Mushrooms and Health Report 2012

 

 

Mushrooms  and  Health   2012   Report prepared by: Peter Roupas, Christine Margetts, Pennie Taylor, Debra Krause and Manny Noakes Pre-Clinical and Clinical Health Substantiation CSIRO Food and Nutritional Sciences, Australia

Report prepared for: Mushrooms and Health Global Initiative July 1, 2012

Commercial in Confidence

Enquiries All enquiries should be addressed to: Dr Peter Roupas Pre-Clinical and Clinical Health Substantiaion CSIRO Food and Nutritional Sciences Private Bag 16, 671 Sneydes Road Werribee, Victoria, 3030 Tel: +61 (3) 9731 3283 E-mail: [email protected] Copyright and disclaimer © 2012 CSIRO To the extent permitted by law, all rights are reserved and no part of this publication covered by copyright may be reproduced or copied in any form or by any means except with the written permission of CSIRO. Important disclaimer CSIRO advises that the information contained in this publication comprises general statements based on scientific research. The reader is advised and needs to be aware that such information may be incomplete or unable to be used in any specific situation. No reliance or actions must therefore be made on that information without seeking prior expert professional, scientific and technical advice. To the extent permitted by law, CSIRO (including its employees and consultants) excludes all liability to any person for any consequences, including but not limited to all losses, damages, costs, expenses and any other compensation, arising directly or indirectly from using this publication (in part or in whole) and any information or material contained in it.

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Table of Contents 1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................................... 7 2. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................. 12 3. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................................................ 13 3.1 EVALUATION OF MEDICAL, SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL INFORMATION ................................................. 13 3.1.1 Clinical Trials Databases ......................................................................................................................... 14 4. NUTRIENT PROFILING OF MUSHROOMS .................................................................................................. 16 4.1 MACRONUTRIENT AND MICRONUTRIENT CONTENT ........................................................................................... 16 4.2 VITAMINS AND MINERALS ................................................................................................................................. 22 4.2.1 Vitamin D .................................................................................................................................................. 22 4.2.2 Minerals .................................................................................................................................................... 25 4.2.2.1 Selenium .............................................................................................................................................................. 27

5. EFFECTS OF MUSHROOMS AND MUSHROOM COMPONENTS ON HEALTH .................................. 28 5.1 STUDIES IN HUMANS ...................................................................................................................................... 28 5.1.1 ANTI-CANCER STUDIES .................................................................................................................................. 39 5.1.1.1 Breast Cancer ........................................................................................................................................ 40 5.1.1.2 Colorectal Cancer .................................................................................................................................. 42 5.1.1.3 Cervical, Ovarian, Endometrial Cancer ................................................................................................ 44 5.1.1.4 Gastric Cancer ....................................................................................................................................... 44 5.1.1.5 Pancreatic Cancer / Solid Malignancies ............................................................................................... 45 5.1.1.6 Prostate Cancer ..................................................................................................................................... 45 5.1.2 ANTI-MICROBIAL PROPERTIES ....................................................................................................................... 47 5.1.3 ANTI-VIRAL PROPERTIES................................................................................................................................ 48 5.1.4 ASTHMA ......................................................................................................................................................... 48 5.1.5 CARDIOVASCULAR HEALTH ........................................................................................................................... 49 5.1.6 COGNITION / BRAIN HEALTH .......................................................................................................................... 50 5.1.7 CONSTIPATION ................................................................................................................................................ 51 5.1.8 DENTAL HEALTH ............................................................................................................................................ 51 5.1.9 DIABETES ....................................................................................................................................................... 52 5.1.10 DNA DAMAGE ............................................................................................................................................. 52 5.1.11 HEPATITIS ..................................................................................................................................................... 53 5.1.12 IMMUNE FUNCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 53 5.1.13 REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH .............................................................................................................................. 57 5.1.14 SUMMARY OF HUMAN STUDIES .................................................................................................................... 58 6. ANTI-DIABETOGENIC PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................ 59 6.1 Animal model (mouse) studies ..................................................................................................................... 59 6.2 Animal model (rat) studies ........................................................................................................................... 61 6.3 In vitro studies.............................................................................................................................................. 65 6.4 Summary of Anti-Diabetogenic Properties .................................................................................................. 66 7. ANTI-MICROBIAL PROPERTIES ................................................................................................................... 66 7.1 Animal model studies ................................................................................................................................... 66 7.2 In vitro studies.............................................................................................................................................. 67 7.3 Summary of Anti-Microbial Properties ....................................................................................................... 71 8. ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES .......................................................................................................................... 71 8.1 PHENOLIC CONTENT .......................................................................................................................................... 75 8.2 ERGOTHIONEINE ................................................................................................................................................ 77 8.3 Summary of Anti-Oxidant Properties........................................................................................................... 78 9. ANTI-VIRAL PROPERTIES .............................................................................................................................. 79 9.1 Summary of Anti-Viral Properties ............................................................................................................... 81 10. EFFECTS ON CARCINOGENESIS ................................................................................................................. 82

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10.1 BLADDER CANCER........................................................................................................................................... 82 10.1.1 In vitro studies (human cell lines) ........................................................................................................... 82 10.2 BREAST CANCER ............................................................................................................................................. 82 10.2.1 Animal model studies .............................................................................................................................. 82 10.2.2 In vitro studies (human cell lines) ........................................................................................................... 83 10.3 CERVICAL, OVARIAN, ENDOMETRIAL CANCER ............................................................................................... 88 10.3.1 Animal model studies .............................................................................................................................. 88 10.3.2 In vitro studies (human cell lines) ........................................................................................................... 89 10.4 COLON / COLORECTAL CANCER ...................................................................................................................... 90 10.4.1 Animal model (mouse) studies ................................................................................................................ 90 10.4.2 Animal model (rat) studies ...................................................................................................................... 91 10.4.3 In vitro studies (human cell lines) ........................................................................................................... 92 10.5 GASTRIC CANCER ............................................................................................................................................ 96 10.5.1 Animal model studies .............................................................................................................................. 96 10.5.2 In vitro studies (human cell lines) ........................................................................................................... 96 10.6 LEUKEMIA ....................................................................................................................................................... 97 10.6.1 Animal model studies .............................................................................................................................. 97 10.6.2 In vitro studies (human cell lines) ........................................................................................................... 98 10.7 LIVER CANCER ................................................................................................................................................ 99 10.7.1 Animal model studies .............................................................................................................................. 99 10.7.2 In vitro studies (human cell lines) ......................................................................................................... 100 10.8 LUNG CANCER ............................................................................................................................................... 101 10.8.1 Animal model studies ............................................................................................................................ 101 10.8.2 In vitro studies (human cell lines) ......................................................................................................... 101 10.9 ORAL CANCER ............................................................................................................................................... 102 10.9.1 In vitro studies (human cell lines) ......................................................................................................... 102 10.10 OVARIAN CANCER ....................................................................................................................................... 103 10.10.1 In vitro studies (human cell lines) ....................................................................................................... 103 10.11 PROSTATE CANCER...................................................................................................................................... 103 10.11.1Animal model (mouse) studies ............................................................................................................. 103 10.11.2 Animal model (rat) studies .................................................................................................................. 104 10.11.3 In vitro studies (human cell lines) ....................................................................................................... 104 10.12 SKIN CANCER .............................................................................................................................................. 107 10.12.1 Animal model (mouse) studies ............................................................................................................ 107 10.12.2 In vitro studies (animal cell lines) ...................................................................................................... 107 10.13 DNA DAMAGE ............................................................................................................................................ 108 10.13.1 Animal model (mouse) studies ............................................................................................................ 108 10.13.2 In vitro studies..................................................................................................................................... 109 10.14 SUMMARY OF ANTI-CANCER PROPERTIES ................................................................................................... 111 11. EFFECTS ON CARDIOVASCULAR HEALTH........................................................................................... 112 11.1 Animal model (mouse) studies ................................................................................................................. 112 11.2 Animal model (rat and larger animal) studies ......................................................................................... 113 11.3 In vitro studies.......................................................................................................................................... 117 11.4 Summary of Cardiovascular Health ........................................................................................................ 118 12. EFFECTS ON NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASES / COGNITION ..................................................... 118 12.1 Animal model studies ............................................................................................................................... 118 12.2 In vitro studies.......................................................................................................................................... 120 12.3 Summary of Neurodegenerative Diseases / Cognition ............................................................................ 120 13. EFFECTS ON DENTAL HEALTH ................................................................................................................ 120 14. EFFECTS OF EYE HEALTH ......................................................................................................................... 121 15. EFFECTS ON IMMUNE FUNCTION ........................................................................................................... 121 15.1 Animal model (mouse) studies ................................................................................................................. 121 15.2 Animal model (rat) studies ....................................................................................................................... 126 15.3 In vitro studies (human cell lines) ............................................................................................................ 126 15.4 Summary of Immune Function ................................................................................................................. 134 16. EFFECTS ON LIVER HEALTH .................................................................................................................... 134

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17. EFFECTS ON OSTEOPOROSIS / BONE MINERAL DENSITY .............................................................. 135 17.1 Animal model studies ............................................................................................................................... 135 17.2 In vitro studies (human cell lines) ............................................................................................................ 135 17.3 Summary of Osteoporosis/Bone Mineral Density .................................................................................... 136 18. EFFECTS ON RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS ............................................................................................... 136 18.1 Animal model studies ............................................................................................................................... 136 19. EFFECTS ON WOUND HEALING ............................................................................................................... 137 19.1 Animal model studies ............................................................................................................................... 137 19.2 In vitro studies (human cell lines) ............................................................................................................ 138 20. PROTECTIVE EFFECTS AGAINST UV-LIGHT ....................................................................................... 139 20.1 In vitro studies (human cell lines) ............................................................................................................ 139 21. HYPERSENSITIVITY TO MUSHROOMS IN HUMANS .......................................................................... 140 21.1 Summary of Hypersensitivity Studies ....................................................................................................... 143 22. FOOD SAFETY STUDIES ............................................................................................................................... 143 22.1 Animal Model Studies .............................................................................................................................. 145 22.2 Agaritine .................................................................................................................................................. 147 23. MUSHROOM BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS AND PROPOSED MECHANISMS .................................... 148 24. MUSHROOM VARIETIES – EFFECTS ON HEALTH .............................................................................. 150 AGARICUS BISPORUS (COMMON WHITE BUTTON, BROWN / CRIMINI, PORTABELLA)............................................... 150 AGARICUS BLAZEI ................................................................................................................................................. 158 AGARICUS BRASILIENSIS ....................................................................................................................................... 170 AGARICUS SYLVATICUS ......................................................................................................................................... 172 AGROCYBE AEGERITE (BLACK POPLAR, PIOPINNO, CHIODINI) ............................................................................. 173 AGROCYBE CHAXINGU .......................................................................................................................................... 174 ANTRODIA CINNAMOMEA ...................................................................................................................................... 174 AURICULARIA AURICULAR (WOOD EAR) .............................................................................................................. 175 AURICULARIA POLYTRICHA (JEW'S EAR) .............................................................................................................. 176 COPRINUS COMATUS.............................................................................................................................................. 177 CORDYCEPS MILITARIS .......................................................................................................................................... 177 CORDYCEPS SINENSIS (CATERPILLAR MUSHROOM) ............................................................................................... 178 FLAMMULINA VELUTIPES (ENOKI) ........................................................................................................................ 180 GANORDERMA LUCIDUM (REISHI, LINGZHI) ......................................................................................................... 184 GRIFOLA FRONDOSA (MAITAKE) .......................................................................................................................... 198 HERICIUM ERINACEUM (POM POM, LION’S MANE) ............................................................................................... 206 HYPSIZIGUS MARMOREUS (BUNA-SHIMEJI)........................................................................................................... 209 INONOTUS OBLIQUUS (CHAGA) ............................................................................................................................. 212 LECCINUM EXTREMIORIENTALE ............................................................................................................................ 212 LENTINULA EDODES (SHIITAKE) ............................................................................................................................ 213 LYOPHYLLUM CONNATUM .................................................................................................................................... 224 PHELLINUS IGNIARIUS ........................................................................................................................................... 224 PHELLINUS LINTEUS .............................................................................................................................................. 225 PHELLINUS RIMOSUS ............................................................................................................................................. 228 PHELLINUS ROBUSTUS ........................................................................................................................................... 229 PHOLIOTA NAMEKO (NAMEKO) ............................................................................................................................. 229 PLEUROTUS CITRINOPILEATUS .............................................................................................................................. 229 PLEUROTUS CORNUCOPIAE .................................................................................................................................... 230 PLEUROTUS ERYNGII ............................................................................................................................................. 230 PLEUROTUS FERULAE ............................................................................................................................................ 233 PLEUROTUS FLORIDA ............................................................................................................................................. 233 PLEUROTUS NEBRODENSIS..................................................................................................................................... 234 PLEUROTUS OSTREATUS (OYSTER MUSHROOMS) ................................................................................................. 234 PLEUROTUS PULMONARIUS ................................................................................................................................... 238 PODAXIS PISTILLARIS ............................................................................................................................................ 239 SCHIZOPHYLLUM COMMUNE (SPLIT GILLS MUSHROOM)...................................................................................... 240

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TREMELLA FUCIFORMIS (WHITE WOOD EAR, WHITE JELLY LEAF) ...................................................................... 241 TRAMETES (=CORIOLUS) VERSICOLOR (TURKEY TAIL, YUNZHI) .......................................................................... 241 VOLVARIELLA VOLVACEA (STRAW MUSHROOM) ................................................................................................. 245 WILD EDIBLE FUNGI.............................................................................................................................................. 246 25. CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................................................ 247 26. ABOUT THE AUTHORS ................................................................................................................................. 248 27. APPENDIX – COMPOSITIONAL TABLES: RAW, COOKED AND DRIED MUSHROOMS ............. 251 28. REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................................. 300

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1. Executive Summary

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Nutritional Profiling: The current review of nutritional data identified an additional 31 mushroom varieties (since the 2010 report), which are shown in table 1. This report now provides nutritional profiles for a total of 103 mushroom varieties.

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In comparison to common vegetables, the common white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) is a remarkable source of protein, phosphorus, magnesium and vitamin D. A recent human clinical trial has demonstrated the bioavailability of vitamin D2 from UV-Birradiated button mushrooms in healthy adults deficient in serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D. Furthermore, the bioavailability of vitamin D2 from vitamin D2-enhanced button mushrooms via UV-B irradiation was effective in improving vitamin D status and not different to a vitamin D2 supplement.

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Cultivated mushrooms (e.g. Agaricus bisporus/white, Agaricus bisporus/brown, Lentinus edodes, Pleurotus ostreatus and others) are a valuable source of several micronutrients and are a low kilojoule, nutrient-dense food. Mushrooms are low in sodium and high in glutamate which makes them a useful flavour addition to a low-salt diet. As they are low in kilojoules, they are ideal for incorporation in weight loss programs.

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Mushrooms provide 29% of the recommended daily intake (RDI) for vitamin B2 (riboflavin) and 23% of the RDI for niacin and are one of the very few foods that provide a natural source of vitamin D. Biosynthesis of vitamin D levels from ergosterols in mushrooms can be significantly enhanced by exposure to sunlight or ultraviolet light post-harvest (e.g. during drying).Vitamin D is an important factor for immune function.

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Human Studies: The properties and mechanisms of extracts and bioactive compounds from mushrooms that have been evaluated in a human population or human cell lines are discussed in this report. The human trials carried out to date have primarily been smaller observational studies, although larger, double-blind, placebo controlled human studies have recently been completed and several others are in progress. In general, the growing data suggest that the mushrooms and mushroom extracts tested in humans are safe and generally well-tolerated. The most promising data appear to be those indicating an inverse relationship between mushroom consumption and breast cancer risk. In vitro and animal trials have reported an inhibition of aromatase activity and subsequent reduction of estrogen

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by mushroom extracts. A decrease in aromatase activity has recently been demonstrated in a human trial following consumption of Agaricus bisporus (Palomares et al., 2011), which provides a physiologically-relevant mechanism for effects on estrogen receptor positive tumors.

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Anti-Cancer Properties: Anti-tumor effects, primarily in human cell lines, have been reported for polysaccharides extracted from various mushrooms. The polysaccharides generally belong to the beta-glucan family of compounds and appear to exert their antitumorigenic effects via enhancement of cellular immunity. Anti-tumor effects of proteoglycan fractions from a variety of mushrooms, including Agaricus bisporus, involve the elevation of natural killer (NK) cell numbers and the stimulation of inducible nitric oxide (NO) synthase gene expression, which is then followed by NO production in macrophages via activation of the transcription factor, NF-kappaB. Activation of NK cells is likely via interferon-gamma and interleukin mediated pathways. While studies in human cell lines provide supporting evidence, well-designed human clinical trials are required before anti-cancer health outcomes in humans can be validated. In recent years, a number of human trials have been undertaken and these are outlined in this report.

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Anti-Diabetogenic Effects: The consistency between the effects of mushroom extracts in diabetic animal models and preliminary data from human trials, which mirror decreases in plasma glucose, blood pressure, cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations, strengthens the level of evidence for anti-diabetogenic effects of the studied mushrooms and their extracts.

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Anti-Microbial Properties: Initial studies in humans have suggested anti-microbial properties of extracts from Agaricus blazei Murill and Ganoderma lucidum, although these studies did not have adequate controls in the experimental design, and therefore such effects have not yet been scientifically validated in humans. Anti-microbial effects of a large number of mushroom varieties and mushroom components on both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria have been confirmed via in vitro studies. A small number of studies in animals have been undertaken and suggest that the anti-microbial effects in vivo may be mediated via the immune system.

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Anti-Oxidant Activity: A recent (2012) comparison of the antioxidant properties and phenolic profile of the most commonly consumed fresh cultivated mushrooms and their mycelia produced in vitro: Agaricus bisporus (white and brown), Pleurotus ostreatus (oyster), Pleurotus eryngii (king oyster) and Lentinula edodes (shiitake) have reported that

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Agaricus bisporus (brown) had the highest antioxidant potential in vitro, while L. edodes possessed the highest reducing power. Significant antioxidant activities in vitro have been reported in several varieties of mushrooms, with one study reporting antioxidant capacity comparable to vitamin C. The antioxidant activities appear to be related to the polyphenolic content. L-ergothioneine is a biologically active antioxidant and its production in mushrooms can be enhanced by addition of histidine to the growth medium/compost. Ergothioneine has been shown to have anti-oxidative/anti-inflammatory properties in several edible mushrooms.

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Anti-Viral Properties: Two Phase I/II trials in HIV-positive patients have been undertaken with lentinan, a beta-glucan from Lentinus edodes. Some side effects were observed at the highest dosages used, which were not present when infusion was undertaken over a shorter period. Proteins, peptides and polysaccharopeptides from mushrooms have been reported to be capable of inhibiting human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) reverse transcriptase and protease, the two enzymes of paramount importance to the life cycle of the HIV. Inhibitory effects on hepatitis B and herpes simplex virus type I have also been reported. The anti-viral effects of mushrooms do not seem to be related to viral adsorption or virucidal effects (i.e. they do not kill the virus), however a number of studies have reported inhibitory effects at the initial stage of virus replication.

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Cardiovascular Health: A reduction in total cholesterol following mushroom consumption has been reported in a number of human trials, however, effects on low density lipoprotein and high-density lipoprotein have generally not been observed. Plasma cholesterol in animal models has been shown to be reduced by mushroom consumption. The hypocholesterolemic effect in animal trials appears to be due partly to an increased rate of low density lipoprotein and high-density lipoprotein catabolism. While some studies have postulated eritadenine or angiotensin I – converting enzyme inhibitory peptides as the hypocholesterolemic agents, similar effects on cholesterol, and other biomarkers of cardiovascular risk have been demonstrated by consumption of mushroom fibre.

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Immune Function: A recent systematic review of immunomodulatory dietary polysaccharides concluded that glucan extracts from Trametes Versicolor improved survival and immune function in human randomised controlled trials of cancer patients, providing a high level of evidence for these effects. Many of the potential therapeutic effects of mushrooms and mushroom components on a variety of diseases appear to be directly or indirectly mediated by enhancing natural immunity of the host via effects on natural killer (NK) cells, macrophages, via balance of T cells and their cytokine production, and via the

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activation of Mitogen Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) pathways.

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Cognition / Brain Health: Although preliminary, data showing protective effects of mushrooms (Hericium erinaceum) on beta-amyloid peptide toxicity in the brain and mild cognitive impairment (both precursors to dementia) appear promising. Preliminary human trials with Hericium erinaceum derivatives showed efficacy in patients with dementia in improving the Functional Independence Measure score or retarding disease progression. A trial with 50 to 80-year-old Japanese men and women diagnosed with mild cognitive impairment reported significantly increased cognitive function scores compared to placebo during intake. The human trials to date have generally had low statistical power, so these effects remain to be confirmed in larger well-designed human trials.

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Osteoporosis / Bone Health: In vitro studies have reported positive effects of mushroom extracts on mineralisation of osteoblastic cell lines. Animal studies have reported increased bone density following consumption of mushroom extracts, while mice fed calcium plus vitamin D2-enhanced (UV irradiated) mushrooms showed improved bone mineralization through a direct effect on the bone, and by inducing the expression of calcium-absorbing genes in the duodenum and kidney.

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Hypersensitivity to Mushrooms: Spores of mushrooms are airborne components and can be the cause of hypersensitivity / respiratory allergy. The small number of cases reported, primarily in Japan, have usually involved workers in the commercial production of mushrooms, where air-quality may be poor, and hence this condition has been referred to as ‘mushroom worker’s disease’. The symptoms for this condition usually improve rapidly, either without medication, when the affected person is removed from the factory environment, or after corticosteroid administration via a nasal spray.

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Bio-accumulation: Mushrooms can bioaccumulate undesirable levels of compounds such as mercury and cadmium when grown in polluted ecosystems or on agro-industrial waste and therefore, the growing conditions are important in maintaining a healthy nutritional profile for mushrooms.

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Food Safety Studies / Agaritine: A number of safety assessments on consumption of mushrooms and mushroom extracts have recently been undertaken by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), as have several human clinical trials. The human trials carried out to date have suggested that the mushrooms and mushroom extracts tested are safe and generally well-tolerated. In general, the data have shown no evidence of clinical problems

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with respect to blood test results, hepatic and renal function, glucose and lipid metabolism, blood pressure or DNA toxicity. Similarly, analysis of agaritine from hot-water extracts of the mushroom Hatakeshimeji showed no clinical effects in a human trial suggesting that the extract of Hatakeshimeji was safe for consumption.

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2. Introduction Alongside the mushrooms’ long history as a food source is an equally long history of beliefs about their curative abilities in traditional medicine systems—both the folk medicine of the western world and traditional medicine of the orient. Although there are still a limited, but growing, number of direct human intervention trials, there is a very large number of in vitro and in vivo animal trials describing a range of possible health benefits including immunomodulatory, anti-tumor, anti-microbial effects and hypocholesterolemic effects. Some of the more efficacious compounds in mushrooms are 1,6-branched 1,3-β-glucans which have been reported to inhibit tumor growth by stimulating the immune system via activation of macrophages, via balance of T helper cell populations and subsequent effects on natural killer (NK), cells and also via cytokine production (Hetland et al., 2011). Other work has implicated polysaccharides with varying sugars such as beta- and alpha-glucans (Borchers et al. 2008). Such mushroom polysaccharides are beginning to be evaluated as adjuvant cancer therapy compounds alongside conventional cancer treatments (Standish et al. 2008). The mechanisms by which these polysaccharides exert their immunomodulatory effects are not entirely clear, although structure–function relationships have been described between antitumor activities and structural characteristics of β-D-glucans. These mushroom polysaccharides generally do not exert cytotoxic effects on tumor cells, but have been shown to enhance hostmediated immunomodulatory responses (reviewed by Wong et al. 2011). A recent systematic review has also provided evidence for immunomodulatory effects (increased NK cell activity, effects on IgG, IgM, neutrophil and leukocyte counts) in humans from oral ingestion of dietary polysaccharides (glucans) from some varieties of mushrooms (Ramberg et al, 2010), while inhibition of aromatase activity by mushroom extracts (Grube et al., 2001, Chen et al., 2006) and subsequent reduction of estrogen, is a potential adjuvant therapy for breast cancer patients with estrogen receptor positive tumors. While the effects and underlying mechanisms of mushroom polysaccharides in health outcomes have been more extensively evaluated, bioactive proteins from mushrooms (such as lectins, fungal immunomodulatory proteins (FIP), ribosome inactivating proteins (RIP), ribonucleases and other proteins have also been reported to possess similar anti-tumor, anti-viral and immunomodulatory activities (Xu et al., 2011b).

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This report evaluates published human trials on mushroom consumption and health outcomes in order to identify the levels of evidence, and to identify areas where future human dietary intervention trials are warranted to substantiate the potential effects of mushroom consumption on human health outcomes. While the report focusses on human studies, animal and in vitro studies that provide lower levels of evidence are also discussed, particularly where they provide insights into cellular mechanisms. The latter part of this report identifies and describes the individual key studies undertaken for several culinary and medicinal mushrooms.

3. Methodology 3.1 Evaluation of Medical, Scientific and Technological Information The information on mushrooms and health was sourced via detailed and thorough strategic electronic searches of medical, scientific and technical literature based on the mushroom varieties and health conditions identified in the research proposal. The systematic literature searches were carried out using the following databases: PubMed – a service of the US National Library of Medicine that includes over 16 million citations from the MEDLINE database and other life science journals. SCOPUS - an abstract database covering 25 million abstracts from over 16,000 journals across 4,000 publishers. Web of Science – 10,000 major journals across 164 scientific disciplines. CSIRO Electronic Journals Collection (4,000 e-journals). AGRICOLA - includes bibliographic citations for journal articles, monographs, proceedings, theses, patents, translations, audiovisual materials, computer software, and technical reports covering all aspects of primary international information sources in agriculture and related fields. The literature cited is mainly in English, but over one-third of the database comprises citations in Western European, Slavic, Asian, and African languages. The captured records were cross-checked across the above databases as well as with records

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from Food Science and Technology Abstracts (FSTA), Cambridge Scientific Abstracts (CSA) and ISI Proceedings. Epidemiological and clinical trials were also included in the review and evaluations. The journals with high impact factors and scientific credibility are indexed in these databases. The searches were completed in May 2012 and the database contains papers published up to this time. Searches for clinical trials were updated on June 15, 2012. 3.1.1 Clinical Trials Databases

The search strategy aimed to find published English language studies. A three-step search strategy wws utilised to complete the report. An initial limited search of MEDLINE was undertaken followed by analysis of the text words contained in the title and abstract, and of the index terms used to describe relevant articles. A second search, using identified keywords, MESH and index terms, was then undertaken across all included databases. Thirdly, the reference list of identified reports/trials and articles was searched for additional studies. The listing of the sources and databases used is provided below. The following databases were searched for systematic reviews and clinical trials:

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Medline on Pub Med

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Science Citation Index (searched on CSIRO Network)

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Cochrane Central (Database of Systematic Reviews and Cochrane Collaboration Central Register of Controlled Trials.

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Centre for Reviews and Dissemination Databases (Database of Reviews of Effects (DARE). NHS Economic Evaluation Database (NHS EED), Health Technology Assessment (HTA) Database) CRD Centre for Reviews and Dissemination.

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Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) Library of Systematic Reviews.

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Current ongoing trials and as-yet-unpublished trials that might yield data were identified using the following databases:

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Clinical trials.gov

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ISRCTN International metaRegister of Current Controlled Trials which includes the following sub-files:

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Action Medical Research (UK)

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Medical Research Council (UK)

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UK Trials (UK)

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The Wellcome Trust (UK)

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NIHR Health Technology Assessment Program (HTA) (UK)

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NIH Clinical Trials.gov Register

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Cochrane Collaboration Central Register of Controlled Trials

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Australian and New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR)

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World Health Organization (WHO) International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP) portal which includes the following sub-files:

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Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry

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ClinicalTrials.gov

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ISRCTN

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Chinese Clinical Trial Registry

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Clinical Trials Registry - India

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German Clinical Trials Register

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Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials

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Japan Primary Registries Network

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Sri Lanka Clinical Trials Register

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The Netherlands National Trial Register

The searches did not include unpublished and non peer-reviewed studies.

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4. Nutrient Profiling of Mushrooms 4.1 Macronutrient and micronutrient content The current review of nutritional data identified an additional 31 mushrooms varieties (since the 2010 report), shown in table 1. This report now provides nutritional profiles for a total of 103 mushroom varieties.

Table 1: Mushroom varieties added to 2012 Report RAW MUSHROOMS

COOKED MUSHROOMS

Common Mushroom (Agaricus Bisphorus)

Common Mushroom (Agaricus Bisphorus)

Mushroom Portabella (Portobello), raw (Can)

Mushrooms, white microwaved (Can)

Mushroom Brown Italian (Crimini) raw (Can)

Boletus edible (Fin)

Matsutake, canned in brine solids (Jap) Mushroom, golden, Asian, canned in brine, drained (Aust) Mushroom, straw, Asian, canned in brine, drained (Aust)

Mushroom Boletus, Russula (Fin)

Mushroom fried Agaricus bisporus (Fin)

Chantarelle (Fin)

Boletus edible, boiled (Fin)

False Morel (Fin)

Mushroom, boiled, drained with salt (Can)

Milk-cap Northern (Fin)

Mushroom, straw, canned, drained solids (Can)

Yanagimatsutake, raw (Jap)

Mushroom Portabella (Portabello), grilled (Can)

Shimeji Honshimeji, raw (Jap)

Mushroom, straw, canned, drained solids (USDA)

Culinary Specialty Mushrooms

Numeisugitake, raw (Jap)

Culinary Specialty Mushrooms

Tamogitake, raw (Jap)

Tree ears, Kiurage, boiled (Jap)

Shimeji Hatakeshimeji, raw (Jap)

Tree ears, Shiro-kikurage, boiled (Jap)

Kuroawabitake, raw (Jap)

Tree ears, Arage-kikurage, boiled (Jap)

Matsutake, raw (Jap)

DRIED MUSHROOMS

Chanterelle, raw (USDA)

Culinary Specialty Mushrooms

Morel, raw (USDA)

Shiitake, dried (Log grown) Mushroom Milk Caps, salted (Fin)

Of particular interest for this report are the nutrients for which the common mushroom varieties provide >10% recommended dietary intake (RDI) or Adequate Intake (AI) for Adults 19 years and over by 100g (20g for dried mushroom varieties) with comprehensive compositional tables for the macronutrient contents, vitamin and mineral contents of raw/fresh, canned, dried and culinary specialty varieties of the common mushroom varieties found in Appendix 1 of this report. The compositional data has been tabulated agains RDI’s, EAR (Estimated Average Requirement) and AI’s for females and males of different ages for comparison. Summary tables are also provided.

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Table 2. Common mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) macronutrient content - fresh weight 100g, Australian nutrient composition data. As shown in Tables 2 and 3, the common white button mushroom is low in energy and a valuable source of fibre and several micronutrients.

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Content

Nutrient

3.3

Protein (g)

0.3

Carbohydrate (g)

0.3

Fat (g)

1.5

Fibre (g)

25 / 103

Energy (kcal/kj)

As a food, mushrooms are low in protein providing 2-3g/100g raw weight. Protein quality of mushrooms has not been extensively investigated. The amino acid profile of common mushroom protein suggests the Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS) - a method of evaluating the protein quality based on the amino acid requirements of humans – is approximately 0.66 assuming a digestibility of 70%. The highest score is 1, which applies to animal protein sources. As such, this suggests a moderate protein quality. Studies of protein quality in other species suggest a lower score. Although the concentration of protein in mushrooms is low, the use of mycoprotein has been exploited in the manufacture of meat replacement products such as Quorn. Ten popular species of both edible and medicinal Korean mushrooms have been analysed for their free amino acids and disaccharides. The average total free amino acid concentration was 121 mg/g in edible mushrooms and 61 mg/g in medicinal mushrooms, respectively. The average total of free amino acids for all mushrooms, edible mushrooms and medicinal mushrooms was 91.13 mg/g. Agaricus blazei (227.00 mg/g) showed the highest concentration of total free amino acids; on the other hand, Inonotus obliquus (2.00 mg/g) showed the lowest concentration among the 10 species of mushrooms. The average total carbohydrate concentration was 46.67 mg/g in the 10 species of mushrooms, where the edible mushrooms

17

contained 66.68 mg/g and the medicinal mushrooms contained 26.65 mg/g. The carbohydrate constituents of the 10 mushroom species were mainly mannose (36.23%), glucose (34.70%), and xylose (16.83%) (Kim et al., 2009b). The concentration of vitamin B12 in mushrooms has been controversial. Mushrooms cultivated on manure-enriched compost may contain vitamin B12 and may be responsible for previous reports of high B12 levels. However, the USDA database suggests that vitamin B12 at 0.04µg per 100g mushrooms is very low compared to the RDI of 2µg/day. Mattila and co-workers (Mattila et al., 2001) reported levels of 0.05-0.07µg. Nevertheless, the presence of any vitamin B12 is intriguing, as conventionally only animal sources are thought to provide vitamin B12. A recent study of vitamin B 12 concentrations in Agaricus bisporus reported higher concentrations of vitamin B12 in the outer peel than in the cap, stalk, or flesh, suggesting that the vitamin B12 is probably bacteria-derived (Koyyalamudi et al., 2009a). High concentrations of vitamin B12 were also detected in the flush mushrooms including cups and flats. HPLC and mass spectrometry showed the vitamin B12 retention time and mass spectra to be identical to those of the standard vitamin B12 and those of food products including beef, beef liver, salmon, egg, and milk but not of the pseudovitamin B12, an inactive corrinoid in humans. Further investigation of this is warranted. The micronutrient content of the common mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) is shown in Table 3, which also shows the estimated average requirement (EAR) and recommended daily intake (RDI) for Australian adults that is provided by a 100g serve of mushrooms. The nutrients for which mushrooms provide >10% of the recommended daily intake (RDI) for Australian adults are riboflavin, niacin, vitamin D, phosphorus and selenium. It is of note that mushrooms provide 26% for males and 31% for females of the recommended daily intake (RDI) for Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) and 23-27% of the RDI for niacin per 100g respectively for adults over 19 years. Mushrooms remain one of the very few foods that provide a natural source of vitamin D. The vitamin D levels can be significantly enhanced by sunlight or irradiation. Agaricus bisporus (USDA) is of particular interest in this area showing that 100g of mushroom exposed to UV light can provide up to 11.2µg of Vitamin D, a significant increase in vitamin D when compared to non-exposed Agaricus bisporus providing 0.2µg (USDA). In addition, mushrooms provide 22-26% of the RDI for selenium and 20-29% of the adequate intake (AI) for copper for males and female over 19 years respectively. Mushrooms are also low in sodium and low in kilojoules.

18

Table 3. Micronutrient content: Fresh weight/100g of common mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) Australian 1 2 nutrient composition data (unless otherwise specified) RDI and EAR for Australian adults >19years of age. 3 Nutrient Content % EAR % RDI % EAR % RDI Female Male Male Female 0.025 3 2 3 2 Thiamin (B1) (mg) 0.37

34

29

41

34

3.72

31

23

34

27

18

6

5

6

5

0.02

2

2

2

2

1.15

19 AI

29 AI

8.9

30 AI

36 AI

1.0

3

2

3

2

13 = 2 µg RE

19 years = 70 μg/d Female > 19 years =60 μg /d: USDA RDA Male and female >19years = 55μg/d 22 Obtained Online NUTTAB 2006 Nutrient Database – Mushroom, Common, Raw 23 Obtained USDA Nutrient database - Mushroom, White, Raw 20

21

Table 6 Common mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) micronutrient (vitamin) content per 100g Australian Nutrient Composition Data Vs Commonly consumed vegetable (Aust and USDA).

Common Mushroom (Agaricus Bisporus) Corn, sweet, yellow, raw Sweet potato, raw, unprepared Pumpkin, raw Carrots, raw Broccoli, raw Beans, snap, green, raw Potatoes, white, flesh and skin, raw

Thiamin (B1) (mg) 0.025

Folate (mcg)

Vitamin B6 (mg)

Vitamin C (mg)

Phosphorus (mg)

Magnesium (mg)

Iron (mg)

Vitamin D (µg)

18

0.02

1

110

10

0.27

0.2

0.155

42

0.093

6.8

89

37

0.52

NA

0.078

11

0.209

2.4

47

25

0.61

0.05 0.066 0.071

16 19 63

0.061 0.138 0.175

9 5.9 89.2

0.082

33

0.141

12.2

44 35 66 38

12 12 21 25

0.8 0.3 .073 1.03

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

0.071

18

0.203

19.7

62

21

0.052

0.0

0.0

The nutritional and health benefits of mushrooms have recently been reviewed (Cheung, 2010).

4.2 Vitamins and Minerals 4.2.1 Vitamin D A single-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled trial (registered at http://germanctr.de as DRKS00000195) in 26 young subjects with serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD) < 50 nmol/l undertaken over a 5 week period has demonstrated the bioavailability of vitamin D2 from UV-Birradiated button mushrooms in healthy adults deficient in serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D. Furthermore, the bioavailability of vitamin D2 from vitamin D2enhanced button mushrooms via UV-B irradiation was effective in improving vitamin D status and not different to a vitamin D2 supplement (Urbain et al., 2011). Agaricus bisporus mushrooms contain an abundance of ergosterol, which on exposure to UV irradiation is converted to vitamin D2. A high rate of conversion from ergosterol to vitamin D2 has been reported following a short treatment time (Koyyalamudi et al., 2009b). The stability of vitamin D2 remained unchanged during storage at 4ºC and at room temperature over 8 days indicating no degradation of vitamin D2. Vitamin D2 was well absorbed and metabolized as shown by the serum response of 25-hydroxyvitamin D in rats fed the irradiated mushrooms.

22

These data are in agreement with an earlier report that showed that Vitamin D2 from UVirradiated mushrooms was well absorbed and metabolized in a rat model system and significant increases in femur bone mineralization was shown in the presence of vitamin D-2 from irradiated mushrooms compared with the controls (Jasinghe et al., 2005). A recent randomised controlled trial of 38 adults consuming ergocalciferol from Agaricus bisporus or supplements for 6 weeks has reported that ergocalciferol was absorbed and metabolized to 25hydroxyergocalciferol (25(OH)D2) but did not affect vitamin D status, because 25hydroxycholecalciferol (25(OH)D3) decreased proportionally in serum (Stephensen et al., 2012). Exposing white button mushrooms to ultraviolet B (UVB) light markedly increases their vitamin D2 content. In weanling female rats, diets containing 2.5% and 5.0% light-exposed mushrooms significantly raised 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) and suppressed parathyroid hormone levels compared to control-fed rats or rats fed 5.0% mushroom unexposed to light. Vitamin D2 from UVB-exposed mushrooms was reported to be bioavailable, safe, and functional in supporting bone growth and mineralization in a growing rat model without evidence of toxicity (Calvo et al., 2012). Enrichment of vitamin D2 in Agaricus bisporus white button mushroom using continuous UV light needs a longer exposure time, which can lead to discoloration, however, exposure of whole or sliced mushrooms to pulsed UV light significantly increased vitamin D2 without any observed discoloration (Rao Koyyalamudi et al., 2011). The effects of UVB on Agaricus bisporus are limited to changes in vitamin D and show no detrimental changes relative to natural sunlight exposure. On a dry weight basis, no significant changes in vitamin C, folate, vitamins B 6, vitamin B 5, riboflavin, niacin, amino acids, fatty acids, ergosterol, or agaritine were observed following UVB processing, while exposure to sunlight resulted in a 26% loss of riboflavin, evidence of folate oxidation, and unexplained increases in ergosterol (9.5%) (Simon et al., 2011). Vitamin D2 can be increased by UV-B exposure during the growth phase of Agaricus bisporus. Growth is unaffected by UV-B. Postharvest exposure to supplementary UV-B resulted in a higher vitamin D2 content of 32 µg/100 g compared to 24 µg/100 g obtained from exposure to UV-B during the growth phase (Kristensen et al., 2012). The effect of sunlight on the production of vitamin D of indoor-grown mushrooms while drying has been studied using Lentinus eddoes (Berk.) Singer (Shiitake mushroom), Ganoderma lucidum (W. Curt.:Fr.) Lloyd (reishi), and Grifola frondosa (Dicks.:Fr.) S.F. Gray (Maitake). Six to eight hours of sunlight exposure stimulated the production of vitamin D from low levels of 134, 66, and 469 IU, respectively, to 46,000, 2,760, and 31,900 IU vitamin D, respectively. The

23

highest level of vitamin D was produced in Lentinus edodes, whose spore-producing lamellae were exposed to the sun. Dried mushrooms also elicited vitamin D production subsequent to sunlight exposure. Vitamin D is also an important factor for immune function and has been identified as a major mitigating factor in many diseases, so the sunlight-activated biosynthesis of vitamin D from ergosterols within mushrooms has substantial implications for the mushroom industry in the context of health (Stamets, 2005). The generation of Vitamin D2 in edible mushrooms has been studied in fresh Shiitake mushrooms (Lentinula edodes), Oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus), Button mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus), and Abalone mushrooms (Pleurotus cystidus) following irradiation with Ultraviolet-A (UV-A; wavelength 315-400nm), Ultraviolet-B (UV-B; wavelength 290-315nm), and Ultraviolet-C (UV-C; wavelength 190-290nm). Irradiation of each side of the mushrooms for 1h was found to be the optimum period of irradiation in this conversion. The conversions of ergosterol to vitamin D2 under UV-A, UV-B, and UV-C were shown to be significantly different. The highest vitamin D2 content was observed in Oyster mushrooms irradiated with UV-B at 35ºC and ~80% moisture. Under the same conditions of irradiation, the lowest vitamin D2 content was observed in button mushrooms (Jasinghe and Perera, 2006). Raw and processed mushroom samples including wild grown (chanterelles and king bolete) and cultivated samples (white and brown button, Portabella, Shiitake, Oyster) have been analysed for vitamin D2 content. Chanterelles and king bolete were found to be good sources of vitamin D2 (0.7–2.2µg/g d.m.) compared with cultivated mushrooms that had a low content (< 0.1 µg/g d.m.). Canned samples of Agaricus bisporus/white were slightly lower in vitamin D2 compared to fresh samples. Irradiation with UV light in the A region (366nm) only slightly affected vitamin D2 content. In contrast, irradiation with UV light conducted in the C region (254nm, 0–2 h, 20cm distance) for fresh white button mushrooms and freeze-dried chanterelles resulted in vitamin D2 increasing by up to 9-fold (Cantharellus tubaeformis) and 14-fold (A. bisporus/white), respectively (Teichmann et al., 2007). A study has also shown that irradiating slices of Agaricus bisporus was a more efficient way of increasing the vitamin D2 content than irradiating the gill or pileus of whole mushrooms, due to the larger exposure area. As the irradiation doses increased, the vitamin D2 concentration also increased for both sliced Agaricus bisporus and sliced Shiitake (Lentinus edodes) (Ko et al., 2008). An intensity of 1.0 mW/cm2 at a dose of 0.5 J/cm2, the concentration of vitamin D2 produced in Agaricus bisporus was 3.83 µg/g dry solids of mushrooms in 8 minutes, whereas using an intensity of 0.5 mW/cm2 at a dose of 0.5 J/cm2, the concentration of vitamin D 2 produced was 3.75µg/g dry solids of mushrooms in 18 min. Post-harvest time did not have a

24

significant effect on vitamin D2 formation in mushrooms that were treated 1 and 4 days after harvest (Roberts et al., 2008).

4.2.2 Minerals Mushrooms contain a variety of minerals and trace elements such as potassium, and copper and vitamins such as riboflavin, niacin, and folates. Amino acid analysis has shown that protein in a variety of mushrooms contains nutritionally useful quantities of essential amino acids, while tryptophan is a limiting amino acid in some varieties (Cuptapun et al., 2010). The content of mineral elements (Ca, K, Mg, Na, P, Cu, Fe, Mn, Cd, Pb, and Se), vitamins (B1, B2, B12, C, D, folates, and niacin), and certain phenolic compounds (flavonoids, lignans, and phenolic acids) have been determined in a study of the cultivated mushrooms Agaricus bisporus/white, Agaricus bisporus/brown, Lentinus edodes, and Pleurotus ostreatus. Cultivated mushrooms were found to be good sources of vitamin B2, niacin, and folates, with contents varying in the ranges 1.8-5.1, 31-65, and 0.30-0.64mg/100g dry weight (dw), respectively. Compared with vegetables, mushrooms are a good source of many mineral elements e.g. the content of K, P, Zn, and Cu varied in the ranges 26.7-47.3 g/kg, 8.7-13.9 g/kg, 47-92mg/kg, and 5.2-35mg/kg dw, respectively. Agaricus bisporus/brown was shown to contain large amounts of Se (3.2mg/kg dw) and the levels of Cd were quite high in L. edodes (1.2mg/kg dw). No flavonoids or lignans were found in the mushrooms analysed in this study from Finland (Mattila et al., 2001). Analyses of Agaricus bisporus (brown), in three flushes and at two different harvest times showed the mean Zn, Fe, P, Mg, K, Na, and Ca contents of both harvests were 8.15-7.07,7.407.96, 1180.93-1038.69, 88.05-76.29, 213.29-238.82, 2652.0-2500.89, and 534.2-554.80 mg/kg, respectively. In terms of vitamin C, folic acid, thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin, the mean contents were 6.75-3.97, 0.09-0.08, 0.085-0.09, 0.27-0.29, and 3.62-2.94 mg/kg, respectively. The estimated volatile components comprised 18- or 16-carbon compounds such as octadecanoic acid, hexadecanoic acid derivatives, and other important volatiles like di-limonene, n-nonane, benzendicarboxylic acid, and cis-linoleic acid esters (Caglarirmak, 2009). The concentrations of minerals in Shiitake mushrooms (Lentinus edodes) are in general lower than those in the cultivated white mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) and in the Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus). The greatest differences have been reported in the concentrations of potassium, phosphorus, calcium, copper, strontium, manganese and zinc. The concentrations are higher in caps than in stipes. The total amino acid content is 15% in caps and 11% in stipes

25

(dry matter). The amounts of the amino acids Phe, Gly, His, Arg, Ile and Met are relatively higher than in Agaricus fruit bodies (Vetter, 1995). A study on the copper and zinc contents of 28 species of edible mushrooms (from different sites in NW Spain) has shown that the element concentrations were species-dependent, with the highest levels corresponding to the following species: Calvatia utriformis (235.5mg Cu/kg), Macrolepiota procera (217.8mg Cu/kg), Agaricus macrosporus (217.7mg Cu/kg) and Calvatia utriformis (265.8mg Zn/kg), Lactarius delicious (231.0mg Zn/kg), and Agaricus macrosporus (221.3mg Zn/kg) for Cu and Zn, respectively. All mushroom species bioaccumulated copper and zinc, while some individual samples of the species, such as Hydnum repandum, Cantharellus cibarius, and Coprinus comatus, were bioexclusors. The hymenophore in mushrooms showed higher mean levels than the rest of the fruit bodies, with statistically significant differences. In this study, the copper and zinc concentrations were compared to literature data and levels set by legislation, with the authors concluding that the consumption of these mushrooms cannot be considered a toxicological risk, and that they provide an important nutritional requirement to the diet (Alonso et al., 2003). Mycelia from Grifola frondosa grown in the presence of non-mycotoxic concentrations of 100 and 200 ppm (parts per million) of Cu or 25 and 50 ppm of Zn accumulated 200-322 ppm and 267-510 ppm of Cu or Zn, respectively. When the enriched metal mycelia were subjected to a simulated gastrointestinal digestion in vitro, the solubility in the digestive fluids was 642-669 ppm and 102-530 ppm, which represent approximately 32-33% and 0.7-3.5% of the recommended daily intake (RDI) for Cu and Zn, respectively, in 1 g of mycelium, with the authors discussing potential uses of the mineral-enriched mycelia in capsules (in the case of Cu-enriched mycelia) and in food preparations (Figlas et al., 2010). Good bioavailablity of both copper and zinc from mycelium of Agaricus blazei Murrill equating to very good levels of recommended daily intakes of these minerals from small amounts of (1g) of this mushroom has also been reported (Rabinovich et al., 2007). The possibility of utilizing agro-industrial wastes in the production of edible, high-quality products (e.g., mushrooms) implies the risk of bringing toxic substances, such as heavy metals, into the human food chain. Some mushrooms can bioaccumulate undesirable levels of compounds such as mercury (Alonso et al., 2000) and cadmium (Favero et al., 1990) when grown in polluted ecosystems. In such environments, cultivated species accumulate lower levels than wild mushroom species, only because the mean life is shorter.

26

4.2.2.1 Selenium Selenium (Se) levels in humans are very dependent on the Se-content of consumed food. A higher intake of selenium can decrease the risk of a number of health problems. The selenium content of different, common varieties of Agaricus bisporus is very high, and the caps of fruit bodies have a higher Se content than the stipe. The average cap/stipe Se ratio has been reported to be 1.29, and the changes of Se concentration during cultivation (in cultivation's flushes) are not significant (Vetter and Lelley, 2004). Selenium in selenium-enriched Pleurotus ostreatus has been shown to be highly bioavailable in a study in Wistar rats (da Silva et al., 2010a). Furthermore, it has been proposed that the immune-regulatory activity and selenium-containing attribute of proteins from Ganoderma lucidum or selenium-enriched G. lucidum in the form of selenocysteine and selenomethionine, may contribute to their antitumor activity (Du et al., 2010). It has been shown that Pleurotus cornucopiae (Paulet) Rolland and Grifola frondosa (Dicks.:Fr.) S.F. Gray mushrooms are able to be enriched with selenium by addition of sodium selenite to the growth substrate. Selenium increased in basidiomata of both mushrooms in direct response to levels added to the substrate, but greater uptake of selenium occurred with P. cornucopiae compared to G. frondosa. The results indicated that both mushrooms can be predictably enriched with selenium to become an excellent nutritional source of selenium (Beelman and Royse, 2006). The main subsistent forms of selenium in Se-enriched mycelia are selenoproteins and selenium-polysaccharides and Se enrichment studies in mushrooms have also reported an elevation of glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and a decrease in malondialdehyde (MDA) (Song et al., 2009). An increasingly growing database on chemical forms of selenium of mushrooms indicates that the seleno-compounds include selenocysteine, selenomethionine, Se-methylselenocysteine, selenite, and several unidentified selenocompounds (Falandysz, 2008).

27

5. Effects of mushrooms and mushroom components on health 5.1 Studies in Humans The properties and mechanisms of extracts and bioactive compounds from mushrooms that have been evaluated in a human population or human cell lines are outlined in Table 7. The human trials carried out to date have primarily been smaller observational studies, although larger, double-blind, placebo controlled human studies have recently been completed and several others are in progress. In general, the growing data suggest that the mushrooms and mushroom extracts tested in humans are safe and generally well-tolerated. The most promising data appear to be those indicating an inverse relationship between mushroom consumption and breast cancer risk, although most of the studies to date are based on food frequency /diet recalls, which can be affected by recall bias, and therefore, the effects need to be confirmed via intervention trials involving mushroom consumption. However, in vitro and animal trials have reported an inhibition of aromatase activity and subsequent reduction of estrogen by mushroom extracts, which provide a physiologically-relevant mechanism for effects on estrogen receptor positive tumors. A decrease in aromatase activity has also recently been demonstrated in a human trial following consumption of Agaricus bisporus (Palomares et al., 2011), although only a conference abstract is currently available. Preliminary new data showing protective effects of mushrooms on beta-amyloid peptide toxicity in the brain and mild cognitive impairment (both precursors to dementia) are promising and warrant further research on the ability of mushroom consumption to delay the onset of cognitive decline / Alzheimer’s disease. In addition to the studies in human population groups and human cell lines provided in Table 1, the properties and mechanisms of bioactive compounds and mushroom extracts evaluated in animal models or animal cell lines are provided in Table 8.

28

Table  7:  Properties  and  mechanisms  of  bioactive  compounds  and  mushroom  extracts  evaluated  in  a  human  population  or  human  cell  lines   BIOACTIVE  or  EXTRACT   MUSHROOM  VARIETY   MECHANISM   REFERENCE   (in  vitro/  in  vivo)             Anti-­‐Cancer  (Breast)   Ergosterol   Unspecified  variety   Increase  serum  25  (OH)  vitamin  D2  levels  (in  vivo-­‐ Furlanetto  2009   humans)   Aqueous  extracts   Agaricus  bisporus   Suppress  aromatase  activity  and  proliferation  of   Grube  et  al  2001   EFFECT/  DISEASE   STATE    

Hydroxylated  triterpenes     Multiple  varieties   Polysaccharopeptides     Ganerderma  lucidum  

Anti-­‐Cancer   (Colorectal)  

Trametes  versicolor    (Tv)   Polysaccharide  extract  

Coriolus  versicolor  

YUNZHI-­‐BC   Unspecified  extract   Unspecified  extract   Polysaccharide  K    (PSK)(in   adjunct  with  immuno-­‐ chemotherapy)   Unspecified  bioactive/   extract   Lectin  

Yunzhi  

Unspecified  bioactive/   extract  

Ganoderma  lucidum  

Aqueous  extract  

Inonotus  obliquus  

Agaricus  bisporus   Coriolus  versicolor  CM-­‐10   Agaricus  sylvaticus   Agaricus  bisporus  (ABL)  

MCF-­‐7aro  cells-­‐  hence  suggesting  a  reduction  in   oestrogen  production  (breast  cancer  cell  lines)   Downregulation  of  Akt/NF-­‐kappaB  signalling   Apoptosis  (human  cell  lines)   Suppress  oxidative  stress  stimulated   phosphorylation  of  Erk1/2  resulting  in   downregulation  of  expression  of  c-­‐fos  &  inhibition   of  transcription  factors  AP-­‐1  and  NF-­‐kappaB   Phase  1  trial  studying  the  side  effects,  tolerability   and  best  dose  (clinical  trial  first  registered  2008)  

 

Effect  of  3.5g/  day  of  YUNZHI-­‐BC  as  a  dietary   supplement    for  breast  cancer  patients   Decrease  of  aroamatase  activity   Stimulate  both  innate  and  adaptive  immune   pathways    in  curatively  resected  colorectal  cancer   (in  vivo)   Benefits  in  haematological  and  immunological   parameters  &  reduction  in  glycemic  levels  (in  vivo)   Inhibit  the  proliferation  of  HT29  human  colonic   cells  (in  vitro  -­‐in  human  cells)   Apoptosis  (induced  by  increase  in  caspase-­‐3   activity)  &  Anti-­‐inflammatory  function  in  HT-­‐29  in   human  carcinoma  cells  (no  toxicity  in  HT-­‐29  cells   in  doses  4)-glucan-beta-(1-->6)glucan-protein complex polysaccharide obtained from Agaricus blazei Murill. Natural Medicines (Tokyo) - Shoyakugaku Zasshi, 63, 32-40. GOPAKUMAR, G., MARTIN, F., ANTONY, S. K., PILLAI, T. G. & NAIR, C. K. K. 2010. Preclinical studies on the use of medicinal mushroom Ganoderma lucidum as an adjuvant in radiotherapy of cancer. Current Science, 99, 1084-1090. GORDON, M., BIHARI, B., GOOSBY, E., GORTER, R., GRECO, M., GURALNIK, M., MIMURA, T., RUDINICKI, V., WONG, R. & KANEKO, Y. 1998. A placebo-controlled trial of the immune modulator, lentinan, in HIV-positive patients: a phase I/II trial. Journal of Medicine, 29, 305330. GRAY, A. M. & FLATT, P. R. 1998. Insulin-releasing and insulin-like activity of Agaricus Campestris (mushroom). Journal of Endocrinology, 157, 259-266. GRUBE, B. J., ENG, E. T., KAO, Y. C., KWON, A. & CHEN, S. 2001. White button mushroom phytochemicals inhibit aromatase activity and breast cancer cell proliferation. Journal of Nutrition, 131, 3288-3293. GU, C. Q., LI, J. & CHAO, F. H. 2006. Inhibition of hepatitis B virus by D-fraction from Grifola frondosa: synergistic effect of combination with interferon-alpha in HepG2 2.2.15. Antiviral Research, 72, 162-165. GU, C. Q., LI, J. W., CHAO, F., JIN, M., WANG, X. W. & SHEN, Z. Q. 2007. Isolation, identification and function of a novel anti-HSV-1 protein from Grifola frondosa. Antiviral Research, 75, 250-257. GU, Y.-H. & BELURY, M. A. 2005. Selective induction of apoptosis in murine skin carcinoma cells (CH72) by an ethanol extract of Lentinula edodes. Cancer Letters, 220, 21-28. GU, Y. H. & LEONARD, J. 2006. In vitro effects on proliferation, apoptosis and colony inhibition in ER-dependent and ER-independent human breast cancer cells by selected mushroom species. Oncology Reports, 15, 417-423. GUAN-JHONG, H., JENG-SHYAN, D., SHYH-SHYUN, H. & MIAO-LIN, H. 2011. Hispolon induces apoptosis and cell cycle arrest of human hepatocellular carcinoma Hep3B cells by modulating ERK phosphorylation. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 59, 71047113. GUAN, G. P., WANG, H. X. & NG, T. B. 2007. A novel ribonuclease with antiproliferative activity from fresh fruiting bodies of the edible mushroom Hypsizigus marmoreus. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 1770, 1593-1597. GUILLAMON, E., GARCIA-LAFUENTE, A., LOZANO, M., D'ARRIGO, M., ROSTAGNO, M. A., VILLARES, A. & MARTINEZ, J. A. 2010. Edible mushrooms: role in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. Fitoterapia, 81, 715-723. GUO, J. J., ZHU, T. B., COLLINS, L., XIAO, Z. X. J., KIM, S. H. & CHEN, C. Y. 2007. Modulation of lung cancer growth arrest and apoptosis by Phellinus Linteus. Molecular Carcinogenesis, 46, 144-154.

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253

Summary Tables for RAW COMMON MUSHROOMS (Agaricus bisporus) providing >10% RDI/AI of key vitamins/100g Riboflavin (B2) (mg)

Males 19-70 years

Males over 70 years

Females 19-70 years

Females over 70 years

Niacin equivalents (B3) (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Folate (mcg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Vit B6 (mg)

Males 19-50 years

Males over 50 years

Females 19-50 years

Females over 50 years

RDI

1.3

1.6

1.1

1.3

RDI

16

14

RDI

400

400

RDI

1.3

1.7

1.3

1.5

Agariscus bisporus white (Matilla 2002)

0.39

30.0%

24.4%

35.5%

30.0%

3.3

20.6%

23.6%

36

Agariscus bisporus brown (Matilla 2002)

0.33

25.4%

20.6%

30.0%

25.4%

4.1

25.6%

29.3%

46

0.402

30.9%

25.1%

36.5%

30.9%

3.607

22.5%

25.8%

17

0.31

23.8%

19.4%

28.2%

23.8%

3.2

20.0%

22.9%

44

13.8%

10.6%

13.8%

12.0%

13.8%

10.6%

13.8%

12.0%

Nutrient

Mushrooms white Agaricus bisporus (USDA) Mushrooms common (UK) India (Goyal 2006) Champignon fresh A. bisporus (Fin) Common mushroom (Jap) Mushroom Agaricus bisporus (Den) Mushroom Agaricus bisporus SFK (Ger) Mushroom Common Agaricus bisporus (Aust) Mushroom, white, raw (Can) Mushroom Portabella raw Agaricus bisporus (USDA) Mushroom Portabella (Portobello), raw (Can) Mushroom Brown Italian or Crimini raw Agaricus bisporus (USDA) Mushroom Brown Italian (Crimini) raw (Can) Mushroom Portabella exposed to UV light raw A. bisporus (USDA)

N/A

N/A

N/A 11.5%

11.5%

N/A 0.104

11.0%

11.0%

0.18

N/A

N/A

0.42

32.3%

26.3%

38.2%

32.3%

6.1

38.1%

43.6%

35

0.18

0.29

22.3%

18.1%

26.4%

22.3%

3

18.8%

21.4%

28

0.11

0.44

33.8%

27.5%

40.0%

33.8%

6.05

37.8%

43.2%

41

0.44

33.8%

27.5%

40.0%

33.8%

N/A

0.369

28.4%

23.1%

33.5%

28.4%

3.72

23.3%

0.402

30.9%

25.1%

36.5%

30.9%

4.19

0.13

10.0%

11.8%

10.0%

0.13

10.0%

11.8%

0.49

37.7%

30.6%

0.49

37.7%

30.6%

0.13

10.0%

10.3%

10.3%

0.06

N/A

0.065

26.6%

18

0.02

26.2%

29.9%

16

0.104

4.494

28.1%

32.1%

28

0.148

11.4%

11.4%

10.0%

4.494

28.1%

32.1%

22

0.148

11.4%

11.4%

44.5%

37.7%

3.8

23.8%

27.1%

25

0.11

44.5%

37.7%

3.8

23.8%

27.1%

14

0.11

11.8%

10.0%

4.494

28.1%

32.1%

28

0.148

11.4%

11.4%

254

Summary Table for RAW COMMON MUSHROOMS (Agaricus bisporus) providing >10% RDI/AI of key vitamins/100g Pantothenic acid (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Biotin (mcg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Vit C (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Vit D (mcg)

Males 19-50 years

Males 51-70 years

Males over 70 years

Females 19-50 years

Females 51-70 years

Females over 70 years

AI

6

4

AI

30

25

RDI

45

45

AI

5

10

15

5

10

15

20.0%

10.0%

20.0%

10.0%

38.8%

19.4%

12.9%

38.8%

19.4%

12.9%

224.0%

112.0%

74.7%

224.0%

112.0%

74.7%

Nutrient

Agariscus bisporus white (Matilla 2002)

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

Agariscus bisporus brown (Matilla 2002)

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

2.1

0.2

1

N/A

Mushrooms white Agaricus bisporus (USDA) Mushrooms common (UK) India (Goyal 2006)

1.497

25.0%

37.4%

N/A

2

33.3%

50.0%

12

40.0%

48.0%

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

1.3

0.2

1

1 0

Champignon fresh A. bisporus (Fin) Common mushroom (Jap) Mushroom Agaricus bisporus (Den)

1.54

25.7%

38.5%

N/A

2

33.3%

50.0%

16

53.3%

64.0%

3.1

Mushroom Agaricus bisporus SFK (Ger)

2.1

35.0%

52.5%

16

53.3%

64.0%

4.9

Mushroom Common Agaricus bisporus (Aust)

1.15

19.2%

28.8%

8.9

29.7%

35.6%

1

N/A

1.497

25.0%

37.4%

N/A

2.1

0.175

1.14

19.0%

28.5%

N/A

0

0.3

Mushroom Portabella (Portobello), raw (Can)

1.14

19.0%

28.5%

N/A

0

0.3

Mushroom Brown Italian or Crimini raw Agaricus bisporus (USDA)

1.5

25.0%

37.5%

N/A

0

0.1

Mushroom Brown Italian (Crimini) raw (Can)

1.5

25.0%

37.5%

N/A

0

0.1

Mushroom Portabella exposed to UV light raw A. bisporus (USDA)

1.14

19.0%

28.5%

N/A

0

11.2

Mushroom, white, raw (Can) Mushroom Portabella raw Agaricus bisporus (USDA)

255

10.9%

10.9%

1.94

Table 1 Average24 %RDI/AI content for each Key Vitamin /100g Vitamin

Average %

Recommended Dietary Intake

Riboflavin (B2)

M 25.8% F 28.9%

1.3mg male 19-7 : 1.6mg men>70 1.1mg Female 19-70:1.3mg female>70

Niacin (B3)

M 26% F 29.8%

16mg male 19 and over 14mg female 19 and over

Folate

M and F 10.9%

400mcg male and female 19 and over

Vitamin B6

M 11.9% F 12.3%

1.3mg male 19-50 yrs : 1.7mg male >70 1.3 Females 19-50 : 1.5 female > 50 years

Pantothenic acid

M 25.3% F 37.9%

6mg male 19 and over 4mg female 19 and over

Biotin

M 44.1% F 52.9%

30mg male 19 and over 25mg female 19 and over

Vitamin C

M and F 10.9% M and F 64%

45mg male and female 19 and over

Vitamin D

24

Comments # > 10% RDI Provided by 15 of 16 mushrooms for M and F • Range male 19 and over – 10-37.7% • Range female 19 and over – 10-44.5% Mushroom Brown Italian (Crimini) Raw (USDA) and (Can) providing the greatest amount #>10% RDI Provided for 14 of 16 for M and F • Range male 19 and over – 18.8-38.1% • Range female 19 and over – 21.4-43.6% Champignion Fresh (A.Bisporus) (Fin) providing the greatest amount # >10%RDI provided by 3 of 16 mushrooms for M and F • Range male and female 19 and over – 10.3-11.5% Agaricus bisporus brown (Matilla 2002) providing the greatest amount #>10% RDI provided by 5 of the 16 for M and F • Range male 19 and over – 10.6 -13.8% • Range female 19 and over – 11.4-13.8% Mushroom common (UK) and Champignion Fresh (A. Bisporus. (Fin) providing the greatest amount #>10% AI provided by 12 of the 16 for M and F • Range male 19 and over – 19 – 35% • Range female 19 and over – 28.5-52.5% Mushroom Agaricus bisporus SFK (Ger) providing the greatest amount #>10% AI provided by 4 of the 16 for M and F • Range male 19 and over – 29.7 – 53.3% • Range female 19 and over – 35.6 -64% Mushroom agaricus bisporaus (Den) and Mushroom Agaricus Bisporus SFK (Ger) providing the greatest amount #>10% RDI provided by 1 of 14 mushrooms for M and F • 10.9% Mushroom Agaricus Bisporus SFK (Ger)

5mcg Male and female 19-50: 10mcg male and female 51-70: 15mcg male and female >70

# >10% AI provided by 3 of 16 mushrooms for M and F • Range male and female 19 – 50: 20–224% • Range male and female 51-70: 10–112% • Range male and female 70 and over: 12.9-74.7% Mushroom Portabella exposed to UV light raw A. bisporus (USDA) providing the greatest amount at 11.2mcg/100g

Average values taken from mushroom data providing greater than or equal to 10%RDI/AI

256

Summary Table for RAW COMMON MUSHROOMS (Agaricus bisporus) providing >10% RDI/AI of key minerals /100g Copper (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Phosphorus (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Potassium (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

AI

1.7

1.2

RDI

1000

1000

AI

3800

2800

Agariscus bisporus white (Matilla 2002)

0.22

12.9%

18.3%

98

Agariscus bisporus brown (Matilla 2002)

0.27

15.9%

22.5%

101

Mushrooms white Agaricus bisporus (USDA)

0.318

18.7%

26.5%

Mushrooms common (UK)

0.72

42.4%

60.0%

India (Goyal 2006) Champignon fresh A. bisporus (Fin) Common mushroom (Jap)

0.32

18.8%

26.7%

100

0.42

24.7%

35.0%

85.1

0.39

22.9%

32.5%

125

12.5%

12.5%

417

Mushroom Common Agaricus bisporus (Aust)

0.342

20.1%

28.5%

110

11.0%

11.0%

310

11.1%

Mushroom, white, raw (Can)

0.318

18.7%

26.5%

86

318

11.4%

Mushroom Portabella raw Agaricus bisporus (USDA)

0.286

16.8%

23.8%

108

10.8%

10.8%

364

13.0%

0.286

16.8%

23.8%

108

10.8%

10.8%

364

13.0%

0.5

29.4%

41.7%

120

12.0%

12.0%

448

11.8%

16.0%

0.5

29.4%

41.7%

120

12.0%

12.0%

448

11.8%

16.0%

0.286

16.8%

23.8%

108

10.8%

10.8%

364

Nutrient

Mushroom Agaricus bisporus (Den) Mushroom Agaricus bisporus SFK (Ger)

Mushroom Portabella (Portobello), raw (Can) Mushroom Brown Italian or Crimini raw Agaricus bisporus (USDA) Mushroom Brown Italian (Crimini) raw (Can) Mushroom Portabella exposed to UV light raw A. bisporus (USDA)

364

13.0%

359

12.8%

86

318

11.4%

80

320

11.4%

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

98

364

13.0%

350

12.5%

363

13.0%

10.1%

10.0%

257

10.1%

10.0%

11.0%

14.9%

13.0%

Summary Table for RAW COMMON MUSHROOMS (Agaricus bisporus) providing >10% RDI/AI of key minerals /100g Selenium (mcg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Zinc (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Iron (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19-50 years

Females over 50 years

RDI

70

60

RDI

14

8

RDI

8

18

8

Agariscus bisporus white (Matilla 2002)

11

15.7%

18.3%

N/A

N/A

Agariscus bisporus brown (Matilla 2002)

25

35.7%

41.7%

N/A

N/A

Mushrooms white Agaricus bisporus (USDA)

9.3

13.3%

15.5%

0.52

0.5

Mushrooms common (UK)

9

12.9%

15.0%

0.4

0.6

N/A

N/A

0.5

0.4

0.4

0.3

10.8%

0.48

0.31

Nutrient

India (Goyal 2006)

N/A

Champignon fresh A. bisporus (Fin)

11

Common mushroom (Jap)

N/A

Mushroom Agaricus bisporus (Den) Mushroom Agaricus bisporus SFK (Ger)

15.7%

6.47

18.3%

7.02

10.0%

11.7%

0.54

1.19

Mushroom Common Agaricus bisporus (Aust)

15.4

22.0%

25.7%

0.56

0.27

Mushroom, white, raw (Can)

9.3

13.3%

15.5%

0.52

0.5

Mushroom Portabella raw Agaricus bisporus (USDA)

18.6

26.6%

31.0%

0.53

0.31

18.6

26.6%

31.0%

0.53

0.31

26

37.1%

43.3%

1.1

13.8%

0.4

26

37.1%

43.3%

1.1

13.8%

0.4

18.6

26.6%

31.0%

0.53

Mushroom Portabella (Portobello), raw (Can) Mushroom Brown Italian or Crimini raw Agaricus bisporus (USDA) Mushroom Brown Italian (Crimini) raw (Can) Mushroom Portabella exposed to UV light raw A. bisporus (USDA)

0.31

258

14.9%

14.9%

Table2 Average %RDI/AI content for each Key MINERAL /100g Mineral

Average %

Recommended Dietary Intake

Comments

Copper

M 21.7% F 30.8%

1.7mg male 19 and over 1.2mg female 19 and over

Phosphorous

M and F 11.1%

1000mg male 19 and over 1000mg Female 19 and over

Potassium

M 11.5% F 13%

3800 mg male 19 and over 2800mg female 19 and over

Selenium

M 22.5% F 25.2%

70mcg male 19 and over 60mcg female 19 and over

# >10% RDI provided by 13 of 16 mushrooms for M and F • Male 19 and over – 10% – 37.1% • Female 19 and over – 10.8%-43.3% Mushroom Brown Italian or Crimini raw Agaricus bisporus (UDSA) and (Can) providing the greatest amount

Zinc

F 13.8% only

14mg male 19 and over 8mg females 19 and over

Iron

M and F (over 50) 14.9% only

8mg male 19 and over 18mg females 19-50 and over 8mg females over 50

# >10% RDI provided by 2 of 16 Mushrooms for Females 19 years : Mushroom Brown Italian or Crimini raw Agaricus bisporus (UDSA) and (Can) # >10% RDI provided by 1 of 16 mushrooms Mushroom Agaricus bisporus SFK (Ger) at 14.9 %

# >10% AI provided by 14 of 16 mushrooms for M and F • Range male 19 and over – 12.9- 42.4% • Range female 19 and over – 18.3 -60% Mushrooms , common (UK) Providing the greatest amount # >10% RDI provided by 9 of 16 mushrooms for M and F • Range male and female 19 and over – 10-12.5% Mushroom Agaricus Bisporus SFK (Ger) providing the greatest amount # >10% AI provided by M 3 and F 15 of 16 Mushrooms • Range male 19 and over – 11-11.8% • Range female 19 and over – 11.1-16% Mushroom Brown Italian or Crimini raw Agaricus bisporus (UDSA) and (Can) at 11.8% providing the greatest amount

259

Summary Table for RAW CULINARY SPECIALTY MUSHROOMS providing >10% AI for protein and fibre /100g Protein (g)

Males 19-70 years

Males over 70 years

Females 19-70 years

Females over 70 years

Fibre (g)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Energy (kcal/kj)

RDI

64

81

46

57

AI

30

25

RDI

3

3.5

11.7%

14.0%

18/75

Shiitake dong gwoo (Fin)

1.8

3.3

11.0%

13.2%

27/111

Shiitake (Log grown)

1.5

0.6

Mushroom shiitake raw Lentinus edodes (USDA)

2.24

2.5

Shimej Bunashimeji (Jap)

2.7

3.7

Oyster, Eringii, raw (Jap)

3.6

Oyster, Usuhiratake, raw (Jap)

6.1

Oyster (Jap)

3.3

2.6

Oyster (USDA)

3.31

2.3

33/138

2

2.4

26/110

Boletus edible (Fin)

3.2

6

Mushroom Boletus, Russula (Fin)

1.8

1.9

Chantarelle (Fin)

1.8

6

False Morel (Fin)

1.8

1.9

18/75

Milk-cap Northern (Fin)

2.1

1.5

21/89

Oyster Pleurotus spp SFKGer

2.35

5.85

Nutrient

Shiitake Nama-shiitake (Jap)

Oyster Pleurotte (Fin)

13.3%

10.7%

260

N/A 10.0%

34/142

12.3%

14.8%

18/75

4.3

14.3%

17.2%

24/100

3.8

12.7%

15.2%

23/96

10.4%

20/84

20.0%

24.0%

41/172 28/116

20.0%

19.5%

24.0%

23.4%

17/73

10/45

Summary Table for RAW CULINARY SPECIALTY MUSHROOMS providing >10% AI for protein and fibre /100g continued Protein (g)

Males 19-70 years

Males over 70 years

Females 19-70 years

Females over 70 years

Fibre (g)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

RDI

64

81

46

57

AI

30

25

Nutrient

Mushroom Oyster, raw (Can)

3.31

2.3

Enoki (USDA)

2.66

2.7

10.8%

Mushroom Enoki, raw (Can)

2.56

2.7

10.8%

Winter Mushrooms (Jap)

2.7

3.9

13.0%

15.6%

Nameko, raw (Jap)

1.7

3.3

11.0%

13.2%

Maitake, raw (Jap)

3.7

2.7

Yanagimatsutake, raw (Jap)

2.4

3

10.0%

12.0%

Shimeji Honshimeji, raw (Jap)

2.1

3.3

11.0%

13.2%

Numeisugitake, raw (Jap)

2.3

2.5

Tamogitake, raw (Jap)

3.6

3.3

11.0%

13.2%

Shimeji Hatakeshimeji, raw (Jap)

3.1

3.5

11.7%

14.0%

Kuroawabitake, raw (Jap)

3.7

4.1

13.7%

16.4%

2

4.7

15.7%

18.8%

Maitake (USDA)

1.94

2.7

Chanterelle, raw (USDA)

1.49

3.8

Morel, raw (USDA)

3.12

2.8

11.2%

Maitake, raw (Can)

1.94

2.7

10.8%

Matsutake, raw (Jap)

•

25

25

10.8%

10.0%

10.8% 12.7%

15.2%

100g of fresh culinary specialty mushrooms provide an average of 12.3 % of the AI for fibre for both male and females aged 19 years and over whereas the common variety mushroom provides an average of 5.5%

AI for fibre males 19yeas and over equals 30g and for females 19 years and over equals 25g

261

Summary Table for RAW CULINARY SPECIALTY MUSHROOMS providing >10% RDI/AI of key vitamins /100g

Nutrient

Thiamin (B1) (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Riboflavin (B2) (mg)

Males 19-70 years

Males over 70 years

Females 19-70 years

Females over 70 years

Niacin equivalents (B3) (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Folate (mcg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

RDI

1.2

1.1

RDI

1.3

1.6

1.1

1.3

RDI

16

14

RDI

400

400

11.9%

17.3%

14.6%

3.8

23.8%

27.1%

42

10.5%

10.5%

13.6%

11.5%

2.6

16.3%

18.6%

25

Shiitake Nama-shiitake (Jap)

0.1

0.19

14.6%

Shiitake dong gwoo (Fin)

0.05

0.15

11.5%

Shiitake (Log grown)

0.4

0.4

30.8%

25.0%

36.4%

30.8%

4.5

28.1%

32.1%

N/A

0.217

16.7%

13.6%

19.7%

16.7%

3.887

24.3%

27.8%

13

Mushroom shiitake raw Lentinus edodes (USDA) Shimej Bunashimeji (Jap)

33.3%

36.4%

0.015 0.16

13.3%

14.5%

0.16

12.3%

10.0%

14.5%

12.3%

6.6

41.3%

47.1%

28

Oyster, Eringii, raw (Jap)

0.14

11.7%

12.7%

0.28

21.5%

17.5%

25.5%

21.5%

8.1

50.6%

57.9%

80

20.0%

20.0%

Oyster, Usuhiratake, raw (Jap)

0.3

25.0%

27.3%

0.41

31.5%

25.6%

37.3%

31.5%

6.9

43.1%

49.3%

100

25.0%

25.0%

Oyster (Jap)

0.4

33.3%

36.4%

0.4

30.8%

25.0%

36.4%

30.8%

10.7

66.9%

76.4%

92

23.0%

23.0%

Oyster (USDA)

0.125

10.4%

11.4%

0.349

26.8%

21.8%

31.7%

26.8%

4.956

31.0%

35.4%

38

Oyster Pleurotte (Fin)

0.07

0.2

15.4%

12.5%

18.2%

15.4%

5.2

32.5%

37.1%

51

12.8%

12.8%

Boletus edible (Fin)

0.03

0.37

28.5%

23.1%

33.6%

28.5%

8.4

52.5%

60.0%

35

Mushroom Boletus, Russula (Fin)

0.1

0.4

30.8%

25.0%

36.4%

30.8%

5.9

36.9%

42.1%

25.5

Chantarelle (Fin)

0.1

0.4

30.8%

25.0%

36.4%

30.8%

5.9

36.9%

42.1%

21

False Morel (Fin)

0.1

0.4

30.8%

25.0%

36.4%

30.8%

5.9

36.9%

42.1%

21

Milk-cap Northern (Fin)

0.1

0.42

32.3%

26.3%

38.2%

32.3%

6.1

38.1%

43.6%

35

0.285

21.9%

17.8%

25.9%

21.9%

0.1

Oyster Pleurotus spp SFK-Ger

0.191

15.9%

17.4%

262

N/A

Summary Table for RAW CULINARY SPECIALTY MUSHROOMS providing >10% RDI/AI of key vitamins /100g continued

Nutrient

Thiamin (B1) (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Riboflavin (B2) (mg)

Males 19-70 years

Males over 70 years

Females 19-70 years

Females over 70 years

Niacin equivalents (B3) (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Folate (mcg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

1.3

1.6

1.1

1.3

RDI

16

14

RDI

400

400

RDI

1.2

1.1

RDI

Mushroom Oyster, raw (Can)

0.125

10.4%

11.4%

0.349

Enoki (USDA)

0.225

18.8%

20.5%

0.2

15.4%

12.5%

18.2%

15.4%

7.032

44.0%

50.2%

48

12.0%

12.0%

Mushroom Enoki, raw (Can)

0.179

14.9%

16.3%

0.162

12.5%

10.1%

14.7%

12.5%

6.372

39.8%

45.5%

52

13.0%

13.0%

Winter Mushrooms (Jap)

0.24

20.0%

21.8%

0.17

13.1%

10.6%

15.5%

13.1%

6.8

42.5%

48.6%

75

18.8%

18.8%

Nameko, raw (Jap)

0.07

5.1

31.9%

36.4%

58

14.5%

14.5%

Maitake, raw (Jap)

0.25

20.8%

22.7%

0.49

37.7%

30.6%

44.5%

37.7%

9.1

56.9%

65.0%

60

15.0%

15.0%

0.27

22.5%

24.5%

0.34

26.2%

21.3%

30.9%

26.2%

6.1

38.1%

43.6%

33

0.5

38.5%

31.3%

45.5%

38.5%

9

56.3%

64.3%

38

20.0%

20.0%

Yanagimatsutake, raw (Jap) Shimeji Honshimeji, raw (Jap) Numeisugitake, raw (Jap) Tamogitake, raw (Jap) Shimeji Hatakeshimeji, raw (Jap) Kuroawabitake, raw (Jap) Matsutake, raw (Jap)

5.456

0.12

0.08

10.9%

27

0.16

13.3%

14.5%

0.34

26.2%

21.3%

30.9%

26.2%

5.9

36.9%

42.1%

19

0.17

14.2%

15.5%

0.33

25.4%

20.6%

30.0%

25.4%

12

75.0%

85.7%

80

0.12

10.0%

10.9%

0.49

37.7%

30.6%

44.5%

37.7%

6.1

38.1%

43.6%

25

0.21

17.5%

19.1%

0.22

16.9%

13.8%

20.0%

16.9%

2.9

18.1%

20.7%

65

16.3%

16.3%

8

50.0%

57.1%

63

15.8%

15.8%

0.1

Maitake (USDA)

0.146

Chanterelle, raw (USDA)

0.1 12.2%

0.242

18.6%

15.1%

22.0%

18.6%

6.585

41.2%

47.0%

21

0.015

0.215

16.5%

13.4%

19.5%

16.5%

4.085

25.5%

29.2%

2

Morel, raw (USDA)

0.069

0.205

15.8%

12.8%

18.6%

15.8%

2.252

14.1%

16.1%

9

Maitake, raw (Can)

0.146

0.242

18.6%

15.1%

22.0%

18.6%

6.941

43.4%

49.6%

29

12.2%

13.3%

13.3%

263

Summary Table for RAW CULINARY SPECIALTY MUSHROOMS providing >10% RDI/AI of key vitamins /100g Nutrient

Vit B6 (mg)

Males 19-50 years

Males over 50 years

Females 19-50 years

Females over 50 years

Pantothenic acid (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

RDI

1.3

1.7

1.3

1.5

AI

6

4

18.0%

27.0%

1.5

25.0%

37.5%

0.86

14.3%

21.5%

Shiitake Nama-shiitake (Jap)

0.11

1.08

Shiitake dong gwoo (Fin)

N/A

N/A

Shiitake (Log grown)

N/A

N/A

Mushroom shiitake raw Lentinus edodes (USDA)

0.293

Shimej Bunashimeji (Jap)

0.08

Oyster, Eringii, raw (Jap)

0.18

13.8%

10.6%

13.8%

12.0%

1.61

26.8%

40.3%

Oyster, Usuhiratake, raw (Jap)

0.23

17.7%

13.5%

17.7%

15.3%

2.44

40.7%

61.0%

Oyster (Jap)

0.1

2.4

40.0%

60.0%

Oyster (USDA)

0.11

1.294

21.6%

32.4%

Oyster Pleurotte (Fin)

N/A

N/A

Boletus edible (Fin)

0.18

13.8%

10.6%

13.8%

12.0%

N/A

Mushroom Boletus, Russula (Fin)

0.22

16.9%

12.9%

16.9%

14.7%

N/A

Chantarelle (Fin)

0.04

False Morel (Fin)

0.22

16.9%

12.9%

16.9%

14.7%

N/A

Milk-cap Northern (Fin)

0.18

13.8%

10.6%

13.8%

12.0%

N/A

Oyster Pleurotus spp SFK-Ger

0.88

67.7%

51.8%

67.7%

58.7%

N/A

22.5%

17.2%

22.5%

19.5%

N/A

264

Summary Table for RAW CULINARY SPECIALTY MUSHROOMS providing >10% RDI/AI of key vitamins /100g continued

Nutrient

Vit B6 (mg)

Males 19-50 years

Males over 50 years

Females 19-50 years

Females over 50 years

Pantothenic acid (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

RDI

1.3

1.7

1.3

1.5

AI

6

4

Mushroom Oyster, raw (Can)

0.11

1.294

21.6%

32.4%

Enoki (USDA)

0.1

1.35

22.5%

33.8%

Mushroom Enoki, raw (Can)

0.081

1.067

17.8%

26.7%

Winter Mushrooms (Jap)

0.12

1.4

23.3%

35.0%

Nameko, raw (Jap)

0.05

1.25

20.8%

31.3%

Maitake, raw (Jap)

0.07

0.79

13.2%

19.8%

Yanagimatsutake, raw (Jap)

0.11

2.61

43.5%

65.3%

Shimeji Honshimeji, raw (Jap)

0.13

1.97

32.8%

49.3%

Numeisugitake, raw (Jap)

0.08

1.77

29.5%

44.3%

Tamogitake, raw (Jap)

0.12

1.32

22.0%

33.0%

Shimeji Hatakeshimeji, raw (Jap)

0.12

2.48

41.3%

62.0%

Kuroawabitake, raw (Jap)

0.09

1.32

22.0%

33.0%

Matsutake, raw (Jap)

0.15

1.91

31.8%

47.8%

Maitake (USDA)

0.056

0.27

Chanterelle, raw (USDA)

0.044

1.075

17.9%

26.9%

Morel, raw (USDA)

0.136

Maitake, raw (Can)

0.056

10.0%

11.5%

10.5%

10.0%

11.5%

10.0%

10.5%

0.44 0.27

265

11.0%

Summary Table for RAW CULINARY SPECIALTY MUSHROOMS providing >10% RDI/AI of key vitamins /100g Vit C (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Vit D (mcg)

Males 19-50 years

Males 51-70 years

Males over 70 years

Females 19-50 years

Females 51-70 years

Females over 70 years

RDI

45

45

AI

5

10

15

5

10

15

Shiitake Nama-shiitake (Jap)

10

22.2%

22.2%

2

40.0%

20.0%

13.3%

40.0%

20.0%

13.3%

Shiitake dong gwoo (Fin)

2.1

0.1

Shiitake (Log grown)

N/A

N/A

N/A

0.4 2

40.0%

20.0%

13.3%

40.0%

20.0%

13.3%

Nutrient

Mushroom shiitake raw Lentinus edodes (USDA) Shimej Bunashimeji (Jap)

7

15.6%

15.6%

Oyster, Eringii, raw (Jap)

0

2

40.0%

20.0%

13.3%

40.0%

20.0%

13.3%

Oyster, Usuhiratake, raw (Jap)

0

6

120.0%

60.0%

40.0%

120.0%

60.0%

40.0%

Oyster (Jap)

10

1

20.0%

10.0%

20.0%

10.0%

Oyster (USDA)

0

0.7

14.0%

Oyster Pleurotte (Fin)

1.6

10% RDI/AI of key vitamins /100g continued Vit C (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Vit D (mcg)

Males 19-50 years

Males 51-70 years

Males over 70 years

Females 19-50 years

Females 51-70 years

Females over 70 years

RDI

45

45

AI

5

10

15

5

10

15

18.0%

Nutrient

Mushroom Oyster, raw (Can)

0

0.9

Enoki (USDA)

0

0.1

Mushroom Enoki, raw (Can)

0

0.1

Winter Mushrooms (Jap)

1

1

Nameko, raw (Jap)

Tr mg

Tr mcg

Maitake, raw (Jap)

0

18.0%

20.0%

10.0%

20.0%

10.0%

3

60.0%

30.0%

60.0%

30.0%

Tr mg

1

20.0%

10.0%

20.0%

10.0%

Tr mg

4

80.0%

40.0%

80.0%

40.0%

Numeisugitake, raw (Jap)

1

1

20.0%

10.0%

20.0%

10.0%

Tamogitake, raw (Jap)

0

1

Shimeji Hatakeshimeji, raw (Jap)

20.0%

10.0%

20.0%

10.0%

0

1

20.0%

10.0%

20.0%

10.0%

Tr mg

1

20.0%

10.0%

20.0%

10.0%

Matsutake, raw (Jap)

2

4

80.0%

40.0%

26.7%

80.0%

40.0%

26.7%

Maitake (USDA)

0

28.1

562.0%

281.0%

187.3%

562.0%

281.0%

187.3%

Chanterelle, raw (USDA)

N/A

5.3

106.0%

53.0%

35.3%

106.0%

53.0%

35.3%

Morel, raw (USDA)

N/A

5.1

102.0%

51.0%

34.0%

102.0%

51.0%

34.0%

Maitake, raw (Can)

0

29.5

590.0%

295.0%

196.7%

590.0%

295.0%

196.7%

Yanagimatsutake, raw (Jap) Shimeji Honshimeji, raw (Jap)

Kuroawabitake, raw (Jap)

267

20.0%

26.7%

20.0%

26.7%

Table 3 Average %RDI/AI content for each Key Vitamin /100g Vitamin

Average %

Recommended Dietary Intake

Thiamine (B1)

M 17.4% F 18.9%

1.2mg male 19 years and over 1.1mg Female 19 years and over

Riboflavin (B2)

M 21.5% F 25.4%

1.3mg male 19-70 : 1.6mg men>70 1.1mg Female 19-70: 1.3mg female>70

Niacin

M 39.1% F 44.6%

16mg male 19 and over 14mg female 19 and over

Folate

M and 16.7%

400mcg male and female 19 and over

Vitamin B6

M 18.7% F 19.2%

1.3mg male 19-50: 1.7mg men>50 1.3mg Female 19-50: 1.5mg female>50

M 26% F 37.8%

6mg male 19 and over 4mg female 19 and over

Vitamin C

M and F 15.6%

45mg male and female 19 and over

Vitamin D

M and F 73.1%

5mcg Male and female 19-50 10mcg male and female 51-70 15mcg male and female >70

Pantothenic acid

Comments # >10% RDI provided by 19 of the 33 mushrooms for M and F • Range male 19 and over – 10 – 33.3% • Range female 19 and over – 11.4-36.4% Shiitake (Log grown) and Oyster (Jap) providing the greatest amount # >10% RDI provided by M 30 and F 31 of 33 mushrooms • Range male 19 and over – 10 – 38.5% • Range female 19 and over – 10.9- 45.5% Shimeiji Hatakeshimeiji raw (Jap) providing the greatest amount # >10% RDI provided by 31 of 33 mushrooms for M and F • Range male 19 and over – 14.1-75% • Range female 19 and over – 16.1-85.7% Tamogitake, raw (Jap) providing the greatest amount # >10% RDI provided by 13 of 33 mushrooms for M and F • Range male and female 19 and over – 10.5-25% Oyster, Usuhiratake, raw (Jap) # >10% RDI provided by 11 of 33 mushrooms for M and F • Range male and female 19 and over – 10-67.7% Shimeiji Hatakeshimeiji raw (Jap) providing the greatest amount # >10% AI provided by M 21 and F 22 of 33 mushrooms • Range male 19 and over 13.2–43.5% • Range female 19 and over 11 –65.3% Yanagimatsutake, Raw (Jap) providing the greatest amount # >10% RDI provided by 6 of 33 mushrooms for M and F • Range male and females 19 and over 11.1-22.2% Shiitake Nama-shiitake (Jap) and Oyster (Jap) providing the greatest amount # >10% AI provided by 25 of 33 mushrooms for M and F • Range male and female 19 – 50: 14–590% • Range male and female 51-70: 10–295% • Range male and female 70 and over: 13.3-197% Maitake, Raw (Can) being the greatest contributor providing 29.5mcg per 100g

268

Summary Table for RAW CULINARY SPECIALTY MUSHROOMS providing >10% RDI/AI of key minerals /100g Copper (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Phosphorus (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Manganese (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Potassium (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

AI

1.7

1.2

RDI

1000

1000

AI

5.5

5

AI

3800

2800

Nutrient

Shiitake Nama-shiitake (Jap)

0.05

73

0.23

280

Shiitake dong gwoo (Fin)

N/A

73

N/A

224

Shiitake (Log grown)

N/A

39

N/A

N/A

Mushroom shiitake raw Lentinus edodes (USDA) Shimej Bunashimeji (Jap)

0.142

11.8%

0.06

112

11.2%

11.2%

0.23

304

100

10.0%

10.0%

0.12

380

10.0%

13.6%

12.1%

16.4%

Oyster, Eringii, raw (Jap)

0.15

12.5%

120

12.0%

12.0%

0.07

460

Oyster, Usuhiratake, raw (Jap)

0.15

12.5%

110

11.0%

11.0%

0.11

220

Oyster (Jap)

0.15

12.5%

100

10.0%

10.0%

0.16

340

Oyster (USDA)

0.244

20.3%

120

12.0%

12.0%

0.113

420

11.0%

11.0%

N/A

298

14.4%

10.0%

10.9%

12.1% 11.1%

15.0%

Oyster Pleurotte (Fin)

N/A

110

Boletus edible (Fin)

N/A

47

N/A

270

Mushroom Boletus, Russula (Fin)

N/A

72

N/A

340

12.1%

Chantarelle (Fin)

N/A

72

N/A

340

12.1%

False Morel (Fin)

N/A

72

N/A

340

12.1%

Milk-cap Northern (Fin)

N/A

55

N/A

290

10.4%

Oyster Pleurotus spp SFK-Ger

0.12

67

0.13

N/A

10.0%

269

10.6%

Summary Table for RAW CULINARY SPECIALTY MUSHROOMS providing >10% RDI/AI of key minerals /100g continued Copper (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Phosphorus (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Manganese (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Potassium (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

AI

1.7

1.2

RDI

1000

1000

AI

5.5

5

AI

3800

2800

Mushroom Oyster, raw (Can)

0.244

14.4%

20.3%

120

12.0%

12.0%

0.113

420

11.1%

15.0%

Enoki (USDA)

0.107

105

10.5%

10.5%

0.075

359

12.8%

Mushroom Enoki, raw (Can)

0.091

109

10.9%

10.9%

0.079

368

13.1%

Winter Mushrooms (Jap)

0.1

110

11.0%

11.0%

0.07

340

12.1%

Nameko, raw (Jap)

0.11

66

0.06

230

Maitake, raw (Jap)

0.27

15.9%

22.5%

130

13.0%

13.0%

0.05

330

11.8%

11.0%

11.0%

0.08

360

12.9% 10.7%

Nutrient

Yanagimatsutake, raw (Jap) Shimeji Honshimeji, raw (Jap) Numeisugitake, raw (Jap)

0.2

11.8%

16.7%

110

0.36

21.2%

30.0%

75

0.1

300

0.19

11.2%

15.8%

65

0.05

260

Tamogitake, raw (Jap)

0.32

18.8%

26.7%

85

0.06

190

0.14

11.7%

70

0.17

280

10.0%

0.15

12.5%

100

0.07

300

10.7%

Shimeji Hatakeshimeji, raw (Jap) Kuroawabitake, raw (Jap)

10.0%

10.0%

Matsutake, raw (Jap)

0.24

14.1%

20.0%

40

0.12

410

Maitake (USDA)

0.252

14.8%

21.0%

74

0.059

204

Chanterelle, raw (USDA)

0.353

20.8%

29.4%

57

0.286

Morel, raw (USDA)

0.625

36.8%

52.1%

194

Maitake, raw (Can)

0.252

14.8%

21.0%

74

19.4%

19.4%

0.587 0.059

270

10.7%

11.7%

10.8%

14.6%

506

13.3%

18.1%

411

10.8%

14.7%

204

Summary Table for RAW CULINARY SPECIALTY MUSHROOMS providing >10% RDI/AI of key minerals /100g Selenium (mcg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Zinc (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Iron (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19-50 years

Females over 50 years

RDI

70

60

RDI

14

8

RDI

8

18

8

Nutrient

Shiitake Nama-shiitake (Jap)

N/A

0.4

Shiitake dong gwoo (Fin)

0.3

0.8

Shiitake (Log grown)

N/A

N/A

Mushroom shiitake raw Lentinus edodes (USDA)

5.7

1.03

Shimej Bunashimeji (Jap)

N/A

0.5

0.4

Oyster, Eringii, raw (Jap)

N/A

0.7

0.3

Oyster, Usuhiratake, raw (Jap)

N/A

0.9

11.3%

0.6

Oyster (Jap)

N/A

1

12.5%

0.7

Oyster (USDA)

2.6

0.77

1.33

Oyster Pleurotte (Fin)

1.2

0.7

0.4

Boletus edible (Fin)

11

15.7%

18.3%

0.9

Mushroom Boletus, Russula (Fin)

14.1

20.1%

23.5%

0.6

Chantarelle (Fin)

18

25.7%

30.0%

0.8

False Morel (Fin)

39

55.7%

65.0%

Milk-cap Northern (Fin) Oyster Pleurotus spp SFKGer

0.3 10.0%

0.3 0.7

12.9%

0.41

16.6%

16.6%

0.8

10.0%

10.0%

2.7

33.8%

15.0%

33.8%

2.7

33.8%

15.0%

33.8%

0.7

2.7

33.8%

15.0%

33.8%

1.2

0.6

1

12.5%

12.5%

N/A

0.73

1.23

15.4%

15.4%

11.3%

10.0%

271

Summary Table for RAW CULINARY SPECIALTY MUSHROOMS providing >10% RDI/AI of key minerals /100g continued Selenium (mcg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Zinc (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Iron (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19-50 years

Females over 50 years

RDI

70

60

RDI

14

8

RDI

8

18

8

Nutrient

Mushroom Oyster, raw (Can)

2.6

0.77

1.33

16.6%

16.6%

Enoki (USDA)

2.2

0.65

1.15

14.4%

14.4%

Mushroom Enoki, raw (Can)

2.2

0.61

1.09

13.6%

13.6%

Winter Mushrooms (Jap)

N/A

0.6

1.1

13.8%

13.8%

Nameko, raw (Jap)

N/A

0.5

0.7

Maitake, raw (Jap)

N/A

0.8

N/A

0.6

N/A

0.8

13.8%

13.8%

Numeisugitake, raw (Jap)

N/A

0.4

0.6

Tamogitake, raw (Jap)

N/A

0.6

0.8

10.0%

10.0%

Shimeji Hatakeshimeji, raw (Jap)

N/A

0.4

0.6

Kuroawabitake, raw (Jap)

N/A

0.7

0.5

Matsutake, raw (Jap)

N/A

0.8

16.3%

16.3%

Maitake (USDA)

2.2

0.75

0.3

Chanterelle, raw (USDA)

2.2

0.71

3.47

43.4%

19.3%

43.4%

Morel, raw (USDA)

2.2

2.03

12.18

152.3%

67.7%

152.3%

Maitake, raw (Can)

2.2

0.75

Yanagimatsutake, raw (Jap) Shimeji Honshimeji, raw (Jap)

10.0%

0.5 0.5

10.0%

10.0%

14.5%

25.4%

1.1

1.3

0.3

272

Table 4 Average %RDI/AI content for each key mineral /100g Mineral

Average %

Recommended Dietary Intake

Copper

M 17.4% F 20%

1.7mg male 19 and over 1.2mg Female 19 and over

Phosphorous

M and F 11.7%

1000mg male and female 19 and over

Manganese

M 10.7 % Only F 11.7% Only

5.5mg male 19 and over 5mg female 19 and over

Potassium

M 11.3% F 12.7%

3800mg male 19 and over 2800mg female 19 and over

Selenium

M 29.3% F 34.2%

70mcg male 19 and over 60mcg female 19 and over

Zinc

M 14.5% F 12.3%

14mg males 19 years and over 8mg Females 19 years and over

Iron

M 28.1% F 27.7%

8mg male 19 and over 18mg females 19-50: 8mg female over 50

Comments # >10% RDI provided by M 12 and F 19 of 33 mushrooms • Range male 19 and over – 11.2-36.8% • Range female 19 and over – 10-52.1% Morel, raw (USDA) providing the greatest amount # >10% RDI provided by 15 of 33 mushrooms for M and F • Range male and female 19 and over – 10-19.4% Morel, Raw (USDA) Providing the greatest amount # >10% AI provided by 1 of 33 mushrooms for M and F • Male 19 and over – 10.7% and 11.7% female Morel, Raw (USDA) Providing the greatest amount # >10% RDI provided by M 7 and F 23 of 33 mushrooms • Range male 19 and over – 10-13.3% • Range female 19 years and over – 10-18.1% Chanterelle, Raw (USDA) providing the greatest amount. #>10% RDI provided by 4 of 33 mushrooms for M and F • Range male 19 and over – 15.7-55.7% • Range female 19 years and over – 18.3-65% False Morel (Fin) providing the greatest amount # >10% RDI provided by M 1 and F 10 of 33 mushrooms • Males 19 and over only one at 14.5% • Range females 19 and over 10-25.4% Morel ,Raw (USDA) provided >10% at 14.5%. # >10% RDI provided by M F 16 of 33 mushrooms • Male 19 and over and females over 50 Range 10152.3% Morel, Raw (USDA) providing the greatest at 12.2mg/100g

273

Summary Tables for COOKED COMMON MUSHROOMS (Agaricus bisporus) providing >10% RDI/AI of key vitamins /100g Nutrient

Mushrooms, canned, drained solids (USDA)

Thiamin (B1) (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Riboflavin (B2) (mg)

Males 19-70 years

Males over 70 years

Females 19-70 years

Females over 70 years

Niacin equivalents (B3) (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Folate (mcg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

RDI

1.2

1.1

RDI

1.3

1.6

1.1

1.3

RDI

16

14

RDI

400

400

1.593

10.0%

11.4%

12

0.085

0.021

0.06

0.431

33.2%

26.9%

39.2%

33.2%

5.35

33.4%

38.2%

16

0.06

0.431

33.2%

26.9%

39.2%

33.2%

5.35

33.4%

38.2%

16

0.096

0.463

35.6%

28.9%

42.1%

35.6%

3.987

24.9%

28.5%

20

Mushrooms, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt (USDA)

0.073

0.3

23.1%

18.8%

27.3%

23.1%

4.46

27.9%

31.9%

18

Mushrooms, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt (USDA)

0.073

0.3

23.1%

18.8%

27.3%

23.1%

4.46

27.9%

31.9%

18

Mushrooms, common Fried in Butter (UK)

0.09

0.34

26.2%

21.3%

30.9%

26.2%

2.3

14.4%

16.4%

11

Mushrooms, common, fried in corn oil (UK)

0.09

0.34

26.2%

21.3%

30.9%

26.2%

2.3

14.4%

16.4%

11

Common Mushroom Boiled (Jap)

0.05

0.28

21.5%

17.5%

25.5%

21.5%

2.7

16.9%

19.3%

19

Common mushroom, canned in brine solids (Jap)

0.03

0.24

18.5%

15.0%

21.8%

18.5%

1

Matsutake, canned in brine solids (Jap)

0.04

0.3

23.1%

18.8%

27.3%

23.1%

2

12.5%

14.3%

1

Mushroom, canned Agaricus bisphorus (Den)

0.081

0.402

30.9%

25.1%

36.5%

30.9%

4.07

25.4%

29.1%

23

Mushrooms canned (Ger)

0.02

0.19

14.6%

11.9%

17.3%

14.6%

1.22

0.042

0.661

50.8%

41.3%

60.1%

50.8%

7.02

Mushrooms, white microwaved (USDA) Mushrooms, white microwaved (Can) Mushrooms, white, stir fried (USDA)

Mushroom, common, stirfried (no oil) Agariscus bisphorus (Aust) Mushroom, golden, Asian, canned in brine, drained (Aust)

0.23

19.2%

20.9%

0.05

1.55

274

2

N/A 43.9%

50.1%

27

11.1%

N/A

Summary Tables for COOKED COMMON MUSHROOMS (Agaricus bisporus) providing >10% RDI/AI of key vitamins /100g continued Thiamin (B1) (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Riboflavin (B2) (mg)

Males 19-70 years

Males over 70 years

Females 19-70 years

Females over 70 years

Niacin equivalents (B3) (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Folate (mcg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

RDI

1.2

1.1

RDI

1.3

1.6

1.1

1.3

RDI

16

14

RDI

400

400

0

0.14

10.8%

12.7%

10.8%

1.37

Champignon, fried Agaricus bisphorus (Fin)

0.08

0.43

33.1%

26.9%

39.1%

33.1%

6.1

38.1%

43.6%

29.3

Mushroom fried Agaricus bisporus (Fin)

0.12

0.49

37.7%

30.6%

44.5%

37.7%

7.2

45.0%

51.4%

18

Boletus edible, boiled (Fin)

0.03

0.46

35.4%

28.8%

41.8%

35.4%

10.3

64.4%

73.6%

53.8

13.5%

13.5%

Champignon, canned Agarisuc bisphorus (Fin)

0.02

0.25

19.2%

15.6%

22.7%

19.2%

5.9

36.9%

42.1%

12

Mushroom in vinegar (Fin)

0.1

0.38

29.2%

23.8%

34.5%

29.2%

5.1

31.9%

36.4%

18.9

Mushroom, boiled, drained (Can)

0.073

0.3

23.1%

18.8%

27.3%

23.1%

4.86

30.4%

34.7%

18

Mushroom, boiled, drained with salt (Can)

0.073

0.3

23.1%

18.8%

27.3%

23.1%

4.86

30.4%

34.7%

18

Mushroom, straw, canned, drained solids (Can)

0.013

0.07

Mushroom, white, stir-fried (Can)

0.096

0.463

Mushroom Canned, drained solids (Can)

0.085

0.021

Mushroom Portabella grilled Agaricus bisporus (USDA)

0.072

0.403

31.0%

25.2%

36.6%

Mushroom Portabella (Portabello), grilled (Can)

0.072

0.403

31.0%

25.2%

Mushroom Portabella exposed to UV light grilled A bisporus (USDA)

0.072

0.403

31.0%

25.2%

Mushroom, straw, canned, drained solids (USDA)

0.013

0.07

Nutrient

Mushroom, straw, Asian, canned in brine, drained (Aust)

10.0%

10.9%

N/A

0.926 35.6%

28.9%

42.1%

35.6%

4.604

28.8%

32.9%

20

1.943

12.1%

13.9%

12

31.0%

6.255

39.1%

44.7%

19

36.6%

31.0%

6.255

39.1%

44.7%

19

36.6%

31.0%

6.255

39.1%

44.7%

19

0.224

275

20

38

Summary Tables for COOKED COMMON MUSHROOMS (Agaricus bisporus) providing >10% RDI/AI of key vitamins /100g Vit B6 (mg)

Males 19-50 years

Males over 50 years

Females 19-50 years

Females over 50 years

Pantothenic acid (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Biotin (mcg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

RDI

1.3

1.7

1.3

1.5

AI

6

4

AI

30

25

0.061

0.811

13.5%

20.3%

N/A

0.049

1.96

32.7%

49.0%

N/A

0.049

1.96

32.7%

49.0%

N/A

0.042

1.45

24.2%

36.3%

N/A

Mushrooms, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt (USDA)

0.095

2.16

36.0%

54.0%

N/A

Mushrooms, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt (USDA)

0.095

2.16

36.0%

54.0%

N/A

Mushrooms, common Fried in Butter (UK)

0.19

1.4

23.3%

35.0%

8

26.7%

32.0%

Mushrooms, common, fried in corn oil (UK)

0

1.4

23.3%

35.0%

8

26.7%

32.0%

Common Mushroom Boiled (Jap)

0.08

1.43

23.8%

35.8%

N/A

Common mushroom, canned in brine solids (Jap)

0.01

0.11

N/A

Matsutake, canned in brine solids (Jap)

0.01

0.05

N/A

Mushroom, canned Agaricus bisphorus (Den)

0.06

1

16.7%

25.0%

16

53.3%

64.0%

Mushrooms canned (Ger)

0.06

0.8

13.3%

20.0%

N/A

Mushroom, common, stir-fried (no oil) Agariscus bisphorus (Aust)

0.04

2.17

36.2%

54.3%

16.7

55.7%

66.8%

Mushroom, golden, Asian, canned in brine, drained (Aust)

N/A

N/A

Nutrient

Mushrooms, canned, drained solids (USDA) Mushrooms, white microwaved (USDA) Mushrooms, white microwaved (Can) Mushrooms, white, stir fried (USDA)

14.6%

11.2%

14.6%

12.7%

276

N/A

Summary Tables for COOKED COMMON MUSHROOMS (Agaricus bisporus) providing >10% RDI/AI of key vitamins/100g continued Vit B6 (mg)

Males 19-50 years

Males over 50 years

Females 19-50 years

Females over 50 years

Pantothenic acid (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Biotin (mcg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

RDI

1.3

1.7

1.3

1.5

AI

6

4

AI

30

25

Nutrient

Mushroom, straw, Asian, canned in brine, drained (Aust)

N/A

Champignon, fried Agaricus bisphorus (Fin)

0.21

Mushroom fried Agaricus bisporus (Fin)

0.05

Boletus edible, boiled (Fin)

0.28

Champignon, canned Agarisuc bisphorus (Fin)

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

0.07

N/A

N/A

Mushroom in vinegar (Fin)

0.07

N/A

N/A

Mushroom, boiled, drained (Can)

0.095

2.16

36.0%

54.0%

N/A

Mushroom, boiled, drained with salt (Can)

0.095

2.16

36.0%

54.0%

N/A

Mushroom, straw, canned, drained solids (Can)

0.014

0.412

10.3%

N/A

Mushroom, white, stir-fried (Can)

0.042

1.45

24.2%

36.3%

N/A

Mushroom Canned, drained solids (Can)

0.061

0.811

21.0%

20.3%

N/A

Mushroom Portabella grilled Agaricus bisporus (USDA)

0.122

1.262

21.0%

31.6%

N/A

Mushroom Portabella (Portabello), grilled (Can)

0.122

1.262

21.0%

31.6%

N/A

Mushroom Portabella exposed to UV light grilled A bisporus (USDA)

0.122

1.262

21.0%

31.6%

N/A

Mushroom, straw, canned, drained solids (USDA)

0.014

0.412

10.3%

N/A

16.2%

21.5%

12.4%

16.5%

16.2%

21.5%

14.0%

18.7%

277

Summary Tables for COOKED COMMON MUSHROOMS (Agaricus bisporus) providing >10% RDI/AI of key vitamins/100g Vit C (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Vit A (Retinol Equivalents) (mcg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Vit D (mcg)

Males 19-50 years

Males 51-70 years

Males over 70 years

Females 19-50 years

Females 51-70 years

Females over 70 years

RDI

45

45

RDI

900

700

AI

5

10

15

5

10

15

20.0%

10.0%

Nutrient

Mushrooms, canned, drained solids (USDA)

0

0

0.2

0

0

0.3

0

0

0.3

0

0

0.2

Mushrooms, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt (USDA)

4

0

0.2

Mushrooms, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt (USDA)

4

0

0.2

Mushrooms, common Fried in Butter (UK)

1

85

Mushrooms, common, fried in corn oil (UK)

1

tr

0

Common Mushroom Boiled (Jap)

0

0

1

20.0%

10.0%

Common mushroom, canned in brine solids (Jap)

0

0

2

40.0%

20.0%

13.3%

40.0%

20.0%

13.3%

Tr mg

0

6

120.0%

60.0%

40.0%

120.0%

60.0%

40.0%

Mushroom, canned Agaricus bisphorus (Den)

2.1

10

0

Mushrooms canned (Ger)

1.7

N/A

N/A

Mushroom, common, stir-fried (no oil) Agariscus bisphorus (Aust)

2

23

N/A

Mushroom, golden, Asian, canned in brine, drained (Aust)

3

59

N/A

Mushrooms, white microwaved (USDA) Mushrooms, white microwaved (Can) Mushrooms, white, stir fried (USDA)

Matsutake, canned in brine solids (Jap)

12.1%

278

0.1

Summary Tables for COOKED COMMON MUSHROOMS (Agaricus bisporus) providing >10% RDI/AI of key vitamins /100g continued Vit C (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Vit A (Retinol Equivalents) (mcg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Vit D (mcg)

Males 19-50 years

Males 51-70 years

Males over 70 years

Females 19-50 years

Females 51-70 years

Females over 70 years

RDI

45

45

RDI

900

700

AI

5

10

15

5

10

15

Nutrient

Mushroom, straw, Asian, canned in brine, drained (Aust)

2

53

N/A

Champignon, fried Agaricus bisphorus (Fin)

0.9

N/A

0.5

10.0%

Mushroom fried Agaricus bisporus (Fin)

6.1

N/A

15.8

316.0%

158.0%

105.3%

316.0%

158.0%

105.3%

Boletus edible, boiled (Fin)

2.5

N/A

4.5

90.0%

45.0%

30.0%

90.0%

45.0%

30.0%

1

N/A

0.2

Mushroom in vinegar (Fin)

1.9

N/A

4.8

96.0%

48.0%

32.0%

96.0%

48.0%

32.0%

Mushroom, boiled, drained (Can)

4

0

0.5

10.0%

Mushroom, boiled, drained with salt (Can)

4

0

0.2

Mushroom, straw, canned, drained solids (Can)

0

0

N/A

Mushroom, white, stir-fried (Can)

0

0

0.2

Mushroom Canned, drained solids (Can)

1.5

0

0.2

Mushroom Portabella grilled Agaricus bisporus (USDA)

0

0

0.3

Mushroom Portabella (Portabello), grilled (Can)

0

0

0.3

Mushroom Portabella exposed to UV light grilled A bisporus (USDA)

0

N/A

14.1

141.0%

94.0%

Mushroom, straw, canned, drained solids (USDA)

0

0

N/A

Champignon, canned Agarisuc bisphorus (Fin)

13.6%

13.6%

279

282.0%

10.0%

10.0%

141.0%

94.0%

282.0%

Table 5 Average %RDI/AI content for each key vitamin /100g Vitamin Thiamine (B1)

Average %

Recommended Dietary Intake

Comments

M 14.6% F 15.9% M 25.7% F 30.5%

1.2mg male 19 years and over 1.1mg Female 19 years and over

Niacin (B3)

M 30% F 33.4%

16mg male 19 and over 14mg female 19 and over

Folate

M & F 13.5%

400mcg male and female 19 and over

Vitamin B6

M 15.4% F 16.3%

1.3mg males 19-50: 1.7mg males 50 and over 1.3mg females19-50; 1.5mg females 50 and over

Pantothenic acid

M 25.9% F 35.6%

6mg male 19 and over 4mg female 19 and over

Biotin

M 40.6% F 48.7%

30mg male 19 and over 25mg female 19 and over

Vitamin C

45mg male and female 19 and over

# >10% RDI provided by 1 of 30 mushrooms Mushroom, Fried Agaricus Bisporus (Fin)

Vitamin A

M and F 13.6 % only F 12.1% only

Vitamin D

M and F 80.9%

900mcg male 19 and over 700mcg female 19 and over 5mcg Male and female 19-50: 10mcg male and female 51-70: 15mcg male and female >70

# >10% RDI provided by 1 of 30 mushrooms Mushroom,common Fried in butter (UK) # >10% RDI provided by 9 of 30 mushrooms for M and F • Range male and female 19 –50: 10–316% • Range male and female 51-70: 10–158% • Range male and female 70 and over: 17-105.3% Maitake, fried Agaricus Bisporus (Fin) being the greatest contributor providing 15.8mcg per 100g

Riboflavin (B2)

# >10% RDI provided by 2 of the 30 mushrooms for M and F Mushroom, Golden, Asian, canned in brine, drained (Aust) providing the greatest amount # >10% RDI provided by 25 of 30 mushrooms for M and F • Range male 19 and over 10.8–50.8% • Range female 19 and over 12.7-60.1% Mushroom, common, stir-fried (no OIL) agaricus bisporus (Aust) providing the greatest amount # >10% RDI provided by M 24 and F 25 of 30 mushrooms • Range male 19 and over 10–64.4% • Range female 19 and over 11.1 –73.6% Boletus edible, boiled (Fin) providing thte greatest amount # >10% RDI provided by 1 of 30 mushrooms for M and F Boletus edible, boiled (Fin) providing thte greatest amount

1.3mg male 19-70: 1.6mg men>70 1.1mg Female 19-70:1.3mg female>70

280

# >10% RDI provided by 3 of 30 mushrooms for M and F • Range male 19 and over 11.2 – 21.5% • Range female 19 and over 12.7 -21.5% Boletus edible, boiled (fin) providing the greatest amount # >10% AI provided by M 19 and F 21 of the 30 mushrooms • Range male 19 and over 13.3–36.2% • Range female 19 and over 10.3 –54.3% Mushroom, common, stir-fried (no OIL) agaricus bisporus (Aust) providing the greatest amount # >10% AI provided by 4 of the 30 mushrooms for M and F • Range male 19 and over 26.7–55.7% • Range female 19 and over 32 –66.8% Mushroom, common, stir-fried (no OIL) agaricus bisporus (Aust) providing the greatest amount

Summary Tables for COOKED COMMON MUSHROOMS (Agaricus bisporus) providing >10% RDI/AI of key minerals /100g Copper (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Phosphorus (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Sodium (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Potassium (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Selenium (mcg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

AI

1.7

1.2

RDI

1000

1000

AI

460

460

AI

3800

2800

RDI

70

60

0.235

13.8%

19.6%

66

425

92.4%

92.4%

129

0.37

21.8%

30.8%

127

12.7%

12.7%

17

488

12.8%

17.4%

18

25.7%

30.0%

0.37

21.8%

30.8%

127

12.7%

12.7%

17

488

12.8%

17.4%

18

25.7%

30.0%

0.291

17.1%

24.3%

105

10.5%

10.5%

12

396

10.4%

14.1%

13.9

19.9%

23.2%

0.504

29.6%

42.0%

87

2

356

12.7%

11.9

17.0%

19.8%

0.504

29.6%

42.0%

87

238

51.7%

51.7%

356

12.7%

13.4

19.1%

22.3%

Mushrooms, common Fried in Butter (UK)

0.4

23.5%

33.3%

110

11.0%

11.0%

150

32.6%

32.6%

340

12.1%

12

17.1%

20.0%

Mushrooms, common, fried in corn oil (UK)

0.4

23.5%

33.3%

100

10.0%

10.0%

4

340

12.1%

12

17.1%

20.0%

0.36

21.2%

30.0%

99

6

310

11.1%

N/A

0.19

11.2%

15.8%

55

350

76.1%

76.1%

85

N/A

Matsutake, canned in brine solids (Jap)

0.31

18.2%

25.8%

36

130

28.3%

28.3%

2

N/A

Mushroom, canned Agaricus bisphorus (Den)

0.48

28.2%

40.0%

76

5

190

3.3

Mushrooms canned (Ger)

0.48

28.2%

40.0%

69

319

121

8.6

12.3%

14.3%

0.645

37.9%

53.8%

208

29.1

41.6%

48.5%

Nutrient

Mushrooms, canned, drained solids (USDA) Mushrooms, white microwaved (USDA) Mushrooms, white microwaved (Can) Mushrooms, white, stir fried (USDA) Mushrooms, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt (USDA) Mushrooms, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt (USDA)

Common Mushroom Boiled (Jap) Common mushroom, canned in brine solids (Jap)

Mushroom, common, stirfried (no oil) Agariscus bisphorus (Aust) Mushroom, golden, Asian, canned in brine, drained (Aust)

0.06

20.8%

20.8%

49

69.3%

15 300

281

69.3%

585 65.2%

65.2%

24

4.1

15.4%

20.9%

N/A

Summary Tables for COOKED COMMON MUSHROOMS (Agaricus bisporus) providing >10% RDI/AI of key minerals /100g continued Copper (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Phosphorus (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Sodium (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Potassium (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Selenium (mcg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

AI

1.7

1.2

RDI

1000

1000

AI

460

460

AI

3800

2800

RDI

70

60

240

52.2%

52.2%

25

Nutrient

Mushroom, straw, Asian, canned in brine, drained (Aust)

0.04

48

Champignon, fried Agaricus bisphorus (Fin)

N/A

119.1

Mushroom fried Agaricus bisporus (Fin)

N/A

90

257.2

Boletus edible, boiled (Fin)

N/A

72.3

9.2

Champignon, canned Agarisuc bisphorus (Fin)

N/A

76

520

113.0%

113.0%

190

Mushroom in vinegar (Fin)

N/A

68.4

983

213.7%

213.7%

323

11.5%

Mushroom, boiled, drained (Can)

0.504

29.6%

42.0%

87

2

356

Mushroom, boiled, drained with salt (Can)

0.504

29.6%

42.0%

87

238

51.7%

51.7%

356

Mushroom, straw, canned, drained solids (Can)

0.133

11.1%

61

384

83.5%

83.5%

78

Mushroom, white, stir-fried (Can)

0.291

17.1%

24.3%

105

Mushroom Canned, drained solids (Can)

0.235

13.8%

19.6%

66

Mushroom Portabella grilled Agaricus bisporus (USDA)

0.389

22.9%

32.4%

135

13.5%

13.5%

11

437

11.5%

15.6%

Mushroom Portabella (Portabello), grilled (Can)

0.389

22.9%

32.4%

135

13.5%

13.5%

11

437

11.5%

Mushroom Portabella exposed to UV light grilled A bisporus (USDA)

0.389

22.9%

32.4%

135

13.5%

13.5%

11

437

11.5%

Mushroom, straw, canned, drained solids (USDA)

0.133

11.1%

61

11.9%

10.5%

11.9%

10.5%

27.2 55.9%

12 425

384

282

55.9%

436.3

11.5%

15.6%

13.1

18.7%

21.8%

417.3

11.0%

14.9%

22

31.4%

36.7%

415.4

10.9%

14.8%

16.9

24.1%

28.2%

32.4

46.3%

54.0%

12.7%

11.9

17.0%

19.8%

12.7%

13.4

19.1%

22.3%

15.2

21.7%

25.3%

13.9

19.9%

23.2%

21.9

31.3%

36.5%

15.6%

21.9

31.3%

36.5%

15.6%

21.9

31.3%

36.5%

15.2

21.7%

25.3%

396 92.4%

83.5%

92.4%

83.5%

N/A

2.9

10.4%

14.1%

129

78

4.1

Summary Tables for COOKED COMMON MUSHROOMS (Agaricus bisporus) providing >10% RDI/AI of key minerals /100g Zinc (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Iron (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19-50 years

Females over 50 years

Iodine (mcg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

RDI

14

8

RDI

8

18

8

RDI

150

150

Nutrient

Mushrooms, canned, drained solids (USDA)

0.72

0.79

N/A

0.73

0.33

N/A

0.73

0.33

N/A

Mushrooms, white, stir fried (USDA)

0.57

0.25

N/A

Mushrooms, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt (USDA)

0.87

10.9%

1.74

21.8%

21.8%

N/A

Mushrooms, cooked, boiled, drained, with salt (USDA)

0.87

10.9%

1.74

21.8%

21.8%

N/A

Mushrooms, common Fried in Butter (UK)

0.5

1

12.5%

12.5%

11

Mushrooms, common, fried in corn oil (UK)

0.5

1

12.5%

12.5%

4

Common Mushroom Boiled (Jap)

0.6

0.3

Mushrooms, white microwaved (USDA) Mushrooms, white microwaved (Can)

Common mushroom, canned in brine solids (Jap)

1

Matsutake, canned in brine solids (Jap)

0.7

Mushroom, canned Agaricus bisphorus (Den)

0.93

Mushrooms canned (Ger)

N/A

Mushroom, common, stir-fried (no oil) Agariscus bisphorus (Aust)

1.06

Mushroom, golden, Asian, canned in brine, drained (Aust)

0.4

12.5%

11.6%

13.3%

N/A

0.8

10.0%

10.0%

N/A

3.3

41.3%

41.3%

N/A

0.84

10.5%

10.5%

0.5

0.8

10.0%

10.0%

N/A

18.3%

0.5 1

0 12.5%

283

12.5%

0

Summary Tables for COOKED COMMON MUSHROOMS (Agaricus bisporus) providing >10% RDI/AI of key minerals /100g continued Zinc (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Iron (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19-50 years

Females over 50 years

Iodine (mcg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

RDI

14

8

RDI

8

18

8

RDI

150

150

12.5%

12.5%

0

15.3%

15.3%

Nutrient

Mushroom, straw, Asian, canned in brine, drained (Aust)

0.3

1

Champignon, fried Agaricus bisphorus (Fin)

0.6

0.5

Mushroom fried Agaricus bisporus (Fin)

0.9

Boletus edible, boiled (Fin)

1.4

Champignon, canned Agarisuc bisphorus (Fin)

0.5

Mushroom in vinegar (Fin)

0.9

Mushroom, boiled, drained (Can)

1.3 41.3%

14.8

15.0%

15.0%

1.5

0.8

10.0%

10.0%

23

11.3%

2.6

32.5%

32.5%

0

0.87

10.9%

1.74

21.8%

21.8%

N/A

Mushroom, boiled, drained with salt (Can)

0.87

10.9%

1.74

21.8%

21.8%

N/A

Mushroom, straw, canned, drained solids (Can)

0.67

1.43

17.9%

17.9%

N/A

Mushroom, white, stir-fried (Can)

0.57

0.25

N/A

Mushroom Canned, drained solids (Can)

0.72

0.79

N/A

Mushroom Portabella grilled Agaricus bisporus (USDA)

0.65

0.4

N/A

Mushroom Portabella (Portabello), grilled (Can)

0.65

0.4

N/A

Mushroom Portabella exposed to UV light grilled A bisporus (USDA)

0.65

0.4

N/A

Mushroom, straw, canned, drained solids (USDA)

0.67

1.43

10.0%

11.3%

3.3

41.3%

17.5%

1.2

17.9%

284

18.3%

14.4%

17.9%

N/A

Table 6 Average %RDI/AI content for each key mineral /100g Mineral

Average %

Recommended Dietary Intake

Copper

M 23.1% F 30.8%

1.7mg male 19 and over 1.2mg Female 19 and over

Phosphorous

M and F 12.8%

1000mg male and female 19 and over

Sodium

M and F 77.4%

460 mg male and female 19 and over

Potassium

M 11.8% F 14.4%

3800mg male 19 and over 2800mg female 19 and over

Selenium

M 24.3% F 28.3%

70mcg male 19 and over 60mcg female 19 and over

Zinc

M 10% only F 12.1%

14mg males 19 years and over 8mg Females 19 years and over

Iron

M 19.1% F 18.8%

8mg male 19 and over 18mg females 19-50 years 8mg females 51 and over

Iodine

M and F 15.3% only

150mcg male and female 19 and over

Comments # >10% AI provided by M 21, F23 of 30 mushrooms • Range male 19 and over – 11.2- 37.9% • Range female 19 and over – 11.1-53.8% Mushroom Common; stir fried (NO oil) agaricus bisporus (Aust). Provide the greatest amount # >10% RDI provided by 11 of 30 mushrooms • Range male and female 19 and over – 10-20.8% Mushroom Common; stir fried (NO oil) agaricus bisporus (Aust). Provide the greatest amount # >10% AI provided by 15 of 30 mushrooms Range male and female 19 and over – 28.3-213.7% Mushroom in Vinegar (Fin) Provide the greatest amount # >10% AI provided by M 11 and F19 of 30 mushrooms • Range male 19 and over – 10.4-15.4% • Range female 19 years and over – 11.1-20.9% Mushroom Common; stir fried (NO oil) agaricus bisporus (Aust). Provide the greatest amount # >10%RDI provided by 21 of 30 mushrooms for M and F • Range male 19 and over – 12.3-46.3% • Range female 19 and over – 14.3-54% Mushroom in Vinegar (Fin) Provide the greatest amount # >10%RDI provided by M 1 and F 10 of 30 mushrooms • Range 10.9-17.5% - Females only Boletus edible, boiled (Fin) providing the greatest amount # >10%RDI provided by 18 of 30 mushrooms for M and F • Range male 19 and over; 10 – 41.3% • Range female 19 -50; 14.4-18.3% • Range over 50 years and over – 10 – 41.3% Mushroom Fried agaricus bisporus (Fin) and Matsutake, canned in brine solids (Jap) Provided the greatest amounts Only 1 mushroom from 30 provided >10 RDI this being champignion, canned agaricus bisporus (Fin)

285

Summary Table for COOKED CULINARY SPECIALTY MUSHROOMS providing >10% RDI/AI for fibre /100g Fibre (g)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

AI

30

25

Mushrooms Shiitake, Stir fried Lentinus edodes (USDA)

3.6

12.0%

14.4%

Mushrooms, shiitake, cooked without salt (USDA)

2.1

Mushrooms, shiitake, cooked with salt (USDA)

2.1

Shiitake Hoshi-shiitake boiled (Jap)

7.5

25.0%

30.0%

Shiitake Nama-shiitake, boiled (Jap)

4.7

15.7%

18.8%

Tree ears, Kiurage, boiled (Jap)

5.2

17.3%

20.8%

6.4

21.3%

25.6%

16.3

54.3%

65.2%

12.0%

14.4%

Nutrient

Tree ears, Shiro-kikurage, boiled (Jap) Tree ears, Arage-kikurage, boiled (Jap)

•

26

Mushroom, shiitake, cooked (Can)

2.1

Mushroom, shiitake,stir-fried (Can)

3.6

Nameko boiled (Jap)

2.7

10.8%

Nameko canned in brine (Jap)

2.5

10.0%

Maitake, boiled (Jap)

3.6

12.0%

14.4%

Oyster mushrooms boiled (Jap)

3.7

12.3%

14.8%

Winter mushroom bottled in seasoning (Jap)

4.1

13.7%

16.4%

Winter Mushroom boiled (Jap)

4.5

15.0%

18.0%

Shimeji Bunashimeji boiled (Jap)

4.8

16.0%

19.2%

100g of cooked culinary specialty mushrooms provide an average of 13.5 % of the AI26 for fibre for both male and females aged 19 years and over whereas the common variety mushroom provides an average of 8.5% AI for fibre males 19yeas and over equals 30g and for females 19 years and over equals 25g

286

Summary Table for COOKED CULINARY SPECIALTY MUSHROOMS providing >10% RDI/AI of key vitamins /100g

Nutrient

Thiamin (B1) (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Riboflavin (B2) (mg)

Males 19-70 years

Males over 70 years

Females 19-70 years

Females over 70 years

Niacin equivalents (B3) (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Folate (mcg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

RDI

1.2

1.1

RDI

1.3

1.6

1.1

1.3

RDI

16

14

RDI

400

400

24.2%

27.6%

14

11.0%

11.0%

15.8%

15.8%

17.8%

17.8%

Mushrooms Shiitake, Stir fried Lentinus edodes (USDA)

0.099

0.274

21.1%

17.1%

24.9%

21.1%

3.87

Mushrooms, shiitake, cooked without salt (USDA)

0.037

0.17

13.1%

10.6%

15.5%

13.1%

1.5

10.7%

21

Mushrooms, shiitake, cooked with salt (USDA)

0.037

0.17

13.1%

10.6%

15.5%

13.1%

1.5

10.7%

21

0.06

0.23

17.7%

14.4%

20.9%

17.7%

2

12.5%

14.3%

44

0.1

0.18

13.8%

11.3%

16.4%

13.8%

3.1

19.4%

22.1%

24

0.01

0.06

Tr mg

2

0

0.05

Tr mg

1

0

0.07

0.1

1

0.037

0.17

13.1%

10.6%

15.5%

13.1%

1.567

0.099

0.274

21.1%

17.1%

24.9%

21.1%

4.053

Nameko boiled (Jap)

0.06

0.11

Nameko canned in brine (Jap)

0.03

0.07

Maitake, boiled (Jap)

0.12

10.0%

10.9%

0.19

14.6%

11.9%

17.3%

Oyster mushrooms boiled (Jap)

0.3

25.0%

27.3%

0.27

20.8%

16.9%

Winter mushroom bottled in seasoning (Jap)

3.6

300.0%

327.3%

0.17

13.1%

10.6%

Winter Mushroom boiled (Jap)

0.19

15.8%

17.3%

0.13

10.0%

Shimeji Bunashimeji boiled (Jap)

0.15

12.5%

13.6%

0.12

Shiitake Hoshi-shiitake boiled (Jap) Shiitake Nama-shiitake, boiled (Jap) Tree ears, Kiurage, boiled (Jap) Tree ears, Shiro-kikurage, boiled (Jap) Tree ears, Arage-kikurage, boiled (Jap) Mushroom, shiitake, cooked (Can) Mushroom, shiitake,stir-fried (Can)

11.2%

21

25.3%

29.0%

14

4.7

29.4%

33.6%

63

2.1

13.1%

15.0%

13

14.6%

3.3

20.6%

23.6%

28

24.5%

20.8%

7

43.8%

50.0%

71

15.5%

13.1%

4.4

27.5%

31.4%

39

11.8%

10.0%

3.7

23.1%

26.4%

30

5.2

32.5%

37.1%

25

10.0%

10.9%

287

Summary Table for COOKED CULINARY SPECIALTY MUSHROOMS providing >10% RDI/AI of key vitamins /100g Vit B6 (mg)

Males 19-50 years

Males over 50 years

Females 19-50 years

Females over 50 years

Pantothenic acid (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Vit D (mcg)

Males 19-50 years

Males 51-70 years

Males over 70 years

Females 19-50 years

Females 51-70 years

Females over 70 years

RDI

1.3

1.7

1.3

1.5

AI

6

4

AI

5

10

15

5

10

15

Mushrooms Shiitake, Stir fried Lentinus edodes (USDA)

0.174

13.4%

10.2%

13.4%

11.6%

1.36

22.7%

34.0%

0.5

10.0%

10.0%

Mushrooms, shiitake, cooked without salt (USDA)

0.159

12.2%

12.2%

10.6%

3.594

59.9%

89.9%

0.7

14.0%

14.0%

Mushrooms, shiitake, cooked with salt (USDA)

0.159

12.2%

12.2%

10.6%

3.594

59.9%

89.9%

0.7

14.0%

14.0%

0.1

1.05

17.5%

26.3%

2

40.0%

20.0%

13.3%

40.0%

20.0%

13.3%

0.09

1.18

19.7%

29.5%

2

40.0%

20.0%

13.3%

40.0%

20.0%

13.3%

0.01

0

39

780.0%

390.0%

260.0%

780.0%

390.0%

260.0%

0.01

0

93

1860.0%

930.0%

620.0%

1860.0%

930.0%

620.0%

0.01

0

15

300.0%

150.0%

100.0%

300.0%

150.0%

100.0%

Nutrient

Shiitake Hoshi-shiitake boiled (Jap) Shiitake Nama-shiitake, boiled (Jap) Tree ears, Kiurage, boiled (Jap) Tree ears, Shiro-kikurage, boiled (Jap) Tree ears, Arage-kikurage, boiled (Jap) Mushroom, shiitake, cooked (Can) Mushroom, shiitake,stir-fried (Can)

0.159

12.2%

0.174

13.4%

10.2%

12.2%

10.6%

3.594

59.9%

89.9%

0.7

14.0%

14.0%

13.4%

11.6%

1.36

22.7%

34.0%

0.5

10.0%

10.0%

20.7%

31.0%

1

20.0%

10.0%

20.0%

10.0%

13.0%

1

20.0%

10.0%

20.0%

10.0%

Nameko boiled (Jap)

0.04

1.24

Nameko canned in brine (Jap)

0.02

0.52

Maitake, boiled (Jap)

0.04

0.9

15.0%

22.5%

4

80.0%

40.0%

26.7%

80.0%

40.0%

26.7%

Oyster mushrooms boiled (Jap)

0.06

2.36

39.3%

59.0%

2

40.0%

20.0%

13.3%

40.0%

20.0%

13.3%

Winter mushroom bottled in seasoning (Jap)

0.09

1.04

17.3%

26.0%

1

20.0%

10.0%

20.0%

10.0%

Winter Mushroom boiled (Jap)

0.09

0.96

16.0%

24.0%

1

20.0%

10.0%

20.0%

10.0%

Shimeji Bunashimeji boiled (Jap)

0.06

1.25

20.8%

31.3%

3

60.0%

30.0%

60.0%

30.0%

288

20.0%

20.0%

Table 7 Average %RDI/AI content for each key vitamin /100g Vitamin

Average %

Recommended Dietary Intake

Thiamine (B1)

M 72.7% F 79.3%

1.2mg male 19 years and over 1.1mg Female 19 years and over

Riboflavin (B2)

M 14.4% F 16.5%

1.3mg male 19-70: 1.6mg men>70 1.1mg Female 19-70:1.3mg female>70

Niacin (B3)

M 24.7% F 24.5%

16mg male 19 and over 14mg female 19 and over

Folate

M and F 14.8%

400mcg male and female 19 yars and over

Vitamin B6

M 12% F 11.8%

1.3mg males 19-50: 1.7mg males 50 and over 1.3mg females19-50: 1.5mg females 50 and over

Pantothenic acid

M 30.1% F 42.9%

6mg male 19 and over 4mg female 19 and over

Vitamin D

M and F 163.5%

5mcg Male and female 19-50: 10mcg male and female 51-70: 15mcg male and female >70

289

Comments # >10% RDI provided by 5 of 17 mushrooms for M and F • Range male 19 and over – 10 – 300% • Range female 19 and over – 10.9-327.3% Winter Mushroom bottled in seasoning (Jap) providing 3.6mg/ 100g. # >10 % RDI provided by M 11 and F 13 of 17 mushrooms • Range male 19 and over – 10 – 21.1% • Range female 19 and over – 10-24.9% Mushroom Shiitake, stir-fried (Can) providing the greatest amount # >10%RDI provided by M 11 and F 14 of 17 mushrooms • Range male 19 and over – 12.5-43.8% • Range female 19 and over – 10.7-50% Oyster Mushroom, boilded (Jap) Providing the greatest amount # >10%RDI provided by 3 of 17 mushrooms for M and F • Range male and female 19 and over – 11 -17.8% Oyster Mushroom, boilded (Jap) Providing the greatest amount # >10%RDI provided by 5 of 17 mushrooms for M and F • Range male 19 and over – 10.2– 13.4% • Range female 19 and over – 10.6-13.4% Mushrooms Shiitake, stir fried lentinus Adodes (USDA) and mushrrom Shiitake, stir-fried (Can). # >10% AI provided by M 13 and F 14 of 17 mushrooms • Range male 19 and over 15–59.9% • Range female 19 and over 13-89.9% Mushroom, shiitake cooked (Can) Provided the greatet amount ## >10% RDI provided by all 17 of 17 mushrooms for M and F * aged 19-50 years • Range male and female 19 –50: 10–1860% • Range male and female 51-70: 10– 930% • Range male and female 70 and over: 13.3-620% Tree Ears, Shiro-Kikurage, boilded (Jap) being the greatest contributor providing93 mcg per 100g

Summary Table for COOKED CULINARY SPECIALTY MUSHROOMS providing >10% RDI/AI of key minerals /100g Copper (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Phosphorus (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Manganese (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Sodium (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

AI

1.7

1.2

RDI

1000

1000

AI

5.5

5

AI

460

460

13.6%

111

11.1%

11.1%

0.223

5

52.2%

52.2%

369.6%

369.6%

Nutrient

Mushrooms Shiitake, Stir fried Lentinus edodes (USDA)

0.163

Mushrooms, shiitake, cooked without salt (USDA)

0.896

52.7%

74.7%

29

0.204

4

Mushrooms, shiitake, cooked with salt (USDA)

0.896

52.7%

74.7%

29

0.204

240

0.09

43

0.11

2

0.07

67

0.24

2

29

0.204

4

0.03

10

0.53

0.01

11

0.12

2

0.04

11

0.2

10

0.223

5

Shiitake Hoshi-shiitake boiled (Jap) Shiitake Nama-shiitake, boiled (Jap) Mushroom, shiitake, cooked (Can) Tree ears, Kiurage, boiled (Jap) Tree ears, Shiro-kikurage, boiled (Jap) Tree ears, Arage-kikurage, boiled (Jap) Mushroom, shiitake,stir-fried (Can)

0.896

52.7%

74.7%

13.6%

111

Nameko boiled (Jap)

0.12

10.0%

56

0.05

3

Nameko canned in brine (Jap)

0.04

39

0.08

8

Maitake, boiled (Jap)

0.17

89

0.04

1

Oyster mushrooms boiled (Jap)

0.11

86

0.15

2

Winter mushroom bottled in seasoning (Jap)

0.08

150

15.0%

15.0%

0.24

1700

Winter Mushroom boiled (Jap)

0.06

110

11.0%

11.0%

0.05

2

Shimeji Bunashimeji boiled (Jap)

0.06

110

11.0%

11.0%

0.13

3

14.2%

11.1%

9

0.163

10.0%

11.1%

10.6%

290

Summary Table for COOKED CULINARY SPECIALTY MUSHROOMS providing >10% RDI/AI of key minerals /100g continued Potassium (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Selenium (mcg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Zinc (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Iron (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19-50 years

Females over 50 years

AI

3800

2800

RDI

70

60

RDI

14

8

RDI

8

18

8

11.6%

6.3

10.5%

0.96

12.0%

0.53

Nutrient

Mushrooms Shiitake, Stir fried Lentinus edodes (USDA)

326

Mushrooms, shiitake, cooked without salt (USDA)

117

24.8

35.4%

41.3%

1.33

16.6%

0.44

Mushrooms, shiitake, cooked with salt (USDA)

117

24.8

35.4%

41.3%

1.33

16.6%

0.44

Shiitake Hoshi-shiitake boiled (Jap) Shiitake Nama-shiitake, boiled (Jap) Mushroom, shiitake, cooked (Can) Tree ears, Kiurage, boiled (Jap) Tree ears, Shiro-kikurage, boiled (Jap) Tree ears, Arage-kikurage, boiled (Jap) Mushroom, shiitake,stir-fried (Can)

220

0.4

0.3

250

0.5

0.3

117

24.8

35.4%

41.3%

1.33

16.6%

0.44

37

0.2

0.7

79

0.3

0.2

1

0.1

1.7

326

11.6%

6.3

10.5%

0.96

12.0%

210

0.4

0.6

Nameko canned in brine (Jap)

100

0.5

0.8

Maitake, boiled (Jap)

160

0.7

0.4

Oyster mushrooms boiled (Jap)

260

1.4

Winter mushroom bottled in seasoning (Jap)

320

Winter Mushroom boiled (Jap)

270

Shimeji Bunashimeji boiled (Jap)

340

11.4%

12.1%

291

17.5%

21.3%

10.0%

10.0%

0.53

Nameko boiled (Jap)

10.0%

21.3%

0.7

0.6

0.8

10.0%

10.0%

0.6

1

12.5%

12.5%

0.5

0.5

Table 8 Average %RDI/AI content for each Key MINERAL /100g Mineral

Average %

Recommended Dietary Intake

Copper

M 42% F 39.3%

1.7mg male 19 and over 1.2mg Female 19 and over

Phosphorous

M and F 11.8%

1000mg male and female 19 and over

Manganese

F 10.6% only

5mg female 19 and over

Sodium

M and F 210%

460mg male and female 19 and over

Potassium

F 11.7% only

3800mg male 19 and over 2800mg female 19 and over

Selenium

M 3% F 5%

70mcg male 19 and over 60mcg female 19 and over

Zinc

M 10% only F 15.2%

14mg Male 19 and over 8mg Females 19 years and over

Iron

M 13.4% F 10.8%

8mg male 19 and over 18mg female 19 and over 8mg females 51 and over

Comments # >10% RDI provided by M 4 and F 7 of the 17 mushrooms • Range male 19 and over – 10-52.7% • Range female 19 and over – 10-74.7% Mushroom common Shiitake, cooked without Salt (USDA) and Cooked with Salt (USDA) and Mushroom common shiitake, cooked (Can) # >10% RDI provided by 5 of 17 mushrooms M and F Range male and female 19 and over – 11-15% Winter mushroom Bottled in seasoning providing the greatest amount. # >10% AI provided by 1of 17 mushrooms F only by Tree Ears, kiurage, boiled (Jap) providing the greatest amount #>10% AI for 2 of 17 mushrooms for M and F Winter mushrrom bottled in seasoning providing the greatest amount (Likely seasoning not mushroom) # >10% AI provided for females 19 and over only. With only 4 of the 17 mushrooms contributing to >10%. Range female 19 years and over – 11.4-12.1% Shimeji bunashimeji, boiled (Jap) Provided the greatest amount # >10% RDI provided by M 3 and F 5 of 17 mushrooms Male 19 and over – 35.4% Female 19 and over range 10.5 -41.3% Mushroom common Shiitake, cooked without Salt (USDA) and Cooked with Salt (USDA) and Mushroom common shiitake, cooked (Can) # >10% RDI provided by M 1 and F 6 of 17 mushrooms Range female 19 and over – 12-17.5% Oyster mushroom, boiled (Jap) providing the greatest amount # >10%RDI provided by 4 of 117 mushrooms for M and F Range for male 19 and over and female over 50, 10-21.3% Tree Ears, Arage-kikurage, boiled (Jap)

292

Summary Table for DRIED CULINARY SPECIALTY MUSHROOMS providing >10% RDI/AI for fibre /20g weight Fibre (g)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

AI

30

25

27.3%

32.8%

27.3%

32.7%

46.7%

56.1%

Nutrient

•

27

Mushrooms, shiitake, dried Lentinus edodes (USDA)

2.30

Shiitake Hoshi-shiitake dried (Jap)

8.20

Mushroom, shiitake, dried (Can)

2.30

Shiitake, dried (Log grown)

1.10

Maitake dried (Jap)

8.18

Mushroom Milk Caps, salted (Fin)

0.58

Fungi, Cloud ears, dried (Can)

14.02

20g of dried culinary specialty mushrooms provide an average of 25.7 % of the AI27 for fibre for both male and females aged 19 years and over.

AI for fibre males 19yeas and over equals 30g and for females 19 years and over equals 25g

293

Summary Table for DRIED CULINARY SPECIALTY MUSHROOMS providing >10% RDI/AI of key vitamins /20g weight

Nutrient

Thiamin (B1) (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Riboflavin (B2) (mg)

Males 19-70 years

Males over 70 years

Females 19-70 years

Females over 70 years

Niacin equivalents (B3) (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Folate (mcg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

RDI

1.2

1.1

RDI

1.3

1.6

1.1

1.3

RDI

16

14

RDI

400

400

12.0%

12.0%

11.0%

11.0%

Mushrooms, shiitake, dried Lentinus edodes (USDA)

0.06

0.25

19.5%

15.9%

23.1%

19.5%

2.82

17.6%

20.1%

33

Shiitake Hoshi-shiitake dried (Jap)

0.10

0.28

21.5%

17.5%

25.5%

21.5%

3.36

21.0%

24.0%

48

Mushroom, shiitake, dried (Can)

0.06

0.25

19.5%

15.9%

23.1%

19.5%

2.92

18.3%

20.9%

33

Shiitake, dried (Log grown)

0.20

16.7%

18.2%

0.20

15.4%

12.5%

18.2%

15.4%

2.00

12.5%

14.3%

N/A

Maitake dried (Jap)

0.25

20.7%

22.5%

0.38

29.5%

24.0%

34.9%

29.5%

12.82

80.1%

91.6%

44

Mushroom Milk Caps, salted (Fin)

0.02

0.08

Fungi, Cloud ears, dried (Can)

0.0

0.17

1.14 13.0%

10.6%

294

15.3%

13.0%

1.59

4.2 10.0%

11.4%

7.6

Summary Table for DRIED CULINARY SPECIALTY MUSHROOMS providing >10% RDI/AI of key vitamins /20g weight continued Vit B6 (mg)

Males 19-50 years

Males over 50 years

Females 19-50 years

Females over 50 years

Pantothenic acid (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Vit D (mcg)

Males 19-50 years

Males 51-70 years

Males over 70 years

Females 19-50 years

Females 51-70 years

Females over 70 years

RDI

1.3

1.7

1.3

1.5

AI

6

4

AI

5

10

15

5

10

15

Mushrooms, shiitake, dried Lentinus edodes (USDA)+A10

0.19

14.8%

11.4%

14.8%

12.9%

4.38

72.9%

109.4%

0.78

15.6%

Shiitake Hoshi-shiitake dried (Jap)

0.09

1.59

26.4%

39.7%

3.40

68.0%

34.0%

22.7%

Mushroom, shiitake, dried (Can)

0.19

4.38

72.9%

109.4%

0.78

15.6%

Shiitake, dried (Log grown)

N/A

N/A

Maitake dried (Jap)

0.06

0.73

56.0%

28.0%

18.7%

Mushroom Milk Caps, salted (Fin)

0.04

21.2%

10.6%

Fungi, Cloud ears, dried (Can)

0.02

Nutrient

14.8%

11.4%

14.8%

12.9%

15.6% 34.0%

68.0% 15.6%

N/A 2.80

56.0%

28.0%

N/A

1.06

21.2%

10.6%

0.10

0

295

22.7%

12.2%

18.4%

18.7%

Table 9 Average %RDI/AI content for each Key Vitamin /20g Vitamin

Average %

Recommended Dietary Intake

Thiamine (B1)

M18.7% F 20.4%

1.2mg male 19 years and over 1.1mg Female 19 years and over

Riboflavin (B2)

M 17.9% F 21.5%

1.3mg male 19-70: 1.6mg men>70 1.1mg Female 19-70:1.3mg female>70

Niacin (B3)

M 26.6 % F 30.4%

16mg male 19 and over 14mg female 19 and over

Folate

M and F 11.5%

400mcg male and female19 and over

Vitamin B6

M 13.1% F 13.9%

1.3mg males 19-50: 1.7mg males 50 and over 1.3mg females19-50: 1.5mg females 50 and over

Pantothenic acid

M 46.1% F 69.2%

6mg male 19 and over 4mg female 19 and over

Vitamin D

M and F 29%

5mcg Male and female 19-50: 10mcg male and female 51-70: 15mcg male and female >70

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Comments # >10%RDI provided by 2 of 7 mushrooms for M and F • Range male 19 and over – 16.7 – 20.7% • Range female 19 and over – 18.2- 22.5% Maitake dried (Jap) providing the greatest amount # >10% RDI provided by all 6 of the 7 listed mushrooms for M and F • Range male 19 and over – 10.6 -29.5% • Range female 19 and over – 13-34.9% Maitake dried (Jap) Proving the greatest amount # >10%RDI provided by all 6 of the 7 listed mushrooms for M and F • Range male 19 and over – 10 - 80.1% • Range female 19 and over – 11.4 - 91.6% Maitake dried (Jap) Proving the greatest amount # >10%RDI provided by all 2 of 7 mushrooms for M and F • Range male and female 19 and over – 11 - 12% Shiitake Hoshie-Shiitake dried (Jap) Proving the greatest amount # >10%RDI provided by all 2 of the 7 mushrooms for M and F • Range male 19 and over – 11.4-14.8% • Range female 19 and over – 12.9-14.8% Maitake dried (Can) and Mushrooms, Shiitake, dried Lentinus edodes (USDA) Proving the greatest amount # >10% AI provided by 4 of 7 mushrooms for M and F • Range male 19 and over 12.2-72.9% • Range female 19 and over 18.4-109.4% Maitake dried (Can) and Mushrooms, Shiitake, dried Lentinus edodes (USDA) Proving the greatest amount # >10% RDI provided by 5 of 7 mushrooms for M and F • Range male and female 19 –50: 15.6–68% • Range male and female 51-70: 10.6-34% • Range male and female 70 and over: 18.7 -22.7% Shiitake Hoshi-shiitake, dried (Fin) being the greatest contributor providing 3.4mcg per 100g

Summary Table for DRIED CULINARY SPECIALTY MUSHROOMS providing >10% RDI/AI of key minerals /20g weight Copper (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Phosphorus (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Sodium (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Potassium (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

AI

1.7

1.2

RDI

1000

1000

AI

460

460

AI

3800

2800

Mushrooms, shiitake, dried Lentinus edodes (USDA)

1.03

60.8%

86.1%

58.8

2.6

306.8

Shiitake Hoshi-shiitake dried (Jap)

0.10

62

1.2

420

Mushroom, shiitake, dried (Can)

1.03

58.8

2.6

306.8

11.0%

Shiitake, dried (Log grown)

N/A

48

2.6

306.8

11.0%

Maitake dried (Jap)

0.36

0.6

500

Mushroom Milk Caps, salted (Fin)

N/A

14.4

196.6

Fungi, Cloud ears, dried (Can)

0.04

36.8

7.0

Nutrient

60.8%

20.9%

86.1%

29.7%

140

14.0%

14.0%

297

42.7%

42.7%

68 150.8

11.0% 11.1%

13.2%

15.0%

17.9%

Summary Table for DRIED CULINARY SPECIALTY MUSHROOMS providing >10% RDI/AI of key minerals /20g weight Selenium (mcg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Zinc (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19 years and over

Iron (mg)

Males 19 years and over

Females 19-50 years

Females over 50 years

RDI

70

60

RDI

14

8

RDI

8

18

8

Mushrooms, shiitake, dried Lentinus edodes (USDA)

9.22

13.2%

15.4%

1.53

10.9%

19.2%

0.34

Shiitake Hoshi-shiitake dried (Jap)

N/A

Mushroom, shiitake, dried (Can)

9.22

Shiitake, dried (Log grown)

N/A

N/A

Maitake dried (Jap)

N/A

1.38

Mushroom Milk Caps, salted (Fin)

7.2

10.3%

12.0%

0.14

0.54

Fungi, Cloud ears, dried (Can)

8.68

12.4%

14.5%

0.26

1.18

Nutrient

0.46 13.2%

15.4%

1.53

0.34 10.9%

19.2%

0.34 0.78

17.3%

298

0.52

14.7%

14.7%

Table 10 Average %RDI/AI content for each key mineral /100g Mineral

Average %

Recommended Dietary Intake

Copper

M 47.5% F 67.3%

1.7mg male 19 and over 1.2mg Female 19 and over

Phosphorous

M and F 14% Only

100mg male and female 19 and over

Sodium

M and F 42.7% only

460mg male and female 19 and over

Potassium

M 12.1% F 13.1%

3800mg male 19 and over 2800mg female 19 and over

Selenium

M 4.3% F 14.3%

70mcg male 19 and over 60mcg female 19 and over

Zinc

M 10.9% only F 18.5%

14mg males 19 years and over 8mg Females 19 years and over

Iron

M and F 14.7%

8mg male 19 and over 18 female 19-50 : 8mg females 51 and over

Comments # >10% AI provided by 3 of 7 mushrooms for M and F • Range male 19 and over – 20.9 – 60.8% • Range female 19 and over – 29.7 - 86.1% Shiitake Dried Lentinus edodes (USDA) and Mushroom, shiitake, dried (Can) providing the greatest amount # >10% RDI provided by 1of 7 mushrooms for M and F • Male and female 19 and over – 14% Maitake dried (Jap) providing the greatest amount # >10% AI provided by 1 of 7 mushrooms for M and F • Male and female 19 and over 42.7% Mushroom, milk caps, salted (Fin) providing the greatest amount. Nil other provided >10% AI for sodium # >10 % AI provided by 2 of 7 mushrooms for M and F • Range male 19 years and over 11.1-13.2% • Range female 19 years and over – 11-17.9% Maitake dried (Jap) Providing the greatest amount. # >10 % RDI provided by 3 of 7mushrooms • Range male 19 and over – 10.3-13.2% • Range female 19 and over – 12 -15.4% Shiitake Dried Lentinus edodes (USDA) and Mushroom, shiitake, dried (Can) providing the greatest amount providing the greatest amount #>10% RDI provided by M 2 and F 3 of 7 mushrooms • Male 19 and over – 10.9% • Range female 19 and over – 17.3-19.2% Mushrooms, Shiitake dried Lentinus edode (USDA) Mushrooms, Shiitake dried (Can) providing the greatest amount # >10 % RDI provided by 1 of 7 mushrooms for M and F # 14.7 % RDI provided by • Fungi cloud ears dried (Can) containing 1.18mg/20g

299

mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus), Shiitake mushrooms (Lentinus edodes), and Maitake (Grifola frondosa) mushrooms (Xu et al., 2012b). The use of mushrooms as anti-cancer therapeutics has also recently been reviewed (Patel and Goyal, 2012, Petrova, 2012, Soumya et al., 2011), as have the levels of evidence from human trials of mushroom intake (Roupas et al., 2012).

5.1.1.1 Breast Cancer A recent clinical trial with Korean women has evaluated the association between mushroom intake and the risk of breast cancer according to hormone receptor status. Mushroom intake and breast cancer risk were examined among 358 breast cancer patients and 360 cancer-free controls. Intake of mushrooms was assessed using a quantitative food frequency questionnaire. Greater mushroom intake was related to lower risk of breast cancers among premenopausal women with the association being stronger for premenopausal women with estrogen receptor (ER)+/progesterone receptor (PR)+ tumours than those with ER/PR tumours. The results suggest that high consumption of mushrooms may be related to a lower risk for breast cancer among premenopausal women, and the association may be more robust among women with hormone receptor positive tumours (Aesun et al., 2010). An epidemiological study of women with histologically confirmed breast cancer has identified that daily intake and the average consumption frequency of mushrooms were inversely associated with breast cancer risk, and a strong inverse association was found in postmenopausal women, but not in pre-menopausal women (Hong et al., 2008), which is in contrast to another epidemiological study that has suggested a decreased risk of breast cancer from mushroom consumption by pre-menopausal women (Shin et al., 2010). In this latter study, greater mushroom intake was related to lower risk of breast cancers among premenopausal women for the highest vs. the lowest quartile intake. The association was stronger for premenopausal women with estrogen receptor (ER)+/progesterone receptor (PR) + tumors than those with ER-/PR- tumors, suggesting that this effect may be more robust among women with hormone receptor positive tumors. A possible mechanism for this effect may be via an inhibition of aromatase activity, described in both in vitro and animal trials (Grube et al., 2001, Chen et al., 2006), and more recently in a human trial of postmenopausal women diagnosed with breast cancer (Palomares et al., 2011) for Agaricus bisporus. A subsequent reduction in estrogen, affecting estrogen receptor positive tumors was reported in animal trials. Recent evidence suggests that the anti-aromatase compound in Agaricus bisporus is conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) (Kanaya et al., 2011a).

40

However, an in vitro study using water-based extracts of Coprinellus sp., Coprinus comatus, Flammulina velutipes, significantly inhibited growth of both estrogen-receptor positive (ER+) and estrogen-receptor negative (ER-) breast cancer cells, induction of rapid apoptosis on both ER+ and ER- cells, and significantly inhibited MCF-7 tumor colony formation in vitro. These activities were dose-dependent, regardless of the hormone receptor status of the cancer cells (Gu and Leonard, 2006). Higher dietary intake of mushrooms decreased breast cancer risk in both pre- and postmenopausal women and an additional decreased risk of breast cancer was observed from a synergistic effect of mushrooms and green tea in a case-controlled study (Zhang et al., 2009). Vitamin D2 could be one of the protective phytonutrients against breast cancer as mushrooms are rich in ergosterol, generating vitamin D2 when exposed to ultraviolet B (UVB) light and ergocalciferol being bioavailable and increasing serum 25(OH) vitamin D2 levels in humans (Furlanetto, 2009). While these human trials are promising, it should be noted that they were not direct intervention trials and mushroom consumption was assessed via quantitative food frequency questionnaires, which can be affected by recall bias. Studies in animal models and human cell lines have provided insights into the possible mechanisms involved for the effects of mushrooms and their components on breast cancer, and several studies have shown that mushroom extracts are able to suppress the proliferation of breast cancer cell lines, without affecting the proliferation of normal (non-cancer) cell lines (Israilides et al., 2008, Jedinak and Sliva, 2008). An in vitro study using an aqueous extract of Agaricus bisporus has identified suppression of aromatase activity and estrogen production as key mechanisms (Grube et al., 2001), which is supported by an animal model study that has reported that the major active compounds (in Agaricus bisporus) are unsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic acid, linolenic acid, and CLA which have been shown to inhibit aromatase activity (Chen et al., 2006). Inhibition of proliferation of human breast cancer cell lines has also been suggested to be mediated via downregulation of Akt/NF-kappaB (transcription factor) signalling in several mushroom varieties (Jiang et al., 2004a, Jiang et al., 2006, Jin et al., 2008), with a suggestion that the active components in mushrooms in these effects may be hydroxylated triterpenes (Jiang et al., 2008). Suppression of the transcription factors NF-kappaB and AP-1 has also been demonstrated by Ganerderma lucidum (Thyagarajan et al., 2006). Polysaccharide K (Krestin, PSK), extracted from Coriolus versicolor strain CM-101, is a nonspecific immunomodulatory polysaccharide which induces interleukin 2 (IL-2) and interferon

41

(IFN) γ, thereby stimulating lymphokine activated killer cells and enhancing natural killer cells (Sakamoto et al., 2006). Oral administration of PSK has been shown to significantly inhibit breast cancer growth in tumor-bearing neu transgenic mice (Lu et al., 2011c), with the indication that PSK is a specific Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) agonist and exerts its anti-tumor effects via stimulation of both innate and adaptive immune pathways. Mushroom polysaccharopeptides have also been implicated in apoptopic effects in human breast cancer cell lines (Wan et al., 2008). A review of the use of mushrooms as adjuvant treatments in breast cancer has reported that mushroom intake is associated with improvements in the immunological and hematologic parameters of breast cancer, as well as in the quality of life of breast cancer patients (Novaes et al., 2011).

5.1.1.2 Colorectal Cancer A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial carried out in Brazil over a six month period with 56 patients has studied life quality of postsurgical patients with colorectal cancer after supplementation of the diet with Agaricus sylvaticus (30 mg/kg/day). After six months of treatment, the supplemented group had increased physical activity, improved disposition and mood, reduced complaints of pain and reduced alterations of sleep such as insomnia and restless sleep. The supplemented group also presented with increased appetite, reduced constipation, diarrhea, alternate diarrhea/constipation, flatulence, flatus retention, pyrosis, postprandial fullness, nausea, abdominal distention and abdominal pain, indicators which were not observed in the placebo group (Fortes et al., 2010). A further evaluation of the same patients reported that the Agaricus sylvaticus group had significantly reduced fasting plasma glucose, total cholesterol, creatinine, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, IgA, IgM, systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure, all effects that were not observed in the placebo group. The data suggest that dietary supplementation with Agaricus sylvaticus was capable of providing metabolic benefits to the biochemical, enzymatic and blood pressure parameters of these patients with colorectal cancer in the postsurgical phase (Fortes and Novaes, 2011). Polysaccharide krestin (PSK), an extract from Trametes versicolor, has been reported to reduce toxicity of current treatments used in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer (Shibata et al., 2011). The effects of PSK in cancer therapy and the possible mechanism of action have recently been reviewed (Sun et al., 2012).

42

Two meta-analyses of randomised clinical trials have suggested that adjuvant immunochemotherapy with polysaccharide K from mushrooms can improve the survival of and disease-free survival of patients with curatively resected colorectal cancer (Oba et al., 2007, Sakamoto et al., 2006). The reduction of death rate by 29% and of recurrence by 28% by PSK immunochemotherapy over standard oral fluorinated pyrimidine based chemotherapy may have been due to restoration of immunity in patients who could have been immunosuppressed due to surgery and chemotherapy (Sakamoto et al., 2006). The mechanism of this effect is possibly via action of PSK on a toll-like receptor initiating a signalling cascade involving T helper 1 cells which induce IL-2 and IFN-γ and then activate natural killer cells. This sequence of signalling cascades has recently been described in the modulation of innate immunity of Agaricus blazei (Ab) (Hetland et al., 2011), although intake of 5% Ab over 4 weeks by male Wistar rats did not confirm chemopreventive activity on the initiation stage of rat colon carcinogenesis (Ziliotto et al., 2008, Ziliotto et al., 2009). A clinical study of healthy volunteers reported that Ganoderma lucidum did not affect their immune functions, but a subsequent open-labeled study (i.e. not double-blind or placebo controlled) evaluating water-soluble G. lucidum polysaccharides (Ganopoly®) in patients with advanced colorectal cancer reported that treatment with Ganopoly® tended to increase mitogenic reactivity to phytohemagglutinin. Larger double-blind trials are required to validate this effect and further studies are needed to determine the mechanism of action, efficacy, and safety of the water-soluble G.lucidum polysaccharides in cancer patients (Gao et al., 2005). A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind clinical trial in which patients with colorectal cancer were supplemented with Agaricus sylvaticus mushroom, orally, twice daily (30mg/kg/day), for six months also suggested benefits in haematological and immunological parameters and reduced glycemic levels in patients with colorectal cancer (Fortes et al., 2009). These data suggest that mushrooms may have an immunostimulatory effect on immunocompromised patients, but not in a normal, healthy population. Several in vitro studies in HT-29 human colonic carcinoma cells with extracts from Ganoderma lucidum (Hong et al., 2004), Agaricus bisporus lectin (ABL) (Yu et al., 1993) and other mushrooms have reported pro-apoptotic effects with no associated cytoxicity. It has been suggested that the pro-apoptotic effects in HT-29 cells is induced by an increase in the activity of caspase-3 (Hong et al., 2004). More recent studies have suggested the pro-apoptotic effects and inhibition of the growth of HT-29 colonic cancer cells is mediated through up-regulation of the expression of pro-apoptotic proteins and down-regulation of anti-apoptotic proteins (Lee et al., 2009c). The inhibition of proliferation has been shown to be reversible after removal of

43

(Agaricus bisporus) lectin (Yu et al., 1993) and the reversibility of the anti-proliferative effect was associated with the release of the lectin from cancer cells after internalization (Yu et al., 2000).

5.1.1.3 Cervical, Ovarian, Endometrial Cancer The effect of consumption of an extract from Agaricus blazei Murill Kyowa (ABMK), on immunological status and quality of life has been studied in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy. One hundred cervical, ovarian, and endometrial cancer patients were treated either with carboplatin plus VP16 or with carboplatin plus taxol every 3 weeks for at least three cycles, with or without oral consumption of ABMK. The authors observed that natural killer cell activity was significantly higher in the ABMK-treated group compared to the non-treated placebo group (n = 61). However, no significant difference in lymphokine-activated killer and monocyte activities was observed. Chemotherapy-associated side effects such as appetite loss, alopecia, emotional instability, and general weakness were all reported to be improved by ABMK treatment (Ahn et al., 2004). Very little is known about the mechanisms involved in the effects of mushrooms or mushroom extracts in cervical, ovarian and endometrial cancers, with only a small number of reports suggesting anti-proliferative effects (Liu et al., 2009, Chen et al., 2010d) via an induction of apoptosis (Ren et al., 2008a).

5.1.1.4 Gastric Cancer A meta-analysis of the effect of immunochemotherapy with lentinan compared to chemotherapy alone has been evaluated in patients with advanced gastric cancer across five randomised controlled trials. Lentinan significantly prolonged overall survival but was possibly more effective in patients with lymph-node metastasis than in non-node metastasis patients (Oba et al., 2009). Natural polysaccharides isolated from Phellinus gilvus (PG) have been shown to decrease cell proliferation and increase cell apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner in vitro in a model of human gastric adenocarcinoma and also to lead to a marked inhibition of tumor growth and a significant decrease in the incidence of peritoneal carcinomatosis (Bae et al., 2006). Antiproliferative (Chen et al., 2008) and pro-apoptotic effects (Shomori et al., 2009) in human gastric cell lines also were reported for several mushroom extracts with both caspase-3 - dependent (Jin et al., 2006) (Shomori et al., 2009) and independent signalling cascades being implicated (Shomori et al., 2009).

44

5.1.1.5 Pancreatic Cancer / Solid Malignancies Only one single trial on the effects of a mushroom-derived compound on pancreatic cancer in humans has been reported. A Phase I trial and pharmacokinetic study of irofulven, a mushroomderived cytotoxin has been carried out in 46 patients with advanced solid malignancies. While the highest dose used was not well tolerated (grade 4 neutropenia and renal toxicity), the authors recommended a lower dose of irofulven (10.64mg/m2) as a 5-minute intravenous infusion daily for 5 days every 4 weeks. The preliminary anti-tumor activity documented in a patient with advanced pancreatic cancer and the positive pre-clinical anti-tumor effects observed on intermittent dosing schedules support a need for further trials on irofulven. It should be noted that the source of this compound (Omphalotus olearius) is not an edible mushroom (Eckhardt et al., 2000).

5.1.1.6 Prostate Cancer Human trials to date have shown that mushrooms and their extracts to be ineffective in the treatment of clinical prostate cancer, although the treatments have been well-tolerated. A Phase II clinical trial has assessed the efficacy and safety of mushroom mycelium extracts (4.5 g/day for 6 months) in 74 patients with early stage prostate cancers. Patient ingestion compliance was maintained near 100% during the course of the trial. The mushroom mycelium extract was an ineffective treatment for reducing 50% or more the patient prostate specific antigen values (Sumiyoshi et al., 2010). A 6 month open-label study in 51 patients with prostate cancer that ingested either Senseiro, containing extracts from the Agaricus blazei Murill mushroom, or Rokkaku Reishi, containing the Ganoderma lucidum mushroom has reported no serious adverse effects, and no significant anticancer effects were observed with the intake of these two mushroom supplements (Yoshimura et al., 2010). Trials with Ganoderma lucidum (Noguchi et al., 2008a, Noguchi et al., 2008b) and with a polysaccharide/oligosaccharide complex obtained from a Shiitake mushroom extract (White et al., 2002) showed no effect on prostate-specific antigen levels in patients with either lower urinary tract symptoms or patients with prostate cancer respectively.

45

Supplemental amounts of a polysaccharide/oligosaccharide complex obtained from a Shiitake mushroom extract have been evaluated for the ability to lower the prostate-specific antigen level in patients (n=62) with prostate cancer. The data showed that the Shiitake mushroom extract alone was ineffective in the treatment of clinical prostate cancer (White et al., 2002). In other human trials, treatment with Senseiro (containing extracts from Agaricus blazei Murill) and Rokkaku Reishi, (containing the Ganoderma lucidum mushroom) for 6 months in patients with prostate cancer also failed to show a response in terms of serum prostate-specific antigen (Yoshimura et al., 2010), while a Phase II human trial of 74 early prostate cancer patients reported a mushroom mycelium extract to be ineffective in reducing by 50% or more the patient prostate specific antigen values (Sumiyoshi et al., 2010). These human trial outcomes do not support in vitro mechanistic studies, where several mushrooms and their extracts have been reported to inhibit proliferation of human prostate cancer cell lines. An Agaricus blazei extract (with a high ratio of beta-glucan) inhibited cell proliferation in both androgen-dependent and androgen-independent prostate cancer cell lines via an apoptotic pathway, with activities of caspase 3 and DNA fragmentation being enhanced the most in androgen-independent PC3 cells (Yu et al., 2009a). Beta-glucan from Grifola frondosa (Maitake) has a cytotoxic effect on human androgen-independent prostatic cancer PC3 cells in vitro, leading to apoptosis (Fullerton et al., 2000), while a recent study has also suggested that a Phellinus linteus extract is able to sensitize advanced prostate cancer cells to apoptosis in athymic nude mice (Tsuji et al., 2010). Inhibition of proliferation in a dose- and time-dependent manner and induction of apoptosis in PC-3 human prostate cancer cells by Ganoderma lucidum (Jiang et al., 2004b) has been determined to be caused by the inhibition of constitutively active AP-1 in prostate cancer cells, resulting in the down-regulation of secretion of vascular endothelial growth factor and transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta1) from PC-3 cells, and G. lucidum inhibits prostate cancer-dependent angiogenesis by modulation of MAPK (mitogen activated protein kinase) and Akt signaling (Stanley et al., 2005). The mechanisms by which mushrooms and their extracts affect prostate cancer cells appear to be multi-modal with gene network analysis of studies with Agaricus bisporus identifying alterations in networks involved in apoptosis, growth and proliferation, lipid metabolism, the TCA cycle and immune responses (Adams et al., 2008).

46

5.1.2 Anti-Microbial Properties Anti-microbial effects of a large number of mushroom varieties and mushroom components on both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria have been confirmed via in vitro studies. A small number of animal studies have been undertaken and the data suggest that the anti-microbial effects in vivo may be mediated by effects on the immune system. Initial studies in humans suggested anti-microbial properties of extracts from Agaricus blazei Murill and Ganoderma lucidum, although these studies did not have adequate controls in the experimental design, and therefore such effects have not yet been scientifically validated in humans. Patients on dialysis are at high risk of infection, including fungal infections. Anti-beta-glucan antibody participates in the immune response to fungal cell wall beta-glucan. The anti-betaglucan antibody titer has been shown to be lower in dialysis patients than in healthy volunteers, and long-term dialysis patients showed lower anti-beta-glucan antibody titers than short-term dialysis patients. The titer of anti-beta-glucan antibody as a recognition molecule of beta-glucan was low in dialysis patients compared to healthy volunteers, which may in part explain the sensitivity to infection of dialysis patients. Although not proven, there is a possibility that mushroom consumption may assist in a preventative role for fungal infection in dialysis patients (Ishibashi et al., 2011). A prospective controlled trial in humans (n=52) has evaluated the in vivo efficacy of the mushroom Tremella mesenterica Ritz.:Fr. (higher Basidiomycetes) on eradication of Helicobacter pylori. Ten-day treatment was not found to be effective in vivo in eradicating Helicobacter pylori, whether given with or without omeprazole, although the brief treatment period was a limitation of the study (Lachter et al., 2012). A very small one-year open-label (not double-blind or placebo-controlled) pilot study reported that intake of Agaricus blazei Murill (AbM) extract (1500 mg daily) over 12 months improved liver function in patients with hepatitis B, determined by a decrease in the mean level of aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase decreased from 246.0 to 61.3 IU/L and 151.0 to 46.1 IU/L, respectively (Hsu et al., 2008a). The initial observation seems to indicate a potential benefit of AbM extract in normalizing liver function of patients with hepatitis B, although clearly larger and controlled studies are required to confirm such effects.

47

5.1.3 Anti-Viral Properties Proteins, peptides and polysaccharopeptides from mushrooms have been reported to inhibit human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) reverse transcriptase and protease, the two enzymes of importance to the life cycle of HIV. Inhibitory effects on hepatitis B and herpes simplex virus type 1 have also been reported. The anti-viral effects of mushrooms do not seem to be related to viral adsorption or virucidal effects (i.e. they do not kill the virus), however a number of studies have reported inhibitory effects at the initial stage of virus replication (Faccin et al., 2007). Two phase I/II placebo-controlled trials in 98 HIV-positive patients were completed using lentinan, a β-glucan isolated from Lentinus edodes (Shiitake mushroom) (Gordon et al., 1998). The studies reported generally good tolerability of lentinan with observed side effects being mainly mild, particularly when infusion was carried out over a 30 minute period. In the first study, where administration was over a 10 minute period, there were 9 side effects severe enough to be reported to the FDA (one case each of anaphylactoid reaction, back pain, leg pain, depression, rigor, fever, chills, granulocytopenia and elevated liver enzymes) with four patients discontinuing therapy because of side effects. In the second study, where infusion was over a 30 minute period, there were no side effects reportable to the FDA but there were four drop-outs due to side effects or personal preference. Most side effects resolved promptly after the discontinuation of medication, and all of them were relieved within 24 hours. The small number of patients in the study groups meant the data on possible increases in CD4 cell and neutrophil activity were inconclusive (Gordon et al., 1998).

5.1.4 Asthma A Cordyceps extract has recently been evaluated in asthmatic children during remission stage (Sun et al., 2010). The Cordyceps extract inhibited the proliferation and differentiation of Th2 cells and reduced the expression of related cytokines by down-regulating the expression of GATA-3 mRNA and up-regulating the expression of Foxp3 mRNA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. The extract was able to alleviate the chronic allergic inflammation by increasing the level of interleukin-10.

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5.1.5 Cardiovascular Health A human intervention study has evaluated the cholesterol lowering properties of an Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) diet. Twenty subjects (9 male, 11 female; 20-34 years) were randomized to take either one portion of soup containing 30 g dried oyster mushrooms or a tomato soup as a placebo daily for 21 days. The Oyster mushroom soup decreased triacylglycerol concentrations (0.44 mmol/L) and oxidized low density lipoprotein levels (7.2 U/mL) significantly, and showed a significant tendency in lowering total cholesterol values (0.47 mmol/L; p = 0.059). No effects on low density lipoprotein and high density lipoprotein levels were observed (Schneider et al., 2011). Oyster mushroom consumption by 89 diabetic patients significantly reduced systolic and diastolic blood pressure, total cholesterol and triglycerides, with no significant change in body weight and no deleterious effects on liver or kidney function (Khatun et al., 2007). Another study in 90 female volunteers demonstrated a weight-controlling and hypolipidemic effect of proteinbound polysaccharides from the mycelia of Agaricus blazei and Lentinus edodes, via a mechanism involving absorption of cholesterol (Kweon et al., 2002). However, a double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over intervention study in adults (n=18; ages 22–52 years) of a commercially available encapsulated Lingzhi preparation (equivalent to 13.2g fresh mushroom/d) over 4 weeks failed to show any change in biomarkers for coronary heart disease risk (Wachtel-Galor et al., 2004). The bioavailability of ergothioneine from Agaricus bisporus, that functions as an antioxidant in mushrooms has been determined in a pilot study in healthy men (n=10) using a randomized, cross-over, dose-response, postprandial time-course design. Ergothioneine was bioavailable after consuming mushrooms (8g and 16g) and a trend in the postprandial triglyceride response indicated that there was a blunting effect after both the 8g and 16g ergothioneine doses were compared with the control (0g dose). Ergothioneine from A. bisporus mushrooms was therefore bioavailable as assessed by red blood cell uptake postprandially, and consumption was associated with an attenuated postprandial triglyceride response (Weigand-Heller et al., 2012). A single-arm, open-label, proof-of-concept study of 8 weeks duration has been completed which assessed the safety and efficacy of Pleurotus ostreatus (15 g/day orally) in HIV-infected individuals taking antiretroviral therapy that induced hyperlipidemia. Pleurotus ostreatus at the concentration taken in this study did not lower non-HDL cholesterol in HIV patients with antiretroviral treatment-induced hypercholesterolemia. Small changes in HDL and triglycerides were not of a clinical magnitude to warrant further study (Abrams et al., 2011). The effects of

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mushroom consumption on biomarkers of cardiovascular disease risk have recently been reviewed (Guillamon et al., 2010).

5.1.6 Cognition / Brain Health Although preliminary, data showing protective effects of mushrooms (Hericium erinaceum) on beta-amyloid peptide toxicity (Kawagishi and Zhuang, 2008) in the brain and mild cognitive impairment (both precursors to dementia) appeared promising. Preliminary human trials with Hericium erinaceum derivatives showed efficacy in patients with dementia in improving the Functional Independence Measure (FIM) score or retarding disease progression (Kawagishi and Zhuang, 2008), while a double-blind, parallel-group, placebo-controlled trial with oral administration of Yamabushitake (Hericium erinaceus) to 50 to 80-year-old Japanese men and women diagnosed with mild cognitive impairment reported significantly increased cognitive function scores compared to placebo during intake, but the scores decreased significantly following termination of the intake (Mori et al., 2009). A large epidemiological study (The Hordaland Health Study) of 2031 elderly subjects (aged 7074 years; 55% women) recruited from the general population in Western Norway has examined the relationship between intake of different plant foods and cognitive performance in elderly individuals in a cross-sectional study design. The cognitive test battery covered several domains (Kendrick Object Learning Test, Trail Making Test - part A, modified versions of the Digit Symbol Test, Block Design, Mini-Mental State Examination and Controlled Oral Word Association Test). A validated and self-reported food frequency questionnaire was used to assess habitual food intake. Subjects with intakes of >10th percentile of fruits, vegetables, grain products and mushrooms performed significantly better in cognitive tests than those with very low or no intake, with the dose-dependent association being linear for mushrooms (Nurk et al., 2010). A case-controlled study of 249 patients with diagnosed Parkinson’s Disease (PD) and controls without neurodegenerative diseases (n = 368) has assessed dietary intake during the preceding 1 month using a validated, self-administered diet history questionnaire. Three dietary patterns were identified: 'Healthy', 'Western' and 'Light meal' patterns. After adjustment for potential nondietary confounding factors, the Healthy pattern, characterized by a high intake of vegetables, seaweed, pulses, mushrooms, fruits and fish, was inversely associated with the risk of PD with a border-line statistical significance (P = 0.06). No associations with PD were detected for the other two dietary patterns (Okubo et al., 2011). While the data from this case-control study suggest a dietary pattern consisting of high intakes of vegetables, seaweed, pulses,

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mushrooms, fruits and fish may be associated with a decreased risk of PD, the strength of the association is modest and any such effects would need to be confirmed in other studies with greater statistical power in the study designs. A human study of 30 females has investigated the clinical outcomes of 4 weeks of intake of Hericium erinaceus cookies versus placebo cookies on menopause, depression, sleep quality and indefinite complaints, using the Kupperman Menopausal Index (KMI), the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQ1), and the Indefinite Complaints Index (ICI). Each of the CES-D and the ICI score after the H. erinaceus intake was significantly lower than at the start of the trial. "Concentration", "irritating" and "anxious" tended to be lower than the placebo group (Nagano et al., 2010, Shimizu et al., 2010). While the results point towards a possible reduction of depression and anxiety in the study group with H. erinaceus intake, larger studies with greater statistical power are required to confirm such outcomes.

5.1.7 Constipation Constipation is one of the most prevalent gastrointestinal complaints and high fiber intake is recommended as an initial therapy for constipation. Ear mushrooms (Auricularia) are known to have higher fiber contents (by ~50%) than other mushroom varieties. In patients with functional constipation, fiber supplements using ear mushrooms have been shown to significantly improve constipation related symptoms without serious side effects (Kim et al., 2004b).

5.1.8 Dental Health A clinical trial in 30 volunteers has been undertaken over 11 days in which a low molecular mass (LMM) fraction of an aqueous extract of Lentinus edodes (Shiitake) was evaluated as an oral mouthrinse. The mushroom extract was evaluated against Listerine and a placebo (water). Statistically significant differences were obtained for the plaque index on day 12 in subjects treated with mushroom versus placebo, while for the gingival index significant differences were found for both mushroom versus placebo and mushroom versus Listerine. Decreases in total bacterial counts and in counts of specific oral pathogens were observed for both mushroom extract and Listerine in comparison with placebo. The data suggest that this mushroom extract may prove beneficial in controlling dental caries and/or gingivitis/periodontitis (Signoretto et al., 2011). A fraction from Shiitake has also been shown to have a strong inhibitory effect on dentin

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demineralization and induce microbial shifts that could be associated with oral health (Zaura et al., 2011).

5.1.9 Diabetes A large number of animal studies, using both normal and diabetic animals, have demonstrated a hypoglycaemic effect of mushrooms and mushroom components. This effect appears to be mediated via mushroom polysaccharides (possibly both α- and β-glucans) via a direct interaction with insulin receptors on target tissues, although this mechanism remains to be confirmed. A randomized, double-blinded, and placebo-controlled clinical trial (n=72) showed that Agaricus blazei Murill supplementation in combination with metformin and gliclazide improved insulin resistance in these subjects. An increase in adiponectin concentration after Agaricus blazei Murill extract consumption for 12 weeks may be the mechanism that resulted in the reported effect (Hsu et al., 2007). Clinical investigation in diabetic patients (n=89) has also shown that Oyster mushroom consumption significantly reduced systolic and diastolic blood pressure, lowered plasma glucose, total cholesterol and triglycerides significantly, with no significant change in body weight, and no deleterious effects on liver or kidney function (Khatun et al., 2007). These results in humans mirror the decreases in plasma glucose, cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations following Agaricus bisporus consumption observed in rats (Jeong et al., 2010) and the reduction in blood pressure in Zucker fatty rats following oral administration of Maitake mushroom fractions (Talpur et al., 2002). The consistency between the effects of the mushroom extracts in diabetic animal models described later in this report and preliminary data from human trials, which mirror decreases in plasma glucose, blood pressure, cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations, strengthens the level of evidence for anti-diabetogenic effects of the studied mushrooms and their extracts.

5.1.10 DNA Damage The antioxidant properties of Ganoderma lucidum (Lingzhi or Reishi) and its effects on DNA damage and repair in lymphocytes have been evaluated in a small cross-over human intervention study with 7 healthy adults. Plasma total antioxidant power and the effect on lymphocyte DNA damage and repair were assessed before and after each treatment of a single dose (3.3 g) of G. lucidum or water (control). G. lucidum caused an acute increase in plasma

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antioxidant power, but did not significantly affect the level or rate of repair in lymphocytic DNA suggesting that the bioavailable antioxidants absorbed from G. lucidum have no effect on DNA resistance to oxidative stress or repair in vivo (Wachtel-Galor et al., 2010).

5.1.11 Hepatitis Clinical effects and safety evaluation of Agaricus Blazei Condensed Liquid (Agaricus Mushroom Extract; ABCL) administered to human volunteers (10 male, 10 female) with chronic C-type hepatitis orally twice per day for 8 weeks reported no toxicological or other side effects (Inuzuka and Yoshida, 2002). A series of trials have evaluated Ganoderma lucidum on cancer, Type II diabetes, coronary heart disease, chronic hepatitis B, and neurasthenia. Treatment with Ganopoly® for 12 weeks showed hypoglycemic activity and produced some anti-viral and liver protective effects in patients with chronic hepatitis B infection. However, the same treatment regimen did not result in any objective response in late-stage cancer patients (Zhou et al., 2005). Overall, the findings suggest that Ganopoly® may have some pharmacological activities, although clinical proof is lacking.

5.1.12 Immune Function Numerous studies have described the effects of mushrooms and mushroom extracts on immune function with implications for inhibiting tumor growth. Some of the more efficacious compounds reported are the 1,6-branched 1,3-β-glucans, thought to inhibit tumor growth by stimulating the immune system via effects on NK cells, macrophages and via T cells and their cytokine production. More recent work has implicated polysaccharides with varying sugars and some are α- rather than β-glucans. Furthermore, mushroom proteins, terpenes and furans have also been implicated in immune function. While considerable in vitro data exists, in vivo studies are few and the limited clinical studies that have been carried out have been with small numbers of patients and have often been poorly controlled. A systematic review of human clinical trials has concluded that numerous dietary polysaccharides, particularly glucans, appear to elicit diverse immunomodulatory effects in animal tissues, including the blood, GI tract and spleen. Structure-function relationships of betaglucans are of particular importance in their immunomodulatory effects (Thompson et al., 2010). Glucan extracts from the Trametes versicolor mushroom have been shown to improve survival and immune function in human randomised clinical trials of cancer patients. Glucans, arabinogalactans and fucoidans elicited immunomodulatory effects in controlled studies of

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healthy adults and patients with canker sores and seasonal allergies. This systematic review provides a high level of evidence for these effects (Ramberg et al., 2010). A polysaccharide extract from Grifola frondosa (Maitake extract) has shown immunomodulatory effects in a phase I/II dose escalation trial in post-menopausal breast cancer patients (n=34). No dose-limiting toxicity was encountered and there was a statistically significant association between Maitake and immunologic function. The dose-response curves for many endpoints were non-monotonic with intermediate doses having either immune enhancing or immune suppressing effects in peripheral blood compared with both high and low doses (Deng et al., 2009). Another clinical trial in breast cancer patients (n=82) evaluating the immunomodulatory effects of Yunzhi-Danshen capsules (Yunzhi (Coriolus versicolor); Danshen (Salvia miltiorrhiza)) showed significantly elevated B-lymphocytes in patients with breast cancer after taking YunzhiDanshen capsules, while plasma sIL-2R concentration was significantly decreased (Wong et al., 2005). A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial has evaluated the effects of Agaricus blazei Murrill intake (900 mg/day for 60 days) on serum levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6), interferongamma (IFN-gamma) and tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) in 57 community-living elderly women. After 60 days, no changes from baseline were detectable for any parameter in either the placebo (n=29) or the mushroom (n=28) group (Lima et al., 2012). Prolonged and exhausting physical activity causes numerous changes in immunity and sometimes transient increases the risk of upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs). A double blind, placebo-controlled study has investigated the effect of pleuran, an insoluble beta-(1,3/1,6) glucan from mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus, on selected cellular immune responses and incidence of URTI symptoms in athletes. Fifty athletes were randomized to pleuran or placebo, taking pleuran or placebo supplements during 3 months. Incidence of URTI symptoms together with characterization of changes in phagocytosis and natural killer (NK) cell count was monitored.P leuran significantly reduced the incidence of URTI symptoms and increased the number of circulating NK cells. In addition, the phagocytosis process remained stable in pleuran group during the study in contrast to placebo group where significant reduction of phagocytosis was observed. These findings indicate that pleuran may serve as an effective nutritional supplement for athletes under heavy physical training. The mechanisms of pleuran function are yet to be determined (Bergendiova et al., 2011). In a similar double-blind pilot study, 20 elite athletes were randomized to beta-glucan (n=9) or placebo ( n=11); these groups consumed 100 mg of beta-glucan (Imunoglukan) or placebo supplements, respectively, once per day for 2 months. At the end of the supplementation period, the athletes underwent a 20 min intensive

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exercise session. A 28% reduction in natural killer (NK) cell activity below baseline was observed in the placebo group during the recovery period (1 h after exercise), whereas no significant reduction in NK cell activity was found in the beta-glucan group, and no significant decrease in NK cell count was measured in the beta-glucan group during the recovery period. Immune cell counts did not differ significantly between the groups. These results indicate that insoluble beta-glucan supplementation from P. ostreatus may play a role in modulating exercise-induced changes in NK cell activity in intensively training athletes (Bobovcak et al., 2010). Discrepancies in results have been reported between ex-vivo and in vivo studies. After stimulation of whole blood from healthy volunteers ex vivo with 0.5-5.0% of a mushroom extract, mainly containing Agaricus blazei Murill (AbM), a dose-dependent increase in all the cytokines studied was seen, ranging from two to 399-fold (TNFα). However, in vivo, in eight volunteers who completed the daily intake (60 ml) of the AbM extract for 12 days, a significant reduction was observed in levels of IL-1-β (97%), TNF-α (84%), IL-17 (50%) and IL-2 (46%). Another nine cytokines remained unaltered (Johnson et al., 2009). The discrepancy in cytokine release ex vivo and in vivo may partly be explained by the antioxidant activity of AbM in vivo and limited absorption of its large β-glucans across the intestinal mucosa to the reticuloendothelial system and blood. A double-blind randomized trial undertaken in mildly hypercholesterolemic subjects (n=56) to examine the effects of α-glucans from Agaricus bisporus reported that consumption of A. bisporus α-glucans lowered lipopolysaccharide-induced TNFα production by 69% compared to the control group, whereas no effect on IL-1β and IL-6 was observed. The authors suggested that in vivo, alpha-glucans had lost their efficacy to stimulate the immune response as observed in an in vitro mouse model (Volman et al., 2010b). In healthy adults over 50 years of age, active hexose correlated compound (AHCC) enhanced CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cell immune responses, taking at least 30 days to obtain such an effect, with the effect continuing up to 30 days after discontinuing treatment with AHCC (Yin et al., 2010). AHCC also promotes T helper (Th) 17 and 1 cell responses via inducing IL-1beta production from monocytes in humans (Lee et al., 2012). The synergistic effects of Cordyceps sinensis with the drug cyclosporine A in preventing allograft rejection was recently reported in rats (Ding et al., 2009a) but a retrospectively study by the same group has also evaluated the immunoregulatory effect of a dry powder preparation of Cordyceps sinensis mycelia on humans after renal transplantation (Ding et al., 2009b). While

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there was no significant difference in graft survival rate or occurrence of reject reaction, treatment did effectively protect liver and kidney, stimulate hemopoietic function, improve hypoproteinemia, as well as reduce the incidence of infection and the dosage of the drugs cyclosporine A and tacrolimus used, and therefore, it may be useful for immunoregulation after organ transplantation. An extract (AndoSan) from Agaricus blazei Murill (AbM) has been shown to reduce blood cytokine levels in healthy volunteers after 12 days of ingestion, pointing to an anti-inflammatory effect. This extract also modulated cytokines in patients with ulcerative colitis (UC, n=10) and Crohn's disease (CD, n=11) in which baseline concentrations for the (17) cytokines ebaluated in the UC and CD patient groups were largely similar. Faecal calprotectin (a marker for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) was reduced in the UC group. Ingestion of an AbM-based medicinal mushroom by patients with IBD resulted in decreased levels of pathogenic cytokines in blood and calprotectin in faeces, suggesting anti-inflammatory effects (Forland et al., 2011). The mechanisms for such effects are unclear, although an in vitro study by the same authors with monocyte-derived dendritic cells showed that AbM did not induce increased synthesis of Th2 or anti-inflammatory cytokines or the Th1 cytokine IL-12. but the AbM-based extract resulted in increased production of proinflammatory, chemotactic and some Th1-type cytokines (Forland et al., 2010). The effect and safety of a soluble beta-glucan from Lentinus edodes mycelium, Lentinex (R), in 42 healthy, elderly subjects has recently been evaluated in a double blind, crossover, placebocontrolled trial (Gaullier et al., 2011) where two groups were given either 2.5 mg/day Lentinex (R) orally or placebo for 6 weeks; then after a washout period of 4 weeks, the alternate supplementation was given for 6 weeks. The changes in the number of B-cells were significantly different between the groups. The number of NK cells increased significantly in both groups, but there was no significant difference between the groups. The immunoglobulins, complement proteins and cytokines measured were not altered. The safety blood variables (differential cell count, liver function, kidney function, and other blood chemistry) were not influenced by Lentinex (R), and the number, nature, and severity of adverse events were similar to placebo. Lentinex given orally to elderly subjects was deemed to be safe and induced an increase in the number of circulating B-cells (Gaullier et al., 2011). Secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA) acts as the first line of adaptive humoral immune defence at mucosal surfaces. A randomised trial of 24 healthy volunteers has shown that consumption of 100 g of blanched Agaricus bisporus daily with a normal diet for 1 wk significantly accelerated

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sIgA secretion, thereby indicating its effect on the improvement of mucosal immunity (Jeong et al., 2011). Reviews have been carried out on the immunobiology of mushrooms (Borchers et al., 2008), on the immunomodulatory activities of mushroom polysaccharides (Cheung et al., 2011), and on the health effects of beta-glucans in mushrooms (Rop et al., 2009, Rondanelli et al., 2009). A recent systematic review of immunomodulatory dietary polysaccharides concluded that glucan extracts from Trametes Versicolor improved survival and immune function in human randomised controlled trials of cancer patients (Ramberg et al., 2010). The immunomodulatory effects of Agaricus blazei Murill and resultant impacts on an array of health outcomes have recently been reviewed (Hetland et al., 2011, Lima et al., 2011). A mini-review on how the immunomodulatory actions of mushroom polysaccharides impact tumor cells has also been published (Wong et al., 2011). Many of the potential therapeutic effects of mushrooms and mushroom components on a variety of diseases appear to be directly or indirectly mediated by enhancing natural immunity of the host via effects on natural killer (NK) cells, macrophages, via balance of T cells and their cytokine production, and via the activation of Mitogen Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) pathways (Kim et al., 2007a, Lin et al., 2009b). A recent study has also suggested that branching of the β-glucan chain is a requirement for immunostimulatory activity (Volman et al, 2010b).

5.1.13 Reproductive Health An open trial with 80 patients with polycystic ovary syndrome at three clinics in Japan has been undertaken. Seventy-two patients were randomly assigned to receive Maitake extract (SXfraction: MSX) or clomiphene citrate (CC) monotherapy for up to 12 weeks. Eighteen patients who did not respond to MSX or CC were subjected to combination therapy of MSX and CC for up to 16 weeks. Eight patients with documented history of failure to CC received combination therapy from the beginning. Twenty-six patients in the MSX group and 31 in the CC group were evaluated for ovulation. The ovulation rates for MSX and CC were: 76.9% (20/26) and 93.5% (29/31), respectively by the patients (NS), and 41.7% (30/72) and 69.9% (58/83), respectively, by the cycles. In the combination therapy, 7 of 7 patients who failed in MSX monotherapy and 6 of 8 patients who failed in CC monotherapy showed ovulation. The data suggest that the Maitake extract described in this study may induce ovulation in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome and may be useful as an adjunct therapy for patients who failed first-line treatment with clomiphene citrate (Chen et al., 2010b).

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5.1.14 Summary of Human Studies In general, the growing amount of data from human clinical trials suggest that the mushrooms and mushroom extracts tested are safe and generally well-tolerated. The most promising data appear to be those indicating an inverse relationship between mushroom consumption and breast cancer risk, although the majority of data are based on food frequency /diet recalls. However, recent studies have suggested that an inhibition of aromatase activity, and a subsequent reduction in estrogen, affecting estrogen receptor positive tumors may provide a mechanism for these effects of mushrooms in breast cancer treatment. This mechanism has been proposed in in vitro and animal trials, and more recently in a human trial of postmenopausal women diagnosed with breast cancer. Recent evidence has also suggested that the anti-aromatase compound is conjugated linoleic acid (CLA). Although preliminary, data showing protective effects of mushrooms on beta-amyloid peptide toxicity in the brain and mild cognitive impairment (both precursors to dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease) are very exciting and warrant further research.

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6. Anti-diabetogenic Properties 6.1 Animal model (mouse) studies Aqueous extracts of various mushrooms have been shown to possess hypoglycemic activity and anti-hyperglycemic activity against diabetes-inducing compounds in obese and diabetic animal models. An aqueous extract of Ganoderma lucidum (0.03 and 0.3g/kg) lowered the serum glucose level in obese/diabetic (+db/+db) mice after one week of treatment through the suppression of hepatic PEPCK gene expression (Seto et al., 2009). Aqueous extracts of Pleurotus pulmonarius also have been shown to possess hypoglycemic activity (Badole et al., 2006), as well as having synergistic antihyperglycemic effects with acarbose (Badole and Bodhankar, 2007) in alloxan-induced diabetic mice. A similar anti-hyperglycemic effect has been reported by Grifola frondosa (Cui et al., 2009) and Coprinus comatus (Han and Liu, 2009) on an adrenaline-induced increase in blood glucose in mice, although in this study, the same result was not observed with Ganoderma lucidum and Grifola frondosa. Extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) from Laetiporus sulphureus var. miniatus have been shown to both stimulate insulin secretion (Hwang et al., 2008) and insulin sensitivity possibly via regulation of lipid metabolism (Cho et al., 2007) in diabetic mouse models. A polysaccharide isolated from Phellinus linteus reportedly inhibited the development of autoimmune diabetes by regulating cytokine expression in non-obese diabetic mice (Kim et al., 2010c). The hypoglycemic potential of EPS was also confirmed by histopathological examination that showed that EPS administration is able to restore impaired kidneys to almost normal architecture (Hye-Jin et al., 2007) as well as pancreatic islets of Langerhans (Yamac et al., 2008) in streptozotocin-induced rats. Intake of Pleurotus eryngii (5% supplementation with a normal diet) has been shown to decrease plasma glycated haemoglobin and serum glucose levels in a diabetic (db/db) mouse model. Intake of Pleurotus eryngii also significantly reduced the homeostasis model measurement of insulin resistance, total cholesterol and triglyceride, and increased high density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol levels demonstrating hypoglycaemic and hypolipidemic effects and an improvement in insulin sensitivity in this mouse model (Jung-In et al., 2010, Kim et al., 2010d). A hypolipidemic effect of Pleurotus eryngii extract

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has also been shown in fat-loaded mice and suggested to be due to low absorption of fat caused by the inhibition of pancreatic lipase (Mizutani et al., 2010). A hypolipidemic effect of Ganoderma lucidum (Leyss:Fr) Karst has also been demonstrated in a mouse model (Rubel et al., 2011). The structure and anti-tumour activity of polysaccharide fractions of the fruit body of Agaricus brasiliensis have been studied in cold and hot water extracts (CWE and HWE) on a mouse diabetic model (C57BL Ksj-db/db). Compared to the water administered control group, the body weight, urinary glucose exclusion, urinary pH, blood glucose level, and organs weight were comparable. The splenocytes of CWE administered mice produced a higher concentration of interleukin-6. By megascopic and microscopic examinations of renal sections, the number of the mice having abnormal kidney was 3/5 (control), 2/5 (HWE), and 0/5 (CWE) suggested the activity of the renal protection in the cold water extract. The results suggested that the pharmacological action of the cold water extract of A. brasiliensis is significantly stronger than that of the hot water extract (Furukawa et al., 2006). Polysaccharides extracted from Inonotus obliquus (Pers.: Fr.) Pilat (Aphyllophoromycetideae) have also been shown to have antihyperglycemic, antilipidperoxidative, and antioxidant effects in alloxan-induced diabetic mice (Xu et al., 2010). The anti-diabetic effect of an alpha-glucan (MT-alpha-glucan) from the fruit body of Maitake mushrooms (Grifola frondosa) on KK-Ay mice (a type 2 diabetes animal model) has been evaluated. Treatment with MT-alpha-glucan significantly decreased the body weight, level of fasting plasma glucose, glycosylated serum protein, serum insulin, triglycerides, cholesterol, free fatty acid and malondialdehyde content in liver. Treatment with MT-alpha-glucan significantly increased the content of hepatic glycogen, reduced glutathione and the activity of liver superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase. Moreover, the insulin binding capacity to liver crude plasma membranes increased and histopathological changes in the pancreas were ameliorated in the treatment group. The data suggested that MT-alpha-glucan has an anti-diabetic effect on KK-Ay mice, which may be related to its effect on insulin receptors by increasing insulin sensitivity and ameliorating insulin resistance of peripheral target tissues (Lei et al., 2007).

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6.2 Animal model (rat) studies Beta-glucans and their enzymatically hydrolyzed oligosaccharides from Agaricus blazei have anti-hyperglycemic, anti-hypertriglyceridemic, anti-hypercholesterolemic, and antiarteriosclerotic activity indicating overall anti-diabetic activity in diabetic rats. However, the enzymatically hydrolyzed oligosaccharides have been shown to have around twice the activity of β-glucans with respect to anti-diabetogenic activity (Kim et al., 2005). Semipurified fractions of a submerged-culture broth of Agaricus blazei Murill were also reported to reduce blood glucose levels in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats (Oh et al., 2010). The characterisation and efficacy of beta-glucans from different sources, including mushrooms on hypoglycaemia in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats has been evaluated (Sandeep et al., 2011). An aqueous extract of Agaricus blazei Muril administered daily starting 40 days after the onset of streptozotocin-induced diabetes in Wistar rats assisted in the recovery of pulmonary tissue of the rats. Pulmonary lipoperoxidation increased in the diabetic animals compared to the control group, followed by a reduction in the A. Blazei-treated group. iNOS was increased in the lung in diabetic rats and reduced in the A. Blazei-treated group. The pulmonary tissue in diabetic rats showed oxidative alterations related to the streptozotocin treatment. The A. Blazei treatment effectively reduced the oxidative stress and contributed to tissue recovery (Di Naso et al., 2010). Comatin, an inhibitor of the non-enzymatic glycosylation (NEG) reaction, purified from Coprinus comatus fermentation broth and identified as 4,5-dihydroxy-2-methoxy-benzaldehyde. The blood glucose concentration of normal rats treated by comatin at 80 mg/kg body weight was reduced from 5.14 mM to 4.28 mM in 3 h, while the concentrations of fructosamine, triglycerides and total cholesterol in alloxan-induced diabetic rats were significantly decreased, indicating that comatin could maintain a low level of blood glucose and improve glucose tolerance (Ding et al., 2010). Treatment with mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus extract has been suggested to reduce high blood glucose level, genetic alterations (DNA fragmentation, chromosome aberrations) and sperm abnormalities in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats (Ghaly et al., 2011). A hypoglycemic effect on streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats has also been demonstrated by Agaricus bisporus (Sang Chul et al., 2010) and by polysaccharides from Laetiporus sulphureus (Hwang and Yun, 2010). Furthermore, a hot water extract of Agaricus bisporus, administered at 400 mg/kg body weight per day for 7 days resulted in a 29.68%

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reduction of serum glucose levels, with serum insulin levels significantly increasing in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. However, a most interesting effect of the treatment was the increase in cellularity of the Langerhans islets of the pancreas and their apparent repopulation with beta cells (Yamac et al., 2010). Vanadium-enriched Cordyceps sinensis (VECS), has been hypothesized as a possible treatment approach to both diabetes and depression, based on vanadium compounds having an ability to imitate the action of insulin and C. sinensis having an antidepressantlike activity, and being able to attenuate a diabetes-induced increase in blood glucose concentrations (Guo et al., 2010, Guo et al., 2011). However, the hypothesis remains to be proven. Agaricus bisporus has been shown to lower blood glucose and cholesterol levels in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic and rats fed a hypercholesterolemic diet (Jeong et al., 2010). The STZ-induced diabetic male Sprague-Dawley rats fed Agaricus bisporus powder (200 mg/kg of body weight) for 3 weeks had significantly reduced plasma glucose and triglyceride concentrations (24.7% and 39.1%, respectively), liver enzyme activities, alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase (11.7% and 15.7%, respectively), and liver weight gain. In hypercholesterolemic rats, oral feeding of the Agaricus bisporus powder for 4 weeks resulted in a significant decrease in plasma total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (22.8% and 33.1%, respectively). A similar significant decrease in hepatic cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations was observed (36.2% and 20.8%, respectively). The decreases in total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein, and triglyceride concentrations were accompanied by a significant increase in plasma high-density lipoprotein concentrations demonstrating significant hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic activity in rats. Lectins from Agaricus bisporus and Agaricus campestris have been shown to stimulate insulin and glucagon release from isolated rat islets in the presence of 2 mM glucose. Maximal stimulation of insulin release was reported at lectin concentrations above 58 µg/mL (approximately 1 µM). The lectin did not alter islet glucose oxidation to CO2 or incorporation of [3H] leucine into trichloracetic acid-precipitable material, nor did it modify rates of insulin secretion induced by 20 mM glucose. None of nine other lectins tested stimulated insulin release, whereas stimulation of fat cell glucose oxidation was a general property of the lectins. The data also suggested that lectin binding is essential for the expression of insulin-releasing activity. The authors proposed that the specific interaction between mushroom lectin and its receptors may lead to conformational changes in the

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structure of the membranes of the islet A2- and B-cells that facilitate exocytosis (Ewart et al., 1975). The hypoglycaemic effect of exo-polymers (EPs) produced from submerged mycelial cultures of several varieties of mushrooms on streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats have been investigated. The five experimental groups were fed with EPs (50mg/kg body weight) for 7 days. Significant reductions in plasma glucose, total cholesterol, and triglyceride levels were observed in rats fed with Lentinus edodes and Cordyceps militaris EPs. Plasma glucose and total cholesterol were also reduced by administration of Phellinus linteus EPs, but the triglyceride level was not changed significantly. The EPs of the three mushroom species also demonstrated a marked reduction in the level of plasma glutamate-pyruvate transaminase (GPT). The result demonstrates the hypoglycaemic activity of EPs of three mushroom varieties in STZ-induced diabetic rats and suggests some potential in the control of diabetes mellitus (Kim et al., 2001). Similarly, a hypoglycaemic effect of exo- and endo-biopolymers produced by a submerged mycelial culture of Ganoderma lucidum in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats has also been reported (Yang et al., 2004). The hypolipidemic effect of exo-polymers produced in submerged mycelial cultures of Hericium erinaceus (HE), Auricularia auricula judae (AA), Flammulina velutipes (FV), Phellinus pini (PP), and Grifola frondosa (GF) has been investigated in dietary-induced hyperlipidemic rats. The animals were administered with exo-polymers at the level of 100mg/kg body weight daily for four weeks. A hypolipidemic effect was achieved in all the experimental groups, however, HE exo-polymer proved to be the most potent, significantly reducing plasma triglyceride (28.9%), total cholesterol (29.7%), low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (39.6%), phospholipid (16.0%), and liver total cholesterol (28.9%) levels, compared to the saline administered (control) group. The results demonstrate the potential of HE exo-polymer in treating hyperlipidemia in dietary-induced hyperlipidemic rats (Yang et al., 2002a). A subsequent study by the same group, using higher concentrations (200mg/kg body weight in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats) of exo-polymers from a submerged mycelial culture of Lentinus edodes has shown that the administration of the exo-polymer reduced the plasma glucose level by as much as 21.5%, and increased plasma insulin by 22.1% compared to the control group. It was also shown to lower the plasma total cholesterol and triglyceride levels by 25.1 and 44.5%, respectively (Yang et al., 2002c).

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Oral administration of Maitake mushroom fractions has been shown to lower blood pressure and fasting blood glucose of Zucker fatty rats, a model of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes mellitus. The authors concluded that specific fractions of Maitake mushroom, alone or combined with other natural products such as bitter melon and niacin-bound chromium, may be useful in the treatment of insulin resistance (Talpur et al., 2002). Enhanced insulin-hypoglycaemic activity (improvement in insulin sensitivity) has also been reported in spontaneously hypertensive rats consuming a glycoprotein extracted from Maitake mushrooms (Preuss et al., 2007). The effects of fermented Chaga mushroom (Inonotus obliquus) powder on the lipid concentrations and the activities of liver marker enzymes of serum in genetically diabetic Otsuka Long-Evans Tokushima fatty (OLETF) rats have ben studied. Rats were fed a semi-synthetic diet supplemented with 50g/kg Chaga mushroom powder (CM) or 50g/kg fermented Chaga mushroom powder (FCM) for 8 weeks (26 to 34 weeks of age). Nondiabetic Long-Evans Tokushima Otsuka (LETO) rats were used as age-matched nondiabetic control animals. Water consumption was significantly higher in the OLETF control than the LETO rats. Water consumption in the FCM-fed OLETF rats tended to be less than in both the OLETF control and CM-fed OLETF rats. Serum concentrations of triglycerides and total cholesterol were significantly higher in the OLETF control rats than in the LETO rats while within the OLETF rat groups, the consumption of FCM resulted in a significantly lower serum triglyceride concentration and slightly lowered serum total cholesterol concentration when compared to the OLETF control and CM-fed rats. The livers of the OLETF CM-fed rats showed less fatty changes compared to the OLETF control rats and fat deposition in the hepatocytes was nearly absent. The data suggested that orally ingested fermented Chaga mushroom has a possible beneficial effect on the complications known to occur in obesity-related non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) OLETF rat (Cha et al., 2006). An improvement of insulin resistance and insulin secretion by water extracts of Cordyceps militaris, Phellinus linteus, and Paecilomyces tenuipes in 90% pancreatectomized rats has also been reported (Choi et al., 2004b), while the presence of anti-hyperglycaemic, insulin-releasing and insulin-like activity in Agaricus campestris in streptozotocin (STZ)induced diabetic mice has also been demonstrated (Gray and Flatt, 1998).

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A hypoglycaemic effect of extracellular fungal polysaccharides (EPS) in STZ-induced diabetic rats has been reported. The differential expression patterns of rat kidney proteins from normal, STZ-induced diabetic, and EPS-treated diabetic rats, were analysed. A histopathological examination showed that EPS administration restored the impaired kidney in STZ-induced rats to almost normal architecture (Hye-Jin et al. 2007). Following oral administration of exopolysaccharide produced from submerged mycelial culture of Lentinus strigosus (Schwein.) Fr. (Family Polyporaceae) in STZ-induced diabetic rats, their serum glucose levels were reduced by up to 21.1% at the dose of 150 mg/kg of body weight. Plasma insulin levels of STZ-induced diabetic rats decreased compared to control rats. The hypoglycaemic potential of the EPS was further supported by histological observations of pancreatic islets of Langerhans (Yamac et al., 2008). Submerged-culture mycelia and broth of Grifola frondosa have been shown to contain bioactive components for improving glycaemic responses, such as decreases in serum triglyceride, fructosamine, and blood glucose concentrations in male Wistar rats injected with nicotinamide plus STZ (diabetic rats) (Lo et al., 2008). A similar study with Ganoderma lucidum has reported both hypoglycaemic and anti-hyperglycaemic effects in Wistar rats (Mohammed et al., 2007). Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides have also been shown to significantly and dose-dependently increase nonenzymic and enzymic antioxidants, serum insulin level and reduce lipid peroxidation and blood glucose levels in STZ-diabetic rats (Jia et al., 2009).

6.3 In vitro studies Hispidin from Phellinus linteus exhibited quenching effects against DPPH radicals, superoxide radicals, and hydrogen peroxide in a dose-dependent manner. Intracellular reactive oxygen species scavenging activity of hispidin was approximately 55% at a concentration of 30 M. In addition, hispidin was shown to inhibit hydrogen peroxideinduced apoptosis and increased insulin secretion in hydrogen peroxide-treated pancreatic beta-cells indicating that hispidin may have anti-diabetogenic properties via protection of pancreatic beta-cells from reactive oxygen species in diabetes (Jang et al., 2010a).

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6.4 Summary of Anti-Diabetogenic Properties A large number of animal studies, in both normal and diabetic animal models, have confirmed the hypoglycaemic effects of mushrooms and mushroom components. The hypoglycaemic effects appear to be mediated via mushroom polysaccharides (possibly both alpha- and beta-glucans) via a direct interaction with insulin receptors on target tissues, although this mechanism remains to be confirmed. The efficacy of medicinal mushrooms (as a whole rather than for individual varieties) for glucose control in diabetes, including the inhibition of glucose absorption, protection of beta-cell damage, increase of insulin release, enhancement of antioxidant defence, attenuation of inflammation, modulation of carbohydrate metabolism pathway, and regulation of insulin-dependent and insulin independent signalling pathways have recently been reviewed (Lo and Wasser, 2011).

7. Anti-microbial Properties 7.1 Animal model studies Anti-bacterial effects of Agaricus blazei Murill (AbM) have been demonstrated with the AbM extract being protective against systemic Streptococcus pneumoniae 6B infection in mice. The extract was most effective when given 24h before inoculation but it also had protective effects when given together with challenge compared with control. The lack of an antibiotic effect on pneumococci in vitro and increased levels of cytokines MIP-2 and TNF in the serum of mice receiving AbM extract, indicated that the protective effect of AbM was due to the involvement of the native immune system. The anti-infection properties of AbM have been shown in vivo and the results suggest that AbM extract may be useful as an additional prophylactic and possibly therapeutic treatment against bacterial infections in humans (Bernardshaw et al., 2005a, Bernardshaw et al., 2005b). A subsequent study by the same group has shown that an extract of Agaricus blazei Murill can protect against lethal septicemia in a mouse model of faecal peritonitis. Bacterial

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septicemia can occur during gastroenterological surgery. The putatively anti-infective immunomodulatory action of Agaricus blazei Murill (AbM) has been studied in an experimental peritonitis model in BALB/c mice. The mice were orally given an extract of AbM or phosphate-buffered saline 1 day before the induction of peritonitis with various concentrations of faeces from the mice. The state of septicemia, as measured by the number of colony-forming units of bacteria in blood, and the survival rate of the animals were compared between the groups. Mice that were orally treated with Agaricus blazei Murill extract before bacterial challenge showed significantly lower levels of septicemia and improved survival rates (Bernardshaw et al., 2006).

7.2 In vitro studies Numerous in vitro studies have clearly demonstrated activities against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, yeasts and mycelial fungi, including dermatophytes and phytopathogens (Jagadish et al., 2009, Soboleva et al., 2006, Hearst et al., 2009a), including several foodborne pathogenic bacterial strains (Venturini et al., 2008). It has been suggested that such antimicrobial effects of mushroom extracts may be indirect, with a polysaccharide-rich fraction of Agaricus brasiliensis being shown to increase host resistance against some infectious agents through stimulation of the microbicidal activity of macrophages (Martins et al., 2008). Antibacterial activity of an array of Australian basidiomycetous macrofungi collected across Queensland, Australia have been evaluated using water, ethanol, and hexane extracts of freeze dried fruiting bodies. Encouraging results were found for a number of macrofungi in the genera Agaricus (Agaricaceae), Amanita (Amanitaceae), Boletus (Boletaceae), Cantharellus (Cantharellaceae), Fomitopsis (Fomitopsidaceae), Hohenbuehelia (Pleurotaceae), Lentinus (Polyporaceae), Ramaria (Gomphaceae), and Strobilomyces (Boletaceae) showing good growth inhibition of Gram positive, Staphylococcus aureus, Gram negative and Escherichia coli bacteria (Bala et al., 2011). Similar screening for antimicrobial activity has been undertaken in 117 collections of Australian macrofungi belonging to the mushroom genus Cortinarius with 13 species, namely Cortinarius ardesiacus, C. archeri, C. austrosaginus, C. austrovenetus, C. austroviolaceus, C. coelopus, C. [ Dermocybe canaria] 2, C. clelandii, C. [ D. kula], C. memoria-annae, C. persplendidus, C. sinapicolor, C. vinosipes and forty seven collections of un-described Cortinarius species exhibiting IC 50 values of ≤0.09 mg/mL against S. aureus. In contrast, most or all collections of only four species, namely C. abnormis, C.

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austroalbidus, C. [ D. kula], C. persplendidus, and eleven un-described Cortinarius collections exhibited similar effects against P. aeruginosa (IC 50≤0.09 mg/mL) (Beattie et al., 2010). Activity against the Gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, has been demonstrated in Volvariella volvacea strain R83, while Volvariella volvacea strain ATCC62890 showed significantly less antimicrobial activity, but was reported to be a source of antioxidants (da Silva et al., 2010b). Studies with an aqueous extract of Agaricus brasiliensis S. Wasser et al. (=Agaricus blazei Murrill sensu Heinem.) failed to show any anti-microbial effects against Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (Fantuzzi et al., 2011) nor on immunomodulatory properties (Fantuzzi et al., 2010). The effects of beta-glucans from Coriolus versicolor on phagocytic activity, nitric oxide (NO), TNF-alpha production, and signaling of dectin-1, a well-known beta-glucan receptor, in macrophages has been evaluated. Dectin-1 signaling, triggered by beta-glucans, elicited TNF-alpha and NO-iNOS/eNOS production, and these molecules seem to act as secondary molecules that cause eventual phagocytosis by macrophages. The findings suggest that C. versicolor could be used as a nutritional supplement that may be useful in the treatment of infectious disease (Jang et al., 2011b). The mycelial culture of Ganoderma lucidum has been shown to be highly active against human pathogenic bacteria Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, with E.coli having the highest susceptibility to the mushroom mycelia (Ofodile et al., 2011). A recent report has suggested that the presence of tannins and flavonoids may be responsible for the positive antibacterial activity and antifungal activity of mushrooms against human pathogens (Parameswari and Chinnaswamy, 2011). Agaricus bisporus and Pleurotus sajor caju have been assayed in vitro for their antimicrobial activities using aqueous and organic solvent extracts. It has been shown that Escherichia coli 390, Escherichia coli 739, Enterobacter aerogenes, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae were most sensitive to aqueous, ethanol, methanol and xylene extracts of these mushrooms (Tambekar et al., 2006). Ethanol extracts of Agaricus bisporus have also been shown to have antibacterial activity against

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both gram positive and gram negative bacteria, as well as anticandidal activity against Candida albicans (Jagadish et al., 2009). Extracts from fermentation broth and mycelium of 15 strains of Lentinus edodes have been shown to be active against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, yeasts and mycelial fungi, including dermatophytes and phytopathogens. The strains differed by the set of the organisms susceptible to the action of the extracts. Strains of L. edodes combining marked anti-bacterial properties and high yields of water soluble polysaccharides were screened. The active compounds were detected by preparative thin layer chromatography. Two were identified with UV and mass spectrometry as lentinamycin B and erytadenine (lentinacin). Lentinamycin B was found to be the main component responsible for the anti-bacterial activity of the L. edodes strains (Soboleva et al., 2006). The anti-microbial activity of the culture fluid of Lentinus edodes mycelium grown in submerged liquid culture has been demonstrated against Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus megaterium. The substance responsible for the activity was heat-stable and was suggested to be lenthionine, an anti-bacterial and antifungal sulphur-containing compound (Hatvani, 2001). Three anti-bacterial compounds extracted by chloroform, ethylacetate or water from dried Shiitake mushrooms (Lentinus edodes) have been reported to possess efficient antibacterial activities against Streptococcus spp., Actinomyces spp., Lactobacillus spp., Prevotella spp., and Porphyromonas spp. of oral origin. In contrast, other general bacteria, such as Enterococcus spp., Staphylococcus spp., Escherichia spp., Bacillus spp., and Candida spp. were relatively resistant to these compounds. The anti-bacterial activity of chloroform extracts and ethylacetate extracts were relatively heat-stable, while the water extract was heat-labile (Hirasawa et al., 1999). The action of the juice of Shiitake mushrooms (L. edodes) at a concentration of 5% from the volume of the nutrient medium was found to produce a pronounced anti-microbial effect with respect to Escherichia coli O-114, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Candida albicans and to stimulate the growth of E. coli M-17. Bifidobacteria and lactobacteria exhibited resistance to the action of L. edodes juice (Kuznetsov et al., 2005). Two cuparene-type sesquiterpenes, enokipodins C (1) and D (2), have been isolated from culture medium of Flammulina velutipes (Enoki), along with enokipodins A (3) and B (4).

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All the metabolites showed anti-microbial activity against the fungus Cladosporium herbarum, and gram-positive bacteria, Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus (Ishikawa et al., 2001). Podaxis pistillaris (Podaxales, Podaxaceae, Basidiomycetes) was found to exhibit antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Micrococcus flavus, Bacillus subtilis, Proteus mirabilis, Serratia marcescens and Escherichia coli. In a culture medium of P. pistillaris, three epidithiodiketopiperazines were identified by activity-guided isolation. Based on spectral data their identity was established as epicorazine A(1), epicorazine B(2) and epicorazine C (3, antibiotic F 3822), which have not previously been reported as constituents of P. pistillaris (Al-Fatimi et al., 2006). Aqueous extracts of Shiitake and Oyster mushrooms have been tested qualitatively against a panel of 29 bacterial and 10 fungal pathogens. Shiitake mushroom extract had extensive anti-microbial activity against 85% of the organisms tested, including 50% of the yeast and mould species in the trial. This compared favourably with the results from both the positive control (Ciprofloxacin) and Oyster mushroom, in terms of the number of species inhibited by the activity of the metabolite(s) inherent to the Shiitake mushroom (Hearst et al., 2009b). A polysaccharide-rich fraction of Agaricus brasiliensis has been evaluated for candidacidal activity, H2O2 and nitric oxide (NO) production, and expression of mannose receptors by murine peritoneal macrophages. The treatment increased fungicidal activity and it was associated with higher levels of H2O2, whereas NO production was not affected. The treatment enhanced mannose receptor expression by peritoneal macrophages. The results suggested that this extract can increase host resistance against some infectious agents through stimulating the microbicidal activity of macrophages (Martins et al., 2008). The anti-microbial activity of aqueous, methanol, hexane, and ethyl acetate extracts from edible wild and cultivated mushrooms against nine foodborne pathogenic bacterial strains (Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella Enteritidis, Shigella sonnei, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Yersinia enterocolitica, Bacillus cereus, Clostridium perfringens, Listeria monocytogenes, and Staphylococcus aureus) have been screened. Twenty-nine of the 48 species tested had anti-microbial activity. Methanol, ethyl acetate, and aqueous extracts accounted for 92.8% of the positive assays, whereas the hexane extracts accounted for only 7.2%. Gram-positive bacteria were more sensitive than Gram-negative bacteria to fungal extracts, and C. perfringens was the most sensitive microorganism.

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Aqueous extracts from Clitocybe geotropa and Lentinula edodes had the highest antimicrobial activity against the bacterial strains tested (Venturini et al., 2008).

7.3 Summary of Anti-Microbial Properties Anti-microbial effects of a large number of mushroom varieties and mushroom components on both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria have been confirmed via in vitro studies. A small number of studies in animals have been undertaken and the data suggest that the anti-microbial effects in vivo may be mediated by effects of the immune system. A very small number of human studies have been completed, but the antimicrobial effects of mushroom consumption remains to be confirmed in humans.

8. Antioxidant Properties

A comparison has been undertaken of the antioxidant properties and phenolic profile of the most commonly consumed fresh cultivated mushrooms and their mycelia produced in vitro: Agaricus bisporus (white and brown), Pleurotus ostreatus (oyster), Pleurotus eryngii (king oyster) and Lentinula edodes (shiitake). Of the mushrooms evaluated, the mushroom species with the highest antioxidant potential was Agaricus bispous (brown), with in vitro, L. edodes possessed the highest reducing power. Generally, in vivo samples revealed higher antioxidant properties than their mycelia obtained by in vitro techniques. There was no correlation between the studied commercial mushrooms and the corresponding mycelia obtained in vitro (Reis et al., 2012). Strong antioxidant properties have recently been described for a water-extractable polysaccharide fraction from Lentinus edodes (Shiitake) (Chen et al., 2012a), while aqueous extracts of Ganoderma lucidum (30.1%), Schizophyllum commune (27.6%), and Hericium erinaceus (17.7%) also showed a relatively high Antioxidant Index (% relative to quercetin) (Abdullah et al., 2012). Antioxidant activity, determined by beta-carotene-linoleic acid, reducing power, DPPH, ferrous-ion chelating abilities, and xanthine oxidase inhibitory activity have been

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demonstrated in aqueous-, acetone- and methanol-extracts from the fruiting bodies of Pleurotus eryngii (Alam et al., 2011a). Pleurotus eryngii and Auricularia auricula-judae both exhibit a protective effect against H2O2 induced oxidative cell damage with a P. eryngii methanolic extract also possessing the higher ferrous iron chelating ability (IC50 = 0.42 mg/ml) (Oke and Aslim, 2011). An extract of Pleurotus ostreatus (200 mg/kg body weight), has been shown to increase gene expression of the antioxidant enzyme catalase and reduce the incidence of free radical-induced protein oxidation during aging in rats, thereby potentially protecting against the occurrence of age-associated disorders that involve free radicals (Jayakumar et al., 2010a). A further study by the same group also showed that administration of an extract of P.ostreatus to aged rats resulted in a significant increase in the levels of reduced glutathione (GSH) and elevated activities of glutathione S-transferase (GST), glutathione reductase (GR), and glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH) in liver, kidney, heart, and brain tissues of rats. The results suggest that this extract of P. ostreatus can prevent the oxidation of GSH and protect its related enzymes during aging (Jayakumar et al., 2010b). The in vitro and in vivo antioxidant effects of the oyster mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus have recently been reviewed (Jayakumar et al., 2011). Extracts prepared from the fruiting body of Flammulina velutipes with a high ergothioneine content exhibited a stronger delay of the autoxidation activity of oxymyoglobin, whereas extracts prepared from the spent culture medium of F. velutipes with higher phenolics content showed more efficient antioxidant capacity against lipid oxidation. The amount of ergothioneine was distributed highest in the inedible (base and mycelium) parts of the mushroom. These results suggest that the inedible parts and spent culture medium of F. velutipes could potentially be considered as a readily available source of natural antioxidants (Bao et al., 2010). Ergothionine has been shown to have anti-oxidative/antiinflammatory properties in several edible mushrooms (Ito et al., 2011). Antioxidant properties and antioxidant compounds of various extracts from dried Grifola frondosa (Maitake) have been determined. Antioxidant activity was measured using reducing power, DPPH and superoxide radical scavenging and ferrous ion chelation activity assays. Phenols, flavonoids, ascorbic acid and alpha-tocopherol were found to be the major antioxidant components in the various mushroom extracts examined. The EC50 values ( 3)-D-glucan, an extract from Lentinus edodes (0.1 mg/kg/day, 2 times/week), alone and in combination with S-1, an oral antineoplastic agent that can induce apoptosis in various types of cancer cells (6.9 mg/kg/day, 7 times/week)has been studied using a nude mouse xenograft model. Combined therapy of Lentinan and S-1 markedly exerted antitumor effects on human OSCC xenografts and significantly induced apoptotic cells in tumors treated with Lentinan plus S-1, with no loss of body weight being observed in mice treated with the combined therapy (Harada et al., 2010). The phenolic compounds, syringic acid and vanillic acid from Lentinula edodes mycelia that have radical scavenging activity, have also been shown to have a hepatoprotective effect on CCl4--induced liver injury in mice. The intravenous administration of syringic acid and vanillic acid significantly decreased the levels of the transaminases, suppressed collagen accumulation and significantly decreased hepatic hydroxyproline content, which is the quantitative marker of fibrosis. Both of these compounds inhibited the activation of cultured hepatic stellate cells, which play a central role in liver fibrogenesis, and maintained hepatocyte viability. Syringic and vanillic acid may therefore play a role in the suppression of hepatic fibrosis in chronic liver injury (Itoh et al., 2010).

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Letinus edodes has been shown to have immunomodulating effects which are mediated via the enhancement of type-1 helper T cell-mediated cellular immunity (Hyun Ji et al., 2011). Intake of Lentinula edodes mycelia extract significantly inhibited tumor growth in C57BL/6 mice inoculated with B16 melanoma, and this in vivo anti-tumor effect was not observed in nude mice, suggesting a T cell-dependent mechanism. Oral ingestion of Lentinula edodes extract restored immune responses of class I-restricted and melanomareactive CD8(+) T cells in these melanoma-bearing mice, possibly via a mitigation of T cell-mediated immunosuppression (Tanaka et al., 2011). Lentinan, a cell wall beta-glucan from the fruiting bodies of Lentinus edodes has been reported to exert its immunomodulating activity (in RAW 264.7 macrophages) by activation of MAPK signaling pathways without secretion of TNF-alpha and NO (Xu et al., 2011a). The effects of a beta-glucan supplement (Lentinan) from Lentula edodes (Shiitake) on BN rats have been studied and in a preclinical model of acute myeloid leukemia. BN rats supplemented daily with lentinan exhibited weight gains, increased white blood cells, monocytes and circulating cytotoxic T-cells, and had a reduction in anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-4, IL-10, and IL-6. A combination of lentinan with standards of care in acute myeloid leukemia, idarubicin, and cytarabine increased average survival compared with monotherapy and reduced cachexia suggesting that nutritional supplementation of cancer patients with lentinan would warrant investigation (McCormack et al., 2010). A laccase with HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitory activity has recently been isolated from fresh fruiting bodies of Lentinus edodes (Shiitake)(Sun et al., 2011) The effects of Active Hexose Correlated Compound (AHCC) from Lentinula edodes and its use as a complementary therapy in patients with cancer has recently been reviewed (Shah et al., 2011), as have the pharmacological activity and therapeutic applications of Lentinus edodes (Bisen et al., 2010).

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Lyophyllum connatum A new ergothioneine derivative, beta-hydroxyergothioneine has been isolated from the mushroom Lyophyllum connatum. Ergothioneine, N-hydroxy-N',N'-dimethylurea, and connatin (N-hydroxy-N',N'-dimethylcitrulline) were also isolated. All the compounds displayed the ability to scavenge free radicals, based on a 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging assay. Structural determination, including the absolute stereochemistry of beta-hydroxyergothioneine, was achieved by spectroscopic analysis and X-ray crystallography. The radical scavenging activity of betahydroxyergothioneine was almost the same as that of ergothioneine. Betahydroxyergothioneine showed the greatest protective activity against carbon tetrachlorideinduced injury in primary culture hepatocytes (Kimura et al., 2005).

Phellinus igniarius Oral administration of an endo-polysaccharide of Phellinus igniarius inhibited the growth of Sarcoma 180 and Hepatoma 22 cells that were implanted in mice, and increased the life span. Serum IL-2 and IL-18 were significantly increased in the Sarcoma 180 implanted mice fed with the endopolysaccharide at 500 mg/kg and 250 mg/kg compared with those in control. The concentrations of serum IL-2 only were significantly increased in Hepatoma 22 implanted mice using the same doses (Chen et al., 2011b), suggesting that the anti-tumor effect was mediated via enhancement of cell mediated immunity. Hispolon, an active phenolic compound of Phellinus igniarius, induces apoptosis and cell cycle arrest of human hepatocellular carcinoma Hep3B cells by modulating ERK phosphorylation. Hispolon inhibited cellular growth of Hep3B cells in a time-dependent and dose-dependent manner, through the induction of cell cycle arrest at S phase measured using flow cytometric analysis and apoptotic cell death. Hispolon-induced S-

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phase arrest was associated with a marked decrease in the protein expression of cyclins A and E and cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) 2, with concomitant induction of p21waf1/Cip1 and p27Kip1. Exposure of Hep3B cells to hispolon resulted in apoptosis as shown by caspase activation, PARP cleavage, and DNA fragmentation. Hispolon treatment also activated JNK, p38 MAPK, and ERK expression. Inhibitors of ERK (PB98095), but not those of JNK (SP600125) and p38 MAPK (SB203580), suppressed hispolon-induced S-phase arrest and apoptosis in Hep3B cells. These findings establish a mechanistic link between the MAPK pathway and hispolon-induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in Hep3B cells (Guan-Jhong et al., 2011, Huang et al., 2011). Hispolon has also been shown to suppress SK-Hep1 human hepatoma cell metastasis by inhibiting matrix metalloproteinase-2/9 and urokinase-plasminogen activator through the PI3K/Akt and ERK signaling pathways (Huang et al., 2010b).

Phellinus linteus

Extracts of mycelia derived from Phellinus linteus have recently been tested as adjuvants for intranasal influenza vaccine. The adjuvant effects of extracts of mycelia were examined by intranasal coadministration of the extracts and inactivated A/PR8 (H1N1) influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA) vaccine in BALB/c mice. The mycelial extract-adjuvanted vaccines were shown to confer cross-protection against variant H5N1 influenza viruses (Ichinohe et al., 2010). Ethanol extracts of Phellinus linteus have been shown to have antioxidant activities comparable to Vitamin C in scavenging the stable free radical 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhyrazyl (DPPH). The extracts also inhibited lipid peroxidation (LPO) in a concentration-dependent manner. The study also reported anti-angiogenic activities of Phellinus linteus (Song et al., 2003). Phellinus linteus has been reported to sensitise apoptosis induced by doxorubicin (an anticancer drug) in prostate cancer LNCaP cells suggesting that Phellinus linteus may have therapeutic potential to augment the magnitude of apoptosis induced by anti-prostate

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cancer drugs (Collins et al., 2006). Phellinus linteus has also been shown to mediate cellcycle arrest at a low concentration and apoptosis in response to a high dose in mouse and human lung cancer cells (Guo et al., 2007). A Phellinus linteus extract has also recently been reported to sensitize advanced prostate cancer cells to apoptosis in athymic nude mice (Tsuji et al., 2010). Phellinus linteus has been reported to contain constituents that exhibit potent anti-tumour effects through activation of immune cells. A study in mice has reported that boiling water soluble fractions from mycelium of P.linteus contain anti-allergic and immuno-potentiating properties (Inagaki et al., 2005). An acidic polysaccharide from Phellinus linteus has been shown to markedly inhibit melanoma cell metastasis in mice, and directly inhibit cancer cell adhesion to, and invasion through, the extracellular matrix, but that it had no direct effect on cancer cell growth. In addition, the authors reported that PL increased macrophage NO production. These results suggest that Phellinus linteus has two anti-metastatic functions - it acts as an immuno-potentiator and as a direct inhibitor of cancer cell adhesion (Han et al., 2006). An extract from Phellinus linteus has been shown to have anti-inflammatory activity (Kim et al., 2004a) via mediation of heme oxygenase-1 in an in vitro inflammation (macrophage) model (Kim et al., 2006a). The effect of a mushroom extract of Phellinus linteus on non-cancerous prostate cells using an experimentally developed rat benign prostatic hyperplasia model has been studied. The results showed that prostate weight increased significantly by 37% owing to treatment with the mushroom extract, and in particular, the stromal component of the prostate increased significantly by 80%. A suppression of transforming growth factorbeta1 expression by 56% was observed with the mushroom extract treatment. It was found that the mushroom extract enlarged the prostate and therefore administration of Phellinus linteus extract should be considered carefully by those with an enlarged prostate (Shibata et al., 2005). Phellinus linteus has also been shown to suppress growth, angiogenesis and invasive behaviour of breast cancer cells (Sliva et al., 2008), while hispolon extracted from Phellinus linteus has been shown to have antiproliferative effects in breast and bladder cancer cells (Lu et al., 2009).

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A polysaccharide isolated from Phellinus linteus has also recently been reported to inhibit the development of autoimmune diabetes in non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice (Kim et al., 2010c). In this study, 80% of the NOD mice had developed diabetes by 24 weeks of age, but none of thepolysaccharide- Phellinus linteus -treated NOD mice developed diabetes. Histological examination of the pancreatic islets revealed that most of the islets isolated from treated mice were less infiltrated with lymphocytes compared with those of control mice. The polysaccharide inhibited the expression of inflammatory cytokines, including IFN-gamma, IL-2, and TNF-alpha by Th1 cells and macrophages, but up-regulated IL-4 expression by Th2 cells in NOD mice. The polysaccharide did not prevent streptozotocininduced diabetic development in ICR mice. These data suggest that this polysaccharide isolated from Phellinus linteus inhibits the development of autoimmune diabetes by regulating cytokine expression. Hispidin from Phellinus linteus exhibited quenching effects against DPPH radicals, superoxide radicals, and hydrogen peroxide in a dose-dependent manner. Intracellular reactive oxygen species scavenging activity of hispidin was approximately 55% at a concentration of 30 M. In addition, hispidin was shown to inhibit hydrogen peroxideinduced apoptosis and increased insulin secretion in hydrogen peroxide-treated pancreatic beta-cells indicating that hispidin may have anti-diabetogenic properties via protection of pancreatic beta-cells from reactive oxygen species in diabetes (Jang et al., 2010a). A methanol extract of Phellinus linteus has been reported to inhibit the trafficking process of Newcastle disease virus hemagglutinin-neuramidase, a viral glycoprotein, in virusinfected baby hamster kidney cells. The results suggested that P. linteus extract inhibits viral glycoprotein expression on cell surfaces through inhibition of trafficking processes rather than glycoprotein synthesis (Doseung et al., 2011). Phellinus linteus has been reported to inhibit tumor growth, invasion, and angiogenesis via the inhibition of Wnt/beta-catenin signaling in SW480 human colon cancer cells (Song et al., 2011). Extracts from Phellinus linteus have also been shown to induce proapoptotic effects in the human leukemia cell line K562 (Shnyreva et al., 2010). In a rat model of permanent focal cerebral ischemia (using Sprague-Dawley rats), a filtrate of Phellinus linteus broth significant reduced cortical infarct volume 30 and 60 minutes before onset of cerebral ischemia compared with the control group, while post-treatment (30minutes after ischemic onset) also significantly reduced cortical infarct volume. A

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significant benefit of this neuroprotective effect was a wide therapeutic time window since significant infarct volume reduction was obtained by administration, even after the ischemic event (Suzuki et al., 2011). It has recently been demonstrated that polysaccharides from Phellinus linteus (PL) inhibit proliferation and colony formation of HepG2 and that the growth inhibition of HepG2 cells was mediated by S-phase cell cycle arrest. Phellinus linteus also markedly inhibited cancer cell adhesion and invasion of the extracellular matrix and PL-induced apoptosis was associated with a reduction in B-cell lymphoma 2 levels and an increase in the release of cytochrome c. The results suggest that PL exerts a direct antitumor effect by initiating apoptosis and cell cycle blockade in HepG2 cells (Wang et al., 2012a). The effects of A Phellinus linteus as a complementary therapy in patients with cancer has been reviewed (Sliva, 2010).

Phellinus rimosus A polysaccharide protein complex (PPC-Pr) isolated from the mushroom Phellinus rimosus has been shown to have a protective effect (at doses of 5 and 10 mg/kg body weight intraperitoneally for 5 days consecutively) against oxidative stress induced by gamma radiation (4 Gy) in Swiss albino mice. PPC-Pr treatment enhanced the declined levels of antioxidants and demonstrated a DNA protective effect (as determined by a Comet assay) as well as significantly increasing the survival rate of animals (Joseph et al., 2012). An earlier study from the same group at the same doses of PPC-Pr had reported its effect on alleviating gamma radiation-induced toxicity in the Swiss albino mouse model (Joseph et al., 2011).

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Phellinus robustus It has been reported that melanins from the medicinal mushroom Phellinus robustus have high antioxidant and geno-protective properties (Babitskaya et al., 2007).

Pholiota nameko (Nameko)

A polysaccharide (20, 40, and 60 mg/kg orally) isolated from Pholiota nameko has recently been shown to have a hypolipidemic effect Wistar rats(Li et al., 2010a). Hypersensitivity pneumonitis to spores of Pholiota nameko has been reported in a mushroom farmer, although separation from the antigen along with corticosteroid therapy, resulted in the symptoms and inflammatory effects quickly subsiding (Inage et al., 1996).

Pleurotus citrinopileatus A nonlectin glycoprotein (PCP-3A) isolated from the fruiting body of the edible golden oyster mushroom Pleurotus citrinopileatus has been shown to stimulate human mononuclear cells to secrete cytokines TNF-alpha, IL-2, and IFN-gamma, which subsequently inhibited the growth of U937 human myeloid leukemic cells (Chen et al., 2010a). Anti-inflammatory effects of a bioactive nonlectin glycoprotein (PCP-3A) isolated from the fresh fruiting body of the golden oyster mushroom, Pleurotus citrinopileatus have been

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studied in Raw 264.7 cells. The results showed that PCP-3A failed to affect RAW 264.7 viability at a concentration up to 6.25 g/mL, but inhibited lipopolysaccharide (1 g/mL)induced expression, and the production of NO and PGE2 in lipopolysaccharide-activated macrophages via the down-regulation of certain pro-inflammatory mediators, including iNOS and NF-kappaB (Chen et al., 2011a).

Pleurotus cornucopiae Two different ACE inhibitors (oligopeptides) from Pleurotus cornucopiae have been identified with IC50 values of 0.46 and 1.14 mg/ml. The amino acid sequences of the two purified oligopeptides were RLPSEFDLSAFLRA and RLSGQTIEVTSEYLFRH. The molecular mass of the purified ACE inhibitors was estimated to be 1622.85 and 2037.26 Da, respectively. Water extracts of the P. cornucopiae fruiting body also showed a clear antihypertensive effect on spontaneously hypertensive rats at a dosage of 600 mg/kg (Jang et al., 2011a).

Pleurotus eryngii The effects of Pleurotus eryngii extracts (PEX) on bone metabolism have been studied. PEX treatment showed an increase in the alkaline phosphatase activity of osteoblasts and in the osteocalcin mRNA expression from primary osteoblasts. PEX also increased the expression of the Runx2 gene, and the secretion of osteoprotegerin from the osteoblasts showed marked increases after treatment with PEX. In vivo studies, using rats with ovariectomy-induced osteoporosis revealed that PEX alleviated the decrease in the trabecular bone mineral density (Kim et al., 2006b). The ergothioneine content of mushrooms has been reported to be in the range of 0.42.0mg/g (dry weight). The white Agaricus bisporus contained the least ergothioneine and portabellas (brown) contained the highest within the varieties of A. bisporus studied. The specialty mushrooms tested (Lentinus edodes, Pleurotus ostreatus, P. eryngii, Grifola frondosa) all contained a statistically significant greater amount of ergothioneine

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compared to A. bisporus, however, no significant difference was found between the specialty mushrooms (Dubost et al., 2006). The antioxidative potency of commercially available mushrooms in Taiwan has been studied. The order of inhibitory activity of mushroom extracts on oxidation in emulsion system was Agaricus bisporus > Hypsizigus marmoreus > Volvariella volvacea > Flammulina velutipes > Pleurotus eryngii > Pleurotus ostreatus > Hericium erinaceus > Lentinula edodes. In a thermal oxidative stability test, using lard, the order of antioxidative activity of the mushroom extracts showed similar tendencies, except for the extract of Lentinula edodes (Fui et al., 2002). Mycelial extracts (ethyl acetate and 70% ethanol) of 20 higher Basidiomycetes edible or medicinal mushrooms and culture media extracts (ethyl acetate and Butan-1-ol) have been evaluated for in vitro anti-inflammatory activity using the cyclooxygenase-1 and -2 enzymes (COX-1 and -2). In general, 70% ethanolic extracts showed lower inhibitory activity against both enzymes compared to ethyl acetate extracts. Of the mushrooms tested, the ethyl acetate extracts of Ganoderma applanata, Naematoloma sublateritium, Pleurotus eryngii, and P. salmoneostramineus showed the highest COX-2 inhibitory effects compared to COX-1 inhibition. Of the culture media tested in this study, only the ethyl acetate extracts of the culture medium of Agrocybe cylindracea exhibited high inhibition of the COX-2 enzyme (Elgorashi et al., 2008). Ceramide from Agrocybe aegerita has also been reported to inhibit the cyclooxygenase enzymes, COX-1 and -2 (Diyabalanage et al., 2008). Hypersensitivity pneumonitis induced by Pleurotus eryngii spores has been reported in a worker in an Eringi (Pleurotus eryngii) mushroom factory who had worked there for 6 years. Chest radiography showed diffuse fine nodular shadows. Chest computed tomography demonstrated centrilobular nodules and increased attenuation in both lungs. The patient suffered from hypoxemia while breathing room air. The lymphocyte count in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid was increased, and transbronchial lung biopsy specimens showed lymphocyte alveolitis with epithelioid cell granulomas in the alveolar spaces. After admission, the patient's symptoms improved rapidly without medication. However, on his return to work, fever and hypoxemia appeared again. The lymphocyte stimulating test was positive against extracts of Eringi spores. Precipitins against the extracts of Eringi spores were detected by the double immunodiffusion test. The diagnosis was hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP) caused by Eringi spores. In Japan, more than 30 cases of HP induced by mushroom spores have been reported and therefore this is an

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occupational health and safety issue, related to air quality in mushroom factories that needs to be addressed. The symptoms appear to improve without medication (Miyazaki et al., 2003). Apoptotic cell death of human leukaemia U937 cells by ubiquinone-9 purified from Pleurotus eryngii has been reported (Bae et al., 2009). Ubiquinone-9-induced cell death was characterised with the cleavage of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase and pro-caspase 3. A water-soluble polysaccharide extract of Pleurotus eryngii has been shown to significantly increase the activitiy of antioxidant enzymes and effectively remove free radicals in a liver-injury mouse model. Furthermore, in a high-fat-load mouse model, the extract decreased total cholesterol, total triglyceride, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and increased high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Histopathological observations indicated that the extract could effectively prevent excessive lipid formation in liver tissue (Chen et al., 2012b). Antioxidant activity, determined by beta-carotene-linoleic acid, reducing power, DPPH, ferrous-ion chelating abilities, and xanthine oxidase inhibitory activity have been demonstrated in aqueous-, acetone- and methanol-extracts from the fruiting bodies of Pleurotus eryngii (Alam et al., 2011a). Pleurotus eryngii and Auricularia auricula-judae both exhibit a protective effect against H2O2 induced oxidative cell damage with a P. eryngii methanolic extract also possessing the higher ferrous iron chelating ability (IC50 = 0.42 mg/ml) (Oke and Aslim, 2011). The anti-allergenic potential of Pleurotus eryngii extract (PEE) in antigen-stimulated RBL2H3 mast cells has been evaluated with PEE inhibiting allergy markers, including release of hexosaminidase and histamine, in antigen-sensitized RBL-2H3 cells. PEE also suppressed the expression and production of interleukin-4 and reduced antigen-induced NFAT and NF-kappaB transcriptional activity in antigen-sensitized mast cells. PEE also decreased the levels of proinflammatory cytokines and COX-2 and iNOS expression in antigen-sensitized mast cells, and suppressed antigen-induced signal protein phosphorylation of Lyn, PLCgamma2, PKC, Akt, and MAP kinases. The data indicate that this extract from P. eryngii may provide some insights into the mechanisms for the possible prevention and treatment of allergic and inflammatory responses (Eun Hee et al., 2011).

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Intake of Pleurotus eryngii (5% supplementation with a normal diet) has been shown to decrease plasma glycated haemoglobin and serum glucose levels in a diabetic (db/db) mouse model. Intake of Pleurotus eryngii also significantly reduced the homeostasis model measurement of insulin resistance, total cholesterol and triglyceride, and increased high density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol levels demonstrating hypoglycaemic and hypolipidemic effects and an improvement in insulin sensitivity in this mouse model (Jung-In et al., 2010, Kim et al., 2010d). A hypolipidemic effect of Pleurotus eryngii extract has also been shown in fat-loaded mice and suggested to be due to low absorption of fat caused by the inhibition of pancreatic lipase (Mizutani et al., 2010).

Pleurotus ferulae Ethanol and hot water extracts of Pleurotus ferulae have been shown to have anti-tumourigenic properties in human cervical cancer and human lung cancer cell lines. When A549, SiHa and HeLa cells were incubated with different concentrations of ethanol and hot water extracts, the ethanol extracts showed strong cytotoxicity against A549 cells at concentrations over 10 µg/mL and against SiHa and HeLa cells at concentrations over 40 µg/mL. The ethanol extracts were the most prominent anti-tumour agents (of those studied) toward A549 human lung cancer cells (Choi et al., 2004a).

Pleurotus florida Anti-tumour potential of the medicinal mushroom Pleurotus florida against T24 bladder cancer cell lines has been demonstrated (Selvi et al., 2011). A study using isolated goat eye lens has reported that an extract of Pleurotus florida was able to prevent glucose-induced cataract in this in vitro model system (Aditya et al., 2011).

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Pleurotus nebrodensis Feeding hypercholesterolemic Sprague-Dawley albino rats a diet containing 5% fruiting bodies of Pleurotus nebrodensis reduced plasma total cholesterol, triglyceride, low-density lipoprotein, total lipid, phospholipids and LDL/HDL ratio by 31.01, 47.71, 62.50, 31.91, 24.65 and 53.06%, respectively, with significant reductions in body weight. No adverse effects were reported on plasma albumin, total bilirubin, direct bilirubin, creatinin, blood urea nitrogen, uric acid, glucose, total protein, calcium, sodium, potassium, chloride, inorganic phosphate, magnesium, or enzyme profiles. The feeding of these mushrooms increased total lipid and cholesterol excretion in feces. The data suggest that P. nebrodensis was acting on the atherogenic lipid profile in these hypercholesterolemic rats (Alam et al., 2011b). Essentially identical results were also reported for Pleurotus ferulae in the same animal model (Alam et al., 2011c).

Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster Mushrooms) A human intervention study has evaluated the cholesterol lowering properties of an Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) diet. Twenty subjects (9 male, 11 female; 20-34 years) were randomized to take either one portion of soup containing 30 g dried oyster mushrooms or a tomato soup as a placebo daily for 21 days. The Oyster mushroom soup decreased triacylglycerol concentrations (0.44 mmol/L) and oxidized low density lipoprotein levels (7.2 U/mL) significantly, and showed a significant tendency in lowering total cholesterol values (0.47 mmol/L; p = 0.059). No effects on low density lipoprotein and high density lipoprotein levels were observed (Schneider et al., 2011). A single-arm, open-label, proof-of-concept study of 8 weeks duration has been completed which assessed the safety and efficacy of Pleurotus ostreatus (15 g/day orally) in HIVinfected individuals taking antiretroviral therapy that induced hyperlipidemia. Pleurotus ostreatus at the concentration taken in this study did not lower non-HDL cholesterol in HIV

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patients with antiretroviral treatment-induced hypercholesterolemia. Small changes in HDL and triglycerides were not of a clinical magnitude to warrant further study (Abrams et al., 2011). Prolonged and exhausting physical activity causes numerous changes in immunity and sometimes transient increases the risk of upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs). A double blind, placebo-controlled study has investigated the effect of pleuran, an insoluble beta-(1,3/1,6) glucan from mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus, on selected cellular immune responses and incidence of URTI symptoms in athletes. Fifty athletes were randomized to pleuran or placebo, taking pleuran or placebo supplements during 3 months. Incidence of URTI symptoms together with characterization of changes in phagocytosis and natural killer (NK) cell count was monitored.P leuran significantly reduced the incidence of URTI symptoms and increased the number of circulating NK cells. In addition, the phagocytosis process remained stable in pleuran group during the study in contrast to placebo group where significant reduction of phagocytosis was observed. These findings indicate that pleuran may serve as an effective nutritional supplement for athletes under heavy physical training. The mechanisms of pleuran function are yet to be determined (Bergendiova et al., 2011). In a similar double-blind pilot study, 20 elite athletes were randomized to betaglucan (n=9) or placebo ( n=11); these groups consumed 100 mg of beta-glucan (Imunoglukan) or placebo supplements, respectively, once per day for 2 months. At the end of the supplementation period, the athletes underwent a 20 min intensive exercise session. A 28% reduction in natural killer (NK) cell activity below baseline was observed in the placebo group during the recovery period (1 h after exercise), whereas no significant reduction in NK cell activity was found in the beta-glucan group, and no significant decrease in NK cell count was measured in the beta-glucan group during the recovery period. Immune cell counts did not differ significantly between the groups. These results indicate that insoluble beta-glucan supplementation from P. ostreatus may play a role in modulating exercise-induced changes in NK cell activity in intensively training athletes (Bobovcak et al., 2010). The effect of Oyster mushrooms on reduction of blood glucose, cholesterol and triglycerides in diabetic patients has been evaluated in a clinical investigation of 89 subjects. Mushroom consumption significantly reduced systolic and diastolic blood pressure, lowered plasma glucose, total cholesterol and triglycerides significantly, whereas there was no significant change in body weight. There were no deleterious effects on liver or kidney function (Khatun et al., 2007).

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A hypo-cholesterolemic effect has been shown with Oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus Ostreatus) in rats with Streptozotocin-induced diabetes. Oyster mushroom (4% dry oyster mushroom fruit body) lowered cholesterol content by more than 60% in the liver although it did not significantly affect either the serum triacylglycerol level or the content in liver (Bobek et al., 1991). Similar results have been observed in rats with a hereditary hypersensitivity to dietary cholesterol (Bobek et al., 1990). The hypo-cholesterolemic effects of Oyster mushrooms has been demonstrated to be dose-dependent (Bobek et al., 1997). A similar hypocholesterolemic effect of the oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) was also observed in hamsters (Bobek et al., 1993b) and in rabbits (Bobek and Galbavy, 1999). The addition of 4% dried whole oyster mushroom (Pleurotus Ostreatus) to the diet of Wistar rats has been reported to have led to a reduced level of serum and liver cholesterol at the end of the 10th week of the experiment. The level of serum triacylglycerols was not influenced by the mushroom, but was significantly reduced by 13% in liver. The decrease in serum cholesterol level was a consequence of the decreased cholesterol concentration in very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) and in low-density lipoproteins (LDL). The content of cholesterol in high-density lipoproteins (HDL) was not influenced by the mushroom. Dietary Pleurotus ostreatus increased the fractional turnover rate of LDL (by 28%) and HDL (by 31%) as determined by the analysis of decay curves of 125I-labelled lipoproteins. The increase in the rate of LDL and HDL catabolism is one of the mechanisms which mediates the hypocholesterolemic effect of mushrooms in the rat model (Bobek et al., 1993a). Feeding of 5% powder of the fruiting bodies of the Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) to hyper-cholesterolaemic rats reduced their plasma total cholesterol by ~28%, lowdensity lipoprotein-cholesterol by ~55%, triglyceride by ~34%, non-esterified fatty acid by ~30% and total liver cholesterol levels by > 34%, with a concurrent increase in plasma high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol concentration of > 21%. However, these effects were not observed in mushroom-fed normocholesterolaemic rats. Mushroom feeding significantly increased plasma fatty acid unsaturation in both normo- and hypercholesterolaemic rats, while plasma total antioxidant status was significantly decreased in mushroom-fed hypercholesterolaemic rats, concomitant with a decrease in plasma total cholesterol. The study concluded that 5% P. ostreatus supplementation provides health benefits, at least partially, by acting on the atherogenic lipid profile in the hyper-cholesterolaemic condition (Hossain et al., 2003).

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The effects of pleuran, a beta-glucan isolated from Pleurotus ostreatus, have been studied in a model of acute colitis in rats. Pleuran was given either as a 2% food component or as a 0.44% pleuran hydrogel drink over 4 weeks. Colitis was induced by intraluminal instillation of 4% acetic acid and after 48h the extent of colonic damage and several biochemical parameters were examined. Pleuran supplementation both in food and in drinking fluid significantly decreased the disposition to colitis. The enhanced activity of myeloperoxidase in the inflamed colonic segment was reduced by pleuran diets, reflecting decreased neutrophil infiltration. The mechanism of the described protective effect of pleuran is not yet clear, but the authors suggest that the pleuran-enhanced antioxidant defence of the colonic wall against the inflammatory attack maybe a factor (Bobek et al., 2001). In vivo injection of three water-soluble proteoglycan fractions from Pleurotus ostreatus mycelia, which had polysaccharide to protein ratios 14.2, 26.4 and 18.3 respectively, into Sarcoma-180-bearing mice decreased the number of tumour cells and cell cycle analysis showed that most of the cells were found to be arrested in pre-G(0)/G(1) phase of the cell cycle. All of the three proteoglycans elevated mouse natural killer (NK) cell cytotoxicity and stimulated macrophages to produce nitric oxide. Fourier transform infra red (FTIR) spectra suggested the presence of a beta-glycosidic bond in all the fractions (Sarangi et al., 2006). Anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic activities of fractions of Pleurotus ostreatus have been evaluated in HT-29 colon cancer cells in vitro. A hot-water-soluble fraction of the mycelium of the liquid cultured mushroom was partially isolated and chemically characterized as a low-molecular-weight alpha-glucan. This low-molecular-weight alpha-glucan possessed anti-tumourigenic properties, and demonstrated its direct effect on colon cancer cell proliferation via induction of apoptosis - programmed cell death (Lavi et al., 2006). Treatment of mice with Pleurotus ostreatus at 100 and 500 mg/kg has suggested that P. ostreatus may prevent inflammation-associated colon carcinogenesis induced by 2-amino-1methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) and promoted by dextran sodium sulfate (DSS), via combined modulatory mechanisms of inflammation and tumor growth via suppression of COX-2, F4/80, Ki-67 and cyclin D1 expression in mice. However, incidence of colon tumors and high grade dysplasia was reduced by 50 and 63% only in the 500 mg/kg dose (Jedinak et al., 2010). A further study by the same group also showed that the anti-inflammatory activity of Pleurotus ostreatus is mediated through the inhibition of NF-kappaB and AP-1 signaling (Jedinak et al., 2011a).

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A dimeric lectin isolated from fresh fruiting bodies of Pleurotus ostreatus has been shown to possess potent anti-tumour activity in mice bearing sarcoma S-180 and hepatoma H22. Survival in these mice was prolonged and body weight increase reduced after lectin treatment (Wang et al., 2000). Treatment with mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus extract has been suggested to reduce high blood glucose level, genetic alterations (DNA fragmentation, chromosome aberrations) and sperm abnormalities in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats (Ghaly et al., 2011). An extract of Pleurotus ostreatus (200 mg/kg body weight), has been shown to increase gene expression of the antioxidant enzyme catalase and reduce the incidence of free radical-induced protein oxidation during aging in rats, thereby potentially protecting against the occurrence of age-associated disorders that involve free radicals (Jayakumar et al., 2010a). A further study by the same group also showed that administration of an extract of P.ostreatus to aged rats resulted in a significant increase in the levels of reduced glutathione (GSH) and elevated activities of glutathione S-transferase (GST), glutathione reductase (GR), and glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH) in liver, kidney, heart, and brain tissues of rats. The results suggest that this extract of P. ostreatus can prevent the oxidation of GSH and protect its related enzymes during aging (Jayakumar et al., 2010b). The in-vitro and in-vivo antioxidant effects of the oyster mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus have recently been reviewed (Jayakumar et al., 2011). Selenium in selenium-enriched Pleurotus ostreatus has been shown to be highly bioavailable in a study in Wistar rats (da Silva et al., 2010a).

Pleurotus pulmonarius

Hypoglycaemic activity of an aqueous extract of Pleurotus pulmonarius in alloxan-induced diabetic mice has been reported. Pleurotus pulmonarius extract was administrated orally at doses of 250, 500, and 1,000mg/kg to separate groups of mice (normal and alloxan-treated mice), and serum glucose and body weight

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were measured. In the separate group of mice, an oral glucose tolerance test was carried out. Acute oral toxicity data showed no mortality in the normal mice up to 5,000mg/kg, while oral administration of extracts reduced the serum glucose level in alloxan-treated diabetic mice at all the doses tested after acute and chronic (28 days) administration. The extract also showed increased glucose tolerance in both normal and diabetic mice. The data suggest that the extract possesses hypoglycaemic activity (Badole et al., 2006). In a subsequent study by the same group, the interaction of an aqueous extract of Pleurotus pulmonarius with acarbose on serum glucose levels, and on an oral glucosetolerance test in alloxan induced diabetic mice was studied. The anti-hyperglycaemic effects of aqueous extract and acarbose alone were similar but combination treatment of the Pleurotus pulmonarius extract with acarbose produced a more synergistic antihyperglycaemic effect than either agent alone (Badole and Bodhankar, 2007). Orally administered glucans from Pleurotus pulmonarius have also been recently reported to reduce acute inflammation in dextran sulfate sodium-induced experimental colitis in mice (Lavi et al., 2010). Dietary administration of the fruiting body extract or mycelia extract of the edible mushroom Pleurotus pulmonarius to mice reduced the formation of aberrant crypt foci, which precedes colorectal cancer, and of microadenomas. The treatments significantly lowered the expression of proliferating cell nuclear antigen and increased the number of cells undergoing apoptosis in the colon as well as inhibiting the expression of the proinflammatory cytokine TNF-alpha in colonic tissue. The extracts inhibited colitisassociated colon carcinogenesis induced in mice through the modulation of cell proliferation, induction of apoptosis, and inhibition of inflammation (Lavi et al., 2011).

Podaxis pistillaris Anti-bacterial components of the mushroom Podaxis pistillaris have recently been reported. Podaxis pistillaris (Podaxales, Podaxaceae, Basidiomycetes) was found to exhibit anti-bacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Micrococcus flavus, Bacillus subtilis, Proteus mirabilis, Serratia marcescens and Escherichia coli. In a culture medium of P. pistillaris, three epidithiodiketopiperazines were identified by activityguided isolation. Based on spectral data their identity was established as

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epicorazine A(1), epicorazine B(2) and epicorazine C (3, antibiotic F 3822), which have not previously been reported as constituents of P. pistillaris (Al-Fatimi et al., 2006).

Schizophyllum Commune (Split Gills Mushroom) A case of mucoid impaction of the bronchi due to a hypersensitivity reaction to the monokaryotic mycelium of Schizophyllum commune has been reported. The patient was hospitalized because of mild asthma attacks, persistent cough, peripheral eosinophilia, and "gloved finger" shadows on a chest roentgenogram. Cultures of the mucous plugs and sputum samples yielded white, felt-like mycelial colonies that were later identified as the monokaryotic mycelium of S. commune by use of mating tests with established monokaryotic and dikaryotic strains of S. commune. The results of tests for serum antibody to S. commune cytosol antigen were positive. Bronchoscopies were effective in removing the mucous plugs and relieving the patient's symptoms. The authors suggested that the monokaryotic mycelium of S. commune should be considered as one of the fungi that can cause hypersensitivityrelated lung diseases (Amitani et al., 1996). The incidence of Schizophyllum commune related effects in patients suffering from diseases of the nasal sinuses also appears to be on the increase (Buzina et al., 2003). A lectin from the split gill mushroom Schizophyllum commune has been shown to exhibit potent mitogenic activity toward mouse splenocytes, anti-proliferative activity toward tumour cell lines, and inhibitory activity toward HIV-1 reverse transcriptase, but did not possess any anti-fungal activity (Han et al., 2005). Aqueous extracts of Schizophyllum commune (27.6%) showed a relatively high Antioxidant Index (% relative to quercetin) in vitro (Abdullah et al., 2012).

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Tremella fuciformis (White Wood Ear, White Jelly Leaf) Tremella fuciformis has been shown to have hypocholesterolemic properties in rats (Cheung, 1996b).

Trametes (=Coriolus) versicolor (Turkey Tail, Yunzhi)

A systematic review of human clinical trials has concluded that numerous dietary polysaccharides, particularly glucans, appear to elicit diverse immunomodulatory effects in animal tissues, including the blood, GI tract and spleen. Glucan extracts from the Trametes versicolor mushroom improved survival and immune function in human randomised clinical trials of cancer patients. Glucans, arabinogalactans and fucoidans elicited immunomodulatory effects in controlled studies of healthy adults and patients with canker sores and seasonal allergies. This systematic review provides a high level of evidence for these effects (Ramberg et al., 2010) A polysaccharide isolated from the Trametes (=Coriolus) versicolor (L.: Fr.) Lloyd (Aphyllophoromycetideae) mushroom has been shown to induce apoptosis in a human hepatoma cancer (QGY) cell line. The polysaccharide inhibited the proliferation of QGY in low concentrations (