Monografía (Sistemas de Bombeo para Suministro de Agua en Edificios)

 

 

òj mg cb Cuaob Ajktrb cb Ajrrupadñk y cb Dipukdmbm’ 

 



QDQ]GIBQ MG HJIHGJ ^BXB QWIDKDQ]XJ MG BFWB GK GMDLDADJQ

AÂ]GMXB

0 DKQ]BCBADJKGQ GK DK]GXDJXGQ 

MJAGK]G ADACJ

0 Dkf. XD\GXJQ ]XWADJQ, GCQB  0 _ 

DK]GFXBK]GQ

0   

CJBTPB ^ÄXGP, \DA]JX IBKWGC

 

WK]D\GXJQ CGÑK, ]JHDBQ GM\GXQJK

 

QBKAOGP CBWXGK]G, ABXCJQ O.

O\AB - 8>82

 

  WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB 

 

GQAWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’ 

–   

Ékmdag fgkgrbc 2.  DK]XJMWAADJK Jh`gtdvjs  Jh`gtdvj fgkgrbc Jh`gtdvjs gspgaéldajs

8.  LWKMBIGK]J ]GÑXDAJ

1.   IGG]JMJCJFDB 1.

=. G@GXADADJQ B^CDAB]D\JQ

 

  WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB 

 

GQAWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’ 

–   

Abpétucj 2DK]XJMWAADJK Qjk ajiukgs cjs  cjs sdstgibs mg hjihgj mg  mg bfub pjtbhcg gk gmdldadjs mñkmg sg tdgkg qug suhdr bfub mgsmg ukb adstgrkb b vbrdjs tdkbajs j tbkqugs gk cb bzjtgb. Gc  Gc  sdstgib gs iuy "sdipcg", gk bpbrdgkadb, sjcbigktg sg rgqudgrg ukb ijtjhjihb ajk abpbadmbm mg gkvdbr bfub suldadgktg pbrb rgpjkgr gc fbstj mg tjmjs cjs obhdtbktgs. Bqué mdsautdijs gc  gc  aâcaucj mg cb abrfb  abrfb mdkâidab tjtbc, ajij sg ajkstruygk cbs aurvbs, cb sjcuadñk frâldab, abcaucbr gc  gc  bojrrj mg gkgrféb, cb jpgrbadñk mgc sdstgib batubc, qug tuhgréb qug sg rgqudgrg usbr y cjs rgqudsdtjs b auipcdr gk cb kugvb dkstbcbadñk. Cjs sdstgibs mg bfub mdrgatjs, idxtjs j ajihdkbmjs gk gmdldadjs rgqudgrgk mg gqudpjs mg hjihgj pbrb pjmgr auipcdr ajk su ldkbcdmbm mg mbr bfub gk abktdmbm y prgsdñk suldadgktg. ]bihdäk gs kgagsbrdj gc usj mg hjihbs pbrb cbs vdvdgkmbs qug augktbk ajk pjzjs ajij lugktg mg bfub, gk gc aubc cbs hjihbs mghgk sgr sgcgaadjkbmbs sgfðk cbs abrbatgréstdabs prjpdbs mg cb lugktg. Cbs hjihbs g dkstbcbadjkgs mg hjihgj sjk ajipjkgktgs gsgkadbcgs y vuckgrbhcgs gk absd tjmjs cjs sdstgibs mg bfub. Gc mdsgòj mg jpgrbadñk y ibktgkdidgktj dkbmgaubmj mg cjs sdstgibs mg hjihgj pugmgk rgprgsgktbr rdgsfjs sbkdtbrdjs frbvgs, dkacudmb cb pgrmdmb ajipcgtb mgc suidkdstrj mg bfub, gc dkspgatjr mghg dkacudr b cbs hjihbs g dkstbcbadjkgs mg hjihgj ajij pbrtg dktgfrbc mg cb dkspgaadñk sbkdtbrdb.

 

  WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB 

 

GQAWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’ 

–   

JH@G]D\JQ0

JH@G]D\J FGKGXBC0 ❜ 

Ajkjagr gc lukadjkbidgktj mg cbs hjihbs gk cbs dkstbcbadjkgs dktgrdjrgs.

JH@G]D\J GQ^GADLDAJ0 ❜ 

Dmgktdldabr cjs mdvgrsjs tdpjs, usjs y ajipjkgktgs mg cbs hjihbs mg suidkdstrj mg bfub.

❜ 

Ajkjagr cjs rgfcbigktjs bpcdabhcgs y cjs mbtjs acbvg rgqugrdmjs pbrb rgbcdzbr cb dkspgaadñk sbkdtbrdb mg ukb gstbadñk mg hjihgj. KJXIB JQ.>2> (AB^]BADÑK T AJKMWAADÑK MG BFWB ^BXB AJKQWIJ OWIBKJ)

❜ 

Ajkjagr cb bpcdabadñk gk prjygatjs mg dkstbcbadjkgs qug dkacuygk gc usj mg hjihbs jhcdfbtjrdbigktg

XGRWDQD]JQ ^XG\DJQ ❜ 

^brb mdsgòbr ukb gstbadñk mg hjihgj mg bfub pjtbhcg, prgvdbigktg sg mghgk ajkjagr cjs sdfudgktgs bspgatjs0

❜ 

Lugktg mg bhbstgadidgktj mg bfub0 supgrldadbc (adstgrkb mg bfub) j suhtgrrâkgb (pjzj pgrljrbmj).

❜ 

Cufbr b mjkmg sg dipucsbrâ gc bfub0 rgsgrvjrdj mg bcibagkbidgktj j cb rgm mg mdstrdhuadñk.

❜ 

Ajksuij mg bfub pjtbhcg mg cb pjhcbadñk y sus vbrdbadjkgs.

❜ 

^jhcbadñk hgkgldadbmb pjr gc prjygatj0 batubc y luturb.

❜ 

Abrbatgréstdabs fgjcñfdabs y tdpj mg sugcj mgc ârgb mg gipcbzbidgktj mg cb aâibrb mg hjihgj.

❜ 

Kdvgc mg ajkjadidgktj mg cb pjhcbadñk pj hcbadñk qug jpgrbrâ gc sdstgib.

 

  WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB 

 

GQAWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’ 

–   

Abpétucj 8 LWKMBIGK]J ]GJXDAJ GQ]BADJKGQ MG HJIHGJ Cbs gstbadjkgs mg hjihgj sjk uk ajk`uktj mg gstruaturbs advdcgs, gqudpjs, tuhgrébs y baagsjrdjs, qug tjibk gc bfub mdrgatb j dkmdrgatbigktg mg cb lugktg mg bhbstgadidgktj y cb dipucsbk b uk rgsgrvjrdj mg bcibagkbidgktj j mdrgatbigktg b cb rgm mg mdstrdhuadñk.

GCGIGK]JQ MG CBQ GQ]BADJKGQ MG HJIHGJ

Cjs ajipjkgktgs hâsdajs mg ukb ukb gstbadñk mg hjihgj mg bfub p pjtbhcg jtbhcg sjk cjs sdfudgktgs0 ❜ 

Absgtb mg hjihgj.

❜ 

Adstgrkbmg mghjihgj. hjihgj. Gqudpj ❜  Frupj fgkgrbmjr mg gkgrféb y lugrzb ijtrdz. ❜  ]uhgréb mg suaadñk. ❜  ]uhgréb mg dipucsdñk. ❜  \âcvucbs mg rgfucbadñk y ajktrjc. ❜  Gqudpjs pbrb acjrbadñk. ❜  Dktgrruptjrgs mg iâxdij y iékdij kdvgc. ❜  ]bhcgrjs mg prjtgaadñk y ajktrjc gcäatrdaj. ❜  Qdstgib mg vgktdcbadñk, kbturbc j igmdbktg gqudpjs. ❜  Ârgb pbrb gc pgrsjkbc mg jpgrbadñk. ❜  Agraj mg prjtgaadñk pbrb cb absgtb mg hjihgj. ❜ 

 

  WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB  

 

GQAWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’ 

–   

WHDABADÑK MG CB GQ]BADÑK MG HJIHGJ Cb uhdabadñk mg cb gstbadñk mg hjihgj mghg sgr sgcgaadjkbmb mg tbc ibkgrb qug pgridtb uk lukadjkbidgktj sgfurj y ajktdkuj, ajktdkuj, pbrb cj aubc sg tgkmrâ gk augktb cjs sdfudgktgs lbatjrgs0 ❜ 

Lâadc baagsj gk cbs gtbpbs mg ajkstruaadñk, jpgrbadñk y ibktgkdidgktj.

❜ 

^rjtgaadñk mg cb abcdmbm mgc bfub mg lugktgs ajktbidkbktgs.

❜ 

^rjtgaadñk mg dkukmbadjkgs, mgscdzbidgktjs, oubyajs y argadmbs mg réjs. réjs.

❜ 

Gldadgkadb odmrâucdab mgc sdstgib mg dipucsdñk j mdstrdhuadñk.

❜ 

Mdspjkdhdcdmbm mg gkgrféb gcäatrdab, mg ajihustdñk u jtrj tdpj.

❜ 

]jpjfrbléb mgc tgrrgkj.

❜ 

Abrbatgréstdabs mg cjs sugcjs.

❜ 

ACBQDLDABADJK MG GRWD^JQ MG HJIHGJ. GCGA]XJHJIHBQ0 mg ibyjr usj gk ârgbs mjkmg gxdstg ajrrdgktg gcäatrdab.

 

  WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB  

 

GQ AWGCB AWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’ 

–   

]dpjs mg gcgatrjhjihbs ❜ 

^GXDLGXDABQ0 Cb hjihb pgrdlärdab gs ajkjad ajkjadmb mb pjr su usj mjiästdaj. Qjk gcäatrdabs y su lukadñk lukadñk gs gcgvbr gc bfub b iâs mg 1> igtrjs mg bcturb, mgpgkmdgkmj mgc ijmgcj, hrdkmbkmj cb prgsdñk mg bfub qug kgagsdtbs. ]dgkg uk uk abumbc iâxdij mg ?< cdtrjs pjr pjr idkutj.  idkutj. 

❜ 

AGK]XDLWFBQ0 Qjk utdcdzbmbs pbrb usj mjiästdaj j bfréajcb, b mdlgrgkadb mg cbs mgiâs hjihbs, gstb sdrvg pbrb sbabr bfub mg pjzjs j rgfbméjs gk frbkmgs abktdmbmgs gk pjaj tdgipj. ]dgkg cb abpbadmbm mg ijvgr gktrg 28> y 27< cdtrjs pjr idk idkutj utj  

Gs iâs sdcgkadjsb qug cb pgrdlärdab ❜ 

BW]JAGHBK]GQ

❜ 

AGK]XDLWFBQ KJIBCDPBMB

❜ 

QWIGXFDHCGQ IWC]DG]B^DABQ

❜ 

QWIGXFDHCGQ MG MXGKB@G

❜ 

IWC]DAGCWCBXGQ \GX]DABCGQ

❜ 

GRWD^JQ BW]JIB]DAJQ MG ^XGQDJK ^X GQDJK

Bpcdabadjkgs ❜ 

Bcdigktbadñk mg bfub b abcmgrbs

❜ 

Qdstgib mg bfub b prgsdñk ajkstbktg

❜ 

Gqudpjs ajktrb dkagkmdjs

 

  WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB  

 

GQ AWGCB AWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’ 

–   

❜ 

Qdstgibs mg jsijsds dkvgrsb

❜ 

Hjihgj mg céqudmjs bfrgsdvjs

❜ 

Qbkdtbrdb

❜ 

Bfréajcb

❜ 

Xgsdmgkadbc

❜ 

Dkmustrdbc

IJ]JHJIHBQ0 Qjk hjihbs ajk uk ijtjr b ajihustdñk, cj aubc cgs pgridtg lukadjkbr mg ibkgrb dkmgpgkmdgktg. Gstb hjihb cbkzb abumbc y prgsdñk bc idsij tdgipj. Qjk dmgbcgs pbrb trbhb`js mg rdgsfj gxtgkmdmj gk sgatjrgs bfréajcb, cdipdgzb mg adstgrkbs, cdipdgzb mg tbkqugs säptdajs, ccgkbmj mg tbkqugs, y pbrb suidkdstrbr bfub b cufbrgs mdstbktgs. Gs dipjrtbktg qug gstä hdgk gqudcdhrbmb ajk gc sugcj pbrb rgmuadr cb pgrmdmb mg bagdtg ajk gc ijvdidgkt ijvdidgktj, j, yb q u g mg suagmgr suagmgr gstj, sg bpbfbrâ bpbfbrâ butjiâtda butjiâtdabigk bigktg. tg. Mbk Mbk gk su lukadjkbidgktj y ibktgkdidgktj ibyjrgs ijcgstdbs qug cbs bktgrdjrgs. Ijtjhjihbs pbrb Bfubs Quadbs. ❜ 

Ijtjhjihbs pbrb Bfubs Cdipdbs.

❜ 

Ijtjhjihbs pbrb ^rgsdñk.

❜ 

Ijtjhjihbs pbrb Abumbc.

 

  WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB  

 

GQ AWGCB AWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’ 

–   

]D^JQ MG GRWD^JQ MG HJIHGJ MG DI^WCQDJK ^BXB GMDLDADJQ. Cjs lbhrdabktgs mg gqudpjs jlrgagk ukb frbk vbrdgmbm mg hjihbs, gqudpjs mg ajktrjc y baagsjrdjs, ajkljrig b cb vbrdgmbm mg mgibkmbs tbktj mg abumbc ajij mg prgsdñk. ❜ 

HJIHBQ AGK]XDLWFBQ  AGK]XDLWFBQ  Gs gc tdpj mg hjihbs iâs usbmbs gk gmdldabadjkgs. Ajksdstg gk uk dipucsjr qug igmdbktg cb bpcdabadñk mg gkgrféb gkgrféb igaâkdab diprdig ibyjr vgcjadmbm vgcjadmbm bc bfub qug gktrb pjr gc j`j mgc dipucsjr, ljrzâkmjcb adraucbr gktrg gc idsij y cb abrabsb. Ajij bktgrdjrigktg sg ob igkadjkbmj, cbs hjihbs agktrélufbs gstâk mjtbmbs prdkadpbcigktg mg uk gcgigktj iñvdc0 gc rjtjr, rjmgtg, j dipucsjr. Gs gc gcgigktj qug trbksldgrg cb gkgrféb qug prjpjradjkb gc ijtjr mg baadjkbidgktj baadjkbidgktj bc lcudmj. Qjk iâqudkbs hbsbmbs gk cb cb Gaubadñk  Gaubadñk mg Gucgr Cbs Hjihbs Agktrélufbs sg pugmgk acbsdldabr mg mdlgrgktgs ibkgrbs0

^jr cb mdrgaadñk mgc lcu`j gk0 rbmdbc, bxdbc y idxtj.  ^jr cb pjsdadñk mgc g`g mg rjtbadñk j lcgaob gk0 ojrdzjktbcgs, vgrtdabcgs g dkacdkbmjs. 

^jr gc mdsgòj mg cb ajrbzb (ljrib) gk0 vjcutb y cbs mg turhdkb.  ^jr gc mdsgòj md sgòj mg cb igaâkdaj ajrbzb gk0 bxdbcigktg hdpbrtdmbs y cbs rbmdbcigktg hdpbrtdmbs.  ^jr cb ljrib mg suaadñk gk0 sgkadccb y mjhcg.

 

  WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB  

 

GQ AWGCB AWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’ 

–   

 

  WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB  

 

GQ AWGCB AWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’ 

–   

❜ 

HJIHBQ ^BXB ^JPJQ ^XJLWKMJQ0 sjk cbs hjihbs b turhdkb qug sjk vbrdgmbm mg hjihbs agktrdlufbs ajcjabmbs vgrtdabcigktg.

❜ 

HJIHBQ MG \GCJADMBM \BXDBHCG Gk igmdbkb y frbkmgs dkstbcbadjkgs mjkmg kj sg mgsgg dkstbcbr uk tbkqug gcgvbmj, gsg tdpj mg hjihbs sjk rgajigkmbhcgs, yb qug prjpjradjkbk fbstjs vbrdbhcgs mg baugrmj b cb

mgibkmb y ibktdgkgk sdgiprg cb prgsdñk mg sgrvdadj.  sgrvdadj.   Hjihbs pggrcgs, ^badlda ^uip Ajipbky.  Ajipbky. 

 

  WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB  

 

GQ AWGCB AWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’ 

–   

❜ 

GCGA]XJHJIHBQ ADXAWCBMJXBQ Gstbs hjihbs sg dkstbcbk kjribcigktg gk gc sdstgib mg bfub y sdrvgk pbrb buigktbr cb prgsdñk mgc bfub. Qg gipcgbk gk dkmustrdbs, bsé ajij pbrb adraucbadñk mg bfub abcdgktg. Mg bfub ogcbmb, pbrb dkstbcbadjkgs mg bdrg bajkmdadjkbmj, gta. 

QDQ]GIB MG BFWB ODMXJKGWIB]DAB Gk cjs absjs gk qug kj sg mgsgg cb dkstbcbadñk mgc tbkqug gcgvbmj pjr rbzjkgs mg gstätdab j sjhrgabrfbs, gc tbkqug gcgvbmj sg pugmg sustdtudr pjr gstg sdstgib.

 

  WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB  

 

GQ AWGCB AWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’ 

–   

Abpétucj 1 IG]JMJCJFDB BKBCDQDQ MG ^ÄXMDMBQ GK CB CDKGB MG QWAADJK

Gc aâcaucj mg cbs pärmdmbs pgridtg gstbhcgagr sd cbs hjihbs ajk cbs qug mgsabrfbk kjribcigktg cjs H/] pugmgk auipcdr ajk gstg prjpñsdtj, j sd kgagsdtb ukb gstbadñk buxdcdbr mg hjihgj, bsé ajij bmgaubr cbs pärmdmbs mg prgsdñk qug sg prjmuagk, rgbcdzbkmj ukb vbrdbadñk mgc mdâigtrj mg tuhgréb.

Gc aâcaucj mg cbs pärmdmbs mg prgsdñk sg cj rgbcdzb pbrb mdlgrgktgs mdâigtrjs mg tuhgrébs, rgbcdzbkmj cbs sdfudgktgs ajksdmgrbadjkgs0 ajksdmgrbadjkgs0

❜ 

Qdstgib mg bibrrg utdcdzbmj gk gc ]gridkbc ibr bmgktrj.

❜ 

^CGI suhibrdkj y ibkfugrbs mg mgspbaoj.

❜ 

Cjkfdtum mg tuhgréb obstb cb cékgb mg pcbyb.

❜ 

Cjkfdtum mg tuhgréb bmdadjkbc gk tdgrrb pbrb ccgfbr obstb cb uhdabadñk mg cb gstbadñk mg hjihgj.

❜ 

Baagsjrdjs utdcdzbmjs gk cb tuhgréb.

❜ 

Ldctrj mg ajihustdhcg.

❜ 

Gqudpjs

❜ 

Abhgzbc gstâtdaj.

 

  WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB  

 

GQ AWGCB AWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’ 

–   

Cb cjkfdtum tjtbc mg cb tuhgréb b ajksdmgrbr pugmg vbrdbr mg baugrmj bc sdstgib mg bibrrg qug sg utdcdag gk gc tgridkbc, y mgc rgajrrdmj obstb cb pjsdhcg gstbadñk mg hjihgj hðstgr. Gc sdstgib mg bibrrg pugmg sgr0 uk sdstgib mg bibrrg pjr Iuctdhjybs, j uk sdstgib mg bibrrg pjr Ijkjhjyb. Cb abémb mg prgsdñk gk gc btrbabmgrj mghg sgr bkbcdzbmb pbrb abmb ukj mg cjs absjs qug sg pugmgk mbr0 ❜ 

^brb uk sdstgib mg bibrrg pjr Ijkjhjybs, gxdstgk pärmdmbs mg prgsdñk qug sg prjmuagk mgktrj mgc sdstgib mg cb Ijkjhjyb, pjr cj tbktj, gstb dkljribadñk mghg sgr prjpjradjkbmb pjr gc lbhrdabktg mgc gqudpj.

❜ 

^brb gc sdstgib mg bibrrg pjr Iuctdhjybs, cbs pärmdmbs mg prgsdñk pjr gc sdstgib sjk kucbs.

Cb abémb mg prgsdñk gk gc ^CGI suhibrdkj y cbs ibkfugrbs mg mgspbaoj, aubkmj sgb trbtbmb gk gstb tgsds, sg rgldgrg b cb abémb mg prgsdñk prjmuadmb gk0

❜ 

Cb vâcvucb suhibrdkb, y

❜ 

Cb ibkfugrb lcgxdhcg, qug gs cb dktgrlbsg gktrg gc huqug y cb vâcvucb suhibrdkb pbrb uk bibrrg pjr Iuctdhjybs, idgktrbs qug, gk gc absj mg Ijkjhjybs, cb vâcvucb sg ajkgatb b cb Ijkjhjyb pjr igmdj mg cb ibkfugrb suhibrdkb.

^brb rgbcdzbr gc aâcaucj mg cb abémb mg prgsdñk gk cjs ldctrjs j bcfðk jtrj gqudpj qug sg pugmb gipcgbr gk cb gstbadñk mg hjihgj, sg utdcdzb cb oj`b mgc lbhrdabktg mgc gqudpj.

 

  WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB  

 

GQ AWGCB AWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’ 

–   

^XJAGMDIDGK]J MG AÂCAWCJ ^BXB CB QGCGAADÑK MGC MDBIG]XJ Ñ^]DIJ ^brb sgcgaadjkbr gc mdâigtrj ñptdij gk cb tuhgréb suhibrdkb, gs kgagsbrdj gstbhcgagr tjmjs cjs mbtjs mg pärmdmbs mg prgsdñk qug sg prjmuagk b cj cbrfj mg tjmb cb Cékgb. Cb dkljribadñk rgukdmb pbrb rgbcdzbr cjs aâcaucjs mg cb abémb mg prgsdñk gk cb Cékgb mg suaadñk, sgrâ gxpugstb gk ukdmbmgs mgc Qdstgib Dktgrkbadjkbc (QD). Mghdmj b qug gs iâs ajiðk gkajktrbr cjs vbcjrgs mg frbvgmbm gspgaéldab j pgsj gspgaéldaj bc trbtbrsg mg ajihustdhcgs, cb mgksdmbm mgc ajihustdhcg sg cb mgtgridkb b pbrtdr mgc pgsj gspgaéldaj pjr igmdj mg cb sdfudgktg gaubadñk0

Q  9

  

(aubcqudgr céqudmj b adgrtb tgipgrbtur b )   

bfub b 27  A  ( L )

Q0 ^gsj gspgaéldaj 1

 

, mjkmg0

ς BFWB0

Mgksdmbm mgc bfub, 2>>> Ef/i  gk QD.

ς CÉRWDMJ0

Mgksdmbm mg céqudmj (Ef/ai8)

Mgspg`bkmj cb mgksdmbm mg ajihustdhcg mg cb gaubadñk, sg jhtdgkg0   AJIHWQ]DHC G  9    Q AJIIHWQ]DH         CG   BFWB

^brb mgtgridkbr cb bcturb mg cb ajcuikb mg ajihustdhcg ajk prgsdñk gstâtdab dfubc b cb prgsdñk btijslärdab, sg cj mgtgridkb ajk cb sdfudgktg gaubadñk0

 

  WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB  

 

GQ AWGCB AWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’ 

–   

oAJIHWQ]DHC G 

9

 ^  B]IJQLÄXDA  B  f 

 

, mjkmg0

  AJIHWQ]DHC G  

oAJIHWQ]DHCG0

Bcturb mg abhgzbc mg prgsdñk, gk igtrjs.

^B]IJQLÄXDAB 0

^rgsdñk btijslärdab, gqudvbcg b 2>21>> ^b gk QD.

ςAJIHWQ]DHCG0

Mgksdmbm mg ajihustdhcg, gk Ef/i1.

f0 Frbvgmbm, gk i/s8.

MDBIG]XJ MG CB ]WHGXDB ^brb jhtgkgr cbs prdigrbs bprjxdibadjkgs mgc mdâigtrj mg tuhgréb, sg gstbhcgag ukb vgcjadmbm iâxdib mg adraucbadñk mgc lcu`j, y sg gsajfg pbrb dtgrbadñk b cjs mdâigtrjs qug tgkfbk cbs vgcjadmbmgs mg adraucbadñk iâs bctbs.

\GCJADMBM IGMDB MGC LCW@J ^brb mgtgridkbr cb vgcjadmbm igmdb mgc lcu`j gk cb tuhgréb gsajfdgkmj pbrb gc aâcaucj mdâigtrjs

ajigradbcgs, sg utdcdzb cb gaubadñk mg ajktdkudmbm0

\ 

=>>>



9

   

 M

R 8

 

, mjkmg0

\0 \gcjadmbm igmdb mgc lcudmj lcudmj b trbväs mg cb tuhgréb, gk i i/s. /s. M0 Mdâigtrj dktgrdjr ajigradbc mg cb cb sgaadñk trbksvgrsbc m mgg cb tuhgréb, gk igtrjs. R0 Abumbc mg hjihgj dfubc bc mg mdsgòj, gk cdtrjs/sgfukmj.

 

  WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB  

 

GQ AWGCB AWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’ 

–   

Cb vgcjadmbm jhtgkdmb pbrb gc hjihgj sg mghg gvdtbr qug gxagmb cjs 1,< i/s, y gs bajksg`bhcg sgcgaadjkbr uk mdâigtrj mg tuhgréb pbrb prjmuadr ukb vgcjadmbm mg adraucbadñk bctb gk cb tuhgréb, supgrdjr b 2 i/s.

^GXMDMB MG ABXFB GK CB ]WHGXDB Cbs pärmdmbs mg abrfb qug sg prgsgktbk gk cbs Cékgbs mg suaadñk, sg mdvdmgk hâsdabigktg gk trgs tdpjs. ^ärmdmb mg abrfb pjr lrdaadñk ^ärmdmb mg abrfb cjabc Abémb mg prgsdñk gk gqudpjs ❜ 

^ärmdmb mg abrfb pjr lrdaadñk lr daadñk ^brb mgtgridkbr cb pärmdmb mg abrfb pjr lrdaadñk, sg pugmg utdcdzbr cb gaubadñk mg Mbray  ‑  Vgdshbao0   Vgdshbao0 8

 O  C

9



 l   \   C   8  f   M 





, mjkmg0  mjkmg0 

OC0 ^ärmdmbs mg prgsdñk pjr lrdaadñk, gk igtrjs.  igtrjs.  l 0 Ajgldadgktg mg lrdaadñk, bmdigksdjkbc bmdigksdjkbc \ 0 \gcjadmbm mg adraucbadñk mgc lcudmj, gk i/s.  i/s.  C 0 Cjkfdtum mg cb tuhgréb, gk igtrjs.  igtrjs.  f 0 Frbvgmbm, gk i/s¸.  i/s¸.  M 0 Mdâigtrj mg tuhgréb, gk igtrjs.  igtrjs. 

 

  WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB  

 

GQ AWGCB AWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’ 

–   

Gc vbcjr mgc ajgldadgktg mg lrdaadñk sg cj mgtgridkb pjr igmdj mg cb gaubadñk mg Ajcghrjje0  Ajcghrjje0 

  E  8,72     M   9 ∘8  cjf +  l      1,62 Xg  l       

2

, mjkmg0  mjkmg0 

l 0 Ajgldadgktg mg lrdaadñk, bmdigksdjkbc. bmdigksdjkbc.   E 0 Xufjsdmbm bhsjcutb, gk ii.  ii.  M 0 Mdâigtrj dktgrdjr mg cb tuhgréb, gk ii.  ii.   Xg 0

Kðigrj mg Xgykjcms  Xgykjcms 

Gc kðigrj mg Xgykjcms sg cj mgtgridkb ajk cb sdfudgktg gaubadñk0 gaubadñk0   Xg

9

     \   M

2>>>   

 

, mjkmg0  mjkmg0 

ς 0 Mgksdmbm mg lcudmj  lcudmj 

\ 0 \gcjadmbm mgc lcudmj, gk i/s.  i/s.  M 0 Mdâigtrj dktgrkj mg cb tuhgréb, gk idcéigtrjs.  idcéigtrjs. 

8

· 0 \dsajsdmbm mdkâidab, gk  K   i  s .  ❜ 

^ärmdmbs mg abrfb cjabc Bmgiâs mg cb pärmdmb mg abrfb pjr lrdaadñk tbihdäk sg prgsgktb gk cb Cékgb mg suaadñk pärmdmbs mg abrfb mgkjidkbmbs cjabcgs, prjmuatj mgc pbsj mg lcu`j b trbväs mg cjs baagsjrdjs dkstbcbmjs gk cb Cékgb y/j bc abihdj mg mdrgaadñk y/j sgaadñk gk sus trbijs.  trbijs.  Cb mgtgridkbadñk mg cbs pärmdmbs cjabcgs gs gvbcubmb, sñcj gk gc absj mg sgr kgagsbrdbs pjr cb abktdmbm mg baagsjrdjs j vgcjadmbmgs bctbs gk cb Cékgb.  Cékgb. 

 

  WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB  

 

GQ AWGCB AWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’ 

–   

^brb gstb gvbcubadñk sg utdcdzb gc tgjrgib mg Hjrmg-Hgcbkfgr.  Hjrmg-Hgcbkfgr.   O c  9  e  

\ 8 8   f 

 

Mjkmg e mgpgkmg mgc baagsjrdj pjr mjkmg trbksdtb gc lcu`j (ajmjs, vâcvucbs, gktrbmbs, sbcdmbs, rgmuaadjkgs, tggs, ukdjkgs, gta.)  gta.)  ]bihdäk sg pugmg gvbcubr gstbs pärmdmbs ajk cb gaubadñk mg Mbray  ‑ Vgdshbao, y utdcdzbkmj uk Ibkubc mg odmrâucdab pbrb jhtgkgr cb cjkfdtum mg tuhgréb gqudvbcgktg pbrb abmb baagsjrdj.

ABDMB MG ^XGQDJK GK GRWD^JQ Gc usj mg gqudpjs gk cb Cékgb jrdfdkb ukb abémb mg prgsdñk qug mghg sgr ajksdmgrbmb gk cb abémb mg prgsdñk tjtbc mgc sdstgib, pbrb mgtgridkbr gstb pärmdmb mg prgsdñk sg utdcdzb gc ibkubc mgc gqudpj, y sg rgvdsb pbrb cbs ajkmdadjkgs mg hjihgj gk qug sg gkaugktrb lukadjkbkmj.

Cb sgcgaadñk mgc mdâigtrj ñptdij pbrb cb Cékgb mg suaadñk, mghg pjmgr gvbcubr cb ajkvgkdgkadb mgc abumbc mg hjihgj y cb pjsdhcg ajtb mg uhdabadñk mg cb gstbadñk mg hjihgj hðstgr. Cbs pärmdmbs mg prgsdñk sg cbs abcaucb pbrb cjs mdlgrgktgs mdâigtrjs mg tuhgréb, ajksdmgrbkmj gc buigktj mg cb ajtb mgsmg >, obstb ukb ajtb +k DFI, tbc ajij sg iugstrb gk cb ]bhcb 21.

 

  WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB  

 

GQ AWGCB AWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’ 

–   

]BHCB 21 ^XGQDÑK MG HJIHGJ XGRWGXDMB ^JX GC BWIGK]J MG CB AJ]B DFI MG CB C B GQ]BADÑK MG HJIHGJ

, mjkmg0 ^A2, ^A8, ^A1, ^AK0

^rgsdñk gstâtdab pbrb vbrdbs ajtbs, gk i a. l.

Cjs H/] qug dkfrgsbk b mgsabrfbr gk gc ]gridkbc tdgkgk mdlgrgktgs abrbatgréstdabs y abpbadmbmgs5 bc tgkgr mdlgrgktgs abpbadmbmgs pbrb mgsabrfbr gc prjmuatj, cb gstbadñk mg hjihgj hðstgr mghg sgr abpbz mg hjihgbr pbrb gc frupj mg H/] qug sg ob gsajfdmj, tgkdgkmj gk augktb gc kj sgcgaadjkbr uk sdstgib mg hjihgj qug mgspbaog gc prjmuatj b uk abumbc ibyjr bc mg dkfrgsj prjpjradjkbmj pjr cbs hjihbs mg cjs H/], gk auyj absj sg prjmuadréb abvdtbadñk bc dktgrdjr mg cbs hjihbs hðstgr y uk mgsbhbstgadidgktj mg lcu`j.

^brb rgsjcvgr gstg dkajkvgkdgktg sg ob mdvdmdmj gk ukb ajkmdadñk iâxdib y ukb iékdib ajkmdadñk mg hjihgj, tbc ajij sg igkadjkñ bktgrdjrigktg, cj aubc bhbrab ukb fbib mg ajkmdadjkgs mg hjihgj mbkmj vgrsbtdcdmbm b cb gstbadñk hðstgr sdgiprg y aubkmj cbs ajkmdadjkgs mg jpgrbadñk sbtdslbfbk gldadgktgigktg cbs ajkmdadjkgs mg mdsgòj mgc sdstgib. Jhtgkdmbs cbs pärmdmbs mg prgsdñk pjr lrdaadñk, pärmdmbs cjabcgs y gk cjs gqudpjs pbrb cbs mdlgrgktgs ajkmdadjkgs mg abumbcgs, sgfudmbigktg sg prjagmg b abcaucbr gc buigktj mg cb abémb mg prgsdñk mghdmj bc buigktj mg abhgzbc gstâtdaj ajk cb uhdabadñk mg cb ajtb DFI mjkmg vb b gstbr uhdabmb cb gstbadñk mg hjihgj hðstgr, tbc ajij sg iugstrb gk cb ]bhcb 2=.

 

 WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB   GQAWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’  

–   

]BHCB 2= ABÉMB MG ^XGQDÑK ^BXB MDLGXGK]GQ AJ]BQ AJK ]WHGXÉB MG MDÂIG]XJ ÿ 2  ^ärmdmbs mg prgsdñk,

Ajtb mg Gstbadñk mg hjihgj hðstgr

i a. l.

2

8

1

k

R 2 

^2

^2,2

^2,8

^2,1 

^2,k

R 8 

^8

^8,2

^8,8

^8,1 

^8,k

R 1 

^1

^1,2

^1,8

^1,1 

^1,k

R i 

^i

^i,2

^i,8

^i,1 

^i,k

Abumbc

R 2, R 8, R 1, R i0 Abumbcgs mg hjihgj, gk cdtrjs/sgfukmj. cdtrjs/sgfukmj. ^2, ^8, ^1, ^i0

Abémb mg prgsdñk gk cb Cékgb mg suaadñk, gk i a. l..

^2,2, …, ^2,k5 ^8,2, …, ^8,k5 ^1,2, …, ^1,k5 ^i,2, …, ^i,k0 Abémb mg prgsdñk tjtbc gk cb Cékgb pbrb mdlgrgktgs ajtbs y pbrb vbrdbs ajkmdadjkgs mg hjihgj.

Ajk cb dkljribadñk fgkgrbmb gk cb ]bhcb 2= sg rgbcdzb uk frâldaj pbrb vdsubcdzbr cb abémb mg prgsdñk qug sg prjmuag gk cb Cékgb mg suaadñk pbrb mdlgrgktgs abumbcgs mg hjihgj, y pbrb gc mdâigtrj mg tuhgréb gsajfdmj, tbc ajij sg iugstrb gk cb Ldfurb =.2.

  )  .   l  .   a     i   (     k   ñ   d   s   g   r   p

Abumbc Buigktb

  g   m   b   m   é   b   A

Ajtb DFI mg cb Gstbadñk mg hjihgj hðstgr (i)

 

 DKQ]BCBADJKGQ GK DK]GXDJXGQ ]XBHB@J IJKJFXÂLDAJ

 

 WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB   GQAWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’  

–   

Xg

9

 M\     

 

ga. (82)

Mjkmg0 Xg 9 Kðigrj mg Xgykjcms UbmdigksdjkbcY · 9 vdsajsdmbm Mdkâidab mgc Lcudmj U^b¶sY ^brb ccgfbr b jhtgkgr cjs rgsuctbmjs mgsgbmjs sg mghgk glgatubr uk ajk`uktj mg dtgrbadjkgs, sdk gihbrfj batubcigktg gxdstgk ibkubcgs qug kjs byumbk b gsajfgr cb vgcjadmbm bmgaubmb y `uktj ajk tbhcbs mg pärmdmbs pjr lrdaadñk gk tuhgrébs sg pugmgk sgcgaadjkbr gc mdâigtrj bmgaubmj.

B ajktdkubadñk, kjs rglgrdijs b tbhcbs mjkmg sg prjpjradjkbk vbcjrgs gstâkmbrgs mg vgcjadmbmgs

mgc bfub gk tuhgréb pbrb tépdabs bpcdabadjkgs0

]BHCB 8= \GCJADMBMGQ MGC BFWB HBQBMB GK GC]D^J MG B^CDABADÑK ] dpj mg Qgrvdaj

\gcjadmbm, i/sgf

Xglgrgkadb

Qgrvdaj Fgkgrbc

2.8 b 1.>

b, m, a

Mdstrdhuadñk gk cb Adumbm

>.4 b 8.2 >.< b 2.7

b, h a

 Bcdigktbadñk mg abcmgrjs

2.? b =..<

b, a

2.8 b 8.2

b, h

Quaadñk mg Hjihbs gk cdkgbs mg mrgkb`gs b Arbkgs aj. (246, sg tdgkg0

 DKQ]BCBADJKGQ GK DK]GXDJXGQ ]XBHB@J IJKJFXÂLDAJ

 

 WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB   GQAWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’  

–   

]BHCB 87 ^ÄXMDMB MG LXDAADÑK ^BXB GC BFWB GK ]WHGXÉBQ MG BAGXJ AÄMWCB =>

Bmdadjkbc b cb pärmdmb pjr lrdaadñk mghgijs tjibr gk augktb cbs pärmdmbs pjr vâcvucbs, ukdjkgs y baagsjrdjs. ^brb gstj gs kgagsbrdb cb sdfudgktg gaubadñk0

 DKQ]BCBADJKGQ GK DK]GXDJXGQ ]XBHB@J IJKJFXÂLDAJ

 

 WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB   GQAWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’  

–   

o

e\ 

8

9

8 f 

 

Mjkmg5 E gs uk lbatjr qug mgpgkmg mg cb fgjigtréb mg cb vâcvucb, lbhrdabadñk mg cb ukdñk, ljrib mgc ajmj j frbmjs qug gc ajmj prjpjradjkb, gta. gstg lbatjr sg gkaugktrb tbhucbmj5 b ajktdkubadñk sg prgsgktbk mjs tbhcbs mjkmg sg iugstrb cjs vbcjrgs mg E pbrb ukdjkgs mgpgkmdgkmj sd gstb gs

rjsabhcg j sjcmbhcg, gk gc BKG_J ? sg iugstrbk frâldajs mg cjs lbatjrgs mg pärmdmb pjr lrdaadñk E gk baagsjrdjs y ukdjkgs. ]BHCB 8<

LBA]JX E MG ^ÄXMDMB MG LXDAADÑK ^BXB WKDÑK XJQABHCG GK ]WHGXÉB MG BFWB

Lugktg0 Ibkubc BQOXBG LWKMBIGK]BCQ LWKMBIGK]BCQ

]BHCB 86 LBA]JX E MG ^ÄXMDMB MG LXDAADÑK ^BXB WKDÑK QJCMBHCG GK ]WHGXÉB MG BFWB

 DKQ]BCBADJKGQ GK DK]GXDJXGQ ]XBHB@J IJKJFXÂLDAJ

 

 WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB   GQAWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’  

–   

Lugktg0 Ibkubc BQOXBG LWKMBIGK]BCQ LWKMBIGK]BCQ 

]jmjs gstjs lbatjrgs pugmgk sgr dkfrgsbmjs gk gc prjfrbib, dkacuygkmj gc mdâigtrj mg tuhgréb

qug sg jhtuvj pjr cb tbhcb 87 y gstg butjiâtdabigktg abcaucb tjmbs cbs pärmdmbs qug cb hjihb mg adraucbadñk mg bfub ogcbmb mghg vgkagr, gk cb ldfurb 1.7 sg iugstrbk cb hjihb ajk ukb abémb mg prgsdñk gk pdgs mg 4.=Lt ajk gstjs mbtjs sg prjagmg b sgcgaadjkbr cb hjihb bmgaubmb. MDBIG]XJ MG CB ]WHGXDB ^brb mgtgridkbr cbs prdigrbs bprjxdibadjkgs mgc mdâigtrj mg tuhgréb, sg gstbhcgag ukb vgcjadmbm iâxdib mg adraucbadñk mgc lcu`j, y sg gsajfg pbrb dtgrbadñk b cjs prdigrjs mdâigtrjs qug tgkfbk cbs vgcjadmbmgs mg adraucbadñk iâs bctbs, mg ibkgrb sdidcbr bc prjagmdidgktj rgbcdzbmj pbrb cb Cékgb mg mgsabrfb.

^GXMDMB MG CB ABXFB GK CB ]WHGXDB ^brb gc aâcaucj mg cb pärmdmb mg abrfb gk cb Cékgb mg mgsabrfb j dipucsdñk, sg rgbcdzb gc idsij prjagmdidgktj qug sg gxpusj pbrb cb Cékgb mg suaadñk aubkmj sg kgagsdtbhb mgtgridkbr gc mdâigtrj ñptdij.

^J]GKADB MG DI^WCQDJK Gstbhcgadmbs cbs pärmdmbs mg prgsdñk, sg prjagmg b abcaucbr cb pjtgkadb kgagsbrdb pbrb dipucsbr cb ajcuikb mg lcudmj mgsmg cb gstbadñk mg hjihgj hðstgr obstb cjs ]bkqugs mg bcibagkbidgktj. Cbs pärmdmbs mg abrfb pjr lrdaadñk y cjabcgs sjk lukmbigktbcgs gk cb mgtgridkbadñk mg cb bcturb mdkâidab tjtbc pbrb cb jhtgkadñk mg cb pjtgkadb qug sg gipcgbrâ gk gc gqudpj mg hjihgj.

 DKQ]BCBADJKGQ GK DK]GXDJXGQ ]XBHB@J IJKJFXÂLDAJ

 

 WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB   GQAWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’  

–   

❜ 

^jtgkadb mg ajksuij (^A) Cb Gkgrféb qug rgqudgrg cb hjihb pbrb su kjribc lukadjkbidgktj gs ajkjadmb ajij ^jtgkadb mg Ajksuij (^a) y gs abcaucbmb pjr cb gxprgsdñk0  gxprgsdñk0    ^ A 

❜ 

9

R  ]MO   QF 14   H

 

, mjkmg0 mjkmg0  

^A0

^jtgkadb mg ajksuij, gk Edcjwbtdjs.  Edcjwbtdjs. 

]MO0

Bcturb mdkâidab tjtbc (]MO), gk pdgs.  pdgs. 

R0

Abumbc mg hjihgj, gk cdtrjs.  cdtrjs. 

QF0

Frbvgmbm gspgaéldab, bmdigksdjkbc.  bmdigksdjkbc. 

ζH0

Gldadgkadb mg cb hjihb, gk pjragktb`g.  pjragktb`g. 

^jtgkadb dkstbcbmb (^D) Gc ijtjr qug sg bajpcb b cb hjihb pbrb su lukadjkbidgktj kgagsdtb ukb gkgrféb mgkjidkbmb pjtgkadb Dkstbcbmb (^d) y gs abcaucbmb pjr cb gxprgsdñk0  gxprgsdñk0   ^  D 

R ]MO  QF 



9

14  A 

 



  I   A 

^D0

9

  

 H

 

2>>

, mjkmg0  mjkmg0 

^jtgkadb dkstbcbmb, gk Edcjwbtdjs.  Edcjwbtdjs. 

ζI0

Gldadgkadb mgc ijtjr, gk pjragktb`g.  pjragktb`g. 

ζA0

Gldadgkadb mgc sdstgib gk ajk`uktj hjihb ‑ ijtjr, gk pjragktb`g,  pjragktb`g, 

Gldadgkadb mg cb hjihb jhtgkdmb pjr cb trbksljribadñk mg cb gkgrféb igaâkdab mg rjtbadñk gk gkgrféb pjtgkadbc mg lcudmj y cb gldadgkadb mgc ijtjr jhtgkdmb mg cb trbksljribadñk mg cb gkgrféb gcäatrdab gk gkgrféb igaâkdab mg rjtbadñk ajipjkgk cb gldadgkadb mgc sdstgib mg ajk`uktj qug mgsardhg gc frbmj mg bprjvgaobidgktj gkgrfätdaj qug tdgkg uk sdstgib

 DKQ]BCBADJKGQ GK DK]GXDJXGQ ]XBHB@J IJKJFXÂLDAJ

 

 WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB   GQAWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’  

–   

bc suidkdstrbrcg ukb gkgrféb mgtgridkbmb, y ajij gstg ccgfb b ajkvgrtdrcb gk gkgrféb ðtdc fbkbmb pjr gc lcudmj.  lcudmj.  BKBCDQDQ MG QGKQDHDCDMBM GAJKJIDAB Bc sgr gc mdsgòj mg cb Cékgb mg dipucsdñk uk prjhcgib hâsdabigktg mg ajstjs rgcbtdvjs bc mdâigtrj mg cb tuhgréb, abcdmbm y pjtgkadb mgc sdstgib mg hjihgj, gs kgagsbrdj rgbcdzbr gc bkâcdsds gajkñidaj gktrg vbrdbs bctgrkbtdvbs mg mdsgòj pbrb rgsjcvgrcbs y gsajfgr cb qug prjpjradjkg gc igkjr ajstj tjtbc. Cjs ajstjs tjtbcgs sg ajipjkgk mg vbrdjs tdpjs mg ajstjs gk gc sdstgib0 ^brb gc trbij 8 mg cb Cékgb mg dipucsdñk, sg prjagmg b abcaucbr cjs ajstjs tjtbcgs y sus rgspgatdvjs \bcjrgs ^rgsgktgs. Ajstj tjtbc mg cb tuhgréb dkstbcbmb (bmqudsdadñk, trbkspjrtg, dkstbcbadñk y prughb), sg abcaucb ajij0 A]]D  9 A]      C]]   

, mjkmg0

A]]D0

Ajstj tjtbc mg tuhgréb dkstbcbmb, gk mñcbrgs bigrdabkjs.

A]0

Ajstj mg tuhgréb, gk ($ W.Q./igtrj).

C]]0

Cjkfdtum tjtbc mg tuhgréb, gk igtrjs.

Ajstj tjtbc mgc Gqudpj mg hjihgj (bmqudsdadñk, trbkspjrtg, dkstbcbadñk y prughb igaâkdab g odmrâucdab) sg abcaucb utdcdzbkmj cjs ajgldadgktgs mg ajstj mgc gqudpj (E,b) y su ^jtgkadb dkstbcbmb (gk Edcjwbtdjs) A]GH

9

( )b 

 E    ^   D 

, mjkmg0

A]GH0 Ajstj tjtbc mgc mgc gqudpj gqudpj mg hjihgj, gk mñcbrgs. ^D0

^jtgkadb dkstbcbmb, gk Edcjwbtdjs.

E, b0

Ajgldadgktgs mgc gqudpj.

 DKQ]BCBADJKGQ GK DK]GXDJXGQ ]XBHB@J IJKJFXÂLDAJ

 

 WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB   GQAWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’  

–   

Cjs ajgldadgktgs mgc gqudpj gstbhcgagk cb rgcbadñk kj cdkgbc gktrg cb pjtgkadb dkstbcbmb y gc ajstj tjtbc mgc gqudpj mg hjihgj, pgrj gk absj mg kj ajkjagr gstjs ajgldadgktgs sg pugmg gstbhcgagr ukb prjpjradjkbcdmbm cdkgbc ajk uk rbkfj pgqugòj mg usj, y utdcdzbkmj vbcjrgs mg ajstjs rgbcgs mgtgridkbmjs pjr cb pbrtg dktgrgsbmb pbrb gstbhcgagr ukb gaubadñk qug rgcbadjkg cb pjtgkadb ajk gc ajstj tjtbc mgc gqudpj mg hjihgj.

Ajstj Bkubc mg Jpgrbadñk (Gkgrféb ajksuidmb), sg abcaucb mg baugrmj b cb pjtgkadb dkstbcbmb y bc ajstj mg gkgrféb pjr (eV-or/bòj).

ABJ AB J

9

78  OH  OHQ  Q    ^     A^ A^D  D     D 

, mjkmg0

ABJ0

Ajstj bkubc mg jpgrbadñk, gk mñcbrgs.

OHQ0

Ojrbs mg hjihgj pjr sgibkb.

^D0 A^D0

^jtgkadb dkstbcbmb, gk Edcjwbtdjs. Ajstj mg cb pjtgkadb dkstbcbmb

(WQ $ eV    ∘ or )  

Ajstj Bkubc mg Ibktgkdidgktj (Xgpugstjs, dksuijs, pgrsjkbc, ogrrbidgktbs, gta). ^brb cb jhtgkadñk mg cb ig`jr bctgrkbtdvb mg igkjr ajstj gs kgagsbrdj ccgvbr cjs ajstjs bktgrdjrgs b sus vbcjrgs prgsgktgs mg baugrmj bc ojrdzjktg mg bkubcdmbmgs ajksdmgrbmj pjr gc tdgipj mg vdmb ðtdc mgc gqudpj mg hjihgj y tuhgréb.

\bcjr ^rgsgktg mg Dkvgrsdjkgs ]jtbcgs.- Ajkljribmj pjr gc ajstj tjtbc mg tuhgréb iâs gc ajstj tjtbc mgc gqudpj.

 DKQ]BCBADJKGQ GK DK]GXDJXGQ ]XBHB@J IJKJFXÂLDAJ

 

 WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB   GQAWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’  

–   

\bcjr ^rgsgktg mg Xgpjsdadjkgs tjtbcgs.- Ajkljribmj pjr cb mdlgrgkadb mgc Ajstj mg Dkvgrsdjkgs tjtbcgs gk uk pcbzj mg bkubcdmbmgs, b cb tbsb mg mgsaugktj y gc vbcjr prgsgktg mg dkvgrsdjkgs tjtbcgs.

\^X] 

  d  (2 + d ) K     9 \^D]       K     K  ∘ 2    (2 + d ) ∘ 2    

, mjkmg0

\^X]0 \bcjr prgsgktg prgsgktg mg Xgpjsdadjkgs tjtbcgs, gk mñcbrgs. \^D]0

\bcjr prgsgktg mg Dkvgrsdjkgs tjtbcgs, gk mñcbrgs

d0

]bsb mg mgsaugktj.

K0

Kðigrj mg bkubcdmbmgs (tdgipj mg vdmb ðtdc mgc gqudpj mg hjihgj).

 DKQ]BCBADJKGQ GK DK]GXDJXGQ ]XBHB@J IJKJFXÂLDAJ

 

 WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB   GQAWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’  

–   

Abpétucj = G@GXADADJQ B^CDAB]D\JQ G@GXADAJ >2

 DKQ]BCBADJKGQ GK DK]GXDJXGQ ]XBHB@J IJKJFXÂLDAJ

 

 WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB   GQAWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’  

–   

 DKQ]BCBADJKGQ GK DK]GXDJXGQ ]XBHB@J IJKJFXÂLDAJ

 

 WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB   GQAWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’  

–   

 DKQ]BCBADJKGQ GK DK]GXDJXGQ ]XBHB@J IJKJFXÂLDAJ

 

 WKD\GXQDMBM KBADJKBC MG OWBKAB\GCDAB   GQAWGCB ^XJLGQDJKBC MG DKFGKGXDB AD\DC’  

–   

G@GXADAJ >8