers

CaliforniaState University,Fullerton

GiovanniBellini's San Giobbe altarpiece(Venice,Accademia) fromabout 1488,depictstheVirginMary, in the highestpictorialplane, seated on the thronewith the Christchild in her lap; theyare flankedsymmetricallyby six saints and in the foreground,at the throne'sfoot,sit threeangels makingmusic [fig.1]. Delicate thoughserious,thescene is attentiveto themusic's details:theangels hold theirinstruments appropriately,eyes concentrated,and two angels look up as ifprojectingthesingingvoice,while theotherwatches the righthand forcarefulperformance.Charmingangel musicians such as these have adorned religious paintingin Italyfromthetrecento,populatingnotonlythenarrativestoriesoftheNativityofChrist,Assumption,and CoronationoftheVirgin,but also theiconicaltarpiecesoftheMadonna Enthroned.Angel musicians are the mostnumerousmusical performersdepicted in late Medieval and Renaissance art,and their stunninggrace and believable performancehave made them attractivestudy, as scholars seek further practice.Everread topromotemusiciconographyas a usefulsource,Emanuel understandingofperformance Winternitzsaw thedepictionsofmusical instruments as an "importantand notyetsystematically exploited reservoirof information".1 Winternitz,forinstance,examined the angels in the 1535 Saronno frescoby Gaudenzio Ferraritotemperthoughton theevolutionoftheviolin.2Furthermore, MaryRemnant's,Ian Harwood's, and Diana Poulton's evidence ofRenaissance lute design included instrumentsplayed by angels.3 Yet,Winternitzcautioned thatan artwork's subjectand pictorialtraditionwould influencethe artist'sdepictionofmusic,sometimesto fantasy,and complained thatsome angel ensembleshad been taken"at face value" even when "the depiction was of an allegorical nature".4Winternitzasked, "were the painters oftheScriptures,fillingthe strainingtheirimaginationsto competewiththemysticand poetic interpreters heavens withfantasticshapes and objectsnever seen on earth?"5 Some years ago I began cataloguingimages of Italian Marian paintingsdated between 1450 and 1530 with angel musicians - a process forwhich I thankProfessorH. Colin Slim forhis assistance in its early stages.61 collectedboththenarrativesubjectsand theiconicMarian paintings- thatis, paintingsdepicting plotless symmetricalgatheringsof holy figuressuch as the Madonna Enthronedof Bellini's San Giobbe altarpiece[fig.1]; I studied themaccordingto subject,artist,date, geographicregion,musical instrument, and performancepractice.The angel musician catalogue provided a means forviewing the repertoireof angel musiciansas a whole,bringinga methodfortheirvaryingapproachestotheirpresentation:artistsused the music-makingin the iconic Marian images differently fromthatin the narrativescenes. In narrative the enhances the for storia; example,theNativitytypicallyincludes angels singing subjects, music-making froma paper, scroll or book with textand sometimesmusical notationto "Gloria in excelsis Deo," as a restatementofLuke 2:14. Palma Vecchio's Nativity(Zogno, Bergamo,S. Lorenzo), forexample,has two angels holding music to theGloria chant.7The Assumptionand Coronationof theVirginoftenhave a crowd ofangelsplayingall mannersofinstruments, forexample,inLorenzo Costa's Adoration(Bologna,Pinacoteca Nazionale, fig.2) withharp,recorders,psaltery,lute,cymbals,tambourine,fiddle,and trumpets.The angels ©2004Research Center forMusicIconography CUNY

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53

KatherinePowers,Music-MakingAngelsin ItalianRenaissancePainting: Symbolism and Reality

2. LorenzoCosta,Adoration. Oil on panel.PinacotecaNazionaledi Bologna.

illustratethe grandiose music-makingbelieved to be continuouslytakingpart in heaven.8Though artists portraythe music-makingwithinstrumentstheworshiperrecognizes,the spectacularensemblecombinationswere notpartofeverydaymusical performance.The diversityofinstruments further displaysthepsalmisťs exhortationto praise God withall means.9In a variationof thisimagery,some depictionsof theAssumptionand theCoronationoftheVirginsymmetrically place fourinstruments representingfourdistinct instrument categories.Forexample,Baldassare CarrarťsCoronationoftheVirginof1512 (Forlì,Pinacoteca) has angel musiciansencirclingtheVirginand playing,fromtop left,tambourine,recorder,harp,and fiddle, one instrumentin each corner.10 Such traditionsoccurredalreadyofcoursein trecentoMarianworks,as Howard MayerBrowninformed us.11Butbythelatterquattrocento- a timewhen studyofperspectiveand emphasison naturalismgradually broughthumanformsin contemporaneousdresstoreligiouspainting- theiconicMadonna Enthronedaltar, depicts the music-makingas it was in actual contemporaneous piece, in contrastwith the narrativestorie 54

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Music in ArtXXIX/1-2 (2004)

3. Benedetto Coda,MadonnaoftheRosary (1513).Oil on panel.Rimini, GalleriaNazionale.

- such as lute,recorder,fiddle,rebec, practice,thatis, withrealisticinstrumentsofthesoftor bas category12 and lira da braccio- in contemporaneousinstrumentalensemblesofsolos, duos, and trios,oftenwithsinging. Standard motivein theseiconic paintings,the angel musician mimickscontemporarymusical performance, even while fulfillingthe painting's symbolism,and did so to satisfythe painting's purpose. The member,patron,merchant,or peasant - would contemporaneousworshiper- whethercleric,confraternity recognizenot only the angels' softinstrumentsand theirperformance,even theirensemble combinations, in confraternity devotions,courtlychambermusic,and inpiazza. performance havingwitnessedinstrumental Moreover,I believe theviewerwould also recognizetheangels' repertoireand function.Limitingdiscussion 1would liketo firstexaminetheinstruments to lutes,13 and performancetechniqueofangel lutenistsin iconic Madonna EnthronedaltarpiecesoftheVenetoand itsreaches,and thenrelatetheangel musicianto musical practiceas theviewerrecognizeditwithinthedevotionalcontext.My hope is to clarifytheangel's presence in termsof pictorialmeaning and purpose. 55

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KatherinePowers,Music-MakingAngelsin ItalianRenaissancePainting: Symbolism and Reality

4. JacopoPalma,ilvecchio,ZermanoAltarpiece (ca.1512-15).Oil on x 230 150 cm. Zermano SanťElena. panel, (Treviso),

Reliable evidence ofRenaissance lute design,includingwrittendescriptions,intarsia,and iconography in secular subjects,portraysa lute ofvaryingsizes14in eitheran almond shape withslanted shoulders,or a round shape,15witha vaulted ribbedback,flatsoundboard witha single ornaterose tone hole, and a wide neck bearingfretsand extendingto a bentpegbox; at thebottomof thelute's face,the stringsare attached bya bridge.Mid-to-latequattrocentolutesoftenhad onlyfivecoursesofstringsbutbythecinquecento,lutes had six courses witheleven pegs.16The lute in theintarsiafromBologna,now in theMetropolitanMuseum ofArtin New York,forexample,depictsa realisticlutewitheleven pegs, ninestringsplus two brokenones, tied frets,a flatbridge,a centralrose, and sloping shoulders.17Worshipersviewing Madonna Enthroned altarpieces would see angel lutenistsholding faithfulrepresentationsof true musical instruments.For example,BenedettoCoda, had his angel in theMadonna Enthroned"Rosaryaltarpiece"(Rimini,Pinacoteca) of1513hold a largerlutewithslantedshoulders,wide neck,and six courses [fig.3]. GiovanniBelliniportrayed music with exquisite technicalaccuracy;his realistic-lookinglutes in his San Giobbe altarpiece [fig.1] show a remarkableresemblancein outlineand rose ornamentationto one made byMartinKaiser in Venice18 and to a lattercinquecentosurvivingexample by George Gerle of Innsbruck.19 56

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Music in ArtXXIX/1-2 (2004)

5. GiovanniBattista Cima da Conegliano.Conegliano Altarpiece(1492-93).Oil, 345 x 202 cm. Conegliano, Cathedral.

Contemporaryviewers would recognizethe angels' performanceon the lute: the righthand, perhaps holdinga plectrum,is depictedoverthestringseitherat or below therose,while thelefthand is spread over thefretsoftheneck.In thefifteenth would supportthelutewiththelefthand, the century,a real performer hand wrist around the instrument's bottom.20 Tinctorisin his De inventione etusu musicaeof Johannes right about 1483explainsthat"theplayerholds theinstrument withhis lefthand" even while pressingthestrings on the neck to createthe notes.21Lorenzo Costa's Concertof circa 1490 (London, National Gallery),which is said to mimicFerraresecourtperformance,also has thelutenistsupportingtheinstrument withtheright arm.22Angel lutenistsmirrorthisposture;forexample, the seated angel lutenistin Cima da Conegliano's Dragan altarpieceof about 1500 (Venice,Accademia) holds theinstrumentabove thelap againstthechest, wrappingtherightarmaround thelute's end.23In theearlysixteenthcentury,real lutenistsgraduallybegan in thelap. The Capirola Lutebook,copied in Venice about 1517,correctstheearlierpostoresttheinstrument thatthelutebe held such thatno weightis bornby thelefthand.24Again, angel lutenistsin ture,instructing iconicMadonna Enthronedpaintingsfollowcontemporarymethod,forexample,Palma Vecchio's Zermano altarpiece(Zermano,Treviso,S. Elena) (ca. 1512/15) whose angel restsa large instrumentwithsix courses in the lap [fig.4]. 57

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KatherinePowers,Music-MakingAngelsin ItalianRenaissancePainting: Symbolism and Reality

6.FraBartolommeo, PalazzoPitti. (1512/13).Florence, Mystic Marriage

The changein lutepositionfolloweda changein playingtechniquesin thelatterquattrocento,frommonophonie performance- with the righthand pluckingnote-by-notewith a plectrum- to polyphonicperformance- strikingthestringswiththefingers.25 Tinctorisdescribesthelatter:"Othersdo whatis muchmore in not onlytwo difficult [thanto play a singleline],namelyto play a compositionalone, and mostskillfully, in but even three or four/'26 Both existed for some parts, performancepractices simultaneously years,and thehorizontalrightarm positionoftheplectrum-performance also remaineduntiltheearlycinquecento.27 Costa's Concertshows polyphonic playing with the rightarm position of plectrum-performance. Angel lutenistsmirrorthischangingperformancepractice:in paintingspriorto about 1470,angels always hold a plectrum,butafterwardtheyrarelydo. Forexample,therightangel lutenistin Andrea Mantegna'sSan Zeno altarpieceof about 1460 (Verona,S. Zeno) plays withplectrum(while theleftangel tunes theinstrument). BenedettoCoda's 1513 Madonna Enthroned("Rosary altarpiece"),however,has theangel lutenistplaying withouta plectrum,therighthand fingersspread overthesix coursesat therose [fig.3]. In fact,solo lutenists are not common to angel musical practiceuntilthe 1470s afterwhich theybecome frequentlydepicted. To be sure, even withinthisrealism allegoricalmeanings do continue:an astuteworshiperseeing an of angel tuningthelute mightreflectupon theharmonicperfectionofangelic song,ifnot on thedifficulties 58

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Music in ArtXXIX/1-2 (2004) keepingthelutein tune.And, some angel lutenists'hand positionsseem inaccurateor naïve,such as Cima' s generalizedhand positionoftheangel lutenistin theConegliano altarpiece[fig.5]. Yet,a worshipermeditatingon theimage retainsan impressionofa real,recognizable,and authenticperformance.The artisťsdesire to representa believable performance, even sympatheticand sincerein expression,led to mirroringperformance posturessuch as VittorioCarpaccio's lutenist(Koper,Cathedral)who looks at thelefthand, and Bellini'sSan Giobbe lutenist[fig.1] who looks at therighthand,as mightanyinstrumentalist needingextracare tofinda properfingerposition.GiorgioVasarťs appreciationofFra Bartolommeo'saltarpiece(Florence,Palazzo Pitti;fig.6) implies thata naturalrealismis desired: the two angels are described theluteuponit,whilethe playinga luteand a lirada braccio,theleftwiththelegbentback,resting are on the to them as he listens to the his head is raisedandmouthslightly music; fingers strings play open,so thata viewerwouldfindithardtobelievehe doesnothearthevoice.Theotherangelleans towardthelirato hearwhether itis in tune,hiseyeson theground,concentrating on following his companion.28 Though I have limitedmyselfto lutes in theMadonna Enthronedaltarpieces,much thesame could be said forthe otherinstrumentsheld by the angels in Marian iconic paintings- lira da braccio,29recorder, have served already as a fiddle,rebec,harp,and portativeorgan among them.Indeed, angels' instruments source of informationon instrumentdesign and playing position.30More significantly, however, is the realismin theangels' instrumental ensemblecombinationsin theiconicMadonna Enthronedpaintings.The angels' authenticperformanceensemblesestablishestheirpurpose withinthefunctionof the iconic devotionalpainting. Angels musiciansin iconic Marian paintingsare depicted in solos, duos, trios,and largerensemblesof softinstruments;occurringmost oftenare solo lutes (with or withoutsinger),lute and bowed stringduo (whetherlira da braccio,rebec,or fiddle),and lute duo, in thatorder.Hence thelute,themostubiquitious in angels' hands. In theRenaissance,the instrument ofthetime,was also themostoftendepictedinstrument lute was likenedto theancientlyreand held in highesteem.The humanistPaolo Cortese,in his admiration formusic, praises above all singingto the lute.31Thoughtto be an instrumentof Orpheus,32the lute was who accompanied recitationsat all levels ofsociety,fromitinerantstreetsingers played bypoet-improvisers crowds in piazza, to courtperformers, respectedforproficiencyon thelute,such as Pietrobono entertaining del Chitarino(1417-97) and SerafinoAquilano (1466-1500),totheamateurnoblemen.Lutesperformedalone as solo instruments,as accompanimentto the voice, in duet with another lute or a bowed stringed and in triosand largerensemblesof softinstruments. instrument, Music performedon the lute in the Renaissance included improvisedand memorizedworks fromthe unwrittentradition,33 instrumentalpieces,35and also laude.36The lauda developed in chansons,frottole,34 medieval Florence by confraternities of laudesi and disciplinati,but by the late fifteenth centuryit had A lauda is a sung praise or prayer- hence itsname - and become widelysung in northernand centralItaly.37 itstextsinclude exaltationsto theVirginMaryand penitentialprayersto Christ.The repertoireexhibitsa varietyof musical stylesfromshortmonophonie tunes to strophicchordal harmonizationsto simple polyin manuscriptand printedbooks,manywere phony.Thougha numberoflaudewerenotatedand transmitted sung frommemoryor improvisedfromformulae,and otherstransmitted onlywiththelyricsand thephrase "cantasicome" ("to be sung like"),followedbythename ofa familiarsong.38The lauda genreincludespieces suitableforintimatesolo or chambersettingsas well as forlarge-scalegroup consumption;itplayed a vital partin privatedevotionsand paraliturgicalservicesin the courts,in the processionsand ritualsof the lay confraternities and religiousorders,and in sacred theatricalworks.39A music familiarto bothlaymenand the lauda was regularlyperformedbyvoices and stringedinstruments, clergy, includingthelute,in a variety - the scuolegrandiand the scuolepiccole- were notable music of softensembles. Venice's confraternities patrons,regularlyhiringstringmusicians- in particularlute,lirada braccio,and harp- to play laudefortheir ceremonies.40 Two books oflaude published in Venice by Petrucciabout 1508 processionsand confraternity containmanyworks in thestyleof a solo song withinstrumentalaccompanimentappropriateforlute and bowed stringinstrumentduo or forsolo lute.41The instruments would accompanyinga singeror singersby performingthe lower voices. 59

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KatherinePowers,Music-MakingAngelsin ItalianRenaissancePainting: Symbolism and Reality Despite its importancein Italian Renaissance music, the lute did not performin liturgicalservices. Accordingto sourcesofMass performance- includingchurchpay records,eyewitnessaccounts,theological declarations,and iconography- Masses withpolyphonicmusicwere performedbyvoices,accompanied by theorgan42and, on special occasions,by wind instruments, forexample,shawms and sackbuts.Documents forthe1475 wedding Mass in Pesaro ofCostanzo Sforzaand Camilla ofAragon,forexample,as well as the 1493 wedding Mass of MaximilianI and Bianca Maria Sforzain Milan, describesumptuous performances withnumerouswind instruments such as piffari, and trombe or trombetti, as well as singers.43 JonathanGlixon has shown that the Venetian confraternities hired instrumentalists of stringsand wind instrumentsfor ceremonies,in particularprocessionson majorfeastdays,44yetonlywind instrumentscan be documented we do not have servingat Mass. Though our understandingof Mass performancein Italybe incomplete,45 evidence thatsuggestslutes were regularlyplayed duringliturgicalservicesat thistime. Hence the lauda is the only sacred genrea worshiperin Renaissance Italywould recognizein performance witha lute,and thusthegenrea worshiperwould equate withangel lutenistperformance.I propose thenthatangel musiciansin theiconicMadonna Enthronedrepresentlauda performance.As performers of theirrecognizedduties,to praise God and to lead humans intopraise.46 laude,theangels would be fulfilling Pseudo Dionysius (Areopagita)provided a Medieval foundationforthoughton angels,followedbyJacobus de Voragine,among others,describingtheirnineorders,theirsingingpraisesof"Sanctus"47withoutceasing, and the"Gloria in excelsisDeo". The lauda repertoirecontainssongs ofpraise withimitationsofthesetexts. Moreover, children dressed as angels sang laude to the Virgin Mary in contemporaneousprocessions, includingone performancewith an iconic Madonna Enthronedpaintingwhen Mantegna's Madonnadella Vittoria (Paris,Louvre) was processed around Mantua in 1496 in honorofa Gonzaga military"victory"over Charles VIII at Fornovo the prioryear. A contemporarydescribedthe eventas such: All thereligiousorders,together withthegreaterpartofthepopulace,gatheredat San Sebastiano churchwheretheimageofthegloriousVirginthatmesserAndreaMantegnahadfinished, decorated mostsolemnly, was raisedontoa largeplatform, andaboveitwas a youthdressedas GodtheFather and twoprophetson eachside [ofhim];on oneside [oftheplatform] werethreelittle[boysdressed as] angelswhosangcertainlaude,. . . .48 Lauda-playing angels aid thepurpose oftheiconicMadonna Enthronedpainting.To be sure,thereare bothspecificworksand thecategory manyreadingsoftheiconicaltarpiecewithinthearthistoryliterature, as a whole. An early-nineteenth-century attempttocharacterizetheMadonna Enthronedsubjectbroughtthe termsacraconversazione, as iftheVirginMaryand saintsare having a holy,even silent,conversation.49 Some would emphasize the Madonna Enthronedaltarpiece's role as an altar decoration,thus "presuming that altarpieceimagerywould be closely associated with Mass service".50In describingCima da Conegliano's altarpiecefortheConegliano cathedral[fig.5], PeterHumfreysuggested altarpiecesmightrepresentMass performance,in particular,the celestialMass of the Church Triumphant,a parallel to Mass servicein the earthlychurch, the Church Militant.51However, an interpretationthat sees the Madonna Enthroned altarpieceas depictingonlycelestialMass would limitthepainting'ssubjecttoMass service,and notaccount fortheviewer's understandingoftheangel's lute performance.52 Thus I would argue againstan interpretationlimitingtheMadonna Enthronedto depictingcelestialMass. Rather,I would notethatangel musicians' lauda performanceconfirmsanothermore recentview promotedby Charles Hope, Paul Hills, and others. Theirview holds theiconicMadonna Enthroned,thoughan altarpiece,as simplyan image to assist all devotions.BothHills and Hope supporttheirinterpretation withcontemporarywritingsincludingarttheory, and which do not distinguishthe altarpiecefrom statements, sermons, contracts, artist-patron theological otherdevotionalimages.53GregorytheGreat,Thomas Aquinas and others,establishedthepurpose ofsacred themeimages as teachingthefaith,in particularto theilliterateas "books fortheunlettered",reinforcing that are said to be more than and the emotions.54 This words), mory(in images enduring exciting spiritual excitement is reiterated Bonaventure and others who the affective spiritual emphasize possibilitiesof by images. David Freedbergdescribed the widespread use of images forprivateand public meditationand prayerin the Renaissance.55Sixten Ringbom codified the term"empatheticmeditation"to describe the Dozens ofRenaissance devotionalmaworshiper'semotionalreactionduringimage-assistedmeditation.56 nuals promoteaffective, devotions and such meditation was widespread,partofconfraternity image-assisted 60

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Music in ArtXXIX/1-2 (2004) ritual,and privatedevotions.Music-makingangels singinglaudefulfillanotheroftheirduties accordingto late medieval sources includingSaint Antoninus:theyaid thepietyand devotionofmortals,and thisthey do by servingas role models and cueing theviewer directlyby gesture.57 Theircharmingmusic-makingenhances theMadonna Enthronedpainting'seffectas a devotionalimage,intensifying a worshiper'sspiritual emotionswhile in empatheticmeditation.

Notes 1Emanuel 10Illustration inthe15th inBernard "OnAngel Concerts CenItalian Pictures Winternitz, Berenson, oftheReA Critical inSacred naissance: toRealism andSymbolism Venetian School Phaidon Publishers, Approach (NewYork: 1957), tury: Musical Instruments andTheir inWestern Art pl.397. Symbolism Painting,,/ 11H.M.Brown, 137. Press, (NewHaven:YaleUniversity 1979), "Trecento esp.pp.119-123. Angels", 2 EmanuelWinternitz, Violinsin 12 As to the or suchas "Early Paintings by haut, loud,instruments opposed "Hautandbas:The Gaudenzio Ferrari andhisSchool", Musical Instruments andTheir shawm andtrombone. Edmund A. Bowles, inTheCommon- Grouping inWestern Art first , 94-109, intheMiddleAges",Musica ofMusicalInstruments Symbolism published wealth onMusicinHistory , Art , andCulture , in Disciplina ofMusic: Writings VIII(1954), 115. Honor Sachs TheFreePress, ex13Fora discussion ofCurt (NewYork: 1965)andlater oftherealism oftheliradabraccio playforWinternitz, Gaudenzio Ferrari andtheEarly ed ,HisSchool panded inthe "Thelirada braccio Powers, byangelsseeKatherine the Violin Societa la Conservazione delle History of (Varallo: per HandsinItalian Madonna Enthroned Music Angel's Paintings", inValsesia, Opered'Arte 1967). 1-2 in Art 20-30. XXVI/ 2001), (spring-fall 3 Musical Instruments 14 Remnant, oftheWest (NewYork: Mary oftheluteinclude Michael De Praetorius, Descriptions St.Martin's DianaPoulton, and Press, 1978),30;IanHarwood, secondpartofSyntagmatis musici organographia, (Wolfenbuttel, DavidvanEdwards, s.v."Lute",TheNewGrove Dictionary of HowardMayer Instrumentation: Brown, Sixteenth-Century Music andMusicians vol.15. 1618). , 2nded.(London: Macmillan, 2001), TheMusic theFlorentine Intermedii American Institute for (Rome: indiscovering of PaulBeierusedtheexample ofangelmusicians A Brief IanHarwood, theLute 29; 1973), History of Musicology, in"Right inRenaissance lutetechnique HandPosition Lute early TheLuteSociety, 5.Mantuan documents around (London: 1975), XII(1979), 5-12. 1500 Journal Technique", oftheLuteSociety ofAmerica lutesforIsabella d'Estetestify toa variety oflute regarding Bellini's inGiovanni Theangellutenists SanGiobbealtarpiece andsmallinstruments sizes, ("Hutto describing large grande") serveas an example ofdeveloping luteplectrum for practice a document from 1523alsodescribes a "liutto ("Hutto piccolo"); inhisAntichi Stefano Toffolo strumenti veneziani Arsena- mezzano". (Venezia: William F.Prizer, "Lutenists attheCourt ofMantua le Editrice, and Alton Smith draws 1987),34-35, Douglas upon intheLateFifteenth andEarly Sixteenth Centuries", Journal ofthe inhishistory oftheluteinA History oftheLute LuteSociety angelmusicians XIII(1980), America 18-19. of totheRenaissance of VA]:LuteSociety from Antiquity ([Lexington, 15D.A.Smith, AHistory 65. oftheLute, America, 2002). 16Sebastian in Musica 4 Emanuel getutscht (Basel, 1511), proVirdung "TheVisualArtsandtheHistorian Winternitz, moted theneweleven-string, six-course luteoverthenine-string, ofMusic", Musical Instruments andTheir in Western Art , Symbolism five-course "somelutenists which lute, saying playonninestrings 32. haveonlyfivecourses, someplayonelevenstrings which have 5 E.Winternitz, "OnAngelConcerts", 138. six courses. One does not learn as it seems to with nine much, me, 6 The wascreated thephotographs strings" inPeter .Quoted andtranslated "Before Petrucci: catalogue byexamining Danner, in TheLuteintheFifteenth atthePhotoStudyCollection attheGetty Research Institute Journal oftheLuteSociety of Century", In- America LosAngeles andthose attheFototeca oftheKunsthistorisches V (1972), 11. in Florence, in artexhibition stitut as wellas reproductions 17Illustration inWinternitz, ofQuattrocento "Importance I chosetobeginwith1450, andmodern publications. catalogues 47b. Intarsias", pl. wherein theRenaissance wasfully andendwith embraced, style Toffolo showsa surviving Martin Kaiser luteheldinthe atwhich timemannerist 1530, developed. style inBrussels. Conservatoire deMusique Stefano AnToffolo, Royal 7Illustration inPhilip Palma ilVecchio: com- tichi L'opera Rylands, strumenti veneziani Arsenale 35. Editrice, (Venezia: 1987), 54. Mondadori, pleta (Milano: 1988), 19D.A.Smith, A History , 61-62, oftheLute provides photo8Seefor Howard "Trecento Brown, example Mayer Angels graph oftheGerle nowheldintheKunsthistorisches Muselute, andtheInstruments Modern Musical Ed. Scholarship. um,Vienna. TheyPlay", Olleson OrielPress, 112;andRichard (London: 1980), byEdward 20Robert "HowtoHolda Lute:Historical Evidence Spencer, "TheMusical TheIconography Ed. Rastall, ofHeaven. Repertory", 4 from Music 352-354. III/ Early (October 1975), Paintings", Davidson Medieval 167Institute, (Kalamazoo: 1994), byClifford 21 inTincInstruments Baines, 168. Anthony "Fifteenth-Century III toris's De Inventione et Usu Musicae" 9SeeEdward , Journal Galpin Society E.Lowinsky, CanonforThirty"Ockeghem's 21. (1950), AnEssayinMusical SixVoices: in MusicolEssays Iconography", 22I.Harwood, D. Poulton, andD.vanEdwards, s.v."Lute", Plamenac onHis70th Ed.byGusogyinHonor ofDragan Birthday. The New Grove Music and Musicians. Lewis LocktaveReeseandRobert Snow of PittsDictionary of J. (Pittsburgh: University inRenaissance Ferrara Harvard Univerwood,Music 158. (Cambridge: Press, 1969), burgh 106. 1984), sityPress, 61

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KatherinePowers,Music-MakingAngelsin ItalianRenaissancePainting: Symbolism and Reality 23Illustration inPeter Cirna daConegliano 1981). (Cam- Minkoff, Humfrey, 36The Press, in 1983), pl.99. oftheinstrumentalist is reconsidered bridge: Cambridge University repertoire 24 in Howard "The Instrumentalist's the Case MS VM Brown, C.25, "CompoMayer Repertory Chicago, Newberry Library, sitione dimeser Vincenzo OttoGombosi, Le Concert desvoixetdesinstruments a la ed.,Compo- Sixteenth Capirola,r., Century", sitione dimeser Vincenzo Lute-book Vaccaro 23. , ed.byJean-Michel CNRS,1995), (circa 1517)(Neuilly- Renaissance Capirola: (Paris: 37Frank sur-Seine: Société demusique D. d'autrefois, 1955);I. Harwood, A.D'Accone, "Alcune notesullecompagnie fiorenandD. vanEdwards, s.v.//Lute,/, TheNewGrove Dictio- tinedeilaudesi Poulton, ilQuattrocento", durante Rivista italiana dimusicoX(1975), GiulioCattin, "Church ofMusic nary ofMusicandMusicians. 86-114; logia Patronage 25P.Danner, "Musicat the "Before F.Prizer, "The in Fifteenth-Century Glixon, Petrucci,r, 5-7;William Italy";Jonathan 1(1986), Venetian Frottola andtheUnwritten Studi musicali ScuoleGrandi, Music inMedieval andEarlyTradition", 1440-1540", XV/ Studien zurLauten musik inderersten Ed.byIainFenlon Uni12;Kurt Dorfmueller, Hälfte Modern Europe. (Cambridge: Cambridge des16.Jahrhunderts 104. andWilliam F. Prizer, Schneider, Press,1981),21-36and193-208; 1967), (Tutzing: versity 26P.Danner, dipopolo SomeThoughts ontheStyleand , laudedicorte: "Before "Tincto- "Laude Petrucci", 7;seealsoBaines, Function oftheRenaissance a Firenze altempo Lauda",Lamusica "TheFrottola", 12. ris",24,andW.F.Prizer, di Lorenzo il Ed. Piero Leo S. Ol27 Magnifico. (Firenze: by Gargiulo Lute:NewandNeChristopher Page,"The15th-Century 167-194. schki, 1993), 1 Music 12-13. Sources", IX/ (January Early 1981), glected 38Onthe ofthelaudainthedecadesaround see 28"EvviunSanBartolomeo 1500, style ritto . . . insieme conduefan"The Laude of Innocentius DammoGlixon, Jonathan Polyphonic ciullichesuonano unoilliutoe Yaltrola lira;all'undequaliha W.F.Prizer, "Laude 19-53; ofMusicologyVlll/1 (1990), fatto raccorre unagambae posarvi sulostrumento, lemanposte nis Journal "In di and Praise of the "; Lauda", popolo Aspects of Sylvia Kenney, allecordeinattodidiminuire, l'orecchio intento all'armonia e la Medieval andRenaissance Music:A Birthday toGustave Offering testavoltainalto,conla boccaalquanto d'una maniera aperta, Ed.byJan LaRue(NewYork: W.W.Norton, 489-499. 1966), chechiloguarda nonpuòdiscredersi dinonaverea sentire ancor Reese. 39Jonathan Glixon documents the lavoce.Ilsimile fal'altro, cheacconcio con uno orecchio performance thoroughly lato, per inGlixon, scuole "MusicattheVeneallalira,parchesental'accordamento chefailsuono ofthelaudaattheVenetian appoggiato "Farunabella tian Scuole Grandi, 1440-1540"; idem, procession: conil liutoe conla vocementre chefacendo tenore con egli gli MusicandPublicCeremony attheVenetian scuole ,Altro grandi" occhia terra va seguitando, contener fermo e voltol'orecchio al : Essays onItalian MusicoftheCinquecento. Ed.byRichard chesuonae canta."Giorgio Vasari,Levitedeipiù Polo compagno, ofSydney Press,1989),190-220; eccellenti e architetti, ed.byLiciaRagghianti and Charteris (Sydney: University , scultori pittori " etorgano: MusicattheVenetian scuole piccole CarloRagghianti RizzoliEditore, III,688.Trans- andidem,Concanti (Milano: 1973), the Music in Renaissance Cities andCourts: Renaissance", lation ed.from The Lives the Painters during , Sculptors Vasari, of Giorgio AnnOwensand inHonor Lockwood. Ed.byJessie ofLewis andArchitects Gaunt(NewYork: Studies , ed. and trans, byWilliam M. MI: Harmonie Park Press, (Warren, 1997), 2:195. Anthony Cummings Dutton, 1927), 29 See K. Powers, "TheLirada braccioin theAngel's 123-140. 40Jonathan inRenaissance "Lutenists Venice: Some Glixon, Hands". Notes from the the Lute America XVI 30Tothisend,theworkofBeier, Archives", Journal of Society of PoulRemnant, Harwood, 15. (1983), 2 and3. andWinternitz iscitedinfootnotes ton,Smith, Toffolo, 41Ibid., 24. 31NinoPirrotta, inFif"MusicandCultural Tendencies 42A forliturgy around withor 1500, Music and Culture in the Middle cappella performance Italy from teenth-Century Italy", wasputforth A.D'Accone, "TheMusical Harvard organ, byFrank Press, AgestotheBaroque 1984), without (Cambridge: University attheFlorentine Cathedral andBaptistry theFirst Music andTheatre Poliziano toMonteverdi during 90-93; idem, from (Cam- Chapels Halfofthe16thCentury", Journal oftheAmerican Musicological 23. Press, 1982), bridge: Cambridge University of 32N.Pirrotta, XXIV/1(1971),1-50;andidem,"ThePerformance Society Music andTheatre was , 29.Theliradabraccio SacredMusicin Italyduring Time,c. 1475-1525", Josquin's in alsooften hands. depicted Orpheus's desPrez: FestivaloftheInternational Josquin 33W.F.Prizer, "TheFrottola", 8-12whoalsodescribes the Josquin Ed. Proceedings Edward E.Lowinsky withBonnie Blackburn J. Conference. by andprobable ofseveral written ofthe performance examples style Oxford LewisLockPress, (London: 1976),601-618. University unwritten tradition. Music in Renaissance 1400-1505: The Creation Ferrara, wood, ofa 34H.ColinSlim, "ValidandInvalid forPerformingMusical Center intheFifteenth Clarendon Options Press, Century (Oxford: Lamusique leplusbeau: , detouslespassetemps Frottole", wasusedincourt Hommage 1984), 136,notesthattheorgan chapelduring a Jean-Michel Vaccaro. Ed.byFrancois Lesure andHenri Vanhult Ercole I's time. musicprints, describes Bontà, Stephen studying 319.Theeditions Petrucci theuseofsoft Klincksieck, inMassesfrom instruments (Paris: 1998), byOttaviano Stephen mid-century. forluteandvoiceandforsololuteinclude thetwobooksofar- Bontà, inSacredMusicinItaly1560"TheUseofInstruments in Bossinensis MusicXVIII/4 519-531. published rangements byFrancesco byPetrucci 1700", Early (October 1990), 1509and1511.Benvenuto Lefrottole e liuto 43William Disertori, percanto F.Prizer, "Bernardino Piffaro e i piff arie tromintabulate daFranciscus Bossinensis Printed bonidiMantova: Ricordi, (Milano: 1964). inunacorte Strumenti a fiato Rivista italiana", musicfortwolutes, forinstance thosebyFrancesco Spinacino, italiana dimusicologia XVI(1981), DavidFallows, "The 174-176; PaoloBorrono, included arranDalza,andPietro Joanambrosio inJosquin's Ensembles Sacred van Music", Tijdschrift Performing andintabulations ofallgenres ofmusic. gements de voor Nederlandse XXXV/1-2 Vereniging Muziekgeschiedenis 35 W.F.Prizer, "TheFrottola", 16-19, "MusicattheCourt oftheSforza: manuscripts (1985), citing 33;seealsoW.F.Prizer, Nationale deFrance, Res.Vmd.27andVenice TheBirth Paris, XLIII andDeathofa Musical Musica Bibliothèque Center", Disciplina Biblioteca Marciana as wellas editions and (1989), It.XI,66 141-193. McKinnon surmises that other instruments byPetrucci James Antico. SeealsoTablature deluthitalienne. Facsimile dums.dela werefirst usedona regular basisintheMassinSpainfrom about nationale ms27 ca.1505(Genève: 1525andthat , ParisRes.Vmd. thepractice northward. Bibliothèque J.McKinspread gradually 62

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Music in ArtXXIX/1-2 (2004) ofNorth Carolina oftheMassinMedieval andRenaissance Conference Press, non,"Representations (Durham: 1975), University andPeterHumfrey, TheAltarpiece inRenaissance Venice Art", Journal XXXI/1 oftheAmerican Musicological Society (1978), 75-85; 49-51. 12-13. Press, (NewHaven:YaleUniversity 1993), 44Inthelatter 50Martin intheReMiddleAgesthrough thefifteenth "Introduction: The Kemp, Altarpiece century, inthe naissance: thescuole ofwindinstruments; a Taxonomie TheAltarpiece intheRenaispiccole performers Approach", employed theScuoladi SantaMariadeiMercanti sance. Ed.byPeter andMartin CamKemp(Cambridge: earlysixteenth century Humfrey andtheScuoladi Sant'Orsola alsoemployed winds.J.Glixon, bridge 11.SeealsoMichael Press, Baxandall, 1990), University "Concanti etorgano", 123-130. Patterns OntheHistorical ofIntention: Explanation ofPictures (New 45One Haven: Yale and Stalle Press, 106; of Mass with instru1985), University Sinding-Larexample performance string AStudy andRitual: ina letter ments is described toErcoled'Estéfrom ErcoleGon- sen,Iconography ofAnalytical Perspectives (Oslo: DavidRosand characterizes thealtarin of 29 1532 which recounts a seven1984). Universitetsforlaget, April zaga Gonzaga hearing from "other kinds ofdevotional with imagery" byits viols,butitseemstobea unique pieceas distinct Jhan partMassbyMaistre situation. Set above the altar the is table, situation. IanWoodfield, the Viol "liturgical painting Early History of (Cambridge: transformed overwhich itvisually the 188. presides: bytheceremony Press, 1984), Cambridge University oftheMass."DavidRosand, "'Divinità di cosadi46Michael Patterns OntheHistorical celebration Baxandall, ofIntention: Pictorial Structure and the of the pinta7: Altarpiece", Legibility Press, Explanation ofPictures (NewHaven:YaleUniversity 1985), The inthe Renaissance. Ed.byPeter andMartin Altarpiece Humfrey 127. 146.P. Press, Kemp 1990), (Cambridge: Cambridge University 47Isaiah6:3.Onthe sanc"Sanctus, sanctus, angelssinging alsoemphasizes thealtarpiece7 s service as a "visual Humfrey seealsoE.E.Lowinsky, CanonforThirty-Six tus/7 "Ockeghem's tothealtar," "thealtara visualemphasis complement giving in On angelsand theirmusic,in particular Voices,157-159. toa liturgical thatwasthedeveloping atthis practice analogous seeRichard "TheMusicalRepertory", sources, Rastall, English theelevation ofthehost." P.Humfrey, inVenice, time, Altarpiece 163-171. 57.Thusthe"altarpiece servedtoconcentrate attention onthe 48"Tutili si adunoreno a SanSebastiano cumla altarandthesacramental associated withit.P.Humfrey, religiosi activity mazore doveeraexaitata la imagine dela glo- TheAltarpiece partedelpopulo, inVenice, 70. riosaVerzene chehafornita messer Andrea Mantinea susouno 51P. Cima 20. Humfrey, daConegliano, tribunale adornato molto etsopraadessa solemnemente, grande 52Ifthe were to show Massperformance, a painter trying vestito daDioPatre etduipropheti da imagine glieraunozovene of choirs of from a music book depiction perhaps singers, reading li da ladi tri anzoletti che cantavano certe laude et per and ognicanto, wouldbe a accompanied byorganandwindinstruments, contra Letter from glieranoXIIapostoli." Sigismondo Gonzaga musical situation better to the viewer as Mass. recognizable to Francesco Archivio di Archivio Stato, Gonzaga,Mantua, 53P.Hills, A Valid 47. busta2111.Original andtranslation from W.F.Prizer, "Altarpiece: Category", Gonzaga, "Laude 54M. inA.Luzio,"La"Madonna dipopolo ThePo",190.Alsopublished 7;andDavidFreedberg, Kemp, "Altarpiece", dellaVittoria7 delMantegna," 10(1899), 367-368 and wer Studies inthe andTheory Emporium ofImages: History ofResponse (Chicago: Italian Art1400-1500: Sources andDocuments University ofChicago 162. Gilbert, Press, 1989), Creighton 55D. 135-136. Cliffs, NJ:Prentice-Hall, inparticular 1980), The Power thechapter, (Englewood ofImages, Freedberg, 49Theterm inEnglish Meditation andtheUsesofTheory". sacra conversazione isapplied toaltar- "Invisibilia pervisibilia: 56Sixten piecessuchas Cimada Conegliano's IcontoNarrative: TheRiseoftheDramatic Draganaltarpiece, though Ringbom, thefigures arenotclearly witheachother. Rona Close-up inFifteenthDevotional communicating century Painting (rev.ed.;DoornuNostra conversatio incaelis est:Observations onthesacra spijk: Goffen, 12. Davaco,1984), intheTrecento", LXI(1979), conversazione ArtBulletin 57M.Baxandall, 198;Philip Patterns 129. ofIntention, inTitian's Donors andColumns Pesaro Fehl, "Saints, Madonna", Renaissance 1974: ReadattheSoutheastern Renaissance Papers Papers

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