Morphology

 

CHAPTER TWO INTRODUCTION TO WORD-STRUCTU WORD-STRUCTURE RE Morphology: Is the study of internal structure in a word.

The word is divided into morphemes so by the combination of morphemes we would have (word). Lexeme: The abstract vocabulary item which is saved in our mind or in our

mental dictionary ( the form of the word which is regarded as a ‘’root’’)  

  e.g: sl  sle eep (it is unchangeable word).

Word form: The physical representation of lexeme. 

  e.g.: .g .: ver ver b ( slee sleep, slee sleepi ng, ng, slep slept, slee sleep ps)



 



e.g.: .g .: no noun un ( ca carr , ca carr s)   e.g .g.:.: adj . ( ta tall, ll, ta talle llerr , tallest llest))

Q/ What is the difference bet between ween lexeme and word form?  

  Lexeme is an abstract word and we can’t divided it in smaller. ( FLY)   Word forms is the concrete and we can write several forms of the same word. ( fly ,flying ….) 

The grammatical words: we have in this branch to pay attention to each

 position in a sentence sentence ( morpho - syntactic) syntactic) refer referssproperties to the factare that(noun, ther theree  be a relationship between morphology andproperties syntax. The adjective, verb, tense, number, gender) morpho-syntactic properties. Sometimes we have the same word and the same form which would have more than one grammatical properties. 

  e.g.: cu cut  t   (( can take the different forms in the past and present without any addition.

 

cut  t  the  the bread on the table.   e.g.: usually I cu  the bread in the sink.   e.g.: yesterday I cu cut  t  the

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First sentence is present and the second sentence in the past.(which explain the grammatical properties). The word (cut) can be a noun or a verb, so the grammatical  properties’  means the different forms of the same word. All the words in English has lexeme and word form, but for grammatical word just some words are regarded as grammatical words such as ( cat, cat , put,… )  Morpheme : Is the smallest unit of a language which has meaning or grammatical function.

Morpheme can’t be divided into smaller parts.  

  e.g.: unhappy   (un) is a prefix morpheme with grammatical function the grammatical function her is to make negative adjective.

There are some words that in the past were regarded as a morpheme but now in modern English they lost their productivity such as ( helicopter   ). Some morpheme although they have productivity  but they don’t have a constituent meaning when they are added to different word. 

 fer  r   ) in (  pr  pr efer fer , i nfe nferr , confer nfer , de defe fer  r   ) they have   e.g.: The morpheme (  fe different meaning.

Morph: The physical representation of morpheme. when we say (un) this is a morpheme but if we put it in word ( unhappy  )  ) we will call it a morph. 

  e.g.: I par ked the ca carr . her we have 5 morphs.

Allomorph: Different representation of the same morpheme. 

  e.g.: The morpheme ( s  s) can have different allomorphs of the same morpheme such as /s/ in cats, /z/ in dogs, /iz/ in watches.

Assimilation: When two consonants sounds are beside each other one of them takes the sound of the neighbor consonant. 

in this word the last sound of the word is voiceless so when   e.g.: walked   in we added (ed ) the pronunciation of (ed ) will be /t /. /.

Allomorph: A- Morphology-ph Morphology-phonology onology interaction. 2

 

Relationship between phonology and morphology when we want to justify some morphological behaviors in a language we have to make relationship between morphology and phonology in a way that some phonological rules  be the reason of some morphological behavior. B- Morphology - synt syntax ax inte interaction raction

Relationship between morphology and syntax in a way will have grammatical explanation  to justify some morphological behavior. We have the different allomorphs of the prefix in :-

1.  impossible /im/  2.  i ntang ntangii ble / i n /  3.  i ncomple ncomplete te /i ng/ ng / These are different allomorphs of the same morpheme in. with grammatical function stated as negative adj. a- Select [im] before a labial sound

  e.g.: impossible in patient , im morable (P,b,f,m)  b- Select [iŋ] before the velar consonant ( k,g ) 



  e.g.: .g .: i n com comple lete te , ing i ngrr ati titud tude e

c- Select [i n] elsewhere (alveolar) (t, d, s, z) vowels to 

  e.g.: i ntole ntolerr able le,, i nactive nactive …….. etc.

This Type of Allomorph is Phonologically conditioned  (this means that we have phonological explanations to justify the Allomorph). Grammatical conditioning :- In this case it's grammar which specify between Lexically conditioning:- Any plural which is not based on the addition of plural "s" (special words )  

  e.g.: ox →oxen    e.g.: Ox →oxes 

√  X

Suppleion : When the allomorphs of one single morpheme are not phonetically related. 

 (phonetically unrelated )   e.g.: good →better →best  (phonetically 3

 

Underlining representation : The base form of adding a morpheme to an adj. 

  e.g.: i m +possible → i mpossible mpossible 

Derivation:- The stages which a form goes through when it is being convened from an underlining repre representation sentation to a phonetic repres representation. entation. im ]po a. select [im] before a labial consonant (e  ( e.g .g.. p, b, b, f, f, m m)) as in [ im  ]poss ssii ble, le, im ]pa im ]m  [ im  ]patti ent, nt, [ im  ]mo ovable. le.

b. select [ iiŋ ŋ ]  before the velar consonants [k] ( here here spelt with 'c' ) and [g] as in [ iŋ iŋ ]co  ]com mplianc liance e, [ iŋ iŋ ]co  ]com mpati ble, le, [ iŋ iŋ ]g  ]grr ati tude ude. t, d, s, z, n ], as in  c. select [m  [m]] elsewhere, i.e. before an alveolar consonant like [ t,  [m]to  [m ]tole lerr able le,, [m]ta [m]tangi ngib ble and [m]d [m]de ecent or before a vowel as in [m  [m]a ]act ctii ve,  [m]e  [m ]ele lega ganc nce e.

The whole process is called " derivation " How can we be certain that the base form is /m/ rather than lim/ or /iŋ/? /iŋ/?  

We have seen that the nasal assimilates to the place of articulation of the consonant that follows it. The fact that when a vowel follows we still find [in] appearing as in [ in- ɔ:dibl] inaudible, and [ in-evitəlbl] inevitable is very revealing. From a phonetic point of view, vowels do not have definite places of articulation, only consonants do. So, a consonant cannot assimilate to the place of articulation of a vowel. Q/ what is the difference between syllables and morphem morphemes es ?

Syllable refers to a group of sounds and it's for the purpose of articulation, while morphemes are the smallest units which has meaning or grammatical function . The relationship between morpheme and morph :One  – one one relationship  :- Is the relationship between one morph to one morpheme

(one pronunciation and morph and morpheme are the same)   * this means that it doesn't have any allomorphs. One – multiple multiple :- When we have one morpheme and different allomorph (which

are regarded as morph) 4

 

E x:- (in , " s" ) 1)  I mpossib ssi ble  2)  I ncom ncomple plete te  3)  I ntang ntangii ble

1) dog s 2) ca cats ts 3) watche tchess

* red circles represent different type of allomorphs Homophones  :- Pores which sound the same but differ in their meaning .

E x: - r i ght wr i ght wr i te rit ri te 1.  Multiple morph used to refer to when a single morph represents a bundle of several different grammatical elements: -

e.g.: .g .: ( was) i t can can be be ( ver ver b tto o be be, pa past st tte ense nse,, si si ngular ng ular)) 2.  Multiple-one : when we have multiple morpheme and one morph

e.g.: fact + al → fa  fact ctua uall Underlined letter (u) is not a part of fact nor al so it is regarded as empty morph (morph which doesn't have any morpheme). 3.  (Zero allomorph) Empty morph(formative) : It is a morph which doesn't have any morpheme.  morpheme. 

e.g .: cut (thi (thiss wor wor d do doe es not have have allo llomorph)

CHAPTER THREE TYPES OF MORPHEMES

3.1.1 Roots  A root is the irreducible core of a word,  with absolutely nothing else attached

to it. For example, walk   is a root and it appears in the set of word-forms that instantiate the lexeme WALK  such  such as walk, walks, walking   and walked . In that case, word-forms that represent the same morpheme do not share a common root morpheme. Thus, although both the word-forms  go  goo od   and better   realise the 5

 

lexeme GOOD, only go  goo od   is phonetically similar to GOOD. Roots which are capable of standing independently are called free morphemes occurring in isolation. The free morphemes in [3.1] are examples of lexical morphemes.

They are nouns, adjectives, verbs, prepositions or adverbs. referring to individuals (e.g. the nouns  Jo  J ohn, hn, mother  her  ), attributing properties (e.g. the adjectives kind, clever   ), describing actions, process or states (e.g. the verbs hit, write, rest) etc., expressing relations (e.g. the prepositions in, on, under   ) and describing circumstances like manner (e.g. kindly   ).  ). function  function words. These differ from lexical morphemes in that while the lexical morphemes carry most of the 'semantic content', the function words mainly (but not exclusively) signal

words include the following: [3.2] Function words 

ar artiticles cles

a, the

dem de monstr onstrat atii ves ves

Thi his, s, that, that, these, these, those

 p  prr onoun nounss conj co njuncti unctio ons

I , you, we, they, hey, them hem, my, your, hi hi s, hers, hers, etc. A nd, nd, yet, yet, i f, but, how howeve verr , or , etc.

Distinguishing between lexical and grammatical morphemes is normally both useful and straightforward. say, the article the.  While only roots can be free morphemes, not all roots are free. Many roots are incapable of occurring in isolation. They always occur with some other word-buildin word-building g element attached to them. Such roots are called bound morphemes. Examples of bound morphemes are given below: [3.3]

a. – mi t

i n per per mi t, r emi t, co com mmi t, adm admi t

b. -cei cei ve

as i n per ce ceii ve ve,, r ecei cei ve ve,, conce conceii ve

c. pr pre ed

as i n pre predato datorr , pre preda dato torr y, pre preda datition, on, depr depre eda date te

d. sedas sedas

as i n sedan, sedan, sedate sedate,, sede sedent, nt, sedenta sedentarr y, sedime sediment nt

The bound roots -mit, -ceive, -pred and sed- co-occur with forms like de  de-, r e-, -

ate,, -ment ate ment which recur in numerous nu merous other words as prefixes or suffixes. suffixes.   None None of these roots could occur as an independent word.  word.   Roots tend to have a core 6

 

meaning which is in some way modified by the   affix. But determining meaning is sometimes tricky. Perhaps you are able  able  to recognise the meaning 'prey' that runs through the root  pr the  various words These roots are latinate, -mi t    pr ed - in the  means 'send, do' and -ceive means 'take' without  without looking up -mi t  and -ceive in an etymological dictionary. In present-day  present-day  English none of these meanings is recognisable. the crucial thing about morphemes is not that they are independently   meaningful, but that they are recognisable distrib independently distributional utional units. we can recognise a morpheme  morpheme  when we see a morph 'which can be connected to a linguistic entity  entity outside that string. What is important is not its meaning, but its  its  arbitrariness. 3.1.2 Affixes  An affix is a morpheme which only occurs when attached to some other morpheme or morphemes such as a root or stem or base.   No No word may contain only an affix standing on its own, like *-s or *-ed or *-a/ or even a number of affixes strung together like *-al-s. *-al-s. There  There are three types of affixes.

(i) Prefixes  A prefix is an affix attached before a root or stem or base like r e-, un- and -:  and i n-:  [3.5] r e-ma -makke un-ki un-k i nd in-de i n-dece cent nt

r e-r ead un-tid un-tidy in-accur i n-accurat ate e (ii) Suffixes  A suffix is an affix attached after a root (or stem or base) like-ly, ly, -e -err , -i st st,, -s, -

i ng and -ed. -ed. [3.6 ] kind-ly kind-ly wai t-e -err bo book-s walk-ed lk-ed

quick qui ck-l -lyy play-er play-er mat-s mat-s jum j ump p-ed 7

 

(iii) Infixes  An infix is an affix inserted into the root itself. Infixes are very common in Semitic languages like Arabic. But infix is somewhat rare in English. Sloat and Taylor (1978) suggest that the only infix that occurs in English morphology is /n-/ which is inserted before the last consonant of the root in a few words of Latin origin, on what appears to be an arbitrary basis. This infix undergoes place of articulation assimilation.  Thus, the root -cub- meaning 'lie in, on or upon'

occurs without [m] before the [b] in some words containing that root, e.g.

incubate, incubus, concubine  and  su  succ ccub ubus us.  But [ m] is infixed before that same root in some other words like i ncumbe ncumbent, nt, succumb , and decumbent . This infix is a frozen historical relic from Latin.  b. kangaro angar oo ~ kanga-blo kang a-blood ody-r y-ro oo

impossible ~ in-fuckin-possible  guarr ante  gua ntee ~ gua guarr an-fri gg ggii n-te n-tee 3.1.3 Roots, Stems and Bases The stem is that part of a word that is in existence before any inflectional affixes  (i.e. those affixes whose presence is required by the syntax such as  

markers of singular and plural number in nouns, tense in verbs etc.) have have    b [3.8 ] N oun ste stem

Plural Plural

cat

-s

worker

-s

In the word-form cats, the plural inflectional suffix -s is attached to the simple stem cat, which is a bare root, i.e. the irreducible core of the word. In workers the same inflectional -s suffix comes after a slightly more complex stem consisting of the root work work plus  plus the suffix -er which is used to form nouns from 8

 

verbs (with the meaning 'someone who does the action designated by the verb (e.g. worker)'). Here work is the root, but worker is the stem to which -s is attached. Finally, a base is any unit whatsoever to which affixes of any kind can  be added. The affixes attached to a base may be inflectional affixes selected for syntactic  reasons  or derivational affixes which alter the meaning or

grammatical category of the base. An unadorned root like boy can be a base since it can have attached to it inflectional affixes like -s to form the plural boys or derivational affixes like -ish to turn the noun boy into the adjective boyish. In other words, all roots are bases. Bases are called stems only in the context of inflectional morphology morphology.[3.10] .[3.10]

Inflectional

Derivational

Roots

Stems

Bases

Affixes

Affixes

faith

faith

faith

ed

- un-

frog

frogmarch

faithful

-s

-ful

march

bookshop

frogmarch

-ly

clean

window cleaner

bookshop

-er

hard

hardship

window-clean

-ness

window

cleaner hardship

-ship It is clear from [3.10) that it is possible to form a complex word by adding affixes to a form containing more than one root. For instance, the independent words  frog and march can be joined together to form the base (a stem, to be  precise)  frog-march to which the suffix -ed may be added to yield [[frog][march]-ed]. Similarly, window and clean can be joined to form the base [[window]-[clean]] to which the derivational suffix -er can be added to produce [[[window]-[clean]]er]. And [[[Window]-[cleaner]]] [[[Window]-[cleaner]]]   can serve as a stem to which the inflectional plural ending -s is attached to give [[[[Window]-

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[cleaner]]]s]. A word like this which contains more than one root is a called compound  word.  3.1.4 Stem Extenders

In English, empty formatives are interposed between the root, base or stem and an affix. For instance, while the irregular plural allomorph -en is attached directly to the stem ox to form ox-en, in the formation of child-rnen child-rnen and  and breth-ren it can only be added after the stem has been extended by attaching -r- to child- and breth-. Hence, the name stem extender for this type of formative. The use of stem extenders may not be entirely arbitrary. There may be a good historical reason for the use of particular stem extenders before certain affixes. To some extent, current word-formation rules reflect the history of the language. The history of stem extender -r- is instructive. A small number of nouns in Old English formed their plural by adding -er. The word 'child' was cild   in the singular and cilder in the plural (a form that has survived in some conservative  North of England dialects, and is spelled spelled childer). But later, -en was added as an additional plural ending. Eventually -er lost its value as a marker of plural and it simply became a stem extender. 3.2 INFLECTIONAL AND DERIVATIONAL MORPHEMES

This reflects a recognition of two principal word building processes: inflection and derivation. While all morphologists accept this distinction in some form, it is nevertheless one of the most contentious issues in morphological theory. Inflectional and derivational morphemes form words in different ways. Derivational morphemes morphemes form new words either: (i) by changing the meaning of the base to which they are attached, e.g. kind vs un-kind (both are adjectives but with opposite meanings); obey vs dis-obey (both are verbs but with opposite meanings).

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(ii) by changing the word-class that a base belongs to, e.g. the addition of -ly to the adjectives kind and  simple  produces the adverbs kindly kindly   and  simp-ly. As a rule, it is possible to derive an adverb by adding the suffix -ly to an adjectival  base. Sometimes the presence of a derivational affix causes a major grammatical change, involving moving the base from one word-class into another as in the case of -less which turns a noun into an adjective. In other cases, the change caused by a derivational suffix may be minor. It may merely shift a base to a different sub-class within the same broader word-class.

i. 

modifying significantly the meaning of the base to which they are attached, without necessarily changing its grammatical category (see kind and unkind above); or

ii. 

they bring about a shift in the grammatical class of a base as well as a  possible change in meaning (as in the case of hard (Adj) and hardship (N (abs)); or

iii. 

they may cause a shift in the grammatical sub-class of a word without moving it into a new word-class (as in the case of  friend (N (cone)) and  friend-ship (N ( abs)). With that in mind, study the data below which contain the derivational prefix en-. en-.  

[3.17]

Base

New word

Base

New word

cage

en-cage

noble

en-noble

large

en-large

rich

en-rich

robe

en-robe

rage

en-rage

danger

en-danger

able

en-able

(i) State the word-classes (e.g. noun, adjective, verb, etc.) of the bases to which en- is prefixed. 11

 

(ii) What is the word-class of the new word resulting from the prefixation of enin each case? (iii) What is the meaning (or meanings) of en- in these words? Consult a good dictionary, if you are not sure. Is there reason to regard en as a homophonous morph? So, we conclude that there are two different prefixes here which happen be homophones. The enen- has  has a causative meaning (similar to 'make'). To enable is to 'make able', to enlarge is to 'make large', etc. Unlike derivational morphemes, inflectional morphemes do not change derivationall affix  referential or cognitive meaning. We have already seen that a derivationa

like un- can change kind into un-kind. In this case, the derived word has a meaning which is opposite to that of the input. The addition of an inflectional  affix  will not do such a thing. Furthermore, while a derivational affix  may

move a base into a new word-class (e.g., kind (adjective) but kind-ly (adverb), an inflectional morpheme does not alter the word-class of the base to which it is

attached. Inflectional morphemes are only able to modify the form of a word so that it can fit into a particular syntactic slot. Thus, book and books books   are both nouns referring to the same kind of entity. [3.19] Suffix

Stem

Function plural

Examples

-s

N

-s

v

-ed

v

-ing

v

progressive (incomplete action)

walk-ing

-er

Adj

comparative degree

tall-er

-est

Adj

superlative degree

tall-est

3rd person, singular, present tense past tense

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book-s sleep-s walk-ed

 

Below I have presented an additional inflectional suffix. What is this suffix called and what is its function in each example?

[3.20] a.  a. J anet' net'ss bo book .

b. The T he Wint Wi nte er ' s T Ta ale. le. c. i n two two da days' tim time. The -s suffix in [3.20] is usually called the genitive suffix. Quirk and Greenbaum (1973) list these, among others, as the uses of the genitive suffix in English: (i) marking the noun referring to the possessor of something (as in Janet's in  Janet's book),  book), 

(ii) marking a noun that describes something (as in The Winter's Tale), (iii) marking a noun used as a measure (in two days' time). We will return this and refine our analysis of genitive-s. 3.3 MULTIPLE AFFIXATION

Let us take the Latinate root -diet- meaning 'speak, say' which is found in diction, dictate, dictatorial, contradict, benediction, etc. Starting with -diet-, we can form complex words such as contradictory and contradictoriness contradictoriness   by attaching several affixes to the root, i.e. we can have multiple affixation. This  process can take take place in a num number ber of rounds, However, performance  difficulties in working out what exactly  great-great  great-   great grandson or re-re-re-make means do severely restrict the chances  greatof such words being used. But the point is that the grammar cannot exclude them as ill-formed. Recursive rules are one of the devices that make morphology open-ended. They make possible the creation of new words with the same morphemes being used again and again. Re-attaching the same morpheme again 13

 

and again is permitted, but unusual. What is common is multiple affixation of different affixes. It is such affixation that we will concentrate on. We have already seen an example of it in contradict-ori-ness in. [3.23]

nation nation-al national-ise denationalis-at-ion

de-nationalise (but there isi s no **de denat natii onali onalisate sate))  

anti-denationalisation  pre  pre-a -ant ntide idena natti ona nalisa lisattion

Observe that where several prefixes or suffixes occur in a word, their place in the sequence is normally rigidly fixed. Whereas there is usually some scope for rearranging words in different orders in sentences 3.4 COMPOUND COMPOUNDING ING

compound word contains at least two bases which are both words, or at any rate, root morphemes. Analyse the following compounds into their constituent elements: teapot, teapot,   week-end, hairdresser, kind-hearted.  kind-hearted.  Compounding is a very important way of adding to the word stock of English as we will see. Sometimes it is bare roots that are combined in compounds and sometimes an input base contains an affixed form. 3.5 CONVERSION

We have seen that complex words may be formed either by compounding or by affixation, or by a combination of the two. Words may be formed without modifying the form of the input word that serves as the base. Thus head can be a noun or verb. This is called conversion. It is partly the morphological structure, and partly the syntactic position that the word occupies that tells you whether it is a noun or a verb. From a syntactic point of view, we know that in. i n.

14

 

[3.26a] the head   is a noun phrase. The key word in a noun phrase must be a noun. As head   occurs following the and is the key word in this construction,

head  must be a noun. But from a morphological point of view , we cannot tell whether head   , is a noun or verb when it occurs with no affixes. However, in the case of heads , the  presence of the -s morph which here realizes the plural in nouns gives us a useful clue. By contrast, in [3.26b] head   must be a verb. It comes after the auxiliary verb

will  in a slot that is typically filled by verbs. In the second example, head   has attached to it the -ed  morph representing the past tense morpheme which is only found in verbs. Furthermore, from a syntactic point of view, we know that  sh  she e  is the subject and that school  is the object. The sentence must also have a verb. The verb occurs between the subject and the object. (The order of sentence constituents in English is Subject Verb Object.) So, headed   must be the verb, since it occurs  between the subject subject and the object. The use of zero in derivational morphology is controversial. Since neither the original noun head   , nor the derived verb head   , has an overt suffix, if we assume that zero  suffixation  takes place here, we end up with a somewhat absurd situation where a zero  suffix on the noun is said to contrast with a zero  suffix  on the derived verb. It is more prudent to recognize conversion as a distinct word-forming mechanism and to restrict zero  morphs  to inflectional morphology where it is supported by the evidence. Universal Grammar which determine the properties of rules that grammars of individual languages may have. An  integral part of the study of universals in language is the study of differences  between languages. This might look odd to begin with. But it turns

out that differences between the structural patterns found in different languages 15

 

appear to occur within a fairly restricted range. The study of the range of  patterns within within which languages m may ay vary is the d domain omain of language typology. typology. 3.6 MORPHOLOGICAL TYPOLOGY Morphologicall typology: A system for classifying the world's languages based Morphologica

on how their morphemes are used. Typology:  Is the classification of languages on the basis of shared formal Typology:

characteristics. (i) Analytic (also called Isolating) languages. (ii) Agglutinating (also called Agglutinative) languages. (iii) Inflecting (also called synthetic or Fusional) languages.

(iv) Incorporating (also called Polysynthetic) Polysynthetic) languages. (v) Infixing languages. Two main morphological types: Analytic languages and Synthetic languages.

1. Analytic or Isolating Languages: These are also known as isolating languages because they're composed of isolated, or free, morphemes. Free morphemes can be words on their own, such as cat  or  or happy happy.. Languages that are  purely analytic in structure don't don't use any p prefixes refixes or ssuffixes, uffixes, ever. However, it's rare to find a language that is purely analytic or synthetic since most languages have characteristics of both. e.g. Chinese ta bu hui yong dao chi fan he no can use knife eat rice

16

 

He cannot eat rice with a knife. 2.Agglutinating or Agglutinative  languages:  Have words which may consist of more than one, and possibly many, morphemes. With these languages, morphemes within words are usually clearly recognizable in a way that makes it easy to tell where the morpheme boundaries are. Their affixes usually only have a single meaning. Turkish, Korean, Hungarian, Japanese, and Finnish are all in this group.(Agglutinative languages).  Turkish is a classic example of an agglutinating language. In this kind of language there tends to be a more or less one-to-one matching of morphemes with morphs: e.g. Turkish 

  ev → house (nom. sg.) 



  ev-ler → houses (nom. pl.) 





  ev-i → his/her house (sg.+poss.)    ev-ler-i → his/her houses (pl.+poss.)



  ev-den → in front of the house (sg.+abl.) 



  ev-ler-den → in front of the houses (pl.+abl.) 

3.  Inflectional Synthetic or Fusional   languages:  inflecting language. Words usually consist of several morphemes. Differ from analytic languages because they do use affixes, also known as bound morphemes. Synthetic languages include three subcategories: agglutinative, fusional, and  polysynthetic. 

  Fusional languages: Words are formed by adding bound morpheme to the stem, the affix may not be easy to separate from the stem. 

e.g. Spanish 17

 



  hablo==> I am speaking.



  habla==> she is speaking.



  hablé==> I spoke.

[ -o ] First person singular present tense. [ -a ] Third person singular present tense. [ -e ] First person singular past tense. NOTE: Fusional language often differ from agglutinating languages in other

way as well: Agglutinating language usually have only one meaning indicate by each affix, but in Fusional languages a single affix may convey several meanings simultaneous simultaneously. ly. 4. Incorporating or Polysynthetic language: Highly complex words may be

formed by combining several stems and affixes. this is usually a matter of

making nouns ( subject, object, etc…)  e.g. You can express in Eskimo in one word (e.g. tuttusivuq), that may include a verb and its object, what is said using a whole sentence containing several words words in English (and even more words in Chinese). Eskimo is a language with long words (e.g. illuminiippuq) that tend to have very extensive agglutination and inflection. 5. infixing language: Traditional typology neglected this morphological  processes typical typical of semitic languages like Arabic and Hebrew. Much of semitic inflection involves infixing vowels in a root that consists entirely of consonants. Thus, in Egyptian Arabic the three-consonant root ktb means 'write'. It provides the skeleton which is fleshed out with a variety of vowels in the formation of word-formss which belong to the lexeme KTB, such as: word-form

[3.32] kitab 'book' katab 'he wrote' 18

 

katib 'writer' The result or the basis of typology classification. 

  If a language has between 1.00 and 1.99 morphemes per word it is analytic (isolating). With 1.68 morphemes per word in Greenberg's sample of sentences, English falls in the essentially isolating category. (It is similar to Chinese)



  A language averaging between 2.00 and 2.99 morphem morphemes es per word, is synthetic (inflecting) (inflecting) if the realisation of the different morphemes tends to  be simultaneous simultaneous (as in Latin). Latin).



  A language averaging between 2.00 and 2.99 morphemes per word is agglutinative if each morpheme tends to be realised by a separate morph (as in Turkish).



  A language is incorporating if it averages 3.00 morphemes per word or more (e.g. Eskimo).

(d) On the basis of these data, would you classify Swahili as an isolating, agglutinating, synthetic or incorporating language? nilipata 'I got' niliwapiga 'I hit them' walipata 'they got' walitupiga 'they hit us' nilipiga 'I hit' walikipiga 'they hit it' nilikipata 'I got it' utatupiga 'you will hit us' ulikipata 'you got it' ulipata 'you got' nitakipata 'I will get it' watakupiga 'they will hit you' ulipiga 'you hit' ulitupiga 'you hit us' watakipiga 'they will hit it' nitakupata 'I will get you'  Note: Here the form form 'hit' as iin n 'you hit' repr represents esents the past ten tense se form of the verb hit and 'you' stands for 'second person singular'. 3. (a) Make a morphologi morphological cal analysis of the following Latin data: 19

 

Present tense Pluperfect rego 'I rule' rekseram 'I had ruled' regis 'you (sing.) rule' rekseras 'you (sing.) had ruled' regit 'slhe rules' rekserat 's/he had ruled' regimus 'we rule' rekseramus 'we had ruled' regitis 'you (pl.) rule' rekseratis 'you (pl.) had ruled' regunt 'they rule' rekserant 'they had ruled' Future simple regam 'I shall rule' reges 'you (sing.) shall rule' reget 'slhe will rule' regemus 'we will rule' regetis 'you (pl.) will rule' regent 'they will rule' reg when it is followed by a vowel and rek when it is followed by a consonant the morphological process is assimilation. the type of language is inflecting. rekseram 3 morpheme.

CHAPTER FOUR PRODUCTIVITY IN WORD-FORMATION WORD-FORMATION 4.1 THE OPEN-ENDEDNESS OF THE LEXICON

It is true that a large percent of real words that occur in the dictionaries. But 

  there are lots of words that are created at the moment of the speech

spontaneously!   The language is spontaneously and creates fresh terms [Neologisms], the creation of the new words based on the morphological rules through word formation processes like: 



e.g. email, snail-mail. e.g. pear / pair.  

  Lexicon can be listed in a dictionary; but sentences could not.

 No dictionary, however large, not every word in the English language. why is this so? 20

 

The word formation rules-is passive to the question of analyzing the new words; they actually are more interested in the old ones. the more such words we recognize as part of the language the bigger and more open-ended will our lexicon be. There is a problem with syntax. To distinguish which combination of the words are compounds or syntactic  phrases is not a simple task. e.g. lakeside lakeside   nouns.

former   pupils pupils.. grammar  school  former

compound

Is all the sentence a compound noun, too? All the sentence seems to be a syntactic phrase, except if we consider that the whole sentence above is the name of a team. generality. The more general a word-formati word-formation on process

It’s possible to add to the lexicon of a language by pillaging the vocabulary. This is called borrowing. Pillaging (borrowing) some words of another languages sometimes is possible for some languages that has been in contact… the more general word formation  process is, the the more produc productive tive it will assume assume to be. 1.  Productivity is a matter of degree. some processes are relatively more general. 2.  Productivity is subject to the dimension of time. a very general process may become a less general in other historical periods. list all the suffixes [ ist, id, erbases ] all of themcan arealso derivational. The Latinate suffix – ist ist may be add to noun which take the derivational suffix-ism Chart-Ism Chartist Commun-Ism Communist Racism Racist Anarquism Anarchist *Pianism Pianist It can also be add to noun bases to form adjectives e.g. RACE N - RACISTADJ 1.  [N] –  IST

meaning advocate of ( anarquist / communist );

 

2. [N] - IST: meaning 'practitioner of' (pianist, violinist, etc.); 3.  [N] - ADJ-IST: meaning 'advocate of' (as in racist, sexist, etc.).   21

 

Finally, The native Germanic suffix -er is suffixed to verbs to create agentive nouns (with the meaning 'someone who does whatever is designated by the verb'). Productive: A process is considered if it is very general or affect a vast number of forms and creates very many words. e.g. the agentive morpheme  – er er changes verbs in nouns. To work To write To dance To teach Did you find 5 new terms with id? 

Worker Writer Dancer Teacher

  I expect that you have had some difficulty in finding five more adjectives which contain the derivational suffix-id.



  This morpheme is in the unproductive end of English morphology. It is frozen.

4.1.2 Semi-Producti Semi-Productivity vity Mattheus ( 1972 ) recognized a special category which they call semi productivity to cover idiosyncratic affixes which inexplicably fail to attach to apparently eligible forms. the meaning of the resulting word may be unpredictable. –  ant  ant (suffix) the suffix – ant ant turns a verbal base into an agentive nominal (similar to-er). -ant suffix e.g. communicant

defendant

applicant

Latinate word

dependant

participant

assistant

Latinate word

* writ(e)ant

*buildant

*shoutant

The reason for the restriction of the use of this affix is historical; This suffix is descendent of Latin present participle  – antem antem / entem, so it attaches to Latinate bases only. Semantically – ant ant has unpredictable effects.

22

 

productivity

cre tivity

It is the capacity of all human people to produce an infinite number of words and utterances. in the domain of morphology the creativity manifests in two ways: 1.  Rule govern creativity. 2.  Rule bending creativity. The majority of the words are formed by following rules, defined patterns, however sometimes some words are created by creative processes that necessarily do not follow any pattern. e.g. redlegs –  (  ( poor whites in Tobago ), deadline, Walkman, tallboy, Constraint on Productivity 

   Not even word that that is produced is allow!

 blocking. e.g. thieve thieve *stealer  blocking Q/ Least effort principle? Blocking may prevent the formation of words with existing synonyms,  particularly if the blocked fo form rm is mor morphologically phologically com complex plex and the exis existing ting synonyms is morphologica morphologically lly simple. e.g. Stealer which is blocked by the existing simple form thief. Where there exist two semantic similar morphemes one of which is more  productive than the other. The more productive morpheme is less susceptible to  blocking. this can be seen with the behavior of the suffixes  – ity ity and  – ness. ness. Aronoff (1976) has shown that the suffixation of  – ness ness is more productive than the suffixation of – ity. ity. Pre-existing noun Glory

Noun (-ity ) *glorisosit *glorisosity y 23

Noun ( -ness ) Gloriousne Gloriousness ss

 

Fury Space

*furiosity *spaciosity

Furiousness Spaciousness

Dimensions of Blocking

Phonological

Morphological Semantic Phonological Factors (i) the base must be monosyllabic; monosyllabic; (ii) the base must end in an obstruent (i.e. stop, fricative or affricate), Blocking can be motivated by  phonological considerations. Let’s focus on – ly ly . We have already seen that this derivational suffix is attached in a highly  predictable manner manner to adjectives to form adverb adverb such as: [4.10] Adjective Adverb Adjective Adverb kind kindly elegant elegantly fierce fiercely serious seriously  Note, the adverbs in [4.11] [4.11] are disallowed, or at best awkward, awkward, even though they might be listed in dictionaries. Suggest a phonological motivation for this restriction. [4.11] Adjective

Adverb

Adjective 24

Adverb

 

silly *sillily friendly *friendlily miserly *miserlily sisterly *sisterlily What [4.11] shows is that the segmental phonology of the base can determine whether a form can undergo -ly suffixation. The -ly suffix tends to be avoided where an adjective ends in -ly (/-h/). Suffixing -ly would result in a dispreferred /-hh/ sequence in the derived adverb. But -ly is used freely where the adjective does not end in – ly. ly. 4.2.1.2 Morphological factors The morphological properties of a base may prevent the application of morphological rules. Often native morphemes behave differently from foreign morphemes. Some affixes are typically added either to native bases or to bases of foreign origin. For example, as we saw above in [4.5] -ant (as in defendant) is suffixed to bases of French origin. Similarly, the rule of velar softening which changes /k/ (usually spelled with the letter c) to [ s] is essentially restricted to words of Latin and French origin: [4.14] Velar Softenin    /k/ ~ [s] before a suffix commencing with a nonlow vowel (e.g. i) 

The effects of velar softening can be seen in [4.15]: 

         

cynic, critical cynical~~ criticism cyni~ism, criticise critic, criticism, fanatic - ~ fanaticism –   ascetic ~ asceticism scepti~ ~ scepti~ism Velar softening only affects words with Romance roots. So, if a thinker called Blake developed a new philosophy, we might call it Blakism [bleikizm]. But we could not call it *Blacism [bleisizm], since Blake is not a Romance root. A. What is the meaning of -hood in [4.16]? B. Show the relevance of the distinction between native and foreign bases in 







the selection of bases to which -hood is suffixed. Hint: Consult a good etymological dictionary. This exercise requires some knowledge of the historical sources of English words. [4.16] a. boy-hood brother-hood man-hood maiden-hood girl-hood sister-hood wom woman-hood an-hood maid-hood child-hood king-hood priest-hood knight-hood  b. *judge*governor*colonel-hood *minister hood hood hood *director-hood *director-hoo d *author-hood *prisoner*generalhood hood 4.2.1.3 Semantic factors

25

 

Semantic considerations too may impinge on the application of word formation  processes. This is seen in the way the otherwise general process of forming compounds from Adjective plus past participle (Ved) [4.19]

short-sleeved (shirt) one-armed (bandit) short-sighted short-sighte d (man) three-legged (stool) green-roofed (house) red-nosed (reindeer)  blue-eyed (boy) (boy) red-haired (wom (woman) an) [4.20] *two-carred (family (family)) (for 'a family with two cars') *big-Alsatianed *big-Alsatiane d (woman) (for 'a woman with a big Alsatian') Compound adjectives derived from the past participle (Ved) form of the verb are most likely to be permitted where the root to which -ed is added is inalienably  possessed (i.e. obligatorily possessed) by the head noun that it modifies. The compound words in [4.19] are permissible because someone's eyes are an integral part of their body. Similarly, the legs of a stool, the sleeves of a shirt and the roof of a building are an obligatorily possessed part of some piece of furniture, garment or building. But it certainly is not the case that an Alsatian dog or a car must necessarily be possessed by someone. The negative prefix un- attaches to the positive adjective (see [4.22a]). If un- is attached to the negative member of the pair as in [4.22b] the resulting word is usually ill-formed. [4.22] a.

unwell unloved unhappy unwise unclean unoptimistic

b.

*unill *unhated *unsad *unfoolish *unfilthy, *undirty *unpessimistic

As seen, if there are words representing the two poles of the same semantic dimension, we tend to prefer treating the positive end as unmarked (i.e. as normal). We are happier to derive the marked (i.e. 'unusual'), less favourable meaning by prefixing the negative prefix to a positive base than doing the reverse. That is why a happy person is not said to be *unsad. 4.2.1.4 Aesthetic factors and the adoption of words

In some cases word-formation is inhibited by vague aesthetic factors. There are many examples of words that are in principle well-formed whose adoption has nevertheless been resisted. stagflation In the 1970s, the word  st  sta agf gfla latti on  was coined to refer to the combination of economic stagnation and a high level of 26

 

inflation that afflicted afflicted the world economy at that time. time. Other 'ugly' words whic which h raise hackles include talk talka atho thon, n, swi swim matho thon, n, knita ni tatho thon n, etc.

4.3 DOES PRODUCTIVITY SEPARATE INFLECTION FROM DERIVATION?

Productivity is often taken as a criterion for distinguishing inflection from derivation. Derivational processes are by and large much more unpredictable than inflectional ones. While inflectional processes usually affect most of the eligible forms in a regular manner, derivational rules tend to be capricious. i. 

ii. 

It is general. The addition of particular inflectional affixes is not subject to various arbitrary restrictions. Stems that belong to a given class normally receive all the affixes that belong to that class. The words resulting from the addition of inflectional affixes have regular and predictable meanings.

Another to put itbut is to say that typically inflectional displays lexemic way paradigms derivational morphology does morphology not. Paradigms   are regular and predictable sets of word-forms belonging to the same set of lexemes. They share morphological characteristics (e.g. prefixes, suffixes or infixes). Such words belong to a particular word-class or sub-class. The selection of a specific word-form is determined by the syntax. [4.23]

walk walks walked walking love loves loved loving Usually inflectional morphology exemplifies automatic productivity. Most English verbs have these forms. forms. So, if we encounter a new verb like the made-up verb p  po ockle  (meaning perhaps 'to go (away in a huff)'), we can predict that it will have the forms to po  pockle, po  pockles kles, po  pockled  ckled  and   and po  pockling with the standard meanings. By contrast, as a rule, paradigms cannot be set up for derivational morphology. If we try to produce a paradigm with the derivational suffixes -ate, -ant and -ation, we soon get thwarted. Our putative paradigm in [4.24] is riddled with gaps: [4.24]

Verb (X)

Noun (one who does X)

 Noun (act of X)

communicate donate

communicant ----------

communication donation

27

 

navigate rotate militate applicate (obsolete) -----------



------------------militant applicant accountant ------------

navigation rotation --------application ---------------------natation (art of swimming)   Assume that wherever paradigms can be recognised, one is dealing with  



inflection. as in [4.23].

  If there is no regular paradigms exist, one is dealing with derivation.   as in [4.24].

There are derivational processes which appear to fall into very general  paradigm-like patterns: There is a minority which are not marked for number. They belong to different subclasses of non-count nouns referring to entities that are not individually counted: i. 

Some non-count nouns have a plural form but lack a plural meaning:

[4.25]

*alm alms *outskirt outskirts *oat oats *linguistic linguistics *new news Other non-count nouns lack a plural form altogether (they do not refer to itemised individual entities which are counted in English: [4.26]

milk

*milks

health equipment courage

*healths *equipments *courages

4.4.1 Potential Words

knowing a language involves, among other things, knowing the rules of wordformation. If we came across 'words' like  gr  gre est stii fie fi er   and disperidate  we would recognise them as potential English words. How do we know this? The answer lies in the nature of our mental lexicon. 28

   

The lexicon has a set of phonotactic constraints  which function as a filter allowing entry only to phonologically well-formed words. Before any putative word can enter the lexicon, it must have a combination of sounds that is  permissible in the language. So, 'words' like *ltarpment and *mpandy are immediately rejected because the consonant combinations /lt/ and /mp/ are disallowed at the beginning of a word in English. 4.4.2 Knowledge of Language and the Role of the Lexicon

The lexicon is a mechanism for capturing broad regularities involving involving words in a language. For instance, using phonotactic constraints English speakers can distinguishing very generally between, on the one hand, possible words (which may not be instantiated in sentences and utterances, e.g. grestifier) and, on the other hand, impossible words (e.g. *ltarpment).  Nonetheless, it is the case that the lexicon iin n a generative gr grammar ammar must list various kinds of information about words (and morphemes and idioms) which have to be memorised. For example, speakers of English who know the word aardvark need to memorise at least this information: (i) 

Meaning: it refers to a Southern-Afr Southern-African ican insectivorous quadruped mammal. (ii)  Phonological properties: its pronunciation /a:dva:k/. Grammaticall properties: e.g. it is a count noun (you can have one (iii)  Grammatica aardvark, two aardvarks).

CHAPTER FIVE 29

 

INTRODUCING LEXICAL MORPHOLOGY

In this chapter we focus on a theory named lexical morphology . and sometime sometimess it is called lexical phonology . Is an approach to phonology that accounts for the interactions of morphology and phonology in the word building process. This is a kind of model in which the application of different affixation would  be discussed . Some important points of this model lexical morphology  . and lexical phonology model) : 1- The first thing is that it is the word rather than the morpheme which is regarded as the unit of morphology . 2- There must be a bi-directional relationship between the morphological rules and phonological rules. In other words in this model a kind of connection is made between morphology and phonology . In this case it is said that there is a kind of o f a mutual relationship between.  

  The morphological rules which build or made structural of a word .   The phonological rules which are responsible for the pronunciation of the word . It is claimed that all of these rules are located in the lexicon .

3-In the lexicon we have some blocks which called strata (levels or layers) and the way that these strata are arrange in a hierarchy arrangem arrangement. ent.

We have two main parts : 

 

The first part which is called lexical . 30

 



  The second part called post-lexical which is (syntax and post lexical  phonology) .

The lexical part actually is the lexicon , in the lexicon we have a, (morphological and phonological rules which are interrelated in the way that they are located in the strata in a hierarchical arrangem arrangement ent ). So when we want to analyze , affixation or morpholog morphological ical rules in the framework of this model model .at first we would have underive underived d lexical entries (the simple form of the words or the root ). Then we have different strata (stratum1, stratum2 and stratum 3 ) The rule of affixation for example would be applied in a way that we would have the addition of different affixes in multiple affixation for example in (a stratum1at first and then in a stratum 2 and then instruction 3 ) so we have the addition of different affixes stage by stage each affix would belong to its own stratum . In a stratum (1)   On the left hand:  We have (+ b boundary oundary inflection and d derivation erivation ) it would include irregular derivation and inflection). On the right hand  : We have example of (stress , shortening ) We have the influence of these rules may be:  

  The placement of the stress would be changed .   The pronunciation would be change.

For example the long vowel would be changed to a short vowel . Examples  : Irregular inflection inflection , see - saw 

Irregular derivation

(past tense) 

long - length (adj) to (noun)

In a stratum (2) On the left hand: we have (boundary derivation and compounding) it would be related to (regular derivation and compoundin compounding) g)

So if we have any affixation which is a the type of derivation which is regular it is applied on stratum (2) , compounding is also applied on stratum (2 ) On the right hand : We have example of (compound stress ) when we have tthe he change of stress in a compound co mpound word . 31

 

Examples  : Regular derivation derivation

kind - kindly

(adj) to (adv)

Compounding In a stratum (3) On the left hand: We have (boundary inflection) all the regular inflections are applied in stratum(3) .

You can write regular inflection. In this way we can have a systemic application of morphological rules staged by stage ,level by level in a way that each kind of them would belong to its own stratum. On the right hand: The effect of sstratum tratum (3) rrules ules would be fo forr example laxing . Examples  : Regular inflection walk - walked (past)

Here on the left hand we have the morphological rules and on the right hand  we have the phonological rules in this way, these two branches of linguistics are interrelated in this model morphology and phenology .This is the general explanation of lexical morphology model . The important to mention here is that for explanation in this book by convention we would have two strata not three. When we want to analyze any kind of affixation , we would have two strata. In a way that all the irregular rules are happening in stratum stratum 1 other ones are hap happening pening in Strat Stratum um 2. 32

 

The different affixes and different classification of affixes based on the effect that they would have on the root or not .( in affixation we have the addition of any kind of prefix, infix or suffix to the root to create a new word , this is the general definition of affixation)  Now we want to explain the affixation in the framework of this model (lexical morphology ) At first we refer to different kinds of affixes in English .When we focus on the affixes based on the effect that the affixes would have on the root. they are divided into neutral and non-neutral  . 

  Neutral: When nothing happens to the root. It means that the affix doesn't effect on the pronunciation of the root .



  Non-neutral: When in effects on the pronunciation of the root When the affix is added to the root. The pronunciation of the root would be changed.

When we review different types of affixes, we see that some affixes are neutral. Means that when they are added to the root nothing happens to the  pronunciation of the root. The pronunciation pronunciation of the root would remain as before. They are not neutral but some affixes as they are added to the root they would change the pronunciation of the root may be by changing the placement of the stress or sometimes by changing the pronunciation of some sounds in the root and they are called non-neutral. non -neutral. a.

'abstract

'abstract-ness

b.

'home

'home-less

'serious 'serious-nes 'serious-nesss 'power 'power-less a'lert a'lert-ness 'paper 'paper-less The placement of the stress is not changed as the affixed (ness) and (less) is added to the root so here we have the kind of neutral affix both( ness and less ) are neutral because they don't change the pronunciation of the root. In this case they don't change the placement of stress . a. strategy morpheme  photograph democrat

strategic morphemic photographic democratic

b.

detain absent pay employ

detainee absentee payee employee

The suffix ( ic) is called a pre-accenting suffix. It means that The stress is going to the syllable immediately preceding the suffix therefore when the suffix (ic) is 33

 

added to the root. The stress is moved to a syllable immediately preceding preceding it and we call it pre-accenting suffix and in this case it would be a kind of non-neutral suffix. The suffix (ee )  is called auto- stress surface . It means that the suffix would take the stress from the base in to itself . It attracts the sstress tress of the rroot oot and again it is a kind of non-neutral suffix . Both of them are non-neutral because they change the placement of the Stress. They change the pronunciation of the base or the root . In the model :  

affixes are added added in the first sstratum. tratum.    Non-neutral affixes affixes are added in tthe he second stra stratum. tum.    Neutral affixes

So one way of specifying the affixes to their own stratum is to classify them to neutral and non-natural and to see whether it is neutral or not neutral. 

  If it is non-neutral, it belongs to the first stratum.



  If it is neutral it belongs to the second stratum.

( B ) Is non-natural because the pronunciation is changed.  

  (wide )in the root [au] is changed to [I] so it is non-natural.   (long) ) in the root [o] is changed to [e] so it is non-natural.

(C) Is neutral because the pronunciati pronunciation on of the root is not changed.  

  wide widely    broad broadly

Therefore in the frame of this model we can justify the ill-formness of some words because it is mentioned that stratum 1 affixes are nearer to the root. Than stratum 2 affixes . 34

 

[5.4] a. [r  [ro oot]

b. [strat [ stratum um 1 aff affii x - ro r oot- st strr atu tum m 1 af affix fi x ] c. [st [ strr atu tum m 2 aff affii x - str stra atum tum 1 aff affii x - ro r oot - stra stratu tum m 1 af affix fi x - stra stratu tum m 2 aff affii x] Derivation in lexical morphology in number (5-4) you can see the formula which explains derivation in lexical morphology .  

5.5

 

a. [r]

b. [[r]s1]

Mendel Mongol grammar Skakespeare

Mendel-ian Mongol-ian grammar-ian Skakespeare-an (Shakespearian)

c.[[[r]s1 ]s2]

d. [[[r]s2]s1] Mendel-ian-ism Mongol-ian-ism grammar-ian-ism

*Mendel-ism-ian *Mongol-ism-ian *grammar-ism-ian

Skakespeare-an-ism (Shakespearianism)

*Skakespeare-ism-(i)an

So based on this explanation we can just by the ill-formness of some words for example words number (5_5) Section A B and C all of them are well- formed  but words in section D ill-formed . We do not have such forms in English and the reason is that the affixes are not added in their own stratum . For example 1 affix belonging to the 2 stratum is added in the 1 stratum so the word would be ill-formed. For example :

Grammar-ian-ism:Grammar-ianism:- here we have two affixes ian and ism,  

  ian belongs to the first stratum because it is non-neutral.   ism belongs to the second stratum because it is neutral.

So we have to obey the ordering of the levels at first ian is added to the word and then ism the word is well-formed. but if we change the order *grammarism-ian . this is ill-formed because the ordering of the levels or strata is not obeyed . [5.6]

Suffix

attach to 35

Output

 

-ionAdi

[[erodev]- ionN]

~

-iveAdi

[[compete(t)v] - iveActd ~

[competitive ]Adi

-alAdj

[[PopeN] - alAdj]

[papal]Adi

~

[erosion]N

It doesn't change the placement of a stress 'but i it changes the pronunciation of the base. All of these suffixes change the pronunciation of the base so all of them are non-neutral and because they are non-neutral they belong to the first stratum . What is the difference between a and b

The difference is that sometimes the placement of stress is change and sometimes the pronunciation is change but they are both non neutral.

All of them are non-neutral and they've belonged to the first strategy again in a number (5-11) you can justify the ill-formness of the words . For example section C the star shows that the word is ill-formed because the order of them are not obeyed .

Lexical morphology: More examples for models.

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Can you tell me whether these affixes belong to stratum1 or stratum2 and why? All of these affixes belong to the second stratum because two reasons:

1. They are neutral affixes, so they don’t cause any change in the pronunciation of the base. 2. They are regular derivational affixes.

5.2.2 Inflection in Lexical Morphology

[5.18]

Present tense drive /dra1v/ write /ra1t/ rise /ra1z/ strive /stra1v/ dive /da1v/

Past tense drove /dr~uv/ wrote /r~ut/ rose /r~uz/ strove /str~uv/ /d~uv/ (American); /da1vd/ (British)

They are irregular and we have the change in the pronunciation of the word, so they belong to first stratum. Change the diphthong (aI) to diphthong (əU) this  phonological process process is cal called led blocked. blocked.   Why the form "derived" is incorrect (is not made in the lexicon of English)?

Because when we want to add (ed) to the verb it happens in stratum2 but (drive) it is irregular and it belongs to stratum1 actually the word (drove) is made in stratum1, so the derivational (drive) is blocked  because it belongs to stratum2. In the framework of this model you can justify why some words are not derived and why some words are ill-formed. ill -formed. 37

 

[5.23]

Singular addendum erratum stratum datum medium

Plural (Latin) addenda errata strata data media

What stratum these examples belong and why? w hy? 

They belong to first stratum because they are irregular. We cannot add plural (-s) because they are Latin.

5.3 LEXICAL RULES 

When we want to describe or to explain the way that affixation is happening in this model, there are some properties of words and base but we have to know  before we want to to explain the p process rocess as in tthe he book.     

         

The class of bases affected. (ii) The affix that is attached. Where exactly it is attached (is it a prefix or a suffix?). The class which the resulting word belongs to. The stratum to which the affix belongs (and hence its general properties

and the stratum at which it is attached). Morphologicall rules that attach affixes to bases take this form: Morphologica (i) 

You should know the grammatical function or class of the base in order to differentiate between inflection and derivation. (ii)  We should know the affix whether it is neutral or non-neutral. (iii)  Where exactly it is attached (is it a prefix or a suffix? (iv)  We should know the grammatical function of the resulting word, if the grammatical function of the resulting word is as the same as the class of the base it would be inflection, otherwise, it is derivation. (v) 

These are the properties that we should know in any morphological rule or in any word formation process like (affixation, compounding 38

 

conversion, etc.) so this formula is very important and it describes the model. [5.24]

At stratum n   Insert A in environment [Y __ Z)x   Output: w   (i.e. insert A in the environment of a preceding Y or following Z if a given morphological property or complex of properties symbolised   as X is being represented; X, Y and Z are variables, and w is a mnemonic standing for word.) Some nouns, e.g. data oxen and sh  she eep, form their plural at stratum1. We need the rules in [5.25] to deal with them: 







,

 

[y] → suffix  [z] → prefix  [w] → word: Means that the output of the affixation should be a word. This is a general formula which explains affixation in this model. [5.25]

Stratum 1

Either

a. Insert

 /-ə / in environment -a /deitə / data  /-ə / in environment -en /  ɒ ɒksən/ oxen 0 in environment

Or

Output: b. Insert

Or

c.

Output: Insert

Or

0  Output: / ʃ  i:p/  sheep  ʃ i:p/ d. Insert Replace /u/ with /i:/ in nouns subject to umlaut (e.g. foot) (e.g.  foot) Output: /fi:t / /fi:t / feet  

[deIt]  Noun + Plural  dat[ ɒ  ɒks_]  Noun +Plural  ox [ ʃ i:p_] i:p_] Noun + Plural   sheep

 

[fut- ) Noun + Plural

/i:/

Here stratum1 because we have irregular (-a) means any kind of affix if the affix is suffix the environment is [y] line, if the affixes prefix the environment would  be line [z]. 39

 

We have different kinds of irregular plurals in English. Now, we want to explain these irregular plurality in English based on these formula.

F or example when we have the word data we want to explain the derivational data, insert A in environment dat - (a is a sign of plurality), this line shows the  place of ( –   – a), a), the output is data so dat  is  is changed to data.  is irregular plural insert – en in the environment ox the output is oxen. Ox  is

 Sheep the singular and plural the same, so insert nothing in the environment is  Shee  she  sh eep and the output is sh  she eep. F oot  insert   insert replace /u/ would /i:/ in the end there is nothing is added but / u/ is changed to /i:/ and the output is fe  fee et . If you want to explain the regular plurality for example; trees. How can you explain in the framework of this formula tr tree eess?

It belongs to stratum2 because it is regular, should insert the plural  – s and in environment tree is line and the output is trees. In prefix we put the line before the base. e.g. impossible: im is prefix so should write insert im in environment line  possible and the the output is impossible.  

[5.26]

 

Stratum2 Insert -s in environment [Y __ ]Noun + Plural Output Y-s

 Note: Y is a variable standing for any count noun whatsoever that is not assigned plural at stratum 1. So, we can replace Y with /bed/ or /pet/ etc., and the output will be /bed-z/, /pet-s/ etc., subject to the rules in [2.16]. We put the line ( ___ ) to show the place of plural affixes at the end of the word,

 but for the word foot we don’t add anything just change the pronunciation pronunciation of the word, but in sheep the line shows the placement of affix or the generality of the formula. NOTE/ The question in the final exam about this subject, just explain affixation (the derivational of the words), just explain the creation of the words not sentences specially inside the lexicon. Inside the lexicon we have 40

 

the creation of the words only not phrases not sentences and something like that. 

In this case we say that only lexical rules are cyclic, the rules which are applying in the lexicon. In other words, when we talk about the rules in the lexicon parts of the model we say that they are cyclic.

What does it mean cyclic ? Cyclic: means that the phonological rules are coupled with morphological rules in the same stratum, it means that at the first the morphological rules apply to make the new word.

For example by adding any suffix or prefix and then the phonological rule would specify its pronunciation and they are coupled with each other in the same stratum. Morphological rules as well as phonological rules are coupled with each other in the same stratum.

For example when you want to make a plural nouns like regular plurals you know that based on morphological rules of English you could add (-s) at the end of the word, (bed) then (beds) before you made the word (beds) it goes to the  phonological rules to specify its pronunciation as (s or z). The phonological rules based on assimilation says that "the pronunciation of the plural s would be z in this word" because there is a kind of assimilation in beds. But for the word cat based on morphological rules add (-s) to the word cat and make the word cats then it goes to the phonological rules to specify the  pronunciation as cats because [t] is voiceless and we have the pronunciation of [s] in this way we say that both morphology and phonology are coupled with each other, they are interrelated at the same stratum. 5.4 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LEXICAL AND POSTLEXICAL RULES

In general this model have two general parts (lexical and post-lexical): 1.  Post-lexical rules can apply across word boundaries: post-lexical model is related to syntax and in syntax we have sentences, in the lexical rules 41

 

 part of the model we have only the creation of the words we can see the example: [5.27]

last trip /la:st trip/ [ /la:st trip] or [ la:s trip] lost property /l  ɒ ɒst pr  ɒ pəi/ [l  ɒɒst pr  ɒ pəti) or [los pr  ɒ pəti]

Because we have word boundary here this phonological rule of deletion is applied across the words (last) the first word, (trip) the second word. The deletion of [t] is between two words [/la:s trIp/], but don’t have such deletion within the word in the lexical part of the model. When we are referring to the post-lexical rules actually they are named as  phrasal phonology it means that rules can apply with the words within a phrasal  phonology. 2. Lexical rules are cyclic : when morphology and phonology are interrelated  but post-lexical rules are not cyclic it means that there is no linkage between

syntactic rule and phonological rule. 3. Lexical rules must be structure-preserving: This means that the output of each layer of derivation must be a word. A lexical rule may not produce a form that could not be a phonologically well-formed word in the language. The output must be based on the phonotactics of the language. There are canonical phonological patterns (i.e. standard patterns) of segment structure, syllable structure and prosodic structure that severely restrict the kinds of morphemes and words that can appear in the lexicon of a language. Examples: (i) 

Obviously, there are restrictions on segments(sounds) that can appear in words of a language.

Thus, the putative word /ɗ asp/, asp/, which begins with an alveolar implosive / ɗ /, /, is ruled out because implosives are not part of the phoneme inventory of English. (ii) 

Lexical rules must not produce forms that violate phonotactic constraints on the canonical syllable structure pattern in a language.

Thus *ltarpment /Ita:pmǝnt/and *tsem /tsem/ are not possible English words since [It] and /ts/ are prohibited consonant sequences in syllable (and word) 42

 

initial position (though, of course, both are allowed syllable finally as in melt /melt/ and sets /sets/). (iii)  Every lexical item must have one main stress. so, no lexical rule may create a word like *'presta'pping which has two main stresses. By contrast, post-lexical rules are not subject to any structure-preserving constra constraint. int. They may have an output that is at variance with the canonical. Patterns of the language. For instance, though no word in the lexicon can begin with [ts], this sequence may occur phonetically when two words come together in utterances, in casual speech if vowels get elided, as in: [5.28] [tsn ɒt] 'it's not' [tsbaut] 'it's about' [tsꭁm] 'it's Sam' (iv)  Post-lexical rules are automatic but lexical rules are not automatic (without exception). It means that in lexical part we can see some exceptions for all the rules but for  post-lexical rules we don’t have any exception they are automatic. For example, for plurality we have exceptions like (data, sheep, etc.) these are the exceptions,  but for post-lexical rules we don’t have any exceptions the process of glottalisation glottalisatio n [ʔ] is mentioned as in example for post lexical process in the book:

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