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MPW1153/2153 MORAL STUDIES Saharudin Suhaidi
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Project Directors:
Prof Dr Mansor Fadzil Prof Dr Zakaria Ismail Open University Malaysia
Module Writer:
Saharudin Suhaidi
Reviewed by:
Dr Wong Huey Siew Open University Malaysia
Edited by:
Ahmad Zulkarnain Ramli Mangai Rajoo Azeezah Jameelah Mohamed Mohideen
Developed by
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology Open University Malaysia
Translated by:
Pearson (M) Sdn. Bhd.
Printed by:
Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd. Lot 47-48, Jalan SR 1/9, Seksyen 9, Jalan Serdang Raya, Taman Serdang Raya, 43300 Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan
First Printing, September 2007 Seventh Printing, November 2010 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), November 2010, MPW1153/2153 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM). Version November 2010
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Table of Contents Course Guide Topic 1:
Topic 2:
xi - xv
Introduction to Moral Studies in Malaysia 1.1 Background of Moral Studies 1.2 Importance of Moral Studies 1.2.1 Practises Noble Values 1.2.2 Love and Loyalty to the Nation 1.2.3 Upholds the Constitution and the Sovereignty of Law 1.2.4 Good Behaviour and Morality 1.2.5 Meeting the Challenges of Vision 2020 1.2.6 Awareness of the Constitution and Exercise Rights Accordingly 1.2.7 Awareness and Carrying Out Responsibilities as Malaysians 1.2.8 Practise Good Manners 1.2.9 Become Moral Agents Summary Concept of Ethics and Types of Moral Values 2.1 Background of Moral Studies 2.1.1 Ethics 2.1.2 Morals 2.1.3 Akhlak (Good Behaviour) 2.1.4 Laws 2.2 Factors that Influence Ethics 2.3 The Differences between Laws and Ethics 2.4 Values in Life 2.5 Functions of Values 2.6 Types of Moral Values 2.7 Differences between Morals, Religions, Customs and Laws 2.7.1 Morals and Religions 2.7.2 Morals and Customs 2.7.3 Morals and Laws 2.8 Normative Statements and Descriptive Statements on Morals 2.9 Importance of Moral Values 2.9.1 Fulfilling Human Nature Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
1 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6
8 9 10 10 10 11 11 12 13 14 14 15 15 16 17 17 19 19
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.9.2 2.9.3 2.9.4 2.9.5 2.9.6 2.9.7 Summary
Encouraging Good Deeds to Onself and Others. Preventing Immorality Creating and Maintaining Peace Continuation of Human Civilisation A Complete Human Personality Maintaining the Status of Mankind
19 20 20 20 20 21 21
Topic 3:
Theory of Ethics 3.1 Theory of Moral Development 3.1.1 Lawrence Kohlberg 3.1.2 Jean Piaget 3.1.3 PiagetÊs Moral Development Theory Criticism 3.2 Social Morality Development Theory 3.2.1 BanduraÊs Criticism Theory 3.3 Behavourial Moral Theory 3.4 Theory of Social Morality 3.5 Theory of Honourable Personality 3.6 Theory of Psychoanalysis 3.7 Theory of Teleological Ethics 3.7.1 Utilitarianism 3.7.2 Egoism 3.8 Theory of Deontology Summary
22 22 22 25 27 27 28 28 30 30 31 32 32 35 35 36
Topic 4:
Moral Principles and Values in Religion and Beliefs 4.1 The Basis of Moral Principles 4.1.1 Principle of Duty 4.1.2 Principle of Existentialism 4.1.3 Principle of Goodness 4.1.4 Principle of Badness 4.1.5 Principle of Human Evolution 4.1.6 Principle of Ambition 4.1.7 Principle of Trust 4.1.8 Principle of Ikram Muslimin (Solidarity) 4.1.9 Principle of Leadership 4.1.10 Principle of Patience 4.2 The Importance of Moral Principles 4.2.1 Humans with Strong Principles 4.2.2 Survival in Life 4.3 Religion
38 39 39 40 40 40 41 42 42 42 42 43 43 43 43 43
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v
4.3.1 Islam 4.3.2 Christianity 4.3.3 Buddhism 4.3.4 Hinduism 4.3.5 Sikhism 4.4 Beliefs 4.4.1 Confucianism 4.4.2 Taoism 4.4.3 Animism 4.5 Priority of Values Summary
44 46 47 48 49 50 50 50 51 51 52
Topic 5
Moral Thoughts and Identity of a Human with Morals 5.1 Thought and Conduct 5.2 Trends of Thought 5.2.1 Naturalism 5.2.2 Emotivism 5.2.3 Intuitional 5.2.4 Rationalism 5.3 Attitude and Self-Awareness 5.3.1 Physical Attributes 5.3.2 Emotional Attributes 5.3.3 Intellectual Attributes 5.3.4 Social Attributes 5.4 Self-Esteem 5.4.1 Pride and Dignity 5.4.2 Differentiating Self from Actions 5.4.3 Determining Wishes 5.5 Consistency in Moral Values 5.5.1 Self-image 5.5.2 Clear on LifeÊs Moral Aims 5.5.3 Strive to Improve Ourselves 5.5.4 Changing and Maintaining Positive Attitudes Summary
54 55 56 57 58 60 61 64 65 66 66 67 68 68 69 69 70 71 71 72 72 74
Topic 6:
Shaping Moral Humans 6.1 Societal Rules 6.2 Human Personality 6.2.1 Intrinsic Motivation 6.2.2 Feelings of Guilt and Disagreement 6.2.3 Trusted Interests
76 77 79 80 81 81
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.2.4 Admiration 6.2.5 Trusted Justification 6.3 Forms of Morals 6.3.1 Principlistic Ethics 6.3.2 Situational Ethics 6.4 Moral Dimensions Summary
81 82 83 84 85 86 87
Topic 7:
Freedom and Justice 7.1 Free Spirit and Independent 7.1.1 Spiritual Freedom 7.1.2 Freedom from Slavery 7.2 Freedom in an Independent Country 7.2.1 Personal Freedom 7.2.2 Freedom of Speech 7.2.3 Freedom to Own Property 7.2.4 Freedom to Make Choices 7.2.5 Freedom to Choose and Social Responsibilities 7.3 Moral Justice 7.3.1 Efforts to Preserve Justice 7.4 Conflict of Freedom and Justice Summary
88 89 89 90 92 92 93 93 93 94 95 95 96 96
Topic 8:
Types of Moral Conflicts and Its Solutions 8.1 Types of Conflicts 8.1.1 Conflict of Racial Discrimination 8.1.2 Conflict of Discrimination of Age 8.1.3 Conflict of Socioeconomic Discrimination 8.1.4 Social Dilemma 8.1.5 Conflict between Groups 8.2 Strategies in Solving Conflicts 8.2.1 Analysis of Values 8.2.2 Cognitive Development 8.2.3 Strategy of Building Hierarchies 8.2.4 Strategy of Diluting Problems 8.2.5 Strategy of Compromise 8.3 Solving Socio-Culture Issues 8.3.1 Role of the Family 8.3.2 Approaches by Religion and Non-aligned Organisations 8.3.3 Education Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
97 98 98 98 98 99 99 100 100 100 101 101 102 102 102 103 104
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.3.4 8.3.5 8.3.6 Summary
Excellence of Character Role of the Government Laws and Rules
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104 104 105 106
Topic 9:
Economic Issues 9.1 Government and Trade 9.2 Business Ethics 9.2.1 Company Policies 9.2.2 Higher Management 9.2.3 Employees 9.2.4 Ethics of Business Management 9.2.5 Business Laws 9.2.6 Dignity of Employees 9.3 Corruption 9.3.1 Reasons Why Corruption Occurs 9.3.2 Consequences of Corruption 9.3.3 Ways to Overcome Corruption Summary
107 107 108 109 109 110 110 110 111 112 112 114 114 115
Topic 10:
Issues in Technology 10.1 Information Technology 10.2 Genetic Cloning 10.2.1 Implications of Human Cloning 10.2.2 Benefits of Human Cloning 10.2.3 Flaws of Human Cloning 10.3 Chemicals in Agriculture 10.3.1 Human Health 10.3.2 The Moral Question over Agricultural Chemicals 10.4 Nuclear Technology 10.4.1 Applications of Nuclear Technology 10.4.2 Implications of Nuclear Usage Summary
116 116 118 118 119 120 120 121 122 122 122 124 125
Topic 11:
Environmental Issues 11.1 Global Warming 11.1.1 Factors Causing the Increase in EarthÊs Temperature 11.1.2 Effects of Global Warming 11.2 Water Pollution 11.2.1 Causes of Water Pollution
126 126
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127 129 130 131
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 12:
11.2.2 The Moral Question over Water Pollution 11.3 Noise Pollution 11.3.1 Classifications of Noise Pollution 11.3.2 Factors that Influence Noise Pollution 11.3.3 Effects of Noise Pollution 11.3.4 Morals and Noise Pollution Summary
132 133 133 134 135 135 136
Moral Issues in Social Life and Voilence 12.1 Euthanasia (Assistance in Dying) 12.1.1 Forms of Euthanasia 12.1.2 The Moral Question in Euthanasia 12.2 Murder 12.2.1 Suicide 12.2.2 Abortion 12.2.3 Death Penalty 12.3 Moral Issues in Socio-Culture 12.3.1 Black Metal 12.3.2 Pornographic VCDs and Magazines 12.3.3 Pre-marital Sex 12.3.4 Incest 12.3.5 Gangsterism 12.3.6 Amok 12.3.7 Snatch theft 12.4 Concept of Violence 12.5 Sexual Violence 12.5.1 Sexual Harassment 12.5.2 Rape 12.6 Domestic Violence 12.7 Road Bullying 12.8 Violence in War 12.9 International Violence Summary
137 138 138 139 140 140 141 141 142 142 143 143 143 144 144 144 145 146 146 147 147 148 149 150 150
Answers
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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
COURSE GUIDE
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the Course Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION MPW1153/2153 Moral Studies is one of the courses offered by the Faculty of Applied Social Sciences at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered within 8 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE This course is offered to all students taking diploma or bachelor programmes at all institutions of higher learning as required by the Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA). This module aims to impart the basic concepts of ethics and morality that are commonly practised in the context of Malaysian plural society. As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently and optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin this course, please confirm the course material, the course requirements and how the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend 120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be accumulated.
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COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
STUDY ACTIVITIES
STUDY HOURS
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussions
3
Study the module
60
Attend 3 tutorial sessions
10
Online Participation
12
Revision
15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s)
20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED
120
LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this course, you should be able to: 1.
Identify basic concepts and various types of moral values;
2.
Explain a number of theories on ethics and morality including their critiques;
3.
Appreciate moral values in different religions;
4.
Identify traditional and common values among Malaysians;
5.
Apply the right decisions involving moral issues;
6.
Explain conflicts of moral values; and
7.
Practise good moral value as members of the community.
COURSE SYNOPSIS This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic is presented below: Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Topic 1 begins with an introduction to the background of Moral Studies, followed by the importance of it. Topic 2 discusses the concepts of ethics, values and morals which also relate to rules, laws, religions and customs. It also touches on how those concepts related to moral values. Topic 3 introduces several theories related to moral studies that become the foundation of good individual formation. Topic 4 explains the basis and the importance of Moral Principles. It also discusses religions and morality values that closely linked to each other. Topic 5 discusses how thought and conduct can influence oneÊs behaviour and moral values held. It also touches how oneÊs behaviour and actions can be influenced by attitude and self-awareness. Besides, it also touches how individual self- esteem can influence the moral values one has. Topic 6 discusses the formation of society with high morals that has moral rules, particular forms and dimensions to produce humans with good personality. Topic 7 describes freedom and justice from the moral perspective, based on the moral concepts of our country. It also touches on the conflicts that may arise while practising freedom and justice at the same time. Topic 8 discusses several types of conflicts of values that can affect the harmonious relationship in a society. It also discusses the strategies of solving the conflicts and specifically for solving socio-cultural issues. Topic 9 discusses issues in economy from moral perspective, in the aspects of profit-seeking, corruption and ethics. Topic 10 discusses issues in technology from moral perspective, in the aspects of information technology, genetic cloning, chemicals in agriculture and also nuclear technology. Topic 11 discusses environmental issues from moral perspective, in the aspects of global warming, water pollution and also noise pollution. Topic 12 discusses issues related to todayÊs social life like euthanasia, murder and other socio-cultural issues. It also touches on the violence that occurs around us ă in families, societies and the country as a whole.
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COURSE GUIDE
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement should help you to organise your study of this course to be more objective and more effective. Generally, the text arrangement for each topic is as follows: Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you have completely gone through a topic. As you go through each topic, you should frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously gauge your progress of digesting the topic. Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations throughout the module. It is inserted after you have gone through one subsection or sometimes a few sub-sections. It usually comes in the form of a question that may require you to stop your reading and start thinking. When you come across this component, try to reflect on what you have already gone through. When you attempt to answer the question prompted, you should be able to gauge whether you have understood what you have read (clearly, vaguely or worse you might find out that you had not comprehended or retained the sub-section(s) that you had just gone through). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can be found directly from the module itself. Activity: Like Self-Check, activities are also placed at various locations or junctures throughout the module. Compared to Self-Check, Activity can appear in various forms such as questions, short case studies or it may even ask you to conduct an observation or research. Activity may also ask your opinion and evaluation on a given scenario. When you come across an Activity, you should try to widen what you have gathered from the module and introduce it to real situations. You should engage yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate instead of just having to recall and define. Summary: You can find this component at the end of each topic. This component helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points inside the summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to revisit the details from the module. Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargons used throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to explain, you should look for the terms from the module.
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References: References is where a list of relevant and useful textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. This list can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at References section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are encouraged to read and refer to the suggested sources to elicit the additional information needed as well as to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE Students need not have any basic knowledge in a particular area prior to taking this subject. There are no specific pre-requisites because this is a compulsory subject, as determined by the MQA.
ASSESSMENT METHOD Please refer to myVLE.
REFERENCES Raymond A. S., & John W. J. Jr, (2002). Principles of physics: A calculus-based text, (3 rd ed.). Harcourt College Publishers. James S. W., (2004). Physics (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Topic
1
X Introduction
to Moral Studies in Malaysia
LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1.
Identify the rationale behind the existence of moral studies in the education system;
2.
Identify the importance of Moral Studies in producing a noble individual;
3.
Discuss the appreciation and practice of the principles of the Rukun Negara to form a society with high moral standards;
4.
Identify individual freedoms and rights based on the laws and Constitution of the country; and
5.
Practise a lifestyle that centres on the slogan 'Budi Bahasa Amalan Kita'.
X INTRODUCTION This topic discusses the background of moral studies in MalaysiaÊs education system. Moral Studies was introduced with the aim of producing Malaysians with good behaviour according to the values of our country. These noble values encompass values that are accepted by all communities in our country. This is to accommodate the various races, ethnicities, customs, cultures, religions and beliefs in Malaysia.
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TOPIC 1
INTRODUCTION TO MORAL STUDIES IN MALAYSIA
The importance of Moral Studies is linked to the government's aim of producing a society with high morals that is respected by other nations. It should be a society that practises noble values from an early age. Moral Studies at the higher education level functions to form a knowledgeable and pious society, endowed with noble values, which practises the principles of the Rukun Negara to achieve Vision 2020.
1.1
BACKGROUND OF MORAL STUDIES
In this new century, science and technology is growing so rapidly that the world has become a smaller place ă a borderless world. Unfortunately, along with this progress, comes problems that, unless managed carefully, will certainly jeopardise the good values within the family institution, community, society and the country. Hence, it is vital for rapid growth in science and technology to correspond with human development because knowledge without the practice of good values is akin to „a shady but fruitless tree‰. Thus, it is not surprising that there are knowledgeable people who use knowledge for violence and destruction. For example, a person who is knowledgeable and skilful in making explosives uses his or her knowledge and skill to create bombs that destroy life. In Malaysia, the development and progress of knowledge and skills are nurtured well through an education system that balances development and progress of knowledge with development and progress of noble values. This can be seen through the National Education Philosophy that states „education in Malaysia is a continued effort to develop the potential of an individual in a holistic and integrated manner, so as to produce a human being who is balanced and harmonious in terms of intellect, spirituality, emotion and physically based on the beliefs and obedience to God‰. In order to achieve this noble aim, the education system was shaped to produce individuals who were knowledgeable and practiced its own formulated set of good values. As mentioned previously, the development of a harmonious human being can be realised through knowledge and appreciation, as well as the practice of noble values. Therefore, Moral Studies and Islamic Studies were introduced. Islamic Studies is compulsory for all Muslim students, while non-Muslim students are required to take up Moral Studies. The Institutions of Higher Learning Act 1996 states that the Moral Studies subject is to be offered as an addition to other subjects or courses in the institutions of higher learning; all non-Muslim students in the institutions are required to take this subject as a pre-requisite to attain certificates, diplomas and degrees in the institutions.
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TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO MORAL STUDIES IN MALAYSIA W
3
SELF CHECK 1.1 Did the society of the past practise moral values more than the current society?
1.2
IMPORTANCE OF MORAL STUDIES
Moral Studies was introduced in the education system to groom good and responsible individuals through the cultivation, appreciation and practice of the noble values of the Malaysian society. The development of the people in Malaysia is paralled to that of those living in a pluralistic society. Today, the people in Malaysia want to progress physically, mentally and spiritually by maintaining Eastern values while at the same time, not lagging behind in science and technology.
1.2.1
Practising Noble Values
The basis of Moral Studies is the practise of noble values. Through the appreciation and practice of noble values taught in Moral Studies, a high moral society can be created. The practise of noble values in a society begins with an individual. The noble values of an individual exist through knowledge and religious beliefs. As a Malaysian, belief in God is a tenet that should be practised and appreciated, as enshrined in the first principle of the Rukunegara, ÂBelief in GodÊ. Malaysia comprises various races, ethnicities and religions. Islam is the official religion as enshrined in Part I Article III (1) of the Federal Constitution of Malaysia. However, other religions can be practised peacefully in any territory within the federation. As all religions in the world preach noble values, individuals who practise the teachings of a religion would also be individuals who practise noble values.
1.2.2
Love and Loyalty to the Nation
Malaysia practises parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy. Moral Studies stresses on love and loyalty towards the country. Through the practice of loyalty to King and country, every citizen will be loyal and willing to make sacrifices to defend the country from its enemies. Undivided loyalty to the King and country is one of the factors that can unite Malaysians who comprise various races and religions.
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1.2.3
TOPIC 1
INTRODUCTION TO MORAL STUDIES IN MALAYSIA
Upholding the Constitution and the Sovereignty of Law
The countryÊs Constitution was drafted based on agreement between all races and parties in the country. Through Moral Studies, every individual is taught to be a citizen who respects, appreciates and understands the national constitution as a social contract that cannot be questioned or threatened by any individual or party. Every individual in our nation is protected by the law. The law is drafted to ensure justice and freedom of individuals and society. The rights and freedoms of all citizens are guaranteed and can be freely practised as long as they do not contravene any law in Malaysia.
1.2.4
Good Behaviour and Morality
Malaysians are well-known for possessing Eastern values such as politeness and decency. Through Moral Studies, the good qualities of Eastern values are stressed upon. The governmentÊs efforts to make courtesy a way of life can be realised through the practice of the noble values taught in Moral Studies. The population, which comprises various races, religions and beliefs, should live together in mutual respect. We should respect other cultures. The same goes for religions and beliefs. Moral Studies stresses on mutual respect for all religions and beliefs.
1.2.5
Meeting the Challenges of Vision 2020
The fourth challenge in Vision 2020 is „to create a moral and ethical society‰. Thus, Moral Studies in the national education system aims to create individuals who not are only highly knowledgeable but have good morals and ethics as well. We do not want knowledgeable individuals who are arrogant, proud and use their knowledge for immoral activities like violence and destruction. Through Moral Studies, the people in our country from various races and beliefs can live in unity, peace and harmony. This is ideal to meet the fifth challenge of Vision 2020, which is „to create a society with morals and compromise‰. The Developed Nation Vision, using our own formula, is a major agenda for the current generation and is to be carried on by future generations. We desire development that occurs physically and spiritually. The nine challenges of being a developed nation in Vision 2020 is to produce citizens who are balanced intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically, that is, an integrated development of both physical and spiritual aspects for the well-being of the people. The society does not want to create intelligent individuals who end up as white-collar criminals. Even though we want development based on high technology, we are not willing to use it to destroy other humans and the environment. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO MORAL STUDIES IN MALAYSIA W
1.2.6
5
Awareness of the Constitution and Exercising Rights Accordingly
Individual rights in our country are enshrined in the Federal Constitution. Part II of the Constitution states the basic rights of Malaysian citizens clearly. These include the right to personal freedoms, the right to receive protection and rights on property. We should be aware of our rights as Malaysian citizens so that we can look after ourselves, our family, our society and our property. We also have the right to live freely in peace and prosperity. Our rights and freedoms are enshrined in the Constitution, thus assuring a peaceful and harmonious life for all Malaysians. Therefore, if we exercise our rights and freedoms according to the Constitution, our family, society and country can exist in peace and harmony where we do not trouble others and vice-versa.
1.2.7
Awareness and Carrying Out Responsibilities as Malaysians
Every Malaysian has a duty towards the country. We are responsible for developing ourselves and the nation. Our main responsibilities are maintaining peace and harmony as well as developing the country. To achieve this, all Malaysians should cultivate and practise the spirit of tolerance and compromise among one another. Mutual respect and neighbourliness can promote the spirit of unity, which is the basis for racial harmony. Noble values and practices have to be instilled at a very young age, and one way is by teaching Moral Studies in primary schools right up to the tertiary level.
1.2.8
Practising Good Manners
Good manners refer to noble values such as sincerity, patience and tolerance. The implementation of the slogan ÂBudi Bahasa Amalan KitaÊ shows how serious the government is in ensuring Malaysians practise good manners in everyday life. Moral Studies can help us to practise not only good manners but also create a harmonious and united society.
1.2.9
Becoming Moral Agents
Moral Studies can produce moral agents who function as practitioners of noble values. Individuals with excellent morals and ethics can set good examples for others. Excellent individuals are not only moral agents, but also good moral recipients. Thus, Moral Studies stresses on moral values that are acceptable to everyone, so that Malaysians become respected and highly regarded by people from other nations. Who are moral agents and moral recipients? In our education system, formal moral agents are teachers while informal moral agents are the Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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TOPIC 1
INTRODUCTION TO MORAL STUDIES IN MALAYSIA
authorities and elders. They can be parents, siblings and other members of society. On the other hand, formal moral recipients are schoolchildren and university students like you. Informally, however, moral recipients are every individual in the country. In a nutshell, all human beings are moral agents and recipients. This ultimately differentiates humans from animals, as humans are able to deduce rationally and free of feelings and emotions that can influence their own actions; while logic and morals are two dimensions that are not prevalent among animals.
ACTIVITY 1.1 Based on this diagram, explain in your own word what you have learned in this topic. Discuss with your classmate and tutor.
•
Moral Studies was introduced to shape a Malaysian society that practises noble values in a country of various races, religions and beliefs.
•
Everybody in the society lives in an environment of peace and harmony that consistently gives priority to the spirit of unity, mutual respect and tolerance among one another.
•
Moral Studies creates a society which knows its rights and roles, as stated in the Federal Constitution. The members of this society will serve as agents of change in character development and subsequently, the nation.
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TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO MORAL STUDIES IN MALAYSIA W
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Topic
2
Concept
of Ethics and Types of Moral Values
LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1.
Define ethics, values, morals and laws accurately;
2.
Discuss the three types of morals;
3.
Differentiate among morals, religions, customs and laws;
4.
Differentiate normative and descriptive moral statements; and
5.
Discuss the importance of moral values.
INTRODUCTION In this module, we will discuss the concept of ethics, values, morals and behaviours. These subjects are very important in our daily lives. The practice and understanding of ethics, morals, values and behaviours form a bridge to unity and harmony, not just in a family but also in society and the country. Our discussions in this topic will also relate to rules and laws, religions and customs; and the implications of failing to follow them. Read the following topics and make sure you are able to meet the set objectives.
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TOPIC 2 CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES
9
2.1 BACKGROUND OF MORAL STUDIES Value can refer to the estimation of price, rank, quality, status or other outstanding characteristics. Let us look at these meanings from different angles. Firstly, letÊs look at the definition of quantitative value. Quantitative value is the value of an object in terms of price. This value is stated in numbers. The higher the number, the better or more valuable the object is. A RM10 item is more expensive than a RM5 item. Similarly, a student who obtains 90% marks will be valued more than another student who only obtains 50% marks. Next are qualitative values. These are values that determine an item based on its characteristics that are accepted by society. For example, how does one differentiate between the values of glass and diamonds? Everyone would state that the value of diamonds is more than glass. How about the value of a painting? All these are based on qualitative value. Let us look at the meaning of values from the perspectives of several researchers related to this word. Suffean Hussin (1993) defined values as the quality, benefit and importance of a behaviour, principle, activity or object. Alhabshi (1995) stated that values are respected by individuals or societies. In addition, he said that values are related to a system of belief based on what is assumed good or bad by an individual or a society. In 1994 the National Institute of Public Administration (INTAN) explained ÂvaluesÊ in terms of three categories: 1.
Values as characteristics, that is, to grant certain characteristics and positions to something.
2.
Values as the statement of price rate or marks of an object.
3.
Values as a general measure of something that is desired or appreciated. This type of values is axiological and related to the philosophy of values.
Based on the earlier discussion, we can state that values function as a benchmark of standards. Values serve as a guide for us in making selections and taking action.
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TOPIC 2
CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES
ACTIVITY 2.1 Fill in the blanks. In my opinion, the meaning of values is⁄....................................................... ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. .................................................................................................................................
2.1.1
Ethics
Ethics originated from the Greek word ÂethosÊ meaning customs and usages. According to Frankena (1973) and Grassian (1981), ethics is moral philosophy of morals or philosophical thinking on morality, moral ills and moral considerations. Ethics encompasses both theoretical and philosophical study of morals or proper conduct. We can say ethics is a philosophical study of morality which covers proper conduct, obligations, positive attitudes, responsibilities, social justice and good characteristics for a good life.
2.1.2
Morals
Morals originated from the Latin word ÂmoresÊ which is similar in meaning to ethics (Ashmore 1987). The Oxford Advanced LearnerÊs Dictionary (6th ed.) states morals as awareness of proper and improper conduct as well as what should be followed and discarded. Morals and ethics more or less carry the same meaning. However, morals relate more to conduct while ethics refer to rules that are set to improve circumstances. Moral considerations are based on educations the surrounding social system and religion.
2.1.3
Good Behaviour (Akhlak)
Linguistically, good behaviour or akhlak originated from the Arabic word ÂkhuluqÊ which meant well-mannered. Akhlak refers to conduct, speech and selfimage based on Islamic teachings. In other words, akhlak is a form of conduct related to noble values that must be practised by Muslims. This means that the noble values in akhlak are based on the Al-Quran and Hadith.
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TOPIC 2 CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES
2.1.4
11
Laws
Laws are rules that are drafted by the authorities to ensure that our conduct leads to well-being. Any contravention of the law will lead to punishment, provided the offence can be proven. A part of ethics is not stated in the legal system as going against ethics does not lead to tangible suffering. If there is a breach of ethics, punishment cannot be determined clearly through the judiciary.
2.2 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE ETHICS (a)
Humans: Human beings are gifted with intelligence. Therefore, we have the ability to choose between good and bad.
(b)
Instincts: The main instincts in humans are the instincts to eat, wed, love children, defend oneÊs life and worship divinity. We can use these instincts at any time for good purposes (good ethics) and bad purposes (bad ethics). Therefore, we should control our instinctive urges with our minds, not just with emotions.
(c)
Customs and norms: These are values accepted by the majority of society. Therefore, they have a strong influence in shaping ethics, whether good or bad. For example, gotong-royong activities can help us form good ethics, while gambling is unacceptable in society and is treated with contempt.
(d)
Descendants: This is an important factor in forming noble ethics, or the lack of it. For example, children are likely to follow their parentsÊ behaviour.
(e)
Environment: The environment that influences ethics is divided into two ă physical (climate and geographical factors) and spiritual (the essence of the individual connected to religion or belief). These two factors shape the conduct of a person.
ACTIVITY 2.2 Explain the similarities and differences of the ethics practised by a doctor and a judge.
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2.3
TOPIC 2
CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES
THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LAWS AND ETHICS
Helping the less fortunate and needy are good ethics. Not helping them is a breach of ethics, but does not contravene the laws. A person who kills someone else breaches ethics and also the law, since murder is against the law and not cherishing life is considered unethical. Generally, there are four parts of the law - Statutes, Common Law, Constitutional Law and Regulations (directives from the authorities). Laws and ethics encourage people to not act or behave badly laws state clearly the punishment for breaching them, while most ethics do not set clear punishments for nonconformity. There are many differences between laws and ethics, among which are stated in Table 2.1. Table 2.1: Differences between laws and ethics No. 1. 2. 3.
4. 5. 6. 7.
Ethics Do not require enforcement officers Enforced by conscience The punishment for breaching ethics is self-punishment against inner feelings that is not recorded by any party Determines the limits of customs, idealism, confidence and moral values in a society Obeying values and code of ethics will surely prevent the breaching of laws More general and involves the conduct and behaviour of a person in society Expands the change in attitude towards good and bad conduct in society
8.
Comprehensive enforcement of rules
9.
Takes into account spiritual aspects like staying free of envy and away from crime
Laws Require enforcement officers Enforced by the courts The punishment for breaching laws is fixed and recorded by the judge/ court Sets definite limits (doÊs and donÊtÊs of an individual) Obeying the laws does not mean obeying ethics Controls misbehaviour/ negative behaviour or crime Only sufficient to determine the limits for bad/ negative behaviour in society Only sufficient to determine the limits of rules set by the law Many things not taken into account like envy. It only metes out punishment for the consequences of actions of envy.
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TOPIC 2 CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES
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EXERCISE 2.1 Explain from the point of ethics and laws, when a person is asked to help a victim of a road accident and refuses to do so.
2.4 VALUES IN LIFE (a)
Values in Life from the Aspect of Materialism On the RM10 note, there is a statement that says, ÂThis currency is legal tender for the value of Ten Ringgit (RM10)Ê and ÂBank Negara MalaysiaÊ. Through this statement, we can purchase goods worth RM10 at the maximum. Therefore, goods worth more than RM10 cannot be purchased with the money in hand. Currency notes contain value that is legally recognised to purchase goods or services that are equal in value to the sum stated on the notes.
(b)
Values in Life from the Moral Aspect Values in the life of an individual with morals are not differentiated quantitatively. For example, stealing five Ringgit or ten Ringgit makes no difference morally as stealing is a value of moral, not the amount stolen. Hence, regardless of five or ten Ringgit, stealing is still wrong and is against the law.
(c)
Value in Life Intrinsically The value of an item is dependent on the individual, for example the value of being rich. It is the norm in our society today to consider a person with a lot of money as being rich, and poor if the opposite. However, if we view wealth from the point of human personality, moral values and quality of life, then the person who is rich does not necessarily mean he or she has great amounts of money.
People have different opinions on values. Some see it from the aspect of materialism while others see it from a moral point of view. Some place importance on moral values and some choose immoral values. The implication is that there are individuals who are willing to forgo moral values for wealth while some continuously relinquish chances for wealth by preserving moral values. In Islam, humans are taught to be moderate, seeking and owning material values by taking into consideration moral values and rejecting unscrupulous material values. As a conclusion, values arising from ethics and moral are the basis in forming the attitudes, opinions, motivation, personality, progress and development of a nation and organisation. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES
2.5 FUNCTIONS OF VALUES (a)
Values as a Consistent Standard in PeopleÊs Actions Here, a value acts as an agent or moral critic. For example, a person who appreciates ÂtrustÊ and ÂpurityÊ would not indulge in corruption.
(b)
Values as a Guide in Solving Moral Conflicts When solving conflicts, we will analyse and assess the causes and suggestions for a solution. Example: You are offered a lucrative salary to undertake a dangerous job. It is beneficial to society but not to your family. In this case, values play an important role in making the decision to accept or reject the offer.
(c )
Values as a Limit against Actions and Conduct by Individuals or Society Our conduct is judged by our parents, teachers, elders and friends. This restricts our conduct in order to receive acceptance and affection from others.
2.6
TYPES OF MORAL VALUES
The types of moral values that we should know are: (i)
Instrumental (Extrinsic) Values Extrinsic values are qualities that are accepted or rejected as tools to achieve aims. In our country, caning is meted out on rapists to eradicate rape and incest. Another example is the penalty of death for drug traffickers in order to stop drug dealing in the country.
(ii)
Intrinsic Values Intrinsic values are qualities which do not depend on other values. These are the inner values of a person. For example, we feel sad when witnessing the suffering of an individual. This feeling is a value which is not dependent on other values; instead the value itself is the final aim.
(iii) Subjective Values Subjective values are qualities which depend on the views of an individual. This means that a value may seem good to one person but bad to another.
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TOPIC 2 CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES
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(iv) Objective Values Objective values are values which are free from personal choice. (v)
Relative Values Relative values are based on the rules of a society. They differ from society to society. The values are accepted generally, proven good or bad and maintained at all times.
(vi) Absolute Values Absolute values are values that cannot be disputed at any time. These relate to the beliefs and religion of a person.
EXERCISE 2.2 Based on the statements below, elaborate on the type of morals related to each situation. 1.
Indulging in illicit sex must lead to heavy punishment.
2.
Hariyah cried upon hearing the story about the unfortunate family which was hit by flood, just before Hari Raya Puasa.
2.7 2.7.1
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MORALS AND RELIGIONS, CUSTOMS AND LAWS Morals and Religions
Human conduct is linked to religions and customs. Religion encompasses the way of life, while customs only encompass a portion of society. There are elements of morals in both. The following are the differences between morals and religions.
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CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES
Table 2.2: Differences between morals and religions No. 1.
2.
3.
4.
5. 6.
7.
Moral Moral rules are not recorded in holy books that can be followed by all religions. Moral rules, followed or not, are only subject to the personÊs level of awareness in a situation, without fear. Interpretations of rules change according to the customs of a society. Rules governing relationships between human and human; humans and the environment. Moral rules are not in-depth. An action is deemed correct or wrong according to the rules of the society. Moral rules tend to make a person judge of his or her own conduct, resulting in the person acting on only logical thinking.
2.7.2
Religion Rules of the religions are recorded in holy books which form the guide to all worshippers. Rules of the religion and its consequences form the guide and teachings to its followers unquestioningly. Whether followed or not, it is held to be true. Rules of the religion are as stated in the holy books. They do not change according to race or territory. Rules govern the relationship between humans and God. Rules of the religions are deeper. In Islam, for example, the rules are set in the Al-Quran. Rules of the religions are fixed rules set down by God. It is logic according to thought and has high and deep values.
Morals and Customs
Customs are practised by a portion of society. The ÂdesignÊ of the customs can be identified by looking at the related portion of society. For example, in Malaysia, the baju kurung is the customary attire for Malay women, the cheong sam for Chinese women and the saree for Indian women. However, moral values, that is politeness, is found in all three portions i.e. the style of dressing. Hence, morals are more universal but customs are practised only by a certain number of people. Customs are only adhered to at certain places and time. For example, the proposal customs of the Malays only occurs during the engagement function with the venue being the home of the bride-tobe. Moral rules are obeyed at any place and time as they are universal in nature. Overall, we can say that in everyday life, customs and morals are closely interlinked in forming a system of society. However, we also find that there are customs that go against the moral values in life.
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TOPIC 2 CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES
2.7.3
17
Morals and Laws
The assurances of well-being are rules accepted and obeyed by humans. In this context, the rules are made of moral rules and laws. Laws arise from the adherence of individuals to a legitimate authority, while morals are determined by intellect or views and not written, recorded and enforced by any party. It is bound by time and place. Laws cover rules and punishments for breaching rules, which involve actions through conduct, speech and writing. These rules are determined by the authorities. The society under the jurisdiction of the authorities must follow these laws. They differ from moral rules that involve conduct towards other humans and the environment. Laws are enforced by the police and other enforcement officers appointed by the authorities. While moral enforcement is based on the feelings of the individual, laws do not take into account affection and mercy. Each rule and punishment for the breaching of that rule have already been determined and must be obeyed. Therefore, it is important that moral aspects are considered when passing a law.
2.8
NORMATIVE STATEMENTS AND DESCRIPTIVE STATEMENTS ON MORALS
Statements on morals are related to values. It was previously stated that values are not morals. But morals are closely linked to moral values, so moral statements are often linked to good and bad values or right and wrong values. Grassian (1981) stated that normative ethics is an attempt to provide logical, systematic and proper answers to moral questions. This means that moral ethics focuses on normative statements that have implications on human conduct. Normative statements are considerations of good or bad values, right or wrong values, and accepted or rejected values. For example, abortion is an immoral act. Frankena (1973) states that morals are divided into two ă general and specific. Normative statements on human acts ă whether good or bad, right or wrong, obligation or not, and necessary or unnecessary ă are termed moral obligations or deontic consideration. For example, Âthe public should not buy and sell shares with the intention to gambleÊ is a deontic consideration because the intention to gamble is something that is unacceptable in the eyes of religion and law.
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CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES
Normative statements on individuals, motives, purposes and personalities ă whether good, bad, noble, evil, responsible, guilty, pious and despicable ă are termed consideration of moral values or aretaic. For example, Âsmart investors have never gambled in buying sharesÊ discusses the personality of the smart investor i.e. having never gambled in buying shares. The aretaic consideration statement does not touch on the obligations of a person, but only assesses the moral characteristic ÂsmartÊ. Normative statements are not usually linked to the consideration of moral values, and that is what is called consideration of non-moral values. This is normally related to cars, paintings, novels, experiences and others. We can say ÂitÊ is good or bad. For example, the statements Âthe car is bright blue in colourÊ or Âit is an interesting novelÊ are free from moral values because they explain the features of the car and novel. Normative statements that instruct or command are statements that require someone or everyone to obey the rules or laws, for example, Âparents must be respectedÊ. Descriptive statements on morals are statements that mention or explain the characteristics of a person, item, matter and such. Descriptive statement on the good nature of a person gives an impression of the characteristic or values possessed by the person. For example, ÂAli is a forgiving personÊ explain AliÊs characteristic of easily forgiving someone who has offended him. This statement is different from normative statements that we had discussed earlier. However, this statement can be changed to a normative statement, ÂAli should forgive Abu for his actions towards him.Ê Observe that the statement ÂIn Malaysia, Cabinet reshuffle is under the jurisdiction of the Prime MinisterÊ is a descriptive statement. It explains a logical fact according to the situation in Malaysia. It is not related to the consideration of moral values. We can safely say that fact-based descriptive statements do not consider values or obligations. Descriptive statements can be changed to normative statements, for example, Âvoter registration is on the declineÊ can be changed to the normative statement Âgood citizens should register as votersÊ.
EXERCISE 2.3 1. Explain the customs that contravene morality and suggest how to overcome the problem. 2. How can moral values restrict the conduct of a person, ensuring he or she is always honourable?
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TOPIC 2 CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES
2.9
19
IMPORTANCE OF MORAL VALUES
A society with morals will foster peace in the country. The second challenge in Vision 2020 is to create a country that is free-willed, calm and progressive with self-confidence; proud of what it has and what it has achieved; and possesses strength in adversity. The Malaysian society is easily recognisable by its enthusiasm to succeed, its awareness of its capabilities, its refusal to yield to anyone and the respect it receives from other countries. Why and how can this society with morals be created? Morals are important in focusing on happiness in this world. A country will be peaceful and prosperous if its society has high moral standards. The shaping of a society with high moral standards starts with individuals and families.
2.9.1
Fulfilling Human Nature
Before we discuss morals in society, it is better if we look from the individual aspect. In oneÊs self, there are inner values that have existed since birth. An individual will be at peace when admiring beauty. Inner peace also exists when we do good, help others, always smiling to others and being cheerful. Anxiety, nervousness and confusion will occur when an individual faces something uncomfortable like the stench from a sewage treatment plant, seeing someone with a fierce face and so on. Sympathy and pity exist when we see something that is touching, while we feel anguish, hate and misery when seeing cruelty and oppression. Sympathy, hate, sadness, hurt, joy and so on are feelings that cannot be taught but are part of human nature. Good ethics are important in fulfilling human nature.
2.9.2
Encouraging Good Deeds to Oneself and Others
Ethics refer to the good conduct that is the principle of all human beings. Ethics makes it important for human nature to be followed. When someone is sympathetic, the next step is naturally to provide help or assistance to the person who needs it. A person with ethics has a life filled with good deeds and behaviour, not just for himself but the good deeds are felt around him. Hence, it is clear that ethics can encourage good things and conduct the well-being of the society and country.
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2.9.3
TOPIC 2
CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES
Preventing Immorality
People with ethics will feel awkward if they had to do something that went against their ethics. Hence, people with ethics would not do something that is against their ethical beliefs. These ethics are a deterrent to any unacceptable deed done by a person, society and country.
2.9.4
Creating and Maintaining Peace
Wars, murders and destruction of nature are unethical acts. Do you want to live in fear in a barren, war-torn land? Definitely, no one would want to live in such conditions. A free spirit, a happy family, a peaceful country and a clean environment are the desires of every person in this world. A peaceful life in this world is not possible if the people inhabiting the world do not play their part in heading towards the direction mentioned. Without ethics, the inhabitants will live in chaos and their souls will always be miserable. The calmness of the soul and harmony of life will only exist if every being in this world possesses high ethics. In other words, ethics can bring about peace, happiness and well-being in the world.
2.9.5
Continuation of Human Civilisation
The world today is not only plagued by civil crimes, but also sophisticated crimes, as sophisticated as the development of technology. The development of technology is to ease and quicken our work. Actually, creating good is easy but creating evil is a lot easier. It has become the norm that when good exists, there will also be disobedience. This can be seen clearly in the progress of computing; when new software is created, almost immediately a virus is created to fail the operation of the software. Good ethics practised by all beings can continue progress in any field. This can be related to the theory of utilitarianism that stresses upon us to act towards maximum good for all parties. Thus, the human civilisation will continue to grow for the well-being of all.
2.9.6
A Complete Human Personality
The term Âperfect beingÊ refers to a being who is complete physically, spiritually and intellectually. Perfect beings would not do things which are condemned by family, society and self. Generally, there are no perfect beings. In our country, ethical persons are awarded with the title mithali (exemplary).
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TOPIC 2 CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES
2.9.7
21
Maintaining the Status of Humanity
Humans are the best of creations. They have been gifted with intelligence by God to differentiate between good and bad actions. Hence, calling a person an animal is unacceptable.
ACTIVITY 2.3 Based on the explanations on the importance of morals, build a mind map to help you remember the given facts. Then, conduct your own observation on the society. Give your comments and opinion on how good or bad the society is today.
Value can be refer to the estimation of price, rank, quality, status or other outstanding characteristics.
Ethics means customs and wages.
Morals refer to the awareness of proper and improper conduct as well as what should be followed and discarded.
Laws are rules that are drafted by the authorities to ensure that our conduct leads to well-being.
The five factors that influence ethics are: Humans, instincts, customs and norms, descendants and environment.
Functions of values are: Consistent standards in peopleÊs actions, guide in solving moral conflicts and limit against actions and conduct by individuals or society.
Normative statements on human acts ă whether good or bad, right or wrong, obligation or not, and necessary or unnecessary ă are termed moral obligations or deontic consideration.
Descriptive statements on morals are statements that mention or explain the characteristics of a perosn, item, matter and such.
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Topic 3
Theory of Ethics
LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1.
Explain the theories of Moral Development, Social and Humanistic;
2.
Differentiate each level of children moral development;
3.
Identify the elements used to measure moral behaviour; and
4.
Demonstrate different theories of moral development in your everyday life.
INTRODUCTION
This topic introduces several theories related to moral studies, starting with the theory of moral development followed by the theory of moral ethics. These theories are the foundation of the formation of individual with good personality traits. These moral theories are based on cognitive and social behaviours. You should understand these theories and able to identify the similarities and differences. Read further and try to relate the moral development in yourself and individuals around you.
3.1 3.1.1
THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987)
Humans go through physical and mental development from birth, along with moral development. Physical, mental, cognitive and intellect enable children to follow instructions, obey norms, traditions, customs and rules set by the authorities.
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TOPIC 3
THEORY OF ETHICS
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It is important to understand the individual moral development as it is crucial in the formation of individual with good moral values within the society. Many theorists came out with different kinds of theories on children development. Lawrence Kohlberg, one of the theorists spent 20 years studying the cognitive and moral aspects of childrenÊs development. From his studies, he found out that there is a sequence in the childrenÊs development. It is divided into three levels and six stages. Every level has two stages as shown below. (a)
Level One: Pre-conventional Stage one is also known as the Âobedience and punishmentÊ phase or obedience and punishment orientation phase. This means physical effects determine good or bad behaviour. In this phase, children behave or do good things to avoid punishment. They also want to get reward from people with superior physical power. Stage Two: Individualism and Counter-balance Stage two is also known as individualism and the counter-balance stage. Here, behaviour and action that can fulfil needs and necessities are considered good. In this stage, children are aware that good behaviour is a channel to satisfy the needs of their loved ones and themselves. They also start to notice that other people also have needs like they do. Therefore, children will refer to their loved ones to get what they want.
(b)
Level Two: The Conventional Level The third stage in this theory is the agreement between individual or interpersonal observance orientations. Good behaviour is an act fulfilling the expectations of loved ones. At this stage, children do good things or morally correct things to obey their loved ones. The fourth stage is social norms/orientation instructions and law. Good or bad behaviours are determined by loyalty and social order by performing social duties and responsibilities. At this stage, children see other people as part of a social system which determines the roles and responsibilities of each individual. In this case, they are able to determine behaviours and actions based on the law they should obey.
(c)
Level Three: Post-conventional Morality The fifth stage is related to social contract. Contract-legalistic social orientation is certain values agreed by a community which includes social rights and rules to achieve agreement and determine what is right. In this stage, children will be aware that each human being has different opinions.
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THEORY OF ETHICS
Nevertheless, there should be an agreement or consensus to determine what is fair in order to close the gap. The sixth stage is the highest stage in KohlbergÊs Theory of Moral Development. It is related to the principle of global ethics. In this stage, good behaviours are determined based on the principle of global ethics and its consistency. Humans do things based on the principle of justice, community welfare, equality, honour and not using others to get what you want. KohlbergÊs theory is a sequence of moral development that can help us to understand the pattern of childrenÊs moral development. This theory can be used as a guide to produce individuals with high morality through moral standards in a certain community. By understanding KohlbergÊs theory, we will be able to cultivate the ability to decipher good moral value and not just accept all moral standards set by our family, friends, culture, custom and community. We can also discuss, analyse and criticise these standards for collective benefit. KohlbergÊs Theory Criticism KohlbergÊs theory has several weaknesses as he focuses on moral development using hypothesis which means other types of moral development are left out. KohlbergÊs theory stressed on the development of moral reasoning related to individual intelligence. But intelligence does not guarantee that a person will know what to do when faced with a moral dilemma. Experience does not increase oneÊs insight on certain things such as moral dilemma. This element could not be found in KohlbergÊs theory as he used moral dilemma only in theory, neither does he really explain the emotional aspects of moral development. Theoretically, moral consistency in moral dilemma might not be very obvious compared to experience. Making decisions in real situations might trigger the emotion and behaviour to react. This situation could not be seen in moral consistency based on a hypothetical situation. KohlbergÊs studies will be more meaningful if he uses real situations rather than moral dilemmas based on theory.
ACTIVITY 3.1 In your opinion, what is the suitable age for every level of KohlbergÊs Moral Development Theory? Verify your opinion with your tutor.
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TOPIC 3
3.1.2
THEORY OF ETHICS
25
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
Jean Piaget did a lot of research on ethics although he is well-known for childrenÊs cognitive development studies. He divided childrenÊs development into two moral-related levels based on the principle of controlled source which control the childrenÊs behaviour and thinking. This principle is known as internalisation which studies the source of childrenÊs thinking and behaviour and how the sources control their behaviour. For instance, children imitate the act of greetings from their parents. Meanwhile, parents control their children by instructing them to greet certain people (such as the elderly). Then, the children should be able to greet other people without being asked anymore. The first stage of PiagetÊs ethics development is based on the principle of internalisation which involves rules set out by superiors around them such as parents, older family members and teachers. This stage is also known as External Morality. Children see rules as something which is set out and controlled by their superiors. They will experience this stage until the age of 10 by observing and obeying rules. For example, the rules set out in school and home help children to behave, based on guidance from parents, family members and teachers. The second stage of is called „Autonomous Morality.‰ During this stage, children will create rational ideas about equality as a reversible process in their life. They try to control the behaviour of other people just as what they have been going through. For example, they create rules in their games and want other people to follow them. They also see justice as reversible in their life. They will expect others especially those under their supervision (such as younger sisters or brothers and peers) to do things just like they were instructed to do. Children begin to develop self-concern rather than having other people to stress on certain behaviour. Generally, Piaget divided cognitive development related to childrenÊs moral development into four stages ă motor-sensory, pre-operation, concrete operation and formal operation. For Piaget, childrenÊs moral development involved the development of their intellect through several consecutive stages. Children build their own world actively. They interact actively with their surroundings in order to develop their mental structure, intellect and morality. From this active interaction process, children will experience changes in their morality by observing changes in moral justice. For example, a child will be upset if he does not receive a birthday present from his parents like other children do. Let us now study the four stages of intellect development and their connection with moral development.
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THEORY OF ETHICS
(a)
Motor-sensory Stage (Birth to 2 Years) At this stage, children manipulate physical elements in their surroundings to gain knowledge and adapt themselves. Nevertheless, their moral awareness is minimal, which is in the pre-moral stage. They perform repeatable habits based on frequency. For example, whenever they want to eat and drink, they will cry and raise their hands. Every time they feel hungry, they will repeat the act until they get to eat and drink. The behaviour does not contain moral elements and sometimes causes strain among themselves. Whenever they play, they follow the rules of the game reluctantly because the game is just a form of entertainment for them.
(b)
Pre-operational Stage (2 to 7 Years) In this stage, children have a very high sense of curiosity. They experiment to get answers to the questions arising from their inner self. Apart from being egocentric, they have a very high imagination. They see things objectively, which means what happened is not the reason why it happened. Nevertheless, the rule of the authority, especially that of parents, still binds them. They see rules as sacred and unchangeable. These children are still experiencing pre-moral stages in transition to the heteronomy moral stage. External authority rules still control them in making a moral decision. In this stage, they will play games by following inherited rules. Egocentrism makes it difficult for them to accept other peopleÊs opinions and they are uncooperative. Nevertheless, they will start showing cooperative behaviour at the end of this stage.
(c)
Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 Years) Children will show a sign of maturity at this stage. They show the ability to think logically, formally and in a stable matter. As their social scope widens, they will understand the necessity of being cooperative, especially with their peers. They still follow the rules without questioning but are able to discuss the procedures and the principles of a game they are playing when arguments arise. This indicates that their moral rules are rational rules that require them to respect, understand and have good communication with one another.
(d)
Formal Operational Stage (11 Years and Above) This is the highest stage in cognitive development where children reach the perfect balance in their moral consideration. Egocentrism will fade and eventually disappear. They are experiencing the autonomous moral development stage. They unleash themselves from the bind of the authority in making moral decisions. Interaction and sense of cooperation with their peers will develop. They are able to master the rule of game and fair play. The rules could be changed based on agreement and interaction as these are no longer sacred. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3
3.1.3
THEORY OF ETHICS
27
Criticism of Piaget’s Moral Development Theory
Piaget only focuses on moral rules in childrenÊs games. Other rules of social morality are not given the same priority. Maybe this is because he focused on newborn babies up to children who are 12 years of age in his studies. At this stage, children start to show signs of natural social morals. It could be seen in the way they communicate, greet people, carry themselves, etc. Further studies should be carried out to give a clearer picture and more effective explanation. Another aspect that could be observed is motivation and sampling or external imitation. The aspect of imitating the images of artistes is a current reality trend that he could not explain. This indicates that popular artistes are effective moral agents. In this stage, PiagetÊs theory could not explain the phenomenon. Another criticism towards the theory is individual differences. Piaget did not focus on this although individual differences such as gender and social ranks will affect individual moral practice and decision-making.
3.2
SOCIAL MORALITY DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Among the theorists who came out with a Social Morality Theory are Albert Bandura and Emile Durkheim. A popular theory by Bandura states that moral development is based on the observation of other peopleÊs behaviour. Bandura says there are three methods of imitation ă direct imitation, inhibition and noninhibition; and elicitation. Direct imitation: Direct imitation happens when a person imitates a behaviour that he or she sees in the media, pictures or by listening to explanations. For example, children imitate the behaviour of their loved ones or people they like ă the way they talk, their clothes and many other things. Inhibition and non-inhibition: This method might be suitable for one situation but not for another. It comes together with penalty and punishment. For example, the act of cheering in the field is clearly inappropriate for a formal event in a hall. If cheering is done during a formal speech in the hall, punishment will be imposed and individuals witnessing this will not imitate the act of cheering during formal events. But if there is no punishment for the act of cheering during formal events, it will be imitated and repeated the next time by individuals who witness it. Elicitation: It means imitating others because they know how to do something. For example when a person sees other people sing, he/she also wants to sing because he/she knows the lyrics. He or she sings the song because other people sing the song. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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3.2.1
TOPIC 3
THEORY OF ETHICS
Criticism of Bandura’s Theory
Not all behaviours can be imitated. Some behaviours are cultivated by moral considerations. Children desire to do things they think about doing. They also want to do things according to their emotions. However, not all of their behaviours are a total imitation. Do penalty and punishment really prevent a person from imitating certain behaviours? If yes, what will happen if there are no penalty and punishment? Penalty and punishment-based behaviour are inconsistent unlike instinct-based behaviour which is more resistant and consistent where ethical aspect are clearly defined by the enforcement of the heart. All factors related to behavourial development should be considered in order to produce individuals with high morality.
3.3 BEHAVOURIAL MORAL THEORY The Behavourial Moral Theory explains the importance of the involvement of parents and caregivers in childrenÊs moral development. ChildrenÊs behaviour is formed through three methods ă reward, abuse and observation. The formation of childrenÊs morality depends on the lessons given. They will show good behaviour if they receive suitable training, guidance and discipline. To make promote good behaviour, reward and punishment should be given to children. Wright (1978) suggested that caregivers created the foundation of their childrenÊs behaviour by using three methods ă reward, abuse and good examples in their routine. Caregivers or adults are the strengthening source of good or bad behaviour. They are best role models for children to adopt honourable behaviours. Children will show good behaviour if their in caregiver trains and disciplines them and is a good role model. Negative reinforcement will cause wariness and prevent them from wrongdoing. Positive strengthening will create a high possibility for children to repeat good behaviours.
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THEORY OF ETHICS
Come! Let us all smoke together with our teacher.
Figure 3.1: In this case, should the students imitate their teacherÊs behaviour?
ACTIVITY 3.2 Refer to Figure 3.1. In your opinion, what kind of preventive measure can the teacher adopt to avoid this situation? In a group of 2 or 3, discuss how the school administration can address this issue.
EXERCISE 3.1 It is difficult for a father to fulfil all his childrenÊs desires. Explain how he could make an exemplary decision that could be imitated by his children. Give an example.
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3.4
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THEORY OF ETHICS
THEORY OF SOCIAL MORALITY
The theory of social morality relates moral standards, social norms, law and the global environment to the concept of ethics. It stresses on individual responsibility to obey rules set by the authority. This theory prioritises on public interest instead of individual interest. The system of social morality could be seen through the religious aspect. Buddhists are advised not to adopt an extreme lifestyle, self-indulge or be overwhelmed by desire. Instead, they should adopt noble behaviours (especially kindness and love) to reach nirvana. The daily life of a Christian centres around the Ten Commandments. For example, a Christian is prohibited from committing murder, adultery, theft, etc. Hindus are required to follow the moral rules stated in the epic of Ramayana, Upanishad, etc. These rules guide them on what to do and not. Muslims are required to follow the moral guidance stated in the Quran and Hadith. The theory of social morality has it weaknesses. Different communities have different sets of rules, laws, cultures and moral values. This will lead to moral relativism and cause misunderstanding, conflict and tension within the community. Many incidents of riots between races, community crisis and wars between countries are caused by misunderstanding. The theory of social morality relates social rules and culture with the concept of ethics. A dogmatic set of rules sometimes causes difficulties to members of a community in adapting to a new situation. The same can be said about unjust rules and regulation which could be contested. The members of the community have to obey them against their own wishes. This will result in disastrous side effects because they end up not feeling guilty although what they do is against their personal principles (Durkheim, 1968).
3.5
THEORY OF HONOURABLE PERSONALITY
The Theory of Honourable Personality emphasises personal characteristics to achieve a good life. For example, effort and diligence will lead to success. So, we should know the quality and standard of living that we want to achieve. The formation of human personality happens gradually from childhood to adulthood. There are four characteristics of honourable personality. Some can be obtained through education and training.
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Differences between skills and honourable personality are: (a)
Honourable personality is a noble heritage whereas skills are an individual ability such as doing mathematical calculation;
(b)
Honourable personality is a human life quality that could be applied widely whereas skills are specific for certain activity;
(c)
It is difficult to practise an honourable personality whereas skills could be easily acquired through practice;
(d)
We could accept that sometimes humans may lose their skills but it is hard to accept when humans they lose their honourable personality; and
(e)
There is no time-off in practising an honourable personality while there is time-off in practising skills.
ACTIVITY 3.3 Discuss a situation where a charitable person is said to have honourable personality and yet the money he donates was actually obtained illegally.
3.6
THEORY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
The Theory of Psychoanalysis discusses moral development by focusing on the concept of super-ego. This concept needs to be explained together with the concept of id and ego. Table 3.1: Concept of Id and Ego
Id
Instinctive reaction to quickly attain satisfaction.
Ego
Related to the world outside the individual self.
Super-ego
Explains and interprets intuitions or individual social behaviour norms. Determines behaviour when id and ego exist together.
The development of childrenÊs instinct starts when they lack motivation to control their behaviour. This situation usually triggers the children to be hostile towards the authorities and adults that abuse them or let them down. Super-ego controls anti-social impulses. If the super-ego could not fight the forbidden ideas, the children will carry out an anti-social act and regret it when they realise it is a mistake. But if the super-ego fights the forbidden ideas strongly, the individual will act according to the correct behaviour allowed by the instinct. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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THEORY OF ETHICS
Super-ego is developed in early childhood. Behavioural consistency develops until a certain age and it is difficult to change after that. However, behavioural development is not concerned with intellectual or thinking aspects in moral development. It is obvious that the Theory of Psychoanalysis focuses on an individualÊs inner self which includes feelings and emotions whereas the intellectual aspects are given less emphasis.
EXERCISE 3.2 Explain the meaning of id, ego and super-ego and connect them to childrenÊs moral development.
3.7 THEORY OF TELEOLOGICAL ETHICS Teleological is derived from the word ÂtelosÊ which means goal. The Theory of Teleological Ethics suggests that right or wrong values depend on the consequences of certain behaviours. It means if the behaviour provides a lot of benefits, then it needs to be done. This theory emphasises on the importance of the consequences of certain behaviours (consequentialism). For theorists, moral value is a person's behaviour depending on the non-moral value produced. Therefore, this theory decides what is good or compulsory from a non-moral point of view. To know whether what we do is good, correct or compulsory from a non-moral point of view, we must know if it produces something good, correct or compulsory from the non-moral point of view (Franken, 1973). Teleologists have different opinions about what is good from a non-moral point of view. Some think like a hedonist (identify the good with pleasure and the bad with pain) and some have the opinions of a non-hedonist (identify the good with power, knowledge, self-awareness, accuracy, etc.). Teleologists also have different opinions about who receive the good or the bad. Therefore, a lot of teleological theories have come into view such as Utilitarianism and Egoism.
3.7.1
Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is derived from the word ÂutilityÊ meaning useful. The term „utilitarianism‰ means moral behaviour that produces maximum good for the majority. According to Warnock (in Mills 1964), the pioneer of this theory was Jeremy Bentaham (1784-1832). He introduced a scientific method to analyse the quantity of pleasure. He allocates an analysable value to each value. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Based on the analyses, moral behaviour could be determined. Behaviour which brings maximum happiness and pleasure is morally good. To determine whether a behaviour is morally good, every moral element will be analysed according to a certain quantity of pleasure and pain. It is quite difficult to determine the level of pleasure (right value) and pain (wrong value) of a behaviour as it accepted by a community but might be considered wrong and unacceptable in other communities. To determine whether a behaviour is right or wrong, the moral rule aspect should be considered. To determine the pleasure and pain of behaviour, appropriate steps must be taken with the rules or laws of the universal moral. The universal rules include three essential elements: Ć
A principle or rule must be accepted and obey at all times.
Ć
To respect humans, not use them.
Ć
A person at fault will be punished if he is present at the place where the incident happened.
Even though it is quite difficult to measure the level of pleasure and pain, Bentham initiated a method called hedonistic calculus. Several elements can be used to identify the level of pleasure and pain. There are seven elements to be considered in order to measure the level of pleasure and pain. Every element determines the level of pleasure and pain with a measurement scale ranges from -1 to -10 and +1 to +10. The (-) symbol represent the level of pain whereas the (+) symbol represent the level of pleasure. The seven elements to be considered are intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity and extent. To Explain Utilitarianism, Study the Following Case. Kevin is a get-rich-quick scheme agent. He is happy that he received a profit of the percentage by getting new investors, even though they were conned. The investors sold their land and cars to invest in his company and hoped to get fast and easy profit. Initially, his company paid the profit as scheduled but later, no payment was given and even their deposits were not refunded. (i)
Intensity: The investors experience pain because they sold their assets to invest. Let us say -10 represents pain. When the people get profit from their investment within a short time, they feel pleasure. The pleasure level is +7. However, calculation shows that the investors still suffer pain because the profit is not equal to the investment made. The level of pain for is -3 because the initial pain is -10 and the pleasure of getting profit is +7. On KevinÊs part, pleasure is +10 by because he gets profits from a new investor. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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(ii)
TOPIC 3
THEORY OF ETHICS
Duration: This element determines how long the pleasure or pain lasts. Getting a dividend/profit from an investment is a pleasurable experience (+10) especially if the entire dividend was spent. The pleasure makes the investors greedy and invest more (investing 50% more). This is a (-5) pain because half of the dividend that could be spent is reinvested. After being balanced the investors only gets +5. Kevin will feel extreme pleasure because the investors reinvested, meaning more profit for him.
(iii) Certainty: The initial pleasure changes to pain when the investors lose their assets and investments (-10). Kevin suffers a loss when the investors constantly ask about the investment and dividend promised (-7). (iv) Propinquity: The investors will suffer pain when investing their his money (-10) whereas Kevin will get pleasure (+10) when he gains profit just by coaxing the investors to invest. (v)
Fecundity: The investors feel pleasure when they receive the dividend. But that will soon change to pain when they lose all their investments (-10). Kevin will also feel less pleasure (-8) because the investors will constantly chase him.
(vi) Purity: The investors will suffer pain not only because they did not get the profit but also because they lost all of their investments so the pain level is 10. Kevin will feel guilty because he would not be able to give profits to the investors and the activity will come to a halt because the company goes bankrupt. However, the feeling might not be as bad as that of the investors because Kevin gains profit at the initial stage. (vii) Extent: Both investors and Kevin will feel pain in case he gets arrested by the police (-10) because the investors lose their investments while Kevin will be prosecuted. Both the investors and KevinÊs family will suffer indirect pain because of the loss and prosecution. The level of pain for them is -3. The level of pleasure and pain could be measured as shown in Table 3.2.
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Table 3.2: Level of Pleasure and Pain Case Consideration Elements 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Investor
You
Intensity Duration Certainty Propinquity Fecundity Purity Extent
-7 +5 -10 -10 -10 -10 10
+10 +10 -7 +10 -8 -5 3
Total
-52
+7
The level of pain is higher (-52) compared to the level of pleasure (+7). It is obvious that the act of coaxing the investors is immoral because the level of pain is much higher than that of pleasure. The weaknesses of BenthamÊs Hedonistic Calculus are as said below: (a)
The intensity of pleasure is subjective because individual feeling is unique.
(b)
Individual quality of pleasure is different.
(c)
Measuring the quantity of pleasure and pain is very difficult at different times with different experiences.
3.7.2
Egoism
There are two types of egoism: (i)
Physiological egoism ă a descriptive theory connecting how people behave.
(ii)
Ethical egoism ă tells people how they should behave. It is interpreted as a theory that regards good value as self-interest and bad value as wasteful.
3.8
THEORY OF DEONTOLOGY
Deontology is derived from the Greek word Âdeon,Ê which means duty or responsibility (Davis in Singer, 1991). There are two aspects in this theory ă behaviour and rule. This theory suggests that there are other considerations that could determine whether certain behaviours or rules are good, correct or morally compulsory even though these do not produce much goodness compared to badness to an individual, community or the world.
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THEORY OF ETHICS
Act nonconsequentialist theories emphasise that all specific moral decisions happen in a certain situation. Example: „During this critical situation, I have to pull the trigger and aim at the burglar.‰ This action was done to suit the situation without referring to any rules. Rule nonconsequentialist theories assume that the standard of measurement for right or wrong behaviour consist of more than one rule. The rule is fundamental, and not based on a certain situation. In short, the theory of deontology studies how we are responsible in catering to others and our duties towards them. It is an action-oriented approach.
ACTIVITY 3.4 Academicians have been debating about theories that we have discussed in this topic. Refer to: Eow Boon Hin (2000), Moral Education, Pearson Education Sdn. Bhd.: Petaling Jaya. Compare and discusss your findings from this book with your classmates and tutor.
EXERCISE 3.3 1.
One day, Mrs. Pruma was walking home from work when a man tries to snatch her handbag. While Mrs. Pruma is trying to defend herself she accidentally stabs the man. Explain Mrs. PrumaÊs action based on the Theory of Deontology
2.
Explain this statement: humans should be respected, not used.
There are more than five theories discussed in this topic so you could compare and build your understanding about Moral Education.
The discussions are based on several aspects such as cognitive, social and behaviour.
The exposures to these theories enable you to understand and practise them in your daily life.
Most of the theories are universal, accepted by the public as a guide towards cultivating ethics and good morals.
Complete the following table: Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 3
Theory
Cognitive
Behaviour
Social
Honourable Personality
THEORY OF ETHICS
Psychoanalysis
Teleology
Important characteristics
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Deontology
Topic 4
Moral
Principles and Values in Religion and Beliefs
LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of the topic, you should be able to:
1.
Explain 10 moral principles;
2.
Explain the importance of two moral principles;
3.
Explain briefly the five main religions in Malaysia;
4.
Compare the three major beliefs in Malaysia; and
5.
Compare religion and beliefs in developing a person with morals.
INTRODUCTION
One principle of life that we will always encounter is: "I will not do something I am not able to do or like." A person's action or behaviour is based on his beliefs of his abilities. In this topic, you will learn 10 moral principles that could guide you to be a person with high morality. We will also discuss the importance of moral principles in daily life. Having discussed moral principles and moral standards, we will focus on religious values. Religion and morality are inseparable and closely linked to each other. Both aim to shape a noble being who lives in harmony. However, religion Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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has rules recorded in holy books while moral is a sense of awareness of oneÊs self which is not found in any holy book or record of rules to be followed. People with morals hold fast to religious teachings as religion is the basis of moral values. On the surface, everything contained in moral values and rules are found in all religions, but not all moral rules and values are found in religious teachings. It also discuss the values in religion and beliefs that form the basis of people with morals.
4.1 THE BASIS OF MORAL PRINCIPLES Moral principles are related to right or wrong, good or bad behaviour that one should practise. Moral principles or beliefs involve certain aspects accepted by the community. The 10 moral principles are as shown below. 1.
Principle of Duty
2.
Principle of Existentialism
3.
Principle of Goodness
4.
Principle of Badness
5.
Principle of Human Evolution
6.
Principle of Ambition
7.
Principle of Trust
8.
Principle of Ikram Muslim in (Solidarity)
9.
Principle of Leadership
10.
Principle of Patience
We will discuss each principle briefly.
4.1.1
Principle of Duty
This principle, suggested by Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), emphasises that duties are carried out because they are responsibilities. To take a morally right action, we have to use the following formula. Freedom + Justice + Wisdom + Choice (maxim reference) = Morally Right Action
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MORAL PRINCIPLES AND VALUES IN RELIGION AND BELIEFS
The concept of goodwill is something good without conditions while carrying out an action. According to Kant, we should consider a personÊs intention in determining whether a certain behaviour is good or correct. The Principle of Total Command means a command that exists with exemptions or conditions. It consists of three primary principles ă it must be generally accepted; it must respect humans; and the responsible party must be willing to be treated in the same way as the victim if he/she happens to be in the victimÊs shoes.
4.1.2
Principle of Existentialism
Western philosophers accept the concept of existentialism or individual existence. This principle stresses that good or bad values must be based on individual choice and free will. The principle is divided into Christian existentialism and atheistic existentialism (a belief that God does not exist). Human beings are assumed to have been born without direction or equipment. Whatever happens is the individualÊs own responsibility. He will shape his own self. The principle maintains that the environment does not influence a personÊs needs and desires. Human needs and behaviour will form individual morals, totally and absolutely. Education and its objectives will mould an individual and raise awareness of honourable behaviour.
4.1.3
Principle of Goodness
According to this principle, human nature is good. A newborn baby is considered innocent. In the process of growing up, an individual will be influenced by the community and may end up becoming a bad person. Education could mould individuals to lead a good life. One weakness of this principle is that humans good quality cannot be proved with reality. Social aspects and culture are not considered.
4.1.4
Principle of Badness
This principle is the oldest assumption about the personality of humans. It arises from the belief that a human being should be returned to the good path alongside his God because Adam (human representative) was guilty and cast away from heaven as a punishment. From the moral point of view, human beings are evil and sinful. According to this principle, children are lazy, stupid, immoral and indisciplined. Teachers have to discipline their students so they can be good and useful. Among the weaknesses of this principle is the assertion that humans are inferior and Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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placed at the lowest level, that of animals. Human beings have to obey the authorities, against their feelings and thoughts. Some human beings, when bestowed with power, social status and wealth, might use others for evil intentions.
EXERCISE 4.1 Your business is experiencing a decline. To turn it around, you need a large amount of capital which you do not have. If your siblings are willing to invest in your company by selling the family land, your business will recover and prosper. How would the formula of Freedom + Justice + Wisdom + Choice (maxim reference) = Morally Good Action help you to overcome your business problems?
4.1.5
Principle of Human Evolution
This principle says that human life development occurs according to human evolution aspects, such as age and environment factors. With guidance since childhood, we could cultivate good moral values. This principle is seen as a social process in which human development is an adaptation to constant cultural changes. Human beings also experience moral changes and development in stages. Among the weaknesses of this principle is that it compares humans to grass growing by the roadside. Human beings are placed on the same level as animals, with no spiritual values. Until today, moral principle theories are related to right or wrong, good or bad behaviour that should be practised by individuals. Individual moral principles involve certain aspects that have been accepted by the community, i.e. human evolution cannot be proved through experiments.
ACTIVITY 4.1 Charles Darwin is an important figure in Human Evolution Theory studies. Surf the net for the details and discuss this theory in your tutorial.
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4.1.6
TOPIC 4
MORAL PRINCIPLES AND VALUES IN RELIGION AND BELIEFS
Principle of Ambition
Human beings are ambitious. A person uses his intelligence to achieve his ambitions. If a person uses his intelligence the right way and with wisdom, he will form good moral values. But if he uses it unwisely, he will form less satisfying moral values. One weakness of this principle is that it is unrealistic. It encourages human beings to be materialistic and places a low priority on human moral status.
4.1.7
Principle of Trust
Islam teaches its followers to be cautious and to assess every action accurately based on the CreatorÊs standards. This is because his deeds will determine how far he is fulfilling or deviating from the obligations entrusted to him. The principle of pious deeds obligation is an important aspect in a human beingÊs actions. For example, in organisational management, Islam emphasises obligation to Allah and the employer in executing a job. Furthermore, if an employeeÊs obligation is to fulfil his responsibility towards his employer, the employer should do the same for the employee. An employer should show kindness and compassion, and be considerate, humane and willing to compromise with the employee. Therefore, burdening the employee with more work than what he/she gets in return, is opposed by Islamic principles. Prophet Muhammad said: „An employer should pay wages due to his employee before the sweat on his forehead gets dry‰.
4.1.8
Principle of Ikram Muslimin (Solidarity)
This principle creates an environment of true brotherhood and is essential for creating a spirit of solidarity especially in working organisations to increase performance and professionalism. It is a religious bond cultivated from the unity of beliefs and awareness of human equality before Allah. This principle will not become a reality if egoists exist among human beings because egoism will create arrogant and selfish people.
4.1.9
Principle of Leadership
The best example of this principle is the incident involving Prophet Yusuf. When Egypt was suffering from drought and an economic crisis, a skilfull and charismatic economist was badly needed. Yusuf knew he could carry out the responsibility because he had the experience of manoeuvring a country through Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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an economic crisis, and was willing to justly manage the division of food supply. He offered his service and the Egyptian government accepted.
4.1.10
Principle of Patience
Another essential principle for the cultivation of an environment of social civilisation within the community is the ability to control anger. In Islam, forgiving does not mean support or consent to wrongdoing; rather, it is an inner strength shown through devotion by not succumbing to revenge or retaliation when a person is wronged. Avoiding or restraining anger, being forgiving and offering advice to others could create a spirit of cooperation, order and harmony. A person who is incapable of controlling his anger will easily create conflict, resulting in disruption. Being gentle, friendly and calm is cultured and noble behaviour.
4.2 4.2.1
THE IMPORTANCE OF MORAL PRINCIPLES Humans with Strong Principles
God bestowed humans with wisdom. Moral principles could be adopted as individual principles because moral principles give us the chance to do the things we choose to do based on the formula of Freedom + Justice + Wisdom + Choice (maxim reference) = Morally Right Action. With strong moral principles, a person will not stray from the course of his life. If you have a life principle and practise it consistently, you will have a strong belief. It means you will be consistent even if you face external obstacles. For example, even though you befriend a gang of thieves, you will never steal · your moral principle will make you aware that stealing is despicable and would not allow you to commit such an act.
4.2.2
Survival in Life
A person with principles and who holds them firmly will lead his life on the right path. These moral values will then be passed from one generation to the next. Human beings will live in harmony as long as they practise these values. Therefore, good moral principles would guarantee the continuation of honourable generations in the future.
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EXERCISE 4.2 How will the understanding of moral principles help you to become a leader in the community? Discuss.
4.3 RELIGION Religion is a principle or guide related to beliefs about the existence of God and activities that glorify God. All religions teach and require worshippers to spread goodwill among mankind, whether to worshippers of the same faith or other faiths. The relationship among humans, and between humans and God, is a noble relationship and always creates good. No religion in the world preaches violence. Actually, evil acts are the work of individuals. These cannot be linked to any religion. If a person practises a religion, it will make him a noble and better person. Such, a person possesses a noble personality and morals. On the other hand, a person who does not practise his religion is likely to behave in a manner that is considered inappropriate by his religion, society and nation. Therefore, in discussing moral aspects, it is beneficial to know something about the five main religions in the country.
4.3.1
Islam
Islam started in Mecca more than 1400 years ago. IslamÊs teachings are most influential in explaining human development. According to Islam, humans originated from the lineage of Adam. Human beings were formed from the merger between spirit and being. Human were created to worship Allah. They were also given intelligence to understand the real truth. However, human personality has the potential to be a battlefield between two opposing tendencies ă the angel element (good) and the devil element (evil) ă to fulfil lifeÊs goals. According to Islam, humans were appointed by Allah as the caliph on Earth. The caliph is tasked with preserving the religion and practising it in administering the world. Therefore, human beings are obligated to uphold truth and peace, and eradicate ignorance and deviation to achieve success in the world and hereafter.
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The QurÊan and Hadith are guides in organising the lives of individuals, family, society and country. Islamic teachings encompass three main components ă belief, deeds and behaviour. Belief
·
This is the basis of IslamÊs teachings related to faith and confidence in Allah. Piety requires belief and confidence in oneÊs heart. A pious person will hold strong to the six articles of faith: Belief in Allah, belief in the Angels of Allah, belief in the messengers of Allah, belief in the QurÊan, belief in the Day of Judgement and belief in qadaÊ and qadar. A faithful person is one who has strong beliefs.
Deeds
·
These function as proof of faith and belief in Allah. A truly faithful person will hold to the principle of the unity of Allah, and practise the principles of knowledge and devotion to Allah. This means obeying all of AllahÊs wishes and staying away from anything forbidden by Allah.
Behaviour
·
A human being who is noble applies his faith and beliefs in his daily life. A person with noble behaviour is one who practises moral values and does not go against AllahÊs wishes. The behaviour of Prophet Muhammad is an example of noble behaviour that should be followed and practised by mankind.
The development and growth of humanity in the physical, intellectual, social, affective and morals aspects are also emphasised in Islam. The main focus is on the development of actions, personality and behaviour as well as relationship with Allah. The objectives and direction of mankindÊs development according to Islamic teachings are found in education and the nurturing of human behaviour. All these determine a personÊs noble behaviour. The final purpose of being noble in behaviour is to enable Muslims to enter Paradise. A person is entitled to realise balanced physical and spiritual needs. There are three factors that influence the development of humans ă natural factors arranged by behaviour, environmental factors and self capabilities. The third factor allows humans to make their own decisions. The ethics of the Messengers of Allah were pioneered by Prophet Adam a.s. These are the oldest ethics on Earth and were followed by other messengers. All messengers carried the same scriptures on unity of Allah, and the scripture on ethics, which preached worship of Allah and doing good and staying away from evil on Earth. This matter is explained in verse 25 of Surah al-Hadid: „We have tasked Our Messengers with bringing real proof and miracles and We have sent down with them the holy book and explanation that are the scales of justice, so Man may carry out justice‰. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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ACTIVITY 4.2 After the events of 11 September 2001 in the United States of America, prejudice against Muslims increased as they were accused of being terrorists. Can you prove that Islamic teachings contain elements of violence? Discuss with your classmates and tutor.
EXERCISE 4.3 Why should the ethics of the Messengers of Allah be the reference point for pure values at all times?
4.3.2
Christianity
This religion is based on the life and teachings of Jesus Chirst. The holy book of the Christians is called the Bible. There are various denominations in Christianity: 1.
Orthodox ă Most Orthodox churches are found in Eastern Europe and Russia.
2.
Roman Catholicism ă Most widely followed denomination of Christianity.
3.
Lutheranism ă Followers and supporters of Martin Luther. Member of the Protestant Church in Germany.
4.
Calvinism ă Followers of John Calvin from the Protestant denomination. Followers originated from the English-speaking sphere, such as Presbyterian, Congregationalist and Baptist.
5.
Anglicanism ă Church of England or allied churches like the Methodist.
The Bible contains two parts: the Old Testament which was written before the birth of Jesus Christ, and the New Testament which was written by the followers of Christ. Among the good values and ethics in the Bible are justice and equality. Christians are urged to uphold justice and equality in all circumstances. Honesty is also emphasised and is deemed capable of upholding justice, especially in matters that can save lives. Christians are also taught to do good by helping those in need. In the Old Testament, there are 10 Commandments which were revealed to Prophet Moses: 1.
You shall have no other gods before me.
2.
You shall not make for yourself an idol. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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3.
You shall not misuse the name of the Lord, your God.
4.
Remember the Sabbath day by keeping it holy.
5.
Honour your father and mother.
6.
You shall not murder.
7.
You shall not commit adultery.
8.
You shall not steal.
9.
You shall not give false testimony.
10.
You shall not covet.
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Several ethical values in Christianity are also written in the Book of Proverbs, in line with the Ten Commandments to provide guidance on human morality. These values are obedience towards parents, avoiding sin, loyalty and honesty, being rational, avoiding adultery, refraining from being lazy and generosity.
4.3.3
Buddhism
Buddhism stresses upon its followers to achieve nirvana as their goal in life. Nirvana is the concept of liberation from rebirth. Buddhist teachings that have been compiled are called „Dharma‰. The fundamentals of these teachings are related to morality, that is, the middle path (moderation) or Eightfold Path and Four Noble Truths. Each individual needs to live in moderation and not exceed self-limits as this would lead to hardship. Moderation in life will lead a person to the following eight paths: 1.
Right view or Samma-sitthi: Related to views or focus in life for happiness by avoiding wrongdoing.
2.
Right speech or Samma-vaca: Related to truthful and honest speech, refraining from telling lies and empty chatter that can lead to pride and arrogance.
3.
Right action or Samma-kammanta: Related to good actions and behaviour and avoiding doing negative things.
4.
Right livelihood or Samma-ajiva: Related to having a good livelihood in a proper occupation to live happily.
5.
Right effort or Samma-vayama: Efforts to forge a noble life through hard work and diligence without negative values.
6.
Right thought or Samma-sankappa: Good actions are based on good intentions, thus rightful thoughts can prevent actions stemming from negative deeds.
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7.
Right mindfulness or Samma-sati: True awareness that comes from a calm mind and keeps away negative attitudes like ego, anger, envy and jealousy.
8.
Right concentration or Samma-samadhi: Able to increase calmness by meditation and freeing oneself from negative attitudes.
The truths that exist absolutely in life are suffering, origin of suffering, relief of suffering and the path to relieve suffering. All these are achievable when humans are able to control their desires. Through the teachings of the four noble truths, suffering can be overcome through good and noble means for the well-being of humanity.
4.3.4
Hinduism
Ethics in Hinduism is aimed at uniting „Athman‰ and „Brahman‰. This is possible by following the teachings of the religion to cleanse the soul (Athrnansiddhi). When a person acts ethically, he will possess happiness of soul and spirit. Ethics in Hinduism depends on the principles of „Brahma‰ (organised and purposeful norms) ă justice, good, purity, truth (satyam), moderation (shivam) and beauty (sundram). These must be followed according to the class and status of a person. Hindu ethics are influenced by the oldest known source of Hindu laws, the dharmasutras. There are three categories of Dharma ă respect for elders; common rituals and rites; and rules that must be followed by a person. Karma is important in Hindu ethics. It explains that a personÊs actions will manifest themselves in the afterlife. Good is repaid with good while evil is repaid with suffering. Karma also means practices that resemble religious rituals. It teaches people to be responsible for all their actions. In Hindu ethics, there is the principle of yamas (self-control) and niyamas (practice of self-control), which serve as a reminder in all aspects of thought, attitude and behaviour. Hindu ethics were taken from the Vedas (1500BC). The Vedas contain teachings on ethics and the concept of God. Among the teachings of ethics extolled are encouraging worshippers to be disciplined in carrying out Hindu religious duties and performing rituals for their gods. Both these matters are considered noble ethics. Disobeying either element is considered unethical and despicable. Among the signs of an ethical person are liberation, health, wealth and happiness which can be achieved if the person undertakes what is required in Hinduism. In other words, Hinduism is considered the source of noble ethics and prioritises dharma, ahimsa, dhruthi, kahamaa, damo, stheyam, showcha, mindriya, nigharam and dheer.
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Sikhism
Elements of morality are contained in the Sikh holy book, Guru Granth Sahib. This book was written in prose form with three main components ă the need for development of the being, relationship among people and standardising the existence of the spirit that is deemed to be the final purpose. Sikhism advises its followers to eliminate five aspects that are morally bad: lustful desire (Kam), greed (Lobh), desire of material possessions (Moh), anger (Krodh) and arrogance (Ahankar). These five things are said to disrupt the inner calm of a person and result in immoral actions. A Sikh is required to possess five symbols, which are uncut hair, wooden comb, iron bangle, small sword (as shown in Figure 4.1) and clothes that protect oneÊs dignity. All these items have a practical purpose in a SikhÊs life. A noble personality can be achieved through numerous interactions with the holy verses in the Guru Granth Sahib. Sikhism is a religion that places importance on discipline in life, perfection, spirituality and inner calm, and social obligations.
Figure 4.1: Iron bangle, wooden comb and small sword Source: Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikhism#Baptism_and_theKhalsa
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EXERCISE 4.4 Is a religion unethical if its followers do not practise ethical traits?
4.4
BELIEFS
In this section, we will discuss three main beliefs: 1.
Confucianism
2.
Taoism
3.
Animism
4.4.1
Confucianism
Confucianism is not a religion but the teaching of moral values. It teaches about proper conduct in relationships between people. It stresses on the importance of living as a family and a society. The „way‰ (Tao) doctrine touches on good conduct and manners, etiquette, politeness, moderation and nobleness. This teaching does not reject belief in God but instead, places importance on the real world rather than the afterlife. Cleanliness and a healthy body will show the capability (Ti concept) of a person. The teachings of Confucius are contained in the following four books: 1.
The Analects;
2.
The Great Learning;
3.
The Doctrine of the Mean; and
4.
The writings of the philosopher Mencius.
4.4.2
Taoism
According to Laozi, author of the „Tao-te ching (Dao-de jing)‰, dao is the first source of all problems and matter in this environment. Dao is the path that produces all things. It cannot be heard or seen and is not concrete. LaoziÊs teachings encompass four concepts: Dao gives birth to one (Dao sheng yi), one gives birth to two (Yi sheng er), two give birth to three (Er sheng san) and three give birth to all beings (San sheng wan wu).
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From this concept, it is clear that Taoism gives priority to the balance between two extremes, materialism and spirituality. Taoism also places importance on meditation and reflection in life. It believes that the physical shape can be altered into an immortal being through knowledge of chemistry. It creates chemical pills that can enable humans to live forever. Dao is also a code of ethics in Taoism.
4.4.3
Animism
Animism refers to belief in supernatural beings, and is prevalent among aborigines. In Malaysia, the aborigines are called Orang Asli. This term was given by the British during the colonial era. The three biggest groups of Orang Asli are Negritos, Senoi and Melayu Asli (Original Malays). Generally, they practise animism which is the belief that every object (stone, wood, cave, mound and such) has a spirit (Kamus Dewan, 1989). Most Negritos believe that all objects have energy and that the world is inhabited by many gods and powerful beings (Jasman Ahmad and Rosnah Ramli, 1997). There are gods who give rain, ripen crops, create typhoons and more. The Senoi have four main gods ă Engku, Karei, Hilok and Hiwoh. Nowadays almost 85% of Melayu Asli are Muslims. Despite being Muslims, taboos still have a strong influence in their lives as they live in the jungle. To a certain extent, they still maintain various tribal customs in certain occassions like weddings and funerals.
SELF-CHECK 4.1 Compare the beliefs of Confucianism, Taoism and Animism.
4.5
PRIORITY OF VALUES
For the purpose of understanding priority of values, let us look into Islamic values. Some of these values have also been accepted by non-Muslim communities. In managing organisations in the country the values applied are trust, honesty, responsibility, hard work, sincerity, orderliness, discipline, putting interests of society above personal needs, willingness to make sacrifices, looking ahead, and good behaviour and conduct. Flexibility does exist in Islam. One example is in the performance of prayers. Under certain circumstances, such as when travelling, prayers can be shortened or accumulated, if conditions are met. Islam always gives leeway in setting general principles in politics, administration, management and others. The Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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fundamental principles do not change; instead the general principles depend on the location, environment and time. Why does Islam give leeway in general? It does so because it wants to nurture excellence.
ACTIVITY 4.3 Politics is one of the branches in Islam and serves to formulate ethics for citizens. For an explanation of Islamic politics in the administration of a country, refer to Mustafa Hj Daud. (1994) Pengantar Politik Islam, DBP. Explain your findings understanding.
in
your
own
words
to
enhance
your
Islam is the official religion of Malaysia. However, other religions are freely and peacefully practised in the country, as enshrined in the Constitution. Therefore, in discussing noble and moral values, references are taken from Islam and other religions practised by Malaysians to form the standard for moral values in Malaysia.
EXERCISE 4.5 Compare religion, beliefs and morals in shaping a noble individual.
An understanding of the moral principles discussed in this topic will help you to practise good moral values effectively.
These are principles of duty, existentialism, goodness, badness, human evolution, ambition, trust, Ikram Muslimin, leadership and patience.
Knowledge of these principles would lead to the cultivation of humans with strong principles and a sense of survival.
We have discussed values in religion and beliefs that are practised by the people of Malaysia. Overall, all religions and beliefs in the world require their followers or worshippers to do good.
Individuals who have a religion may not necessarily practise their religious teachings well and may even go against the teachings. However, we cannot state that a particular religion promotes violence just because of a few bad Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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hats who do not practise the religion fully. Religion is good and noble, only the followers fall short.
Anyone who practises religion wholeheartedly would surely be a noble individual with high ethics, and thus receive good consequences. Those who do not practise wholeheartedly would perform evil acts in the world. They will receive their just reward.
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Topic 5
Moral Thoughts and Identity of a Human with Morals
LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of the topic, you should be able to:
1.
Explain four trends of moral thoughts;
2.
Differentiate the characteristics of the four trends of moral thoughts;
3.
Compare the effects of the four trends of moral thoughts;
4.
Identify the importance of trends of moral thoughts in everyday life.
5.
Identify five matters that can influence the attitude of a person;
6.
Discuss three positive honourable traits in forming morals and personality; and
7.
Discuss four behaviours to form consistency of moral values.
INTRODUCTION
Awareness of the importance of morals in life will ensure that an individual obeys and practises moral values. The awareness and practise of moral values by an individual can be judged through speech, good behaviour and proper action. A moral human being should have positive perceptions and thoughts towards ethics and morals. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Although there are moral conflicts and contradictions, a moral individual would be able to overcome them through the best possible means in accordance with the moral values practised. The discussion in this topic encompasses moral thoughts like naturalism, emotivism, intuitional and rationalism. You will also be exposed to characteristics and the effects of each type of moral thought discussed in this topic. Strong virtues can make a person affirm his or her principles in life. The conduct and personality of this person will not be easily influenced by any external forces. Identity is important because something that is good can easily be corrupted into something bad. In this topic, we will discuss matters that can influence the change in traits of a person and how moral consistency can be achieved.
5.1 THOUGHT AND CONDUCT Is there a relationship between the type of thought and behaviour? In daily life, we often face problems that require us to act and react in a particular situation. Whatever your action or reaction, it is linked to your thoughts on appropriate moral values as well as your personal moral values. The conduct and lifestyle of an individual are greatly influenced by the development of moral values received from a very young age and how the development is accepted and strengthened within the individual. Environment and experiences also alter and shape an individualÊs conduct. However, this situation contradicts several moral development theories discussed in previous topics. A personÊs actions towards a problem will be supported by the intellectual aspect and maturity of thought that are largely ignored by several theories on moral development. Derek Wright (1979) stated that inner feelings function to pressure, weaken and shift instinctive powers that can breach the moral rules of society. Values cultivated through intellectual aspects can control inner feelings and change views and conduct towards certain matters. The conclusion is that a personÊs conduct and actions can be influenced by how he or she thinks and evaluates his/her actions, and the consequences of such actions, as explained in the theories of deontology and teleology. Thomas Lickona (1980), in his discussion in the psychoanalysis theory stated that consideration has to be given to the development of moral thought, feelings and moral conduct. Hence, actions and reactions towards a problem may differ between individuals due to different trends in moral thought.
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The differences of trends in moral thought between individuals depend on several factors: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Parental/guardian guidance; Influence by peers; Experiences; and Level of education.
EXERCISE 5.1 What is the relationship between moral thought and conduct?
5.2 TRENDS OF THOUGHT Views or thoughts of a person may differ when facing an object or situation. We might assume bamboo to be of no economic value, but a handicraft entrepreneur might view the same item to be valuable from an arts or economic perspective.
ACTIVITY 5.1 Meta-ethics is the study of existing ethical problems. Gather discussions on it and its relationship with trends in moral thoughts from this book: Tam Yeo Kwai (1996). Pendidikan Moral 1: Konsep dan Program Pendidikan Moral. Kump. Kuala Lumpur: Budiman Sdn. Bhd. There are different opinions or thoughts on issues or matters related to morals. There are four trends in moral thought, which are shown in Figure 5.1. Rationalism
Intuitional
Trends in Thought
Naturalism
Emotivism Figure 5.1: The four trends in moral thoughts Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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5.2.1
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Naturalism
Naturalism focuses on thoughts that picture an actual situation. This trend is straight and honest in evaluating something. A person following this trend will view something objectively in the actual situation. In conduct, a naturalist always believes that a custom must be preserved at all costs. This group will accept things as they are and will not question the facts or reasons that influence the occurrence of an issue or what is around them. (a)
Characteristics of Naturalism Generally, people adhering to naturalism have restrictive lives. They live under pressing circumstances as they are stifled by strict rules. To them, the breaching of rules will lead to uncomfortable circumstances, due to external pressure. A person who practises naturalism seldom offers an opinion, as he or she cannot fathom how there can be any acceptable justification for breaking any rule. Hence, it is more preferable for them to accept any situation as it is. In other words, they are able to, in reality, view a situation as right or wrong but their thoughts are stifled by what is obvious versus the hidden meaning. Thus, they accept the fact as it is and submit without much questioning.
(b)
Consequences of Naturalism Individuals in groups practising naturalism always humble themselves due to living under pressure. They lack interaction with others, as they fear stepping out of perceived boundaries. Therefore, they fail to form their own personal opinions and are always dependent on others. It is difficult for them to find a place in society and they will try to achieve fulfilment in life as swiftly as possible and without improving their personal development. A society that practises naturalism is weak-willed and submissive to outside forces or general consensus. Thus, this trend retards efforts to achieve perfection in life. People from this group are naturally loyal followers who rarely dissent.
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Mother, I want to have my wedding on top of the building.
It’s not our custom to have a wedding on top of a building. So, don’t break our custom. It must be preserved at all costs.
Figure 5.2: A scenario on naturalism
EXERCISE 5.2 Describe the characteristics of an individual practising naturalism.
5.2.2
Emotivism
The trend of thought that is based on feelings is appropriately called emotivism. The word emotivism originated from the word „emotion‰. Any object or situation stirs up feelings in an individual. These feelings may be of joy or sadness, hate or love, and so on. Happiness refers to matters that are pleasant, likeable and agreeable and provide self-satisfaction. On the flipside, anger or hatred refers to situations that are unpleasant or stir up feelings of jealousy and envy. The groups in this trend of thought are quite sensitive towards pleasant or unpleasant things. Usually, a person practising this trend of thought is easily touched as feelings always precede thought in actions or reactions towards his or her circumstances. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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These individuals are very sympathetic to sad situations and conditions. Generosity and kindness are virtues exhibited by this group. Therefore, it is not surprising that individuals in this group are always eager to help out without viewing the reality of an incident. They feel sad when they are unable to help, very sensitive in nature and it is not uncommon for them to cry during a movie. On the other hand, this group can be easily angered when faced with unpleasant situations, even if the situation occurred forcibly. Like naturalism, emotivism often disregards hidden moral values in a moral event or situation. (a)
Characters of Emotivism Individuals who practise emotivism are, by nature, very sensitive to others and their surroundings. Sympathy and pity for others who have experienced any unpleasantness, come easily to them. However, emotivists can also be easily offended and can be jealous or envious of others. They easily suffer emotional stress due to events where the issues are uncertain. These uncertainties make them aggressive, especially in the face of unpleasant situations or problems. They tend to be introverted, unwilling to socialise and are often seen alone. Although this is the norm for them, they are also hardworking in improving themselves to gain the attention of others.
(b)
Consequences of Emotivism Emotivism prioritises feelings when making decisions. Therefore, this group acts according to their emotions when dealing with a particular issue. These feelings can be judged through their facial expressions, mannerisms and speech. Their inability to control their emotions often leads to moral problems and their immediate actions towards a situation are based mainly on their emotions at the time. When their emotions are stirred up, these individuals act uncertainly. Their actions are influenced by the circumstances of the moment and are based on their feelings or emotions at the time.
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Hey, why are you crying? It’s only a TV show!
Figure 5.3: A scenario on emotivism
EXERCISE 5.3 Describe the dangers of emotions when dealing with a moral issue.
5.2.3
Intuitional
The third trend in moral thought is known as intuitional thoughts. The word intuitional originated from the Latin word „intueor‰ which meant looking exactly at something. Intuitional is a process of viewing or understanding something intellectually. Past experiences and focused thoughts are the shortcuts to knowledge that will be created by reflective thoughts. Hence, individuals with many experiences will have better intuition and will act appropriately when faced with a problem. These individuals are also generally well-behaved and possess high morals. Through past experiences, a person will possess knowledge that is different from that which is obtained intellectually. In other words, experience matures the thought functions and knowledge of a person. Hence, when individuals with intuitional thoughts view a matter, they act more appropriately if they have been through many experiences, coupled with knowledge learnt.
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(a)
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Characteristics of Intuitional Thoughts Individuals with intuitional thoughts make decisions easily. Even so, this sometimes renders the decision and action taken as unsuitable. Though armed with experience and knowledge, several procedures have to be followed to make the actions and decisions more effective. These individuals obtain knowledge through a process of understanding and direct meaning. Thus, they act according to their intuition based on their experiences and knowledge. Through these two things, an intuitional thinker has the shortcut to knowledge created by reflective thoughts. In simpler terms, the moral action taken resulting from a moral issue differs from knowledge gained intellectually.
(b)
Consequences of Intuitional Thoughts Intuitional individuals accept instructions easily as they believe in the feasibility of the matter. As a result, they often change their minds to adapt to newly received instructions. Strictly speaking, they are unstable on the point of principles because they constantly change their mind.
5.2.4
Rationalism
Rationalists believe in the logical practicality of things. They are naturally quite opposed to naturalists who view matters according to what they see. Rationalism, on the other hand, questions the existence of a situation. Rationalists believe that interpretations through the senses such as sight, touch, sound, smell and taste are just mental knowledge or images. Real knowledge is gained from concepts and laws. Senses alone are not capable of identifying the various truths of an event or nature. This group interprets an event, a situation, an issue, a truth or deceit through the appropriateness of it occurring. Therefore, one cannot deal with the event, situation, issue, truth or deceit by only looking at the active picture. The reasons and logic behind these need to be considered. (a)
Characteristics of Rationalists In performing any action, these individuals use their thoughts and powers of deduction. They do not rely only on sensual experiences, as they believe that experience through the senses is not capable of, or sufficient for, producing a valid interpretation of events. They do, however, believe that factual experience can be a valid measure for interpreting matters. Rationalists are always logical, sane and rational in their thinking as their actions are based on rational reasoning and thought. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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(b)
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Consequences of Rational Thought Rationalists usually make careful actions and decisions. This is done by their search for solid proof. Rationalists are individuals who always strive to improve themselves. This improvement can be achieved through effort, hard work, diligence and steadfastness. In short, individuals with rational thoughts will act based on proof and logic in any situation and as a result, their actions are rational and are not influenced by emotion and intuitive thoughts.
Don’t eat at this restaurant! People say that the tea here is laced with drugs!
Don’t make such accusations without proof! Figure 5.4: Scenario on rationalism
Which group do you think you belong to? In conclusion, every individual has a way or trend of thought that differs in moral concepts. These trends will drive or determine the way an individual acts towards a moral issue. The trend of thought in a person can be observed through the way he or she interprets and acts towards a certain moral issue. This means that trends of moral thought decide the conduct of a person.
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Table 5.1: Trend of Thought: Characteristics and Consequences Trend of Thought
Characteristics
Consequences
Naturalism
Stressed out due to being stifled by strict rules
Humble and others
dependent
on
Emotivism
Sensitive due to controlling thoughts
feelings
Act according to feeling and emotions
Intuitional
Act based on intuition stemming from experience and knowledge gained
Quick in making decisions yet always changing minds
Rationalism
Act based on reasoning and rational thought
Make decisions and act based on evidence and solid proof
EXERCISE 5.4 1.
Explain the logic in rationalism.
2.
How does an individual with rationalist thoughts act to solve moral issues?
ACTIVITY 5.2 „Gymnasts who go out after midnight will be suspended from participating in international events.‰ The statement above is a source of heated debate among gymnasts. Discuss the possible reasons from the views of the four trends in thoughts, based on their respective characteristics and consequences learnt.
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ACTIVITY 5.3 How do the trends shown below are able to mould a moral human? Discuss this in your tutorial.
5.3 ATTITUDE AND SELF-AWARENESS Self-awareness of attitude influences the actions of an individual. Regardless of whether the attitude is positive or negative, an awareness of it will make a person behave according to the realisation of his attitudes. For example, a friendly person will behave in a friendly manner. Once we realise our attitudes, it is up to us to be consistent in those attitudes or to improve them. Attitudes are gifts from God. Positive or negative attitudes can be felt by oneÊs self. We can also judge our attitude whether it is right or wrong. We are entirely responsible for changing our negative attitudes and maintaining or strengthening our positive ones. Awareness of our attitudes can shape us into individuals with morals and noble manners. If we know our positive attitudes and preserve them, we will be respected by others. The same applies if we change our negative attitudes into positive ones. For example, if a person who has committed a wrongdoing is aware of it and feels regret and remorse for his deeds, he will be respected by those around him. Such is the role of the awareness of positive and negative attitudes in a person.
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The attributes of an individual can be divided into physical, emotional, intellectual and social.
Attributes of an Individual
Physical Attributes
Emotional Attributes
Intellectual Attributes
Social Attributes
Figure 5.5: Individual attributes
5.3.1
Physical Attributes
Humans live in a world entrusted to them by God to manage it as best as they can. Awareness of physical attributes needs to be given attention. A personÊs fulfilment is not just judged by self-fulfilment; there are other factors that need to be considered. Awareness of all the attributes given to us by God should be used to develop oneÊs self to become a successful person with good morals. Opinions claiming that self-fulfilment lies in the fulfilment of attributes are inaccurate. This is because many humans have complete attributes, but poor manners or morals. For example, a person with complete attributes who does immoral acts when compared with a blind person will be less fulfilled. Awareness of self-attributes can build the required moral values. A person lacking in all five senses needs to know his or her limitations. Through selfawareness in evaluating certain concepts, a person can shape himself or herself to be an individual with morals. Unpleasant events in the past can contribute to improved individual awareness of self-attributes. For example, a person who lost a limb in an illegal street race should be aware of the shortcomings of his action and would try to improve his situation. This awareness will not only build a positive attitude, but it will make others realise the consequences of such immoral acts through good advice. Those who were born deformed should be patient with their deficiency and be grateful for other gifts from God to them. There are many examples of the less fortunate who are successful in life. In fact, realising these shortcomings spurs them to achieve fulfilment.
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Individual awareness of self-attributes can also help create moral beings. An individual who realises that he is hot-tempered will be careful of his actions towards others. Being calm and patient will help ease his hot temper. However, an individual who is unaware of his hot temper will not be careful enough when he is socialising and might cause heated situations due to his ignorance.
5.3.2
Emotional Attributes
Emotions play an important role in life. Uncontrolled emotions will render a person aimless in life. Emotions are inner feelings that are expressed through the actions, facial expressions and characteristics of a person. Good and polite acts, calm characteristics and clear facial expressions are results of controlled emotions. Any individual who can control his emotions like jealousy, anger, envy and sorrow will have a calm and patient character. This individual is said to have strength in controlling emotions or to have positive emotions. Likewise, individuals with a hot temper, hatred, envy and jealousy possess negative emotions. Awareness of the concept of emotions can help an individual interact and socialise in society. Realising the concept of emotions makes an individual more careful in behaviour and speech. For example, by realising negative emotions, an individual will be cautious when interacting and socialising so as to avoid creating an undesirable scene. If an individual realises that a conversation with a colleague is turning ugly, he should immediately refrain from arguing before something unpleasant happens. An individual who is unaware of his negative emotions will persist in the discussion, which may lead to conflict or an argument. An individual who is aware of positive emotions usually has stable feelings during a discussion although there might be some differences in opinions. The stable feelings will control any negative emotion that he may have. In conclusion, concepts of self-positivity will bring out good and proper attitudes. Morally, an individual with positive emotions is a person who practises noble moral values.
5.3.3
Intellectual Attributes
Intellectual attributes are based on the knowledge possessed by an individual. A knowledgeable human being acts based on his or her knowledge. If a person realises that a certain act is against his or her knowledge, then he or she might refrain from carrying it out. An individual with certificates, diplomas and degrees is said to possess a positive intellect. If the individual is a source of reference for others in solving problems, his intellectual attributes become more positive. Morally, those who recognise that their concept of intellect are an example to others. On the other hand, a person who has vast knowledge but is Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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unaware of the concept of positive intellect will show conduct that is morally inappropriate. The same applies to those with vast knowledge but who are unaware of negative intellectual concepts; they will display morally negative behaviour. If an individual realises that his intellectual concept is not so positive, his actions would then have to be suited to the knowledge possessed.
5.3.4
Social Attributes
Social attributes refer to a personÊs habits when interacting with others in society. Whether he or she can easily interact, is considerate, sociable, affable and friendly with others determines the positive social attributes possessed. The behaviour of individuals with positive social attributes is usually in accordance with the situations or surroundings that they are in. This makes them likeable and popular among their friends. Morally, they have high moral standards and are aware of their positive social attributes that can help prevent them from performing actions that contradict moral values. Individuals who are not capable of interacting and socialising with others, and are quiet and gloomy, display negative social attributes. There are also those who are aware of their negative social attributes. Though unpopular, they may actually have noble morals. Awareness of these negative social attributes will make an individual careful when socialising so as to not violate any moral values while interacting with others. What do you understand about attitudes and self-awareness? Can you answer the following questions?
EXERCISE 5.5 Describe how the following can prevent someone from breaching moral values: (a) Awareness of emotions (b) Awareness of intellect (c) Awareness of sociability Ê
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5.4
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SELF-ESTEEM
Who do you love the most? Generally, the answer would be your parents, children or others who are the closest to you. When we look in the mirror and see a pimple, we try to remove it. Why do we try to remove the pimple from our face? It is because we love our face. What about seeing a pimple on the face of our loved ones? Would you try to remove that pimple? Ask yourself. The conclusion that we may draw is that we love ourselves more than anybody else. However, there are those who feel disappointed when their looks are not as good as that of their friends. But we should be proud of what is gifted to us. Loving ourselves means that we know our positive characteristics and we are not ashamed of them. When we love and respect ourselves, people will love us for it. How do we create self-esteem? Our actions and speech are among the ways that can show off our self-esteem. Self-confidence in what we have are expressions of our high self-esteem. Likewise, low self-esteem will be expressed through our acts and language. What is the connection between self-esteem and morality? When we like ourselves, we would display positive attributes and refrain from negative attributes. What can you make out of this? The following are signs of high self-esteem which can develop good morals in a person.
5.4.1
Pride and Dignity
We are who we are. We would not harm ourselves. Therefore, our behaviour will reflect how we appreciate and admire ourselves. Self-esteem can enable a person to hold strong to his or her principles. How do we know how to respect ourselves? In this case, we must make the observations through three aspects: 1.
Physical Our physical being is determined by God since the beginning of time. An individual with morals will preserve himself in the best possible way. Moral human beings appear neat and clean; and will strive to be liked by others. Noble values to preserve oneÊs self from deplorable acts will live on when there exists self-esteem and pride in the positive sense. The change to negative attitudes, as a result of external influences, such as improper attire Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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and appearance, would not occur if people with good morals have selfesteem and are proud of GodÊs gifts to them. Therefore, moral people refrain from things opposed to their self-esteem and pride. 2.
Emotions Emotions influence the character of a person. Emotions that are not at ease will be displayed through anxiety, nervousness and such. Anger is expressed through fierce actions, while calm emotions are expressed through gentle, polite and noble conduct. Every person desires peace and refrains from hurtful things. Therefore, emotions stirred from something hurtful need to be rejected or shunned, whereas emotions that arise from pleasant experiences should be respected. In short, emotions that give rise to good acts should be respected and emotions that cause immoral acts should be avoided. Calm emotions are cultivated through virtues like patience, which creates hard work, diligence, effort and so on.
3.
Intellectual Intellect refers to the wisdom possessed by an individual. Intellect has to be respected and wisdom loved. How do we respect and love our wisdom? The wisdom we possess should be used and spread as well. Wisdom should not be abused. For example, knowledge in computing should be used to develop technology and not used to taint technology or for personal gain through cyber crimes. Respecting and being proud of our wisdom within are through utilisation of such pearls of wisdom, and spreading them for the well-being and benefit of others.
5.4.2
Differentiating Self from Actions
We are beautiful, we are wealthy and we are all that is good. We proclaim that we are intelligent, attractive, polite and moral, but it is our actions that make us undignified and immoral. Thus, by maintaining that we are intelligent, attractive, polite and moral, our actions should follow as such. Realising, differentiating and separating ourselves from actions can enable us to make considerations based on thoughts and not feelings. Hence, negative external influences can be kept at bay and we can be consistent moral human beings.
5.4.3
Determining Wishes
Humans have various wants and needs, as stated by Abraham Maslow. He formulated a hierarchy which outlined five distinct levels of needs according to their order in human necessities. The basic needs are physiological, security, social, gratification and self-accomplishment. Human actions and behaviour are influenced by the determination to fulfil the requirements. In other words, our Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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necessities render us easily influenced. People who can influence us are those who can identify our needs. According to MaslowÊs hierarchy, basic necessities are needs that must be fulfiled before an individual shifts to the next level. The need for self-achievement is at the top of the hierarchy, i.e. an individual will act without influence from his surroundings. The needs in the self-achievement level is for a more comfortable life, broad-mindedness and creativity, mature thoughts, more open emotions and other values.
SELF-CHECK 5.1 1.
How can we prevent our conduct from being negatively influenced by others?
2.
Explain the meaning of, „Ourselves, not our acts‰.
5.5
CONSISTENCY IN MORAL VALUES
Our weakness in valuing ourselves stems from a lack of self-confidence. If you are unable to overcome your weakness, you will be like grass that moves according to the direction of the wind. We should have a sense of honour that is displayed in our deeds and manners. This makes our behaviour noble. Why is it, when we are confident, we can complete a task that we once thought was impossible? Motivation from others often helps us to maintain our performance or develop ourselves. In forming a consistent moral level, individuals must have determination and confidence which can help them to continue practising noble values. We are often advised by our elders to do great things and refrain from bad actions. In any situation, if we are steadfast in determination and good advice, we will be able to accomplish our goals and objectives even though the environment may not be conducive. For example, if we are faithful to religious teachings, we would hold true to our faith in the presence of worldly challenges. However, we must remember that the world is ever challenging. Temptations and obstacles around us can make us forget ourselves sometimes. Therefore, in the context of forming a moral society, we must possess a firm defence so that there will be more moral humans around us. This will make our society upstanding and respected by other countries. To achieve this aim, we should Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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become moral humans who hold noble values tightly and practices them as a way of life. Several things can be practised to increase the consistency of noble values in a person. These things are illustrated in Figure 5.2:
Figure 5.6: Important things that increase consistency of noble values
5.5.1
Self-image
Our self-image is often influenced by others. Our self-image is linked to our culture and religion. This self image changes as a person matures. Teenagers, for example, sometimes imitate the style of popular artistes. At times, they imitate the clothes, hairstyle, speech, behaviour or actions of the artistes without regard for appropriateness. But, it is only worth imitating a star, if the self-image is neat, pleasant and noble. Indecent behaviour should not be followed. Imitation to achieve good is desirable and should be encouraged. Blind imitation of something or someone should be avoided. Every human being has the right to determine his or her own self-image. We have the power to determine our selfimage. We have the power to determine how we view ourselves. We have the power to change our self-image. The changes that we choose should be positive and consistent with our moral principles. We should never let others determine our self-image. If we have a highly consistent of self-image, we will not be easily influenced by others.
5.5.2
Clear on Life’s Moral Aims
Our lifeÊs moral aims should be clear. We must work on achieving these aims. For example, we must be good and useful to ourselves as well as our family, society and country. These aims can be achieved when we have moral values that Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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are acceptable to society. When we strive to achieve these aims, motivation from other people will boost us, while others will not be able to divert us from our aims. We should also identify our aims realistically. Sometimes, our aims are too high and idealistic, but we should be aware of our capabilities. We want to excel every time, but we are sometimes restricted by our own capabilities. One way of improving our capabilities is by telling ourselves positive things. This occurs in our mind and heart and is mainly linked to self-analysis. To strengthen efforts to achieve our lifeÊs moral aims, we should avoid telling ourselves negative things, unless it drives us to do something good. We must also acknowledge our good capabilities and deeds and fortify our strengths and specialness. Thus, our lifeÊs moral aims would be consistent wherever we are.
5.5.3
Strive to Improve Ourselves
Most of our weaknesses are not permanent. We can change and improve our weaknesses and turn them into strengths. We must strive to control our actions. There are many ways to change and improve our weaknesses and one of the ways of doing that is by increasing our knowledge. With knowledge we can discern between what is good and bad. Another way is to foster positive relationships with others. People with low moral aims are always prone to belittling others. They criticise others and forget their aim to be noble beings. We should not look for mistakes in others but instead, seek opportunities to improve ourselves. Interacting with others in a positive manner indirectly increases our efforts to improve ourselves. This is because interaction with others by supporting, agreeing, cooperating and appreciating them, encourages them to motivate, accept and like us. Acceptance and affection from others is an important factor in increasing our morals.
5.5.4
Changing and Maintaining Positive Attitudes
According to Houland, we change our attitudes when we are motivated sufficiently. This means that we easily change our attitudes positively or negatively if there is strong motivation to do so. For example, a person who does not smoke or take drugs starts to do so and becomes a smoker or drug-user, if there is strong motivation to do so. There are five factors that can determine the change of our attitudes. 1.
Listening to the Information Given to Us For example, „donating to the needy is good‰. If we just listen to the statement as it is, then it would not be sufficient to motivate us to start donating to the needy. However, if we listen to a more specific statement, Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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„We must donate to the victims of famine in Africa as the children there are emaciated, starving and suffering from various diseases due to lack of food. Every day, dozens of children die due to the lack of food‰, then only will we be compelled to help, because without our help, more would surely die. Also, imagine if we were in their place. We would surely ask for help from others. This complete information would motivate us to change our attitude and donate sincerely. 2.
Understanding Information Relayed to Us If the information received is not clear, we would not understand it and would not be compelled to change our attitudes. For example, „Neighbours should work together‰. If the information is not understood, then we would not be able to follow it. Therefore, we should understand that the tenets of living as neighbours include unity, cooperation and helping one another. This means, in order to create harmonious and peaceful living in an area, its residents should respect their neighbours, help those in need and cooperate to create a harmonious environment.
3.
Accepting Information and Understanding It Though we listen to and understand relayed information, we would not be compelled to utilise the information if we do not accept it. For example, if we listen and understand that cars are to be parked in designated areas, we would break the rule if we do not accept it. Thus, a change in attitude must start with the desire to accept or reject an attitude.
4.
Recall What We Listen, Understand and Accept Although we listen, understand and accept relayed information, the desired change in attitude would not happen if we forget such information. Therefore, recalling information is important in compelling us to change our attitudes. For example, if we do not care about what we wear, but at the same time listen, understand and accept information on the importance of proper attire when attending a funeral, the change in attitude will not occur when we attend the next funeral.
5.
We Will Change Our Attitude When We Realise that Our Attitude is in Accordance with What We Understand and Accept For example, if we understand and accept that „hard work will bring success‰ and we practise it in accordance with our attitude, this will strengthen our behaviour.
In conclusion, our moral values will be consistent and not change unless there is compulsion to do so. As normal human beings, we are easily influenced by strong motivation from our surroundings. We must have the strength to implement only positive changes in our attitude. For this, we must have the Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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strength in identity to be individuals with morals. This can be achieved when we possess and practise wisdom.
EXERCISE 5.6 1.
Explain how our self-image can show that we practise noble values.
2.
Elaborate on what is meant by „our lifeÊs moral aims can create a being with morals‰.
We have discussed attitudes and self-awareness.
We have also learnt that self-esteem is important in shaping an individual with morals.
The consistent moral values of a person have to be driven by positive attitudes. Refer to Figure 5.3. You should be able to explain your overall understanding of this topic based on this figure.
There are four trends in moral thought: Naturalism, Emotivism, Intuitional Rationalism.
Naturalism focuses on thoughts that picture an actual situation.
Emotivism is based on feelings. People in this trend are quite sensitive towards pleasant or unpleasant things.
Intuational thought is a process of viewing or understanding something intellectually.
Rationalists believe in the logical practicality of things. They question the existence of a situation.
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Figure 5.7: Factors and elements involved in determining the consistency of morals
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6
Shaping Topic Moral Humans
LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1.
Identify the concept of societal rules;
2.
List down 10 societal rules that influence the shaping of morals; humans;
3.
Discuss five examples of noble personalities;
4.
Differentiate between two forms of moral ethics; and
5.
Explain how all three moral dimensions interact with each other.
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION MAN Man is not valued by his property, Celebrated for his beauty, Respected for his courage, His worth is not due to his status, For Man is valued for his goodness, Admired for his diligence and charity, Respected for his wisdom, Remembered for his wealth of knowledge, He is renowned for his culture, Only with knowledge can man be differentiated with anything at all. (Ee Ah Meng, 1996) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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This topic will discuss the forming of a moral society, encompassing rules for society, human personality, moral forms and moral dimensions.
6.1
SOCIETAL RULES
Humans need rules to govern their lives so that they do not run wild, threatening the safety and rights of others. According to Emmet (1996), rules for humans do not exist by themselves. They are a collection and a result of knowledge and experience, new and old. For Muslims, the rules governing their lives stem from the QurÊan and Hadith. The Hadith describe the meanings in the QurÊan that cannot be understood by human. Because Allah created man, it is Allah who is the most qualified to determine the rules that govern life, for it is He who knows best the needs, wants and habits humans. When there are rules that govern life, one is able to save time making choices and decisions because there are already rules available as a reference. According to Ashmore (1987), all things in this world function according to definite rules or laws. All living things, including the sun, moon, stars, tides, night and day, move or change according to definite rules. Humans are is capable of setting aims or targets based on these definites. Humans can also break rules originally set by themselves. Praise and admonition, reward and punishment are in place enforce the rules that control human behaviour. From a religious point of view, all religious rules are not allowed to be broken by their followers. A breach of religious rules is a sin against God and sinners will receive retribution and punishment accordingly. Within the rules of society, there are two types of moralities: (a)
Moralities in Customs (Kemoralan Adat)
(b)
Reflective Moralities (Kemoralan Reflektif)
Moralities in customs are: 1.
Rules and instructions that are agreed upon and validated by society.
2.
Standards that are passed down from one generation to another. E.g. Adat Perpatih and Adat Temenggung.
Reflective Morality, however, is: 1.
The need for reasoning and consideration, be it to know and obey or disobey the teachings of a custom.
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Justification for teachings of customs is by critical examination of the practice of those customs.
From the statement above, we can deduce that within a moral system, an individualÊs actions are rule-governed, meaning that all actions of the same nature are considered in the same way. Consistency and reciprocity point the attitude of a moral agent towards his own actions as well as those of others, i.e. he will use „moral language‰ like justice, honour, benevolence and temperance. His moral system will also encompass both general and specific norms. For example, the needs and welfare of others are things that are given attention by a moral agent. He regards himself to be the same as others and will be sympathetic with their plight. Individuals like these will create awareness of the need for a community to shape the criteria for coordinating interactions between one another. An agreement will be reached based on shared tendencies of their needs. Among the rules governing society that are involved in the forming of a moral human are: 1.
Increasing the quality of life;
2.
Widening intellect so that it can function effectively;
3.
Protecting lives and allowing them to live;
4.
Preserving the welfare and rights of humans;
5.
Preventing the decline of conduct and moral system in society;
6.
Stabilising the situations and environment of society;
7.
Preserving peace within society;
8.
Creating and maintaining social order;
9.
Maintaining peace in an environment of harmony; and
10.
Saving societyÊs time and effort when taking action or making decisions for oneÊs self and others.
ACTIVITY 6.1 Do you feel that the societal rules stated are complete? Form your own reflections on the list above. Discuss this with your classmates.
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However, it is difficult for people to follow all societal rules, and we also cannot force a person to do so. Therefore, when there are a few who disobey or object to a certain societal rule, we hope they would immediately seek a solution and form new societal rules agreeable to all. If not, chaos would ensue as the functions of the societal rules listed earlier will be challenged and the moral system will crumble drastically. In Malaysia, the racial riot that occured on 13 May 1969 is a clear example. When societal rules and laws of the country are challenged, conflict between groups of people occurs and riots that cost lives and property take place. The incident is a black mark in our nationÊs history. Therefore, tolerance, cooperation, unity and other positive qualities are important values that need to be absorbed into societal rules to guarantee the safety of MalaysiaÊs citizens. In conclusion, the reason for having societal rules is to preserve human nobleness and peace in society. As moral humans, people should not disregard this statement.
EXERCISE 6.1 1.
How can rules in society be strengthened by the members of the society?
2.
What is the importance of rules in social living?
6.2
HUMAN PERSONALITY
The second ethics content of moral humans are a good personality that can be admired enough to be considered a moral human. This is an important statement supported by most moral philosophers. Wallace (1978), who widely discussed virtues and vice, provided proof that a noble personality is an important attribute for humans and for peace to prevail in society. Feng (1993), in a report on the implementation of moral studies in schools in the West, presented statements on the development of noble character in students during moral studies. This is because educators in this country agree that noble character is an important moral content in the shaping of an individual. Brandt (1979), in his book, A Theory of the Good and the Right, stated that most societies have a system of control over human conduct that differs from set laws. Brandt called this system the moral code or code of ethics of an individual or a certain society. The code of ethics of an individual is the individualÊs conscience, Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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and not everyone has a code of ethics. According to Brandt, infants and children do not have a code of ethics as this code is not naturally possessed, but needs to be learnt by an individual, much like a noble personality.
ACTIVITY 6.2 According to AristotleÊs Theory of Virtues, a noble personality is not naturally possessed. However, this opinion received opposition from several parties. Follow the discussion in this book: Tam Yeow Kwai (1996). Pendidikan Moral 1: Konsep dan Program Pendidikan Moral. Kuala Lumpur: Kump. Budiman Sdn Bhd. Share your findings with your classmates. A person needs to be exposed to situations in his surroundings and be taught through several approaches like religious studies, moral studies or parental training, before gaining a noble character. However, Brandt suggested that in order to identify if an individual has a code of ethics or noble character, one should see if the individual has the following five traits: 1.
Intrinsic motivation;
2.
Feelings of guilt and disagreement;
3.
Trusted interests;
4.
Admiration; and
5.
Trusted justification.
6.2.1
Intrinsic Motivation
An individual has intrinsic desires or aversions to do or not do something in a certain way. For example, aversion to breaking oneÊs word, hurting others and providing help to those who need it. If queried about the reasons for such actions that follow intrinsic motivation, the individual would say, „I did so because I did not want to break my word‰. If an individual has an aversion to behaving in a certain manner, he or she would usually expect others to have a similar aversion. Sometimes, motivated people would sacrifice their self-interest and not do something, but they would not stop others from doing so. However, intrinsic motivation used this way is not encouraged in society. The most obvious positive effects displayed by people with intrinsic motivation are the aversions to hurting or killing someone, and the desire to save someone from danger.
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Feelings of Guilt and Disagreement
When an individual acts contrary to his own intrinsic motivation, he will feel uncomfortable, guilty and remorseful. When other individuals act against the intrinsic motivation of the earlier mentioned individual, then he will have a negative attitude towards them. He would feel angry, disgusted and hatred (especially when he becomes a victim of their actions). The same applies to an individual who dislikes people who disagree with his actions or behaviour. If he knows that others disagree with him, he would feel uneasy and guilty. However, disagreement of others will improve his code of ethics or increase the effectiveness of the code so that it will be a deterrent of dislikeable actions or behaviour.
6.2.3
Trusted Interests
Conduct resulting from intrinsic motivation is considered vital to a person. LetÊs say that a man intrinsically believes that it is important to help accident victims. If one day he comes across an accident, it is very likely that he will help the victims.
6.2.4
Admiration
Do you admire or look up to somebody? Why? May be it is because that person does something one step higher than what is required by basic moral motivation. For example, a person who would do something very good that was never thought of by others, or a soldier who sacrifices himself to save his fellow soldiers from the blast of a hand grenade. In these cases, the individuals act beyond what is expected by basic motivation. This act or behaviour is sometimes called „act of supererogation‰. It is logical that an individual has intrinsic motivation, or guilt and such but lacks the command of linguistics to express an action. We use terms like morally ought to, morally reprehensible, moral obligation and so on. It is difficult for the code of ethics to control the behaviour between individuals if an individual does not know how to communicate motivation, actions and feelings. The code of ethics also requires a complex structure of concept. Only by knowing special terms for motivation and moral actions can an individual understand and appreciate this complex concept of morals.
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Trusted Justification
An individual must trust the justification for his motivation, guilt, agreement, admiration and others. An example of justification is religion. If a person is faithful to religious teachings, he would consider his moral principles as the will of God. Thus, he will be satisfied with his morality. According to Brandt, if a person has all the attributes above, that person has a code of ethics. However, this depends on the personÊs ability to view and judge it. Other than Brandt, several other educators have argued on the importance of noble virtues in increasing the quality of morality in society. Among them is Warnock (1976), who emphasised justice, affection and aversion to hurting others physically and mentally. Ashmore (1987) said that a doctor who disregards his skills and talents in performing his duties or uses his knowledge for immoral acts is not using his expertise with the proper attitude and means.
ACTIVITY 6.3 Why are virtues important in shaping a moral human? How can it help someone lead a more meaningful and dignified life?
For example, in our society, there are people who are well-behaved in the front of others. However, behind the backs of others, they commit negative acts. Unhealthy business competition, white-collar crime, jealousy at the workplace and so on exist as a result of human nature that disregards virtues. As a conclusion, an individual who has virtues will benefit himself and those around him. Only by obeying rules of social living can we live in a comfortable and complete situation and environment. The well-being and welfare of members of society depend on virtues that should be possessed by all beings in this world. „The best of humans are those who benefit others‰.
ACTIVITY 6.4 1.
Provide examples of acts that could make a person feel guilty.
2.
LetÊs say A does something bad to B. Should B forgive A? Explain your answer.
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6.3 FORMS OF MORALS Decisions should be based on moral principles, especially justice and altruism, which are the basic values and mother of all other principled ethics. Through advances in science and technology, especially information technology, human connection is increasingly getting closer and the world environment more complex. Thus, many are thinking about the forming of a world village. This concept might be realised if the world has a code of ethics acceptable to all humans but is this possible? There are many countries in this world, with various races and ethnic groups living in them. Each society has its own laws, rules, code of ethics, customs, cultures and system of administration. The individuals in every society cannot run away from questions of morality and moral problems. Although an individual lives in a modern society, he is still influenced by the rules of customs and cultures of his society. Most probably, he might not be able to solve his modern-life problems with the outdated rules that are still influential in the society.
ACTIVITY 6.5 You have been offered a high position in a company that practises corrupt acts. Is it right for you to accept the position and work within the corrupt system, yet strive to do your best? Can you do it? This situation is exempted if a courageous individual opposes this system and makes a firm decision without regard for the views of society. If not, he or she might have to face this moral dilemma and live in agony. When faced with a moral dilemma, what should you do? How would you do it? What are the consequences? What are your feelings? According to Wesserstrom (1979), it is only through virtues that an individual can overcome moral problems. Virtues can be a basic guide for the individual in making decisions and taking actions. Virtues are the moral content of an individual. Virtues are not basic tools to determine what should or should not be done; in fact, they can create doubt and put an individual in a more blurred and complex situation. The individual would finally seek help by asking „What and how should I do? What? How?‰. If such, how can we solve moral dilemmas or conflicts? Figure 6.1 shows the process of solving moral dilemmas or conflicts according to Grassian (1981). He suggested two forms of ethics, principlistic and situational. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Figure 6.1: Process of solving conflict or moral dilemma
6.3.1
Principlistic Ethics
When making a decision on a moral dilemma, we can use the most basic moral principles, especially justice and altruism, which are the basic values and mother of all other noble values. Therefore, these two principles will be used as examples in explaining the forms of ethics. Justice originated from the Latin word justus which means law or right. Now, justice refers to righteousness, rectitude, impartiality and fairness. According to other sources, justice means suitable and appropriate attributes (people, acts, actions, decisions, laws, punishment, etc); impartial to any side (when deciding something and such). Therefore, the concept of justice involves any fair actions and behaviour towards oneÊs self and others, not detrimental to self and others, as well as treats every one equally without regard for status, race and so on. The question of justice leads to the issue of human rights and autonomy. A person is entitled to human rights and is free to make his own choices and decisions. However, any action is still subject to the limits of the laws in the country and societal rules. The important question is, are the laws and rules that
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restrict actions fair or unjust? We can see many protests by certain parties (factory workers, students, supporters, political leaders) in the world today. Social justice is a tool for preserving the welfare of members of society. Therefore, when judging the justice of a society, we compare its quality with that of other societies, in aspects like wealth, effectiveness, military strength or educational standards. The principle of altruism is also an important principle of ethics that acts as a reference when taking a moral action. According to Nagel (1970), the book, The Possibility of Altruism, explains the word ÂaltruismÊ as an attitude or act that pleases others, benefits and is considerate of others. Therefore, an altruist is a generous person or a philanthropist. Nagel also mentioned that in order to become altruistic, an individual must also have empathy (the ability to place oneself in anotherÊs position); and be open, trusting, and tolerant and accepting of others. Frankena (1973) reported ButlerÊs view on altruism, that sometimes an individual demands satisfaction not for himself but for others. It might be seen as selfsacrifice but according to psychological egoists, a person may derive satisfaction from doing things for others. Therefore, it is in their self-interest. In contrast, altruists believe that humans only desire to perform actions that benefit others. Although justice and altruism are the main principles in ethics, there are differences between them; justice is a rational thing (acts, behaviour and actions), while altruism is an extraordinary human attribute. However, these two principles are the basis of other moral values, like honesty, hard work and soon. It is these values that enable a person to act more efficiently and effectively when facing an extraordinary situation, like in a moral dilemma.
6.3.2
Situational Ethics
Sometimes, in a certain situation, an individual needs to make decisions and act according to the situation he is in. Grassian (1981) reported views and examples given by Fletcher, who opposed the three approaches used for some problems and to make moral decisions. The three approaches are: legalism, antinomianism and situationism. According to Fletcher (in Grassian, 1981), a person who uses a situational approach:
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Â⁄enters into every decision-making situation fully armed⁄with ethical maxims⁄and he treats them with respect as illuminators of his problems just the same he is prepared in any situation to compromise them or set them aside in the situation if love seems better served by doing so.Ê Ethical maxims here mean ethical rules or principles used to overcome problems based on certain situations. However, Fletcher did not explain further on the rules or principles used in certain situations, like the example given in his book. The example was about an abortion case in the early 1960s. According to Grassian, he supported the decision of the pregnant woman, but those opposing the actions also give the reason of loving concern for the unborn foetus. From this example, we find that a situation taken based on a situation can be controversial, depending on whether the principles of ethics used are suitable or not. Therefore, this matter reverts to the same question of whether ethics of principles or ethics of situations need to be prioritised in solving moral dilemmas. Most moral educators favour the use of the ethics of principles to the ethics of situations. They claim that making decisions based on ethics of situation is too desperate and there is a risk of making inaccurate and controversial decisions. However, we can summarise here that a person can make decisions and take moral actions in a moral problem by considering the situation that causes the problems and based on basic principles and moral values within himself.
ACTIVITY 6.6 Can you list the differences between principlistic morals and situational morals?
6.4
MORAL DIMENSIONS
Moral dimensions refer to the reasoning, behaviour and feelings of an individual. They allow the individual to be always in a wary state so that anything done is according to the normative wishes of where he is. For example, a person who commits wrongdoing or immoral acts would feel fear, regret or guilt. If he feels such emotions, he would not repeat anti-norm and anti-social behaviour. Therefore, moral emotions in the dimension of ethics (moral philosophy) are very important in determining what could or could not be done by an individual. Actually, the three dimensions in ethics are equally important morally.
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Kupperman (1983) reported that people who carry out immoral acts are not necessarily smarter or more foolish than ordinary people. However, immoral individuals are usually insensitive towards the misery of their victims as they face difficulty in gaining moral values. When an individual can reason rationally and freely, the character of the individual in conduct and actions will be expressed. This character will be influenced by the emotions and feelings of the individuals. At the same time, this behaviour is moral in nature, does not only follow instructions from reasoning, and this reasoning might be controlled by external authorities. On the other hand, reasoning without rationale, freedom and moral emotions and feelings will produce a character that is not autonomous and possibly immoral.
Exercise 8.3 Therefore, the three dimensions must interact and influence one another to build an individual with morals. Generally, a moral human is autonomous, rational and free in the three dimensions of ethics · reasoning, behaviour and feelings.
EXERCISE 6.2 How does the concept of developing moral values in the world village work?
Virtues depend on societal rules and customs.
The relationship between reasoning, feelings and behaviour in the dimensions of ethics is also vital in forming a human moral.
Within the rules of society, there are two types of morality: moralities in customs and reflective moralities.
An individual who has virtues will benefit himself and those around him.
Decisions made should be based on moral principles, especially justice and altruism, which are the basic values and mother of all other principled ethics.
Moral dimensions refer to the reasoning, behaviour and feelings of an individual.
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Freedom Topic 7 and Justice
LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.
Explain spiritual freedom and obtaining rights in life;
2.
Explain freedom from slavery among men and freedom from the slavery of societal values and norms;
3.
Discuss the five concepts of freedom in Malaysia; and
4.
Explain the concept of justice in freedom.
INTRODUCTION
Moral conflicts sometimes arise among those who are ignorant of abuse their rights of freedom and justice. Freedom and justice cannot be separated. What is the use of our freedom if we commit mischief? Therefore, freedom should be accompanied with justice. According to the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, freedom is a situation of doing or saying something without restriction from any party. In this topic, we will elaborate on freedom from the moral perspective, based on the moral concepts of our country. Freedom from a moral point of view is doing something good and saying proper things without restrictions from any party in society. This topic will also touch on justice so that you could link freedom and justice in everyday life. As the citizens of an independent country, we have the freedom to elect and be elected. We should use freedom fairly in the community and society.
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TOPIC 7
7.1
FREEDOM AND JUSTICE
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FREE SPIRIT AND INDEPENDENT
It is the aspiration of the government of this country to create a country whose people are free-spirited, peaceful, have self-confidence, take pride in what they have, are proud of their achievements and have courage in facing obstacles. Freedom in the Malaysian society makes it easily recognisable with the determination to excel, the awareness of self capabilities, indomitable and respected by fellow citizens. The realisation of our freedom will be supported as long as it does not cross the boundaries of moral values in the Malaysian society. This freedom has enabled many Malaysians to achieve success in many aspects like sports and education. This freedom allows us to compete based on our capabilities and indomitable spirit. There are two types of freedom that need to be possessed by humans · spiritual freedom and freedom from slavery (obtain various rights).
7.1.1
Spiritual Freedom
Humans need to break free from orders and commands that contravene GodÊs wishes. For this, they need to free themselves from being enslaved by those other than God. Humans need to be themselves from the fear of others; man-made values and norms that are negative; and their own desires. Islam states that spiritual slavery is only towards Allah. In our society today, spiritual freedom according to moral aspects is difficult to be interpreted. We might say spiritual freedom refers to a liberated spirit or soul. This is an intrinsic value and is sometimes not easily expressed on the outside. It is hidden by the individual, until it is manifested in psychological problems (mental illness, insanity or madness). On the outside, an individual might be seen as being free but on the inside they are not. In this case, the conflict of spiritual freedom arises from their spiritual freedom being disturbed, restricted or eroded knowingly or unknowingly. For example, the freedom to gain affection is the freedom of an individual. However, if a person in love is not given blessings or stopped by his or her parents, then the individualÊs freedom has been disturbed or restricted. Morally, the individual does not have spiritual freedom. One of the advantages of a person who is faithful to moral and custom values is that these values guide his or her spirit and protect him or her from desires and temptations.
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ACTIVITY 7.1 LetÊs say AÊs parents forced her to end her relationship with B. A accuses her parents of depriving her of spiritual freedom. Is this appropriate? In a group of three or four, discuss this scenario from the freedom and justice point of view.
7.1.2
Freedom from Slavery
Every individual in an independent country is entitled to freedom slavery. In this case, a maid should be free of elements of slavery. One very clear feature is that the maid is given a salary as fee for services rendered. Slavery exists among uncivilised humans. They sell people as forced labourers, with no payment other than food and drink and other basic necessities. These forced labourers are unable to voice their opinions, let alone voice their dissatisfaction. Rules and laws have been drafted to ban slavery among humans. But it still exists in some places. (a)
Free from Slavery among Humans The QurÊan describes humans who enslave themselves to others as those who accept man-made laws that contravene the teachings of Allah. They enslave themselves to others although they do not consider their masters to be gods. Civilised societies now realise the importance of individual freedom. However, until today, various forms of slavery still exist around the world. For example, slavery due to debts or gratitude restricts an individualÊs freedom. LetÊs say a fisherman owes money to a middleman. He is forced to sell his catch to only the middleman, even though he gets paid much lower than the market price. In conclusion, slavery is not legal in any country. But indirect slavery still exists in some places.
(b)
Free from the Slavery of Values and Norms of Society In Islam, wealth and children cannot place a person in a special and high place, unless they are faithful and religious. Faith is a value embedded in the heart. Religious deeds are values seen in the real world. However, Islam does not disregard completely the values of wealth and children. Wealth and children are the ornaments of life. Many humans enslave themselves to their desires. This statement is not an invitation to reject the luxuries of life. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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In this matter, Islam reminds humans of the nature of wealth and children. This reminder makes faithful humans always wary about that nature. In life, there are many instances where humans can be defeated through wealth and children. Man always needs something in life, like food for his family and him. The necessity might drive a man to accept insults and humble himself as his hungry stomach does not recognise noble values. Even his dignity is shattered. To resolve this problem, moral humans should work hard and diligent in improving their economic status. It is obligatory for Muslims to pay zakat (alms tax). Zakat is collected from groups that can afford to give to the needy as a right and not a gift of generosity. Islam expects humans to preserve their dignity. Humans are forbidden from begging and seeking the pity of others. Our conduct is not just restricted by societal rules and practices. Wealth, lineage and glory cannot be used to separate moral values. People with wealth and illustrious lineage should not be given priority in gaining moral rights, as every individual has the same freedom. For example, in freedom to gain education, entry to higher levels are based on academic achievement, not on wealth and status. The same applies to business, where business opportunities should be explored by all levels of society. It is not exclusive to wealthy people only. As long as humans remain a slave to societal values and norms like property, glory, ancestry and so on, they would not be able to gain complete freedom in life. Is it true that there is no slavery in our country? Actually without realising it, slavery still exists as there are many reports in the media about maid or employee abuse. Therefore, although we may say there is no slavery in this modern world, there still exists some form of slavery, whether obvious or not. The conflict of slavery often happens because a person does not know his or her rights to freedom and justice. This will continue to occur if people do not practise moral values and conduct in their life. Do we realise that there is indirect slavery in the world today? The slavery occurs when the freedom and justice of a country is restricted, allegedly for security reasons. Imagine if we cannot enjoy freedom and justice in handling our countryÊs own natural resources. This is happening to some countries which are being controlled by bigger countries.
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EXERCISE 7.1 Discuss indirect slavery from the point of its causes, effects and solutions.
7.2 FREEDOM IN AN INDEPENDENT COUNTRY In an independent country, we have freedoms as provided for in the nationÊs constitution and laws. These freedoms allow us to live comfortably and peacefully. These freedoms include personal freedom, freedom to voice opinions, freedom to own property and freedom to choose. If these freedoms are implemented positively, then we will be truly independent.
ACTIVITY 7.2 MalaysiaÊs formula in creating a free society is contained in Vision 2020, explained by the fourth Prime Minister of Malaysia. Gather two challenges in Vision 2020 that stress on the aspects of free spirit and ethics in an independent Malaysia. You can get more information about this on the Internet. Discuss whether these two challenges can be addressed by 2020.
7.2.1
Personal Freedom
Personal freedom means the right of an individual to move freely and receive protection from any invasion. Individuals cannot be arrested, punished or jailed except according to law. Abuse of this right is a form of tyranny. Tyranny is forbidden in any religion. Individual freedom is not absolute. It is restricted by rules in line with natural features, situations and rules of humans in the world. Humans are commanded to use their intelligence. Intelligence has to be used to free humans from slavery because it will prevent them from following a person or authority blindly. After a person obtains freedom of intelligence, he is given the freedom to choose a religion or belief but he has to be aware that he is fully responsible for his choices.
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TOPIC 7
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Freedom of Speech
The freedom to think and speak is not given absolutely to individuals without any restriction. This freedom is subject to the following limits: (i)
This freedom is to be used for proper purposes and sincere intentions. This freedom is also a tool for obtaining rights, defending the society and giving advice.
(ii)
This freedom is not to be used for bragging, showing off, belittling others, spreading word on disgrace of others for personal profit, wealth and rank.
(iii) This freedom is not to be used at any time to mock any religion. (iv) This freedom should preserve the behaviour and personality of a person to avoid slander, revealing the disgrace of others and making wild accusations.
7.2.3
Freedom to Own Property
Humans have the right to own property. Abuse of this freedom is considered tyranny. For example, the allotment of property to an heir from the estate of the deceased is proof of acknowledgement of individual right to property. The acknowledgement of right to ownership is limited by certain principles · principles of ownership, ways for ownership, ways of expansion and ways of utilisation. Based on the principles of ownership, individuals are only representatives of society in owning property. The ownership of an object or property is more a duty or responsibility rather than actual ownership. Humans cannot limit property to certain groups. Accumulation of property to only certain groups in society is disallowed. As limitation to the freedom to own property, property must be obtained validly. Refrain from taking what belongs to others and be prudent when using it. Humans are called upon to be moderate when spending. Do not be either wasteful or stingy.
7.2.4
Freedom to Make Choices
The freedom to act using mature thought is necessary so that our actions benefit ourselves, family, society and country. All acts must be done with the awareness that we want to do the best that we can. According to Pratley (1995), humans have responsibilities because they have freedom and awareness. Without the freedom to choose something, humans Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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would definitely act without taking into account the concept of responsibility. For example, if a man does not have freedom in life, all his actions would be stifled and controlled to the point where he would not be able to differentiate needs and responsibilities from his inner feelings. The awareness that we have the freedom to choose drives us to be responsible for what we do. We do something thinking about the objectives and purpose that we want to achieve. To achieve an objective, we must evaluate the situation and the consequences of our actions. The concept of independent choice regards humans as educated and gathers belief that life is not decided by factors outside the control of an independent being. Humans who act unhealthily, like in anger and without consideration, act beyond the control of mature thought. As a result, their actions create undesired situations (immoral). We should realise that our awareness of having the freedom prevents us from acting blindly.
7.2.5
Freedom to Choose and Social Responsibilities
Before discussing the freedom to choose, let us look at what is meant by responsibility. There are several definitions of responsibility. Two of the definitions are as the following: (a)
Individual responsibility is where one is not just responsible for intentions, planning and actions, but also any event. On the condition that intent in acting consciously and knowingly, as well as able to look at the possibilities that might occur principally.
(b)
A person is responsible for a wrongdoing if he or she: (i)
Is aware of it but does not prevent it from occurring;
(ii)
Does not want to consider something because he or she does not want to be held responsible; and
(iii) Fails to take necessary steps to announce a danger. Moral responsibility requires freedom. Humans cannot control the unknown but conscious carelessness is not acceptable. The freedom to choose to do something is our right. Therefore, there is no reason that can exempt us from responsibility for our actions. If a person does not have the freedom to choose due to powerlessness or pressure, only then he is exempted from expected responsibilities.
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EXERCISE 7.2 1.
Discuss the freedom to make a living in relation to the municipal authoritiesÊ rules on roadside hawking.
2.
Elaborate on the freedom of speech from the aspects of parliamentary debates and political rallies.
7.3
MORAL JUSTICE
Moral justice is a vital principle of humanity. It should be implemented without considering race, climate and ideology. Social justice covers various aspects of life such as governance, administration, occupation, family and so on. Justice will create peace, harmony and happiness in society. Among these moral justices are equality under the law, political, social and economic justice. Equality under the law means that every individual is equal and there is no provision for special status for certain individuals, groups or families. The caste system should not exist. There are no privileges for individuals socially and such. Humans are commanded to act fairly in all dealings in life. For example, humans should be fair in: (a)
Words and dealings;
(b)
Solving misunderstanding; and
(c)
Dealing with enemies and passing down payment.
7.3.1
Efforts to Preserve Justice
Justice is determined and judged through the voice of the majority. This is obvious in a democratic country, where laws are drafted through the voice of the majority. In upholding justice, a system of legislation comprising enforcers and the judiciary (courts) were created. Actually, preserving justice is not the responsibility of only the judicial system or law enforces. It is the responsibility of each individual to preserve justice. If we come across injustice, we should rectify it. There are many organisations, both governmental and nongovernmental organisations which work to uphold justice. Among them are the Consumers Association and Commission of Human Rights. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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ACTIVITY 7.3 State the importance of obtaining justice in an independent country. Do you feel that the freedom and justice that you have is adequate? Describe your personal view on this.
7.4 CONFLICT OF FREEDOM AND JUSTICE After finding out about the rights to freedom and justice that we are entitled to as Malaysians, there should be no conflicts in our life. However, we believe that conflicts would still occur today. Why? The answer is easy ă man is never satisfied with what he has or owns. As Malaysians who love our country, there should be no conflicts, especially on rights and freedom in an independent country. This is because the freedoms and rights of a citizen are enshrined in the Federal Constitution that is the main reference when there is a related conflict. Hence, being educated, we should be moral agents capable of defending peace and harmony in this independent country of various races and faiths. We should be proud to be citizens of a country blessed by God to be fertile and peaceful.
Freedom encompasses spiritual freedom, freedom to obtain rights in life, freedom from enslavement among humans and freedom from enslavement to societal values and norms.
We also need to understand the meaning of freedom in an independent country, such as personal freedom, freedom to voice opinions, freedom to own property, freedom to make choices and freedom to choose and social responsibilities.
Moral humans should use the freedom and preserve the justice in any situation to guarantee well-being in everyday life.
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Topic 8 Types of
Moral Conflicts and Its Solutions
LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.
Describe types of conflicts;
2.
Explain strategies for solving conflicts; and
3.
Describe the role of various parties in solving conflicts.
INTRODUCTION
Conflicts of values occurs when there is a difference of needs, demands, beliefs, values and opinions. These conflicts can affect the comfort and peace of a person's soul. There are many types or forms of moral conflicts that can occur in daily life. This topic will reveal several forms of conflicts that cause a person's relationship with another to turn tense. Subsequently, you will given suggestions for solving these conflicts.
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8.1 8.1.1
TOPIC 8
TYPES OF MORAL CONFLICTS AND ITS SOLUTIONS
TYPES OF CONFLICTS Conflict of Racial Discrimination
Those who defend racial supremacy claim that the different qualities between races are natural. For example, the justification for the enslavement of Negroes was based on the belief that Negroes inherited poor racial qualities genetically, resulting in them being childish, irresponsible, and having the tendency to lie and steal. This view influenced the mentality of whites until the 20th century. In the 1950s, this view was finally defeated through scientific discoveries.
ACTIVITY 8.1 What were the scientific discoveries that influenced the views of whites towards Negroes? Gather theories, experiments and proof to substantiate your information. Present your findings in tutorial.
8.1.2
Conflict of Age Discrimination
Discrimination of age is also a moral issue that is always debated in our everyday life. Discrimination of age occurs when an employee is denied the right and opportunity to gain employment when their age reaches a certain point. In Malaysia, all occupations are subject to the enforcement of the Employee Act 1986. Discrimination of age also occurs when heads of departments conduct evaluation of the performances of the employees.
8.1.3
Conflict of Socioeconomic Discrimination
Socioeconomic discrimination occurs when a person of a certain economic standing is treated differently from the general population. In Malaysia, socioeconomic discrimination in getting an education is becoming very apparent. Students from a poor background who do not get offers from local universities have no chance of continuing their education in private institutions as they are unable to pay the fees. To bridge this divide, the government has created various methods such as the New Economic Policy, study loans, welfare-aided institutions and others. What is important is that these students should strive to further their education through the proper channels.
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ACTIVITY 8.2 In Malaysia, although Islam is the official religion of the Federation, other worshippers are free to practise their faiths. However, there are several teachings that are banned by the government. List down these teachings. Discuss with your classmates.
8.1.4
Social Dilemma
An example of social dilemma is the dilemma of prisoners and general tragedy. A dilemma arises when two people are found guilty and questioned separately by the public prosecutor. The prosecutor has sufficient evidence to prosecute them for minor offences, therefore, he places them in separate rooms so that they would not meet each other. The prosecutor then offers them an incentive to plead guilty, separately. If one prisoner pleads guilty while the other does not, the prosecutor will release the former and use his confession to charge the latter with a higher offence. If they both plead guilty, then they will receive a moderate sentence. If they do not, they will receive a heavier penalty. Unlike conflicts between nations, social dilemma involves many parties. An example is the greenhouse effect caused by the rampant destruction of forests, and emission of carbon dioxide from vehicles and factories. The same applies to individuals who pollute the environment and exploit natural resources, which directly contributes to serious pollution in the world.
8.1.5
Conflict between Groups
Conflict between groups occurs at all levels of social organisation. Examples are fights between gangsters, friction in an industrial organisation, and racial riots in cities due to misunderstandings between races. The reasons for conflicts between groups are competition, social categorisation and inter-group trespassing.
EXERCISE 8.1 Give examples of racial discrimination that can cause moral issues.
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8.2 STRATEGIES IN SOLVING CONFLICTS People sometimes use irrational ways in solving conflicts. They disregard the issues involved in a conflict, commit fraudulent actions, use emotional language and use force. Among the strategies that should be used are analysis of values, cognitive development, strategy of building hierarchies, strategy of diluting problems and strategy of compromise.
8.2.1
Analysis of Values
This strategy was introduced by Fraenkel (1972-1977) and Coomb (in Hersh et al 1980) to solve moral conflict dilemma. There are two approaches to this strategy ă the Fraenkel approach and the Coomb approach. Both approaches have one similarity ă they both overcome conflict analytically by identifying elements of values and facts earlier in the conflict. They weigh the pros and cons (advantages and weaknesses) of possible actions. This means that in this strategy, an individual needs to think rationally and logically about the relevant facts in the conflict before considering the values. When analysing the related values, an individual is required to study the possible consequences, look after the feelings and welfare of the parties involved and prioritise the overall consequences when taking action. Usually, conflicts that involve a lot of facts, individuals and complex moral values can be analysed through this strategy. This strategy heavily emphasise on the dimension of moral reasoning. Because of this, the dimensions of moral emotions and moral behaviour are slightly disregarded by conflict-solvers.
8.2.2
Cognitive Development
One strategy used to solve moral conflicts is the strategy based on the development of moral cognitive theory first put forward by the psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg (Chazan and Soltis, 1973). Kohlberg and his associates took 20 years to conduct a longitudinal study on 75 people comprising males between ages 10 and 16. The study was done based on their moral cognitive development till they reached ages 20 to 28. In this study, Kohlberg summarised the existence of three levels of moral development. Each level has two stages. The pre-conventional stage is where children are usually well-mannered and respond to the hopes of the society, whether good or bad. At the post-conventional stage, wide belief of valid and useful moral principles is accepted according to universal moral principles. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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ACTIVITY 8.3 Build a chart that explains KohlbergÊs Cognitive Theory. Revise this section again if necessary. Present this in your tutorial.
LetÊs look at an example. The citizens of Kubula are facing a conflict between social stability and justice for their lower classes. The social structure that has benefited the Pola tribe shows that the Xoro tribe is being oppressed by the Polo tribe through fair means. The threat by the Xoro to continue their struggle is due to their decision to consider social stability and societal utilities to be less important than correcting the injustice plaguing them. Hidden in their thoughts is an idea of a hierarchy and its use in solving or attempting to solve a social problem. The Xoro tribe sees two values ă social stability and justice ă like those that exist in the conflict. They are very confident that it is not possible to achieve both until they ask, „Which is more important to achieve?‰ They then form an arrangement of rank, from the highest to the lowest.
8.2.3
Strategy of Building Hierarchies
The implications of the strategy of building a hierarchy is that as justice is more important than social stability, the concept of the basic values need to be prioritised, such as life, safety or health, like being free to consume nutritious food.
8.2.4
Strategy of Diluting Problems
This strategy involves creating alternatives to avoid problems. At the material level, the greater the availability of resources or technological wealth in a society or individual, the easier it is for us to use these resources in various alternative ways, or to create alternatives. At the social level, there is flexibility, whether to create a new system of transportation or new laws. This flexibility can offer additional alternatives to solving a conflict. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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8.2.5
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TYPES OF MORAL CONFLICTS AND ITS SOLUTIONS
Strategy of Compromise
This strategy suggests that each person should be given benefit or each value should be stated in varying degrees. There is no rational hierarchy for conflicting values or people of importance taking greater precedence. The tension between values cannot be solved. If it could be solved, and all valuable things achieved and undesirables avoided, then there would be no use for a compromise that would usually accept what has been reduced. Therefore, the strategy of compromise is the last strategy utilised when both the strategy of hierarchy and strategy of diluting problems fail resolve conflict.
ACTIVITY 8.4 Many theories, hypotheses and studies conducted by Western thinkers are used by us. But why is it that up to today, these theories have failed to be used in conflicts like in West Asia (Israel-Palestine), international violence and so on? State your opinions.
EXERCISE 8.2 List down steps on how the strategy of diluting problems can solve a power struggle within an organisation.
8.3
SOLVING SOCIO-CULTURE ISSUES
Socio-cultural morals is a universal issue. Therefore, its solution cannot be the responsibility of one party only. Solving socio-cultural moral issues is the responsibility of every member of society. This issue is related to the behaviour of individuals, groups and societies. The development of the behaviour of an individual starts at home. Hence, to solve socio-cultural issues, the best way is to start with the actions of parents and family.
8.3.1
Role of the Family
The family institution plays a vital role in stemming social problems from spreading. Hence, parents are the backbone of the family institution and play an important role. The education and absorption of noble values start at home. It Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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cannot be denied that the prevalence of social ills and moral decline, especially among youths, is due in some part to problems in the family. Parents should teach their children good morals and responsibility towards family, race and country. The noble values of filial piety, politeness, proper manners and speech should be cultivated in children to guarantee the well-being of the family. Good parents are those who successfully cultivate noble and family values in their children. The progress in development today has led to working parents not having sufficient time to pay attention to their children. Good relationship, affection and respect between family members indirectly continue the existence of a harmonious society free of ill, regardless of race and creed.
ACTIVITY 8.5 One factor leading to moral decline is parents who are caught up in chasing material wealth. What are your views?
8.3.2
Approaches by Religion and Non-aligned Organisations
Religious studies followed by deep appreciation are important in ensuring children practise a decent way of life based on the pure teachings of religion. A suitable approach has to be included to overcome social ills. If the society is not wary, these ills could spread and the identity of the society might vanish. Professor Dr Suradi Salim, from the Pedagogy and Education Department of University of Malaya, stated that the fun factor and eagerness to try new experiences are the reasons why youths fall prey to social ills. For example, the Black Metal movement offers a different point of principles, behaviour and appearance as propaganda to attract youths. The Happy Family Campaign sponsored by the Yayasan Budi Penyayang Malaysia was held to achieve the aim of the institution of a happy family as the basic unit in guaranteeing the well-being of the country. Such campaigns should be given full support by all parties, especially governmental bodies, the private sector and society, in cultivating racial harmony and instilling positive universal family values.
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Society must be brave and wholehearted in putting a stop to malpractices. Practices against the moral values of the society and religion must be opposed firmly and clearly. An integrated approach involving all parties is necessary to stop negative acts.
8.3.3
Education
The aim of the National Education Philosophy to produce pure individuals of quality and beneficial for the progress and development of Malaysia seems to have fallen short. This was emphasised by Mohd Mansur Abdullah (1986), who stated that it was the wishes of the government that the aim of education in the country was to produce disciplined individuals, with hopes of creating a wellmannered, integrated, democratic, just, liberal and progressive society.
8.3.4
Excellence of Character
Excellence of character and superior personality are important as history has shown that countries fall and civilisations crumble when its people are unethical, filled with negative attitudes and immoral. Mohd Tajuddin Abdul Rahman (1995) stated that unless malpractices are stopped the country is bound to face high risks. A disciplined society is vital in stimulating the development of race and nation. Also touched upon is the teaching profession. Dr Abdul Halim El Muhammady (1995) felt that teachers needed to carry out their responsibilities based not on materialism or respect from society. Teachers could receive their rewards, but that should not be the highlight of their aims. Teachers who measured their achievements based on materialism would jeopardise their improvement and their students achievement. This situation will lead to the failure of teachers and schools to function efficiently to mould good behaviour and high morals in their students. In other words, students should be their primary focus.
8.3.5
Role of the Government
The government plays an important role in preventing social ills from spreading. Government agencies like the Department of Welfare and Society and the police need to cooperate in eradicating gangsterism in schools. Society also needs to play a role in curbing negative activities, especially among youths. The social system has to be observed to avoid disarray, so that appropriate action can be taken when something negative occurs. Entertainment Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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outlets like nightclubs, discos, pubs and video game centres should be reduced and monitored at all times.
8.3.6
Laws and Rules
Stricter and effective punishment should be enforced to stop the spread of social ills. For certain people, fines do not deter them from committing offences, yet this group is worried about being disgraced in public. In a neighbouring country, for example, community service is imposed upon offenders guilty of littering and this has improved civic awareness of the importance of a clean environment. The punishment of picking up litter would surely disgrace the guilty parties. This can only work in a caring society where the practice of cleanliness is a daily routine. Dewan Rakyat has passed laws to enable such punishments applicable in Malaysia. This is the best way to make society aware of the importance of maintaining cleanliness, regardless of status and rank. From the explanations given, it can be said that the misconduct and crime plaguing society recently need drastic preventive actions. Most criminal behaviours are related to seeking fun and escaping pressure parents, peers, school and cramped environment. To reshape the personality of the youths which has hardened would take a lot of effort. Therefore, parents should educate their children as best as possible from young. Think of their benefits and do not let them live alone, for the sake of the family and society.
ACTIVITY 8.6 Select a moral conflict and try to solve it according to the solutions of conflicts or moral dilemma put forth by Grassian.
EXERCISE 8.3 What are the roles of family and religion in solving conflicts?
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TYPES OF MORAL CONFLICTS AND ITS SOLUTIONS
Moral conflicts occur due to several factors, especially human attitude. Therefore, humans should practise a healthy lifestyle by endeavouring to noble values.
When conflicts arise, many unwanted events occur that affect the peace in society.
The Fraenkel and Coomb approaches recommended to obvercome conflict analytically by identifying elements of values and facts earlier in the conflict. For each fact, they weigh the pros and cons of possible actions.
Family plays a great role in solving socio-culture issues.
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Topic 9
Economic Issues
LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1.
Relate the connection between the government and the traders in the national economy;
2.
Discuss business ethics, and connection between the law, employers; and
3.
Explain the reasons and consequences of corruption as well as ways to overcome it.
INTRODUCTION
We start the discussion on moral issues with economic issues. A nation is considered developed if its economy is strong. The strength of a nationÊs economy is closely linked with its business community. In business, the main aim is to attain as much profits as possible. Consequently, traders often disregard social values. In this topic, we will delve into economic issues from the aspects of profit-seeking, corruption and ethics. This will enable us to evaluate what is good and bad in the workings of society in order to strengthen the economy.
9.1
GOVERNMENT AND TRADE
Several main economic sectors like agriculture, industry, business and services contribute to the nation's economic resources. A large portion of the economic development of a country is due to contributions from the trading sector. Business is the lifeline of a nation's economy, especially a developing country including Malaysia. The government and traders are mutually dependent. The government builds infrastructure, while traders conduct effective transactions within the infrastructure provided. The traders pay taxes on their profits. The higher the profits, the higher the income for the country through Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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profit taxes. Traders also have the social responsibility of ensuring the well-being of the society. One method of ensuring the welfare of society is by following the ethics of business management. This is the responsibility of all parties involved in business management such as employers, customers, dealers, shareholders, society and country. Economic theories explain the general objective of the traders as being to maximise profits. Hence, companies will seek profits that will provide dividends for their shareholders. The aims of business are easily achievable theoretically, but difficult in their implementation. Conflict arises when some traders sacrifice the interests of society to gain as much profit as possible. The traders engage in fraud, breach of ethics, breach of business laws and so on. Traders, irrespective of where they trade, are subject to business ethics. These business ethics ensure healthy profit-seeking, guarantee the well-being of society and develop the country. Among the fraudulent wrongdoings is evasion of taxes by companies or traders. This largely occurs through the manipulation of financial or income statements and declaration of company profits.
SELF-CHECK 9.1 Build a chart showing the connection between the trading community and the economy of a country.
9.2
BUSINESS ETHICS
A business is valid when a company is registered with the Registrar of Companies. If it is not registered, a company is deemed to be running illegally. When registering, a company must submit certain details like type of business, organisation of the company, capital and other. While operating, a company must implement what was registered and comply with set regulations. An ethical company will implement its responsibilities in the interests of the company, its customers and the country. In other words, every member of the company, from the highest management to the lowest ranking staff, must hold on to work and company ethics. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Company Policies
The operation of businesses and companies, comprises the board of directors, managers, shareholders and staff. Generally, all those involved in the dynamics of the company have a close working relationship. However, occurring issues that involve disputes of contracts between employees and employers are inevitable. In many instances, the agreed contract heavily favours the employers. In this case, employees sometimes do not receive fair treatment. This includes payment of salaries, bonuses, leave, overtime and dismissal. In terms of salary, employers sometimes delay payment using various excuses. Bonuses paid do not reflect the profits of the company. Employees work hard to increase company profits, but these profits are not shared with them. It is even more unfortunate when employers do not announce these profits to the employees. Ethical policies of companies are those that guard the welfare of, and are responsible towards, the employees. Employee rights have to be maintained so that workers not only carry out their tasks more diligently but also feel a sense of belonging to the company. A companyÊs policies should also stress on its social responsibilities by contributing to the welfare of the society. Members of society and traders depend on one another, where the company provides the necessary products wanted by the customers (members of society) and the members of society purchase these products. In other words, the company creates supply and the members of society create demand.
9.2.2
Higher Management
Among the higher management of a business or company, there exists a question on how we conduct ourselves in the office. The higher management often faces various problems related to its duties and responsibilities. Its officers have a responsibility towards superiors and its subordinates. Higher management officers often face problems relating to work ethics where they cannot communicate well, especially with their subordinates. For example, they do not meet lower-ranked staff directly without an appointment, or they give out orders as though the lower-ranked workers are robots. Although this is a bureaucracy practised by organisations, there are sometimes moral issues where higher management officers are not friendly towards their subordinates. Ego and pride are usual flaws found in these officers. This opposes the moral ethics that oblige a good working relationship between the higher management officers and the lower ranks. Strictly speaking, higher management cannot stand
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on its own without the support of the rank-and-file staff. In other words, a company or business is sustained by every employee.
9.2.3
Employees
Employees are the core of the success of a business or company. The moral issue that always arises among employees of a business or company involves their moral values. Among the issues are how much effort they put in to develop the business and the sense of belonging they feel towards the company. Or are employees motivated by salary alone? Ethical employees will consider their employerÊs business as their own. Thus, they will work hard and strive to increase the companyÊs profits. They will be willing to work overtime, not just for rewards, but because they realise that by doing so, they are helping to improve the capability and profits of their company. When the company progresses, they will also reap the benefits such as high bonuses, or at the very least, enable the company to continue operations and maintain their jobs. Therefore, what is your role in developing the company and how far do you feel a sense of belonging towards your workplace?
9.2.4
Ethics of Business Management
Management is the key to the success of a business or company. If there is instability in the management, the company will also be in an unstable situation. Thus, the management of a company should practise ethics when carrying out duties. At the moment, there are many moral issues involving management. Though these moral issues are more focused on individual moral issues, they will always involve management. The management is an example for all members of the company.
9.2.5
Business Laws
Business laws are drafted to maintain the interest of all those involved in trade, from management to customers. Therefore, every worker is obliged to follow the law. Breaching these laws is a moral issue that usually occurs in trade. Breach of these laws is not only committed by management but also by employees. In management, breached laws are linked to falsifying reports, selling goods illegally, breach of trust in finances and confidentiality, environmental pollution and so on. Among employees, breach of laws are linked to swindling of money from sales, working hours, unauthorised use of company property and facilities, among other things.
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SELF-CHECK 9.2 Explain how the management of a company can be involved in breach of business laws.
ACTIVITY 9.1 Do you know your rights as an employee and employer according to the law? Gather this information from the book by Kamal Halili Hassan. 1994. Hubungan Undang-undang, Majikan dan Pekerja. DBP. Kuala Lumpur. Then, conduct an observation at your workplae. Discuss your findings.
9.2.6
Dignity of Employees
Employees are the lifeline of a company; without them a company or business will be paralysed. This can be seen when employees go on strike. This not only paralyses the business but also the economy of a country. Imagine when employees of an airline go on strike. The delivery of export goods will be delayed and the income of companies involved will be jeopardised. This will lead to drastic reduction in profits and lead to severe losses. When this happens, the government will also suffer a drop in income, as the taxes on profits will decrease. This subsequently will jeopardise the national economy. Hence, the welfare of the employees must be preserved as much as possible. Companies must create a comfortable, healthy, safe and non-discriminatory environment. A business climate like that will be motivation to all employees, from the higher management to the rank and file. Fair treatment must be accorded to both management and workers. This fair treatment and respect must be given at all times and place, without considering race, religion, creed and such. Rewards and recognition should be given to workers and managers who display excellent performance. This will provide higher motivation for other employees. However, what often happens is that rewards and recognition are given to undeserving recipients. As a normal person, we are always influenced by what we see. An employee might show hard work and effort in front of the employer or manager only. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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EXERCISE 9.1 1.
How can business ethics and laws assure maximum profits in a business?
2.
Why should the slogan „This is our company‰ be appreciated and practised by every member of a business or company?
9.3
CORRUPTION
Let us touch on a heated matter related to the economy today. Corruption involves giving bribes to someone to allow for a wrongdoing to occur or to cancel something that is correct. Corruption is unethical and brings more bad than good. The consequences of corruption not only affect an individual, but also his or her family, society and country. Bribes are not just property or money but also other gift. Among them are services like sexual favours, membership to a club or an organisation and so on.
9.3.1 (i)
Reasons Why Corruption Occurs
Self-interest Self-interest is the main cause of corruption. A person who only prioritises his self-interest will act according to it without considering the rights and interests of others. This attitude causes a person to be willing to given something by a person in power to gain a bigger reward than what was given. On the other hand, due to self-interest, a person in power will be willing to give something under his jurisdiction to gain a reward that should not be accepted.
(ii)
Luxurious Lifestyle A lifestyle of luxury is the dream of every person. Whether we can afford it or not, such a lifestyle continues to be a dream. Corruption always occurs due to the desire for a luxurious lifestyle, even though we do not have the capability to achieve such a lifestyle. As a result, we are easily trapped by corruption. A lifestyle in luxury refers to self-image and goods that we possess, as well as spending style and such. The wants and desires of a person are limitless. We want to own bungalows, big cars, electronic accessories, socialise with Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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the rich and famous, dress expensively and indulge in over the top entertainment. These things require high expenses and only wealthy people can afford them. All these things are linked to external and internal factors, which are determined by purchasing power. A luxurious lifestyle prevents us from giving priority to basic necessities. We should live in moderation and prioritise what is necessary. We can then use the excess for less necessary things. One way of gaining wealth without having the capability of doing so is by practising corruption. This despicable practice ruins oneÊs self, family, society and country. (iii) External Pressure The tendency to give and accept bribes often occurs due to external pressure. A person is forced to practise corruption when there is pressure, such as pressure to win a project tender that is very difficult. Thus, a person tasked with doing so will have the tendency to give bribes. The same applies to a recipient of bribes, who is under pressure to satisfy the needs of his or her children, spouse, in-laws and so on, even though his or her legitimate income is insufficient to meet their demands. As a result, corruption often occurs among those who do not practise a pure lifestyle. (iv) Secular and Cross-culture Influences The practice of giving gifts as a norm in business is the source of corruption. The culture of gratitude among the races in the country indirectly becomes a source of corruption. Secularism has also led to a similar situation where religious teachings are disregarded. We are always influenced by secularism, even though we still believe in God. When noble values are eroded by secular influence, corrupt practices easily take place.
ACTIVITY 9.2 By using search engines on the Internet, gather the following information: (i) Types of common corrupt acts (ii) Procedures on filing a report (iii) Laws and penalties imposed Try to find as many as possible previous cases involving corruption in Malaysia. Give your opinion on why they happened.
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Consequences of Corruption
Corruption can greatly affect an individual, family, society and country. Productivity in a society will be low where corruption is rampant as workers will always hope for rewards or kickbacks. Sincerity and earnestness in carrying out duties will also deteriorate. The laws and regulations set by the authorities will not be enforced, due to corruption. There will be no punishment handed down to offenders of these laws and regulations as long as the offenders are able to bribe the authorities. This is a precarious situation as murder, slander and so on can occur rampantly. Jealousy will be widely spread in a society that practises corruption. Corrupt persons will be free to commit crime, if not stopped by the authorities. In a nutshell, family, society and country will plunge into chaos and unrest; and there will be no peace of mind and body, if corruption is rampant.
9.3.3
Ways to Overcome Corruption
(i)
Certain practices in families such as rewarding members who do chores are the norm. Therefore, avoid or reduce such elements, which could lead to corruption in the family.
(ii)
Stricter laws should be created to combat corrupt practices.
(iii) Existing laws and regulations should be enforced. (iv) Heavy and appropriate penalties should be imposed on givers and recipients of bribes. (v)
Education on preventing corruption should be provided to all citizens, starting at a young age.
ACTIVITY 9.3 Should authorities be given high salaries to prevent corruption? Are there other ways that you can suggest to prevent corruption? Discuss.
EXERCISE 9.2 1.
Explain how corrupt practices can threaten national security.
2.
Elaborate on how corrupt practices can be stopped.
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The economy of a country is strongly linked to the business community.
All parties should follow existing ethics for common interests. In chasing perfection, certain parties should not be indifferent when carrying out their social responsibilities. The hesitance of some parties in carrying out their responsibilities will create various misdemeanours, including corrupt practices.
Ingratitude for what one possesses and prioritising self-interests make this immoral practice detrimental to all.
Strictly speaking, corruption will only destroy the individual, family, society and country.
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Topic 10 XIssues in
Technology
LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1.
Evaluate the advantages advancement in life;
and
disadvantages
2.
Link technology management with ethics; and
of
technology
3. List down ECTIVES
the advantages and disadvantages of technological applications, especially in genetic, chemical and nuclear technologies to the world community.
X
INTRODUCTION
In this topic, we will touch on the relationship between technology and morals. Technology is rapidly developing each day, and no one can deny the necessity and importance of technological advancements in our everyday life. However, if technology is not managed well, it would lead to the detriment of the world's population. We will discuss several issues related to current technology. This is so that we realise and consider the advantages and disadvantages of technology management and its consequences on human lives.
10.1 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY Malaysians should be aware of the information revolution that is rapidly advancing in order to make quick, accurate and mature comparisons. As a country heading for developed status, Malaysians should also carry out various product renewals to serve as an example to other countries. We should not just function as users of this information, but as the creators of this information in all aspects. This is the challenge of technology contained in Vision 2020.
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The usage of the Internet is the most sophisticated advancement in information technology to date. The Internet serves as a connection tool between all levels of society, regardless of distance, protocols and bureaucracy. The wide usage of the Internet shows that all levels of society are entitled to obtain information freely. It is very clear that the advancement in information technology has greatly helped us in carrying out our daily activities. You are, at this very moment, using information technology to study via open and distance learning. This can reduce your costs while you obtain knowledge to improve and advance yourself. You can communicate with your tutors and fellow students who are hundreds of kilometres apart within a few seconds. We are able to know the latest news around the world the very day an event takes place. However, it has become customary that whatever brings good has its weaknesses. As mentioned earlier, the abuse of technology can lead to detriment or disaster. For example, enemies or irresponsible parties who hack into a system may pose a threat to national security. A hacked finance system can lead the country into bankruptcy. Companies may face the risk of closing down if the confidential systems of the companies are hacked.
Figure 10.1: Some examples of instruments used in information technology
ACTIVITY 10.1 Have you ever used services such as e-Pay, Easyway or telephone banking? How far do you benefit from these in terms of physical, emotional, spiritual and intellectual development? Discuss with your classmates.
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10.2
ISSUES IN TECHNOLOGY
GENETIC CLONING
ACTIVITY 10.2 What is cloning? Could you have a twin who is 100% similar to you?
Generally, cloning is a modern technique to produce new progeny by using genetic codes identical to its parent. Cloning is not only done on animals and plants, but also on humans. However, this is still at a research stage. For plants and several species of humans, cloning technology is increasingly advancing with many new discoveries and inventions.
10.2.1
Implications of Human Cloning
Cloning is an issue that has been greatly debated. When Dolly the sheep was cloned in 1996, it caused great amazement among the international community.
ACTIVITY 10.3 Who or what is Dolly? Find information on Dolly in the Internet and discuss this with your classmates. The same technique to clones sheep could be used to clone humans. How could cloning be done on humans? We know that every organism on Earth is made up of units of cells and each cell contains deoxyribulose acid (DNA) molecules in the nucleus. This DNA contains information relating to the genes, like height, colour of hair, intelligence and such. When cloning is done, a somatic cell is removed from the human body, for example, the skin cell. The cell nucleus, which contains the DNA, is extracted and inserted into the femaleÊs ovum, whose nucleus had been earlier removed. With the help of special chemical liquids and electric pulses, the nucleus of the skin cell and the ovum are fused. Then, cell growth occurs once the fused cells are planted in the femaleÊs womb. The baby ÂproductÊ formed will have a genetic code identical to and resembling the parent cell, i.e. the person who provided the somatic cell. Due to the possibilities that might occur, the British government banned any form of embryo cloning for research purposes, as well as human reproduction through cloning. The Human Fertility and Embryology Act 1990 was formally Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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gazetted as law. Thus, a conflict of morals arose between freedom and the gazetted Act. However, human attitudes and perceptions towards cloning issues change from day to day. Scientists started to draw certain limits to ease research on producing human embryos. They were hoping to produce a cloned tissue or organ that would be vitally needed, especially in the medical field. In the end, a panel of experts was formed to study the possibility of allowing human cloning in the name of science, technology and medicine. The scientists hoped that amendments or the existing law would allow and legitimise their efforts to create human tissue to treat patients, especially those involved in serious burn cases.
ACTIVITY 10.4 In your opinion, should research in human cloning continue? Why? What if the research were continued on plants and animals only?
10.2.2
Benefits of Human Cloning
Among the benefits of human cloning are: (i)
Human cloning can be used to create babies that would fulfil the wishes of the parents. Humans could also clone themselves or deceased loved ones.
(ii)
Through genetic engineering, cloning can be used to treat cancer patients. Current treatments like radiation and chemical methods can destroy tissues unaffected by the cancer cells. On the other hand, through genetic engineering, only the affected cells will be destroyed.
(iii) Human cloning can be used to increase mental and physical capabilities in a person by inserting artificial genes and hormones into the embryo. This genetic alteration can then be passed down from generation to generation. (iv) Human cloning can also be extended to military purposes, solving shortages in manpower, experimental reasons and so on. Can you imagine Arnold Schwarzenegger or Sylvester Stallone being cloned for military purposes or as labourers due to their large physical size.
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10.2.3
ISSUES IN TECHNOLOGY
Flaws of Human Cloning
Among the flaws of human cloning are: (i)
Cloning is only to satisfy desires, arrogance, pride and self-interests. Humans should be thankful for all of GodÊs gifts. The created baby would just be a tool or experimental specimen to satisfy the desires of the scientists. It is possible that in the future, when the baby is an adult, he or she will blame or sue the parents for failing to select the genes he or she desired.
(ii)
The methods in human cloning are dangerous, as the tiniest of mistakes can affect future generations. Physical and mental capabilities are closely linked with factors like education, training, food intake, experience and many others. Therefore, there is simple link between the genes and physical and mental capabilities of a person.
(iii) Human cloning is against ethics and open to misuse. Try to imagine what will happen if a terrorist could clone himself.
EXERCISE 10.1 1.
List down ways to control the advances in information technology in order to prevent it being abused by the spread of negative information among the people in our country.
2.
Explain from the moral aspect, the issues that arise when a baby is cloned using someoneÊs genetic material and is conceived by a woman who is not its biological mother.
10.3 CHEMICALS IN AGRICULTURE In this modern age, the agricultural sector depends heavily on chemical materials. In fact, there has been a revolution in the agricultural sector known as the Green Revolution where there exists a dominant model agriculture based on chemistry. Among the reasons for the use of chemicals in the agricultural industry are to increase yield and quality of agricultural produce, and to protect crops from attacks by pests, insects and weeds. The use of chemicals in the agriculture industry is practised in almost all agriculture-based countries. What differs among these countries is the quantity of chemicals used. For developed nations that are agriculture-based, the use of chemicals is more intensive, starting from land treatment to the preservation of export-bound
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agricultural product. In developing nations, the use of chemicals is more apparent in protecting crops from being attacked by pests, insects and weeds. The use of chemicals in the agricultural industry has two main effects · positive and negative. The positive effects are the increase in agricultural output and lengthening the shelf life of agricultural products, especially those which are to be exported. There are four negative effects ă on human health, insect or pest reaction, effects on the environment and analysis of the cost benefits the use of chemicals. For discussion purposes, focus will be given to the negative effects of the use of chemicals as effects seen as positive are only visible in the early stage. In the long term, the use of chemicals will have negative effects, especially on the surrounding ecosystem.
10.3.1
Human Health
The health of consumers is exposed to the negative effects of chemicals through the food consumed like vegetables and fruits. Farmers use weedkillers or insecticides to preserve their crops. Among the types of weedkillers used are: (i)
Synthetic Pyrethroids like Pernethrin Deltametrin; and
(ii)
Organophosphorous Compounds like Malathion, Diazinon
The insecticides commonly used are Theflunbenzuron and Chlorfluazuron. The uncontrolled use of chemicals as poisons can cause food poisoning. For example, in 1988, there were 100 people in a neighbouring country who suffered from food poisoning after consuming kailan and mustard which contained residues of Methamidophos. The Agriculture Department of Malaysia discovered that the kailan and mustard green exported to the particular country contained the insecticide Methamidophos. Seven of the ten kailan tested contained more than 1 mg/kg Organophosphorous and some even contained more than 30 mg/kg. The mustard green was found to have contained the highest content, at 100 mg/kg (Cheah et al. 1993). This discovery jeopardised the export of Malaysian vegetables to the country. Certain poisons are not as dangerous as Organophosphorous, such as the fungicide Ethylenebisdithiocarbamate (EBDC) which can be removed through cleaning. Consumers need only clean the vegetables using plenty of water to remove the fungicide. However, this cleaning process can only remove 90% of the poison on the vegetables. What is worrying is the effect of 10% remainder of the poison on the vegetables consumed by people. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Chemicals also have a negative effect when the user of the chemicals or poisons does not use sufficient protective gear, when using dangerous compounds like Organophosphorous and Chlorinated Hydrocarbons. Without the use of gloves, breathing equipment and other apparatus, users of these chemicals will be exposed to health problems like skin diseases and problems related to internal organs like cancer. This phenomenon can be clearly seen in the agricultural sector in Malaysia. Farmers are used to spraying weedkillers or insecticide using spraying devices with tanks. They do not take the initiative to use proper protective gear or instruments that could help filter the air they breathe while spraying is done.
10.3.2
The Moral Question over Agricultural Chemicals
In seeking profits in the agricultural sector, several things relating to the consideration of moral values have to be thought of by every producer and consumer. It cannot be denied that we do not want to be left behind in sophisticated technology in agriculture. However, the effects of advances in agricultural technology on health and the environment cannot be taken lightly. In this case, the government, non-governmental organisations, society and individuals/consumers must play their respective roles in controlling the use of chemicals in the agriculture sector. We want progress in agriculture, but at the same time, we also want the guarantee of good health. We want to live happily and we also want the economy to boom due to the agriculture sector. This sector remains the largest contributor to the development of our countryÊs economy. Therefore, solving this question is a delicate and complex matter.
10.4
NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY
Nuclear energy has become the last choice as an energy source, other than hydro energy, gas, oil and coal. From an economic point, it is clear that nuclear energy is a cheap and economical energy alternative. However, nowadays, nuclear technology is the biggest threat to humans and has terrible implications on world peace. The use of nuclear technology as weapons can be seen as a calamity that could lead to destruction and suffering.
10.4.1
Applications of Nuclear Technology
Nuclear technology can be applied safely through careful and effective usage. It can also benefit our lives through various uses in: Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Medical Field In medicine, nuclear technology can be used as one of the scanning and imagery methods. Through this method, determining the level of exposure of a patient to radiation can be easily done.
Figure 10.2: The use of nuclear technology in medicine. Source: http://www.samc.com/pat_vis/images/Nuclear.jpg
(ii)
Agricultural Field Nuclear technology also contributes to a method of selective breeding in plants. Genetic mutation in plants will stimulate their reproduction and subsequently stimulate growth and reproduction of plants of higher quality that mature faster.
(iii) Alternative Energy Source As mentioned earlier, the world is currently experiencing a shortage in energy sources like coal and oil. In this situation, nuclear energy is seen as capable of producing electricity after the depletion of coal and oil. Nuclear generator stations also require less fuel compared to fossil fuels. (iv) Defence/Arms Industries Nuclear energy is also used to make weapons, especially atom and hydrogen bombs. The materials found in nuclear weapons include plutonium and uranium, which can be easily found in India and Pakistan.
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ISSUES IN TECHNOLOGY
Implications of Nuclear Usage
(i)
Health Exposure to radiation and nuclear contamination can cause leukaemia or blood cancer among the population of the affected area. It can also lead to thyroid cancer in children. Girls aged below 5 years are most susceptible to this dangerous radiation. Genetic mutation also occurs when a couple is exposed to radioactive rays, resulting in the birth of children with defects. This is what happened in Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
(ii)
Environmental Pollution The explosion of a nuclear bomb will cause the spread of thick dust and smog that are detrimental to human health. The leak in the nuclear plant in Chernobyl, Russia, affected not only the local population, but the entire world due to the possibility of radioactive residues on imported foodstuff from the region.
(iii) Danger to Agriculture The spread of radioactive materials and radiation will pose a great danger to agricultural lands. Agricultural produce contaminated by radioactive materials is not safe for consumption and will endanger life forms and negatively affect the fertility of the soil. (iv) Difficulty in Disposing of Nuclear Wastes Nuclear waste is difficult to be disposed of. It is not as simple as discarding unwanted material. It requires certain planned procedures. Unplanned disposal will impact the balance in nature negatively, and if not done carefully, will cause uncontrollable spread of radiation. (v)
Effect on Political Stability The unplanned use of nuclear weapons will give rise to conflicts between disputing nations. The involved countries will continue to be suspicious and will ready themselves by preparing their war machinery to ensure security. For this purpose, there are several countries which conducted nuclear tests to ascertain the effectiveness of the weapons produced.
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EXERCISE 10.2 1. 2.
The use of chemicals in agriculture can reap high profits. State the profits and side effects on the values of life in society. What are the roles of the non-governmental organisations in controlling the advances in nuclear energy that can bring harm to society? Give one example of such an NGO and its roles.
•
Issues in information technology relate to the openness of information to customers.
•
Information technology also sometimes provides a platform for the spread of misguided ideologies. This needs to be stopped to avoid it being widespread, especially among individuals who should not receive the information yet.
•
Knowledge and education related to noble values should be instilled in children so that they can glean information with mature thoughts and be able to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of the information.
•
In cloning, technology is rapidly developing, with the creation of new products, especially in agriculture. However, cloning does not consider religious elements and disregards societal values, and thus should be rejected even if it is at the testing stage. This does not mean that we should completely reject the cloning technology. We should support those that are beneficial, but at the same time, reject technology that does not consider societal values.
•
Nuclear technology is also more sophisticated today. It is now valued as an alternative energy source. However, the use of nuclear technology has its good and bad points. Nuclear technology has greatly contributed to fields such as agriculture, medicine and defence.
•
It is humanÊs greed that makes it difficult for nuclear technology to be used as an important source for the benefit of human beings.
•
The nuclear technology race has disregarded individual noble values in the world. Nuclear weapon testing has destroyed the environment and cruelly killed thousands of lives. Such technology should be overwhelmingly rejected. The side effects of the benefits of nuclear technology, especially in agriculture, should be taken into serious consideration.
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Topic 11 Environmental Issues
LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.
Explain global warming and its solutions;
2.
Discuss issues of water pollution and the sources of pollution; and
3.
Define noise pollution and related issues.
INTRODUCTION
The environment does not belong to us, it is we who belong to the environment. The environment is a dynamic system and humans are one of its components. The changes done towards the environment should be limited and controlled to guarantee the wellbeing of humanity. Generally, humans depend on the environment to obtain raw materials like metals, shared common elements like gases, and many more. The environment is also the outlet to air, water and earth. In this topic, you will be exposed to environmental issues that directly or indirectly affect the shaping of a moral human.
11.1 GLOBAL WARMING Global warming has become a source of utmost concern to the world population. Statistically, 1995 and 1996 were the warmest years to date. In addition to suffering the brunt of La Nina that wreaked havoc and caused floods in almost all districts in the Peninsula, we also felt the scorching heat of the sun as a result of global warming. Overall, experts concur that greenhouse gases or glasshouse gases, especially carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide, are the cause of global warming.
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ACTIVITY 11.1 Find out what is meant by greenhouse effect. Then, discuss and try to relate greenhouse effect with moral values and ethics.
Studies show that 1200km2 or 0.8% of the coastal land along the coasts of Peninsular Malaysia are expected to be submerged if sea levels keep rising at a rate of 0.9cm per year due to global warming. In fact, thousands of hectares of agricultural land and mangroves will be destroyed and thousands of people displaced. Global warming will also jeopardise crops and lead to the breeding of several disease-causing insects. Knowing the terrible consequences of global warming, we should delve into the origin of this destructive phenomenon.
11.1.1
Factors Causing the Increase in Earth’s Temperature
Figure 11.1: Among the factors causing global warming are industries, transportation and logging
(i)
Industries Industries are the main cause of the rise in temperature. This is due to factories emitting smoke, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and poisonous gases that cause the greenhouse effect. The use of CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) in aerosols and air-conditioners causes thinning of the ozone layer and the rise of the earthÊs temperature. The moral conflict here is, should factories be shut down? If they were to be shut down, then surely thousands would be unemployed and this will cause different social and moral problems. This conflict is not easily resolved, though awareness on industrial values and ethics should be cultivated and practised wholeheartedly. A comprehensive solution to this Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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issue can only be reached if the world community unites to adhere to existing international industrial ethics, thus preserving the well-being of humanity. (ii)
Transportation Transportation can increase the world temperature as the burning of fossil fuels, like petrol from vehicles that can contribute to the greenhouse effect, which, in turn, raises the global temperature. The increase in the number of vehicles on land, water and air will lead to increased emissions of carbon dioxide, methane and other gases. Will the same moral issue rise? Should we destroy all forms of vehicles and walk to our destinations instead? In this case, methods to reduce the number of vehicles must be thought of. Examples include restricting vehicles with individual occupants and inventing eco-friendly vehicles.
ACTIVITY 11.2 Solar energy is an alternative to fossil fuels in vehicles. In your opinion, can solar energy completely replace fossil fuels in vehicles? Discuss other measures that we can take to minimise greenhouse effects caused by industries and transporation. (iii) Logging The timber industry has also contributed to the increase in global temperature. Unplanned logging exposes the land to the sunÊs rays. Logging also reduces the rate of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis balances the gas content in the air as oxygen is released during the process. The moral issue over logging is due to human greed in raking in excessive profits, to the point of disregarding noble values needed to preserve the environment. Logging should be carried out in a planned manner, by only cutting down permitted trees of certain sizes. If this ethic is followed, it would, at the very least, reduce the effects of global warming.
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Effects of Global Warming
Figure 11.2: One of the effects of extremely high temperature Source: www.earthday.net/goals/energy.stm
(i)
Thinning of the Ozone Layer The ozone layer is vital to the world population as it limits the amount of radioactive solar rays entering the EarthÊs atmosphere. Global warming can cause the thinning of this layer, as can human activities that introduce chemicals like chlorine and bromine which stay in the atmosphere and destroy thousands of ozone molecules. The use of aerosols containing CFC, air-conditioners and computer microchips allows more radioactive rays into the atmosphere. Infra radioactive gas is released from the greenhouse effect and heats up the Earth by 15 to 20 percent.
(ii)
Acid Rain Acid rain is caused by acidic gases in the atmosphere that dissolve in rain water. Examples of these acidic gases are sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. These gases are produced by industrial activities. When rain falls, the water dissolves these gases. As a result, the rain water has a pH of less than 7 and it is called acid rain. Acid rain causes: (a)
Various ailments like cough, chest pains, aching joints and kidney problems;
(b)
Acidity of rivers and lakes, thus killing aquatic lifeforms like fish, crabs and etc;
(c)
Destruction of many plants as the acid reacts with nutrients in the soil, which reduces the fertility of agricultural land; and
(d)
Faster erosion and rusting of buildings. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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These are among the indirect consequences of ManÊs actions towards Nature. Therefore, every individual in the world community is involved, to a certain degree, in creating these unpleasant situations on Earth.
EXERCISE 11.1 1. How does global warming affect the difference in water quality on Earth? 2. Explain three steps to overcome global warming.
11.2 WATER POLLUTION Water encompasses 71% of EarthÊs surface. Out of this, 97% is sea water, 2% is water in snow form, and 1% is water found on land. It is this 1% that we use for our daily activities, and in industries and agriculture. We should preserve this small amount of drinkable water from pollution. Water is a resource that is renewed through the water or hydrology cycle. Thus, proper water management will ensure continued access to clean water sources. In the face of development and innovation, various new technologies have been introduced to make life more comfortable and pleasant. However, humans are often caught between progress and preserving water resources. Positive steps are not taken to ensure the continual cleanliness of water supplies and canals. Water pollution encompasses pollution in rivers, lakes and seas. At the moment, water pollution is a serious issue that must be overcome effectively to ensure current and future generations continue to enjoy clean and fresh water. There have been many issues in water pollution that have been highlighted by the media but what are the solutions? Who should be held responsible? Can this issue be put to rest?
ACTIVITY 11.3 Do you know how some countries develop eco-friendly towns? Follow the planning of these projects on www.midrand-ecocity.co.za/pp-5.htm. Then, use the search engine and find other websites which can give you more information about this. Discuss whether Malaysia can one day have eco-friendly towns.
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Causes of Water Pollution
Causes of water pollution are divided into two categories ă natural causes and extreme human activities. In this case, natural causes of water pollution cannot be helped but pollution occurs faster and more seriously due to human activities. Among the causes of water pollution are: (a)
Soil Erosion and Floods Soil erosion can be divided into two types. Firstly, normal geological erosion, which exists on the EarthÊs surface wherever there is a flow of energy, whether water, ice or wind. The second is rapid erosion which is linked to human activities that disrupt the balance between soil, plant coverage and the eroding energy of geological agents. The rapidity of soil erosion by water will pollute the water which would be carrying material like mud and rubbish. Indirectly, polluted water will bring about diseasecarrying agents that will harm human health and other organisms. Floods arise from several basic factors like the climate. However, there are several other factors that can alleviate the intensity of floods like sedimentation at the bottom of rivers and such. Floods pose a serious problem as they cause loss of lives and property. Flash floods that often occur in urban areas are due to human activities that favour development while disregarding the cleanliness of the environment. Floods occur naturally or due to unplanned development and human activities that disrupt water channels. At the same time, the flood waters carry along dissolved substances and suspended particles that are not usually found in clean water supplies.
(b)
Logging The activity of cutting down forest trees for development purposes causes water pollution. Logging accelerates erosion. Trees are generally a medium of water filtration. Unplanned and uncontrolled logging causes disruptions to water containment sources. Water will flow and erosion will occur. Soil erosion, resulting from logging activities, pollutes the water with suspended and dissolved substances that contaminate the water content. Widespread logging in several areas in Peninsular and East Malaysia has worsened the problem of sedimentation in rivers.
(c)
Development and Industrial Activities The development of new townships directly destroys forests that serve as water containment centres. As in the case of logging, development causes water pollution. Water passageways built by developers often clog up and this leads to flash floods. Industrial activities also contribute to water
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pollution. Many studies have shown that natural resource-based industries bring about many water pollution problems. (d)
Oil Spills Oil spills from vessels pollute the sea water. One litre of spilled oil will cover 4000 square metres of the seaÊs surface. Within a few days, around 25% of the oil will evaporate and leave brown residue floating on the surface. After three months, black, tarred residues can be seen and sticky patches will be formed. Oil spills cause: (i)
Organisms living in the sea to face problems in obtaining oxygen;
(ii)
The disruption in the growth and fertility of plankton;
(iii) The death of organisms living in the sea; and (iv) Difficulty in mobility due to stickiness (physical characteristic of oil).
11.2.2
The Moral Question over Water Pollution
Figure 11.3: Man and water
Water is very precious to living things. However, the human attitude of placing importance on profits and disregarding water conservation can lead to loss of drinkable water and life forms in water. Development activities like widespread, uncontrolled logging will hasten the destruction of water sources. Therefore, in chasing development, noble values and love for Nature should not be pushed aside. Every stage in the development process should have an appropriate role. In other words, all involved parties, from the planning officers to the labourers, should cooperate in guarding, preserving and conserving our water sources and practise noble moral values. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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EXERCISE 11.2 Explain how the moral values of visitors can help preserve the beauty of waterfalls.
11.3 NOISE POLLUTION Problems related to noise pollution are often forgotten during discussions on environmental pollution. Actually, noise pollution greatly influences our surroundings. As its effects are not visibly apparent, we often disregard its significance. However, it should be taken into account because it involves all parties, as sound is all around us whether we like it or not. Noise is defined as Âexcessive sound that can deafen the ear. It occurs when sound is produced in inappropriate areas or locations and disturbs the comfort and hearing healthÊ. (Jasman Ahmad et al 1996). Scientifically, noise is defined as Âany sound that exceeds 80 decibels (dB)Ê. (Noor Hassan Ismail, 1993). This scientific definition changes from time to time as humans are always trying to obtain lower volumes of sounds for common good. This common good encompasses aspects of comfort and health as noise pollution involves more of mental than physical health.
11.3.1
Classifications of Noise Pollution
(i)
Continuous Noise Has a constant intensity. The change in intensity between wave peaks is less than 3dB. This happens when the sound produced vibrates more slowly. Examples include noise that is produced when someone whispers or the sound of a textile weaving machine.
(ii)
Fluctuating Noise Noise caused by sound that fluctuates between high and low waves. At this stage, the sound waves vibrate faster than continuous noise. The waves vibrate around 3dB, like the sound of vehicles, people talking and such.
(iii) Impulse Piercing Sound with high intensity and occurs in a short moment, like a shot, knock or collision between hard objects. Usually at this stage, wave vibrations Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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peak and drop rapidly. The sound intensity exceeds 80dB. The wave vibrations drop but the intensity is still high as the loud sound gives a longer effect on the vibrations. (iv) Alternating Noise Alternating noises are loud sounds that occur in a specific period of time. For example, sound produced when sawing wood. Vibrations only occur when the saw moves. While the saw is being pulled, the intensity increases at a certain rate and decreases when the saw is slanted.
11.3.2
Factors that Influence Noise Pollution
Studies conducted by Universiti Teknologi Malaysia in 1994 identified noise as the main source of environmental pollution, followed by air pollution and rubbish. Several factors that influence these situations are outlined below. (i)
Development of Industrial Areas Rapid development in the country has brought enormous profits to the government, based on returns from foreign investors who set up factories to produce their goods. These industrial areas produce noise exceeding 80dB when in operation. Other than disrupting the calm surrounding in the nearby areas, the noise pollution also affects the health of the factory workers. The effects on their health are not always visible to the naked eye, but can cause long-term dangerous effects.
(ii)
Settlements The higher the population in an area, the higher the rate of noise pollution. A highly dense population needs a large number of residential areas. Therefore, many settlements like condominiums, private houses and flats are set up to accommodate the increasing demand for housing. These numerous settlements are a source of noise pollution. Daily activities like listening to loud music and talking loudly further increase the noise pollution in a settlement with a large population.
(iii) Vehicles Sounds from private and public vehicles are one of the sources of noise pollution. The increasing number of vehicles contributes to congestion, which, in turn, causes noise pollution. This adds to the attitude of drivers who honk excessively and the use of loud exhaust pipes. Dr Ali Abd Rahman (1995) estimated that in a day, 50000 vehicles are involved in traffic jams in Kuala Lumpur. This causes noise pollution. Jasman Ahmad et al. (1996) found that noise pollution from vehicles in the
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Klang Valley, Johor Bahru and Penang exceeded the limits set by the World Health Organisation (WHO). (iv) Quarries Blasting rocks with explosives or drilling produces very loud noise. The continued tremors from rock blasting can cause serious noise pollution. Sound waves will vibrate loudly and continuously. As a result, the noise produced also takes a long time to subside.
11.3.3
Effects of Noise Pollution
Among the effects of noise pollution is tension felt by residents exposed to loud noise. Dasman (1994) outlined that high frequency noise like vehicle sounds can have negative effects, physiologically and psychologically. Noise pollution speeds up the process of suffering from some medical problems, like insomnia or lack of sleep, disturbance in communicating, disturbance of rest and mental tension. Cook (1989) identified three diseases affecting industrial workers. The first is loss of hearing, either temporary or permanent. The second is psychological effects like emotional stress and the third is extreme tiredness and anger. Noor Hassan Ismail (1993) discovered that the physiological changes caused by exposure to noise pollution are an increase in blood pressure, muscle contraction, deterioration of eyesight and increased perspiration.
SELF-CHECK 11.1 Try to gather information on acoustic trauma. Make short notes on it and relate it to noise pollution. How is this related to moral values and ethics?
11.3.4
Morals and Noise Pollution
Noise arises from human activities. We need sound, but only at certain levels. Inconsiderate behaviour leads to noise pollution. The level of polluted sound is quite difficult to determine specifically. This is due to the differing interpretations by various parties. For example, loud music may not pose a problem to music lovers, but IS considered pollution by those uninterested in music. Hence, the loudness of the music has to be evaluated based on the comfort of the local community.
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EXERCISE 11.3 Sound can occur anywhere. How do you classify a sound as being polluted or not? Observe your workplace, home and surroundings. Are you exposed to sound pollution?
UMMARY
Generally, moral issues related to the environment arise from pollution that occurs naturally or through human actions.
Unplanned management of the environment will make Earth inhospitable in the future.
Where will our future generations live then? Remember that management of the environment starts with you.
Having good moral values and ethics should enable us to control environmental issues.
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Topic 12Moral Issues
in Social Life and Violence
LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.
Discuss the concept of euthanasia and its practice;
2.
Classify forms of murder that could occur;
3.
Explain socio-cultural issues in our society today;
4.
Discuss the concept of violence;
5.
Classify three types of violence that occur;
6.
Describe examples of violence in our society today; and
7.
Identify our role in preventing and combating violence if it occurs around us.
INTRODUCTION
This topic will discuss moral issues related to today's social life. Among the issues that will be discussed are euthanasia, murder and socio-cultural issues. Moral issues in social life are becoming more prominent these days. We have to be sensitive to these issues as they could occur in our lives. It is hoped that the information conveyed can build our character to make us moral humans who help one another. This can contribute to the shaping of a moral and dignified individual, family and society that live united in this multi-racial country. The discussion in this topic will concentrate on the violence that occurs around us. We will start by discussing violence in families and society, and subsequently, international violence. In discussing these issues, you should examine the Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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violence that occurs all around. Sensitivity towards issues in violence will help us overcome this problem or at least, increase our knowledge. This is important as by being aware of these issues, we can be wary and well-informed so that they do not occur to us, our family, society and our country.
12.1
EUTHANASIA (ASSISTANCE IN DYING)
Death is inevitable. It surely embraces every living human regardless of age, rank, status or position. Euthanasia is closely related to death. Euthanasia is also known as mercy killing, which means helping to hasten death for the good of the patient. Certain parties think euthanasia is appropriate when done to patients who are dying due to terminal diseases like cancer. This is done by giving lethal drugs or injection to end the agony suffered by the patient. Euthanasia originates from the Greek word 'eu' which means good and 'thanos' which means death. Hence, euthanasia means "good death" or "better dying". Generally, euthanasia can be divided into several types. 1.
Voluntary euthanasia: When the victim's life is taken upon his or her request.
2.
Non-voluntary euthanasia: When the victimÊs life is taken without his or her permission or willingness but with permission from the next of kin.
3.
Involuntary euthanasia: When the victimÊs life is taken against his or her wishes.
4.
Assisted euthanasia: When a victimÊs life is taken upon the advice and views of an authoritative figure, due to certain reasons for the good of the patient. For example, the views and advice of a doctor.
Islam and Christianity state that suicide and euthanasia are against the wishes of human life. It is a prejudice that should be avoided as life is a gift from God. Therefore, only God has the right to retract that gift.
12.1.1
Forms of Euthanasia
There are two forms of euthanasia ă euthanasia by omission and euthanasia by action. Euthanasia by omission is a method of giving assistance to hasten death by not providing or removing life-support equipment (like respiratory equipment); or by ceasing treatment or medication, food and drink until death occurs. All those things mentioned are given to terminally ill patients who have no hope of surviving. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Euthanasia by action is assistance in hastening death according to the wishes of the patient, using methods like equipment which have been inserted with gases, chemicals or poisonous drugs. The question is: Should euthanasia be provided as an option to parties involved or who are in need? However, there is some leeway given on euthanasia. For example, in Japan, euthanasia is permissible if four conditions are met: (i)
The patient is terminally ill;
(ii)
The patient is in critical condition, where death cannot be avoided;
(iii) The necessary steps have been completed, for example, a doctor has already tried various ways to cure the patient in order to avoid euthanasia but to no avail. (iv) Permission has been obtained from the next of kin. In Cambodia, euthanasia is allowed for those suffering from critical and terminal illnesses and permission has been obtained from the next of kin. However, now legislation has made euthanasia illegal in many countries such as Japan, Cambodia, the Netherlands, Australia and the United States.
A study was conducted by D. Gada, P. Madhani and P. Gawde titled: Euthanasia: The Onus is on Us; surf the Internet to find more information on this. Discuss it in your tutorial.
12.1.2
The Moral Question in Euthanasia
On the surface, we would view the act of assisting a person to end his or her own agony as noble. However, when we delve deeper, we find there are conflicts in this issue. The question is whether the government of a country can reject the wishes of a terminally ill patient to end his or her life. Can a terminally ill patient gain something equal to a healthy person? Religions vehemently believe that God gives life and only He can end it. However, can this be a belief shared by all parties? Most religions believe that sickness absolves past sins. Can this belief be the basis to reject euthanasia by those opposing this act? Some patients are overcome with grief when they find out that they do not have long to live. Can this situation be the basis to carry out euthanasia? Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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ACTIVITY 12.1 Say an elderly member of your family is kept alive on a life-support system in the hospital. It is the only machine left and it is also needed by an infant. According to the doctor, the chances of the infant surviving are higher compared with your family member, if given the machine. Would you be willing to give up use of the machine for the infant? Give your comments.
EXERCISE 12.1 Should euthanasia by omission and euthanasia by action be legalised in this country?
12.2
MURDER
Murder occurs in almost all societies. Generally, there are three forms of murder: (i)
Legalised;
(ii)
Illicit; and
(iii) Necessary. Legalised murder refers to the taking away of life as a result of capital punishment. For example, a person convicted of trafficking drugs is punished to death by hanging. Other examples include slaughtering livestock for food. Illicit murder is forbidden by both law and religion. For example, a person who murders someone else out of jealousy or for his or her property. Necessary murder is like killing insects that attack us, such as mosquitoes.
12.2.1
Suicide
The liberal outlook on euthanasia is opposed and rejected by Judaism, Islam and Christianity, which also consider suicide as a dreadful sin. However, there are some religions and societies that consider suicide as brave and honourable. Ancient Romans and Greeks agreed on this matter, as did several religions in the East. One example is the old Hindu practice of ÂsutteeÊ whereby the wife of a deceased husband would throw herself into his funeral pyre. Another is the Japanese practice of Âhara-kiriÊ whereby defeated soldiers would commit suicide by their swords. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Abortion
Historical background and laws on abortion show that there were many societies that considered abortion and the killing of babies as morally appropriate. For example, the ancient Greeks and Romans left deformed or female babies to die. Today, there are many abortion cases. Modern living has led to many individuals getting pregnant before or out of marriage. When pregnancy occurs out of wedlock, a sense of shame and regret overcomes them. Hence, the shortcut is to abort the unborn child. At this stage, the individual has committed two immoral acts that contravene the law. The first is adultery and the second is aborting the innocent unborn baby. Some favour abortion, as they feel the welfare of the mother is more important than the foetus. In other words, if there are complications during pregnancy or at birth where there exists a choice of saving either the mother or baby, selecting the former is permissible. In Malaysia, laws forbidding abortion are contained in the Penal Code under sections 312, 313 and 312. Any person convicted under these sections will be jailed not more than 20 years. However, leeway is given on certain cases like abortion for the reason of saving the motherÊs life, based on advice from a gynaecologist.
12.2.3
Death Penalty
The death penalty is the most controversial capital punishment meted out by the courts of law. It is the heaviest possible punishment that can be handed to an offender of the law. Supporters of the death penalty praise it as a necessary instrument in upholding justice and deterring crime. The discussions put forward is that justice needs the death penalty to be imposed on criminals who have committed certain crimes. The death penalty is necessary as a deterrent to criminals who are too dangerous to be left alive. Apart from that, the costs of sustaining prisoners for a long time are too high. Opponents of the death penalty claim that it is inhumane, not fairly used, susceptible to killing innocent lives, incapable of preventing crime and has a disturbing effect on the administration of justice.
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ACTIVITY 12.2 Should the death penalty be imposed on criminals who rape children? Discuss.
12.3
MORAL ISSUES IN SOCIO-CULTURE
Pollution of the environment is a negative effect from human actions. Socioculture refers to relationship between society and culture, such as way of life, customs, values and norms of living in a society. The corruption of socio-culture is a negative effect resulting from the actions of individuals who breach the way of life of a society. Discussions on socio-cultural issues focus on societies in the East, especially in Malaysia, as Eastern countries still strongly practise polite mannerisms. The people in these countries have always been noted for their good manners, decency and polite speech. However, these days, things have changed and the government has had to launch national campaigns on politeness and good manners. This is mainly due to fear that the practice of politeness would steadily decline if no action has been taken.
12.3.1
Black Metal
Lately, a group or following known as Black Metal has been gaining prominence due to its negative influence. Black Metal is one of the forms of corruption in socioculture that is spreading among the youths in this country. The younger generation are easily influenced by Black Metal to the point of disregarding their studies to carry out unproductive activities. The Black Metal issue first drew attention due to the actions of certain followers who stepped on and burned the QurÊan. This behaviour is linked to anti-God and anti-social sentiments and devil worship. They are immersed in Black Metal music which is synonymous with the use of drugs, the Woodstock Festival, alcohol consumption, wild sexual activities and devil worship. Those involved in this genre often dress fully in black, display the five-pointed star symbol and wear inverted Christian crosses (as a sign of opposition to religion). During the shows, they tear up Bibles, behave violently with sharp weapons and skulls and display frightening Satanic images. It is these kinds of negative elements that are easily followed by the younger generation today, due to their weak faith.
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Pornographic VCDs and Magazines
The boom in information technology and the era of globalisation have brought in negative influences that threaten social stability among the various societies in Malaysia, especially the youths. This progress has brought in the latest technology, which includes indecent entertainment, pornographic VCDs and magazines that are easily available at low prices. These forms of pornographic media greatly influence the minds of the younger generation. This influence, in turn, has led to crimes such as rape, incest, abandoning babies and so on.
12.3.3
Pre-marital Sex
Almost all religions forbid pre-marital sex in order to preserve a long-lasting family unit. Conservative moralists believe that sexual desires have to be linked with deep love and affection. Thus, a person should only have sex with one person at a time. Liberal moralists, however, believe a person should be free to have more than one sexual partner. Extreme liberal moralists go further in not only advocating premarital sex but that sex should not be linked with love. For them, sex is a physical enjoyment, similar to how a person should be able to enjoy delicious food without the moral guilt. They suggest that sex can be done with anyone, as long as there is no force or coercion involved.
12.3.4
Incest
Sexual morality is always under scrutiny to differentiate appropriate and correct sexual behaviour from inappropriate and wrong behaviour. Generally, sexual acts other than those between husband and wife are inappropriate and against the rules of society. However, there are many who believe that sexual behaviour which does not produce offspring and has consent to have sex discrectly should be beyond moral criticism or laws. This view greatly differs from the view of those who see sexual morality through the eyes of religion. According to Section 376A, incest means „a man or woman having intercourse with a partner who is related by family ties and this act is forbidden by law, religion and customs‰. Anyone found committing this offence can be punished by a jail term between 6 and 20 years, and caning.
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12.3.5
MORAL ISSUES IN SOCIAL LIFE AND VIOLENCE
Gangsterism
Gangsterism is becoming widespread these days. Gangsterism involves crimes like fighting, extortion and assault. This issue should be given close attention, especially by the government, politicians, police, school authorities and local society in order to prevent it from spreading further. Gangsterism usually involves school students. The Education Ministry reported that there were gangsters actively recruiting schoolchildren. It is vital that parents, the authorities and society play their part in stopping this menace. Parents and society cannot place the responsibility to overcome this problem solely on the school authorities.
12.3.6
Amok
Stress, unstable emotion and mental illness are among conditions linked to a person going amok. Such a person is usually beyond control. He will kill anyone, destroy property and act violently. At the moment, incidences of amok frequently happen due to unstable judgement of the individuals as well as the lack of moral values due to ignorance or not having a definite goal in life. Incidences of amok among family members will usually end with the tragic deaths of the parents and children. Pressures of life such as poverty, jealousy and external pressures like threats from Ah Longs are also factors causing people to run amok. Amok is also due to deviant practices.
12.3.7
Snatch Theft
Snatch theft has become a daily occurrence in Malaysia. Snatch theft means illegally or forcibly taking the possessions of the rightful owner. Most snatch theft victims in this country are women. The most common possession snatched is handbags. There have been numerous cases of snatch thefts that have led to the victims suffering severe injuries or death. Snatch theft cases occur due to the carelessness of the victims and their tendency to keep money or wallets/ purses pockets, exposed. Secondly, some wear jewellery in an obvious manner, clearly visible. Thirdly, there are those who jostle to board public transportation or in crowded places, carrying handbags and purses in ways that make it easy for a thief to snatch them. These snatch thefts often occur on lonely sidewalks and lanes, and in crowded places. The thieves often walk or ride motorcycles in deserted and lonely locations. Snatch thieves and pickpockets also operate in busy areas and they often target areas near a bank or car parks. The snatch thieves often observe and strike when the victims exit the bank or alight from the car. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Therefore, we should be wary and be on our guard to avoid being a victim. We should bring money that is sufficient for shopping and not overly in excess. Handbags should be held firmly to make it harder for thieves to snatch them. Wallets should be kept in buttoned pockets. One should also be wary of leaving handbags in areas that can be easily reached like the backseat of an unlocked car or motorcycle basket. We are encouraged to walk in groups along the road, in the direction of oncoming traffic. Do not wear excessive jewellery in public and avoid walking in crowded places where people are jostling. Do not be fooled by commotions involving strangers and people who offer to help clean your attire. Also avoid falling asleep on public vehicles and leaving your belongings unguarded. Do not be taken in by strangers trying to be friendly to you without any plausible reason, such as asking your name, where you stay and so on. Finally, immediately check your handbag or wallet should someone knock or bump into you.
ACTIVITY 12.3 The government has spent thousands of ringgit and drafted various laws to combat social ills. However, these ills show no signs of abating. What other steps can be taken to overcome them.
EXERCISE 12.2 Why should we prevent pre-marital sex and incest?
12.4 CONCEPT OF VIOLENCE Violence, according to most dictionaries, means "wild behaviour, tendency to assault and run amok, kill and vandalise own property or of others". The discussion on violence is based on this definition of violence and focuses on its effects on other people, such as terrorism. Violence, in its wider meaning, is forceful action on non-military targets for political reasons. In other words, violence targets civilians who have committed wrongdoings in the eyes of the perpetrators for being on the other side. This means targeting innocent civilians. These are acts that are morally unacceptable and forbidden. There are many forms of violence around us whether we realise it or not, as violence sometimes occurs quietly, hidden from scrutiny.
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12.5
MORAL ISSUES IN SOCIAL LIFE AND VIOLENCE
SEXUAL VIOLENCE
Sexual violence is a sexual out that does not have the consensus of one party, usually the woman. This violence is more apparent when the sexual act occurs on a young victim who cannot comprehend it. Sexual violence happens everywhere these days. It also occurs in marriages where the wife is more often the victim, compared with the husband. This violence is hidden and discrect, due to the shame felt by the victim. Such violence is only exposed when the victim suffers terrible effects like injuries and so on.
12.5.1
Sexual Harassment
Sexual violence usually starts with sexual harassment. Sexual harassment, according to the laws in our country like those contained in Section 509 of the Penal Code, means behaviour that is meant to belittle the dignity of a man or woman. These acts include uttering any word, conversation, sound or sign, and displaying any object so that these acts or objects are seen by or disturb the decency of the victim. If any of the acts mentioned above occurs to us or our family members, the appropriate actions that should be taken are: (i)
Make a police report as soon as possible;
(ii)
Do not wash or bathe after the act has occurred;
(iii) Try to identify the assailant; (iv) Identify the details of the vehicle (if possible); and (v)
Get any statement that can aid the investigation.
We have the right to defend ourselves against the assailant. This right is contained in Section 100 of the Penal Code: the right to self-defence, meaning we are entitled to defend ourselves in the following situations: (i)
The assault is deemed capable of causing death;
(ii)
The assault is deemed capable of causing grievous injuries;
(iii) Assault with the intention to commit rape; (iv) Assault with the intention to satisfy unnatural desires; (v)
Assault with the intention to kidnap; and
(vi) Assault with the intention to wrongful confinement.
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The police will investigate sexual harassment/violence if a report is filed. If an offender is convicted, the guilty person can be sentenced to a jail term not exceeding five years or a fine or both.
12.5.2
Rape
Rape is the act of forcing a woman to submit to sexual intercourse, and outraging her modesty. According to Section 375 of the Penal Code, rape is the act of having intercourse with a woman against her will; without her consent; with her consent but under duress (fear of death/harm to child, relatives etc); wrong assumption of facts (e.g. a shaman says that intercourse can cure a disease); giving consent in the belief that the perpetrator is her husband (and the man knows otherwise); with consent without knowledge/understanding of the type and consequences of the consent given (ignorance, insane, unconscious, mentally ill, etc); or with or without the consent of a woman below 16 years of age; by the penetration of the manÊs penis into the womanÊs vagina. Rape cases are more often than not unreported, due to the shame felt by the victim, more so if the victim knows the perpetrator. Threats made by the petrators also prevent the victim from filing a report. There are also rape cases that carry on for years and are only detected when the victim gives birth. Sexual violence involving excessive rape often leads to the murder of the victim. If the perpetrator is convicted and found guilty by the court, the sentence applicable under Section 376 is a jail term of not less than five years and not exceeding 20 years, with the possibility of caning.
ACTIVITY 12.4 Is it appropriate for a rape case to be reported to the police by a woman abandoned by her lover, considering that she voluntarily and consensually had sex with her lover? Discuss
12.6
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE
Domestic violence is becoming rampant these days. Domestic violence occurs when one or more family members commit acts which are against the law, towards any other family member. These acts include the following: (i)
Causing physical injury to the victim;
(ii)
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(iii) Forcing or threatening the victim to engage in any sexual act, which the victim has the right to abstain from; (iv) Holding a victim in captivity against his or her will; and (v)
Committing sabotage or destruction or damage to property with the intention of causing, or knowing that it would make the victim sad or distraught.
In Malaysia, the law related to domestic violence is Domestic Violence Act 1994. The purpose of the Act is to provide protection to victims of domestic violence. The victims, according to this Act, include the wife. This Act classifies domestic violence as: (i)
The wife or her husband, de facto wife or husband (persons who have undergone some form of ceremony recognised as a marriage ritual according to religion or related parties even though the marriage is not registered or cannot be registered under any written law on marriage ceremony and registration) or ex-husband or ex-wife;
(ii)
Children (aged below 18 years who reside as family members);
(iii) Handicapped adults (who reside as family members); or (iv) Adult son or daughter, mother, father, brother, sister or any relative who, in the view of the court, have to be included in this Act for their protection. Victims of domestic violence can file a police report and obtain protection, help and guidance from the police. They can also seek help or guidance from welfare officers, and from lawyers or officers in the Legal Aid Bureau. Finally, the victims can file a complaint with the court and obtain certain rulings, such as a ruling for protection, compensation, psychotherapy rehabilitation, counselling, settlement and so on.
12.7
ROAD BULLYING
The rate of accidents in our country is among the highest in the world. Every day, accidents occur on federal roads, state roads and highways. These accidents often involve fatalities and critical injuries. Why do they happen? Most accidents occur due to the negligent, careless and inconsiderate attitude of drivers. This inconsiderate attitude often leads to road bullying. Road bullying is the act of injuring others or intentionally killing a person on the road because of misunderstanding between road users. Road bullying is a serious crime that can lead to a jail term, caning or even the death penalty. Examples of road bullying cases in Malaysia are the case of person who was murdered by a road bully in January 2005 and the MAS engineer who Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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was slashed with a parang by a road bully in February 2005. Among the factors that lead to road bullying is traffic congestion. Due to traffic jams, drivers become impatient, short-tempered, aggressive and unable to control their feelings when an accident occurs, even minor ones. Traffic accidents cannot be avoided as they are not just due to driver attitudes. Accidents also occur due to technical problems like faulty brakes, punctured tyres and others. However, the proper attitude of road users, especially drivers, can contribute to the eradication of road bullying. Among the viable solutions are education and legislation. The cultivation of proper driving manners can be implemented through moral studies in schools and driving schools for those who want to take their driverÊs licence, and education through the mass media like campaigns on television, radio and so on. Legislation-wise, road bullying can be reduced by drafting laws on misconduct on the roads. These laws should be accompanied by strict enforcement and stiff penalties. These will educate road users to be always cautious and to control their emotions when involved in road accidents. Road bullying is linked to the attitudes of road users. In terms of ethics, road bullying results from road users who have poor character and do not practise noble values when on the road. To overcome this problem, road users, especially drivers, should be more considerate and courteous when on the road.
12.8
VIOLENCE IN WAR
War means armed conflict between opposing sides. It is violent in nature, but is morally acceptable if meant to defend oneÊs land from foreign invasion. Logically the use of weapons will lead to loss of lives and bloodshed. For example, the Second World War resulted in the death of over 60 million people (soldiers and civilians) in just six years (http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/World_war_II). World War II involved the Allies ă British Commonwealth, France, the United States, Soviet Union and China ă and the Axis Powers comprising Germany, Italy and Japan. Most battles took place in Europe, the Atlantic, the Pacific and East Asia. In war, there are limits, as stated above. But these limits are still being broken in todayÊs modern and sophisticated civilisation. For example, the violence committed by the United States of America and her allies during the invasion of Iraq, and the Israel army which attacked Palestine and Lebanon. If invading Iraq was not enough, they proclaim to be the worldÊs police and yet commit violence by killing civilians, the elderly, women and children. They commit degrading acts like torture, abuse and rape of women and teenaged girls. The bottom line is violence committed by these immoral parties should be condemned and stopped immediately. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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ACTIVITY 12.5 In war, violence is necessary for victory. Discuss.
12.9 INTERNATIONAL VIOLENCE International violence is a threat that is not easily anticipated. One example is the terrorist attack on the World Trade Centre in New York on 11 September 2001. Hardly had the events in the United States settled, when the Bali bombing occurred on 13 October 2002. This tragedy struck fear in all countries, including Malaysia. These unexpected violent attacks caused enormous loss of lives and extensive damages to the infrastructure of the affected countries. The affected countryÊs economy was also jeopardised, increasing investment risks and greatly impacting on the security rating of a country. Malaysia is not exempted in this matter. We have had previous experience in putting a stop to violence, successfully making the Communist Party of Malaya lay down its arms. We successfully stopped the Japanese Red Army (JRA) attack on the American Embassy in the AIA Building in 1975. Our police force has also successfully foiled plans by extremists to carry out attacks, with the capture of members of the Malaysian Militant Group (KMM) and individuals linked to AlQaeda and Jemaah Islamiyah.
EXERCISE 12.3 International violence is becoming increasingly worrying. Describe the three steps that should be taken to overcome it and the effects these steps will have on international violence.
Moral issues cannot be avoided as long as humans behave as they do and greed is not abated.
As individuals, we have a big responsibility in overcoming social ills.
Though social ills are difficult to eradicate, we have a role in reducing them.
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What is important is that we do not become part of social problems and strive to help those caught in these problems.
Violence is an immoral act. Among the forms of violence that occur today is sexual violence that involves rape and sexual harassment.
Another form of violence is domestic violence that involves members of a family.
On the international stage, there is violence committed in war and by parties with certain motives.
As a moral human, we should refrain from committing any form of violence.
Refer to Figure 12.1 you should be able to explain the figure demonstrate your understanding of issues in violence.
Figure 12.1: Violence
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Answers TOPIC 2:
CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES
Exercise 2.1 Helping a road accident victim is an example of a good ethical behaviour. However, in terms of law, it is not an offence to refuse to help an accident victim. A person helps a road accident victim out of his or her own conscience and not to comply with any laws or regulations. From the viewpoint of ethics, our hearts will tell us that it is wrong to leave an accident victim especially if the person is severely injured. At the very least, the ethical thing to do is to call an ambulance. Hence, if we refuse to help the victim we will always feel guilty because we know that the victim may die as result of our refusal to assist him or her. In terms of ethics, we must help the person even if there is no legal punishment for not doing so. Exercise 2.2 1. 2. 3.
This is an example of objective values or valuable qualities, free from personal choices. Heavy punishment for illicit sex is an example of absolute values or values related to belief and religion of a person. Hariyah cried due to her own intrinsic values or inner values when witnessing the suffering of ManÊs family.
Exercise 2.3 1.
Customs are practised by a portion of society. The design of customs can be identified by looking at the related portion of the society. Moral values on the other hand are more universal. Usually customs and moral rules are interlinked but there are customs that go against moral values. For example, in the West it is common to wear shoes in the house. Whereas in the Asian community, this custom is often considered rude or immoral. On the other hand, in the West especially in the American society, burping at the dinner table is considered rude. However, in the Asian community this behaviour is acceptable.
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In order to overcome this problem, the people from various customs should discuss the differences of their customs and moral values. Since moral values are universal in nature they are easily understood and obeyed. 2.
Moral values can restrict a personÊs conduct because the value functions as: (a) A consistent standard of human behaviour. This function enables a person to become a moral guardian. (b) Limits the action of a person because he or she knows that the action would be judged by others (parents, teachers, friends and so on). Hence, the person is cautious of his or her behaviour so that he or she will be accepted by the society.
TOPIC 3:
THEORY OF ETHICS
Exercise 3.1 The wants and needs of children could vary and be unreasonable while the ability and resources available to a father is often limited. Therefore, a father must be fair and be able to prioritise when meeting the demands of his children. He could set a good example by providing them with their demand and at the same time giving them education. Among others, he could teach them the importance of prioritising that is to put things at the rightful places. For instance, the needs of secondary school children are different than primary school children and a fatter child would require a larger-sized uniform as compared to a thinner child. Thus, the children will learn that differences in treatment can sometimes be viewed as fair. Exercise 3.2 Id means an instinctive reaction to fulfil satisfaction. While ego is related to the reality world outside the individual himself. While Super-ego explains and interpret intuition or individual social behaviour norms. These concepts can be seen in childrenÊs moral development. Id for instance is very obvious in a newborn child. The child instinctively wants to be satisfied such as be fed, regardless of the time of day. As the child grows up, he or she develops an ego. Here, the child realises the reality that not all satisfaction can be fulfilled. However, the child will still try to get what he or she wants through various means such as crying, fighting and so on. At this stage, the child will be selective of morality choosing moral values which suit his or her needs. Hence, the child will rebel against authorities and adults who have hurt them. Super ego is the opposite of id and ego and this is often seen when the child reaches maturity. At this stage the child would appreciate the importance of following Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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moral rules and controlling desires. Super ego usually develops when a child has younger siblings and the parents have given him or her responsibility to take care of them. Exercise 3.3 1.
Under the law, Mrs. Pruma has a valid defence known as self-defence. She stabbed the person because based on Theory of Deontology she had the duty to protect her property.
2.
Man has been created by God as the best of creations. In order to preserve dignity and self-respect, they should respect themselves as well respect others. Without respect, some people will unconsciously be victims of other ruthless people and be used or manipulated for their self-gain. Slavery is an example of using people. Slaves often have to work for their masters and yet receive no compensation and have to live in harsh conditions. Humans are not objects. They have a mind and needs of their own. We should respect other peopleÊs rights and do unto others as we want others to do unto us.
TOPIC 4:
MORAL PRINCIPLES AND VALUES IN RELIGION AND BELIEFS
Exercise 4.1 In order to obtain the large amount of capital from your siblings, we have to convince them to accept the possible risk of selling their land. We should do this with wisdom so that they have the freedom to consider all the implications and consequences. Apart from this, the division of shares and profits should be properly stated and divided equally. Thus, a combination of freedom, justice, wisdom and choice would help us convince our siblings to help us overcome our business problem. Exercise 4.2 A good understanding of moral principles can help a person to become a leader in the community. An effective leader must be able to control his behaviour and strive for the improvement of the community. The principle of trust ensures that the leader is always honest and reliable when dealing with people. As a result, the people would want to be led by a trustworthy leader. In addition to this the principle of duty with the combination of freedom, justice, wisdom and choice would be a useful knowledge to a leader because people in general are
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universally attracted to these principles. In short, understanding moral principles can help a person become a successful leader. Exercise 4.3 The ethics of the messengers of Allah began since Adam was created. These ethical behaviours have been bestowed by God for all mankind. All messengers have good ethics so that they can become good role models for all the followers. This can be seen in Al Hadid verse 25: We sent before this our messengers with Clear Signs and sent down with them the Book and the Balance (of Right and Wrong), that men may stand forth in justice. Therefore the ethics of the messengers are indeed excellent and should be followed by mankind and be the reference point for pure values at all times. For instance, the trustworthiness of Prophet Muhammad. If everybody is as trustworthy and honest like him then there will be goodness and peace in this world. Exercise 4.4 Religion and followers are two different aspects altogether. The behaviours of the followers of a particular religion will either reflect positively or negatively on the religion itself. All religions ask the followers to abide by good ethical behaviour. A good religious follower will always follow his religious teachings, while there will be another follower who will constantly go against his religious teachings. If a follower is unethical, then it is wrong to blame the religion and regard the religion as being unethical as well. Exercise 4.5 Religions, beliefs and moral values are all aimed towards promoting a righteous way of life. All religions ask their followers to do good deeds and avoid evil deeds. Religious teachings can bring peace and tranquillity to the followers and the environment. A good belief will ensure that people be good to himself and others. Good morals if practiced will benefit the entire society. On the other hand, a negative belief, a deviant religion and negative morals will bring harm to the society. Thus a noble individual can be shaped if he or she practises all the excellent values laid down by religions, beliefs and moral values.
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TOPIC 5:
MORAL THOUGHTS AND IDENTITY OF A HUMAN WITH MORALS
Exercise 5.1 Everything that we do is closely related to our perception of what moral values should be and the moral values within ourselves. Most of our values are embedded in us at a very young age. However, as we grow older other factors such as environmental factors and experiences can change our conduct and perception towards morality. Our conduct can also be explained by several theories such as theory of theology and theory of deontology. In addition to this, the theory of psychoanalysis indicates that moral thoughts develop from id, ego to super ego and this will be reflected in our conduct. So as our moral thoughts develop, we will become more matured and responsible. The difference between one individual and another depends on several other factors like parents/guardians, peer pressure, experience and level of qualification. Exercise 5.2 An individual who practises naturalism is one who leads a very restricted life and is subject to tight rules and regulations. This individual believes that a custom must be preserved at all costs. Therefore he or she will not question these rules and regulations because the person knows that there is no excuse for breaking a rule or regulation. Exercise 5.3 There are many reasons why emotion is dangerous when dealing with moral issues. Emotivism prioritises feelings when making decisions. This can be seen through ones facial expression, mannerism and speech. Inability to control emotions can lead to moral problems. The person can be suspicious, paranoid, angry, depressed, and frustrated. Subsequently the person will make an irrational decision which may worsen the situation. Therefore the proper way to deal with moral issues is through wisdom and rational opinions. Exercise 5.4 1.
A rationalist always finds the rationale behind anything or any behaviour. This group tends to be very creative and is also creative in dealing with any issues. Sometimes however their actions are deemed to go against social norms but to them the reality is their action is the most rational thing to do. A rationalist will always find the reasons why an event occurs, its impact and the best way to deal with it. Therefore rationality is given priority in dealing with an action or reacting to a particular situation. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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2.
An individual with a rational thought will deal with moral issues in a rational manner. A rationalist will always ask himself or herself: Why did this happen? How did this happen? What are its impacts? From this string of questions, the rational individual will find ways or steps to solve the moral issues. Once the steps have been identified the next step is to look into the rationale behind the execution of carrying out the solutions. Finally, the most rational solution will be applied to solve the moral issues.
Exercise 5.5 (a)
Awareness of emotions: If a person is aware of his or her own emotions then he or she can do a self-evaluation. As a result, the person can always keep the emotions in check and practise good behaviour as well as avoid negative behaviour. A person who is aware of his or her own negative emotions such as arrogant, envious, hot-tempered and so on will take proactive actions to control these emotions. On the other hand, if they are unaware of their negative emotions then they will always be subject to their emotions and be inclined to commit immoral acts.
(b)
Awareness of intellect: A person who is aware of his or her intellectual capabilities will always be confident and exudes a positive appearance. However, a person who is unaware of his or her intelligence will feel inferior, even if he or she has a high intellect. Apart from this, a person who has a low intellect and is unaware of this, may brag and act as if he or she knows a lot of facts. Therefore, awareness of intellect is important so that a person can excel according to their level of intellect.
(c)
Awareness of sociability: Awareness of sociability is closely related to emotional and intellectual awareness. The way a person interacts will reflect the personÊs emotions and intellect. This awareness will prevent a person from going against the moral values of society. There will always be cautious of what they say in public and remain polite when interacting with other people.
Exercise 5.6 1.
Displaying self-image means being you without imitating others. As a person, one is taught at a very young age about the importance of noble values especially Asian values. However, during adolescence the person may be influenced by many foreign cultures which may go against Asian values. Western and Asian values differ in many ways such as the way children greet their parents, style of clothing and lifestyle in general. Teenagers usually mimic what they see on television or movies and imitate Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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other people, while those who have their own self-image and practise Asian values are considered as backwards or not modern. However, every individual should be proud of his or her self-image and continue to practise noble values. 2.
Everyone is driven by goals and objectives. So, just as important as having an aim in life we should strive to a have a moral aim in life as well. If we are determined to a moral aim in life then we will seek to understand the meaning of morality and its importance in our life. This is necessary so that we can be clear on our lifeÊs moral aim. Once we have set the target, then it will be easier to become beings with good morals. On the other hand, those without proper goals will not try to improve themselves in terms of morality.
TOPIC 6:
SHAPING MORAL HUMANS
Exercise 6.1 1.
The strength of a straw broom depends on the number of straws tied together. A single straw will not be enough to make a good broom. The same goes for rules in a society. If only one person follows the rules, then these rules cannot be enforced in the society. Hence, each member of the society has a part to play in strengthening the rules and regulations of society. Among others, each member can advise one another to abide by these rules. In addition to this, there should be a fixed punishment or penalty for those who flout the rules or regulations and each member must be aware of the punishment and penalty.
2.
Among the importance of societal rules is to maintain harmony within a society and establish a moral and noble society. Apart from this, these rules can guarantee the peacefulness of a multi-racial society and uphold their individual rights and liberties. The societal rules are necessary to create a common goal for people from different races and backgrounds, so that they can be united and live in harmony as well as preserve the stability of the society.
Exercise 6.2 1.
Oftentimes we are in a dilemma when we do things yet realise that it is wrong or sinful. For instance when we hide the truth to protect our friends by signing Âon his behalfÊ on the attendance sheet when he is absent from classes. Here, we sincerely want to help or friend but at the same time feel guilty for being dishonest and aiding him to commit to commit a wrongful Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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act as well as encouraging him to miss classes. Even if our friend may have a valid reason for being absent, we should always be honest in our daily life. 2.
Everybody could make mistakes. Therefore we should sympathise and be patient to those who have wronged us. Indeed, it is natural to react angrily to those people. However, we should understand the underlying circumstances and source of mistake. Therefore, it is best for us to apologise them for making mistakes and by doing so we have successfully controlled our negative behaviour of being angry or taking revenge. Indirectly, people will respect us for being forgiving in nature. We will not become less noble if we forgive those who have wronged us. When we apologise, we hope that the person will be aware of the wrongfulness of his mistake and will not repeat it in the future.
Exercise 6.3 Basically, the formation of moral values begins from a family for instance the parents have inculcated moral values to their children and eventually the values have been practised in the entire society. However, these values may differ from one society to another. For example in a Japanese society, they greet their guest by bowing to them while in other societies a simple handshake will be enough. However, we must realise that despite the different ways, we must respect our guests. Therefore to develop moral values in the world village it is imperative to establish a single moral ethical code agreed and acceptable by the world community. In order to make this code workable, it must be disseminated to all societies through various means especially information technology. If this common code exists and is practised by everyone, then this world will be a better place to live in and people can live in harmony.
TOPIC 7:
FREEDOM AND JUSTICE
Exercise 7.1 Even though absolute slavery no longer exists in our society, indirect slavery is still prevalent in this world. The main reason for this type of slavery is the attitude of individuals and the society itself. For instance, an individual who are not aware of his financial limitations may become a slave of debt. This people will become easy targets of unscrupulous groups who will charge unreasonably excessive interest rates such as illegal money lenders or ÂAh LongsÊ.
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Due to this indirect slavery, the individual will not become free ă physically, mentally and emotionally. Physically the person may be physically punished for being a slave to debt, if he or she fails to pay the debt on time. In terms of mentally, a person may be weak and lazy, leaving it all to fate. While in terms of emotion, the person may be constantly harassed both physically and mentally, until it affects his emotional stability and he finally resorts to unreasonable acts such as committing suicide. Among the ways to overcome it are by equipping oneself with proper knowledge and practising noble values. When a person has enough knowledge, he knows how to differentiate right and wrong. In addition to this, knowledge will also help him manage his finance better. While, noble values will teach him not to always ask people to lend money and be a slave of debt. Exercise 7.2 1.
Everyone is free to do business in this world but must be subject to certain laws and regulations. By-laws by municipal authorities are necessary to ensure that roadside hawkers follow certain business guidelines such as operate in prescribed zones and business hours, maintain cleanliness and hygiene and so on. By-laws are also necessary to ensure that people do not sell illegal goods such as pirated VCDs or DVDs, smuggled goods or even stolen goods. Traders must understand that they are other people in this world as well. For instance if they were to operate illegally in a residential area, it will disturb those living in the neighbourhood. Therefore the rules of a municipal authority are meant to maintain peace and harmony within the community. So even if a trader should be free to make a living, it should be limited to the rules and regulations. If there were to abide by the rules and regulations such as having a valid trading license, then they can carry out their business with peace of mind.
2.
Freedom of speech in Parliament allows the Members of Parliament or MPs to voice out his or her views and opinions in an orderly manner and moderated by the Speaker. This freedom is above freedom granted to the public, in that MPs can talk on any issues in Parliament without legal sanctions. However, this freedom is not without restrictions. Among others, the members must always be courteous, talk based on the topic of discussion, refrain from giving false answers and so on. The Speaker is responsible to moderate the debate to ensure that it complies with the established parliamentary conventions.
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Unlike freedom of speech in Parliament, freedom of speech is more restricted during political rallies. Firstly, all political rallies need to have a police permit. The contents of the rally will be vetted and must not contain elements deemed to be inflammatory or can affect social stability. Such limitations are necessary to ensure the harmony of a multi-racial society.
TOPIC 8:
TYPES OF MORAL CONFLICTS AND THEIR SOLUTIONS
Exercise 8.1 In a multi-racial society like Malaysia, racial discrimination could lead to moral issues, affect national integration and eventually destabilise the nation. Among the major contention relating to racial discrimination is economic segregation. For instance, the Chinese dominate the business sector, the Malays are farmers and the Indians work as estate labourers. Today, this belief may no longer be suitable for an independent nation such as Malaysia. Another issue is education. The democratisation of education for all races has benefited all Malaysians. Now almost everyone from different races and religions has access to education and good educational facilities. Exercise 8.2 Power struggle within an organisation often occurs between two or more individuals. Here, the strategy of diluting problems can help solve a problem by breaking up the problem into a few compartments and subsequently discovering alternatives that can benefit all the conflicting parties. Among the steps that can be taken are: 1. Identify the level of authority 2. Create an equal level of authority 3. Establish conditions to hold power 4. Provide choice to hold power 5. Vote the person into power if necessary By increasing the alternatives, we can reduce and eventually resolve the conflict.
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Exercise 8.3 A family usually plays a leading role in resolving conflict, especially in the East where they are respected and appreciated. Conflict is amicably settled because the family member does not want to smear the familyÊs name by going against the norms of the society. This is the importance of having a close-knit family. In addition to family, religion is useful to resolve conflict. All religions promote peace and unity. Therefore, in times of conflict the conflicting parties are encouraged to forgive one another. Therefore by returning to religion all conflicts or discords can be settled in a rational way.
TOPIC 9:
ECONOMIC ISSUES
Exercise 9.1 1.
There are many ways business ethics and law can help assure maximum profit in business. Firstly, it must be understood that business ethics and law are meant to protect both businessmen and customers. An ethical businessman or trader will be popular with his customers because he projects positive ethical values such as honesty, courtesy, fairness and so on. As a result, the business will have many loyal customers and it will flourish and profits will increase. If a businessperson abides by business law, then the public will respect the company for its integrity. Even if in the short-run following the law may affect the businessÊ profits ă for example trade within prescribed hours, refrain from cheating customers and so on ă ultimately people will have more confidence in a law-abiding business. The business proprietor can also have peace of mind and not be constantly harassed by law enforcers. In addition to this, violating business law can be very costly and this will erode profits.
2.
It is important for every member of the society to appreciate and practice the slogan „This is my company‰. One of the reasons for this is that we must work for the interest of the company and not our own self-interest. Whenever the company makes profits, we too will receive some benefits in terms of higher bonus and better incentives. We must also bear in mind, if the company falls due to our incompetence or laziness, we will consequently lose our job and source of income. Therefore, we should work in the company as if it is ours and ensure the progress of the company.
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ANSWERS W 163
Exercise 9.2 1.
People who participate in bribery will only benefit in the short-run. However, in the long-run widespread bribery and corruption will only bring misery to the person committing it as well as his family, society and nation. The practise of giving and receiving bribery will bring many problems. Among others, it reduces productivity, increases crime and immoral acts and so on. In fact, it can even weaken a nation because a corrupted person is willing to ÂsellÊ his country to another foreign country including an enemy state. Here a corrupted person may sell vital information such as defence strategies or official secrets to other countries. Worse than that, a corrupted person may spark a rebellion to overthrow the government and this may lead to internal strife and bloodshed. Therefore bribery and corruption must be stopped.
2.
We can fight corruption through early education. It can start from the family, and the parents should teach their children about the dangers of bribing people. For instance in a family, the elder brother should not ask money or gifts from his siblings whenever they commit a wrongful act such as breaking a plate or so on. Instead, children should learn to tell the truth, however difficult it may be. Even the society must play its role to eradicate corruption and not give bribes. Law enforcers must carry out their duties and enforce the law without any self-interest.
TOPIC 10: ISSUES IN TECHNOLOGY Exercise 10.1 1.
There are many ways to control the advances in IT to prevent its abuse in the spread of negative information in our country. One of the ways is by drafting laws forbidding the use IT in spreading rumours which incite hatred and sow disunity that may threaten national security. Furthermore, parents have an important role to play and should constantly monitor the websites that their children visit. This can prevent children especially teenagers from surfing immoral sites such as pornographic sites and so on. Teachers too can play their part by incorporating teachings on noble values into IT studies or noble values taught across the curriculum as required by the National Education Philosophy. Consequently everyone in the society is involved in eradicating immoral materials in the IT market.
2.
In this case it is submitted that the cloned baby was conceived by a woman who is not his or her biological mother. Generally, almost all parties are against the cloning of babies because it is unethical and may bring discord Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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in the world. Among others the real mother may claim rights of custody, the cloned child may later claim rights to property and so on. Cloning can also cause confusion in terms of inheritance and lineage. Exercise 10.2 1.
Indeed, it is undeniable that the use of chemicals has increased the world's agricultural output and brought many other benefits as well. Pesticides for instance can make plants more resistant to diseases. Therefore, farmers can harvest more crops and make profits. In addition to this, some chemicals can increase the size of the produce and this too can increase the farmerÊs profits. Chemicals can also lengthen the shelf life of some produce, and thus prevent wastage and increase their profits. Yet, the excessive use of chemicals beyond the permitted level, can affect the quality of our lives. There should be a harmonious balance between agricultural production and quality of life. The excessive use of pesticides may bring many harmful side-effects to the consumers. Sometimes there seem to be no side effects but in the long-run it will manifest in the form of cancer and other critical illnesses. Chemicals not only affect the food that we eat; indirectly they cause other forms of population such as air pollution and also water pollution. Excessive use of chemicals may also affect the farmerÊs profit. For example, a few years ago, a neigbouring country refused the entry of a shipload of cabbages from Malaysia because it contains chemicals beyond the permitted level.
2.
There are many roles that a non-governmental organisation (NGO) can play in controlling the advances of nuclear energy that can bring harm in the society. One NGO that is dedicated to saving the environment is Greenpeace International. Among the goals of this NGO is the elimination of nuclear weapons. The members consist of people who love the environment and their role is to prevent the widespread use of nuclear energy. They will usually petition the government against the use of nuclear and nuclear testing. If this fails, they will demonstrate against the users of nuclear energy and sometimes even form human shields to get the message across. The members also disseminate information to the public on the dangers of nuclear energy to the world population.
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ANSWERS W 165
TOPIC 11: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES Exercise 11.1 1.
Global warming can cause an ice meltdown at both the North and South Poles and ultimately raise the world's water levels to dangerous levels. As a result, many coastal areas will be submerged and some small low-lying islands may disappear altogether. Higher water level may lead to less arable lands or lands suitable for growing crops. In addition to this, global warming is also responsible for causing acid rains.
2.
The three ways to overcome global warming are as follows: (a) Avoid or reduce the use of chemical agents that can lead to the thinning of the ozone layer such as CFC (b) Avoid or reduce open burning (c) Avoid or reduce deforestation
Exercise 11.2 Recreational areas such as waterfalls can bring peace and tranquillity to everyone. Therefore, whenever we visit these places we should behave and maintain good morality in order to preserve the environment. Among the good conduct are: avoid throwing rubbish indiscriminately around the surrounding area, cutting down trees, damaging public facilities and so on. In addition to this unmarried couples should avoid immoral behaviours that may be offensive to other people visiting the waterfall. These moral values can help preserve the beauty of waterfalls and their natural surroundings. Exercise 11.3 Noise pollution is the presence of unwanted noise that can bring negative consequences to the listener. Hence, soothing sound meant to calm the soul is not considered as noise pollution. The source of noise can be divided into two: natural and artificial. Natural sounds include the chirping of crickets and unavoidable noises like the sound of thunder. Natural sounds are usually acceptable and not considered as noise pollutions. However, most noise pollutions come from artificial or man-made objects such as vehicles, blasting of rocks, heavy industry and so on. These continuous, fluctuating and alternating noises are all noise pollutants because they are disruptive and affect quality of life such as sleep patterns and so on. Since these noises are man-made the level of noise can be reduced to an acceptable level. For instance, now there are trains that move almost silently.
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TOPIC 12: MORAL ISSUES IN SOCIAL LIFE AND VIOLENCE Exercise 12.1 1.
The practise of euthanasia ă whether active or passive ă should not be allowed in this country. Our country comprise of many races and religions. Yet, the Rukunegara clearly states the element of believe in God. Therefore only God has the right to take away life. Every religion forbids the killing of people especially committing suicide. Most religion however permits the killing of livestock because the animal is meant for human consumption. Therefore the practise of euthanasia both active and passive should not be legalised in Malaysia.
2.
Prof Dr Omar Hassan Kasule Sr in his writing states that euthanasia as „an easy way of dying or a painless death‰. While, Aris Wabudi concurs with him saying euthanasia as „a good way to die‰. According to Prof Omar there are three religions that accepts the practise of euthanasia: Buddhism, Shinto and Confucianism; while the three main religions: Islam, Christianity and Judaism, are against this practise. Prof Omar categorises death as a situation whereby respiration ceases completely or all or a major part of the brain processes stop to function. Meanwhile, Aris divides death into somatic and biological ă arguments similar to the death of brain activities as mentioned by Prof Omar. Therefore, euthanasia is done to those who are suffering in pain when life-support equipment is no longer effective. Morally, they agree that euthanasia is at the request of the patient or the patientÊs family in order to end the patient's pain and suffering. This is done by discontinuing medical aid.
Exercise 12.2 Pre-marital sex is an immoral behaviour that can damage the family institution. If a child is born out of wedlock, this will create many social problems such as the killing or abandonment of babies and so on. Some women are unprepared to be mothers and resort to abortion. Incest is another immoral behaviour that should be avoided. In addition to sharing the same problems of pre-marital sex, incest can cause problems on inheritance and so on. Incest reduces a human being to an animal in that a son can become a husband, grandfather can become a husband and so on. We can become a more civilised society if pre-marital sex and incest do not occur in the society.
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ANSWERS W 167
Exercise 12.3 Basically, international violence involves terrorist attacks committed by an international organisation that aim to destabilise a nation. There are a few steps to overcome international violence and among them are: 1.
Controlling All the Entry Points of a Country Every immigration officer is responsible to ensure that foreigners and our citizens come in and out of the country according to the proper immigration procedure. Among others, it is important that people coming in and out of Malaysia have valid travel documents. Vetting of foreigners should be conducted on potential terrorists for the sake of national security.
2.
Controlling National Boundaries Our national boundaries should be monitored at all times to prevent the illegal entry of foreigners or attacks from subversive forces. Those involved as border patrols both land and sea must do their job for the love of the nation, not merely for financial compensation. Their dedication to their job will prevent unwanted groups or individuals from crossing our boundaries and entering our country. ]
3.
The Role of Our Society Each and every citizen has to be constantly wary of suspicious foreigners and report them to the police. Our courage will help the authorities to stem international violence involving Malaysians or foreigners as well as save lives. We must love our nation and not aid international terrorists to spark violence in our country.
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