mountain survival

DGD&D/18/34/64

Army Code No 71617

1996

MOUNTAIN OPERATIONS

PERSONAL SURVIVAL AND SAFETY GUIDE

PRESS HERE TO RETURN TO MAIN CONTENTS PAGE Prepared under the direction of the Chief of the General Staff

This publication replaces AC 71360 (Revised 1985)

1996

CONDITIONS OF RELEASE (Applicable to copies supplied with Ministry of Defence approval to Commonwealth and Foreign Governments) 1.

This information is released by the United Kingdom Government to the recipient Government for Defence purposes only.

2.

This information must be accorded the same degree of security protection as that accorded thereto by the United Kingdom Government.

3.

This information may be disclosed only within the Defence Department of the recipient Government, except as otherwise authorized by the Ministry of Defence. AMENDMENTS

Amendment No Date of

Amendment No

Date of

INDEX Index

1

Introduction

2

Safety Rules for Mountainous Areas

3

Lost Procedure

4

Emergency Bivouac Procedure

5

Cold Weather Injuries

6-13

Clothing and Equipment

14-15

Carrying Loads in the Mountains

16-17

Three Essential Knots for Climbers

18

Avalanche Safety

19-22

Improvised Stretchers

23-24

Wind Chill Chart

25

1

INTRODUCTION

1.

This Aide Memoire has been produced as an elementary guide for all ranks involved on operations in mountainous areas.

2.

To operate efficiently in the mountains you need:

3.

a.

Knowledge.

b.

Practice.

c.

Experience.

d.

Motivation.

e.

Fitness.

Everything you read in this Aide Memoire seems simple, but in adverse conditions the problems are always greater.

2

SAFETY RULES FOR MOUNTAIN AREAS

1.

2.

The mnemonic HAVERSACKS should be remembered as a safety guide when operating in the mountains. a.

Have a map, compass and first aid kit.

b.

Always wear the correct clothing and carry spares.

c.

Vituals in case of emergency.

d.

Ensure you carry the correct equipment and know how to use it.

e.

Remember the international distress signal.

f.

Seek local advice.

g.

Conserve energy.

i.

Know your limitations.

j.

Stay as a group.

LEARN AND UNDERSTAND THE ABOVE RULES.

3

LOST PROCEDURE

1.

2.

In the event of being lost on a mountainside, the following procedure should be carried out. a.

Stop and consider the situation calmly.

b.

Check all recorded bearings and distances and recalculate the position.

c.

Check calculations with someone else.

d.

Retrace your steps to the last known position if possible.

e.

Draw a circle around the last known position representing the maximum distance which should have been covered, then select a recognised point on a major linear feature and send out a probing patrol.

f.

Do not move without a very careful check on direction and mark the route carefully so that you can retrace your steps if necessary.

If the weather is bad and the commander considers a move an unnecessary risk, seek shelter until the weather improves.

4

EMERGENCY BIVOUAC PROCEDURE

1.

2.

The following procedure should be adopted. a.

Descend as far as possible down the mountainside.

b.

Find shelter in the lee, avoid ridges as they are cold and windy.

c.

Put on any spare clothing.

d.

Insulate the body from the ground by sitting on equipment.

e.

Sit inside bivvie bag.

f.

Huddle together for warmth.

g.

Eat emergency rations.

Above all have a positive attitude.

5

COLD WEATHER INJURIES (SYMPTOMS, PREVENTION AND CURES) AILMENT/ INJURY 1

Wind-chapping Wind Burn

2

a. Frost Nip

SYMPTOMS

PREVENTATIVE MEASURES

TREATMENT

* adequate protection from wind and cold. * lip salve and skin cream. * numbness accompanied by blanching of the skin and tingling.

* good gloves, boots and head gear.

If not treated quickly frost nip can develop. Treatment: * men should be paired off to inspect and examine each other. * any sign of frost nip should be thawed immediately. * place fingers under armpits or groin. * feet on another man's abdomen. * patient may return to work once warming complete.

6

AILMENT/ INJURY b. Superficial Frostbite

SYMPTOMS

PREVENTATIVE MEASURES

* skin is white and frozen on * adequate protection from surface but soft when the cold. pressed. * regular inspections of * becomes numb, blue and face, fingers and feet. mottled after warming and * immediate warming if any will burn, sting and swell. extremity goes white. * blisters may occur within 24-36 hrs and dry up leaving thick black skin. *` throbbing, aching for several weeks. * scabs will fall off in time, exposing red tissues.

TREATMENT * gradual rewarming. * clothing should be removed from affected area. * affected part should not be massaged or rubbed. * do not attempt to thaw the affected part if there is a likelihood of the part freezing again. * treat casualty for shock - warm, sweet drinks. * evacuate quickly.

7

AILMENT/ INJURY 3

Deep Frostbite

SYMPTOMS

* skin becomes yellowish, lacking mobility. * large blisters in 3-7 days, skin blue or mottled grey. * shooting or throbbing pain. * swelling, blisters and colour change around affected parts. * affected parts turn black and shrivel. * blisters finally dry up and fall away leaving red tender areas and red sensitive area of new skin itches for many months.

PREVENTATIVE MEASURES

TREATMENT

The only form of frostbite that can be treated on the spot is frost nip. * Evacuate as quickly as possible.

8

4

AILMENT/ INJURY

SYMPTOMS

Freezing Cold Injury

* headache. * abdominal pains. * blurred vision. * vomiting. * slow mental reactions. * clumsiness. * irrational behaviour. * bursts of energy followed by lethargy. * physical resistance to offers of help. * finally - collapse and coma.

* adequate clothing. Warmth and Shelter Sequence. * regular meals, hot drinks and rest. * erect shelter. * dry clothing. * remove wet clothes. * place man in sleeping bag. * in bad cases - a second man in bag for added heat. * artificial respiration if breathing and heart has stopped. * 2 men with casualty at all times. * evacuate quickly.

A man may collapse with no signs.

* proper ventilation. * do not run engines near.

Hypothermia

5

Carbon Monoxide Poisoning

PREVENTATIVE MEASURES

TREATMENT

* Evacuate as quickly as possible.

9

AILMENT/ INJURY

SYMPTOMS

PREVENTATIVE MEASURES

TREATMENT

6

Snow Blindness

Gritty sensation in the eye, followed by intense pain and blindness.

* wearing of tinted glasses. * Apply cold compress and reassure usually of 24 hrs duration with 100% recovery. * Cover both eyes.

7

Sunburn

* sun's rays are reflected from snow. * common areas are lips, nostrils and eyelids.

* lip salve. * barrier cream. * shaving lotions with alcohol content should be avoided (they dissolve the skin's natural oils). * gradual tanning.

8

Battle Wounds

* low body temp prevents blood. * excessive bleeding.

* stop the bleeding. * apply dressing. * cover with clothing and padding.

10

AILMENT/ INJURY

SYMPTOMS

PREVENTATIVE MEASURES

* bleeding increases chance of hypothermia through rapid loss of body heat. * shock. 9

Dehydration

* headache. * tiredness. * mouth, tongue and throat become parched. * swallowing difficult. * nausea, fainting, dizziness, vomiting. * muscular cramp. * urine becomes dark orange colour.

TREATMENT * anti-shock treatment with fluids at body temperature (not cold fluids). * adequate warmth is essential.

* regular and adequate intake of fluids and salt.

* keep patient warm. * clothing loosened for circulation. * liquids should be given gradually by mouth. IV fluids if very dry. * allow plenty of rest.

11

AILMENT/ INJURY 10 Trench Foot

SYMPTOMS

PREVENTATIVE MEASURES

TREATMENT

* pain in the feet and legs. * numb and stiff feeling. * pain and numbness may alternate. * if pain is severe, casualty looks ill and shocked. * legs and feet begin to swell.

* avoid prolonged immersion of feet in water. * use footpowder.

* do not rub and warm the feet. * handle foot carefully - do not damage. * clean foot with soap and water and dry. * elevate the foot slightly to reduce swelling. * foot should be kept at about 0°C. * cover foot with blanket over improvised cage, to avoid contact. * give hot food and drink and aspirin to reduce pain. * evacuate quickly.

12

AILMENT/ INJURY

SYMPTOMS

PREVENTATIVE MEASURES

TREATMENT

11

Constipation

* similar to dehydration. * irritability. * lethargy, nausea. * stomach cramps.

* strict adherence to routine.

* medical attention should be sought if for more than 3 days.

12

Toothache

* lack of Vitamin C and failure to keep teeth clean.

* dental check-up before deployment.

* aspirin.

13

Acute Ulcerative * swollen, painful and bleeding Stomatitis gums.

* good hygiene and regular teeth cleaning.

* casualties should be put to bed if possible, fed a fluid diet and given antibiotics. * eating utensils should be sterilized.

13

CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT

1.

General. Some special clothing and equipment may be required for mountain operations, depending upon the type of activities to be undertaken. A balance has to be struck between operational equipment carried (weapons, ammunition, radios, etc) so that men are not overloaded and that sufficient and suitable clothing is worn for the operations envisaged.

2.

Clothing. An example of the special clothing list for individuals is as follows: Beret/woollen hat Jersey/fibre pile jacket Combat shirt Denims/windproof trousers Combat smock/windproof smock Combat boots Gloves Waterproofs

3.

Equipment. Examples of special equipment for individuals and groups are as follows: a.

Individual Equipment. Military bergen Torch Knife and whistle Flask and bar ration Crampons and ice axes (to be issued if snow and ice covered areas of objective danger are to be crossed) Triple bowline abseiling harness (to be issued for abseiling) 2 x screw gate karabiners (to be issued for abseiling) Emergency rations Map and compass (minimum of one set per pair) Survival bag Mk 6 combat helmet. 14

b.

Group Equipment Sleeping bag per 10 men Sleeping mat per 10 men Poncho per 10 men Tent per 10 men Helicopter panels per 10 men Ropes as necessary (11mm/No 4 nylon) Specialist clothing equipment as appropriate Avalanche probes Radios (one with each sub unit)

15

CARRYING LOADS IN THE MOUNTAINS

1.

Operations in a mountain terrain require stores and equipment to be manpacked across steep slopes. The points given below cover the packing and carrying of loads. Techniques of Packing a Bergen

2.

In packing a load the centre of gravity should lie between the shoulder blades and close to the back. The object is achieved in the following method. a.

The heavy objects are placed close to the back.

b.

Heavy objects are placed high up.

c.

Long objects are carried vertically, not horizontally.

d.

The shape of the load is kept as flat as possible.

e.

Bulky loads should not be as heavy as compact ones.

Technique of Carrying Loads 3.

The following measures should be adopted when carrying loads. a.

Adjustment of Straps. Shoulder straps should be adjusted so that the pressure of the waist band is not taken in the small of the back, but on the pelvis.

b.

Rests. For loads up to 55 lb, 10 minutes rest in the hour is recommended and for loads over 60 lb, 5 minutes every half hour. During short rests it is wise not to remove heavy loads from the back but to support it on a bank or rock. 16

c.

Speed and Rhythm. Speed should be adjusted to the gradient so as to avoid laboured breathing. Otherwise the pace should be rhythmical and regular.

d.

Selection of Route. A long route with an even surface is to be preferred to a short one leading over broken or excessive steep land.

e.

Training Loads. During porterage training loads should be heavier than operational loads.

17

THREE ESSENTIAL KNOTS FOR CLIMBERS

1.

Overhand Knot

Used to tie--off a loose end of rope after a bowline or other knot has been tied. 2.

Overhand Loop.

An overhand tied in a doubled rope provides a loop for belaying or for a waist loop. 3.

Figure-of-8 Loop.

A more effective knot than the overhand for forming a waist loop. Any mistakes in tying it results in an overhand, which is still a safe knot. It can be easily untied after loading.

18

AVALANCHE SAFETY

1.

Protection. The following basic rules apply: a.

Most avalanche accidents are triggered by their victims. Keep up high and avoid being the trigger which starts the slide.

b.

Keep clear of accumulation areas during and immediately after snow storms.

c.

Lee slopes are particularly prone to soft slab avalanches.

d.

Never travel alone.

e.

Never expose more than one of the party to risk at any given time.

f.

Do not assume that the passage of another is proof that the slope is safe.

g.

Avoid cornices and the slopes below them.

h.

Fracture commonly takes place on the convex part of the slope.

i.

The most dangerous slope angles are between 30 and 40 degrees.

j.

Avalanche slopes that run out into gullies where the debris can pile up are especially dangerous.

k.

Thin forest offers poor protection, but below the tree line areas are generally safer.

l.

Take local advice and obey all avalanche warning notices.

m.

Find out the recent weather history.

19

2.

n.

Be observant of warning signs, such as booming of snow, heavy snow balling, fresh avalanches from the boots or skis.

o.

Sudden increase in temperature after a snow fall, especially when a dry wind creates an avalanche danger.

p.

Study layers of snow by digging a snow pit. Note particularly any weak layers.

q.

The deeper the snow the greater the danger. An accumulation rate in excess of 25 mm per hour leads to avalanche danger. Snow takes 2-3 days to settle, and longer if the weather is cold and the area is out of the sun.

Action when Crossing a Potential Avalanche Slope. a.

Loosen ski bindings and take hands out of ski pole straps.

b.

Loosen rucksack straps and be prepared to shed any other impediment.

c.

Secure your combat jacket hood over your nose and mouth if possible.

d.

Go downhill on foot rather than ski.

e.

Go straight down rather than make a descending traverse.

f.

Cross high and if possible on a CONCAVE slope. It is generally more stable than other slopes and the higher you are the less chance there is of being buried.

g.

Cross one at a time. Never assume that the passage of another party is proof that the slope is safe. They may well be the first pressure on the trigger. 20

3.

Action if caught in an Avalanche a.

Remove rucksack and skis (these should already be in the quick release position on suspect ground). A good skier may be able to ski out of danger.

b.

Make a quick assessment of the avalanche, whether you are at the top, bottom or middle or to one side and where your best line of escape lies.

c.

Delay your departure as long as possible. The more you let past you at the start means the less will bury you at the finish.

d.

It may be advantageous to work out of the side of the avalanche.

e.

If swimming movement is possible, it seems a double action back stroke is most effective with the back to the force of the avalanche, and the head up, There is no clear cut procedure. Ride out as best you can and save your greatest effort for the last few seconds.

f.

Keep your mouth shut. In powder avalanche cover the mouth and nose with some clothing and form an air space to breath in.

g.

A supreme effort should be made in the last few seconds as avalanche loses momentum and settles. Two things are paramount: (1)

An air space and

(2)

A position near the surface.

The chances of survival are greatly reduced if buried deep (1.5 m or more). h.

Establish orientation by spitting and then try to dig slowly to the surface.

j.

Above all ... DO NOT PANIC. 21

4.

Avalanche Search. a.

Speed is of paramount importance in any avalanche search operation. The chances of survival are greatly reduced as burial time increases. Few victims are brought out alive after two hours or more in the snow.

b.

Mark the position of where the victims were engulfed and where they or any equipment was last seen. The line between the two points will indicate the direction of flow.

c.

A search of the debris must be made for any sign of the victims or their equipment. No longer than half an hour should be spent on this search. Send for help if possible.

d.

A coarse probe search must then be instituted. If nothing is found then repeat the search.

e.

Finally a fine probe search should be carried out if the victim or victims have not been found.

22

IMPROVISED STRETCHERS

Introduction 1.

At the outset it should be understood that improvised "carries" and "stretchers" are of short range value. It would be exhausting and possibly dangerous to attempt a long evacuation by such methods. The main requirement is in moving an injured person to a more sheltered area or in evacuating someone with relatively minor injuries. a.

Piggy Back: People Required - One Equipment and Means - Nil Comment - Exhausting

b.

Rucksack Carry: People Required - One Equipment and MeansRucksack and padding casualty sits on padding, legs through rucksack straps Comment - Depends on shape of sack

c.

One-man Split Rope Carry: People Required - One Equipment and Means - Rope and padding. Casualty sits on padding with coils of rope. Comment - Moderately comfortable.

23

d.

Two-man Split Rope Carry: People Required - Two Equipment and Means - Rope and padding. Split into two over outside shoulders of carriers. Casualty sits on rope (padded) in between. Comment - Not good on rough terrain. Unstable fore/aft.

24

WIND CHILL CHART WINDCHILL FACTOR THE RISK OF FROSTBITE ON BARE SKIN WIND STRENGTH

AIR TEMPERATURE

BEAUFORT SCALE WIND MPH +10 +5 0

CALM

2

-1

-7

-12 -18 -23 -29

0

10

5

-1

-7

-12 -18 -23 -29

-34 -40 -46 -51

LIGHT BREEZE

4.2

9

3

-3

9

-15 -21 -26 -32

-38 -44 -50 -56

3

GENTLE

8.8

5

-2

-9

-16 -23 -30 -36 -43

-50 -57 -64 -71

4

MODERATE "

13

2

-6 -14 -21 -29 -36 -43 -50

-58 -65 -73 -80

"

-34 -40 -46 -51

4

"

"

17.3 0

-8 -16 -24 -32 -40 -47 -55

-63 -71 -79 -87

5

FRESH

"

22.3 -1

-9

-18 -26 -34 -42 -51 -59

-67 -76 -84 -92

6

STRONG

26

-2

-11 -19 -28 -36 -44 -53 -61

-70 -79 -87 -96

30.3 -3

-12 -20 -29 -37 -45 -54 -63

-72 -81 -90 -98

34.7 -3 -12 -21 -30 -38 -46 -55 -64

-73 -82 -91 -100

6 7

"

"

MODERATE GALE

"

LOW RISK OF FROSTBITE

HIGH RISK OF FROSTBITE

VERY HIGH RISK OF FROSTBITE

25